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THE
ENCYC
OP^DIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
FIRST ed
n,
published in tiiree \
olumes,
1768-
-1771
SECOND
"1
„ ten
1777-
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THIRD
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„ eighteen
1788-
-1797
FOURTH
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„ twenty
1801-
-1810
FIFTH
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,, twenty
1815-
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1823-
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1S30-
-1842
EIGHTH
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„ twenty-two
i8s3-
-i860
NINTH
»>
„ twenty-five
1S75-
-1SS9
TENTH
»5
ninth edition and eleven
supplementary volumes
,
1902-
-1903
ELEVENTH
))
jublished in twenty-nine vo
umes,
igio-
-1911
I
COPYRIGHT
in all countries subscribing to the
Bern Convention
by
'\ ^',
THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS
of the
UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE
\
All 7-!gkts reserved
THE
ENGYGLOPiEDIA BRITANNIGA
DICTIONARY
OF
ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL
INFORMATION
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME XX"^
^DE to PAYMENT OF MEMBERS
Cambridge, England:
at the University Press
New York, 35 West 32nd Street
191 1
ai
'A
'15{t^
jAMj/iar
• f r ~s » -J"
T/TOfT
.83C jc e3TiI/
1
Copyright, in the United States of America, 191 1,
by
The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company.
q ?\ :^l . ■:
5
Flo
/
vu
■■es;
INITIALS USEI
A. C. Se.
A. F. P.
A. G. D.
A, G. H.
IN VOLUME XX. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL
CONTRliUTORS,! WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE
ARTPLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.
Albert Charles eward, M.A., F.R.S.
Professor of B uny in the University of Cambridge.
College, Camljige. President of tlie Yorlisiiire Naturalists' Union, lyio.
Albert Frederic Pollard, M.A., F.R.Hist.S.
Professor of E;lish History in the University of London. Fellow of All Souls'
College, 0-xfor
1901. Lothia
England undeme Protector Somerset; Henry VIIL; Life of Thomas Cranmer; &c.
Arthur George
louGHTY, M.A., Litt.D., C.M.G.
Dominion Arc vist of Canada. Member of the Geographical Board of Canada, j Papineau.
Author of The
Constitutional
Albert George
A.
Ha.
A.
J.L.
A.
Lu.
A.
Ma.
Assistant Editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, 1893-
Prizeman, Oxford, 1892; Arnold Prizeman, 1898. Author of
Parker, Matthew.
'radle of New France; &c. Joint-editor of Documents relating to the I
istory of Canada. '-
A. M. CI.
A.N.
A. P. H.
Formerly Editor of the Rio Para.
^ADCOCK,
Late R.A. M lagcr. Gun Department, Elswick Works, Ncwcastle-on-Tyne
Lieut. -Col. comanding 1st Northumbrian Brigade, R.F.A. (Territorial Forces).
Joint-author a Artillery: its Progress and Present Position; &c.
Adolf Harnack.
See the biograhical article: Harnack, Adolf.
Andrew JacksonLamoureux.
Librarian, Cotge of Agriculture, Cornell University.
News, Rio de ineiro.
Achille Luchai]!.
See the biogr; hical article: Luchaire, Denis J. Achille.
Alexander Macister, M.A., M.D., LL.D., D.Sc, F.R.S., F.S.A.
Professor of natomy in the University of Cambridge, and Fellow of St John's
""' College. Autar of Text-Book of Human Anatomy; &c.
Agnes Muriel lay (Mrs Wilde).
Formerly Redent Tutor of Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford
of Roman Hii>ry, 133-70 B.C.
Ordnance: History and Con-
struct ion.
J Origen.
Papacy: 1087-1305.
Palmistry.
Alfred Newto>
F.R.S.
See the biogrphical article: Newton, Alfred.
Alfred Peter
Author of S<Uh African Studies; The Commonweal; &c. Served in Kaffir War, Orange Free State: History
.(ittKii ;.
A. S.-P.
Anthyme St P;jl.
Author of H.
Joint-author of Sources \ Patron and Client {in part).
Oriole; Ornithology {in part);
Orthonyx; Ortolan;
Osprey; Ostrich; Ousel;
Owl; Oyster-catcher;
Parrot; Partridge. „ .:. .a
ILLIER, M.D., M.P.
1878-1879. fartner with Dr L. S. Jameson in medical practice in South Africa-
till 1896. Mmber of Reform Committee, Johannesburg, and Political Prisoner at
Pretoria, 189-1896. M.P. for Hitchin division of Herts, 1910.
toire Monumentale de la France.
(in part).
Paris: History {in part).
A. S. Wo. Arthur Smith V^oodward, LL.D., F.R.S.
-. ,«oiaiocrJ»i-- Keeper of Qology, Natural History Museum, South Kensington. Secretary of
the Geologiol Society, London.
Arthur Waugh M.A.
New CoUegd Oxford. Newdigate Prize, 1888. Author of Gordon in Africa; Alfred,
Lord Tennyln. Editor of Johnson's LJin's of the Poets; and of editions of Dickens,
Tennyson, A(nold, Lamb; &c. i-
Arthur WilliJm Holland. ( 0"° of /^^'^'"g: P»l^«ne;
: Formerly Sijiolar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of Gray's Inn, 1900. I Paston Letters.
A. Wa.
A. W. H.*
Ostracoderms; .3 .0 .3
Owen, Sir Richard;
Palaeospondylus.
.U -J -i
Pater, "Walter;
Patmore, Coventry.
1, > ; 1 ."
'A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in the final volume.
iD.a
R.
V JV. w.
*►• Ji. R.
C. E.*
C. F. A.
C. H. Ha.
C. L. K.
C. R.
C. R. B.
c.
We.
DeB.
D.
C.
D.
F. T.
D.
G. H
D.
H
D.
H
S.
D.
J.
H.
E.
A.
F.
E.
B.
T.
E.
C.
B.
E. C. Q.
E.G.
E. Gr.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ATICLES
Alexandek Wood Renton, M.A., LL.B. [
Puisne Judge of the Supreme Court of Ceylon. Editor of Encyclopaedia of e. Laws \ Patents (in part),
of England. L
Adolphus William Ward, Litt.D., LL.D. J Pantnmimp
See the biographical article : Ward, A. VV. \ *^anioimme.
Sir Boverton Redwood, D.Sc, F.R.S. (Edin.), F.I.C., Assoc.In:.C.E.,
M.lNST.M.E.
Adviser on Petroleum to the Admiralty, Home Office, India Office, Corpoition of
London, and Port of London Authority. President of the Society of Cemical
Industry. Member of the Council of the Chemical Society. Member of Ccncil of
Institute of Chemistry. Author of "Cantor" Lectures on Petroleum; Proleum
and 'its Products; Chemical Technology; &c.
Charles Everitt, M.A., F.C.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S.
Formerly Scholar of Magdalen College, Oxford.
Charles Francis Atkinson. f .
Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, ist City of London Royal i Orleans: Campaign of 1870.
Fusiliers). Author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbour. I
Ozokerite; ParafQn.
J Opium: Chemistry of the Opium
\_ Alkaloids.
Carltox Huntley Hayes, A.M., Ph.D.
Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City. Meoer of
the American Historical Association.
Charles Lethbridge Kingsford, M.A., F.R.Hist.S., F.S.A.
Assistant Secretary to the Board of Education. Author of Life of Henry V. ditor
of Chronicles of London ; and Stow's Survey of London.
Ozanam; Pasclial II.;
Paul L, II. (popes).
I Oldcastle, Sir John;
[ Oxford, 13th Earl of.
Clement Reid, F.R.S. , F.L.S., F.G.S. ["
District Geologist on H M. Geological, Survey of England and Wales. Autor of J palaeobotany: Tertiary.
Origin of the British rlora; etc. Jomt-author 01 Pre-Clacial ttora of iStain;
Fossil Flora of Tegelen. L
Charles Raymond Beazley, M.A., D.Litt., F.R.G.S., F.R.Hist.S. r
Prcjfessor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Feliw of Odoric (in part);
Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geogiphy. -{ Oelschlaeef Ortelius.
" ' ' "~ Lowell Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of ^enry
Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1889.
the Navigator; The Dawn of Modern Geography; &c.
Cecil Weatherly.
Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford.
Barrister-at-Law.
■< Pageant.
■\ Paris: History (in part).
.J J\
Henri de Blowitz.
See the biographical article: Blowitz, H. G. S. A. DE.
Dugald Clerk, M.Inst.C.E., F.R.S.
Director of the National Gas Engine Co., Ltd. Inventor of the Clerk CyckGas-} Oil Engine.
Engine.
DON.^LD Francis TovEY. . ,, , . . . „ ^, . , ^ ^, f Opera; Oratorio; Overture;
Author of Essays in Musical Analysis: compnsmg The Classical Concerto , The -^ p-ipctrina (' h t)
Goldberg Variations, and analyses of many other classical works. t raiesirina \tn part) .
David George Hogarth, M.A.
Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxjrd.
Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naucratis, 899 j Orontes; Pamphylia.
and 1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907; Director, British Schoc at
Athens, 1897-1900. Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899. L
David Hannay. f Orford, Earl of (Edward
Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of Short History of the Ryal-\ Russell);
Navy ; Life of Emilia Castelar ; &c. [ Orleanists.
Dukinfield Henry Scott, M.A., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S. (
President of the Linnean Society. Author of Structural Botany; Studies in Fcsili Palaeobotany: Palaeozoic.
Botany; &c. L
David James Hamilton, M.D., F.R.S. (Edin.) (1849-1909). r
Professor of Pathology, Aberdeen University, 1882-1907. Authcr of Text-Boo, of i Pathology (in pari).
Pathology; &c. [
Edward Augustus Freeman, LL.D., D.C.L.
See the biographical article : Freeman, E. A.
Edward Burnett Tylor, D.C.L. , LL.D.
See the biographical article: Tylor, Edward Burnett.
Right Rev. Edward Cuthbert Butler, M.A., O.S.B., D.Litt.
Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of " The Lausiac History of Palladiu,"
in Cambridge Texts and Studies.
Edmund Crosby Quiggin, M.A.
Fellow, Lecturer in Modern Languages, and Monro Lecturer in Celtic, Gonville aid
Caius College, Cambridge.
4 Palermo (in part).
j Ordeal.
Olivetans; Pachomius, St.
Patrick, St.
Edmund Gosse, LL.D.
See the biographical article : GossE, Edmund.
Ernest Arthur Gardner, M.A.
See the biographical article: Gardner, Percy.
r Ode; Ohlenschlager;
} Ottava Rima; Overbury;
I Paludan-Muller; Pastoral.
JOlympia (in pari);
\ Parthenon.
E.
H.
M.
Ed
.M
[.
E.
M.
H.
E.
M.
T.
E. M. W.
E. 0.*
E. Pr.
F. C. C.
F. G. P.
F.K.*
F. R. C.
F. Wa.
F. W. Mo.
F. W. R.*
F. X. K.
G. A. Gr.
G,
A.C*
G.
B.B.
G.
B.G.
G.
Ch.
G. C. W.
INITI
/
LS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
Ellis Hovell Miijs, M.A.
1 University Lect jfr in Palaeography, Cambridge. Lecturer and Assistant Librarian
at Pembroke cJge, Cambridge. Formerly Fellow of Pembroke College.
Eduard Meyer, PD., D.Litt. (Oxen.), LL.D.
Professor of An nt History in the University of Berlin
AUerthums: Gakhle des alien Aegyptcns; Die Israeliten und thre Nachbarstdmme.
Edward Morell 3lmes.
Curator of the useum of the Pharmaceutical Society, London.
Sir Edward MauIe Thompson, G.C.B., I.S.O., D.C.L , Litt.D., LL.D.
Director and 1 icipal Librarian, British Museum, 1898-1909. Sandars Reader in
Bibliography, mbridge, 1895-1896. Hon. Fellow of University College, Oxford.
Correspondent' the Institute of France and of the Royal Prussian Academy of
Sciences. Au )r of Handbook of Greek and Latin Palaeography. Editor of
Chronicon Anie. Joint-editor of publications of the Palaeographical Society,
the New Palae raphical Society, and of the Facsimile of the Laurentian Sophocles.
Rev. Edward ]\I 'burn Walker, M.A.
Fellow, Senior utor and Librarian of Queen's College, Oxford.
Edmund Owen, IB., F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc.
Consulting Su;on to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital,
Great Ormon( treet, London. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Late P2xaminer "
in Surgery aihe Universities of Cambridge, London and Durham. Author of
A Manual of latomy for Senior Students.
Edgar Prestage
Special Lccti r in Portuguese Literature in the University of Manchester.
Examiner in ^rtuguese in the Universities of London, Manchester, &c. Com-
mendador, Ptuguese Order of S. Thiago. Corresponding Member of Lisbon
Royal Acade^ of Sciences, Lisbon Geographical Society; &c. Editor of Letters
of a Portugui Nun; Azurara's Chronicle of [Guinea; &c.
Frederick Cor'allis Conybeare, M.A., D.Th. (Giessen).
Fellow of th British Academy. Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford..
Editor of T> Ancient Armenian Texts of Aristotle. Author of Myth, Magic and
Morals; &c.
Frederick Gym Parsons, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.Anthrop.Inst.
Vice-Preside, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on
Anatomy at Thomas's Hospital and the London School of Medicine for Women,
London. Fcfierly Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons.
FeRNAND KHNCfF.
See the biogphical article: Khnopff, F. E. J. M.
Frank R. Can
Author of 6
/ vii
Olbia (Euxine).
r Orodes; Osroene; Osroes;
Author of Geschichte des \ Pacorus; Parthla;
Parysatis; Pasargadae.
Opium.
Palaeography;
Palimpsest;
Paper: History;
Papyrus;
1 Parchment.
\ Olynthus.
th Africa from the Great Trek to the Union.
Francis Watt,II.A.
Barrister-at
Frederick WaI:
Physician t(
Frederick Wi
Curator an.
President o:
Author of Law's Lumber Room.
iw. Middle Temple.
ER MOTT, F.R.S., M.D. r
iharing Cross Hospital. Pathologist to the London County Asylums, -j Paralysis.
Fuilerian PiKssor of Physiology at the Royal Institution
lAM RUDLER, I.S.O., F.G.S.
librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1879-1902.
1e Geologists' Association, 1 887-1 889.
Franz Xaver &aus (i 840-1 901).
Professor of Zhurch History, University of Freiburg-im-Breisgau
Author of Gehichte der christlichen Kunst; &c.
Ovariotomy.
Oliveira Martins;
Osorio.
Paul of Samosata;
Paulicians.
Olfactory System;
Pancreas.
Painting: Modem Belgian.
Orange Free State {in part).
Paterson, William.
J Onyx;
\ Opal.
1878-1901.-: Papacy: i8yo-igoo.
George Abrah/I Grierson, CLE., Ph.D., D.Litt.
Member of ts Indian Civil Service, 1873-1903. In charge of Linguistic Survey
of India, l89ri902. Gold Medallist, Royal Asiatic Society, 1909. Vice-President^ Pahari.
of the Royalisiatic Society. Formerly Fellow of Calcutta University. Author of
The Languagi of India ; &c.
Rev. George /,bert Cooke, D.D. f
Oriel Profes? of the Interpretation of Holy Scripture, and Fellow of Oriel College, -s Palmyra.
Oxford. Ca]n of Rochester. Hon. Canon of St Mary's Cathedral, Edinburgh. L
Gerard BaldwI Brown, M.A. r
Professor ofMne Art, University of Edinburgh. Formerly Fellow of Brasenose J Painting.
College, Qxf(d. Author of The Fine Arts; The Arts in Early England; &c. [_
George BroW>Goode (1851-1896).
Assistant Sefetary of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, 1887-1896.
of Americanfishes.
Author J Oyster {in pari).
George CHRJvskL, M.A. , LL.D. f .
Professor of Mathematics and Dean of the Faculty of Arts, Edinburgh University. J Pascal {in part).
Hon. Fellow kid formerly Fellow and Lecturer of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge. {_
George CniRLls Williamson, Litt.D. r
Chevaliel of tjie Legion of Honour. Author oi Portrait Miniatures; Life of Richard j Oliver, Isaac;
Cosway, IR-A\ George Engleheart; Portrait Drawings; &c. Editor of the New I Oliver, Peter.
Edition ii Bran's Dictionary of Painters and Engravers. I.
;
a INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
G. E.
G.
E.
C.
G.
H.
C.
G.
Sa
G.
S.
W
H. A. B.
H.Br.
H. Ch.
H. CI.
H. E.
H. E. R.
H. F. B.
H. F. G.
H. F. 0.
H. F. P.
H. Ja.
H. L. H.
H. M. C.
H. N. D.
H. R. T.
H. W. C. D.
H, Y.
J. A. C.
Rev. George Edmcndson, M.A., F.R.Hisx.S. f oidenbarneveldt-
Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1909. I nronrra u«..o ' f^
Hon. .Member, Dutch Historical Society, and Foreign Member, Netherlands Aisocia- 1 "^ange HOUSe Oi;,
tion of Literature. I Ostend Company.
Orinoco.
George Earl Church. /
See the biographical article: Church, G. E. l^
George Herbert Carpenter, B.Sc. f
Professor of Zoology in the Royal College of Science, Dublin. .'Author of Iisects: - Orthoptera.
their Structure and Life.
r/r .3
George Saintsbury, LL.D., D.C.L.
See the biographical article: Saintsbury, George E. B.
V
/Orleans, Charles, Duke of;
[ Pascal {in part).
German Sims Woodhead, M.A., M.D., F.R.S. (Edin.). C
ta- Professor of Pathology, Cambridge University. Fellow of Trinity Hall, Cambadge. 1 Parasitic Diseases.
Member of Royal Commission on Tuberculosis, 1902. [
Henry Arthur Bethell. r
I.,ieut.-Col. Commanding 49th Brigade R.F.A. Associate Member of R.A. Com- J Ordnance:
mittee. Awarded Lefroy Medal for Contributions to Artillery Science. Autlor of I Field Artillery Eouibments
Modern Guns a7id Gunnery; The Employment of Artillery; &c. L J' H i' •
Henry Bradley, M.A., Ph.D. f
Joint-editor of the New English Dictionary (Oxford). Fellow of the Bitish ) Orm.
.\cademy. Author oi The Story of the Goths; The Making of English; &c. L
Hugh Chisholm, M.A. r
Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Editor of the nth editim of- Parliament {in part).
the Encyclopaedia Britannica. Co-editor of the loth edition. (_
Sir Hugh Charles Clifford, K.C.RLG.
Colonial Secretary, Ceylon. Fellow of the Royal Colonial Institute. Forntrly
Resident, Pahang. Colonial Secretary, Trinidad and Tobago, 1903-1907. Authirof^ Pantun.
Studies in Brown Humanity; Further India, &c. Joint-author of A Dictionary of
the Malay Language.
Karl Hermann Ethe, M.A., Ph.D.
Professor of Oriental Languages, University College, Aberystwyth (University of
Wales). Author of Catalogue of Persian Manuscripts in the India Office Librry,
London (Clarendon Press) ; &c.
Sir Henry Enfield Roscoe, LL.D.
See the biographical article: Roscoe, Sir Henry Enfield.
Horatio Robert Forbes Brown, LL.D.
Omar Khayyam {in part)
Pasteur.
Editor of the Calendar of Venetian Slate Papers, for the Public Record Ofifce, J « j
Lagoons; Venetian Studies; John Addingon ] °adua.
London. Author of Life on the
Symonds, a Biography; &c.
- ."^
Hans Friedrich Gadow, F.R.S., Ph.D. T
Strickland Curator and Lecturer on Zoology in the LTniversity of Cambridge. \ Odontornithes.
Author of " Amphibia and Reptiles," in the Cambridge Natural History. [
Henry Fairfield Osborn, LL.D., D.Sc, F.R.S. (Edin.).
Da Costa Professor of Geology, Columbia University, New York. Presidtpt
American Museum of Natural History, New York. Curator of Departmen of -{ Palaeontology.
Vertebrate Palaeontology. Palaeontologist U.S. Geological Survey. Autho of
From the Greeks to Darwin ; &c.
Otho, Marcus S.
Parmenides of Elea.
Olfactory System: Diseases.
Henry Francis Pelh.am, LL.D., D.C.L.
See the biographical article : Pelham, Henry Francis.
Henry Jackson, Litt.D., LL.D., O.M.
Regius Professor of Greek in the University of Cambridge. Fellow of Triiity
College. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of Te.xts to illustrate the Histoiyof
Creek Philosophy from Thalef to Aristotle.
Harriet L. Hennessy, M.D. (Brux.), L.R. C.P.I. , L.R.C.S.I.
Hector Munro Chadwick, M.A.
Librarian and Fellow of Clare College, Cambridge. Reader in Scandinavm, -,
Cambridge University. Author of Studies on Anglo-Saxon Institutions.
Henry Newton Dickson^ M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S. (Edin.), F.R.G.S. ,
Professor of Geography at University College, Reading. Formerly Vice-Presidut,
Royal Meteorological Society. Lecturer in Physical Geography, Oxford. Autho of 1
Meteorology; Elements of Weather and Climate; &c.
Henry Richard Tedder, F.S.A.
Secretary and Librarian of the Athenaeum Club, London.
Henry William Carless Davis, M.A. ( q^q q{ Bayeux-
Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxfcd, < nrHpr'p Uitalc '
1895-1902. Axithov oi England under the Normans arui Angevins; Charlemagne. [ uraeric viians.
Odin.
*.a .A .3
Pacific Ocean {in part).
\ Pamphlets.
Sir Henry Yule, K.C.S.l.
See the biographical article, Yule, Sir Henry. ■^•
'>.''+'rA
Sir Joseph Archer Crowe, K.C.M.G.
See the biographical article: Crowe, Sir Joseph Archer.
I Odorio {in pari).
■ Ostade {in part).
.-.> .d, .I.J
.fID .0
7 .0 .0
i-
J. A. F.
J. A. H.
J. Bra.
J. Bt.
J. B. A.
J. C. van D.
J. E. S.*
J. Fi.
J. F.-K.
J. H. A. H.
J. H. F.
J. H. M.
J. HI. R.
J. Ja.
J. Lh.
J. L. M.
J. M.*
J.
Mn.
J.
M.
M
J.
P.
-B.
J.
P.
E,
initiIls and headings of articles
IX
of University Co
Vice-President o^h
o/ Electric Wave
John Allen Howk
Curator and Lil
Geology of Build
ING, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S. .
lectrical Engineering in the University of London, bel ow
London. Formerly Fellow of St John's College Cambridge
„L 'institution of Electrical Engineers. Author of The Principles
•.legraphy; Magnets and Electric Currents; &c.
B.Sc.
John Ambrose Fleing, M. A., D.Sc, I'. K.b. , ■, ^„a^„ t?„
Pender Professonf Electrical Engineering in the University of London. K;
Tf "rnTversky Co :ge, London. Formerly. Fellow of St J-hns College Cambri
Ohmmeter;
Oscillograph.
irian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London,
g Stones.
roiigocene System;
Author ofl Oolite; Ordovician System;
I- Oxfordian; Palaeozoic Era.
Joseph Braun, S.J
Author of Die Lnrgische Gewandung &c.
■^''''"Lec^ur'*er''o7asln.ction, Architecture, Sanitation, Quantities, &c., at King's
, Colkge, Londoil Member of Society of Architects. Member of Institute of Junior
Engineers.
J°'"FormeX.n-ci^of "^he Sa".<ia, Review. Author of An Art Tour in the Northern
Capitals 0} Eimc; Schools of Modern Art in Germany.
J°™Prof"es^fof t'hHls.'o'^y of Art, Rutgers College, New Brunswick, N.J. Formerly
Editor^f TheUio and the Art Review. Author of Art for Art s Sake; History of
Painting; Old hglish Masters; &c.
J°""puWic Ora'or i the'^tiveVs[ty°f'c';mi?ridge. Fellow of St John's College, Cam-
bridge. FeUow .f the British Academy. Author of History of Classical Scholarship;
&c.
I Pastoral Stall.
\ Painter-work.
f .1
J Overbeck.
• Painting: United States.
J
•77 V7
John Fiske, LL
See the biogra|i
ical article: Fiske, John.
Pausanias: Traveller.
Parkman, Francis.
.2 .«
Tames Fitzmauric-Kelly, Litt.D., F.R.Hist.S. , ,, •
■' Gilmour Prof.^r of Spanish Language and Literature, Liverpool Umvers^y
Noman McCl Lecturer, Cambridge Univei^ity. Fellow of thel^"»t 0?dc-r of
Member of tf Royal Spanish Academy. Knight Commander of the Order ot
Alphonso XII. Author of A History of Spanish Literature; &c.
John Henry Arotr Hart, M.A. „ , , . ^ h r- u.-:a^^
Fellow, TheoUjical Lecturer and Librarian, St John s College, Cambridge.
John Henry Frese, M.A.
Formerly Felhv of St John's College, Cambridge.
John Henry Midleton, M.A., Litt.D., F-SA.,D.C.L. (1846-1896)^
Slade Profess.' of Fine Arts in the University of Cambridge, 1886-1895. .D'^ctor , q
o the Fitzwiiam Museum, Cambridge, 1889-1892. Art Director of .the South ^ Urcagna.
Kensfngton\iseum, 1892-1896. Author of The Engraved Gems of Classical Times ;
Illuminated ^uscripts in Classical and Medieval Times.
J'^Ch'Ji^st's'collt'c^bridge^fert on Modern History of the Cambridge 1 p^jq^ier.
University L-ai Lectures Syndicate. Author of Life of Napoleon I.; Napoleonic ^
Studies ; The development of the European Nations ; The Life of Pitt, &c. L
■^°^'^P?ofI«o*^''nf 'ndiS' Literature in the Jewish Theological Seminary, New York.
Keriy PnS of thT ewish Historical Socie.tv o\ England. Corresponding j PasSOVer.
Member of te Royal Academy of History, Madrid. Author of Jews of Angevin
England; Stities in Biblical Archaeology; &c.
J""ELSn"ef to'L'city^an^d'GS-of London Institute. Vi.ce-President of Chemical
Society M<nber of Council of Chemical Society: Institute of Chemistry ; and
Society of Pblic Analysts. Author of Chemical Technology and Analysts of Oils,
Fats, and Wiccs; &c.
John Linton IVyres, M.A., F.S.A., F.R.G.S. f n f ^ a„M FpHow
Wvkeham I^ofessor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford and Fellow
of Magdalefl College. Formerly Gladstone Professor of Greek and Lecturer in
Ancient Ge';raphy University of Liverpool. Lecturer of Classical Archaeology
in the Univcsity of Oxford.
James Muirhed, LL.D. (1831-1889). . , yr • v f p^;r,K„r„h tRS?-
Scotch Advcate; Professor of Civil Law in the University of Edinburgh, 1862-
1889. AutHr of Historical Introduction to the Private Law of Rome, and of an edition
of the InstiUes of Gains and Rules of Ulpian.
John MacpheLn, M.A., M.D., M.R.C.S. (1817-1890). . „, „ . , ... ,.
Formerly I spector-General of Hospitals, Bengal. Author of The Baths and nells
of Europe ; ic.
John Malcoli; Mitchell. , , ^ . /-, • it .. r „^„„
Sometime Icholar of Queen's College. Oxford. Lecturer in Classics, East London
College (U iversity of London). Joint-editor of Grote s History of Greece.
James Georgi Joseph Penderel-Brodhurst.
Editor of fie Guardian (London).
Tean Paul hWolyte Emmanuel Adhemar Esmein. , , , . . „ ^ f
Professor -f Law in the University of Paris. Officer of the Legion of Honour I parlement
Member o the Institute of France. Author of Cours elementaire d histoire du droit "j
fran^ais; ac..
Palacio Valdes, Armando;
Pardo Bazan.
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Professor of Latin and Indo-European Philology in the liniversity of ilarhester.
Formerly Professor of Latin in University College, Cardiff; and Fellowjof (onville
and Caius College, Cambridge. Author oi The Italic Dialects. \
Roland Truslove, M.A.
Formerly Scholar of Christ Church, Oxford. Fellow, Dean and Lecturer in lassies
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Stanley Arthur Cook, M.A.
Lecturtr in Hebrew and Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius bllege,
Cambridge. Editor for the Palestine Exploration Fund. Examiner in lebrew
and Aramaic, London University, 1904-1908. Author of Glossary oj Aamaic
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Captain, R.N. Naval Mobilization Department, Admiralty, London.
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Student and Tutor of Christ Church, O.xford.
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See the biographical article: Newcomb, Simon.
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Surgeon to Throat and Ear Department, Middlesex Hospital. Hon. Secrtary,
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Thomas Ashby, M.A., D.Litt.
Director of British School of Archaeology at Rome. Formerly Scholar of firist
Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1897. Conington Prizeman, 1906. Memlr of
the Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Author of The Classical Topognphy
ofjthe Roman Campagna.
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Trinity College, Dublin.
I Paeligni;
1 Osca Lingua.
I Paris; Geography and
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History
{ Ordnance: Naval Guns and
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.M .0 .q
.10.9
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the Congo Free State. Officer of the Legion of Honour. Author of Problem of'] Pacific Blockade,
International Practice and Diplomacy; &c. M.P. for Blackburn, 1910. ' I
.J S
Rt. Hon. Lord Farnborough.
See the biographical article: Farnborough, Thomas Erskine May, Baron.
Theodore Freylinghuysen Collier, Ph.D.
Assistant Professor of History, Williams College, Williamstown, Mass.
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See the biographical article: Hodgkin, T.
Sir Thomas Hungerford Holdich, K.C.M.G., K.C.LE., D.Sc.
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London, 1887. Author of The Indian Borderland; The Countries of the Kig's
Award; India; Tibet.
Rev. Thomas Kelly Cheyne, M.A., D.D., LL.D.
See the biographical article: Cheyne, T. K.
Theodor Noldeke.
See the biographical article: Noldeke, Theodor.
Sir Thomas Little Heath, K.C.B., D.Sc.
.'\ssistant Secretary to the Treasury. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Cambric^e.
Parliament (in part).
r Orange: France; M .H .fl
\ Paul IIL, IV., V. (Popes).
r
Odoacer.
J Oman; Oxus;
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{
Paradise.
Pahlavl.
Pappus of Alexandria.
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Pali.
:M .a
Thomas Okey.
E.xamincr in Basket Work for the City and Guilds of London Institute.
Thomas William Rhys Davids, LL.D., Ph.D.
Professor of Comparative Religion, Manchester Liniversity. President of tie
Pali Text Society. Fellow of the British Academy. Secretary and Librarian jf ■
Royal Asiatic Society, 1885-1902. Author of Buddhism; Sacred Books of lie
Buddhists; Early Buddhism; Buddhist India; Dialogues of the Buddha; &c.
Victor Charles Mahillon.
Principal of the Conservatoire Royal de Musique at Brussels. Chevalier of th J Ophicleide (in part). ^ "^
Legion of Honour. ' \ f •
Sir Walter Armstrong.
Director of National Gallery' of Ireland. .Author of Art in the British Isles; &<. .
Joint-editor of Bryan's Dictionary of Painters; &c.
Rev. William Augustus Brevoort Coolidge, M.A., F.R.G.S., Ph.D.
Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David'
College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of Guide du Haut Dauphine; The Rang,
of the Tbdi; Guide to Grindelwald; Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature am
in Historv; &c. Editor to The Alpine Journal, 18S0-1881: &c.
c
William Alfred Hinds.
President of the Oneida Community, Ltd.; Author of American Communities; &c
■i Orchardson.
Olivier, J. D.;
Orta, Lake of;
Ortler.
Oneida Community.
.o.a
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xm
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R.
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A.
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R.
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Walter Alison Phillips, M.A.
Formerly Exhibitioner of Mcrton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College,
Oxford. Author of Modern Europe; &c.
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Colonel and Acting Adjutant-General, U.S. Army.
William Burton, M.A., F.C.S.
Chairman, Joint Committee of Pottery Manufacturers of Great Britain. Author of
English Stoneware and Earthenware; &c.
Rev. William E. Addis, M.A.
Professor of Old Testament Criticism, Manchester College, Oxford. Author of
Christianity and the Roman Empire; &c.
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Author of The Transvaal and the Boers.
Sir William Henry Flower, F.R.S.
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Professor at Queen's University, Kingston, Canada. Formerly Beit Lecturer in
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Series); Canadian Constitutional Developtnent (in collaboration).
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Chief Engineer, Department of Marine and Fisheries of Canada. Member of the
Geographic Board of Canada. Past President of Canadian Society of Civil Engineers.
William Prideaux Courtney.
See the biographical article: Courtney, L. H., Baron.
William Smyth Rockstro.
Author of A General History of Music from the Infancy of the Greek Drama to the
Present Period; and other works on the history of music.
William Walker Rockwell, D.Ph.
Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York.
J Papacy: igoo-igio.
y Paris: History (in part).
\ OfOcers: United Stales.
Paiissy.
Order, Holy.
f
1
{
\ Paper: India Paper.
\ Otter {in part).
\
[
f Palma, Jacopo; Parmigiano;
1 Paul Veronese.
Ontario.
Ontario, Lake.
f Orford, 1st Earl of (Sir Robert
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7,
fl
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME XX
ODE (Gr. (fSfi, from i.iiSeiu, to sing), a form of stately and
elaborate lyrical verse. As its name shows, the original significa-
tion of an ode was a chant, a poem arranged to be sung to an
instrumental accompaniment. There were two great divisions
of the Greek melos or song; the one the personal utterance of
the poet, the other, as Professor G. G. Murray says, " the choric
song of his band of trained dancers." Each of these culminated
in what have been called odes, but the former, in the hands
of Alcaeus, Anacreon and Sappho, came closer to what modern
criticism knows as lyric, pure and simple. On the other hand,
the choir-song, in which the poet spoke for himself, but always
supported, or interpreted, by a chorus, led up to what is now
known as ode proper. It was Alcman, as is supposed, who
first gave to his poems a strophic arrangement, and the strophe
has come to be essential to an ode. Stesichorus, Ibycus and
Simonides of Ceos led the way to the two great masters of ode
among the ancients, Pindar and Bacchylides. The form and
verse-arrangement of Pindar's great lyrics have regulated the
type of the heroic ode. It is now perceived that they are con-
sciously composed in very elaborate measures, and that each is
the result of a separate act of creative ingenuity, but each
preserving an absolute consistency of form. So far from being,
as critics down to Cowley and Boileau, and indeed to the time
of August Bockh, supposed, utterly licentious in their irregu-
larity, they are more like the canzos and .s/nieH/Mof the medieval
troubadours than any modern verse. The Latins themselves
seem to have lost the secret of these complicated harmonies,
and they made no serious attempt to imitate the odes of Pindar
and Bacchylides. It is probable that the Greek odes gradually
lost their musical character; they were accompanied on the
flute, and then declaimed without any music at all. The ode,
as it was practised by the Romans, returned to the personally
lyrical form of the Lesbian lyrists. This was exemplified, in
the most exquisite way, by Horace and Catullus; the former
imitated, and even translated, Alcaeus and Anacreon, the latter
was directly inspired by Sappho.
The earliest modern writer to perceive the value of the antique
ode was Ronsard, who attempted with as much energy as he
could exercise to recover the fire and volume of Pindar; his
principal experiments date from 1550 to 1552. The poets of
the Pleiad recognized in the ode one of the forms of verse with
which French prosody should be enriched, but they went too
far, and in their use of Greek words crudely introduced, and in
their quantitative experiments, they offended the genius of
the French language. The ode, however, died in France almost
as rapidly as it had come to life; it hardly survived the i6th
century, and neither the examples of J. B. Rousseau nor of
Saint-Amant nor of Malherbe possessed much poetic life. Early
in the 19th century the form was resumed, and we have the
Odes composed between 181 7 and 1824 by Victor Hugo, the
philosophical and religious odes of Lamartine, those of V'ictor
de Laprade (collected in 1844), and the brilliant Odes funam-
bidesqucs of Theodore de Banville (1857).
The earliest odes in the English language, using the word
in its strict form, were the magnificent Epithalamium and
Prothalamium of Spenser. Ben Jonson introduced a kind of
elaborate lyric, in stanzas of rhymed irregular verse, to which
he gave the name of ode; and some of his disciples, in particular
Randolph, Cartwright and Herrick, foUowed him. The great
" Hymn on the Morning of Christ's Nativity," begun by Milton
in 1629, may be considered an ode, and his lyrics " On Time "
and " At a Solemn Music " may claim to belong to the same
category. But it was Cowley who introduced into EngHsh
poetry the ode consciously built up, on a solemn theme and as
definitely as possible on the ancient Greek pattern. Being in
exile in France about 1645, and at a place where the only book
was the text of Pindar, Cowley set himself to study and to
imitate the Epinikia. He conceived, he says, that this was
" the noblest and the highest kind of writing in verse," but
he was no more perspicacious than others in observing what
the rules were which Pindar had followed. He supposed the
Greek poet to be carried away on a storm of heroic emotion,
in which all the discipline of prosody was disregarded. In 1656
Cowley published his Pindaric odes, in which he had not even
regarded the elements of the Greek structure, v^ith strophe,
antistrophe and epode. His idea of an ode, which he impressed
with such success upon the British nation that it has never
been entirely removed, was of a lofty and tempestuous piece
of indefinite poetry, conducted " without sail or oar " in whatever
direction the enthusiasm of the poet chose to take it. These
shapeless pieces became very popular after the Restoration,
and enjoyed the sanction of Dryden in three or four irregular
odes which are the best of their kind in the English language.
Prior, in a humorous ode on the taking of Namur (1695), imitated
the French type of this poem, as cultivated by Boileau. In
1705 Congreve published a Discourse on the Pindarique Ode,
in which many of the critical errors of Cowley were corrected;
and Congreve wrote odes, in strophe, antistrophe and epode,
" XX. I
ODENKIRCHEN— ODER
which were the earliest of their kind in English; unhappily
they were not very poetical. He was imitated by Ambrose
Philips, but then the tide of Cowley-Pindarism rose again and
swept the reform away. The attempts of Gilbert West (1703-
1756) to explain the prosody of Pindar (1749) inspired Gray
to write his "Progress of Poesy" (1754) and "The Bard"
(1756). Collins, meanwhile, had in 1747 pubUshed a collection
of odes devised in the Aeolian or Lesbian manner. The odes
of Mason and Akenside were more correctly Pindaric, but
frigid and formal. The odes of Wordsworth, Coleridge and
Tennyson are entirely irregular. Shelley desired to revive the
pure manner of the Greeks, but he understood the principle of
the form so httle that he began his noble " Ode to Naples "
with two epodes, passed on to two strophes, and then indulged
in four successive antistrophes. Coventry Patmore, in 1868,
printed a volume of Odes, which he afterwards enlarged; these
were irregularly built up on a musical system, the exact con-
sistency of which is not always apparent. Finally Swinburne,
although some of his odes, hke those of Keats, are really elaborate
lyrics, written in a succession of stanzas identical in form, has
cultivated the Greek form also, and some of his political odes
follow very closely the type of Bacchylides and Pindar.
See Philipp August Bockh, De metris Pindari (181 1); Wilhelm
Christ, Metrik der Griechen und Romer (1874); Edmund Gossc,
English Odes (1881). (E.G.)
ODENKIRCHEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine
province, 21 m. by rail S.W. of Diisseldorf, and at the junction
of lines to Munich, Gladbach and Stolberg. Pop. (1905) 16,808.
It has a Roman Catholic church, an Evangehcal one, a synagogue
and several schools. Its principal industries are spinning, weav-
ing, tanning and dyeing. Odenkirchen became a town in 1856.
See Wiedemann, Geschichte der ehemaligen Herrschaft und des
Hauses Odenkirchen (Odenkirchen, 1879).
ODENSE, a city of Denmark, the chief town of the amt (county)
of its name, which forms the northern part of the island of
Fiinen (Fyen). Pop. (1901) 40,138. The city lies 4 m. from
Odense Fjord on the Odense Aa, the main portion on the north
side of the stream, and the industrial Albani quarter on the
south side. It has a station on the railway route between
Copenhagen and Jutland and Schleswig-Holstein via Korsor.
A canal, 15I to 21 ft. deep, gives access to the town from the
fjord. St Canute's cathedral, formerly connected with the
great Benedictine monastery of the same name, is one of the
largest and finest buildings of its kind in Denmark. It is con-
structed of brick in a pure Gothic style. Originally dating
from 1081-1093, it was rebuilt in the 13th century. Under
the altar lies Canute (Knud), the patron saint of Denmark,
who intended to dispute with William of Normandy the posses-
sion of England, but was slain in an insurrection at Odense in
1086; Kings John and Christian II. are also buried within the
walls. Our Lady's church, built in the 13th century and re-
stored in 1851-1852 and again in 1864, contains a carved altar-
piece (i6th century) by Claus Berg of Liibeck. Odense Castle
was erected by Frederick IV., who died there in 1730. In
Albani are tanneries, iron-foundries and machine-shops. Ex-
ports, mostly agricultural produce (butter, bacon, eggs); im-
ports, iron, petroleum, coal, yarn and timber.
Odense, or Odinsey, originally Odinsoe, i.e. Odin's island,
is one of the oldest cities of Denmark. St Canute's shrine was
a great resort of pilgrims throughout the middle ages. In the
i6th century the town was the meeting-place of several parlia-
ments, and down to 1805 it was the seat of the provincial
assembly of Fiinen.
ODENWALD, a wooded mountainous region of Germany,
almost entirely in the grand duchy of Hesse, with small portions
in Bavaria and Baden. It stretches between the Neckar and the
Main, and is some 50 m. long by 20 to 30 broad. Its highest
points are the Katzenbuckel (2057 ft.), the Neunkircher Hohe
(1985 ft.) and the Krahberg (1965 ft.). The wooded heights
overlooking the Bergstrasse are studded with castles and medieval
ruins, some of which are associated with some of the most
memorable adventures of German tradition. Among them are
Rodenstein, the reputed home of the wild huntsman, and near
Grasellenbach, the spot where Siegfried of the N ibelungenlied
is said to have been slain.
See F. Montanus, Der Odenwald (Mainz, 1884) ; T. Lorentzen, Der
Odenwald in Wort mid Bild (Stuttgart, 1904) ; G. Volk, Der Odenwald
und seine Nachhargehiete (Stuttgart, 1900), and Windhaus, FUhrer
durch den Odenwald (Darmstadt, 1903).
ODER (Lat. Viadiia; Slavonic, Vjodr), a river of Germany,
rises in Austria on the Odergebirge in the Moravian tableland
at a height of 1950 ft. above the sea, and 14 m. to the east of
Olmiitz. From its source to its mouth in the Baltic it has
a total length of 560 m., of which 480 m. are navigable for barges,
and it drains an area of 43,300 sq. m. The first 45 m. of its
course lie within Mojavia; for the next 15 m. it forms the
frontier between Prussian and Austrian Silesia, while the re-
maining 500 m. belong to Prussia, where it traverses the provinces
of Silesia, Brandenburg and Pomerania. It flows at first
towards the south-east, but on quitting Austria turns towards
the north-west, maintaining this direction as far as Frankfort -on-
Oder, beyond which its general course is nearly due north. As far
as the frontier the Oder flows through a well-defined valley,
but, after passing through the gap between the Moravian
mountains, and the Carpathians and entering the Silesian plain,
its valley is wide and shallow and its banks generally low. In
its lower course it is divided into numerous branches, forming
many islands. The main channel follows the left side of the
valley and finally expands into the Pommersches, or Stettiner
Haff, which is connected with the sea by three arms, the Peene,
the Swine and the Dievenow, forming the islands of Usedom
and WoUin. The Swine, in the middle, is the main channel
for navigation. The chief tributaries of the Oder on the left
bank are the Oppa, Glatzer Neisse, Katzbach, Bober and
Lausitzer Neisse; on the right bank the Malapane, Bartsch
and Warthe. Of these the only one of importance for
navigation is the Warthe, which through the Netze is brought
into communication with the Vistula. The Oder is also connected
by canals with the Havel and the Spree. The most important
towns on its banks are Ratibor, Oppeln, Brieg, Breslau, Glogau,
Frankfort, Ciislrin and Stettin, with the seaport of Swinemiinde
at its mouth. Glogau, Ctistrin and Swinemiinde are strongly
fortified.
The earliest important undertaking with a view of improving
the waterway was due to the initiative of Frederick the Great,
who recommended the diversion of the river into a new and
straight channel in the swampy tract of land known as the
Oderbruch, near Ciistrin. The work was carried out in the years
1 746-1 7 53, a large tract of marshland being brought under
cultivation, a considerable detour cut off, and the main stream
successfully confined to the canal, 12 m. in length, which is
known as the New Oder. The river at present begins to be
navigable for barges at Ratibor, where it is about 100 ft. wide,
and for larger vessels at Breslau, and great exertions are made
by the government to deepen and keep open the channel, which
still shows a strong tendency to choke itself with sand in certain
places. The alterations made of late years consist of three
systems of works: — (i) The canalization of the main stream
(4 m.) at Breslau, and from the confluence of the Glatzer Neisse to
the mouth of the Klodnitz canal, a distance of over 50 m. These
engineering works were completed in 1896. (2) In 1887-1891
the Oder-Spree canal was made to connect the two rivers named.
The canal leaves the Oder at Fiirstenberg (132 m. above its
mouth) at an altitude of 93 ft., and after 15 m. enters the
Friedrich-Wilhelm canal (134 ft.). After coinciding with this
for 7 m., it makes another cut of 5 m. to the Spree at Ftirstenwalde
(126 ft.). Then it follows the Spree for 12 m., and at Gross
Triinke (121 ft.) passes out and goes to Lake Seddin (106 ft.), 15
m. (3) The deepening and regulation of the mouth and lower
course of the stream, consisting of the Kaiserfahrt, 3 m. long,
affording a waterway between the Stettiner Haff and the river
Swine for the largest ocean-going vessels; a new cut, 41 m.
long, from Vietzig on the Stettiner Haff to Wollin Island; the
Pamitz-Dunzig and Dunzig-Oder canals, together i m. long.
ODERBERG— ODESSA
constituting the immediate approach to Stettin. Vessels drawing
24 ft. are now able to go right up to Stettin. In 1905 a project
was sanctioned for improving the communication between
Berlin and Stettin by widening and deepening the lower course
of the river and then connecting this by a canal with Berlin.
Another project, born at the same time, is one for the canalization
of the upper course of the Oder. About 4,000,000 tons of
merchandize pass through Breslau (up and down) on the Oder
in the year.
See Der Oderstrom, sein Stronigehiet und seine wichtigsten Neben-
fliisse; hydrographische, wasserwirtschaftlichc und wasserrechtliche
Darstellung (Berlin, 1896).
ODERBERG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Brandenburg, on the Alte Oder, 2 m. from Bralitz, a station
44 m. N.W. from Frankfort-on-Odcr, by the railway to Anger-
miinde. Pop. (1905) 4,015. It has a fine Gothic church, dedicated
to St Nicholas, and the ruins of an ancient castle, called Biiren-
kasten. Oderberg is an important emporium for the Russian
timber trade.
ODESCALCHI-ERBA, the name of a Roman princely family
of great antiquity. They are supposed to be descended from
Enrico Erba, imperial vicar in Milan in 1165. Alessandro
Erba married Lucrezia Odescalchi, sister of Pope Innocent
IX., in 1709, who is believed to have been descended from
Giorgio Odescalchi {floruit at Comoin 1290). The title of prince
of the Holy Roman Empire was conferred on Alessandro in
1714, and that of duke of Syrmium in Hungary in 1714, with the
qualification of " serene highness." The head of the family
now bears the titles of Fiirst Odescalchi, duke of Syrmium,
prince of Bassano, &c., and he is an hereditary magnate of
Hungary and a grandee of Spain; the family, which is one
of the most important in Italy, owns the Palazzo Odescalchi
in Rome, the magnificent castle of Bracciano, besides large
estates in Italy and Hungary.
See A. von Reumont, Geschichte der Stadt Rom (Berlin, 1868),
and the Almanack de Gotha.
ODESSA, one of the most important seaports of Russia,
ranking by its population and foreign trade after St Petersburg,
Moscow and Warsaw. It is situated in 46° 28' N. and 30° 44'
E., on the southern shoreof a semi-circular bay, at the north-west
angle of the Black Sea, and is by rail 1017 m. S.S.W. from Moscow
and 610 S. from Kiev. Odessa is the seaport for the basins
of two great rivers of Russia, the Dnieper, with its tributary
the Bug, and the Dniester (20 m. to S.). The entrances to the
mouths of both these offering many difficulties for navigation,
trade has from the remotest antiquity selected this spot, which
is situated half-way between the two estuaries, while the level
surface of the neighbouring steppe allows easy communication
with the lower parts of both rivers. The bay of Odessa, which
has an area of 14 sq. m. and a depth of 30 ft. with a soft bottom,
is a dangerous anchorage on account of its exposure to easterly
winds. But inside it are six harbours — the quarantine harbour,
new harbour, coal harbour and " practical " harbour, the
first and last, on the S. and N. respectively, protected by moles,
and the two middle harbours by a breakwater. Besides these,
there are the harbour of the principal shipping company — the
Russian Company for Navigation and Commerce, and the
petroleum harbour. The harbours freeze for a few days in winter,
as also does the bay occasionally, navigation being interrupted
every year for an average of sixteen days; though this is
materially shortened by the use of an ice-breaker. Odessa
experiences the influence of the continental climate of the
neighbouring steppes; its winters are cold (the average tempera-
ture for January being 23-2° F., and the isotherm for the entire
season that of Konigsberg), its summers are hot (72-8° in July),
and the yearly average temperature is 48-5°. The rainfall is
scanty (14 in. per annum). The city is built on a terrace 100 to
155 ft. in height, which descends by steep crags to the sea, and
on the other side is continuous with the level of the " black
earth " steppe. Catacombs, whence sandstone for building
has been taken, extend underneath the town and suburbs, not
without some danger to the buildings.
The general aspect of Odessa is that of a wealthy west-
European city. lis chief embankment, the Nikolai boulevard,
bordered with tall and handsome houses, forms a fine promenade.
The central square is adorned with a statue of Armand, due de
Richelieu (1826), who was governor of Odessa in 1803-1814.
A little back from the sea stands a fine bronze statue of Catherine
II. (1900). A magnificent flight of nearly 200 granite steps leads
from the Richelieu monument down to the harbours. The
central parts of the city have broad streets and squares, bordered
with fine buildings and mansions in the Italian style, and with
good shops. The cathedral, founded in 1794 and finished in
1809, and thoroughly restored in 1903, can accommodate 5000
persons; it contains the tomb of Count Michael V'orontsov,
governor-general from 1823 to 1854, who contributed much
towards the development and embellishment of the city. The
" Palais Royal," with its parterre and fountains, and the spacious
public park are fine pleasure-grounds, whilst in the ravines that
lead down to the sea cluster the houses of the poorer classes.
The shore is occupied by immense granaries, some of which look
like palaces, and large storehouses take up a broad space in the
west of the city. Odessa consists (i.) of the city proper, contain-
ing the old fort (now a quarantine establishment) and surrounded
by a boulevard, where was formerly a wall marking the limits of
the free port; (ii.) of the suburbs Novaya and Peresyp, extending
northward along the lower shore of the bay; and (iii.) of Molda-
vanka to the south-west. The city, being in a treeless region, •
is proud of the avenues of trees that line several of its streets
and of its parks, especially of the Alexander Park, with a statue
of Alexander II. (1891), and of the summer resorts of Fontaine,
Arcadia and Langeron along the bay. Odessa is rising in repute
as a summer sea-bathing resort, and its mud-baths (from the
mud of the limans or lagoons) are considered to be efficacious
in cases of rheumatism, gout, nervous affections and skin
diseases. The German colonies Liebcnthal and Lustdorf are
bathing-places.
Odessa is the real capital, intellectual and commercial, of
so-called Novorossia, or New Russia, which includes the govern-
ments of Bessarabia and Kherson. It is the see of an archbishop
of the Orthodox Greek Church, and the headquarters of the
VHI. army corps, and constitutes an independent " municipal
district " or captaincy, which covers 195 sq. m. and includes a
dozen villages, some of which have 2000 to 3000 inhabitants
each. It is also the chief town of the Novorossian (New Russian)
educational district, and has a university, which replaced the
Richelieu Lyceum in 1865, and now has over 1700 students.
In 179s the town had only 2250 inhabitants; in 1814, twenty
years after its foundation, it had 25,000. The population has
steadily increased from 100,000 in 1850, 185,000 in 1873, 225,000
in 1884, to 449,673 in 1900. The great majority of inhabitants
are Great Russians and Little Russians; but there are also
large numbers of Jews (133,000, exclusive of Karaites), as well
as of Italians, Greeks, Germans and French (to which nation-
alities the chief merchants belong), as also of Rumanians,
Servians, Bulgarians, Tatars, Armenians, Lazes, Georgians. A
numerous floating population of labourers, attracted at certain
periods by pressing work in the port, and afterwards left un-
employed owing to the enormous fluctuations in the corn trade,
is one of the features of Odessa. It is estimated that there are
no less than 35,000 people Hving from hand to mouth in the utmost
misery, partly in the extensive catacombs beneath the city.
The leading occupations are connected with exporting,
shipping and manufactures. The industrial development has
been rather slow: sugar-refineries, tea-packing, oO-mOls,
tanneries, steam flour-mills, iron and mechanical works, factories
of jute sacks, chemical works, tin-plate works, paper-factories
are the chief. Commercially the city is the chief seaport of
Russia for exports, which in favourable years are twice as high
as those of St Petersburg, while as regards the value of the
imports Odessa is second only to the northern capital. The
total returns amount to 16 to 20 millions sterling a year, repre-
senting about one-ninth of the entire Russian foreign trade,
and 14% if the coast trade be included as well. The total
ODEUM— ODO
exports are valued at lo to ii millions sterling annually, and
the imports at 6 to 9 millions sterling, about 8|% of all the
imports into Russia. Grain, and especially wheat, is the chief
article of export. The chief imports are raw cotton, iron,
agricultural machinery, coal, chemicals, jute, copra and lead.
A new and spacious harbour, especiaUy for the petroleum trade,
was constructed in 1894-1900.
History. — The bay of Odessa was colonized by Greeks at a very
early period, and their ports — Istrianorum Partus and Isiacorum
Partus on the shores of the bay, and Odessus at the mouth of the
Tiligul liman — carried on a Hvely trade with the neighbouring
steppes. These towns disappeared in the 3rd and 4th centuries,
and for ten centuries no settlements in these tracts are mentioned.
In the 14th century this region belonged to the Lithuanians, and
in 1396 Olgerd, prince of Lithuania, defeated in battle three
Tatar chiefs, one of whom, Khaji Beg or Bey, had recently
founded, at the place now occupied by Odessa, a fort which
received his name. The Lithuanians, and subsequently the
Poles, kept the country under their dominion until the i6th
century, when it was seized by the Tatars, who stUl permitted,
however, the Lithuanians to gather salt in the neighbouring
lakes. Later on the Turks left a garrison here, and founded in
1764 the fortress Yani-dunya. In 1789 the Russians, under the
French captain de Ribas, took the fortress by assault. In 1791
Khaji-bey and the Ochakov region were ceded to Russia. De
Ribas and the French engineer Voland were entrusted in 1794
with the erection of a town and the construction of a port at
Khaji-bey. In 1803 Odessa became the chief town of a separate
municipal district or captaincy, the first captain being Armand,
due de RicheUeu, who did very much for the development of the
young city and its improvement as a seaport. In 1824 Odessa
became the seat of the governors-general of Novorossia and
Bessarabia. In 1866 it was brought into railway connexion with
Kiev and Kharkov via Balta, and with Jassy in Rumania. In
1854 it was unsuccessfully attacked by the Anglo-Russian fleet,
and in 1876-1877 by the Turkish, also unsuccessfully. In 1905-
1906 the city was the scene of violent revolutionary disorders,
marked by a naval insurrection. (P- ^- K.; J. T. Be.)
ODEUM (Gr. Odeion), the name given to a concert hall in
ancient Greece. In a general way its construction was similar to
that of a theatre, but it was only a quarter of the size and was
provided with a roof for acoustic purposes, a characteristic
difference. The oldest known Odeum in Greece was the Skias
at Sparta, so called from its resemblance to the top of a parasol,
said to have been erected by Theodorus of Samos (600 B.C.);
in Athens an Odeum near the spring Enneacrunus on the Ihssus
was referred to the age of Peisistratus, and appears to have been
rebuilt or restored by Lycurgus (c. 330 B.C.). This is probably
the building which, according to Aristophanes (Wasps, 1109),
was used for judicial purposes, for the distribution of corn,
and even for the billeting of soldiers. The building which served
as a model for later similar constructions was the Odeum of
Pericles (completed c. 445) on the south-eastern slope of the rock
of the Acropohs, whose conical roof, a supposed imitation of the
tent of Xerxes, was made of the masts of captured Persian ships.
It was destroyed by Aristion, the so-called tyrant of Athens,
at the time of the rising against Sulla (87), and rebuilt by Ario-
barzanes II., king of Cappadocia (Appian, Mithrid. 38). The
most magnificent example of its kind, however, was the Odeum
built on the south-west cUff of the Acropolis at Athens about
A.D. 160 by the wealthy sophist and rhetorician Herodes Atticus
in memory of his wife, considerable remains of which are still
to be seen. It had accommodation for 8000 persons, and the
ceihng was constructed of beautifully carved beams of cedar
wood, probably with an open space in the centre to admit
the light. It was also profusely decorated with pictures
and other works of art. Similar buildings also existed in
other parts of Greece; at Corinth, also the gift of Herodes
Atticus; at Patrae, where there was a famous statue of
Apollo; at Smyrna, Tralles, and other towns in Asia Minor.
The first Odeum in Rome was built by Domitian, a second by
Trajan.
ODILIENBERG, or Ottiliestberg (called AUitona in the 8th
century), a peak of the Vosges Mountains in Germany, in the
imperial province of Alsace-Lorraine, immediately W. of the town
of Barr. Its crest (2500 ft.) is surmounted by the ruins of the
ancient Roman wall, the Heidenmauer, and by the convent and
church of St Odiha, or Ottilia, the patron saint of Alsace, whose
remains rest within. It is thus the object of frequent pilgrimages.
The convent is said to have been founded by Duke Eticho I.,
in honour of his daughter St Odilia, about the end of the 7th
century, and it is certain that it existed at the time of Charle-
magne. Destroyed during the wars of the middle ages, it was
rebuilt by the Premonstrants at the beginning of the 17th century,
and was acquired later by the bishop of Strassburg, who restored
the building and the adjoining church, in 1853. Since 1899
the convent has contained a museum of antiquities.
See Reinhard, Le Mont .S/f 'Odz7e_ (Strassburg, 1888) ;Pfister, Le
Duchc nicrovingien d' Alsace et la legende de Sainte Odile (Nancy,
1892); and R. Forrer, Der Odilienberg (Strassburg, 1899).
ODIN, or Othin (0. Norse Osinn), the chief god of the Northern
pantheon. He is represented as an old man with one eye.
Frigg is his wife, and several of the gods, including Thor and
Balder, are his sons. He is also said to have been the father of
several legendary kings, and more than one princely family
claimed descent from him. His exploits and adventures form
the theme of a number of the Eddaic poems, and also of several
stories in the prose Edda. In all these stories his character is
distinguished rather by wisdom and cunning than by martial
prowess, and reference is very frequently made to his skill in
poetry and magic. In Yngliitga Saga he is represented as reigning
in Sweden, where he established laws for his people. In notices
relating to religious observances Odin appears chiefly as the
giver of victory or as the god of the dead. He is frequently
introduced in legendary sagas, generally in disguise, imparting
secret instructions to his favourites or presenting them with
weapons by which victory is assured. In return he receives
the souls of the slain who in his palace, Valhalla (q.v.), live a
hfe of fighting and feasting, similar to that which has been their
desire on earth. Human sacrifices were very frequently offered
to Odin, especially prisoners taken in battle. The commonest
method of sacrifice was by hanging the victim on a tree; and
in the poem Hdvamdl the god himself is represented as sacrificed
in this way. The worship of Odin seems to have prevailed
chiefly, if not solely, in mihtary circles, i.e. among princely
famihes and the retinues of warriors attached to them. It is
probable, however, that the worship of Odin was once common to
most of the Teutonic peoples. To the Anglo-Saxons he was
known as Woden {q.v.) and to the Germans as Wodan (Wuotan),
which are the regular forms of the same name in those languages.
It is largely owing to the pecuhar character of this god and the
prominent position which he occupies that the mythology of
the north presents so striking a contrast to that of Greece.
See Teutonic Peoples, ad fin. ; and Woden. (H. M. C.)
ODO, or EuDES (d. c. 736), king, or duke, of Aquitaine, obtained
this dignity about 715, and his territory included the south-
western part of Gaul from the Loire to the Pyrenees. In 718
he appears as the ally of Chilperic II., king of Neustria, who was
fighting against the Austrasian mayor of the palace, Charles
Martel; but after the defeat of Chilperic at Soissons in 719 he
probably made peace with Charles by surrendering to him the
Neustrian king and his treasures. Odo was also obliged to fight
the Saracens who invaded the southern part of his kingdom,
and inflicted a severe defeat upon them at Toulouse in 721.
When, however, he was again attacked by Charles Martel, the
Saracens renewed their ravages, and Odo was defeated near
Bordeaux; he was compelled to crave protection from Charles,
who took up this struggle and gained his momentous victory
at Poitiers in 732. In 735 the king abdicated, and was succeeded
by his son Hunold.
ODO, or EuDES (d. 898), king of the Franks, was a son of
Robert the Strong, count of .\njou (d. 866), and is sometimes
referred to as duke of France and also as count of Paris. For
his skOl and bravery in resisting the attacks of the Normans
ODO OF BAYEUX— ODOACER
Odo was chosen king by the western Franks when the emperor
Charles the Fat was deposed in 887, and was crowned at Compiegne
in February 888. He continued to battle against the Normans,
whom he defeated at Montfaucon and elsewhere, but was soon
involved in a struggle with some powerful nobles, who supported
the claim of Charles, afterwards King Charles III., to the Frankish
kingdom. To gain prestige and support Odo owned himself
a vassal of the German king, Arnulf, but in 894 Arnulf declared
for Charles. Eventually, after a struggle which lasted for three
years, Odo was compelled to come to terms with his rival, and to
surrender to him a district north of the Seine. He died at La
Fere on the ist of January 898.
See E. Lavisse, Histoire de France, tome ii. (Paris, 1903); and
E. Favre, Eudes, comte de Paris el roi de France (Paris, 1893).
ODO' OF BAYEUX {c. 1036-1097), Norman bishop and
English earl, was a uterine brother of William the Conqueror,
from whom he received, while still a youth, the see of Bayeux
(1049). But his active career was that of a warrior and states-
man. He found ships for the invasion of England and fought
in person at Senlac; in 1067 he became earl of Kent, and for
some years he was a trusted royal minister. At times he acted
as viceroy in WiUiam's absence; at times he led the royal
forces to chastise rebellions. But in 1083 he was suddenly
disgraced and imprisoned for having planned a mDitary e.xpedi-
tion to Italy. He was accused of desiring to make himself pope;
more probably he thought of serving as a papal condottiere
against the emperor Henry IV. The Conqueror, when on his
death-bed, reluctantly permitted Odo's release (1087). The
bishop returned to his earldom and soon organized a rebellion
with the object of handing over England to his eldest nephew,
Duke Robert. William Rufus, to the disgust of his supporters,
permitted Odo to leave the kingdom after the collapse of this
design (1088), and thenceforward Odo was the right-hand man
of Robert in Normandy. He took part in the agitation for the
First Crusade, and started in the duke's company for Palestine,
but died on the way, at Palermo (February 1097). Little
good is recorded of Odo. His vast wealth was gained by
extortion and robbery. His ambitions were boundless and his
morals lax. But he was a patron of learning and, like most
prelates of his age, a great architect. He rebuilt the cathedral
of his see, and may perhaps have commissioned the unknown
artist of the celebrated Bayeux tapestry.
See the authorities cited for William I. and William II., the
biographical sketch in Gallia Chrisliana, xi. 353-360; H. Wharton
Anglia Sacra, i. 334-339 (1691); and F. R. Fowke, The Bayeux
Tapestry (London, 1898). (H. W. C. D.)
ODOACER, or Odovacar (c. 434-493), the first barbarian
ruler of Italy on the downfall of the Western empire, was born
in the district bordering on the middle Danube about the year
434. In this district the once rich and fertUe provinces of
Noricum and Pannonia were being torn piecemeal from the
Roman empire by a crowd of German tribes, among whom we
discern four, who seem to have hovered over the Danube from
Passau to Pest, namely, the Rugii, Scyrri, Turcilingi and Heruli.
With all of these Odoacer was connected by his subsequent
career, and all seem, more or less, to have claimed him as be-
longing to them by birth; the evidence slightly preponderates
in favour of his descent from the Scyrri.
His father was Aedico or Idico, a name which suggests Edeco
the Hun, who was suborned by the Byzantine court to plot
the assassination of his master Attila. There are, however,
' Odo must be distinguished from two English prelates of the
same name and also from an English earl. Odo or Oda (d. 959),
archbishop of Canterbury, was bishop of Ramsbury from 927 to
942, and went with King /Ethelstan to the battle of Brunanburh in
937. In 942 he succeeded Wulfhelm as archbishop of Canterbury,
and he appears to have been an able and conscientious ruler of the
see. He had great influence with King Edwy, whom he had crowned
in 956. Odo (d. 1200), abbot of Battle, was a monk of Christ Church,
Canterbury, and was prior of this house at the time when Thomas
Racket was murdered. In 1175 he was chosen abbot of Battle, and
on two occasions the efforts of Henry II. alone prevented him from
being elected archbishop of Canterbury. Odo or Odda (d. 1056), a
relative of Edward the Confessor, during whose reign he was an earl in
the west of England, built the minster at Deerhursl in Gloucestershire.
some strong arguments against this identification. A certain
Edica, chief of the Scyrri, of whom Jordanes speaks as defeated
by the Ostrogoths, may more probably have been the father of
Odoacer, though even in this theory there are some difficulties,
chiefly connected with the low estate in which he appears before
us in the next scene of his life, when as a tall young recruit for the
Roman armies, dressed in a sordid vesture of skins, on his way
to Italy, he enters the ceU of Severinus, a noted hermit-saint of
Noricum, to ask his blessing. The saint had an inward premoni-
tion of his future greatness, and in blessing him said, " Fare
onward into Italy. Thou who art now clothed in vile raiment
wilt soon give precious gifts unto many."
Odoacer was probably about thirty years of age when he thus
left his country and entered the imperial service. By the year
472 he had risen to some eminence, since it is expressly recorded
that he sided with the patrician Ricimer in his quarrel with the
emperor Anthemius. In the year 475, by one of the endless re-
volutions which marked the close of the Western empire, the
emperor Nepos was driven into exile, and the successful rebel
Orestes was enabled to array in the purple his son, a handsome
boy of fourteen or fifteen, who was named Romulus after his
grandfather, and nicknamed Augustulus, from his inability to
play the part of the great Augustus. Before this pujjpet emperor
had been a year on the throne the barbarian mercenaries, who
were chiefly drawn from the Danubian tribes before mentioned,
rose in mutiny, demanding to be made proprietors of one-third of
the soil of Italy. To this request Orestes returned a peremptory
negative. Odoacer now offered his fellow-soldiers to obtain for
them all that they desired if they would seat him on the throne.
On the 23rd of August 476 he was proclaimed king; five days
later Orestes was made prisoner at Placentia and beheaded; and
on the 4th of September his brother Paulus was defeated and slain
near Ravenna. Rome at once accepted the new ruler. Augustulus
was compelled to descend from the throne, but his fife was spared.
Odoacer was forty-two years of age when he thus became
chief ruler of Italy, and he reigned thirteen years with undisputed
sway. Our information as to this period is very slender, but
we can perceive that the administration was conducted as much
as possible on the lines of the old imperial government. The
settlement of the barbarian soldiers on the lands of Italy prob-
ably affected the great landowners rather than the labouring
class. To the herd of coloni and servi, by whom in their various
degrees the land was actually cultivated, it probably made little
difference, except as a matter of sentiment, whether the master
whom they served called himself Roman or Rugian. We have
one most interesting example, though in a small way, of such a
transfer of land with its appurtenant slaves and cattle, in the dona-
tion made by Odoacer himself to his faithful follower Pierius.^
Few things bring more vividly before the reader the continuity
of legal and social life in the midst of the tremendous ethnical
changes of the 5th century than the perusal of such a record.
The same fact, from a slightly different point of view, is Olus-
trated by the curious history (recorded by Malchus) of the
embassies to Constantinople. The dethroned emperor Nepos
sent ambassadors (in 477 or 478) to Zeno, emperor of the East,
begging his aid in the reconquest of Italy. These ambassadors
met a deputation from the Roman senate, sent nominally by the
command of Augustulus, really no doubt by that of Odoacer,
the purport of whose commission was that they did not need
a separate emperor. One was sufficient to defend the borders of
either realm. The senate had chosen Odoacer, whose knowledge
of military affairs and whose statesmanship admirably fitted
him for preserving order in that part of the world, and they there-
fore prayed Zeno to confer upon him the dignity of patrician,
and entrust the " diocese " of Italy to his care. Zeno returned a
harsh answer to the senate, requiring them to return to their
allegiance to Nepos. In fact, however, he did nothing for the
fallen emperor, but accepted the new order of things, and even
addressed Odoacer as patrician. On the other hand, the latter
'Published in Marini's Papiri diplomatici (Rome, 1815, Nos. 82
and 83) and in Spangenberg's Juris Romani Tabulae (Leipzig, 1822,
pp. 164-173), and well worthy of careful study.
ODOFREDUS— O'DONNELL (FAMILY)
sent the ornaments of empire, the diadem and purple robe, to
Constantinople as an acknowledgment of the fact that he did
not claim supreme power. Our information as to the actual
title assumed by the new ruler is somewhat confused. He
does not appear to have called himself king of Italy. His king-
ship seems to have marked only his relation to his Teutonic
followers, among whom he was " king of the Turcilingi," " king
of the Heruli," and so forth, according to the nationality with
which he was dealing. By the Roman inhabitants of Italy he
was addressed as " dominus noster," but his right to exercise
power would in their eyes rest, in theory, on his recognition as
patricius by the Byzantine Augustus. At the same time he
marked his own high pretensions by assuming the prefix Flavius,
a reminiscence of the early emperors, to which the barbarian
rulers of realms formed out of the Roman state seem to have been
peculiarly partial. His internal administration was probably,
upon the whole, wise and moderate, though we hear some
complaints of financial oppression, and he may be looked upon
as a not altogether unworthy predecessor of Theodoric.
In the history of the papacy Odoacer figures as the author of
a decree promulgated at the election of Felix II. in 483, forbidding
the pope to alienate any of the lands or ornaments of the Roman
Church, and threatening any pope who should infringe this
edict with anathema. This decree was loudly condemned in
a synod held by Pope Symmachus (502) as an unwarrantable
interference of the civil power with the concerns of the church.
The chief events in the foreign policy of Odoacer were his
Dalmatian and Rugian wars. In the year 480 the ex-emperor
Nepos, who ruled Dalmatia, was traitorously assassinated in
Diocletian's palace at Spalato by the counts Viator and Ovida.
In the following year Odoacer invaded Dalmatia, slew the
murderer Ovida, and reannexed Dalmatia to the Western state.
In 487 he appeared as an invader in his own native Danubian
lands. War broke out between him and Feletheus, king of the
Rugians. Odoacer entered the Rugian territory, defeated
Feletheus, and carried him and " his noxious wife " Gisa prisoners
to Ravenna. In the following year Frederick, son of the captive
king, endeavoured to raise again the fallen fortunes of his house,
but was defeated by Onulf, brother of Odoacer, and, being forced
to flee, took refuge at the court of Theodoric the Ostrogoth, at
Sistova on the lower Danube.
This Rugian war was probably an indirect cause of the fall
of Odoacer. His increasing power rendered him too formidable
to the Byzantine court, with whom his relations had for some
time been growing less friendly. At the same time, Zeno was
embarrassed by the formidable neighbourhood of Theodoric
and his Ostrogothic warriors, who were almost equally burden-
some as enemies or as allies. In these circumstances arose the
plan of Theodoric's invasion of Italy, a plan by whom originated
it would be difficult to say. Whether the land when conquered
was to be held by the Ostrogoth in full sovereignty, or ad-
ministered by him as lieutenant of Zeno, is a point upon which
our information is ambiguous, and which was perhaps intention-
ally left vague by the two contracting parties, whose chief
anxiety was not to see one another's faces again. The details
of the Ostrogothic invasion of Italy belong properly to the life
of Theodoric. It is sufficient to state here that he entered Italy
in August 4S0, defeated Odoacer at the Isontius (Isonzo) on the
28th of August , and at Verona on the 30th of September. Odoacer
then shut himself up in Ravenna, and there maintained himself
for four years, with one brief gleam of success, during which he
emerged from his hiding-place and fought the battle of the
Addua (nth August 4Q0), in which he was again defeated. A
sally from Ravenna (loth July 491) was again the occasion of a
murderous defeat. At length, the famine in Ravenna having
become almost intolerable, and the Goths despairing of ever
taking the city by assault, negotiations were opened for a
compromise (25th February 493). John, archbishop of Ravenna,
acted as mediator. It was stipulated that Ravenna should be
surrendered, that Odoacer's life should be spared, and that he
and Theodoric should be recognized as joint rulers of the Roman
state. The arrangement was evidently a precarious one, and
was soon terminated by the treachery of Theodoric. He invited
his rival to a banquet in the palace of the Lauretum on the 15th
of March, and there slew him with his own hand. " Where is
God? " cried Odoacer when he perceived the ambush into which
he had fallen. " Thus didst thou deal with my kinsmen,"
shouted Theodoric, and clo\e his rival with the broadsword from
shoulder to flank. Onulf, the brother of the murdered king, was
shot down while attempting to escape through the palace garden,
and Thelan, his son, was not long after put to death by order
of the conqueror. Thus perished the whole race of Odoacer.
Literature. — The chief authorities for the life of Odoacer are the
so-called " Anonymus Valesii," generally printed at the end of
Ammianus MarcclUnus; the Life 0/ Severinus, by Eugippius; the
chroniclers, Cassiodorus and " Cuspiniani Anonymus " (both in
Roncalli's collection) ; and the Byzantine historians, Malchus and
John of Antioch. A fragment of the latter historian, unknown
when Gibbon wrote, is to be found in the fifth volume of Miiller's
Fragmenta Historiconim Graecorum. There is a thorough investi-
gation of the history of Odoacer in R. Pallmann's Geschiclite der
Volkerwanderiing, vol. ii. (Weimar, 1864). See also T. Hodgkin,
Italy and her Invaders, vol. iii. (Oxford, 1885). (T. H.)
ODOFREDUS, an Italian jurist of the 13th century. He was
born at Bologna and studied law under Balduinus and Accursius.
After having practised as an advocate both in Italy and France,
he became professor at Bologna in 1228. The commentaries
on Roman law attributed to him are valuable as showing the
growth of the study of law in Italy, and for their biographical
details of ihc jurists of the 12th and 13th centuries. Odofredus
died at Bologna on the 3rd of December 1265.
Over his name appeared Lecturae in codicem (Lyons, 1480)
Leclurae in digestum vetus (Paris, 1504), Summa de libellis fortnandis
(Strassburg, 1510), Lecturae in ires libros (Venice, 1514), and Lecturae
in digestum novum (Lyons, 1552).
O'DONNELL, the name of an ancient and powerful Irish
family, lords of Tyrconnel in early times, and the chief rivals
of the O'Neills in Ulster. Like the family of O'Neill {q.v.), that
of O'Donnell was descended from Niall of the Nine Hostages,
king of Ireland at the beginning of the 5th century; the O'Neifls,
or Cinel' Owen, tracing their pedigree to Owen (Eoghan),and
the O'Donnells, or Cinel Connell, to Conall Gulban, both sons
of Niall. Tyrconnel, the district named after the Cinel ConneU,
where the O'Donnells held sway, comprised the greater part of
the modern county of Donegal except the peninsula of Inishowen ;
and since it lay conterminous with the territory ruled by the
O'Neills of Tyrone, who were continually attempting to assert
their supremacy over it, the history of the O'Donnells is for the
most part a record of tribal warfare with their powerful
neighbours, and of their own efforts to make good their claims
to the overlordship of northern Connaught.
The first chieftain of mark in the family was Goffraidh
(Godfrey), son of Donnell INIor O'Donnell (d. 1241). Gofliraidh,
who was " inaugurated " as " The O'Donnell," i.e. chief of the
clan, in 1248, made a successful inroad into Tyrone against
Brian O'Neill in 1252. In 1257 he drove the English out of
northern Connaught, after a single combat with Maurice Fitz-
gerald in which both warriors were wounded. O'Donnell while
still incapacitated by his wound was summoned by Brian
O'Neill to give hostages in token of submission. Carried on a
litter at the head of his clan he gave battle to O'Neill, whom
he defeated with severe loss in prisoners and cattle; but he died
of his wound immediately afterwards near Letterkenny, and was
succeeded in the chieftainship by his brother Donnell Oge, who
returned from Scotland in time to withstand successfully the
demands of O'Neill.
In the i6th century, when the English began to make deter-
mined efforts to bring the whole of Ireland under subjection to
the crown, the O'Donnells of Tyrconnel played a leading part;
co-operating at times with the English, especially when such
co-operation appeared to promise triumph over their ancient
enemies the O'Neills, at other times joining with the latter
against the English authorities.
' The Cinel, or Kinel, was a group of related clans occupying an
extensive district. See P. W. Joyce, A Social History of Ireland
(London, 1903), i. 166. , , ,.,,
O'DONNELL (FAMILY)
Manus O'Donnell (d. 1564), son of Hugh Dubh O'Donnell,
was left by his father to rule Tyrconnel, though still a mere
youth, when Hugh Dubh went on a pilgrimage to Rome about
1511. Hugh Dubh had been chief of the O'Donnells during
one of the bitterest and most protracted of the feuds between
his clan and the O'Neills, which in 149 1 led to a war lasting
more than ten years. On his return from Rome in broken
health after two years' absence, his son Manus, who had proved
himself a capable leader in defending his country against the
O'Neills, retained the chief authority. A family quarrel ensued,
and when Hugh Dubh appealed for aid against his son to the
Maguires, Manus made an alliance with the O'Neills, by whose
assistance he established his hold over Tyrconnel. But in 1522
the two great northern clans were again at war. Conn Bacach
O'Neill, ist earl of Tyrone, determined to bring the O'Donnells
under thorough subjection. Supported by several septs of
Munster and Connaught , ind assisted also by English contingents
and by the MacDonnells of Antrim, O'Neill took the castle of
BaUyshannon, and after devastating a large part of Tyrconnel
he encamped at Knockavoe, near Strabane. Here he was
surprised at night by Hugh Dubh and Manus O'Donnell, and
routed with the loss of goo men and an immense quantity of
booty. Although this was one of the bloodiest fights that ever
took place between the O'Neills and the O'Donnells, it did not
bring the war to an end; and in 1531 O'Donnell applied to the
English government for protection, giving assurances of allegiance
to Henry VIH. In 1537 Lord Thomas Fitzgerald and his five
uncles were executed for rebellion in Munster, and the English
government made every effort to lay hands also on Gerald, the
youthful heir to the earldom of Kildare, a boy of twelve years
of age who was in the secret custody of his aunt Lady Eleanor
McCarthy. This lady, in order to secure a powerful protector
for the boy, accepted an offer of marriage by Manus O'Donnell,
who on the death of Hugh Dubh in July 1537 was inaugurated
TheO'Donnell. ConnO'Neill wasarelative of Gerald Fitzgerald,
and this event accordingly led to the formation of the Geraldine
League, a federation which combined the O'Neills, the O'Donnells,
the O'Briens of Thomond, and other powerful clans; the primary
object of which was to restore Gerald to the earldom of Kildare,
but which afterwards aimed at the complete overthrow of English
rule in Ireland. In August 153Q Manus O'Donnell and Conn
O'Neill were defeated with heavy loss by the lord deputy at
Lake Bellahoe, in Monaghan, which crippled their power for
many years. In the west Manus made unceasing efforts to
assert the supremacy of the O'Donnells in north Connaught,
where he compelled O'Conor Sligo to acknowledge his over-
lordship in 1539. In 1542 he went to England and presented
himself, together with Conn O'Neill and other Irish chiefs,
before Henry VIII., who promised to make him earl of Tyrconnel,
though he refused O'Donnell's request to be made earl of Sligo.
In his later years Manus was troubled by quarrels between his
sons Calvagh and Hugh MacManus; in 1555 he was made
prisoner by Calvagh, who deposed him from all authority in
Tyrconnel, and he died in 1564. Manus O'Donnell, though a
fierce warrior, was hospitable and generous to the poor and the
Church. He is described by the Four Masters as " a learned
man, skilled in many arts, gifted with a profound intellect, and
the knowledge of every science." At his castle of Portnatrynod
near Strabane he supervised if he did not actually dictate the
writing of the Life of Saint ColiimbkUle in Irish, which is preserved
in the Bodleian Library at Oxford. Manus was several times
married. Hisfirstwife, Joan O'Reilly, was the mother of Calvagh,
and two daughters, both of whommarried O'Neills; the younger,
Margaret, was wife of the famous rebel Shane O'Neill. His
second wife, Hugh's mother, by whom he was ancestor of the
earls of Tyrconnel (see below), was Judith, sister of Conn Bacach
O'Neill, ist earl of Tyrone, and aunt of Shane O'Neill.
Calvagh O'Donnell (d. 1 566), eldest son of Manus O'Donnell,
in the course of his above-mentioned quarrel with his father
and his half-brother Hugh, sought aid in Scotland from the
MacDonnells, who assisted him in deposing Manus and securing
the lordship of Tyrconnel for himself. Hugh then appealed
to Shane O'Neill, who invaded Tyrconnel at the head of a large
army in 1557, desiring to make himself supreme throughout
Ulster, and encamped on the shore of Lough S willy. Calvagh,
acting apparently on the advice of his father, who was his
prisoner and who remembered the successful night attack on
Conn O'Neill at Knockavoe in 1522, surprised the O'Neills in
their camp at night and routed them with the loss of all their
spoils. Calvagh was then recognized by the English govern-
ment as lord of Tyrconnel; but in 1561 he and his wife were
captured by Shane O'Neill in the monastery of Kildonnell.
His wife, Catherine Maclean, who had previously been the wife
of the earl of Argyll, was kept by Shane O'Neill as his mistress
and bore him several children, though grossly ill-treated by her
savage captor; Calvagh himself was subjected to atrocious
torture.'during the three years that he remained O'Neill's prisoner.
He was released in 1564 on conditions which he had no intention
of fulfilling; and crossing to England he threw himself on the
mercy of Queen Elizabeth. In 1566 Sir Henry Sidney by the
queen's orders marched to Tyrconnel and restored Calvagh
to his rights. Calvagh, however, died in the same year, and
as his son Conn was a prisoner in the hands of Shane O'Neill,
his half-brother Hugh MacManus was inaugurated The O'Donnell
in his place. Hugh, who in the family feud with Calvagh had
allied himself with O'Neill, now turned round and combined
with the English to crush the hereditary enemy of his family;
and in 1567 he utterly routed Shane at Letterkenny with the
loss of 1300 men, compelling him to seek refuge with the Mac-
Donnells of Antrim, by whom he was treacherously put to death.
In 1 592 Hugh abdicated in favour of his son Hugh Roe O'Donnell
(see below); but there was a member of the elder branch of
the family who resented the passing of the chieftainship to
the descendants of Manus O'Donnell's second marriage. This
was Niall Garve, second son of Calvagh's son Conn. His elder
brother was Hugh of Ramelton, whose son John, an officer in
the Spanish army, was father of Hugh Baldearg O'Donnell
(d. 1704), known in Spain as Count O'Donnell, who commanded
an Irish regiment as brigadier in the Spanish service. This
officer came to Ireland in 1690 and raised an army in Ulster
for the service of James II., afterwards deserting to the side
of William III., from whom he accepted a pension.
NiALL Garve O'Donnell (i 569-1626), who was incensed
at the elevation of his cousin Hugh Roe to the chieftainship
in 1592, was further alienated when the latter deprived him
of his castle of Lifford, and a bitter feud between the two O'Don-
nells was the result. Niall Garve made terms with the English
government, to whom he rendered valuable service both against
the O'Neills and against his cousin. But in 1601 he quarrelled
with the lord deputy, who, though willing to establish Niall
Garve in the lordship of Tyrconnel, would not permit him to
enforce his supremacy over Cahir O'Dogherty in Inishowen.
After the departure of Hugh Roe from Ireland in 1602, Niall
Garve and Hugh Roe's brother Rory went to London, where
the privy council endeavoured to arrange the family quarrel,
but failed to satisfy Niall. Charged with complicity in Cahir
O'Dogherty's rebellion in 1608, Niall Garve was sent to the
Tower of London, where he remained till his death in 1626.
He married his cousin Nuala, sister of Hugh Roe and Rory
O'Donnell. When Rory fled with the earl of Tyrone to Rome
in 1607, Nuala, who had deserted her husband when he joined
the English against her brother, accompanied him, taking
with her her daughter Grania. She was the subject of an Irish
poem, of which an English version was written by James Mangan
from a prose translation by Eugene O'Curry.
Hugh Roe O'Donnell (1572-1602), eldest son of Hugh
MacManus O'Donnell, and grandson of Manus O'Donnell by
his second marriage with Judith O'Neill, was the most celebrated
member of his clan. His mother was Ineen Dubh, daughter
of James MacDonnell of Kintyre; his sister was the second
wife of Hugh O'Neill, 2nd earl of Tyrone. These family con-
nexions with the Hebridean Scots and with the O'NeOls made
the lord deputy, Sir John Perrot, afraid of a powerful com-
bination against the English government, and induced him to
8
O'DONNELL, H. J.
establish garrisons in Tyrconnel and to demand hostages from
Hugh MacManus O'Donnell, which the latter refused to hand
over. In 1587 Parrot conceived a plan for kidnapping Hugh
Roe (Hugh the Red), now a youth of fifteen, who had already
given proof of exceptional manhness and sagacity. A merchant
vessel laden with Spanish wines was sent to Lough Swilly, and
anchoring oS Rathmullan, where the boy was residing in the
castle of MacSweeny his foster parent, Hugh Roe with some
youthful companions was enticed on board, when the ship
immediately set sail and conveyed the party to Dublin. The
boys were kept in prison for more than three years. In 1591
young O'Donnell made two attempts to escape, the second of
which proved successful; and after enduring terrible privations
from exposure in the mountains he made his way to Tyrconnel,
where in the following year his father handed the chieftainship
over to him. Red Hugh lost no time in leading an expedition
against Turlough Luineach O'Neill, then at war with his kinsman
Hugh, earl of Tyrone, with whom O'Donnell was in alliance.
At the same time he sent assurances of loyalty to the lord
deputy, whom he met in person at Dundalk in the summer of
1592. But being determined to vindicate the traditional
claims of his family in north Connaught, he aided Hugh Maguire
against the English, though on the advice of Tyrone he ab-
stained for a time from committing himself too far. When,
however, in 1594 Enniskillen castle was taken and the women
and children flung into the river from its walls by order of Sir
Richard Bingham, the English governor of Connaught, O'Donnell
sent urgent messages to Tyrone for help; and while he himself
hurried to Derry to withstand an invasion of Scots from the
isles, Maguire defeated the EngUsh with heavy loss at Bellana-
briska (The Ford of the Biscuits). In 1595 Red Hugh again
invaded Connaught, putting to the sword every soul above
fifteen years of age unable to speak Irish; he captured Longford
and soon afterwards gained possession of Shgo, which placed
north Connaught at his mercy. In 1596 he agreed in conjunction
with Tyrone to a cessation of hostilities with the English, and
consented to meet commissioners from the government near
Dundalk. The terms he demanded were, however, refused;
and his determination to continue the struggle was strengthened
by the prospect of help from Phihp II. of Spain, with whom
he and Tyrone had been in correspondence. In the beginning
of 1597 he made another inroad into Connaught, where O'Conor
Sligo had been set up by the English as a counterpoise to O'Don-
nell. He devastated the country and returned to Tyrconnel
with rich spoils; in the follo\ving year he shared in Tyrone's
victory over the English at the Yellow Ford on the Blackwater;
and in 1599 he defeated an attempt by the English under Sir
Conyers Clifford, governor of Connaught, to succour O'Conor
Sligo in Collooney castle, which O'Donnell captured, forcing
Sligo to submission. The government now sent Sir Henry
Docwra to Derry, and O'Donnell entrusted to his cousin Niall
Garve the task of opposing him. NiaU Carve, however, went
over to the English, making himself master of O'Donnell's
fortresses of Lifford and Donegal. While Hugh Roe was at-
tempting to retake the latter place in 1601, he heard that a
Spanish force had landed in Munster. He marched rapidly to
the south, and was joined by Tyrone at Bandon; but a night-
attack on the Enghsh besieging the Spaniards in Kinsale having
utterly failed, O'Donnell, who attributed the disaster to the
incapacity of the Spanish commander, took ship to Spain
on the 6th of January 1602 to lay his complaint before
Philip III. He was favourably received by the Spanish king,
but he died at Simancas on the loth of September in the
same year.
RoRY O'Donnell, ist earl of Tyrconnel (1575-1608), second
son of Hugh MacManus O'Donnell, and younger brother of
Hugh Roe, accompanied the latter in the above-mentioned
expedition to Kinsale; and when his brother sailed for Spain
he transferred his authority as chief to Rory, who led the
O'Donnell contingent back to the north. In 1602 Rory gave
in his allegiance to Lord Mount joy, the lord deputy; and in
the following summer he went to London with the earl of Tyrone,
where he was received with favour by James I., who created
him earl of Tyrconnel. In 1605 he was invested with authority
as Ueutenant of the king in Donegal. But the arrangement
between Rory and Niall Garve insisted upon by the government
was displeasing to both O'Donnells, and Rory, like Hugh Roe
before him, entered into negotiations with Spain. His country
had been reduced to a desert by famine and war, and his own
reckless extravagance had plunged him deeply in debt. These
circumstances as much as the fear that his designs were known
to the government may have persuaded him to leave Ireland.
In September 1607 " the flight of the earls " (see O'Neill) took
place, Tyrconnel and Tyrone reaching Rome in April 1608,
where Tyrconnel died on the 28th of July. His wife, the beautiful
daughter of the earl of Kildare, was left behind in the haste
of Tyrconnel's flight, and lived to marry Nicholas Barnewell,
Lord Kingsland. By Tyrconnel she had a son Hugh; and
among other children a daughter Mary Stuart O'Donnell, who,
born after her father's flight from Ireland, was so named by
James I. after his mother. This lady, after many romantic
adventures disguised in male attire, married a man caUed
O'Gallagher and died in poverty on the continent.
Rory O'DonneU was attainted by the Irish parliament in
1614, but his son Hugh, who hved at the Spanish Court, assumed
the title of earl; and the last titular earl of Tyrconnel was this
Hugh's son Hugh Albert, who died without heirs in 1642, and
who by his wiU appointed Hugh Balldearg O'Donnell (see above)
his heir, thus restoring the chieftainship to the elder branch of
the family. To a stiU elder branch belonged Daniel O'Donnell
(1666-1735), a general of the famous Irish brigade in the French
service, whose father, Turlough, was a son of Hugh Dubh
O'Donnell, elder brother of Manus, son of an earlier Hugh
Dubh mentioned above. Daniel served in the French army
in the wars of the period, fighting against Marlborough at
Oudenarde and Malplaquet at the head of an O'Donnell regiment.
He died in 1735.
The famous Cathach, or Battle-Book of the O'Donnells, was in
the possession of General Daniel O'Donnell, from whom it passed
to more modern representatives of the family, who presented it to
the Royal Irish Academy, where it is preserved. This relic, of which
a curious legend is told (see P. \V. Joyce, A Social History of Ancient
Ireland, vol. i. p. 501), is a Psalter said to have belonged to Saint
Columba, a kinsman of the O'Donnells, which was carried by them
in battle as a charm or talisman to secure victory. Two other
circumstances connecting the O'Donnells with ancient Irish literature
may be mentioned. The family of O'Clery, to which three of the
celebrated " Four Masters " belonged, were hereditary Ollaves
(doctors of history, music, law, &c.) attached to the family of
O'Donnell ; while the " Book of the Dun Cow " {Lebor-na-h Uidhre),
one of the most ancient Irish MSS., was in the possession of the
O'Donnells in the 14th century'; and the estimation in which it
was held at that time is proved by the fact that it was given to the
O'Conors of Connaught as ransom for an important prisoner, and
was forcibly recovered some years later.
See O'Neill, and the authorities there cited. (R. J. M.)
O'DONNELL, HENRY JOSEPH (1769-1834), count of La
Bisbal, Spanish soldier, was descended from the O'Donnells
who left Ireland after the battle of the Boyne.' Born in Spain,
he early entered the Spanish army, and in 1810 became general,
receiving a command in Catalonia, where in that year he earned
his title and the rank of field-marshal. He afterwards held
posts of great responsibility under Ferdinand VII., whom he
served on the whole with constancy; the events of 1823 compelled
his flight into France, where he was interned at Limoges, and
where he died in 1834. His second son Leopold O'Donnell
(1809-1867), duke of Tetuan, Spanish general and statesman,
was born at Santa Cruz, Teneriffe, on the 12th of January 1809.
He fought in the army of Queen Christina, where he attained
the rank of general of division; and in 1840 he accompanied
the queen into exile. He failed in an attempt to effect a rising
in her favour at Pamplona in 1841, but took a more successful
part in the movement which led to the overthrow and exfle of
1 A branch of the family settled in Austria, and General Karl
O' Donnell, count of Tyrconnel (l 7 1 5-1 77 1 ), held important commands
during the Seven Years' War. The name of a descendant figures in
the history of the Italian and Hungarian campaigns of 1848 and 1849.
O'DONOVAN, E.— ODONTORNITHES
Espartero in 1843. From 1844 to 1848 he served the new
government in Cuba; after his return he entered the senate.
In 1854 he became war minister under Espartero, and in 1856 he
plotted successfully against his chief, becoming head of the
cabinet from the July revolution until October. This rank
he again reached in July 1858; and in December 1859 he took
command of the expedition to Morocco, and received the title
of duke after the surrender of Tetuan. Quitting office in 1863,
he again resumed it in June 1865, but was compelled to resign
in favour of Narvaez in 1866. He died at Bayonne on the 5th
of November 1867.
There is a Life of Leopold O'Donnell in La Corona de laurel, by
Manuel Ibo Alfaro (Madrid, i860).
O'DONOVAN, EDMUND (1844-1883), British war-corre-
spondent, was born at Dublin on the 13th of September 1844,
the son of John O'Donovan (180Q-1861), a well-known Irish
archaeologist and topographer. In 1866 he began to contribute
to the Irish Times and other Dublin papers. After the battle
of Sedan he joined the Foreign Legion of the French army,
and was wounded and taken prisoner by the Germans. In 1S73
the Carlist rising attracted him to Spain, and he wrote many
newspaper letters on the campaign. In 1876 he represented
the London Daily News during the rising of Bosnia and
Herzegovina against the Turks, and in 1879, for the same paper,
made his adventurous and famous journey to Merv. On his
arrival at Merv, the Turcomans, suspecting him to be a Russian
spy, detained him. It was only after several months' captivity
that O'Donovan managed to get a message to his principals
through to Persia, whence it was telegraphed to England. These
adventures he described in The Merv Oasis (1S82). In 1883
O'Donovan accompanied the ill-fated expedition of Hicks
Pasha to the Egyptian Sudan, and perished with it.
O'DONOVAN, WILLIAM RUDOLF (1844- ), American
sculptor, was born in Preston county, Virginia, on the 2Sih
of March 1844. He had no technical art training, but after
the Civil War, in which he served in the Confederate army,
he opened a studio in New York City. and became a well-known
sculptor, especially of memorial pieces. Among these are
statues of George Washington (in Caracas), Lincoln and Grant
(Prospect Park, Brooklyn), the captors of Major Andre (Tarry-
town, N.Y.), and Archbishop Hughes (Fordham University,
Fordham, N.Y.), and a memorial tablet to Bayard Taylor
(Cornell University). In 1878 he become an associate of the
National Academy of Design.
ODONTORNITHES, the term proposed by O. C. Marsh {Am.
Journ. Sci. ser 3, v. (1873) pp. 161-162) for birds possessed of
teeth (Gr. odovs, tooth, opvis, opvidos, bird), notably the
genera Hcspcrornis and Ichthyornis from the Cretaceous deposits
of Kansas. In 1875 {op. cit. x. pp. 403-408) he divided the
" subclass " into Odontolcae, with the teeth standing in grooves,
and Odontotormae, with the teeth in separate alveoles or sockets.
In his magnificent work, Odontornithcs: A monograph on the
extinct toothed birds of North America, New Haven, Connecticut,
1880, he logically added the Saururae, represented by
Archacopteryx, as a third order. As it usually happens with
the selection of a single anatomical character, the resulting
classification was unnatural. In the present case the Odont-
ornithcs are a heterogeneous assembly, and the fact of their
possessing teeth proves nothing but that birds, possibly all of
.them, still had these organs during the Cretaceous epoch. This,
by itself, is a very interesting point, showing that birds, as a
class, are the descendants of well-toothed reptiles, to the complete
exclusion of the Chelonia with which various authors persistently
try to connect them. No fossil birds of later than Cretaceous
age are known to have teeth, and concerning recent birds they
possess not even embryonic vestiges.
E. Geoffroy St Hilaire stated in 1821 {Ann. Gen. Sci. Phys.
viii. pp. 373-380) that he had found a considerable number
of tooth-germs in the upper and lower jaws of the parrot
Palacornis torquatus. E. Blanchard (" Observations sur le s)-s-
teme dentaire chez les oiseaux," Comptes rendiis 50, i860, pp.
540-542) felt justified in recognizing flakes of dentine. However,
M. Braun {Arbeit Zool. Inst., Wurzburg, v. 1879) and especially
P. Fraisse {Phys. Med. Ges., Wurzburg, 1880) have shown that
the structures in question are of the same kind as the well-known
serrated " teeth " of the bill of anserine birds. In fact the
papillae observed in the embryonic birds are the soft cutaneous
extensions into the surrounding horny sheath of the bill, compar-
able to the well-known nutritive papillae in a horse's hoof.
They are easily exposed in the well-macerated under jaw of a
parrot, after removal of the horny sheath. Occasionally calcifica-
tion occurs in or around these papillae, as it does regularly in
the " egg-tooth " of the embryos of all birds.
The best known of the Odonlornithes are Hcspcrornis regalis,
standing about 3 ft. high, and the somewhat \.a.\\t:x H.crassipes.
Both show the general configuration of a diver, but it is only by
analogy that Hcspcrornis can be looked upon as ancestral to
the Colymbiformes. There are about fourteen teeth in a groove
of the maxilla and about twenty-one in the mandible; the
vertebrae are typically heterocoelous; of the wing-bones only
the very slender and long humerus is known; clavicles slightly
reduced; coracoids short and broad, movably connected with
the scapula; sternum very long, broad and quite Hat, without
the trace of a keel. Hind limbs very strong and of the Colynibine
type, but the outer or fourth capitulum of the metatarsus is the
strongest and longest, an unique arrangement in an otherwise
typically steganopodous foot. The pelvis shows much resem-
blance to that of the divers, but there is still an incisura ischiadica
instead of a foramen. The tail is composed of about twelve
vertebrae, without a pygostyle. Enaliornis of the Cambridge
Greensand of England, and Baptornis of the mid-Cretaceous of
North America, are probably allied, but imperfectly known.
The vertebrae are biconcave, with heterocoelous indications in
the cervicals; the metatarsal bones appear still somewhat
imperfectly anchylosed. The absence of a keel misled Marsh who
suspected relationship of Hcspcrornis with the Ratitae, and
L. DoUo went so far as to call it a carnivorous, aquatic ostrich
{Bull. Sci. Depart, du Nord, ser. 2, iv. 1881, p. 300), and this
mistaken notion of the " swimming ostrich " was popularized by
various authors. B. Vetter {Fcstschr. Ges. Isis., Dresden, 1885)
rightly pointed out that Hesperornis was a descendant of
Carinatae, but adapted to aquatic life, implying reduction of
the keel. Lastly, M. Fiirbringer {Unlersuchungcn, Amsterdam,
1888, pp. 1543, 1505, 1580) relegated it, together with Enaliornis
and the Colymbo-Podicipedes, to his suborder Podicipitiformcs.
The present writer does not feel justified in going so far. On
account of their various, decidedly primitive characters, he
prefers to look upon the Odontolcae as a separate group, one of
the three divisions of the Neornithes, as birds which form an
early offshoot from the later Colymbo-Pelargomorphous stock;
in adaptation to a marine, swimming hfe they have lost the
power of flight, as is shown by the absence of the keel and
by the great reduction of the wing-skeleton, just as in
another direction, away from the later Alectoromorphons
stock the Ratitae have specialized as runners. It is only in
so far as the loss of flight is correlated with the absence of
the keel that the Odontolcae and the Ratitae bear analogy to
each other.
There remain the Odontotormae, notably Ichthyornis victor,
I. dispar, Apatornis and Graculavus of the middle and upper
Cretaceous of Kansas. The teeth stand in separate alveoles;
the two halves of the mandible are, as in Hesperornis, without
a symphysis. The vertebrae are amphicoelous, but at least the
third cervical has somewhat saddle-shaped articular facets.
Tail composed of five free vertebrae, followed by a rather small
pygostyle. Shoulder girdle and sternum well developed and
of the typical carinate type. Pelvis still with incisura ischiadica.
Marsh based the restoration of Ichthyornis, which was obviously a
well-flying aquatic bird, upon the skeleton of a tern, a relation-
ship which cannot be supported. The teeth, vertebrae, pelvis
and the small brain are all so many low characters that the
Odontotormae may well form a separate, and very low, order
of the typical Carinatae, of course near the Colymbomorphous
Legion. (H. F. G. '
lO
ODORIC— ODYLIC FORCE
ODORIC (c. 1286-1331), styled "of Pordenone," one of the
chief travellers of the later middle ages, and a Beatus of the
Roman Church, was born at Villa Nuova, a hamlet near the town
of Pordenone in Friuli, in or about 1286. According to the
ecclesiastical biographers, in early years he took the vows of
the Franciscan order and joined their convent at Udine, the
capital of Friuli.
Friar Odoric was despatched to the East, where a remarkable
extension of missionary action was then taking place, about
1316-1318, and did not return till the end of 1329 or beginning
of 1330; but, as regards intermediate dates, all that we can
deduce from his narrative or other evidence is that he was in
western India soon after 1321 (pretty certainly in 1322) and that
he spent three years in China between the opening of 1323 and
the close of 1328. His route to the East lay by Trebizond and
Erzerum to Tabriz and Sultanieh, in all of which places the order
had houses. From Sultanieh he proceeded by Kashan and
Yazd, and turning thence followed a somewhat devious route by
Persepolis and the Shiraz and Bagdad regions, to the Persian
Gulf. At Hormuz he embarked for India, landing at Thana,
near Bombay. At this city four brethren of his order, three of
them ItaUans and the fourth a Georgian, had shortly before
met death at the hands of the Mahommedan governor. The
bones of the martyred friars had been collected by Friar Jordanus
of Severac, a Dominican, who carried them to Supera — the
Suppara of the ancient geographers, near the modern Bassein,
about 26 m. north of Bombay — and buried them there Odoric
teDs that he disinterred these relics and carried them with
him on his further travels. In the course of these he visited
Malabar, touching at Pandarani (20 m. north of Calicut), at
Cranganore, and at Kulam or Quilon, proceeding thencCj appar-
ently, to Ceylon and to the shrine of St Thomas at Maylapur
near Madras. From India he sailed in a junk to Sumatra,
visiting various ports on the northern coast of that island, and
thence to Java, to the coast (it would seem) of Borneo, to
Champa (South Cochin-China), and to Canton, at that time
known to western Asiatics as Chin-Kalanox Great China (Maha-
chin). From Canton he travelled overland to the great ports
of Fukien, at one of which, Zayton or Amoy harbour, he found
two houses of his order; in one of these he deposited the bones
of the brethren who had suffered in India. From Fuchow he
struck across the mountains into Cheh-kiang and visited Hang-
chow, then renowned, under the name of Cansay, Khanzai,
or Quinsai (i.e. Kingsze or royal residence), as the greatest city
in the world, of whose splendours Odoric, hke Marco Polo,
MarignoUi, or Ibn Batuta, gives notable details. Passing
northward by Nanking and crossing the Yangtsze-kiang, Odoric
embarked on the Great Canal and travelled to Cambalec (other-
wise Cambaleih, Cambaluc, &c.) or Peking, where he remained for
three years, attached, no doubt, to one of the churches founded by
Archbishop John of Monte Corvino, at this time in extreme old
age. Returning overland across Asia, through the Land of Prester
John and through Casan, the adventurous traveUer seems to
have entered Tibet, and even perhaps to have visited Lhasa.
After this we trace the friar in northern Persia, in Millestorte,
once famous as the Land of the Assassins in the Elburz highlands.
No further indications of his homeward route (to Venice) are given,
though it is almost certain that he passed through Tabriz.
The vague and fragmentary character of the narrative, in this
section, forcibly contrasts with the clear and careful tracing of
the outward way. During a part at least of these long journeys
the companion of Odoric was Friar James, an Irishman, as
appears from a record in the public books of LMine, showing that
shortly after Odoric's death a present of two marks was made
to this Irish friar, Socio heati Fratris Odorici, amore Dei et Odorici.
Shortly after his return Odoric betook himself to the Minorite
house attached to St Anthony's at Padua, and it was there that
in May 1330 he related the story of his travels, which was taken
down in homely Latin by Friar William of Solagna. Travelling
towards the papal court at Avignon, Odoric fell ill at Pisa, and
turning back to Udine, the capital of his native province, died
in the convent there on the 14th of January 133 1. The fame of
his vast journeys appears to have made a much greater impression
on the laity of his native territory than on his Franciscan brethren.
The latter were about to bury him without delay or ceremony,
but the gastald or chief magistrate of the city interfered and
appointed a pubhc funeral; rumours of his wondrous travels and
of posthumous miracles were diffused, and excitement spread
like wildfire over Friuh and Carniola; the ceremony had to be
deferred more than once, and at last took place in presence of the
patriarch of AquUeia and all the local dignitaries. Popular
acclamation made him an object of devotion^ the municipahty
erected a noble shrine for his body, and his fame as saint and
traveller had spread far and wide before the middle of the
century, but it was not till four centuries later (1755) that the
papal authority formally sanctioned his beatification. A bust
of Odoric was set up at Pordenone in 1881.
The numerous copies of Odoric's narrative (both of the original
text and of the versions in French, Italian, &c.) that have come
down to our time, chiefly from the 14th century, show how
speedily and widely it acquired popularity. It does not deserve
the charge of mendacity brought against it by some, though
the adulation of others is nearly as injudicious. Odoric's credit
was not benefited by the liberties which Sir John Mandeville
took with it. The substance of that knight's alleged travels
in India and Cathay is stolen from Odoric, though amplified
with fables from other sources and from his own invention, and
garnished with his own unusually clear astronomical notions.
We may indicate a few passages which stamp Odoric as a genuine
and original traveller. He is the first European, after Marco
Polo, who distinctly mentions the name of Sumatra. The
cannibalism and community of wives which he attributes to
certain races of that island do certainly belong to it, or to islands
closely adjoining. His description of sago in the archipelago
is not free from errors, but they are the errors of an eye-witness.
In China his mention of Canton by the name of Censcolam or
Censcalam (Chin-Kalan), and his descriptions of the custom
of fishing with tame cormorants, of the habit of letting the
finger-nails grow extravagantly, and of the compression of
women's feet, are peculiar to him among the travellers of that
age; Marco Polo omits them all.
Seventy-three MSB. of Odoric's narrative are known to exist in
Latin, French and Italian: of these the chief is in Paris, National
Library, MSS. Lat. 2584, fols. 118 r.-l27 v., of about 1350. The
narrative was first printed at Pesaro in 1513, in what Apostolo Zeno
calls lingua incidta e rozza. Rarausio's collection first contains it
in the 2nd vol. of the 2nd edition (1574) (Italian version), in which
are given two versions, differing curiously from one another, but
without any prefatory matter or explanation. (See also edition of
1583, vol. ii. fols. 245 r.-256 r.) Another (Latin) version is given in
the Ada Sanctorum (Bollandist) under the 14th of Januar>'. The
curious discussion before the papal court respecting the beatification
of Odoric forms a kind of blue-book issued ex typographia rev.
camerae apostolicae (Rome, 1755). Professor Friedrich Kunstmann
of Munich devoted one of his valuable papers to Odoric's narrative
{Histor.-polit. Blatter von Phillips und Gorres, vol. xx.xviii. pp. 507-
537). The best editions of Odoric are by G. Venni, Elogio storico
alle gesta del Beato Odorico (Venice, 1761); H. Yule in Cathay and
the Way Thither, vol. i. pp. 1-162, vol. ii. appendix, pp. 1-42 (London,
1866), Hakluyt Society; and H. Cordier, Les Voyages . . . du . . .
fr'ere Odoric . . . (Paris, 1891) (edition of Old French version of
c. 1350). The edition by T. Domenichelli (Prato, 1881) may also be
mentioned; likewise those texts of Odoric embedded in the Storia
universale delle Missione Francescane, iii. 739-781, and in Hakluyt 's
Principal Navigations (1599), ii. 39-67. See also John of Viktring
(Joannes Victoriensis) in Pontes reriim Germanicarum, ed. J. F.
Boehmer; vol. i. cd. by J. G. Cotta (Stuttgart, 1843), p. 391;
Wadding, Avnales Minorum, a.d. 1331, vol. vii. pp. 123-126;
Bartholomew Albizzi, Opus conformitatum . . . B. Francisci . . .,
bk. i. par. ii. conf. 8 (fol. 124 of Milan, edition of 1513); John of
Winterthur in Eccard, Corpus historicum medii aevi, vol. i. cols.
1 894- 1 897, especially 1894; C. R. Beazley, Dawn of Modern Geo-
graphy, iii. 250-287, 548-549, 554. 565-566, 612-613, &c.
ODYLIC FORCE, a term once in vogue to explain the pheno-
menon of hypnotism (q.v.). In 1845 considerable attention
was drawn to the announcement by Baron von Reichenbach
of a so-called new " imponderable " or " influence " developed
by certain crystals, magnets, the human body, associated wuth
heat, chemical action, or electricity, and existing throughout
ODYSSEUS— OECOLAMPADIUS
1 1
the universe, to which he gave the name of odyl. Persons
sensitive to odyl saw luminous phenomena near the poles of
magnets, or even around the hands or heads of certain persons
in whose bodies the force was supposed to be concentrated.
In Britain an impetus was given to this view of tlie subject by
the translation in 1850 of Reichenbach's Researches or Magnetism,
fe'c, in relation to Vital Force, by Dr Gregory, professor of
chemistry in the university of Edinburgh. These Researches
show many of the phenomena to be of the same nature as those
described previously by F. A. Mesmer, and even long before
Mesmer's time by Swedenborg.
ODYSSEUS (in Latin Ulixes, incorrectly written Ulysses),
in Greek legend, son of Laertes and Anticleia, king of Ithaca, a
famous hero and typical representative of the Greek race. In
Homer he is one of the best and bravest of the heroes, and the
favourite of Athena, whereas in later legend he is cowardly and
deceitful. Soon after his marriage to Penelope he was summoned
to the Trojan war. Unwilling to go, he feigned madness,
ploughing a field sown with salt with an ox and an ass yoked
together; but Palamedes discovered his deceit by placing his
infant child Telemachus in front of the plough; Odysseus
afterwards revenged himself by compassing the death of Pala-
medes. During the war, he distinguished himself as the wisest
adviser of the Greeks, and finally, the capture of Troy, which
the bravery of Achilles could not accomplish, was attained by
Odysseus' stratagem of the wooden horse. After the death of
Achilles the Greeks adjudged his armour to Odysseus as the man
who had done most to end the war successfully. When Troy
was captured he set sail for Ithaca, but was carried by unfavour-
able winds to the coast of Africa. After encountering many
adventures in all parts of the unknown seas, among the lotus-
eaters and the Cyclopes, in the isles of Aeolus and Circe and the
perils of Scylla and Charybdis, among the Laestrygones, and even
in the world of the dead, having lost all his ships and companions,
he barely escaped with his life to the island of Calypso, where he
was detained eight years, an unwilling lover of the beautiful
nymph. Then at the command of Zeus he was sent homewards,
but was again wrecked on the island of Phaeacia, whence he
was conveyed to Ithaca in one of the wondrous Phaeacian ships.
Here he found that a host of suitors, taking advantage of the
youth of his son Telemachus, were wasting his property and
trying to force Penelope to marry one of them. The stratagems
and disguises by which with the help of a few faithful friends
he slew the suitors are described at length in the Odyssey. The
only allusion to his death is contained in the prophecy of Teiresias,
who promised him a happy old age and a peaceful death from
the sea. According to a later legend, Telegonus, the son of
Odysseus by Circe, was sent by her in search of his father. Cast
ashore on Ithaca by a storm, he plundered the island to get pro-
visions, and was attacked by Odysseus, whom he slew. The
prophecy was thus fulfilled. Telegonus, accompanied by
Penelope and Telemachus, returned to his home with the body
of his father, whose identity he had discovered.
According to E. Meyer {Hermes, xxx. p. 267), Odysseus is an
old Arcadian nature god identical with Poseidon, who dies at
the approach of winter (retires to the western sea or is carried
away to the underworld) to revive in spring (but see E. Rohde,
Rhein. Mus. 1. p. 631). A more suitable identification would
be Hermes. Mannhardt and others regard Odysseus as a solar
or summer divinity, who withdraws to the underworld during
the winter, and returns in spring to free his wife from the suitors
(the powers of winter). A. Gercke {Neitc Jahrbiichcr fiir das
klassische Altertiim, xv. p. 331) takes him to be an agricultural
divinity akin to the sun god, whose wife is the moon-goddess
Penelope, from whom he is separated and reunited to her on
the day of the new moon. His cult early disappeared; in
Arcadia his place was taken by Poseidon. But although the
personahty of Odysseus may have had its origin in some primitive
rehgious myth, chief interest attaches to him as the typical
representative of the old sailor-race whose adventurous voyages
educated and moulded the Hellenic race. The period when the
character of Odysseus took shape among the Ionian bards
was when the Ionian ships were beginning to penetrate to the
farthest shores of the Black Sea and to the western side of Italy,
but when Egypt had not yet been freely opened to foreign
intercourse. The adventures of Odysseus were a favourite subject
in ancient art, in which he may usually be recognized by his
conical sailor's cap.
Sec article by J. Schmidt in Roschcr'.s Lexikon der Mylhologie
(where the different forms of the name and its etymology arc fully
discussed); O. Gruppe, Griechische Mytholngic, ii. pp. 624, 705-718;
J. E. Harrison, Myths of the Odyssey in Art and Literature {1881),
with appendix on authorities. W. Mannhardt, Wald- und Feldkulte
(1905), ii. p. 106; O. Sceck, Cesch. des Untergangs der antiken Welt, .
ii. p. 576; G. P'ougferes, Mantinee et I'Arcadie orientate (1898),
according to whom Odysseus is an Arcadian chthonian divinity and
Penelope a goddess of flocks and herds, akin to the Arcadian Artemis;
S. Eitrem, Die giittlichen Zwillinge hei den Griechen (1902), who
identifies Odysseus with one of the Dioscuri ('OXu«7es = noXuSf6K7)s);
V. B6rard, Les Phiniciens et I'Odyssee (1902-1903), who regards the
Odyssey as " the integration in a Greek vActtos (home-coming) of a
Semitic periplus," in the form of a poem written 900-850 B.C. by an
Ionic poet at the court of one of the Nclcid kings of Miletus. For an
estimate of this work, the interest of which is mainly geographical,
see Classical Review (April 1904) and Quarterly Review (April 1905).
It consists of two large volumes, with 240 illustrations and maps.
OEBEN, JEAN FRANCOIS, French 18th-century cabinet-
maker, is believed to have been of German or Flemish origin;
the date of his birth is unknown, but he was dead before 1767.
In 1752, twenty years after Boulle's death, we find him occupying
an apartment in the Louvre sublet to him by Charles Joseph
Boulle, whose pupil he may have been. He has sometimes been
confused with Simon Oeben, presumably a relative, who signed
a fine bureau in the Jones collection at the Victoria and Albert
Museurn. J. F. Oeben is also represented in that collection by
a pair of inlaid corner-cupboards. These with a bureau and a
chiffonier in the Garde Meuble in which bouquets of flowers are
delicately inlaid in choice woods are his best-known and most
admirable achievements. He appears to have worked extensively
for the marquise de Pompadour by whose influence he was
granted lodgings at the GobeUns and the title of " fibeniste
du Roi" in 1754. There he remained until 1760, when he obtained
an apartment and workshops at the Arsenal. His work in
marquetry is of very great distinction, but he would probably
never have enjoyed so great a reputation had it not been for his
connexion with the famous Bureau du Roi, made for Louis XV.,
which appears to have owed its inception to him, notwithstand-
ing that it was not completed until some considerable time after
his death and is signed by J. H. Riesener (q.v.) only. Docu-
mentary evidence under the hand of the king shows that it was
ordered from Oeben in 1760, the year in which he moved to the
Arsenal. The known work of Oeben possesses genuine grace and
beauty; as craftsmanship it is of the first rank, and it is remark-
able that, despite his Teutonic or Flemish origin, it is typically
French in character.
OECOLAMPADIUS, JOHN (1482-1531), German Reformer,
whose real name was Hussgen or Heussgen,' was born at Weins-
berg, a small town in the north of the modern kingdom of
WUrttemberg, but then belonging to the Palatinate. He went
to school at Weinsberg and Heilbronn, and then, intending to
study law, he went to Bologna, but soon returned to Heidelberg
and betook himself to theology. He became a zealous student
of the new learning and passed from the study of Greek to that
of Hebrew, taking his bachelor's degree in 1503. He became
cathedral preacher at Basel in 1515, serving under Christopher
von Uttenheim, the evangelical bishop of Basel. From the
beginning the sennons of Oecolampadius centred in the Atone-
ment, and his first reformatory zeal showed itself in a protest
[De risic paschali, 151S) against the introduction of humorous
stories into Easter sermons. In 1520 he published his Greek
Grammar. The same year he was asked to become preacher
in the high church in Augsburg. Germany was then ablaze
with the questions raised by Luther's theses, and his introduction
into this new world, when at first he championed Luther's
position especially in his anonymous Cancnici indocti (1519),
seems to have compelled Oecolampadius to severe self-examina-
■ Changed to Hausschein and then into the Greek equivalent.
12
OECOLOGY— OEDIPUS
tion, which ended in his entering a convent and becoming a
monk. A short experience convinced him that this was not for
him the ideal Christian life (" amisi monachum, inveni Christia-
num "), and in February 1522 he made his way to Ebernburg,
near Creuznach, where he acted as chaplain to the little group
of men holding the new opinions who had settled there under
the leadership of Franz von Sickingen.
The second period of Oecolampadius's life opens with his
return to Basel in November 1522, as vicar of St Martin's and
(in 1523) reader of the Holy Scripture at the university. Lectur-
ing on Isaiah he condemned current ecclesiastical abuses, and
in a public disputation (20th of August 1523) was so successful
that Erasmus writing to Zurich said " Oecolampadius has
the upper hand amongst us." He became Zwingli's best helper,
and after more than a year of earnest preaching and four public
disputations in which the popular verdict had been given in
favour of Oecolampadius and his friends, the authorities of
Basel began to see the necessity of some reformation. They
began with the convents, and Oecolampadius was able to refrain
in public worship on certain festival days from some practices
he believed to be superstitious. Basel was slow to accept
the Reformation; the news of the Peasants' War and the
inroads of Anabaptists prevented progress; but at last, in
1525, it seemed as if the authorities were resolved to listen to
schemes for restoring the purity of worship and teaching. In
the midst of these hopes and difl'iculties Oecolampadius married,
in the beginning of 1528, Wilibrandis Rosenblatt, the widow
of Ludwig Keller, who proved to be non rixosa vcl garrula vel
vaga, he says, and made him a good wife. After his death she
married Capito, and, when Capito died, Bucer. She died in 1564.
In January 1528 Oecolampadius and Zwingh took part in the
disputation at Berne which led to the adoption of the new faith
in that canton, and in the following year to the discontinuance
of the mass at Basel. The Anabaptists claimed Oecolampadius
for their views, but in a disputation with them he dissociated
himself from most of their positions. He died on the 24th of
November 1531.
Oecolampadius was not a great theologian, like Luther,
Zwingli or Calvin, and yet he was a trusted theological leader.
With Zwingh he represented the Swiss views at the unfortunate
conference at Marburg. His views on the Eucharist upheld
the metaphorical against the Uteral interpretation of the word
" body," but he asserted that believers partook of the sacrament
more for the sake of others than for their own, though later he
emphasized it as a means of grace for the Christian life. To
Luther's doctrine of the ubiquity of Christ's body he opposed
that of the presence and activity of the Holy Spirit in the church.
He did not minutely analyse the doctrine of predestination as
Luther, Calvin and Zwingli did, contenting himself with the
summary " Our Salvation is of God, our perdition of ourselves."
See J. J. Herzog, Leben Joh. Oecolampads u. die Reformation der
Kirche zu Basel (1843); K. R. Hagenbach, /o/!a?in Oecolampad u.
Oswald Mycoiiitts, die Reformatoren Basels (1859). For other
literature see W. Hadorn's art. in Herzog-Hauck's Realencyklopddie
fiir prot. Rcl. u. Kirche.
OECOLOGY, or Ecology (from Gr. oIkos, house, and X670S,
department of science), that part of the science of biology which
treats of the adaptation of plants or animals to their environ-
ment (see Plants: Ecology).
OECUMENICAL (through the Lat. from Gr. oUovfieviKos,
universal, belonging to the whole inhabited world, 17 oUovtikvq
sc. yfj, oiKtiv, to dwell), a word chiefly used in the sense of
belonging to the universal Christian Church. It is thus specifi-
cally applied to the general councils of the early church (see
Council). In the Roman Church a council is regarded as
oecumenical when it has been summoned from the whole church
under the presidency of the pope or his legates; the decrees
confirmed by the pope are binding. The word has also been
appHed to assemblies of other religious bodies, such as the
Oecumenical Methodist Conferences, which met for the first
time in 1881. " Oecumenical " has also been the title of the
patriarch of Constantinople since the 6th century (see Orthodox
Eastern Church).
OECUS, the Latinized form of Gr. oIkos, house, used by
Vitruvius for the principal hall or saloon in a Roman house,
which was used occasionally as a trichnium for banquets. When
of great size it became necessary to support its ceiling with
columns; thus, according to Vitruvius, the tetrastyle oecus
had four columns; in the Corinthian oecus there was a row
of columns on each side, virtually therefore dividing the room
into nave and aisles, the former being covered over with a semi-
circular ceiling. The Egyptian oecus had a similar plan, but
the aisles were of less height, so that clerestory windows were
introduced to light the room, which, as Vitruvius states, presents
more the appearance of a basilica than of a triclinium.
OEDIPUS (OtStTTous, GtStTToSijs, OtStTros, from Gr. olbuv swell,
and TTous foot, i.e. " the swollen-footed ") ^ in Greek legend, son
of La'ius, king of Thebes, and Jocasta (locaste). Laius, having
been warned by an oracle that he would be killed by his son,
ordered him to be exposed, with his feet pierced, immediately
after his birth. Thus Oedipus grew up ignorant of his parentage,
and, meeting Laius in a narrow way, quarrelled with him and
slew him. The country was ravaged by a monster, the Sphinx;
Oedipus solved the riddle which it proposed to its victims,
freed the country, and married his own mother. In the Odyssey
it is said that the gods disclosed the impiety. Epicaste (as
Jocasta is caUed in Homer) hanged herself, and Oedipus lived
as king in Thebes tormented by the Erinyes of his mother. In
the tragic poets the tale takes a different form. Oedipus fulfils
an ancient prophecy in killing his father; he is the blind instru-
ment in the hands of fate. The further treatment of the tale
by Aeschylus is unknown. Sophocles describes in his Oedipus
Tyranniis how Oedipus was resolved to pursue to the end the
mystery of the death of Laius, and thus unravelled the dark
tale, and in horror put out his own eyes. The sequel of the tale is
told in the Oedipus Colonens. Banished by his sons, he is tended
by the loving care of his daughters. He comes to Attica and
dies in the grove of the Eumenides at Colonus, in his death
welcomed and pardoned by the fate which had pursued him
throughout his life. In addition to the two tragedies of Sophocles,
the legend formed the subject of a trilogy by Aeschylus, of which
only the Seven against Thebes is extant; of the Phoenissae of
Euripides; and of the Oedipus and Phoenissae of Seneca.
See A. Hofer's exhaustive article in Roscher's Lexikon der Mytko~
logic; F. W. Schneidewin, Die Sage von Oedipus (1B52); D. Com-
paretti, Edipo e la mitologia comparata (1867); M. Breal, " Le
Mythe d'QLdipe," in Melanges de mythologie (1878), who explains
Oedipus as a personification of light, and his blinding as the dis-
appearance of the sun at the end of the day; J. Paulson in Eranos.
Acta philologica Suecana, i. (Upsala, 1896) places the original home
of the legend in Egyptian Thebes, and identifies Oedipus with the
Egyptian god Seth, represented as the hippopotamus " with swollen
foot," which was said to kill its father in order to take its place
with the mother. O. Crusius (Beitrdge zur griechischen Mythologie,
1886, p. 21) sees in the marriage of Oedipus with his mother an
agrarian myth (with special reference to Oed. Tyr. 1497), while
Hofer (in Roscher's Lexikon) suggests that the episodes of the murder
of his father and of his marriage are reminiscences of the overthrow
of Cronus by Zeus and of the union of Zeus with his own sister.
Medieval Legends. — In the Golden Legend of Jacobus de Voragine
(13th century) and the Mystere de la Passion of Jean Michel (15th
century) and Arnoul Greban (15th century), the story of Oedipus is
associated with the name of Judas. The main idea is the same
as in the classical account. The Judas legend, however, never really
became popular, whereas that of Oedipus was handed down both
orally and in written national tales (Albanian, Finnish, Cypriote).
One incident (the incest unwittingly committed) frequently recurs
in connexion with the life of Gregory the Great. The Theban legend,
which reached its fullest development in the Thebais of Statins and
in Seneca, reappeared in the Roman de Thebes (the work of an un-
known imitator of Benoit de Sainte-More). Oedipus is also the
subject of an anonymous medieval romance (isthcentur>'). Le Roman
d'CEdipus, fils de Layus, in which the sphinx is depicted as a cunning
and ferocious giant. The Oedipus legend was handed down to the
period of the Renaissance by the Roman and its imitations, which
then fell into oblivion. Even to the present day the legend has
1 It is probable that the story of the piercing of his feet is a subse-
quent invention to explain the name, or is due to a false etymology
(from oiSeu), oiSiirovs in reality meaning jthe " wise " (from oUa),
chiefly in reference to his having solved the riddle, the syllable
-Tous having no significance.
OEHLER— OELSNITZ
13
survived amongst the modern Greeks, without any traces of the
influence of Christianity (B. Schmidt, Griechische Mdrchen, 1877).
The works of the ancient tragedians (especially Seneca, in preference
to the Greek) came into vogue, and were slavishly followed by
French and Italian imitators down to the 17th century.
See L. Constans, La Legende d'CEdipe dans fatitiquilc, au moyen dge,
et dans les temps modernes (ibl8i) ; D. Comparetti's Edtpo and Jefjb's
introduction for the Oedipus of Dryden, Corneille and Voltaire;
A. Heintze, Gregorius auf dem Steine, der mitlelalterliche Oedipus
(progr., Stolp, 1877); V. Dicderichs, " Russische Verwandte der
Legende von Grcgor auf dem Stein und der Sage von Judas Ischariot,"
in Russische Revue (1880); S. Novakovitch, "Die Oedipussage in
der siidslavischen Volksdichtung," in Archiv fiir slavische Philologie
xi..(i888).
OEHLER, GUSTAV FRIEDRICH (i8i2-:872), German theo-
logian, was born on the loth of June 181 2 at Ebingen, Wiirttem-
berg, and was educated privately and at Tubingen where he
was much influenced by J. C. F. Steudel, professor of Old Testa-
ment Theology. In 1837, after a term of Oriental study at
Berlin, he went to Tubingen as Repetent, becoming in 1840
professor at the seminary and pastor in Schonthal. In 1845
he published his Prolegomena ztir Theologie dcs Alien Testaments,
accepted an invitation to Breslau and received the degree of
doctor from Bonn. In 1852 he returned to Tiibingen as director
of the seminary and professor of Old Testament Theology at
the university. He dechned a call to Erlangen as successor to
Franz Delitzsch (1867), and died at Tiibingen on the iqth of
February 1872. Oehler admitted the composite authorship of
the Pentateuch and the Book of Isaiah, and did much to counter-
act the antipathy against the Old Testament that had been
fostered by Schleiermacher. In church polity he was Lutheran
rather than Reformed. Besides his Old Testament Theology
(Eng. trans., 2 vols., Edinburgh, 1874-1875), his works were
Gesammelte Seminarreden (1872) and Lehrbuch Symholik
(1876), both published posthumously, and about forty articles
for the first edition of Herzog's Realencyklopddie which were
largely retained by Delitzsch and von Orelli in the second.
OEHRINGEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Wurt-
temberg, agreeably situated in a fertile country, on the Ohrn,
12 m. E. from Heilbronn by the railways to Hall and Crailsheim.
Pop. (1905) 3,450. It is a quaint medieval place, and, among
its ancient buildings, boasts a fine EvangeHcal church, con-
taining carvings in cedar-wood of the 1 5th century and numerous
interesting tombs and monuments; a Renaissance town hall;
the building, now used as a library, which formerly belonged
to a monastery, erected in 1034; and a palace, the residence
of the princes of Hohenlohe-Oehringen.
Oehringen is the Vicus Aurelii of the Romans. Eastwards
of it ran the old Roman frontier wall, and numerous remains
and inscriptions dating from the days of the Roman settle-
ment have been recently discovered, including traces of three
camps.
See Keller, Vicus Aurelii, oder Ohringen zur Zeit der Romer (Bonn,
1872).
OELS, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Silesia,
formerly the capital of a mediatized principality of its own
name. It lies in a sandy plain on the Oelsbach, 20 m. N.E.
of Breslau by rail. Pop. (1905) 10,940. The princely chateau,
now the property of the crown prince of Prussia, dating from
1558 and beautifully restored in 1891-1894, contains a good
library and a collection of pictures. Of its three Evangelical
churches, the Schlosskirche dates from the 13th century and
the Propstkirche from the 14th. The inhabitants are chiefly
engaged in making shoes and growing vegetables for the Breslau
market.
Oels was founded about 940, and became a town in 1255.
It appears as the capital of an independent principality at the
beginning of the 14th century. The principality, with an area
of 700 sq. m. and about 130,000 inhabitants, passed through
various hands and was inherited by the ducal family of Bruns-
wick in 1792. Then on the extinction of this family in 1884
it lapsed to the crown of Prussia.
See W. Hiiusler, Geschichle des Fiirstentums Ols bis zum Aus-
sterben der piastischen Herzogslinie (Breslau, 1883); and Schulze,
Die Succession itn Fiirstentum Ols (Breslau, 1884).
OELSCHLAGER [Olearius], ADAM (1600-1671), German
traveller and Orientalist, was born at Aschersleben, near Magde-
burg, in 1599 or 1600. After studying at Leipzig he became
librarian and court mathematician to Duke Frederick III. of
Holstein-Gottorp, and in 1633 he was appointed secretary to
the ambassadors Philip Crusius, jurisconsult, and Otto Briigge-
mann or Brugman, merchant, sent by the duke to Muscovy
and Persia in the hope of making arrangements by which his
newly-founded city of Friedrichstadt should become the terminus
of an overland silk-trade. This embassy started from Gottorp
on the 22nd of October 1633, and travelled by Hamburg, Liibcck,
Riga, Dorpat (five months' stay), Revel, Narva, Ladoga and
Novgorod to Moscow (August 14, 1634). Here they con-
cluded an advantageous treaty with Michael Romanov,
and returned forthwith to Gottorp (December 14, 1634-
April 7, 163s) to procure the ratification of this arrange-
ment from the duke, before proceeding to Persia. This accom-
plished, they started afresh from Hamburg on the 22nd of
October 1635, arrived at Moscow on the 29th of March 1636;
and left Moscow on the 30th of June for Nizhniy Novgorod,
whither they had already sent agents (in 1634-1635) to prepare
a vessel for their descent of the Volga. Their voyage down
the great river and over the Caspian was slow and hindered
by accidents, especiaUy by grounding, as near Derbent on the
14th of November 1636; but at last, by way of Shemakha
(three months' delay here), Ardebil, Sultanieh and Kasvin,
they reached the Persian court at Isfahan (August 3, 1637),
and were received by the shah (August 16). Negotiations
here were not as successful as at Moscow, and the embassy left
Isfahan on the 21st of December 1637, and returned home by
Resht, Lenkoran, Astrakhan, Kazan, Moscow, &c. At Revel
Oelschlager parted from his colleagues (April 15, 1639) and
embarked direct for Liibeck. On his way he had made a chart
of the Volga, and partly for this reason the tsar Michael wished
to persuade, or compel, him to enter his service. Once back
at Gottorp, Oelschlager became librarian to the duke, who also
made him keeper of his Cabinet of Curiosities, and induced the
tsar to e.xcuse his (promised) return to Moscow. Under his care
the Gottorp library and cabinet were greatly enriched in MSS.,
books, and oriental and other works of art: in 1651 he pur-
chased, for this purpose, the collection of the Dutch scholar and
physician, Bernard ten Broecke (" Paludanus" ). He died
at Gottorp on the 22nd of February 1671.
It is by his admirable narrative of the Russian and the Persian
legation {Beschreibung der muscowitischen und persischen Reise,
Schleswig, 1647, and afterwards in several enlarged editions, 1656,
&c.) that Oelschlager is best known, though he also published a
history of Holstein {Kurtzer Begriff einer holsteinischen Chronic,
Schleswig, 1663), a famous catalogue of the Holstein-Gottorp
cabinet (1666), and a translation of the Gulistan {Persianisches
Rosenthal, Schleswig, 1654), to which was appended a translation
of the fables of Lokman. A French version of the Beschreibung
was published by Abraham de VVicquefort (Voyages en Moscovie.
Tartarie et Perse, par Adam Olearius, Paris, 1656), an English
version was made by John Davies of Kidwelly (Travels of the Am-
bassadors sent by Frederic, Duke of Holstein, to the Great Duke of
Muscovy and the King of Persia, London, 1662; 2nd ed., 1669),
and a Dutch translation by Dieterius van Wageningen (Beschrijvingh
van de nieuwe Parciaensche ofte Orientaelsche Reyse, Utrecht, 1651);
an Italian translation of the Russian sections also appeared (Viaggi
di Moscovia, Viterbo and Rome, 1658). Paul Flemming the poet
and J. A. de Mandclslo, whose travels to the East Indies are usually
published with those of Oelschlager, accompanied the embassy.
Under Oelschlager's direction the celebrated globe of Gottorp
(11 ft. in diameter) and armillary sphere were executed in 1654-
1664; the globe was given to Peter the Great of Russia in 1713 by
Duke Frederick's grandson. Christian Augustus. Oelschlager's
unpublished works include a Lexicon Persicum and several other
Persian studies. (C. R. B.)
OELSNITZ, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony,
on the Weisse Elster, 26 m. by rail S.W. of Zwickau. Pop.
(1Q05) 13,966. It has two Evangelical churches, one of them
being the old Gothic Jakobskirche, and several schools. There
are various manufactories. Oelsnitz belonged in the 14th and
15th centuries to the margraves of Meissen, and later to the
electors of Saxony. Near it is the village of Voigtsberg, with
H
OELWEIN— OETINGER
the remains of a castle, once a residence of the governor (Vogt)
of the Vogtland.
See Jahn, Chronik der Sladt Olsnitz (1875).
OELWEIN, a city of Fayette county, Iowa, U.S.A., in the
N.E. part of the state, about 132 m. N.E. of Des Moines. Pop.
(1890) 830; (1900) 5142, of whom 789 were foreign-born;
(1910 U.S. census) 6028. It is served by the Chicago, Rock
Island & Pacific and the Chicago Great Western railways, the
latter having large repair shops here, where four lines of its
road converge. Oelwein was named in honour of its founder,
August Oelwein, who settled here in 1873; it was incorporated
in 1888, and chartered as a city in 1S97.
OENOMAliS, in Greek legend, son of Ares and Harpinna,
king of Pisa in Elis and father of Hippodameia. It was pre-
dicted that he should be slain by his daughter's husband. His
father, the god Ares-Hippius, gave him winged horses swift
as the wind, and Oenomaiis promised his daughter to the man
who could outstrip him in the chariot race, hoping thus to
prevent her marriage altogether. Pelops, by the treachery of
Myrtilus, the charioteer of Oenomaus, won the race and married
Hippodameia. The defeat of Oenomaiis by Pelops, a stranger
from Asia Minor, points to the conquest of native Ares-
worshippers by immigrants who introduced the new religion of
Zeus.
See Diod. Sic. iv. 73; Pausanias vi. 21, and elsewhere; Sophocles,
Electra, 504; Hyginus, Fab. 84. 253. Fig. 33 in article Greek Art
represents the preparations for the chariot race.
OENONE, in Greek legend, daughter of the river-god Kebren
and wife of Paris. Possessing the gift of divination, she warned
her husband of the evils that would result from his journey
to Greece. The sequel was the rape of Helen and the Trojan
War. Just before the capture of the city, Paris, wounded by
Philoctetes with one of the arrows of Heracles, sought the aid of
the deserted Oenone, who had told him that she alone could
heal him if wounded. Indignant at his faithlessness, she refused
to help him, and Paris returned to Troy and died of his wound.
Oenone soon repented and hastened after him, but finding that
she was too late to save him slew herself from grief at the sight
of his dead body. Ovid {Heroides, 5) gives a pathetic description
of Oenone's grief when she found herself deserted.
OERLAMS, the name (said to be a corruption of the Dutch
Oberlanders) for a Hottentot tribal group Uving in Great Nam-
aqualand. They came originally from Little Namaqualand
in Cape Colony. They are of very mixed Hottentot-Bantu
blood.
OESEL (in Esthonian Kure-saare or Saare-ma), a Russian
island in the Baltic, forming with Worms, Mohn and Runo,
a district of the government of Livonia, and lying across the
mouth of the Gulf of Riga, 106 m. N.N.W. of the city of Riga.
It has a length of 45 m., and an area of loio sq. m. The coasts
are bold and steep, and, especially towards the north and west,
form precipitous limestone cliffs. Like those of Shetland, the
Oesel ponies are small, but prized for their spirit and endurance.
The population, numbering 50,566 in 1870 and 60,000 in 1900,
is mainly Protestant in creed, and, with the exception of the
■ German nobility, clergy and some of the townsfolk, Esthonian
by race. The chief town, Arensburg, on the south coast, is a
place of 4600 inhabitants, with summer sea-bathing, mud baths
and a trade in grain, potatoes, whisky and fish. In 1227 Oesel
was conquered by the Knights of the Sword, and was governed
by its own bishops till 1561, when it passed into the hands of the
Danes. By them it was surrendered to the Swedes by the peace
of Bromsebro (1645), and, along with Livonia, it was united
to Russia in 172 1.
OESOPHAGUS (Gr. oi(ru = I will carry, and <^a7£Ti', to eat),
in anatomy, the gullet; see Alimentary Canal for comparative
anatomy. The human oesophagus is peculiarly liable to certain
accidents and diseases, due both to its function as a tube to
carry food to the stomach and to its anatomical situation (see
generally Digestive Organs). One of the commonest accidents
is the lodgment of foreign bodies in some part of the tube. The
situations in which they are arrested vary with the nature of the
body, whether it be a coin, fishbone, toothplate or a portion of
food. An impacted substance may be removed by the oesophageal
forceps, or by a coin-catcher; if it should be impossible to draw
it up it may be pushed down into the stomach. When it is in
the stomach a purgative should never be given, but soft food
such as porridge. Should gastric symptoms develop it may
have to be removed by the operation of gastrotomy. Charring
and ulceration of the oesophagus may occur from the swallowing
of corrosive liquids, strong acids or alkalis, or even of boiling
water. Stricture of the oesophagus is a closing of the tube so
that neither solids nor liquids are able to pass down into the
stomach. There are three varieties of stricture; spasmodic,
fibrous and malignant. Spasmodic stricture usually occurs in
young hysterical women; difficulty in swallowing is complained
of, and a bougie may not be able to be passed, but under an
anaesthetic will slip down quite easily. Fibrous stricture is
usually situated near the commencement of the oesophagus,
generally just behind the cricoid cartilage, and usually results
from swaOowing corrosive fluids, but may also result from the
healing of a syphUitic ulcer. Occasionally it is congenital.
The ordinary treatment is repeated dilatation by bougies.
Occasionally division of a fibrous stricture has been practised,
or a Symond's tube inserted. Mikulicz recommends dilatation
of the stricture by the fingers from inside after an incision into
the stomach or a permanent gastric fistula may have to be made.
Malignant strictures are usually epitheliomatous in structure,
and may be situated in any part of the oesophagus. They
nearly always occur in males between the ages of 40 and 70 years.
An X-ray photograph taken after the patient has swallowed
a preparation of bismuth wiU show the situation of the growth,
and Killian and Briinig have introduced an instrument called
the oesophagoscope, which makes direct examination possible.
The remedy of constant dilatation by bougies must not be
attempted here, the walls of the oesophagus being so softened
by disease and ulceration that severe haemorrhage or perforation
of the walls of the tube might take place. The pa,tient should
be fed with purely liquid and concentrated nourishment in order
to give the oesophagus as much rest as possible, or if the stricture
be too tight rectal feeding may be necessary. Symond's method
of tubage is well borne by some patients, the tube having attached
to it a long string which is secured to the cheek or ear. The
most satisfactory treatment, however, is the operation of gastro-
tomy, a permanent artificial opening being made into the
stomach through which the patient can be fed.
OETA (mod. Kotavothra) , a mountain to the south of Thessaly,
in Greece, forming a boundary between the valleys of the
Spercheius and the Boeotian Cephissus. It is an offshoot of the
Pindus range, 7080 ft. high. In its eastern portion, called
Callidromus, it comes close to the sea, leaving only a narrow
passage known as the famous pass of Thermopylae (q.v.). There
was also a high pass to the west of Callidromus leading over into
the upper Cephissus valley. In mythology Oeta is chiefly
celebrated as the scene of the funeral pyre on which Heracles
burnt himself before his admission to Olympus.
OETINGER, FRIEDRICH CHRISTOPH (i 702-1 782), German
divine and theosophist, was born at Goppingen on the 6th of
May 1702. He studied theology at Tubingen (1722-1728),
and was much impressed by the works of Jakob Bohme. On
the completion of his university course, Oetinger spent some
years in travel. In i73ohe visited Count Zinzendorf at Herrnhut,
remaining there some months as teacher of Hebrew and Greek.
During his travels, in his eager search for knowledge, he made
the acquaintance of mystics and separatists. Christians and
learned Jews, theologians and physicians alike. At Halle he
studied medicine. After some delay he was ordained to the
ministry, and held several pastorates. While pastor (from 1746)
at Waldorf near Berlin, he studied alchemy and made many
experiments, his idea being to use his knowledge for symbolic
purposes. These practices exposed him to the attacks of persons
who misunderstood him. " My religion," he once said, " is
the parallelism of Nature and Grace." Oetinger translated
Swedenborg's phOosophy of heaven and earth, and added notes
OEYNHAUSEN— OFFENBACH, J.
of his own. Eventually (1:766) he became prelate at Murrhardt,
where he died on the 10th of February 1782.
Oetinger's autobiography was published by J. Hamberger in 1845.
He published about seventy works, in which he expounded his
theosophic views. A collected edition, Sdmtliche Schrijten (ist
section, Homiletische Schriflen, 5 vols., 1858-1866; 2nd section,
Theosophische Werke, 6 vols., 1858-1863), was prepared by K. F. C.
Ehmann, who also wrote Oetinger's Leben und Brief e (1859). Sec
also C. A. Auberlcn, Die Theosophie Friedr. Chr. Oetinger's (1847;
2nd ed., 1859), and Hcrzog, Friedrich Christoph Otinger (1902).
OEYNHAUSEN, a town and watering-place of Germany, in
the Prussian province of Westphalia, on the Werre, situated
just above its confluence with the Weser, 9 m. W. from Minden
by the main line of railway from Hanover to Cologne, with a
station on the Lohne-Hameln hne. Pop. (1905) 3894. The
place, which was formerly called Rehme, owes its development
to the discovery in 1830 of its five famous salt springs, which
are heavily charged with carbonic acid gas. The waters are used
both for bathing and drinking, and are particularly efficacious
for nervous disorders, rheumatism, gout and feminine complaints.
OFFA, the most famous hero of the early Angli. He is said
by the Anglo-Saxon poem Widsilh to have ruled over Angel,
and the poem refers briefly to his victorious single combat,
a story which is related at length by the Danish historians Saxo
and Svend Aagesen. Offa (Uffo) is said to have been dumb or
silent during his early years, and to have only recovered his
speech v.-hen his aged father Wermund was threatened by the
Saxons, who insolently demanded the cession of his kingdom.
Offa undertook to light against both the Saxon king 's son and
a chosen champion at once. The combat took place at Rendsburg
on an island in the Eider, and Offa succeeded in killing both his
opponents. According to Widsilh Offa's opponents belonged
to a tribe or dynasty called Myrgingas, but both accounts state
that he won a great kingdom as the result of his victory. A
somewhat corrupt version of the same story is preserved in the
Viiae duoruin Of arum, where, however, the scene is transferred
to England. It is very probable that the Offa whose marriage
with a lady of murderous disposition is mentioned in Beowulf
is the same person; and this story also appears in the Vitae
duortim Of arum, though it is erroneously told of a later Offa,
the famous king of Mercia. Offa of Mercia, however, was a
descendant in the 12th generation of Offa, king of Angel. It is
probable from this and other considerations that the early Offa
lived in the latter part of the 4th century.
See H. M. Chadwick, Origin of the English Nation (Cambridge,
1907), where references to the original authorities will be found.
OFFA (d. 796), king of Mercia, obtained that kingdom in a.d.
757, after driving out Beornred, who had succeeded a few
months earher on the murder of jEthelbald. He traced his
descent from Pybba, the father of Penda, through Eowa, brother
of that king, his own father's name being Thingferth. In 779
he was at war with Cynewulf of Wessex from whom he wrested
Bensington. It is not unlikely that the Thames became the
boundary of the two kingdoms about this time. In 787 the
power of Offa was displayed in a synod held at a place called
Cealchyth. He deprived Tasnberht, archbishop of Canterbury,
of several of his suffragan sees, and assigned them to Lichfield,
which, with the leave of the pope, he constituted as a separate
archbishopric under Hygeberht. He also took advantage
of this meeting to have his son Ecgferth consecrated as his
coOeague, and that prince subsequently signed charters as
Rex Merciortim. In 789 Offa secured the alliance of Berhtric
of Wessex by giving him his daughter Eadburg in marriage.
In 794 he appears to have caused the death of .lEthelberht of
East Angha, though some accounts ascribe the murder to
Cynethryth, the wife of Offa. In 796 Offa died after a reign of
thirty-nine years and was succeeded by his son Ecgferth. It
is customary to ascribe to Offa a policy of limited scope, namely
the establishment of Mercia in a position equal to that of Wessex
and of Northumbria. This is supposed to be illustrated by his
measures with regard to the see of Lichfield. It cannot be
doubted, however, that at this time Mercia was a much more
formidable power than Wessex. Offa, like most of his predecessors,
15
probably held a kind of supremacy over all kingdoms south of
the Humber. He seems, however, not to have been contented
with this position, and to have entertained the design of putting
an end to the dependent kingdoms. At all events we hear of
no kings of the Hwicce after about 7S0, and the kings of Sussex
seem to have given up the royal title about the same time.
Further, there is no evidence for any kings in Kent from 784
until after Offa's death. To Offa is ascribed by Asser, in his
life of Alfred, the great fortifications against the Welsh which
is still known as " Offa's dike." It stretched from sea to sea
and consisted of a wall and a rampart. An account of his Welsh
campaigns is given in the F!/af(i;w;-MwO/r(i''/('«, but it is diflicult
to determine how far the stories there given have an historical
basis.
Sec Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, ed. J. Earlc and C. Plummer (Oxford,
1899), s.a. 755, 777, 785, 787, 792, 794, 796, 836; W. de G. Birch,
Cartularitim Saxonicum (London, 1885-1893), vol. i. ; Asser, Life of
Alfred, cd. W. 11. Stevenson (Oxford, 1904); Vitae duorum Off arum
(in works of Matthew Paris, ed. W. Wats, London, 1640).
OFFAL, refuse or waste stuff, the " off fall," that which falls
off (cf. Dutch ajval, Ger. Ahfall). The term is applied especially
to the waste parts of an animal that has been slaughtered for
food, to putrid flesh or carrion, and to waste fish, especially
to the little ones that get caught in the nets with the larger
and better fish, and are thrown away or used as manure. As
applied to grain " offal " is used of grains too small or light for
use for flour, and also in flour milling of the husk or bran of
wheat with a certain amount of flour attaching, sold for feeding
beasts (see Flour).
OFFENBACH, JACQUES (1819-1880), French composer of
opera boiife, was born at Cologne, of German Jewish parents,
on the 2ist of June 1819. His talent for music was developed
at a very early age; and in 1833 he was sent to Paris to study
the violoncello at the conservatoire, where, under the care of
Professor Vaslin, he became a fairly good performer. In 1834
he became a member of the orchestra of the Opera Comique;
and he turned his opportunities to good account, so that
eventually he was made conductor at the Theatre Franfais.
There, in 1848, he made his first success as a composer in the
Chanson de For/unio in Alfred de Musset's play Le Chandelier.
From this time forward his life became a ceaseless struggle
for the attainment of popularity. His power of production was
apparently inexhaustible. His first complete work, Pcpito,
was produced at the Opera Comique in 1853. This was followed
by a crowd of dramatic pieces of a light character, which daily
gained in favour with Parisian audiences, and eventually effected
a complete revolution in the popular taste of the period. En-
couraged by these early successes, Offenbach boldly undertook
the delicate task of entirely remodelling both the form and the
style of the light musical pieces which had so long been welcomed
with acclamation by the frequenters of the smaller theatres in
Paris. With this purpose in view he obtained a lease of the
Theatre Comte in the Passage Choiseul, reopened it in 1855 under
the title of the Bouffes Parisiens, and night after night attracted
crowded audiences by a succession of brilliant, humorous trifles.
Ludovic Halevy, the librettist, was associated with him from
the first, but still more after i860, when Halevy obtained Henri
Meilhac's collaboration (see Halevy). Beginning with Les Deux
Avcuglcs and Le Violoncux, the series of Offenbach's operettas
was rapidly continued, until in 1867 its triumph culminated
in La Grande Duchcsse de Gerolstein, perhaps the most popular
opera boujfe that ever was written, not excepting even his Orphee
aux cnfcrs, produced in 1858. From this time forward the success
of Offenbach's pieces became an absolute certainty, and the
new form of opera bonffe, which he had gradually endowed
with as much consistency as it was capable of assuming, was
accepted as the only one worth cultivating. It found imitators
in Lecocq and other aspirants of a younger generation, and
Offenbach's works found their way to every tow^n in Europe
in which a theatre existed. Tuneful, gay and exhilarating,
their want of refinement formed no obstacle to their popularity,
and perhaps even contributed to it. In 1866 his own connexion
with the Bouffes Parisiens ceased, and he wrote for various
i6
OFFENBACH— OFFICERS
theatres. In twenty-five years Offenbach produced no less
than sixty-nine complete dramatic works, some of which were
in three or even in four acts. Among the latest of these were
Le Docleur Ox, founded on a story by Jules Verne, and La Boite
au lait, both produced in 1877, and Madame Favart (1879).
Offenbach died at Paris on the 5th of October 1880.
OFFENBACH, a town of Germany, in the grand-duchy of
Hesse, on the left bank of the Main, 5 m. S.E. of Frankfort-on-
Main, with which it is connected by the railway to Bebra and
by a local electric line. Pop. (1905) 58,806, of whom about
20,000 were Roman Catholics and 1400 Jews. The most interest-
ing building in the town is the Renaissance chateau of the counts
of Isenburg. Offenbach is the principal industrial town of the
duchy, and its manufactures are of the most varied description.
Its characteristic industry, however, is the manufacture of
portfolios, pocket-books, albums and other fancy goods in
leather. The earliest mention of Offenbach is in a document
of 970. In i486 it came into the possession of the counts of
Isenburg, who made it their residence in 1685, and in 1816,
when their lands were mediatized, it was assigned to Hesse.
It owes its prosperity in the first place to the industry of the
French Protestant refugees who settled here at the end of the
17th, and the beginning of the i8th century, and in the
second place to the accession of Hesse to the German Zollverein
in 1828.
See Jost, Offenbach am Main in Vergangenheit nnd Gegen'u.'art
(Offenbach, 1901); Hager, Die Lederwarenindustrie in Offenbach
(Karlsruhe, 1905).
OFFENBURG, a town of Germany, in the grand-duchy of
Baden, 27 m. by rail S.W. of Baden, on the river Kinzig. Pop.
(1905) 15,434. It contains a statue of Sir Francis Drake, a mark
of honour due to the fact that Drake is sometimes regarded as
having introduced the potato into Europe. The chief industries
of the town are the making of cotton, linen, hats, malt, machinery,
tobacco and cigars and glass. Offenburg is first mentioned about
HOC. In 1223 it became a town; in 1248 it passed to the bishop
of Strassburg; and in 1289 it became an imperial free city.
Soon, however, this position was lost, but it was regained about
the middle of the i6th century, and Offenburg remained a free
city until 1802, when it became part of Baden. In 1632 it was
taken by the Swedes, and in 1689 it was destroyed by the French.
See Walter, Kiirzer Abriss der Ceschichte der Reichsstadt Offenburg
(Offenburg, 1896).
OFFERTORY (from the ecclesiastical Lat. ofcrtorium, Fr.
offcrloire, a place to which offerings were brought), the alms of
a congregation collected in church, or at any religious service.
Offertory has also a special sense in the services of both the
English and Roman churches. It forms in both that part of
the Communion service appointed to be said or sung, during
the collection of alms, before the elements are consecrated. In
music, an offertory is the vocal or instrumental setting of the
offertory sentences, or a short instrumental piece played by the
organist while the collection is being made.
OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened
form of opifacium, irom facere, " to do," and either the stem of
opes, " wealth," '' aid," or opus, " work "), a duty or service,
particularly the special duty cast upon a person by his position;
also a ceremonial duty, as in the rites paid to the dead, the " last
offices." The term is thus especially used of a religious service,
the " daily office " of the English Church or the " divine office "
of the Roman Church (see BRE\^.\RY). It is also used in this
sense of a service for a particular occasion, as the Office for the
Visitation of the Sick, &c. From the sense of duty or function,
the word is transferred to the position or place which lays
on the holder or occupier the performance of such duties.
This leads naturally to the use of the word for the buildings
or the separate rooms in which the duties are performed,
and for the staff carrying on the work or business in such
offices. In the Roman curia the department of the Inquisi-
tion is known as the Holy Office, in full, the Congregation
of the Holy Office of the Inquisition (see Inquisition and
Curia Romana).
Offices of Profit. — The phrase" ofiSce of profit under the crown "
is used with a particular application in British parliamentary
practice. The holders of such offices of profit have been subject in
regard to the occupation of seats in the House of Commons to
certain disabihties which were in their origin due to the fear of
the undue influence exercised by the crown during the constitu-
tional struggles of the 17th century. Attempts to deal with the
danger of the presence of " place-men " in the House of Commons
were made by the Place Bills introduced in 1672-1673, 1694 and
1743. The Act of Settlement 1700 (§ 3) laid it down that no
person who has an office or place of profit under the king or
receives a pension from the crown shall be capable of serving as
a member of the House of Commons. This drastic clause, which
would have had the disastrous effect of entirely separating the
executive from the legislature, was repealed and the basis of
the present law was laid down in 1706 by 6 Anne (c. 41). This
first disqualifies (§ 24) from membership all holders of " new
offices,"' i.e. those created after October 1705; secondly (§ 25)
it renders void the election of a member who shall accept any
office of profit other than " new offices " but allows the member
to stand for re-election. The disqualification attaching to many
" new offices " has been removed by various statutes, and by
§ 52 of the Reform Act 1S67 the necessity of re-election is avoided
when a member, having been elected subsequent to the accept-
ance of any office named in a schedule of that act, is transferred
to any other office in that schedule. The rules as to what offices
disqualify from membership or render re-election necessarj' are
exceedingly complicated, i depending as they do on a large
number of statutes (see Erskine May, Parliamentary Practice,
nth ed., pp. 632-645, and Rogers, On Elections, vol. ii., 1906).
The old established rule that a member, once duly elected,
cannot resign his seat is evaded by the acceptance of certain
minor offices (see Chiltern Hundreds).
OFFICERS. Historically the employment of the word
" officer " to denote a person holding a military or naval com-
mand as representative of the state, and not as deriving his
authority from his own powers or privileges, marks an entire
change in the character of the armed forces of civilized nations.
Originally signifying an official, one who performs an assigned
duty (Lat. officium), an agent, and in the 15th centurj' actually
meaning the subordinate of such an official(even to-daj' a constable
is so called), the word seems to have acquired a military signific-
ance late in the i6th century .^ It was at this time that armies,
though not yet " standing," came to be constituted almost
exclusively of professional soldiers in the king's pay. Mercen-
aries, and great numbers of mercenaries, had always existed, and
their captains were not feudal magnates. But the bond between
mercenaries and their captains was entirely personal, and the
bond between the captain and the sovereign was of the nature
of a contract. The non-mercenary portion of the older armies was
feudal in character. It was the lord and not a king's officer who
commanded it, and he commanded in virtue of his rights, not
of a warrant or commission.
European history in the late 15th century is the story of the
victory of the crown over the feudatories. The instrument of
the crown was its army, raised and commanded by its deputies.
But these deputies were still largely soldiers of fortune and, in the
higher ranks, feudal personages, who created the armies them-
selves by their personal influence viiih the would-be soldier or
the unemployed professional fighting man. Thus the first system
to replace the obsolete combination of feudalism and " free
companies " was what may be called the proprietary system.
Under this the colonel was the proprietor of his regiment, the
captain the proprietor of his company. The king accepted them
as his officers, and armed them with authority to raise men,
but they themselves raised the men as a rule from experienced
soldiers who were in search of employment, although, like
' This section also disqualifies colonial governors and deputy
governors and holders of certain other offices.
- At sea the relatively clear partition of actual duties amongst
the authorities of a ship brought about the adoption of the term
" officer " somewhat earlier.
OFFICERS
I
7
Falstaff, some captains and colonels " misused the King's press
damnably." All alike were most rigorously watched lest by
showing imaginary men on their pay-sheets they should make
undue profits. A " muster " was the production of a numljcr of
living men on parade corresponding to the number shown on the
pay-roU. An inspection was an inspection not so much of the
efficiency as of the numbers and the accounts of units. A full
account of these practices, which were neither more nor less
prevalent in England than elsewhere, will be found in J. VV.
Fortescue's History of llic British Army, vol. i. So faithfully
was the custom observed of requiring the showing of a man for
a man's pay, that the grant of a special allowance to ofiicers
administering companies was often made in the form of allowing
them to show imaginary John Does and Richard Roes on the
pay-sheets.
The next step was taken when armies, instead of being raised
for each campaign and from the qualified men who at each
recruiting time offered themselves, became " standing " armies
fed by untrained recruits. During the late 17th and the i8th
centuries the crown supplied the recruits, and also the money
for maintaining the forces, but the colonels and captains re-
tained in a more or less restricted degree their proprietorship.
Thus, the profits of military office without its earlier burdens
were in time of peace considerable, and an officer's commission
had therefore a " surrender value." The practice of buying and
selling commissions was a natural consequence, and this continued
long after the system of proprietary regiments and companies
had disappeared. In England " purchase " endured until 1S73,
nearly a hundred years after it had ceased on the continent of
Europe and more than fifty after the clothing, feeding and pay-
ment of the soldiers had been taken out of the colonels' hands.
Ihe purchase system, it should be mentioned, did not affect
artillery and engineer officers, either in England or in the rest
of Europe. These officers, who were rather semi-civil than
military oflicials vmtil about 1715, executed an office rather than
a command — superintended gun-making, built fortresses and
so on. As late as 1780 the right of a general officer promoted
from the Royal Artillery to command troops of other arms was
challenged. In its original form, therefore, the proprietary system
was a most serious bar to efficiency. So long as war was chronic,
and self-trained recruits were forthcoming, it had been a good
working method of devolving responsibility. But when drill
and the handling of arms became more complicated, and, above
all, when the supply of trained men died away, the state took
recruiting out of the colonels' and captains' hands, and, as the
individual oflicer had now nothing to offer the crown but his own
potential military capacity (part of which resided in his social
status, but by no means all), the crown was able to make him,
in the full sense of the word , an officer of itself. This was most
fully seen in the reorganization of the French army by Louis
XIV. and Louvois. The colonelcies and captaincies of horse
and foot remained proprietary offices in the hands of the nobles
but these offices were sinecures or almost sinecures. The colonels,
in peace at any rate, were not expected to do regimental duty.
They were at liberty to make such profits as they could make
under a stringent inspection system. But they were expected
to be the influential figure-heads of their regiments and to pay
large sums for the privilege of being proprietors. This classifica-
tion of officers into two bodies, the poorer which did the whole
of the work, and the richer upon which the holding of a com-
mission conferred an honour that birth or wealth did not confer,
marks two very notable advances in the history of army organiza-
tion, the professionalization of the officer and the creation of the
prestige attaching to the holder of a commission because he holds
it and not for any extraneous reason.
The distinction between working and quasi-honorary officers
was much older, of course, than Louvois's reorganization.
Moreover it extended to the highest ranks. About 1600 the
" general " of a European army ' was always a king, prince
or nobleman. The lieutenant-general, by custom the com-
mander of the cavalry, was also, as a rule, a noble, in
' Except in the Italian republics.
virtue of his command of the aristocratic arm. But the
commander of the foot, the " sergeant-major-general " or
" major-general," was invariably a professional soldier. It was
his duty to draw uj) the army (not merely the foot) for battle,
and in other respects to act as chief of staff to the general.
In the infantry regiment, the " sergeant-major " or " major "
was second-in-command and adjutant combined. Often, if not
always, he was promoted from amongst the lieutenants and
not the (proprietary) captains. The lieutenants were the back-
bone of the army.
Seventy years later, on the organization of the first great
standing army by Louvois, the " proprietors," as mentioned
above, were reduced to a minimum both in numbers and in
military importance. The word " major " in its various
meanings had come, in the French service, to imply staff
functions. Thus the sergeant-major of infantry became the
" adjudant-major." The sergeant-major-general, as commander
of the foot, had disappeared and given place to numerous
lieutenant-generals and " brigadiers," but as chief of the staff
he survived for two hundred years. As late as 1S70 the
chief of staff of a French army bore the title of " the major-
general."
Moreover a new title had come into prominence, that of
" marshal " or " field marshal." This marks one of the most
important points in the evolution of the mihtary officer, his
classification by rank and not by the actual command he holds.
In the i6th century an oflicer was a lieutenant of, not in,
a particular regiment, and the higher ofiicers were general,
lieutenant-general and major-general 0/ a particular army. When
their army was disbanded they had no command and possessed
therefore no rank — except of course when, as was usually the
case, they were colonels of permanent regiments or governors
of fortresses. Thus in the British army it was not until
late in the i8th century that general officers received any
pay as such. The introduction of a distinctively military
rank"^ of "marshal" or "field marshal," which took place in
France and the empire in the first years of the 17th century,
meant the establishment of a list of general officers, and the
list spread downwards through the various regimental ranks, in
proportion as the close proprietary system broke up, until it
became the general army list of an army of to-day. At first
field marshals were merely ofiicers of high rank and experience,
eligible for appointment to the offices of general, lieutenant-
general, &c., in a particular army. On an army being formed,
the list of field marshals was drawn upon, and the necessary
number appointed. Thus an army of Gustavus Adolphus's
time often included 6 or 8 field marshals as subordinate general
officers. But soon armies grew larger, more mobile and more
flexible and more general officers were needed. Thus fresh grades
of general arose. The next rank below that of marshal, in France,
was that of lieutenant-general, which had formerly implied the
second-in-command of an army, and a little further back in
history the king's lieutenant-general or military viceroy.^ Below
the lieutenant-general was the marechal dc camp, the heir of the
sergeant-major-general. In the imperial scr\Mce the ranks were
field marshal and heutenant field marshal (both of which survive
to the present day) and major-general. A further grade of general
officer was created by Louis XIV., that of brigadier, and this
completes the process of evolution, for the regimental system
had already provided the lower titles.
The ranks of a modern army, with slight variations in title,
are therefore as follows:
[a) Field marshal: in German)', Generalfeldmarschall; in Spain
"captain-general"; in France (though the rank is in abeyance)
" marshal." The marshals of France, however, were neither so
few in number nor so restricted to the highest commands as are
marshals elsewhere. In Germany a new rank, " colonel-general "
- The title was, of course, far older.
' In England, until after Marlborough's death, rank followed
command and not vice versa. The first field marshals were the
duke of Argyll and the earl of Cadogan. Marlborough's title, or
rather office, was that of captain-general.
i8
OFFICERS
{Generaloberst), has come into existence — or rather has been revived '
— of late years. Most of the holders of this rank have the honorary
style of general-field-marshal. ^
(b) General: in Germany and Russia, "general of infantry,"
" general of cavalry," " general of artillery." In Austria generals of
artillery and infantry were known by the historic title of Feldzeug-
meister (ordnance-master) up to 1909, but the grade of general of
infantry was created in that year, the old title being now restricted
to generals of artillery. In France the highest grade of general
officer is the " general of division." In the United States army the
grade of full " general " has only been held by Washington, Grant,
Sherman and Sheridan.
(c) Lieutenant-general (except in France) : in Austria the old title
of lieutenant field marshal is retained. In the United States army
the title " lieutenant-general," except within recent years, has been
almost as rare as " general." Winfield Scott was a brevet lieutenant-
general. The substantive rank was revived for Grant when he was
placed in command of the Union Army in 1864. It was abolished
as an American rank in 1907.
(d) Major-general (in France, general of brigade) : this is the
highest grade normally found in the United States Army, generals
and lieutenant-generals being promoted for special service only.'
(e) Brigadier-general, in the United States and (as a temporary
rank only) in the British services.
The above are the five grades of higher officers. To all intents
and purposes, no nation has more than four of these five ranks,
while France and the United States, the great republics, have only
two. The correspondence between rank and functions cannot
be exactly laid down, but in general an ofiicer of the rank of
lieutenant-general commands an army corps and a major-general
a division. Brigades are commanded by major-generals,
brigadier-generals or colonels. Armies are as a rule commanded
by field marshals or full generals. In France generals of division
command divisions, corps, armies and groups of armies.
The above are classed as general officers. The " field officers "
(French officiers superieurs, German Stabsoffiziere) areasfoDows:
(a) Colonel. — This rank exists in its primitive significance in every
army. It denotes a regimental commander, or an officer of corre-
sponding status on the staff. In Great Britain, with the " linked
battalion " system, regiments of infantry do not work as units,
and the executive command of battalions, regiments of cavalry
and brigades of field artillery is in the hands of lieutenant-colonels.
Colonels of British regiments who are quasi-honorary (though no
longer proprietary) chiefs are royal personages or general officers.
Colonels in active employment as such are either on the staff,
commanders of brigades or corresponding units, or otherwise extra-
regimentally employed.
(J) Lieutenant-colonel: in Great Britain "the commanding
officer " of a unit. Elsewhere, where the regiment and not the
battalion is the executive unit, the lieutenant-colonel sometimes
acts as second in command, sometimes commands one of the bat-
talions. In Russia all the battalion leaders are lieutenant-colonels.
(c) Major. — This rank does not exist in Russia, and in France is
replaced by chef de bataillon or chef d'escadron, colloquially com-
mandant. In the British infantry he preserves some of the character-
istics of the ancient " sergeant-major," as a second in command
with certain administrative duties. The junior majors command
companies. In the cavalry the majors, other than the second-in-
command, command squadrons; in the artillery they command
batteries. In armies which have the regiment as the executive unit,
majors command battalions ("wings" of cavalry, "groups" of
artillery).
Lastly the " company officers " (called in France and Germany
subaltern officers) are as follows: —
(a) Captain (Germany and Austria, Hauptmann, cavalry Ritt-
meister) : in the infantry of all countries, the company commander.
In Russia there is a lower grade of captain called " staff-captain,"
and in Belgium there is the rank of " second-captain." In all
countries except Great Britain captains command squadrons and
batteries. Under the captain, with such commands and powers as
are delegated to them, are the subaltern s, usually graded as —
1 The 16th-century " colonel-general " was the commander of a
whole section of the armed forces. In France there were several
colonels-general, each of whom controlled several regiments, or
indeed the whole of an " arm." Their functions were rather those
of a war office than those of a troop-leader. If they held high
commands in a field army, it was by special appointment ad hoc.
Colonels-general were also proprietors in France of one company
in each regiment, whose services they accepted.
- In Russia the rank of marshal has been long in abeyance.
' In the Confederate service the grades were general for army
commanders, lieutenant-general for corps commanders, major-
general for divisional commanders and brigadier-general for brigade
commanders.
(i) Lieutenant (first lieutenant in U.S.A., Oberleutnant in Germany
and Austria).
(c) Sub-lieutenant (second-lieutenant in Great Britain and U.S.A.,
Leutnant in Germany and Austria).
(d) Aspirants, or probationary young officers, not of full com-
missioned status.
The continental officer is on an average considerably older,
rank for rank, than the British; but he is neither younger
nor older in respect of command. In the huge " universal
service " armies of to-day, the regimental officer of France or
Germany commands, in war, on an average twice the number of
men that are placed under the British officer of equal rank.
Thus a German or French major of infantry has about 900
rifles to direct, while a British major may have either half a
battalion, 450, or a double company, 220; a German captain
commands a company of 250 rifles as against an English captain's
no and so on. At the same time it must be remembered that
at peace strength the continental battalion and company are
maintained at little more than half their war strength, and the
under-officering of European armies only makes itself seriously
felt on mobilization.
It is different with the questions of pay and promotion, which
chiefly affect the life of an army in peace. As to the former
(see also Pensions) the Continental officer is paid at a lower rate
than the British, as shown by the table of ordinary pay per
annum (without special pay or allowances) below: —
Lieutenant-colonel ' .
Major 1
Captain '
Oberleutnant (Lieutenant) ' .
Second Lieutenant (Leutnant,
Sous-lieutenant) ' . . .
Great
Britain.
328
248
210
118
94
France.
263
224
139 to 200
lOI to 120
93
Germany.
292
292
150 to 195
45 to 60
' Infantry, lowest scale, other arms and branches higher, often
considerably higher.
It must be noted that in France and Gepmany the major is a
battalion commander, corresponding to the British lieutenant-
colonel. But the significance of this table can only be realized
when it is remembered that promotion is rapid in the British
army and very slow in the others. The senior Oberleulnants
of the German army are men of 37 to 38 years of age; the senior
captains 47 to 48. In 1908 the youngest captains were 36, the
youngest majors 45 years of age. As another illustration, the
captain's maximum pay in the French army, £10 per annum
less than a British captain's, is only given after 12 years' service
in that rank, i.e. to a man of at least twenty years' service.
The corresponding times for British regular officers in 1905
(when the effects of rapid promotions during the South African
War were still felt) were 6 to 75 years from first commission to
promotion to captain, and 14 to 19 years from first commission
to promotion to major. In 1908, under more normal conditions,
the times were 7 to 8| years to captain, 15 to 20 to major. In
the Royal Engineers and the Indian army a subaltern is auto-
matically promoted captain on completing 9 years' commissioned
service, and a captain simDarly promoted major after 18.
The process of development in the case of naval officers (seeNAVY)
presents many points of similarity, but also considerable differences.
For from the first the naval officer could only offer to serve on the
king's ship: he did not build a ship as a colonel raised a regiment,
and thus there was no proprietary system. On the other hand the
naval officer was even more of a simple office-holder than his comrade
ashore. He had no rank apart from that which he held in the
economy of the ship, and when the ship went out of commission
the officers as well as the crew were disbanded. One feature of the
proprietary system, however, appears in the navy organization;
there was a marked distinction between the captain and the lieu-
tenant who led the combatants and the master and the master's
mate who sailed the ship. But here there were fewer " vested
interests," and instead of remaining in the condition, so to speak,
of distinguished passengers, until finally eliminated by the " levelling
up " of the working class of officers, the lieutenants and captains
were (in England) required to educate themselves thoroughly in
the subjects of the sea officer's profession. When this process had
gone on for two generations, that is, about 1670, the formation of a
OFFICERS
19
permanent staff of naval officers was begun by the institution of
half-pay for the captains, and very soon afterwards the methods of
admission and early training of naval officers were systematized.
The ranks in the British Royal Navy arc shown with the relative
ranks of the army in the following table (taken from King's i?f.i;»-
talions), which also gives some idea of the complexity of the non-
combatant branches of naval officers.
Training of British Army Officers. — This may be conveniently
by the Civil Service Commissioners as to their educational qualifica-
tions. This examination is competitive in so far that vacancies at
the Royal Military College at Sandhurst (for Cavalry, Infantry and
Army Service Corps), or the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich
(for Engineers and Artillery), go to those who pass highest, if physic-
ally fit. Before presenting himself for this examination, the candidate
must produce a " leaving certificate " from the school at which he
was educated, showing that he already possesses a fair knowledge
Corresponding Ranks.
Army.
Na\>'.
1. Field Marshals .
2. Generals
3. Lieutenant-Generals
4. Major-Generals .
Admirals of the Fleet
Admirals
Vice-Admirals .
Rear-Admirals .
5. Brigadier-Generals
6. Colonels
7. Lieutenant-Colonels
8. Majors
Commodores
Captains of 3 years' seniority
Captains under 3 years' seniority
Commanders, but junior of that rank
Lieutenants of 8 years' seniority .
9. Captains
10. Lieutenants ....
1 1 . Second Lieutenants .
12. Higher ranks of Warrant Officers
Lieutenants under 8 years' seniority
Sub-Lieutenants
Engineer-in-Chief, if Engineer Vice-Admiral.
Inspectors-General of Hospitals and Fleets.
Engineer-in-Chief, if Engineer Rear-Admiral.
Engineer Rear-Admiral.
Deputy Inspectors-General of Hospitals and Fleets.
Secretaries to Admirals of the Fleet.
Paymasters-in-Chief.
Engineer Captains of 8 years'seniority in that rank.
Staff Captains of 4 years' seniority.
Staff Captains under 4 years' seniority (navigating
branch).
Secretaries to Commanders-in-Chief, of 5 years'
service as such.
Engineer Captains under 8 years' seniority in that
rank.
Fleet-Surgeons.'
Secretaries to Commanders-in-Chief under 5 years'
service.'
Fleet Paymasters.'
Engineer Commanders.'
Naval Instructors of 15 years' seniority.'
Engineer Lieutenants of 8 years' seniority, qualified
and selected.
Staff-Surgeons.
Secretaries to Junior Flag Officers, Commodores, 1st
Class.
Staff Paymasters and Paymaster.
Naval Instructors of 8 years' seniority.
Carpenter Lieutenant of 8 years' seniority.
Surgeons.
Secretaries to Commodores, 2nd Class.
Naval Instructors under 8 years' seniority.
Engineer Lieutenant under 8 years' seniority, or
over if not duly qualified and selected.
Assistant Paymasters of 4 years' seniority.
Carpenter Lieutenant under 8 years' seniority.
Assistant Paymasters under 4 years' seniority.
Engineer Sub-Lieutenants.
Chief Gunner.'
Chief Boatswain.'
Chief Carpenter.'
Chief Artificer Engineer.'
Chief Schoolmaster.'
Midshipmen.^
Clerks.2
Gunners.'
Boatswains.-
Carpentcrs.'
Artificer Engineer.'
Head Schoolmaster.'
Head Wardmaster.'
' But junior of the army rank.
divided into two parts: (I.) that which precedes the appointment
to a commission; (II.) that which succeeds it.
I. Omitting those officers who obtain their commissions from
the ranks, the training which precedes the appointment to a com-
mission is subdivided into: (a) General Education; (b) Technical
Instruction.
(o) General Education. — A fairly high standard of education is
considered essential. Candidates from universities approved by the
Army Council must have resided for three academic years at their
university, and have taken a degree in any subject or group of
subjects other than Theology, Medicine, Music and Commerce. A
university candidate for a commission in the Royal Artillery must
further be qualified in Mathematics. The obtaining of first-class
honours is considered equivalent to one year's extra service in the
army, and an officer can count that year for calculating his service
towards his pension. University candidates are eligible for com-
missions in the Cavalry, Royal Artillery, Infantry, Indian Army
and Army Service Corps. For other branches of the service special
regulations are in force.
Those candidates who have not been at a university are examined
- But senior of the army rank.
of the subjects of examination. Candidates who fail to secure
admission to these institutions, but satisfy the examiners that they
are sufficiently well educated, can obtain commissions in the Special
Reserve.
Candidates for commissions in the Royal Army Medical Corps
and the Army Veterinary- Corps are not required to pass an
educational examination, the ordinary course of medical or veterinary
education being deemed sufficient, but the Army Council may reject
a candidate who shows any deficiency in his general education.
Officers of the Colonial military forces wishing to obtain com-
missions in the British Army must either produce a school or college
" leaving certificate " or pass an examination held by the .Army
Qualifying Board, or must show that they have passed one of certain
recognized examinations.
(b) Technical Instruction. — In addition to general educational
attainments, a fair knowledge of technical matters is expected from
candidates.
For Cavalry, Infantr>', Royal Engineers, Royal .^rtillen,- and Armj-
Service Corps, an examination must be passed in administration
and organization; military history, strategy' and tactics; military
20
OFFICERS
topography, engineering and law. In addition, the following
conditions must be complied with: (i) University candidates are
required to be members of the Senior Division of the Officers'
Training Corps (see United Kingdom: Army) should there be a
unit of that corps at the university to which they belong. They
are further required to be attached for six weeks to a Regular unit
during their residence at the university. If there is no Officers'
Training Corps at his university, the candidate is attached to a
Regular unit for twelve weeks (consecutively or in two stages).
The final examination in military subjects is competitive. (2)
Cadets of the Royal Military College are instructed in the following
additional subjects: sanitation, French or German (or both),
riding and horse management, musketr\', physical training, drill
and signalling. Hindustani may be taken instead of French or
German. (3) Cadets of the Royal Military Academy are instructed
in the same subjects as the cadets at the Royal Military College,
with the addition of artillery, advanced mathematics, chemistry,
light, heat, electricity and workshop practice. Cadets who pass
highest in the final exammation for commissions are as a rule
appointed to the Royal Engineers, the remainder to the Royal
Artillery. (4) Officers of the Special Reserve, Territorial Force and
certain other forces must have completed a continuous period of
attachment of twelve months to a Regular unitof Cavalry, Artillery,
Engineers or Infantry, and have ser\ ed and been[trained for at least
one year in the force to which they belong, before presenting them-
selves at the competitive examination in military subjects. The
period of attachment to Regular units may be reduced if certain
certificates are obtained. Candidates for commissions in the artillery
must belong to the artillery branches of the above forces and have a
certificate in riding and mathematics. They are not eligible for the
Royal Engineers. (5) The conditions for Officers of the Colonial
Military Forces are similar to those for the Special Reserve, &c.,
except that only two months' attachment to a Regular unit, or unit
of the Permanent Colonial Forces, is required. (6) Commissions
are also given to Cadets of the Royal Military College, Kingston,
Canada; the training of that establishment being similar to that
at the Royal Military College and the Royal Military Academy.
Candidates for commissions in the Royal Army Medical Corps and
Army Veterinary Corps are not examined in military subjects,
but must pass in the appropriate technical subjects; those for the
Royal Army Medical Corps passing two written and two oral
e.xaminations, one each in medicine and surgery; those for the Army
Veterinary Corps passing a written and an oral examination in
veterinary medicine, surgery and hygiene. Candidates for the Royal
Army Medical Corps have further to proceed to the Royal Army
Medical College for instruction in recruiting duties, hygiene,
pathology, tropical medicine, military surgery and military medical
administration.
Royal Engineers attend the School of Military Engineering at
Chatham, where long and elaborate courses of instruction are given
in all subjects appertaining to the work of the corps, including
practical work in the field and in fortresses.
II. The training which succeeds the appointment to a commission
consists partly of more detailed instruction in the subjects already
learned, partly of the practical application of those subjects, and
partly of more advanced instruction with its practical application.
On first joining his unit the young officer is put through a course
of preliminary drills, lasting, as a rule, for from three months
(infantry) to six months (cavalr\'), though the time depends upon
the individual officer's rate of progress. During this period, and for
some considerable time afterwards, officers are instructed in " regi-
mental duties," consisting of the interior economy of a regiment,
such as financial accounts, stores, correspondence, the minor points
of military law in their actual working, customs of the service,
the management of regimental institutes, &c., with, in the case of
the mounted branches, equitation and the care and management of
horses. They are required to attend a number of courts-martial,
as supernumerary members, before being permitted to attend one
in the effective and official capacities of member or prosecutor,
although from a legal point of view their qualification depends simply
upon their rank and length of service. A course of musketn.*,
theoretical and practical, is then gone through. Field training
begins with lectures on the various evolutions of the squadron,
battery or company, followed by actual practice in the field, arranged
by the commanders of squadrons, batteries or companies.
Before promotion from the rank of second-lieutenant to lieutenant,
an examination must be passed in " Regimental Duties " (practical,
oral and written) and " Drill and Field Training " (practical only).
The officer is then taken in hand by the commanding officer of his
regiment, battalion or brigade. He is frequently e.xamined in the
subjects in which he has already been instructed, and is practically
taught the more advanced stages of topography, engineering,
tactics, law and organization. The next stage consists of regimental
drills, which include every kind of practical work in the field which
can be done by a unit under the command of a lieutenant-colonel.
After this come brigade, division and army manoeuvres. Officers
have to pass examinations in military subjects for promotion until
they attain the rank of major. The chief of these subjects are
tactics, military' topography, militarv' engineering, military law,
administration and military history. For majors, before promotion
to lieutenant-colonel, an examination in " Tactical Fitness for
Command " has to be passed. This examination is a test of ability
in commanding the " three arms " in the field; a course of attach-
ment to the two arms to which the officer does not belong being a
necessary preliminary.
Army Service Corps. — The officers of this corps have usually served
for at least one year in the cavalry, infantry or Royal Marines,
though commissions are also given to cadets of the Royal Military
College. On joining, the officer first spends nine months on proba-
tion, during which he attends lectures and practical demonstrations
in the following subjects: military administration and organization
generally; and as regards Army Service Corps work, in detail;
organization of the Field Army and Lines of Communication; war
organization and duties of the A.S.C.; registry and care of corre-
spondence; contracts; special purchases; precautions in receiving
supplies, and care and issue of same; accounts, forms, vouchers
and office work in general and in detail; barrack duties (including
all points relating to coal, wood, turf, candles, lamps, gas, water, &c ).
A thorough and detailed description of all kinds of forage, bread-
stuffs, meat, groceries and other field supplies is given. The lectures
and demonstrations in transport include, beside mounted and dis-
mounted drill, wagon drill; carriages; embarkation and disem-
barkation of men and animals; entraining and detraining; harness
and saddlery; transport by rail and sea, with the office work
involved. This course of instruction is given at the Army Service
Corps Training Establishment at Aldershot.
A satisfactory examination having been passed, the officer is
permanently taken into the corps. Before promotion to captain he
is examined in accounts, correspondence and contracts; judging
cattle and supplies; duties of an A.S.C. officer in charge of a
sub-district; interior economy of a company; military vehicles
and pack animals; embarkation, disembarkation and duties on
board ship; convoys; duties of brigade supply and transport
officer in war. Captains, before promotion to major, are e.xamined
in lines of communication of an army in war; method of obtaining
supplies and transport in war, and formation and working of depots;
organization of transport in war; schemes of supply and transport
for troops operating from a fixed base; duties of a staff-officer
administering supply, transport and barrack duties at home. These
are in addition to general military subjects.
Royal Army Medical Corps. — On completion of the course of
instruction at the Royal Army Medical College, lieutenants on pro-
bation proceed to the R.A.M.C. School of Instruction at Aldershot
for a two months' course in the technical duties of the corps, and at
the end of the course are examined in the subjects taught. This
passed, their commissions are confirmed. After eighteen months'
service, officers are e.xamined in squad, company and corps drills
and exercises; the Geneva Convention; the administration,
organization and equipment of the army in its relation to the medical
services; duties of wardmasters and stewards in military hospitals
and returns, accounts and requisitions connected therewith; duties
of executive medical officers; military law. These successful candi-
dates are then eligible for promotion to captain. Before promotion
to major the following examination must be passed, after a course of
study under such arrangements as the director-general of the Army
Medical Service may determine: (i) medicine, (2) surgery, (3)
hygiene, (4) bacteriology, (5) one out of seven special subjects named,
and (6) military law. The examination for promotion from major
to lieutenant-colonel embraces army medical organization in peace
and war; sanitation of towns, camps, transports, &c. ; epidemiology
and the management of epidemics; medical history of important
campaigns; the Army Medical Service of the more important
powers; the laws and customs of war, so far as they relate to the
sick and wounded; and a tactical problem in field medical adminis-
tration. Officers who pass these examinations with distinction are
eligible for accelerated promotion.
Army Ordnance Department. — .'\n officer of this department must
have had at least four years' service in other branches of the army
and must have passed for the rank of captain. They are then eligible
to present themselves at an elementary examination in mathe-
matics, -after passing which they attend a one year's course at the
Ordnance College, Woolwich. The course comprises the following:
(a) Gunnery (including principles of gun construction and practical
optics); (b) Materiel, guns, carriages, machine guns, small arms
and ammunition of all descriptions; (c) Army Ordnance Duties
(functions of the corps; supply, receipt and issue of stores, &c.);
(d) Machinery; (e) Chemistry and Metallurgy; (/) Electricity.
An advanced course follows in which officers take up any two of the
subjects of applied mathematics, chemistry and electricity, combined
with either small arms, optics or mechanical design. They are then
appointed to the department and hold their appointments for four
years, with a possible extension of an additional three years.
Army Veterinary Corps. — A candidate on appointment as veterinary
officer, on joining at Aldershot, undergoes a course of special training
at the Army Veterinary School. The course lasts one year, and
consists of (a) hygiene; conformation of the foot and shoeing,
conformation, points, colours, markings; stable construction and
management ; management of horses in the open and of large bodies
of sick; saddles and sore backs; collars and sore shoulders; bits
and bitting; transport by sea and rail; mules, donkeys, camels
OFFICERS
21
and oxen; remount depots; training of army horses; marching,
(i) Diiseases met with specially on active service, (c) Military
etiquette and ethics; accounts and returns; administration and
organization; veterinary hospitals, mobilization, map-reading and
law. At the end of the course he is examined, and if found satis-
factory, is retained in the service. Before promotion to captain
he is examined in the duties of executive veterinary officers and in
law: before promotion to major, in medicine, surgery, hygiene,
bacteriology and tropical diseases, and in one special subject selected
by the candidate; and before promotion to lieutenant-colonel,
in law, duties of administrative veterinary officers at home and
abroad, management of epizootics, sanitation of stables, horse-lines
and transports.
Army Pay Department. — Officers are appointed to the department,
on probation for a period not exceeding one year, after serving for
five years in one of the other arms or branches of the service. At
the end of this period the candidates are examined in the following
subjects: examination of company pay lists and pay and mess
book; method of keeping accounts and preparing balance-sheets
and monthly estimates; knowledge of pay- warrant, allowance
regulations and financial instructions, book-keeping, by double entry
and the duties attending the payment of soldiers; aptitude for
accounts, and quickness and neatness in work. On completion of
five years' service, officers return to their regiments, unless they
elect to remain with the department or are required by the Army
Council to be permanently attached to it.
Schools and Colleges. — The training of the officer in his regiment is
necessarily incomplete, owing to a far wider knowledge of his pro-
fession in general, and of his own branch of the service in particular,
being essential, than can be acquired within the comparatively
confined limits of his own unit. Accordingly, schools and colleges
have been established, in which special courses of instruction are
given, dealing more fully with the generalities and details of the
various branches of the service.
There is a cavalry school at Netheravon.
Mounted Infantry schools have been established at Longmoor,
Bulford and Kilworth, which train both officers and men in mounted
infantry duties. The officers selected to be trained at these schools
must have at least two years' service, have completed a trained
soldier's course of musketry and should have some knowledge of
horsemanship and be able to ride. The instruction consists for the
most part of riding school and field training.
The School of Gunnery at Shoeburyness gives five courses of
instruction per annum; one " Staff " course for Ordnance officers,
lasting one month ; two courses for senior officers of the Royal
Artillery, lasting a fortnight each, and two courses for junior officers
of the same regiment, lasting one month each. For Royal Garrison
Artillery officers there is one Staff " course lasting for seven months
(this being a continuation of the previous "Staff " course), and two
courses, lasting four months each, for junior officers. There is also
a school of gunnery at Lydd, where two courses, lasting for three
weeks each, in siege artillery, are given each year.
The Ordnance College at Woolwich provides various courses of
instruction in addition to those intended for officers of the Ordnance
Department. There is a " Gunnery Staff Course " for senior officers,
in gunnery, guns, carriages, ammunition, electricity and machinery;
two courses for junior officers of the Royal Artillery in the same
subjects ; a course for officers of the Army Service Corps in mechanical
transport, which includes instruction in allied subjects, such as
electricity and chemistry. It also gives courses of instruction to
officers of the Royal Navy.
The School of Military Engineering at Chatham trains officers of
the Royal Engineers, compiles official text-books on field defences,
attack and defence of fortresses, military bridging, mining, encamp-
ments, railways.
The School of Musketry at Hythe (besides assisting and directing
the musketry training of the army at large by revising regulations,
experiments, &c.) trains officers of all branches of the service in
theoretical and practical musketry, the courses lasting about a month
each and embracing fire control, the training of the eye in quick
perception, fire effect and so on. Courses in the Maxim gun usually
follow.
The Staff College (see also Staff) at Camberley is the most im-
portant of the military colleges. Only specially selected officers
are eligible to attempt the entrance examination. The course lasts
two years, and is divided into: (a) military history, strategy,
tactics, imperial strategy, strategic distribution, coast defence,
fortification, war organization, reconnaissance; (b) staff duties,
administration, peace distribution, mobilization, movements of
troops by land and sea, supply, transport, remounts, organization,
law and topographical reconnaissance. Visits are paid to workshops,
fortresses, continental battlefields, &c., and staff tours are carried
out. Officers of the non-mounted branches attend riding school,
and students can be examined in any foreign languages they may
have previously studied. They are also attached for short periods
to arms of the service other tlian those to which they belong, and
attend at staff offices to ensure their being conversant with the work
done there.
The Army Service Corps Training Establishment at Aldershot
gives courses of instruction to senior officers of the corps at which
a limited number of officers of other corps may attend, provided
they have passed through or been recommended for the Staff College.
Other courses, in addition to the nine months' course for officers
on probation for the corps are, one of twelve days for senior officers
of the corps in mechanical transport; two (one long and one
short) in the same subject for other officers; one for officers
in other branches of the service in judging provisions; and one
for lieutenants of the Royal Army Medical Corps in su])ply and
transport.
Other colleges and schools are: the Balloon School at Farn-
borough, for officers of the Royal Engineers; Schools of Electric
Lighliyig at Plymouth and Portsmouth; the School nf Signalling at
Aldershot, for officers of all branches of the service; the School of
Gymnastics, also at Aldershot; and the Army Veterinary School,
where a one month's course is given to officers of the mounted
branches in the main principles of horsemastership, stable manage-
ment and veterinary first aid, in addition to the one year's course for
officers on probation for the Army Veterinary Corps.
To encourage the study of foreign languages, officers who pass a
preliminary examination in any language they may select are allowed
U> reside in the foreign country for a period of at least two months.
After such residence they may jiresent themselves for examination,
and if successful, receive a grant in aid of the expenses incurred.
The grant is £80 for Russian, £50 for German, £24 for French and
£30 for other languages. _ The final or " Interpretership " examina-
tion for which the grant is given is of a very high standard. In the
case of Russian, £80 is paid to the officer during his residence
in Russia, in addition to the grant. Special arrangements are
made with regard to the Chinese and Japanese languages; three
officers for the former and four officers for the latter being selected
annually for a two years' residence in those countries. During such
residence officers receive £150 per annum, in addition to their pay,
and a reward of £175 on passing the " Interpretership " examination.
There has been a tendency of late years to give officers facilities
for going through civilian courses of instruction; for example, at
the London School of Economics and in the workshops of the
principal railway companies. These courses enable the officer not
only to profit by civilian experience and progress, but also to form
an opinion as to his own knowledge, as compared with the knowledge
of those outside his immediate surroundings.
Protnotion from the Ranks. — In several armies aspirant officers
may join as privates and pass through all grades. This is hardly
promotion from the ranks, however, because it is understood from
the first that the young avantageur, as he is called in Germany, is a
candidate for officer's rank, and he is treated accordingly, generally
living in the officers' mess and spending only a brief period in each
of the non-commissioned ranks. True promotion from the ranks,
won by merit and without any preferential treatment, is practically
unknown in Germany. In France, on the other hand, one-third of
the officers are promoted non-commissioned officers. In Italy also
a large proportion of the officers comes from the ranks. In Great
Britain, largely owing to the chances of distinction afforded by
frequent colonial expeditions, a fair number of non-commissioned
officers receive promotion to combatants' commissions. The
number is, however, diminishing, as shown by the following extracts
from a return of 1909 (combatants only) : —
1 885-1 888 annual average 34 (Sudan Wars, &c.)
1889-1892 " " 25
1893-1898 " " 19 ->
1899-1902 " " 35 (S. African War)
1903-1908 " " 14
Quartermasters and riding masters are invariably promoted from
the lower ranks.
Officers of reserve and second line forces are recruited in Great
Britain both by direct appointment and by transfer from the regular
forces. In universal service armies reserve officers are drawn from
retired regular officers, selected non-commissioned officers, and
most of all from young men of good social standing who are gazetted
after serving their compulsory period as privates in the ranks.
Foreign Armies
The training of the officer of a foreign army differs very slightly
from that of the British officer. Each country specializes according
to its individual requirements, but in the main the training is much
the same.
Germany. — The Germans attend more closely to detail — being even
microscopical — and it has been said that a little grit in the German
military machine would cause a cessation of its working. Unfor-
tunately for this argument, the German army has not yet given any
signs of cessation of work, so few deviations from the smooth working
of the military machine being permitted that the introduction of
grit into this air-tight casing is practically impossible. At the same
time, the German officer is trained to have initiative and to use
that initiative, but he is expected to be discreet in the use of it and
consequently undue insistence on literal obedience to instructions
(as distinct from formal orders), and undue reticence on the part of
senior, especially staff, officers is held to be dangerous, in that the
regimental officer, if ignorant of the military situation, may, by acts
of initiative out of harmony with the general plan, seriously prejudice
22
OFFICIAL— OGDENSBURG
the issue. The Germans attach special importance to instruction in
the tactical handling of artillery.
Italy. — The Italians make a speciality of horsemanship, their
cavalry officers studying for two years ;it the cavalry school at
Modena; later at the school at Pinerolo, and later still at the school
at Tor di Quinto. They also attach much importance to mountain
warfare.
France. — The formal training of the French officer does not appear
to dififer seriously from that of the British officer, with this exception,
that as one-third or so of French officers are promoted from the
non-commissioned ranks, a great feature of the educational system
is the group of schools comprising the Saumur (cavalry), St Maixent
(infantry) and Versailles (artillery and engineers), which are intended
for under-officer candidates for commissions. The generality of the
officers comes frorn the " special school " of St Cyr (infantry and
cavalry) and the Ecole P olytechnique (artillery and engineers).
(R, J. G.)
United Stales. — The principal source from which officers are
suppHed to the army is the famous Military Academy at West Point,
N.Y. The President may appoint forty cadets and generally chooses
sons of army and navy officers. Each senator and each representa-
tive and delegate in Congress may appoint one. These appointments
are not made annually, but as vacancies occur through graduation of
cadets, or their discharge before graduation. The maximum number of
cadets under the Twelfth Census is 533. The commanding officer of
the academy has the title of superintendent and comm.andant. He is
detailed from the army, and has the temporary rank of colonel. The
corps of cadets is organized as a battalion, and is commanded by an
officer detailed from the army, having the title of commandant of
cadets. He has the temporary rank of lieutenant-colonel. An
officer of engineers and of ordnance are detailed as instructors of
practical military engineering and of ordnance and gunnery respec-
tively. The heads of the departments of instruction have the title
of professors. They are selected generally from officers of the army,
and their positions are permanent. The officers above rnentioned
and the professors constitute the academic board. The military staff
and assistant instructors are officers of the army. The course of
instruction covers four years and is very thorough. Theoretical
instruction comprises mathematics, French, Spanish, English,
drawing, physics, astronomy, chemistry, ordnance and gunnery, art
of war, civil and military engineering, law (international, con-
stitutional and military), history and drill regulations of all arms.
Practical instruction comprises the service drills iri infantry, cavalry
and artillery, surveying, reconnaissances, field engineering, construc-
tion of temporary bridges, simple astronomical observations, fencing,
gymnastics and swimming. Cadets are a part of the army, and
rank between second lieutenants and the highest grade of non-
commissioned officers. They receive from the government a rate
of pay sufficient to cover all necessary expenses at the academy.
About 50 "/o of those entering are able to complete the course. The
graduating class each year numbers, on an average, about 60. A
class, on graduating, is arranged in order according to merit, and its
members are assigned as second lieutenants to corps and arm,
according to the recommendation of the academic board. A few at
the head of the class go into the corps of engineers; the next in order
generally go into the artillery, and the rest of the class into the
cavalry and infantry. The choice of graduates as to arm of service
and regiments is consulted as far as practicable. Any enHsted man
who has served honestly and faithfully not less than two years, who
is between twenty-one and thirty years of age, unmarried, a_ citizen
of the United States and of good moral character, may aspire to a
commission. To obtain it he must pass an educational and physical
examination before a board of five officers. This board must also
inquire as to the character, capacity and record of the candidate.
Many well-educated young men, unable to obtain appointments to
West Point, enlist in the army for the express purpose of obtaining
a commission. Vacancies in the grade of second lieutenant remain-
ing, after the graduates of the Military Academy and qualified
enlisted men have been appointed, are filled from civil life. To be
eligible for appointment a candidate must be a citizen of the United
States, unmarried, between the ages of twenty-one and twenty-
seven years, and must be approved by an examining board of five
officers as to habits, moral character, physical ability, education
and general fitness for the service. In time of peace very few
appointments from civil life are made, but in time of war there is a
large number.
There are, in addition to the Engineer School at Washington,
D.C. four service schools for officers. These are: the Coast Artillery
School at Fort Monroe, Virginia; the General Service and Staff
College at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas; the Mounted Service
School at Fort Riley, Kansas; the Army Medical School at Wash-
ington. The commandants, staffs and instructors at these schools
are officers specially selected. The garrison at Fort Monroe is
composed of several companies of coast artillery ._ The lieutenants
of these companies, who constitute the class, are relieved and replaced
by others on ist September of each year. The course of instruction
comprises the following subjects: artillery, ballistics, engineering,
steam and mechanics, electricity and mines, chemistry and explosives,
military science, practical military exercises, photography, telegraphy
and cordage (the use of ropes, the making of various kinds of knots
and lashings, rigging shears, &c., for the handling of heavy guns).
July and August of each year are ordinarily devoted to artillery
target practice. The course at the General Service and Staff
College is for one year in each School. The class of student officers
is made up of one lieutenant from each regiment of infantry and
cavalry, and such others as may be detailed. They are assigned to
the organizations comprising the garrison, normally a regiment of
infantry, a squadron (four troops) of cavalry and a battery of field
artillery. The departments of instruction are: military art,
engineering, law, infantry, cavalry, military hygiene. Much attention
is paid to practical work in the minor operations of war, the troops
of the garrison being utilized in connexion therewith. At the close
of the final examinations of each class at Fort Monroe and Fort
Leavenworth, those officers most distinguished for proficiency are
reported to the adjutant-general of the army. Two from each class
of the Artillery School, and not more than five from each class at
the General Service and Staff College, are thereafter, so long as they
remain in the service, noted in the annual army register as " honour
graduates." The work of the Mounted Service School at Fort Riley
is mainly practical, and is carried on by the regular garrison, which
usually, in time of peace, consists of two squadrons of cavalry and
three field batteries. The government reservation at Fort Riley
comprises about 40 sq. m. of varied terrain, so that opportunities are
afforded, and taken advantage of, for all kinds of field operations.
The Army Medical School is established at Washington. The faculty
consists of four or more instructors selected from the senior officers
of the medical department. The course of instruction covers a period
of five months, beginning annually in November. The student officers
are recently appointed medical officers, and such other medical
officers, available for detail, as may desire to take the course. In-
struction is by lecture and practical work, special attention being
given to the following subjects: duties of medical officers in peace
and war; hospital administration; military medicine, surgery and
hygiene; microscopy and bacteriology; hospital corps drill and
first aid to the wounded. (W. A. S.)
OFFICIAL (Late Lat. officialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from
officium, ofifice, duty), in general any holder of office under the
state or a public body. In ecclesiastical law the word " official "
has a special technical sense as applied to the official exercising
a diocesan bishop's jurisdiction as his representative and in
his name (see Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction). The title of
" official principal," together with that of " vicar-general," is in
England now merged in that of " chancellor " of a diocese (see
Chancellor).
OFFICINAL, a term applied in medicine to drugs, plants and
herbs, which are sold in chemists' and druggists' shops, and to
medical preparations of such drugs, &c., as are made in accord-
ance with the prescriptions authorized by the pharmacopoeia.
In the latter sense, modern usage tends to supersede " officinal "
by " official." The classical Lat. qfficina meant a workshop,
manufactory, laboratory, and in medieval monastic Latin was
applied to a general store-room (see Du Cange, Gloss., s.v.);
it thus became applied to a shop where goods were sold rather
than a place where things were made.
OGDEN, a city and the county-seat of Weber county, Utah,
U.S.A., at the confluence of the Ogden and Weber rivers, and
about 35 m. N. of Salt Lake City. Pop. (1890) 14,889; (1900)
16,313, of whom 3302 were foreign-born; (1906 estimate)
17,165. It is served by the Union Pacific, the Southern Pacific,
the Oregon Short Line, and the Denver & Rio Grande railways.
It is situated at an elevation of about 4300 ft. in the picturesque
region of the Wasatch Range, Ogden Caiion and the Great
Salt Lake. Ogden is in an agricultural and fruit-growing
region, and gold and silver are mined in the vicinity. It has
various manufactures, and the value of the factory product
increased from $1,242,214 in 1900 to $2,997,057 in 1905, or
141-3%. Ogden, which is said to have been named in honour
of John Ogden, a trapper, was laid out under the direction of
Brigham Young in 1850, and was incorporated in the next year;
in 1861 it received a new charter, but since 1898 it has been
governed under a general law of the state.
OGDENSBURG, a city and port of entry of St Lawrence
county. New York, U.S.A., on the St Lawrence river, at the
mouth of the Oswegatchie, 140 m. N. by E. of Syracuse, New
York. Pop. (1S90) 11,662; (1900) 12,633, of whom 3222 were
foreign-born; (1910 census) 15,933- It is served by the New
York Central & Hudson River and the Rutland railways, and
by several lake and river steamboat Hnes connecting with ports
on the Great Lakes, the city being at the head of lake navigation
OGEE— OGILBY
23
on the St Lawrence. Steam ferries connect Ogdensburg with
Prescott, Ontario. The city is the seat of the St Lawrence Slate
Hospital for the Insane (1890), and has a United States Customs
House and a state armoury. The city became the see of a Roman
Catholic bishop in 1872, and here Edgar Philip Wadhams (1817-
1891) laboured as bishop in 1872-1891. It is the port of entry
of the Oswegatchie customs district, and has an extensive
commerce, particularly in lumber and grain. The city has
various manufactures, including lumber, flour, wooden-ware,
brass-ware, sill<s, woollens and clothing. The value of the
factory products increased from $2,260,889 in 1900 to $3,057,271
in 1905, or 35-2%. The site of Ogdensburg was occupied in
1749 by the Indian settlement of La Presentation, founded by
the Abbe Frangois Piquet (1708-1781) for the Christian converts
of the Iroquois. At the outbreak of the War of Independence
the British built here Fort Presentation, which they held until
1796, when, in accordance with the terms of the Jay Treaty,
the garrison was withdrawn. Abraham Ogden (i 743-1 798),
a prominent New Jersey lawyer, bought land here, and the
settlement which grew up around the fort was named Ogdensburg.
During the early part of the War of 1812 it was an important
point on the American line of defence. On the 4th of October
1812 Colonel Lethbridge, with about 750 men, prepared to
attack Ogdensburg but was driven off by American troops
under General Jacob Brown. On the 22nd of February 1813
both fort and village were captured and partially destroyed
by the British. During the Canadian rising of 1837-1838
Ogdensburg became a rendezvous of the insurgents. Ogdensburg
was incorporated as a village in 1818, and was chartered as a
city in 1868.
OGEE (probably an English corruption of Fr. ogive, a diagonal
groin rib, being a moulding commonly employed; equivalents
in other languages are Lat. cyma-reversa, Ital. gola, Fr. cymaise,
Ger. Kchllcisten), a term given in architecture to a moulding
of a double curvature, convex and concave, in which the former
is the uppermost (see Moulding). The name " ogee-arch "
is often applied to an arch formed by the meeting of two con-
trasted ogees (see Arch).
OGIER THE DANE, a hero of romance, who is identified with
the Prankish warrior Autchar (Autgarius, Auctarius, Otgarius,
Oggerius) of the old chroniclers. In 771 or 772 Autchar accom-
panied Gerberga, widow of Carloman, Charlemagne's brother,
and her children to the court of Desiderius, king of the Lombards,
with whom he marched against Rome. In 773 he submitted
to Charles at Verona. He finally entered the cloister of St Faro
at Meaux, and Mabillon {Ada SS. ord. St Benedict!, Paris, 1677)
has left a description of his monument there, which had figures
of Ogier and his friend Benedict or Benoit, with smaller images
of Roland and la beUe Aude and other Carolingian personages.
In the chronicle of the Pseudo Turpin it is stated that innumer-
able canlilenae were current on the subject of Ogier, and his
deeds were probably sung in German as well as in French. The
Ogier of romance may be definitely associated with the flight
of Gerberga and her children to Lombardy, but it is not safe
to assume that the other scattered references all relate to the
same individual. Colour is lent to the theory of his Bavarian
origin by the fact that he, with Duke Naimes of Bavaria, led
the Bavarian contingent to battle at Roncesvaux.
In the romances of the Carolingian cycle he is, on account
of his revolt against Charlemagne, placed in the family of Doon
de Mayence, being the son of Gaufrey de " Dannemarche."
The Enfances Ogier of Adenes le Rois, and the Chevalerie Ogier
de Dannemarche of Raimbert de Paris, are doubtless based on
earlier chansons. The Chevalerie is divided into twelve songs or
branches. Ogier, who was the hostage for his father at Charle-
magne's court, fell into disgrace, but regained the emperor's
favour by his exploits in Italy. One Easter at the court of Laon,
however, his son Balduinet was slain by Charlemagne's son.
Chariot, with a chess-board (cf. the incident of Renaud and
Bertholais in the Quatre Fils Ayinon). Ogier in his rage slays
the queen's nephew Loher, and would have slain Charlemagne
himself but for the intervention of the knights, who connived
at his flight to Lombardy. In his stronghold of Castelfort he
resisted the imperial forces for seven years, but was at last taken
prisoner by Turpin, who incarcerated him at Reims, while his
horse Broiefort, the sharer of his exploits, was made to draw
stones at Meaux. He was eventually released to fight the
Saracen chief Brehus or Braihicr, whose armies had ravaged
France, and who had defied Charlemagne to single combat.
Ogier only consented to fight after the surrender of Chariot,
but the prince was saved from his barbarous vengeance by the
intervention of St Michael. The giant Brehus, despite his
17 ft. of stature, was overthrown, and Ogier, after marrying an
English princess, the daughter of Angart (or Edgard), king of
England, received from Charlemagne the fiefs of Hainaut and
Brabant.
A later romance in Alexandrines (Brit. Mus. MS. Royal 1 5 E vi.)
contains marvels added from Celtic romance. Six fairies visit
his cradle, the sixth, Morgan la Fay, promising that he shall
be her lover. He has a conqueror's career in the East, and after
two hundred years in the " castle " of Avalon returns to France
in the days of King Philip, bearing a firebrand on which his life
depends. This he destroys when Philip's widowed queen
wishes to marry him, and he is again carried off by Morgan la
Fay. The prose romance printed at Paris in 1498 is a version
of this later poem. The fairy element is prominent in the Italian
legend of Uggicri il Danese, the most famous redaction being
the prose Libra dele halaglic del Danese (Milan, 1498), and in the
English Famous and renowned history of Morvine, son to Oger
the Dane, translated by J. M. (London, 1612). The Spanish
Urgel was the hero of Lope de Vega's play, the Marques de
Mantua. Ogier occupies the third branch of the Scandinavian
Karlamagnus saga; his fight with Brunamont (Enfances Ogier)
was the subject of a Danish folk-song; and as Holger Danske
he became a Danish national hero, who fought against the
German Dietrich of Bern (Theodoric "of V'erona "), and was
invested with the common tradition of the king who sleeps in
a mountain ready to awaken at need. Whether he had originally
anything to do with Denmark seems doubtful. The surname
le banois has been explained as a corruption of I'Ardennois and
Dannemarche as the marches of the Ardennes.
Bibliography. — La Chevalerie Ogier de Danemarche, ed. J. B.
Barrois (2 vols., Paris, 1842); Les Enfances Ogier, ed. A. Scheler
(Brussels, 1874); Hist. lilt, de la France, vols. xx. and xxii.; G. Paris,
Hist. poet, de Charlemagne (Paris, 1856); L. Gautier, Les Epopees
frangaises (2nd ed., 1878-1896); L. Pio, Sagnet am Holger Danske
(Copenhagen, 1870); H. L. Ward, Catalogue of Romances, vol. i.
pp. 604-610; C. Voretzsch, Uber die Sage von Ogier dem Danen
(Halle, 1891); P. Paris, " Recherches sur Ogier le IDanois," Bibl. de
I'Ecole des Chartes, vol. iii.; P. Rajna, Le Origini dell' epopea francese
(1884); Riezler, "Naimes v. Bayem und Ogier der Dane," in
Sitzungsberichte der phil. hist. Classe der kl. Akad. d. Wiss., vol. iv.
(Munich, 1892).
OGILBY, JOHN (1600-1676), British writer, was born in or
near Edinburgh in November 1600. His father was a prisoner
within the rules of King's Bench, but by speculation the son
found money to apprentice himself to a dancing master and to
obtain his father's release. He accompanied Thomas Wentworth,
earl of Strafford, when he went to Ireland as lord deputy, and
became tutor to his children. Strafford made him deputy-master
of the revels, and he built a little theatre in St Werburgh Street,
Dublin, which was very successful. The outbreak of the Civil
War ruined his fortunes, and in 1646 he returned to England.
Finding his way to Cambridge, he learned Latin from kindly
scholars who had been impressed by his industry. He then
ventured to translate Virgil into English verse (1649-1650),
which brought him a considerable sum of money. The success
of this attempt encouraged Ogilby to learn Greek from David
Whitford, who was usher in the school kept by James Shirley the
dramatist. Homer his Iliads translated . . . appeared in 1660,
and in 1665 Homer his Odysses translated . . . Anthony a
Wood asserts that in these undertakings he had the assistance
of Shirley. At the Restoration Ogilby received a commission
for the " poetical part " of the coronation. His property was
destroyed in the Great Fire of 1666, but he rebuilt his house
in Whitefriars, and set up a printing press, from which he issued
24
OGILVIE— OGOWE
many magnificent books, the most important of which were a
series of atlases, with engravings and maps by Hollar and
others. He styled himself " His Majesty's Cosmographer and
Geographic Printer." He died in London on the 4th of
September 1676.
Ogilby also translated the fables of Aesop, and wrote three epic
poems. His bulky output was ridiculed by John Dryden in Mac-
Flecknoe and by Alexander Pope in the Dunciad.
OGILVIE (or Ogilby), JOHN {c. 1580-1615), English Jesuit,
was born in Scotland and educated mainly in Germany, where
he entered the Society of Jesus, being ordained priest at Paris
in 1613. As an emissary of the society he returned to Scotland
in this year disguised as a soldier, and in October 1614 he was
arrested in Glasgow. He defended himself stoutly when he was
tried in Edinburgh, but he was condemned to death and was
hanged on the 28th of February 161 5.
A True Relation of the Proceedings against John Ogilvie, a Jesuit
(Edinburgh, 1615), is usually attributed to Archbishop Spottiswoode.
See also James Forbes, L'Eglise catholique en Ecosse: martyre de
Jean Ogilvie (Paris, 1885); and \V. Forbes-Leith, Narratives of
Scottish Catholics (1885).
OGILVY, the name of a celebrated Scottish family of which
the earl of Airhe is the head. The family was probably descended
from a certain Gillebride, earl of Angus, who received lands from
WilUam the Lion. Sir Walter Ogilvy (d. 1440) of Lintrathen,
lord high treasurer of Scotland from 1425 to 1431, was the son
of Sir Walter Ogilvy of Wester Powrie and Auchterhouse, a
man, says Andrew of Wyntoun, " stout and manfull, bauld
and wycht," who was kiUed in 1392. He buUt a castle at Airlie
in Forfarshire, and left two sons. The elder of these. Sir John
Ogilvy (d. c. 1484), was the father of Sir James Ogilvy (c. 1430-1-.
1504), who was made a lord of parliament in 1491; and the
younger, Sir Walter OgOvj-, was the ancestor of the earls of
Findlater. The earldom of Findlater, bestowed on James
Ogilvy, Lord Ogilvy of Dcskford, in 1638, was united in 1711
with the earldom of Seafield and became dormant after the
death of James OgQvy, the 7th earl, in October 181 1 (see Se.\-
riELD, Earls of).
Sir James OgUvy's descendant, James Ogilvy, 5th Lord
Ogilvy of Airhe (c 1541-1606), a son of James Ogilvy, master
of Ogilvy, who was killed at the battle of Pinkie in 1547, took a
leading part in Scottish politics during the reigns of Mary and
of James VL His grandson, James OgQvy (c. 1593-1666), was
created earl of Airlie by Charles I. at York in 1639. A loyal
partisan of the king, he joined Montrose in Scotland in 1644 and
was one of the royalist leaders at the battle of Kilsyth. The
destruction of the earl's castles of Airlie and of Forther in 1640
by the earl of Argyll, who " left him not Ln all his lands a cock
to crow day," gave rise to the song " The bonny house o'Airlie."
His eldest son, James, the 2nd earl (c 1615-c. 1704) also fought
among the royalists in Scotland; in 1644 he was taken prisoner,
but he was released in the following year as a consequence of
Montrose's victory at Kilsyth. He was again a prisoner after
the battle of PhiUphaugh and was sentenced to death in 1646,
but he escaped from his captivity at St Andrews and was after-
w>irds pardoned. Serving with the Scots against Cromwell
he became a prisoner for the third time in 1651, and was in the
Tower of London during most of the years of the Commonwealth.
He was a fairly prominent man under Charles II. and James
II., and in 1689 he ranged himself on the side of WilUam of
Orange. This earl's grandson, James Ogilvy (d. 1731), took part
in the Jacobite rising of 1715 and was attainted; consequently
on his father's death in 171 7 he was not allowed to succeed
to the earldom, although he was pardoned in 1725. When he
died his brother John (d. 1761) became earl de jure, a.nd John's
son David (1725-1803) joined the standard of Prince Charles
Edward in 1745. He was attainted, and after the defeat of the
prince at Culloden escaped to Norway and Sweden, afterwards
serving in the French army, where he commanded " le regiment
Ogilvy " and was known as " le bel Ecossais." In 1778 he was
pardoned and was allowed to return to Scotland, and his family
became extinct when his son David died unmarried in April
1812. After this event David's cousin, another David Ogilvy
(1785-1849), claimed the earldom. He asserted that he was
unaffected by the two attainders, but the House of Lords decided
that these barred his succession; however, in 1826 the attainders
were reversed by act of parliament and David became 6th
earl of Airhe. He died on the 20th of August 1849 and was
succeeded by his son, David Graham Drummond Ogilvy (1826-
1881), who was a Scottish representative peer for over thirty
years. The latter's son, David Stanley Wilham Drummond
Ogilvy, the 8th earl (1856-1900), served in Egypt in 1882 and
1885, and was killed on the nth of June igoo during the Boer
War while at the head of his regiment, the 12th Lancers. His
titles then passed to his son, David Lyulph Gore Wolseley
Ogilvy, the 9th earl (b. 1893).
A word may be said about other noteworthy members of the
Ogilvy family. John Ogilvy, called Powrie Ogilvy, was a
political adventurer who professed to serve King James VI.
as a spy and who certainly served William Cecil in this capacity.
Mariota Ogilvy (d. 1575) was the mistress of Cardinal Beaton.
Sir George Ogilvy (d. 1663), a supporter of Charles I. during
the struggle with the Covenanters, was created a peer as lord
of Banff in 1642; this dignity became dormant, or extinct,
on the death of his descendant, William Ogilvy, the 8th lord,
in June 1803. Sir George Ogilvy of Barras (d. c. 1679) defended
Dunnottar Castle against Cromwell in 1651 and 1652, and was
instrumental in preventing the regaUa of Scotland from falling
into his hands; in 1660 he was created a baronet, the title
becoming extinct in 1837.
See Sir R. Douglas, Peerage of Scotland, new ed. by Sir J. B. Paul
(1904 fol.).
OGIVE (a French term, of which the origin is obscure; auge,
trough, from Lat. augcre, to increase, and an Arabic astrological
word for the " highest point," have been suggested as derivations),
a term applied in architecture to the diagonal ribs of a vault.
In France the name is generally given to the pointed arch,
which has resulted in its acceptance as a title for Gothic archi-
tecture, there often called " le stvle ogival."
OGLETHORPE, JAMES EDWARD (1696-1785), English
general and philanthropist, the founder of the state of Georgia,
was born in London on the 21st of December 1696, the son of
Sir Theophilus Oglethorpe (1650-1702) of Westbrook Place,
Godalming, Surrey. He entered Corpus Christi College, Oxford,
in 1714, but in the same year joined the army of Prince Eugene.
Through the recommendation of the duke of Marlborough he
became aide-de-camp to the prince, and he served with distinction
in the campaign against the Turks, 1716-17, more especially at
the siege and capture of Belgrade. After his return to England
he was in 1722 chosen member of parliament for Haslemere.
He devoted much attention to the improvement of the circum-
stances of poor debtors in London prisons; and for the purpose
of providing an asylum for persons who had become insolvent,
and for oppressed Protestants on the continent, he projected
the settlement of a colony in America between Carolina and
Florida (see Georgla). In 1745 Oglethorpe was promoted to
the rank of major-general. His conduct in connexion with the
Scottish rebellion of that year was the subject of inquiry by court-
martial, but he was acquitted. In 1765 he was raised to the
rank of general. He died at Cranham Hall, Essex, on the ist of
July 17S5.
Sir Theophilus Oglethorpe, the father, had four sons and four
daughters, James Edward being the youngest son, and another
James (b. 1688) having died in infancy. Of the daughters, Anne
Henrietta (b. 1680-1683), Eleanor (b. 1684) and Frances Charlotte
(Bolingbroke's " Fanny Oglethorpe ") may be specified as having
played rather curious parts in the Jacobitism of the time; their
careers arc described in the essay on " Queen Oglethorpe " by Miss
A. Shield and A. Lang, in the latter's Historical Mysteries (1904).
OGOWli, one of the largest of the African rivers of the second
class, rising in 3° S. in the highlands known as the Crystal range,
and flowing N.W. and W. to the Atlantic, a httle south of the
equator, and some 400 m. following the coast, north of the mouth
of the Congo. Its course, estimated at 750 m., lies wholly within
the colony of Gabun, French Congo. In spite of its considerable
size, the river is of comparatively little use for navigation, as
OGRE— OHIO
rapids constantly occur as it descends the successive steps of the
interior tablelands. The principal obstructions are the falls of
Dume, in 13° E.; Bunji, in 12° 35'; Chengwe, in 12° 16'; Boue,
in 1 1° 53'; and the rapids formed in the passes by which it breaks
through the outer chains of the mountainous zone, between ioJ°
and iij° E. In its lower course the river passes through a
lacustrine region in which it sends off secondary channels.
These channels, before reuniting with the main stream, traverse
a series of lakes, one north, the other south, of the river. These
lakes are natural regulators of the river when in flood. The
Ogowe has a large number of tributaries, especially in its upper
course, but of these few are navigable. The most important are
the Lolo, which joins on the south bank in 12° 20' E., and the
Ivindo, which enters the Ogowe a few miles lower down. Below
the Ivindo the largest tributaries are the Ofowe, 400 yds. wide
at its mouth (11° 47' E.), but unnavigable except in the rains,
and the Ngunye, the largest southern tributary, navigable for
60 m. to the Samba or Eugenie Falls. Apart from the narrow
coast plain the whole region of the lower Ogowe is densely
forested. It is fairly thickly populated by Bantu tribes who
have migrated from the interior. The fauna includes tht^gorilla
and chimpanzee
The Ogowe rises in March and April, and again in October and
November; it is navigable for steamers in its low-water condition
as far as the junction of the Ngunye. At flood time the river
can be ascended by steamers for a distance of 235 m. to a place
called N'Jole. The first person to explore the valley of the
Ogowe was Paul du Chaillu, who travelled in the country during
1857-1859. The extent of the delta and the immense volume
of water carried by the river gave rise to the belief that it must
either be a bifurcation of the Congo or one of the leading rivers of
Africa. However, in 1882 Savorgnan de Brazza (the founder of
French Congo) reached the sources of the river in a rugged, sandy
and almost treeless plateau, which forms the watershed between
its basin and that of the Congo, whose main stream is only 140 m.
distant. Since that time the basin of the Ogowe has been fully
explored by French travellers.
OGRE, the name in fairy tales and folk-lore of a malignant
monstrous giant who lives on human flesh. The word is French,
and occurs first in Charles Perrault's Histoires on contes du
temps passe (1697). The first English use is in the translation of
a French version of the Arabian Nights in 1713, where it is spelled
hogrc. Attempts have been made to connect the word with
Ugri, the racial name of the Magyars or Hungarians, but it is
generally accepted that it was adapted into French from the
O. Span, huerco, huergo, uergo, cognate with Ital. orco, i.e. Orcus,
the Latin god of the dead and the infernal regions (see Pluto),
who in Romance folk-lore became a man-eating demon of the
woods.
OGYGES, or Ogygus, in Greek mythology, the first king of
Thebes. During his reign a great flood, called the Ogygian
deluge, was said to have overwhelmed the land. Similar legends
were current in Attica and Phrygia. Ogyges is variously
described as a Boeotian autochthon, as the son of Cadmus, or
of Poseidon.
O'HAGAN, THOMAS O'HAGAN, ist Baron (1812-1885), lord
chancellor of Ireland, was born at Belfast, on the 29th of May
1812. He was educated at Belfast Academical Institution, and
was called to the Irish bar in 1836. In 1840 he removed to Dublin,
where he appeared for the repeal party in many political trials.
His advocacy of a continuance of the union with England,
and his appointment as solicitor-general for Ireland in 1861 and
attorney-general in the following year, lost him the support of
the Nationalist party, but he was returned to parliament as
member for Tralee in 1863. In 1865 he was appointed a judge of
common pleas, and in 1868 became lord chancellor of Ireland in
Gladstone's first ministry. He was the first Roman Catholic to
hold the chancellorship since the reign of James II., an act
throwing open the office to Roman Catholics having been passed
in 1867. In 1870 he was raised to the peerage, and held office until
theresignationof the ministry ini874. Ini88o he again became
lord chancellor on Gladstone's return to office, but resigned in
1881. He died in London on the ist of February
succeeded by his eldest son, Thomas Townelcy \
and then by another son, Maurice Herbert Towneley (b.
O'HIGGINS, BERNARDO (1778-1842), one of the fo.
leaders in the Chilean struggle for independence and heao
the first permanent national government, was a natural son 01
the Irishman Ambrosio O'Higgins, governor of Chile ( 1 788-1 796),
and was born at Chilian on the 20th of August 1778. He was
educated in England, and after a visit to Spain he lived quietly
on his estate in Chile till the revolution broke out. Joining the
nationalist party led by Martinez de Rozas, he distinguished
himself in the early fighting against the royalist troops despatched
from Peru, and was appointed in November 1813 to supersede
J. M. Carrera in command of the patriot forces. The rivalry that
ensued, in spite of O'Higgins's generous offer to serve under
Carrera, eventually resulted in O'Higgins being isolated and
overwhelmed with the bulk of the Chilean forces at Rancagua
in 1814. O'Higgins with most of the patriots fled across the
Andes to Mendoza, where Jose de San Martin (q.v.) was prepar-
ing a force for the liberation of Chile. San Martin espoused
O'Higgins's part against Carrera, and O'Higgins, recognizing the
superior ability and experience of San Martin, readily consented
to serve as his subordinate. The loyalty and energy with which
he acted under San Martin contributed not a little to the organiza-
tion of the liberating army, to its transportation over the Andes,
and to the defeat of the royalists at Chacabuco (1817) and Maipo
(1818). After the battle of Chacabuco O'Higgins was entrusted
with the administration of Chile, and he ruled the country firmly
and well, maintaining the close connexion with the Argentine,
co-operating loyally with San Martin in the preparation of the
force for the invasion of Peru, and seeking, as far as the confusion
and embarrassments of the time allowed, to improve the welfare
of the people. After the overthrow of the Spanish supremacy
in Peru had freed the Chileans from fear of attack, an agitation
set in for constitutional government. O'Higgins at first tried
to maintain his position by calling a congress and obtaining a
constitution which invested him with dictatorial powers. But
popular discontent grew in force; risings took place in Concepcion
and Coquimbo, and on the 28th of January 1823 O'Higgins
was finally patriotic enough to resign his post of director-general,
without attempting to retain it by force. He retired to Peru,
where he was granted an estate and lived quietly till his death on
the 24th of October 1842.
See B. Vicuna Machenna, Vida de O'Higgins (Santiago, 1882),
and M. L. Armunategni, La Dictadura de O'Higgins (Santiago, 1853) ;
both containing good accounts of O'Higgins's career. Also P. B.
Figueroa, Diccionario biogrdfico de Chile, isso-iSSy (Santiago,
1888), and J. B. Suarez, Rasgos biogrdficos de hombres notables de
CJiile (Valparaiso, 1886).
OHIO, a north central state of the United States of America,
lying between latitudes 38° 27' and 41° 57' N. and between
longitudes 80° 34' and 84° 49' W. It is bounded N. by Michigan
and Lake Erie, E. by Pennsylvania and by the Ohio river which
separates it from West Virginia, S. by the Ohio river which
separates it from West Virginia and Kentucky, and W. by
Indiana. The total area is 41,040 sq. m., 300 sq. m. being water
surface.
Physiography. — The state lies on the borderland between
the Prairie Plains and the Alleghany Plateau. The disturbances
among the underlying rocks of Ohio have been slight, and
originally the surface was a plain only slightly undulating;
stream dissection changed the region to one of numberless hills
and valleys; glacial drift then filled up the valleys over large
broken areas, forming the remarkably level till plains of north-
western Ohio; but at the same time other areas were broken by
the uneven distribution of the drift, and south-eastern Ohio,
which was unglaciated, retains its rugged hil'y character, gradu-
ally merging with the typical plateau country farther S.E. The
average elevation of the state above the sea is about 850 ft.,
but extremes vary from 425 ft. at the confluence of the Great
Miami and Ohio rivers in the S.W. corner to 1540 ft. on the
summit of Hogues Hill about 15 m. E. of Bellefontaine in the
west central part.
26
OPIIO
The main water-parting is formed by a range of hills which are
composed chiefly of drift and extend W.S.W. across the state from
Trumbull county in the N.E. to Darke county, or about the middle
of the W. border. North of this water-parting the rivers flow into
Lake Erie; S. of it into the Ohio river. Nearly all of the streams
in the N.E. part of the state have a rapid current. Those that flow
directly into the lake are short, but some of the rivers of this region,
such as the Cuyahoga and the Grand, are turned by drift ridges into
circuitous courses and flow through narrow valleys with numerous
falls and rapids. Passing the village of Cuyahoga Falls the Cuyahoga
river descends more than 200 ft. in 3 m.; a part of its course is
between walls of sandstone 100 ft. or more in height, and near its
mouth, at Cleveland, its bed has been cut down through 60 ft. of
drift. In the middle N. part of the state the Black, Vermilion and
Huron rivers have their sources in swamps on the water-parting and
flow directly to the lake through narrow valleys. The till plains of
north-western Ohio are drained chiefly by the Maumee and San-
dusky rivers, with their tributaries, and the average fall of the
Maumee is only l-l ft. per mile, while that of the Sandusky decreases
from about 7 ft. per mile at Upper Sandusky to 2-5 ft. per mile below
Fremont. South of the water-parting the average length of the
rivers is greater than that of those N. of it, and their average fall per
mile is much less. In the S.W. the Great Miami and Little Miami
rivers have uniform falls through basins that are decidedly rolling
and that contain the extremes of elevation for the entire state.
The central and S. middle part is drained by the Scioto river and its
tributaries. The basin of this river is formed mostly in Devonian
shale, and is bounded on the W. by a limestone rim and on the E.
by preglacial valleys filled with glacial drift. In its middle portion
the basin is about 40 m. wide and only moderately rolling, but toward
the mouth of the river the basin becomes narrow and is shut in by
high hills. In the E. part of Ohio the Muskingum river and its
tributaries drain an area of about 7750 sq. m. or nearly_ one-fifth
of the entire state. Much of the unglacial or driftless portion of the
state is embraced within its limits, and although the streams now
have a gentle or even sluggish flow, they have greatly broken the
surface of the country. The upper portion of the basin is about
100 m. in width, but it becomes quite narrow below Zanesville. The
Ohio river flows for 436 m. through a narrow valley on the S. border
of the state, and Lake Erie f<jrms the N. boundary for a distance of
230 m. At the W. end of the lake are Sandusky and Maumee bays,
each with a good natural harbour. In this vicinity also are various
small islands of limestone formation which are attractive summer
resorts. On Put-in-Bay Island are some interesting " hydration "
caves, i.e. caves formed by the uplifting and folding of the rocks
while gypsum was forming beneath, followed by the partial collapse
of those rocks when the gypsum passed into solution. Ohio has no
large lakes within its limits, but there are several small ones on the
water-parting, especially in the vicinity of Akron and Canton,
and a few laige reservoirs in the W. central section.
Fauna. — Bears, wolves, bison, deer, wild turkeys and wild pigeons
were common in the primeval forests of Ohio, but they long ago
disappeared. Foxes are still found in considerable numbers in
suitable habitats; opossums, skunks and raccoons are plentiful in
some parts of the state; and rabbits and squirtels are still numerous.
All the song-birds and birds of prey of the temperate zone are
plentiful. Whitefish, bass, trout and pickerel are an important food
supply obtained from the waters of the lake, and some perch, catfish
and sunfish are caught in the rivers and brooks.
Flora. — Ohio is known as the " Buckeye State " on account of
the prevalence of the buckeye (Aesculus glabra). The state was
originally covered with a dense forest mostly of hardwood timber,
and although the merchantable portion of this has been practically
all cut away, there are still undergrowths of young timber and a
great variety of trees. The white oak is the most common, but there
are thirteen other varieties of oak, six of hickory, five of ash, five of
poplar, five of pine, three of elm, three of birch, two of locust and
two of cherry. Beech, black walnut, butternut, chestnut, catalpa,
hemlock and tamarack trees are also common. Among native fruits
are the blackberry, raspberry, elderberry, cranberry, wild plum and
pawpaw {Asimina triloba). Buttercups, violets, anemones, spring
beauties, trilliums, arbutus, orchids, columbine, laurel, honeysuckle,
golden rod and asters are common wild flowers, and of ferns there
are many varieties.
Climate. — The mean annual temperature of Ohio is about 51° F.;
in the N., 49-5°, and in the S., 53-5°. But except where influenced by
Lake Erie the temperature is subject to great extremes; at Coalton,
Jackson county, in the S.E. part of the state, the highest recorded
range of extremes is from 104° to —38° or 142°; at V/auseon,
Fulton county, near the N.W. corner, it is from 104° to —32° or 136°;
while at Toledo on the lake shore the range is only from gg° to — 16°
or 115° F. July is the warmest month, and in most parts of the state
January is the coldest; in a few valleys, however, February has a
colder record than January. The normal annual precipitation for
the entire state is 38-4 in. It is greater in the S.E. and least in the
N.W. At Marietta, for example, it is 42-1 in., but at Toledo it is
only 30-8 in. Nearly 60% of it comes in the spring and summer.
The average annual fall of snow is about 37 in. in the N. and 22 in.
in the S. The prevailing winds in most parts are westerly, but
sudden changes, as well as the extremes of temperature, are caused
mainly by the frequent shifting of the wind from N.W. to S.W.
and from S.W. to N.W. At Cleveland and Cincinnati the winds
blow mostly from the S.E.
Soil. — In the driftless area, the S.E. part of the state, the soil is
largely a decomposition of the underlying rocks, and its fertility
varies according to their composition; there is considerable lime-
stone in the E. central portion, and this renders the soil very pro-
ductive. In the valleys also are strips covered with a fertile alluvial
deposit. In the other parts of the state the soil is composed mainly
of glacial drift, and is generally deep and fertile. It is deeper and
more fertile, however, in the basins of the Great Miami and Little
Miami rivers, where there is a liberal mixture of decomposed limestone
and where extensive areas with a clay subsoil are covered with
alluvial deposits. North of the lower course of the Maumee river is a
belt of sand, but Ohio drift generally contains a large mixture of clay.
Agriculture. — Ohio ranks high as an agricultural state. Of its
total land surface 24,501,820 acres or nearly 94% was, in 1900,
included in farms and 78-5% of all the farm land was improved.
There were altogether 276,719 farms; of these 93,028 contained less
than 50 acres, 182,802 contained less than 100 acres, 150,060 con-
tained less than 175 acres, 26,659 contained 175 acres or more, and
164 contained 1000 acres or more. The average size of the farms
decreased from 125-2 acres in 1850 to 99-2 acres in 1880 and 88-5
acres in 1900. Nearly seven-tenths of the farms were worked in
1900 by owners or part owners, 24,051 were worked by cash tenants,
51,880 were worked by share tenants, and 1969 were worked by
negroes as owners, tenants or managers. There is a great variety of
produce, but the principal crops are Indian corn, wheat, oats, hay,
potatoes, apples and tobacco. In 1900 the acreage of cereals con-
stituted 68-4% of the acreage of all crops, and the acreage of
Indian corn, wheat and oats constituted 99-3 % of the total acreage
of cereals. The Indian corn crop was 67,501,144 bushels in 1870;
152,055,390 bushels in 1899 and 153,062,000 in 1909, when it was
grown on 3,875,000 acres and the state ranked seventh among the
states of the Union in the production of this cereal. The wheat crop
was 27,882,159 bushels in 1870; 50,376,800 bushels (grown on
3,209,014 acres) in 1899; and 23,532,000 bushels (grown on 1,480,000
acres) in 1909. The oat crop was 25,347,549 bushels in 1870;
42,050,910 bushels (grown on 1,115,149 acres) in 1899; and
56,225,000 bushels (grown on 1,730,000 acres) in 1909. The barley
crop decreased from 1,715,221 bushels in 1870 to 1,053,240 bushels
in 1899 and 829,000 bushels in 1909. The number of swine was
1,964,770 in 1850; 3,285,789 in 1900; and 2,047,000 in 1910.
The number of cattle was 1,358,947 in 1850; 2,117,925 in 1900;
and 1,925,000 in 1910. In 1900 there were 868,832 and in 1910
9^7,000 milch cows in the state. The number of sheep decreased
slightly between 1870 and 1900, when there were 4,030,021; in
1910 there were 3,203,000 sheep in the state. The number of horses
was 463,397 in 1850; 1,068,170 in 1900; and 977,000 in 1910.
The cultivation of tobacco was of little importance in the state until
about 1840; but the product increased from 10,454,449 !b in 1850
to 34,735,235 ft) in 1880, and to 65,957,100 lb in 1899, when the crop
was grown on 71,422 acres; in 1909 the crop was 83,250,000 lb,
grown on 90,000 acres. The value of all farm products in 1899 was
1257,065,826. Indian corn, wheat and oats are grown in all parts,
but the W. half of the state produces about three-fourths of the I ndian
corn and two-thirds of the wheat, and in the N. half, especially in
the N.W. corner, are the best oat-producing counties. The N.E.
quarter ranks highest in the production of hay. Domestic animals
are evenly distributed throughout the state; in no county was their
total value, in June 1900, less than $500,000, and in only three
counties (Licking, Trumbull and Wood) did their value exceed
$2,000,000; in 73 counties their value exceeded $1,000,000, but
was less than $2,000,000. Dairying and the production of eggs are
also important industries in all sections. Most of the tobacco is
grown in the counties on or near the S.W. border.
Fisheries. — Commercial fishing is important only in Lake Erie.
In 1903 the total catch there amounted to 10,748,986 lb, valued at
$317,027. Propagation facilities are being greatly improved, and
there are stringent laws for the protection of immature fish. Inland
streams and lakes are well supplied with game fish; state laws
prohibit the sale of game fish and their being taken, except with
hook and line.
Mineral Products. — The mineral wealth of Ohio consists largely of
bituminous coal and petroleum, but the state also ranks high in the
production of natural gas, sandstone, limestone, grindstone, lime
and gypsum. The coal fields, comprising a total area of 10,000 sq. m.
or more, are in the E. half of the state. Coal was discovered here as
early as 1770, and the mining of it was begun not later than 1828,
but no accurate account of the output was kept until 1872, in which
year it was 5,315,294 short tons; this was increased to 18,^88,150
short tons in 1900, and to 26,270,639 short tons in 1908 — m 1907
it was 32,142,419 short tons. There are 29 counties in which
coal is produced, but 81-4% of it in 1908 came from Belmont,
Athens, Jefferson, Guernsey, Perry, Hocking, Tuscarawas and
Jackson counties. Two of the most productive petroleum fields of
the United States are in part in Ohio; the Appalachian field in the
E. and S. parts of the state, and the Lima-Indiana field in the N.W.
part. Some petroleum was obtained in the S.E. as early as 1859,
but the state's output was comparatively small until after petroleum
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OHIO
27
was discovered in the N.W. in 1884; in 1883 the output was only
47,632 barrels, four years later it was 5,022,632 barrels, and in
1896 it was 23,941,169 barrels, or 39% of the total output in the
United States. For the next ten years, however, there was a decrease,
and in 1908 the output had fallen to 10,858,797 barrels, of which
6,748,676 barrels (valued at $6,861,885) was obtained in the Lima
district, 4,109,935 barrels (valued at $7,315,667) from the south-
cast district, and 186 barrels (valued at $950), suitable for lubricat-
ing purposes, from the Mccca-Belden district in Trumbull and
Loram counties. Natural gas abounds in the eastern, central and
north-western parts of the state. That in the E. was first used
in 1866, the N.W. field was opened in 1884, and the central field
was opened in 1887. The value of the state's yearly flow increased
steadily from $100,000 in 1885 to .?5, 215, 669 in 1889, decreased
from the latter year to $1,171,777 in 1897, and then increased to
$8,244,835 in 1908. Some of the best sandstone in the United States
is obtained from Cuyahoga and Lorain counties; it is exceptionally
pure in texture (about 97% being pure silica), durable and evenly
coloured light bufT, grey or blue grey. From the Ohio sandstone
known as Berea grit a very large portion of the country's grindstones
and pulpstones has been obtained; in 1908 the value of Ohio's
output of these stones was $482,128. Some of the Berea grit is also
suitable for making oilstones and scythestones. Although the state
has a great amount of limestone, especially in Erie and Ottawa
counties, its dull colour renders it unsuitable for most building
purposes. It is, however, much used as a flux for melting iron
and for making quick lime. The quantity of Portland cement
made in Ohio increased from 57,000 barrels in 1890 to 563,113
barrels in 1902 and to 1,521,764 barrels in 1908. Beds of rock
gypsum extend over an area of 150 acres or more in Ottawa county.
There is some iron ore in the eastern and south-eastern parts of the
state, and the mining of it was begun early in the 19th century;
but the output decreased from 254,294 long tons in 1889 to only
26,585 long tons (all carbonate) in 1908. Ohio, in 1908, produced
3,427,478 barrels of salt valued at $864,710. Other valuable
minerals are clay suitable for making pottery, brick and tile (in
1908 the value of the clay working products was $26,622,490) and
sand suitable for making glass. The total value of the state's
mineral products in 1908 amounted to 8134,499,335.
Manufactures. — The total value of the manufactures increased from
8348,298,390 in 1880 to $641,688,064 in 1890, and to 8832,438,113
in 1900. The value of the factory product was $748,670,855 in 1900
and $960,811,857 in 1905.' The most important manufacturing
industry is that of iron and steel. This industry was established
near Youngstown in 1804. The value of the products increased
from $65,206,828 in 1890 to $138,935,256 in 1900 and to 8152,859,124
in 1905. Foundry and machine-shop products, consisting largely of
engines, boilers, metal-working machinery, wood-working machinery,
pumping machinery, mining machinery and stoves, rank second
among the state's manufactures; their value increased from
843,617,072 in 1890 to $72,399,632 in 1900, and to 894,507,691 in
1905. Flour and grist mill products rank third in the state; the
value of the products decreased from $39,468,409 in 1890 to
$37,390,367 in 1900, and then increased to $40,855,566 in 1905.
Meat (slaughtering and packing) was next in the value of the product,
and increased from 820,660,780 in 1900 to $28,729,044 in 1905.
Clay products rank fifth in the state; they increased in value from
$16,480,812 in 1900 to $25,686,870 in 1905. Boots and shoes rank
sixth; their value increased from $8,489,728 in 1890 to $17,920,854
in 1900 and to 825,140,220 in 1905. Other leading manufactures are
malt liquors ($21,620,794 in 1905), railway rolling-stock consisting
largely of cars ($21,428,227), men's clothing ($18,496,173), planing
mill products ($17,725,711), carriages and wagons (816,096,125),
distilled liquors ($15,976,523), rubber and elastic goods ($15,963,603),
furniture ($13,322,608), cigars and cigarettes ($13,241,230), agri-
cultural implements ($12,891,197), women's clothing (812,803,582),
lumber and timber products ($12,567,992), soap and candles
($11,791,223), electrical machinery, apparatus and supplies
($11,019,235), paper and wood pulp ($10,961,527) and refined
petroleum ($10,948,864).
1 he great manufacturing centres are Cleveland, Cincinnati,
Youngstown, Toledo, Columbus, Dayton and Akron, and in 1905
the value of the products of these cities amounted to 56-7 % of
that for the entire state. A large portion of the iron and steel is
manufactured in Cleveland, Youngstown, Steubcnville, Bellaire,
Lorain and Ironton. Most of the automobiles are manufactured
in Cleveland; most of the cash registers and calculating machines
in Dayton ; most of the rubber and elastic goods in Akron ; nearly
one-half of the liquors and about three-fourths of the men's clothing
in Cincinnati. East Liverpool leads in the manufacture of pottery;
Toledo in flour and grist mill products; Springfield in agricultural
implements; Cincinnati and Columbus in boots and shoes; Cleve-
land in women's clothing.
Transportation and Commerce. — The most important natural
means of transportation are the Ohio river on the S. border and Lake
' The statistics of 1905 were taken under the direction of the
United States Census Bureau, but products other than those of the
factory system, such, for example, as those of the hand trades, were
excluded.
Erie on the N. border. One of the first great public improvements
made within the state was the connexion of these waterways by
two canals — the Ohio & Erie Canal from Cleveland to Portsmouth,
and the Miami & Erie Canal from Toledo to Cincinnati. The Ohio &.
Erie was opened throughout its entire length (309 m.) in 1832. The
Miami & Erie was completed from Middlelown to Cincinnati in 1827;
in 1845 it was opened to the lake (250 m. from Cincinnati). The
national government began in 1825 to extend the National Road
across Ohio from Bridgeport, opposite Wheeling, West Virginia,
through Zanesville and Columbus, and completed it to Springfield
in 1837. Before the completion of the Miami & Erie Canal to Toledo,
the building of railways was begun in this region, and in 1836 a
railway was completed from that city to Adrian, Michigan. By
the close of 1850 the railway mileage had increased to 575 m.,
and for the next forty years, with the exception of the Civil War
period, more than 2000 m. of railways were built during each decade.
At the close of 1908 there was a total mileage of 9,300-45 m. Among
the railways are the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis,
the Baltimore & Ohio, the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the
New York, Chicago & St Louis, the Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, Chicago
& St Louis (Pennsylvania), the Pittsburgh, Ft. Wayne & Chicago
(Pennsylvania), the Nypano (Erie), the Wheeling & Lake Erie, the
Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton, the Detroit, Toledo & Ironton,
and the Norfolk & Western. As the building of steam railways
lessened, the building of suburban and interurban electric railways
was begun, and systems of these railways have been rapidly extended
until all the more populous districts are connected by them.
Ohio has six ports of entry. They are Cleveland, Toledo. San-
dusky, Cincinnati, Columbus and Dayton, and the value of the foreign
commerce passing through these in 1909 amounted to 89,483,974
in imports (more than one-half to Cleveland) and 810,920,083 in
exports (nearly eight-ninths from Cleveland). Of far greater volume
than the foreign commerce is the domestic trade in coal, iron, lumber,
&.C., largely by way of the Great Lakes.
Population. — The population of Ohio in the various census
years was: (1800) 4S,365; (1810) 230,760; (1820) 581,434;
(1830) 937,903; (1840) 1,519,467; (1850) 1,980,329; (i860)
2,339,511; (1870) 2,665,260; (1880) 3,198,062; (1800)
3,672,316; (1900) 4,157,545; (1910) 4,767,121. In 1900 Ohio
ranked fourth in population among the states. Of the total
population in 1900, 4,060,204 or 97-6% were white and
97,341 were coloured (96,901 negroes, 371 Chinese, 27 Japanese
and 42 Indians). Of the same total 3,698,811 or 88-9% were
native-born and 458,734 were foreign-born; 93-8% of the
foreign-born consisted of the following: 204,160 natives of
Germany, 65,553 of Great Britain, 55,018 of Ireland, 22,767
of Canada (19,864 English Canadian), 16,822 of Poland, 15,131
of Bohemia, 11,575 of Austria and 11,321 of Italy. In 1906
there were 1,742,873 communicants of different religious de-
nominations, over one-third being Roman Catholics and about
one-fifth Methodists. FromiSqoto 1900 the urljan population
{i.e. population of incorporated places having 4000 inhabitants
or more) increased from 1,387,884 to 1,864,519, and the semi-
urban (i.e. population of incorporated places having less than
4000 inhabitants) increased from 458,033 to 549,741, but the
rural {i.e. population outside of incorporated places) decreased
from 1,826,412 to 1,743,285. The largest cities are Cleveland,
Cincinnati, Toledo, Columbus (the capital), Dayton, Youngstown,
Akron, Springfield, Canton, Hamilton, Zanesville and Lima.
Administration. — Ohio is governed under the constitution of
1851 as amended in 1S75, 1883, 1885, 1902, 1903. and 1905. An
amendment may be proposed at any time by either branch of the
General Assembly, and if after being approved by three-fifths of
the members of both branches it is also approved at a general
election by a majority of those voting on the question it is declared
adopted; a constitutional convention may be called after a
favourable two-thirds vote of the members of each branch of
the Assembly and a favourable popular vote — a majority of those
voting on the question; and the question of calling such a
convention must be submitted to a popular vote at least once
every twenty years. Under the constitution of 1802 and 1851
the suffrage was limited to " white male " citizens of the
United States, but since the adoption of the Fifteenth Amend-
ment to the Federal Constitution (1S70), negroes vote, though
the constitution is unchanged. Since 1894 women who possess
the usual qualifications required of men may vote for and be voted
for as members of boards of education. The constitution requires
that all elections be by ballot, and the Australian ballot system
was adopted in 1891; registration is required in cities having
28
OHIO
a population of ii,8oo or more. The executive department
consists of a governor, lieutenant-governor, secretary of state,
auditor, treasurer and attorney-general. As a result of the
dispute between Governor Arthur St Clair and the Territorial
legislature, the constitution of 1802 conferred nearly all of the
ordinary executive functions on the legislature. The governor's
control over appointments was strengthened by the constitution
of 1851 and by the subsequent creation of statutory offices,
boards and commissions, but the right of veto was not given to
him until the adoption of the constitutional amendments of
1903. The power as conferred at that time, however, is broader
than usual, for it extends not only to items in appropriation bills,
but to separate sections in other measures, and, in addition to the
customary provision for passing a bill over the governor's veto
by a two-thirds vote of each house it is required that the votes
for repassage in each house must not be less than those given on
the original passage. The governor is elected in November of
even-numbered years for a term of two years. He is commander-
in-chief of the static military and naval forces, except when
they are called into the service of the United States. He grants
pardons and reprieves on the recommendation of the state
board of pardons. If he die in office, resign or be impeached, the
officers standing next in succession are the heutenant-governor,
the president of the Senate, and the speaker of the House of
Representatives in the order named.
Members of the Senate and House of Representatives are
elected for terms of two years; they must be residents of their
respective counties or districts for one year preceding election,
unless absent on public business of the state or of the United
States. The ratio of representation in the Senate is obtained
by dividing the total population of the state by thirty-five, the
ratio in the House by dividing the population by one hundred.
The membership in each house, however, is shghtly above these
figures, owing to a system of fractional representation and to the
constitutional amendment of 1903 which allows each county at
least one representative in the House of Representatives. The
constitution provides for a reapportionment every ten years
beginning in 1861. Biennial sessions are held beginning on the
first Monday in January of the even-numbered years. The
powers of the two houses are equal in every respect except
that the Senate passes upon the governor's appointments and
tries impeachment cases brought before it by the House of
Representatives. The constitution prohibits special, local and
retroactive legislation, legislation impairing the obligation of
contracts, and legislation levying a poll tax for county or state
purposes or a tax on state, municipal and public school bonds
(amendment of 1905), and it limits the amount and specifies the
character of public debts which the legislature may contract.
The judicial department in igio was composed of a supreme
court of six judges, eight circuit courts."^ of three judges each,
ten districts (some with sub-divisions) of the common pleas
court, the superior court of Cincinnati, probate courts, courts
of insolvency in Cuyahoga and Hamilton counties, juvenile
courts (estabhshed in 1904), justice of the peace courts and
municipal courts. Under the constitution of 1802 judges were
chosen by the legislature, but since 1851 they have been elected
by direct popular vote — the judges of the supreme court being
chosen at large. They are removable on complaint by a con-
current resolution approved by a two-thirds majority in each
house of the legislature. The constitution provides that the
terms of supreme and circuit judges shall be such even number
of years not less than six as may be prescribed by the legislature —
the statutory provision is six years — that of the judges of the
common pleas six years, that of the probate judges four years,
that of other judges such even number of years not exceeding
six as may be prescribed by the legislature — the statutory
provision is six years — and that of justices of the peace such
even number of years not exceeding four as may be thus
prescribed — the statutory provision is four years.
Local Government. — The county and the township are the units
of the rural, the city and th e village the units of the urban local
'■ The provision for circuit courts was first made in the constitution
by an amendment of 1883.
government. The chief county authority is the board of com-
missioners of three members elected for terms of two years. The
other officials are the sheriff, treasurer and coroner, elected for two
years; the auditor, recorder, clerk of courts, prosecuting attorney,
surveyor and infirmary directors, elected for two years; and the
board of school e.xaminers (three) and the board of county visitors
(six, of whom three are women), appointed usually by the probate
judge for three years. The chief township authority is the board of
trustees of three members, elected by popular vote for two years.
In the parts of the state settled by people from New England
township meetings were held in the early days, but their functions
were gradually transferredito the trustees, and by 1820 the meetings
had been given up almost entirely. The other township officials are
the clerk, treasurer, assessor, supervisor of roads, justices of the
peace, constables, board of education and board of health. Under
the constitution of 1802, municipal corporations were established
by special legislation. The constitution of 1851, however, provided
for a general law, and the legislature in 1852 enacted a " general
municipal corporations act," the first of its kind in the United States.
The system of classification adopted in time became so elaborate
that many municipalities became isolated, each in a separate class,
and the evils of special legislation were revived. Of the two chief
cities, Cleveland (under a special act providing for the government
of Columbus and Toledo, also) in 1892-1902 was governed under the
federal plan, which centralized power in the hands of the mayor;
in Cincinnati there was an almost hopeless diffusion of responsibility
among the council and various executive boards. The supreme court
in June 1902 decided that practically all the existing municipal
legislation was special in character and was therefore unconstitu-
tional. (State ex. rel. Kniseley vs. Jones, 66 Ohio State Reports,
453. See also 66 Ohio State Reports,*49i.) A special session of the
legislature was called, and a new municipal code was adopted on
the 22nd of October which went into effect in April 1903; it was
a compromise between the Cleveland and the Cincinnati plans,
with some additional features necessary to meet the conditions
existing in the smaller cities. In order to comply with the court's
interpretation of the constitution, municipalities were divided into
only two classes, cities and villages, the former having a population
of five thousand or more; the chief officials in both cities and
villages were the mayor, council, treasurer and numerous boards of
commissions. This was an attempt to devise a system of government
that would apply to Cleveland, a city of 400,000 inhabitants, and to
Painesville with its 5000 inhabitants. The code was replaced by
the Paine Law of 1909, which provided for a board of control (some-
thing like that under the " federal plan " in Cleveland, Columbus
and Toledo) of three members: the mayor and the directors (ap-
pointed and removable by the mayor) of two municipal departments
— public service and public safety, the former including public works
and parks, and the latter police, fire, charities, correction and
buildings. The mayor's appointments are many, and are seldom
dependent on the consent of the^'council. A municipal civil service
commission of three members (holding office for three years) is chosen
by the president of the board of education, the president of the city
council, and the president of the board of sinking fund commissioners;
the pay (if any) of these commissioners is set by each city. The
city auditor, treasurer and solicitor are elected, as under the
code.
In 1908 a direct primary law was passed providing for party
primaries, those of all parties in each district to be held at the same
time (annually) and place, before the same election board, and at
public expense, to nominate candidates for township and municipal
offices and members of the school board ; nominations to be by
petition signed by at least 2 % of the party voters of the political
division, except that for United States senators 5 of i % is the
minimum. The law does not make the nomination of candidates
for the United States Senate by this method mandatory nor such
choice binding upon the General Assembly.
Laws. — The property rights of husband and wife are nearly equal ;
a wife may hold her property the same as if single, and a widower
or a widow is entitled to the use for life of one-third of the real estate
of which his or her deceased consort was seized at the time of his or
her death. Among the grounds on which a divorce may be obtained
are adultery, extreme cruelty, fraud, abandonment for three years,
gross neglect of duty, habitual drunkenness, a former existing
marriage, procurement of divorce without the state by one party,
which continues marriage binding on the other, and imprisonment in
a penitentiary. For every family in which there is a wife, a minor
son, or an unmarried daughter, a homestead not exceeding Siooo
in value, or personal property not exceeding S500 in value, is exempt
from sale for the satisfaction of debts.
In 1908 an act was passed providing for local option in regard
to the sale of intoxicating liquors, by an election to be called an
initiative petition, signed by at least 35 % of the electors of a county.
Cluin'lable and Penal Institutions. — The state charitable and penal
institutions are supervised by the board of charities of six members
(" not more than three . . . from the same political party ")
appointed by the governor, and local institutions by boards of county
visitors of six members appointed by the probate judge. Each state
institution in addition has its own board of trustees appointed by
the governor, and each county infirmary is under the charge of three
OHIO
29
infirmary directors chosen by popular vote. There are hospitals for
the insane at Athens, Columbus, Dayton, Cleveland, Carthage (10 m.
from Cincinnati; Longview Hospital), Massillon, Toledo and Lima;
a hospital for epileptics at Gallipolis, opened in 1893; institutions
for feeble-minded, for the blind (opened 1839) and for the de.if
(opened 1829) at Columbus; a state sanatorium for tuberculous
patients at Mt. Vernon (opened 1909); an institution for crippled
and deformed children (authorized in 1907) ; a soldiers' and sailors'
orphans' home at Xenia (organized in 1869 by the tjrand Army of
the Republic); a home for soldiers, sailors, marines, their wives,
mothers and widows, and army nurses at Madison (established by
the National Women's Relief Corps; taken over by the state, 1904);
and soldiers' and sailors' homes at Sandusky (opened 1888), supported
by the state, and at Dayton, supported by the United States. The
state penal institutions are the boys' industrial school near Lancaster
(established in 1854 as a Reform Farm), the girls' industrial home
(1869) at Rathbone near Delaware, the reformatory at Mansfield
(authorized 1884, opened 1896) and the penitentiary at Columbus
(1816).
Education. — Congress m 1785 set apart I sq. m. in each township
of 36 sq. m. for the support of education. The public school system,
however, was not established until 1825, and then it develo[X!d very
slowly. The office of state commissioner of common schools was
created in 1837, abolished in 1840 and revived in 1843. School
districts fall into four classes — cities, villages, townships and special
districts — each of which has its own board of education elected by
popular vote. Laws passed in 1877, 1890, 1893 and 1902 have made
education compulsory for children between the ages of eight and
fourteen. The school revenues are derived from the sale and rental
of public lands granted by Congress, and of the salt and swamp lands
devoted by the state to such purposes, from a uniform levy of one
mill on each dollar of taxable property in the state, from local levies
(averaging 7-2 mills in township districts and 10-07 mills in separate
districts in 1908), from certain fines and licences, and from tuition
fees paid by non-resident pupils. The total receipts from all sources
in 1908 amounted to .S25,987,02i ; the balance from the preceding
year was $11,714,135, and the total expenditures were $24,695,157.
Three institutions for higher education are supported in large measure
by the state: Ohio University at .Athens, founded in 1804 on the
proceeds derived from two townships granted by Congress to the
Ohio Company; Miami University (chartered in 1809) at Oxford,
which received the proceeds from a township granted by Congress in
the Symmes purchase; and Ohio State University (1873) at Colum-
bus, which received the proceeds from the lands granted by Congress
under the act of 1862 for the establishment of agricultural and
mechanical colleges, and reorganized as a university in 1878. Wilbcr-
force University (1856), for negroes, near Xenia, is under the control
of the African Methodist Episcopal Church ; but the state established
a normal and industrial department in 1888, and has since contributed
to its maintenance. Under an act of 1902 normal colleges, supported
by the state, have also been created in connexion with Ohio and
Miami universities. Among the numerous other colleges and uni-
versities in the state are Western Reserve University (1826) at
Cleveland, the university of Cincinnati (opened 1873) at Cincinnati,
and Oberlin College (1833) at Oberlin.
Finance. — The revenues of the state are classified into four funds;
the general revenue fund, the sinking fund, the state common school
fund and the university fund. The chief sources of the general
revenue fund are taxes on real and personal property, on liquors and
cigarettes, on corporations and on inheritances; in 1909 the net
receipts for this fund were $8,043,257, the disbursements $9,103,301,
and the cash balance at the end of the fiscal year $3,428,705. There
is a tendency to reduce the rate on real property, leaving it as a
basis for local taxation. The rate on collateral inheritances is 5 %,
on direct inheritances 2 %, on the excess above $3000. There are
state, county and municipal boards of equalization. A special tax
is levied for the benefit of the sinking fund — one-tenth of a mill in
1909. The commissioners offthe fund are the auditor, the secretary
of state and the attorney-general. The public debt, which began to
accumulate in 1825, was increased by the canal expenditures to
$16,880,000 in 1843. The constitution of 1851 practically deprived
the legislature of the power to create new obligations. The funded
debt was then gradually reduced until the last installment was paid
in 1903. There still remains, however, an irredeemable debt due
to the common schools, Ohio LIniversity and Ohio State LIniversity,
in return for their public lands. About one-half of the annual common
school fund is derived from local taxes; the state levy for this fund
in 1909 was one mill, and the total receipts were $2,382,353. The
university fund is derived from special taxes levied for the four
institutions which receive aid from the state; in 1909 the levy was
0-245 mills and the total receipts were $582,843. Several banks and
trading houses with banking privileges were incorporated by special
statutes between 1803 and 1817. Resentment was aroused by the
establishment of branches of the Bank of the United States at Chilli-
cothe and Cincinnati in 1817, and an attempt was made to tax them
out of existence. State officials broke into the vaults of the Chilli-
cothe branch in 1819 and took out $100,000 due for taxes. The
Federal courts compelled a restoration of the money and pronounced
the taxing law unconstitutional. In 1845 the legislature chartered
for twenty years the State Bank of Ohio, based on the model of the
State Bank of Indiana of 1834. It liecamc a guarantee of conservative
banking, and was highly succes.sful. There were at one time thirty-
six branches. Most of the state institutions secured Federal charters
after the establishments of the national banking system (1863-1864),
but the high price of government bonds and the large amount of capital
required led to a reaction, which was only partially checked by the
reduction of the minimum capital to 825,000 under the currency act
of the 14th of March 1900.
History. — Ohio was the pioneer state of the old Norlh-West
Territory, which embraced also what are now the states of
Indiana, Illinois, Michigan and Wisconsin, and the N.E. corner
of Minnesota. When discovered by Europeans, late in the first
half of the 17th century, the territory included within what is
now Ohio was mainly a battle-ground of numerous Indian tribes
and the fixed abode of none except the Eries who occupied a
strip along the border of Lake Erie. From the middle to the
close of the 17th century the French were establishing a claim to
the territory between the Great Lakes and the Ohio river by
discovery and occupation, and although they had provoked
the hostility of the Iroquois Indians they had helped the
Wyandots, Miamis and Shawnees to banish them from all
territory W. of the Muskingum river. Up to this time the English
had based their claim to the same territory on the discovery
of the Atlantic Coast by the Cabots and upon the Virginia,
Massachusetts and Connecticut charters under which these
colonies extended westward to the Pacific Ocean. In 1701,
New York, seeking another claim, obtained from the Iroquois
a grant to the king of England of this territory which they claimed
to have conquered but from which they had subsequently been
expelled, and this grant was confirmed in 1726 and again in 1744.
About 1730 English traders from Pennsylvania and Virginia
began to visit the eastern and southern parts of the territory
and the crisis approached as a French Canadian expedition under
Celeron de Bienville took formal possession of the upper Ohio
Valley by planting leaden plates at the mouths of the principal
streams. This was in 1749 and in the same year George II.
chartered the first Ohio Company, formed by Virginians and
London merchants trading with Virginia for the purpose of
colonizing the West. This company in 1750 sent Christopher
Gist down the Ohio river to explore the country as far as the
mouth of the Scioto river; and four years later the erection
of a fort was begun in its interest at the forks of the Ohio. The
French drove the English away and completed the fort (Fort
Duquesne) for themselves. The Seven Years' War was the
immediate consequence and this ended in the cession of the entire
North-West to Great Britain. The former Indian allies of the
French, however, immediately rose up in opposition to British
rule in what is known as the Conspiracy of Pontiac (see Pontiac),
and the supression of this was not completed until Colonel
Henry Bouquet made an expedition (1764) into the valley of the
Muskingum and there brought the Shawnees, Wyandots and
Delawares to terms. With the North-West won from the French
Great Britain no longer recognized those claims of her colonies
to this territory which she had asserted against that nation, but
in a royal proclamation of the 7th of October 1763 the granting
of land W. of the AUeghanies was forbidden and on the 22nd of
June 1774 parliament passed the Quebec Act which annexed
the region to the province of Quebec. This was one of the
grievances which brought on the War of Independence and during
that war the North-West was won for the Americans by George
Rogers Clark (q.v.). During that war also, those states which
had no claims in the West contended that title to these western
lands should pass to the Union and when the Articles of Con-
federation were submitted for ratification in 1777, Maryland
refused to ratify them except on that condition. The result
was that New York ceded its claim to the L^nited States in 1780,
Virginia in 1784, Massachusetts in 1785 and Connecticut in 1786.
Connecticut, however, excepted a strip bordering on Lake Erie
for 120 m. and containing 3,250,000 acres. This district, known
as the Western Reserve, was ceded in 1800 on condition that
Congress would guarantee the titles to land already granted by
the state. Virginia reserved a tract between the Little Miami
and Scioto rivers, known as the Virginia Military District, for
her soldiers in the War of Independence.
30
OHIO
When the war was over and these cessions had been made
a great number of war veterans wished an opportunity to repair
their broken fortunes in the West, and Congress, hopeful of
receiving a large revenue from the sale of lands here, passed an
ordinance on the 20th of May 1785 by which the present national
system of land-surveys into townships 6 m. sq. was inaugurated
in what is now S.W. Ohio in the summer of 1786. In March
1786 the second Ohio Company (q.v.), composed chiefly of New
England officers and soldiers, was organized in Boston, Massa-
chusetts, with a view to founding a new state between Lake
Erie and the Ohio river. The famous North- West Ordinance
was passed by Congress on the 13th of July 1787. This instru-
ment provided a temporary government for the Territory with
the understanding that, as soon as the population was sufficient,
the representative system should be adopted, and later that
states should be formed and admitted into the Union. There
were to be not less than three nor more than five states. Of
these the easternmost (Ohio) was to be bounded on the N., E.
and S. by the Lakes, Pennsylvania and the Ohio river, and on
the W. by a line drawn due N. from the mouth of the Great Miami
river to the Canadian boundary, if there were to be three states,
or to its intersection with an E. and W. Une drawn through the
extreme S. bend of Lake Michigan, if there were to be five.
Slavery was forbidden by the sixth article of the ordinance;
and the third article read: " Religion, morality and knowledge
being necessary to good government and the happiness of man-
kind, schools and the means of education shall for ever be
encouraged." After the adoption of the North- West Ordinance
the work of settlement made rapid progress. There were four
main centres. The Ohio Company founded Marietta at the
mouth of the Muskingum in 1788, and this is regarded as the
oldest permanent settlement in the state. An association of
New Jerseymen, organized by John Cleves Symmes, secured
a grant from Congress in 1788-1792 to a strip of 248,540 acres
on the Ohio between the Great Miami and the Little Miami, which
came to be known as the Symmes Purchase. Their chief settle-
ments were Columbia ( 1 788) and Cincinnati ( 1 789) . The Virginia
Military District, between the Scioto and the Little Miami,
reserved in 1784 for bounties to Virginia continental troops,
was colonized in large measure by people from that state. Their
chief towns were Massievihe or Manchester (1790) and Chilhcothe
(1796). A small company of Connecticut people under Moses
Cleaveland founded Cleveland in 1796 and Youngstown was
begun a few years later, but that portion of the state made very
slow progress until after the opening of the Ohio & Erie Canal
in 1832.
During the Territorial period (1787-1803) Ohio was first a
part of the unorganized North- West Territory (i 787-1 799),
then a part of the organized North-West Territory (1799-1800),
and then the organized North-West Territory (1800-1803),
Indiana Territory having been detached from it on the W.
in 1800. The first Territorial government was established at
Marietta in October 1787, and General Arthur St Clair (1734-
1818), the governor, arrived in the summer of 1788. His ad-
ministration was characterized by the final struggle with the
Indians and by a bitter conthct between the executive and the
legislature, which greatly influenced the constitutional history
of the state. The War of Independence was succeeded by a
series of Indian uprisings. Two campaigns, the first under
General Josiah Harmar (1753-1813) in 1790, and the second
under General St Clair in 1791, failed on account of bad manage-
ment and ignorance of Indian methods of warfare, and in 1793
General Anthony Wayne (q.v.) was sent out in command of a
large force of regulars and volunteers. The decisive confUct,
fought on the 20th of August 1794, near the rapids of theMaumee,
is caDed the battle of Fallen Timbers, because the Indians
concealed themselves behind the trunks of trees which had been
felled by a storm. Wayne's dragoons broke through the brush-
wood, attacked the left flank of the Indians and soon put them
to flight. In the treaty of GreenviUe (3rd August 1795) the
Indians ceded their claims to the territory E. and S. of the
Cuyahoga, the Tuscarawas, and an irregular fine from Fort
Laurens (Bolivar) in Tuscarawas county to Fort Recovery in
Mercer county, practically the whole E. and S. Ohio. The
Jay Treaty was ratified in the same year, and in 1796 the British
finally evacuated Detroit and the Maumee and Sandusky forts.
By cessions and purchases in 1804, 1808 and 1817-1818 the
state secured all of the lands of the Indians except their immediate
homes, and these were finally exchanged for territory W. of the
Mississippi. The last remnant migrated in 1841. General
Wayne's victory was followed by an extensive immigration of
New Englanders, of Germans, Scotch-Irish and Quakers from
Pennsylvania, and of settlers from Virginia and Kentucky,
many of whom came to escape the evils of slavery. This rapid
increase of population led to the establishment of the organized
Territorial government in 1799, to the restriction of that govern-
ment in Ohio in 1800, and to the admission of the state into the
Union in 1803.
The Congressional EnabUng Act of the 30th of April 1802
followed that alternative of the North-West Ordinance which
provided for five states in determining the boundaries, and in
consequence the Indiana and Michigan districts were detached.
A rigid adherence to the boundary authorized in 1787, however,
would have resulted in the loss to Ohio of 470 sq. m. of territory
in the N.W. part of the state, including the lake port of Toledo.
After a long and bitter dispute — the Toledo War (see Toledo) —
the present fine, which is several miles N. of the S. bend of Lake
Michigan, was definitely fixed in 1837, when Michigan came into
the Union. (For the settlement of the eastern boundary, see
Pennsylvania.)
After having been temporarily at Marietta, Cincinnati, Chilh-
cothe and ZanesviUe the capital was established at Columbus
in 1816.
Since Congress did not pass any formal act of admission there
has been some controversy as to when Ohio became a state.
The Enabhng Act was passed on the 30th of April 1802, the
first state legislature met on the ist of March 1803, the Territorial
judges gave up their offices on the 15th of April 1803, and the
Federal senators and representatives took their seats in Congress
on the 17th of October 1803. Congress decided in 1806 in
connexion with the payment of salaries to Territorial officials
that the ist of ]\Iarch 1803 was the date when state government
began. During the War of 181 2 the Indians under the lead of
Tecumseh were again on the side of the British. Battles were
fought at Fort Meigs (1813) and Fort Stephenson (Fremont,
18 13) and Commodore Oliver Hazard Perry's naval victory on
Lake Erie in 18 13 was on the Ohio side of the boundary line.
Owing to the prohibition of slavery the vast majority of the
early immigrants to Ohio came from the North, but, until the
Mexican War forced the slavery question into the foreground,
the Democrats usually controUed the state, because the principles
of that party were more in harmony with frontier ideas of
equahty. The Whigs were successful in the presidential elections
of 1836 and 1840, partly because of the financial panic and
partly because their candidate, William Henry Harrison, was a
" favourite son," and in the election of 1844, because of the
unpopularity of the Texas issue. Victory was with the Democrats
in 1848 and 1852, but since the organization of the Repubhcan
party in 1854 the state has uniformly given to the Republican
presidential candidates its electoral votes. In the Civil War
Ohio loyally supported the Union, furnishing 319,659 men for
the army. Dissatisfaction with the President's emancipation
programme resulted in the election of a Democratic Congressional
delegation in 1862, but the tide turned again after Gettysburg
and Vicksburg; Clement L. VaUandigham, the Democratic
leader, was deported from the state by mihtary order, and the
Republicans were successful in the elections of 1863 and 1864.
A detachment of the Confederate cavalry under General John
Morgan invaded the slate in 1S63, but was badly defeated in the
battle of BuflSngton's Island (July i8th). Democratic governors
were elected in 1873, 1877, 1883, 1889, 1905, 1908 and 1910.
Five presidents have come from Ohio, William Henry Harrison,
Rutherford B. Hayes. James A. Garfield, William McKinley, Jr.,
and WiUiam Howard Taft.
OHIO COMPANY
31
Governors of Ohio
Territorial Period (1787-1803).
Arthur St Clair .... 1787-1802
Charles W. Byrd (Acting) . . 1802-1803
Period of Statehood.
Edward Tiffin
Thomas Kirker (Acting)
Samuel Huntington
Return Jonathan Meigs
Othniel Looker (Acting)
Thomas Worthington
Ethan Alk-n Brown
Allen Trimble (Acting)
Jeremiah Morrow.
Allen Trimble
Duncan McArthur
Robert Lucas
Joseph Vance
Wilson Shannon .
Thomas Corwin .
Wilson Shannon .
Thomas W. Hartley (Acting)
Mordecai Bartley
William Bcbb
Seabury Ford
Reuben Wood
William Mcdill (Acting, 1853)
Salmon P. Chase .
William Dennison, Jr.
David Tod
John Brough
Charles Anderson (Acting)
Jacob D. Cox
Rutherford B. Hayes
Edward F. Noyes.
William Allen
Rutherford B. Hayes .
Thomas L. Young (Acting)
Richard M. Bishop
Charles Foster
George Hoadley .
Joseph B. Forakcr
James E. Campbell
William McKinley, Jr
Asa S. Bushnell .
George K. Nash ;
Myron T. Herrick.
John M. Pattison' _.
Andrew Lintner Harris
Judson Harmon
1803-1807
1 807- 1 809
1809-181 1
1811-1814
1814-1815
1815-1819
1819-1822
1822-1823
1 823- 1 827
1827-1831
1831-1833
l833-i«37
1837-1839
I 839-1 841
1 841-1843
1 843-1 844
1844-1845
1 845- 1 847
I 847- I 849
1849- 1 85 1
1851-1853
1853-1856
1856-1860
1860-1862
1862-1864
1864-1865
1865-1866
1866-1868
1868-1872
1872-1874
1874-1876
1876-1877
1877-1878
1878-1880
1880-1884
1884-1886
1886-1890
1890-1892
1892-1896
1896-1900
1900-1904
1904-1906
1906
1906-1909
1909-
Federalist
Dem.-Rcpub.
Dem.-Repub.
Democrat.
It
Nat.-Repub.
Democrat
Whig
Democrat
Whig
Democrat
Whig"
Democrat
Republican
Democrat
Republican
ti
Democrat
Republican
Democrat
Republican
Democrat
Republican
Democrat
Republican
Democrat
Bibliography. — For a brief but admirable treatment of the
physiography see Stella S. Wilson, Ohio (New York, 1902), and a
great mass of material on this subject is contained in the pubUcations
of the Geological Survey of Ohio (1837 et seq.). For the administra-
tion see the Constitution of the State of Ohio, adopted June iS^i
(Norwalk, Ohio, 1897), and amendments of 1903 and 1905 published
separately; the annual reports of the state treasurer, auditor,
board of state charities and commissioner of common schools, the
Ellis municipal code (1902) and the Harrison school code (1904).
The Civil Code, issued 1852, the Criminal Code in 1869 and the
Revised Statutes in 1879, have several times been amended and
published in new editions. There are two excellent secondary
accounts: Samuel P. Orth, The Centralization of Administration
in Ohio, in the Columbia University Studies in History, Economics
and Public Law, xvi. No. 3 (New York, 1903) ; and Wilbur H.
Siebert, The Government of Ohio, its History and Administration
(New York, 1904). B. A. Hinsdale's History and Civil Government
of Ohio (Chicago, 1896) is more elementary. For local government
see J. A. Wilgus, " Evolution of Township Government in Ohio,"
in the Annual Report of the American Historical Association for
1894, pp. 403-412 (Washington, 1895); D. F. Wilcox, Municipal
Government in Michigan and Ohio, in the Columbia University Studies
in History, Economics and Public Law, v. No. 3 (New York, 1895) ;
J. A. Fairlie, " The Municipal Crisis in Ohio," in the Michigan Law
Review for February 1903; and Thomas L. Sidlo, " Centralization
in Ohio Municipal Government," in the American Political Science
Review for November 1909. On education see George B. Germann,
National Legislation concerning Education, its Influence and Effect
in the Public Lands east of the Mississippi River, admitted prior to
1820 (New York, 1899); J. J. Burns, Educational History of Ohio
(Columbus, 1905).
Archaeology and History: P. G. Thomson's Bibliography of Ohio
(Cincinnati, 1880) is an excellent guide to the study of Ohio's history.
For archaeology see Cyrus Thomas's Catalogue of Prehistoric Works
^ Died in office.
East of the Rocky Mountains (Washington, 1891), and his Report on
the Mound Explorations of the Bureau of Ethnology in the 12th Report
(1H94) of that Bureau, supplementing his earlier bulletins, Problem
of the Ohio Mounds and the Circular, Square and Octagonal Earthworks
of Ohio (1889); and W. K. Moorehead, Primitive Man in Ohio
(New York, 1892). The best history is Rufus King, Ohio; First
Fruits of the Ordinance of i/Sy (Boston and New York, 1888), in the
" American Commonwealths " series. Alexander Black's Story of
Ohio (Boston, 1888) is a short popular account. B. A. Hinsdale,
The Old North-west (2nd ed., New York, 1899), is good for the period
before 1803. Of the older histories Caleb Atwatcr, History of the Slate
of Ohio, Natural and Civil (Cincinnati, 1838), and James W. Taylor,
History of the State of Ohio: First Period i6^o-iyHj (Cincinnati,
1854), ^re useful. For the Territorial period, and especially for the
Indian wars of 1 790-1 794, see W. H.Smith (ed.), The St Clair Papers:
Life and Services of Arthur St Clair (2 vols., Cincinnati, 1882) ; Jacob
Burnet, Notes on the Early Settlement of the North-Western Territory
(('incinnati, 1847), written from the Federalist point of view, ami
hence rather favourable to St Clair; C. E. Slocum, Ohio Country
between 1783 and 181S (New York, 1910); and John Armstrong's
Life of Anthony Wayne in Sparks' " Library of American Biography "
(Boston, 1834-1838), series i. vol. iv. See also F. P. Goodwin,
The Growth of Ohio (Cincinnati, 1907) and R. E. Chaddock, Ohio
before 1850 (New York, igo8). There is considerable material of
value, especially for local history, in the Ohio Archaeological and
Historical Society Publications (Columbus, 1887), and in Henry Howe,
Historical Collections of Ohio (ist ed., Cincinnati, 1847; Centennial
edition [enlarged], 2 vols., Columbus, 1889-1891). T. B. Galloway,
" The Ohio-Michigan Boundary Line Dispute," in the Ohio Archaeo-
logical and Historical Society Publications, vol. iv. pp. 199-230,
is a good treatment of that complicated question. W. F. Gephart's
Transportation and Industrial Development in the Middle West (New
York, 1909), in the Columbia University Studies in History,
Economics and Public Law, is a commercial history of Ohio.
OHIO COMPANY, a name of two i8th century companies
organized for the colonization of the Ohio Valley. The first
Ohio Company was organized in 1749, partly to aid in securing
for the English control of the valley, then in dispute between
England and France, and partly as a commercial project for
trade with the Indians. The company was composed of \ir-
ginians, including Thomas Lee (d. 1750) and the two brothers of
George Washington, Lawrence (who succeeded to the manage-
ment upon the death of Lee) and Augustine; and of Englishmen,
including John Hanbury, a wealthy London merchant. George
II. sanctioned a grant to the company of 500,000 acres generally
N.W. of the Ohio, and to the eastward, between the Monongahela
and the Kanawha rivers, but the grant was never actually
issued. In 1 750-1 751 Christopher Gist, a skilful woodsman and
surveyor, explored for the company the Ohio Valley as far as
the mouth of the Scioto river. In 1752 the company had a
pathway blazed between the small fortified posts at Will's Creek
(Cumberland), Maryland, and at Redstone Creek (Brownsville),
Pennsylvania, which it had established in 1750; but it was
finally merged in the Walpole Company (an organization in
which Benjamin FrankUn was interested), which in 1772 had
received from the British government a grant of a large tract
lying along the southern bank of the Ohio as far west as the
mouth of the Scioto river. The War of Independence interrupted
colonization and nothing was accomplished.
The second company, the Ohio Company of Associates, was
formed at Boston on the 3rd of March 1 7S6. The leaders in the
movement were General Rufus Putnam, Benjamin Tupper
(1738-1792), Samuel Holden Parsons (1737-1789) and Manasseh
Cutler. Dr Cutler was selected to negotiate with Congress, and
seems to have helped to secure the incorporation in the Ordinance
for the government of the North- West Territory of the paragraphs
which prohibited slavery and provided for public education and
for the support of the ministry. Cutler's original intention was
to buy for the Ohio Company only about 1,500,000 acres, but
on the 27th of July Congress authorized a grant of about
5,000,000 acres of land for $3,500,000; a reduction of one-third
was allowed for bad tracts, and it was also provided that the
lands could be paid for in United States securities. On the 27th
of October 17S7 Cutler and Major Winthrop Sargent (1753-
1820), who had joined him in the negotiations, signed two con-
tracts; one was for the absolute purchase for the Ohio Company,
at 66f cents an acre, of 1,500,000 acres of land lying along the
north bank of the Ohio river, from a point near the site of the
32
OHIO RIVER
present Marietta, to a point nearly opposite the site of the present
Huntington, Kentucky, the other was for an option to buy all
the land between the Ohio and the Scioto rivers and the western
boundary Line of the Ohio Company's tract, extending north of
the tenth township from the Ohio, this tract being pre-empted by
" Manasseh Cutler and Winthrop Sargent for themselves and
others" — actually for the Scioto Company (see Gallipolis).
On the same day Cutler and Sargent " for themselves and
associates " transferred to WiUiam Duer, then Secretary of the
Treasury Board, and his associates " one equal moiety of the
Scioto tract of land mentioned in the second contract," it being
provided that both parties were to be equally interested in the
sale of the land, and were to share equally any profit or loss.
Colonists were sent out by the Ohio Company from New England,
and Marietta, the first permanent settlement in the present state
of Ohio, was founded in April 1788.
OHIO RIVER, the principal eastern tributary of the Mississippi
river, U.S.A. It is formed by the confluence of the Allegheny
and Monongahela rivers at Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, and flows
N.W. nearly to the W. border of Pennsylvania, S.S.W. between
Ohio and West Virginia, W. by N. between Ohio and Kentucky,
and W.S.W. between Indiana and lUinois on the N. and Kentucky
on the S. It is the largest of all the tributaries of the Mississippi
in respect to the amount of water discharged (an average of about
158,000 cub. ft. per sec), is first in importance as a highway of
commerce, and in length (967 m.) as weU as in the area of its
drainage basin (approximately 210,000 sq. m.) it is exceeded only
by the Missouri. The slope of the river at low water ranges
from I ft. or more per mile in the upper section to about 0-75 ft.
per mile in the middle section and 0-29 ft. per mile in the lower
section, and the total fall is approximately 500 ft. Nearly two-
thirds of the bed is occupied by 187 pools, in which the fall is very
gentle; and the greater part of the descent is made over inter-
vening bars, which are usuaUy composed of sand or gravel but
occasionally of hard pan or rock. The greatest falls are at
Louisville, where the river within a distance of 2-25 m. descends
23-9 ft. over an irregular mass of limestone. The rock floor of the
valley is usually 30 to 50 ft. below low water level, and when
it comes to the surface, as it occasionally does, it extends at this
height only part way across the valley. In the upper part of the
river the bed contains much coarse gravel and numerous boulders,
but lower down a sand bed prevails. The ordinary width of the
upper half of the river is quite uniform, from 1200 to 1500 ft., but
it widens in the pool above Louisville, contracts immediately
below the Falls, and then gradually widens again until it reaches
a maximum width of more than a mile about 20 m. from its
mouth. Islands are numerous and vary in size from an acre or
less to 5000 acres; above Louisville there are fifty or more, and
below it about thirty. Many of them are cultivated.
Besides its parent streams, the Allegheny and the Monongahela,
the Ohio has numerous large branches. On the N. it receives the
waters of the Muskingum, Scioto, Miami and Wabash rivers, and
on the S. those of the Kanawha, Big Sandy, Licking, Kentucky,
Green, Cumberland and Tennessee rivers.
The drainage basin of the Ohio, in which the annual rainfall
averages about 43 in., is, especially in the S. part of the river,
of the " quick-spilUng " kind, and as the swift mountain streams
in that section are filled in February or March by the storms from
the Gulf of Mexico, while the northern streams are swoUen by
melting snow and rain, the Ohio rises very suddenly and not
infrequently attains a height of 30 to 50 ft. or more above low
water level, spreads out ten to fifteen times its usual width,
submerges the bottom lands, and often causes great damage to
property in the lower part of the cities along its banks.
Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La SaUe, asserted that he discovered
the Ohio and descended it until his course was obstructed by
a fall (thought to be the Falls at LouisviUe); this was probably
in 1670, but until the middle of the next century, when its
strategic importance in the struggle of the French and the
English for the possession of the interior of the continent became
fully recognized, little was generally known of it. By the treaty
of 1763 ending the Seven Years' War the English finally gained
undisputed control of the territory along its banks. After
Virginia had bought, in 1768, the claims of the Six Nations to the
territory south of the Ohio, immigrants, mostly Virginians, began
to descend the river in considerable numbers, but the Shawnee
Indians, whose title to the land was more plausible than that of
the Six Nations ever was, resisted their encroachments until the
Shawnees were defeated in October 1774 at the battle of Point
Pleasant. By the treaty of 1783 the entire Ohio country became
a part of the United States and by the famous Ordinance of 1787
the north side was opened to settlement. Most of the settlers
entered the region by the headwaters of the Ohio and carried
much of their market produce, lumber, &c., down the Ohio and
Mississippi to New Orleans or beyond. Until the successful
navigation of the river by steamboats a considerable portion of
the imports was carried overland from PhOadelphia or Baltimore
to Pittsburg. The first steamboat on the Ohio was the " New
Orleans," which was built in 1811 by Nicholas J. Roosevelt
and sailed from Pittsburg to New Orleans in the same year,
but it remained for Captain Henry M. Shreve (1785-1854) to
demonstrate with the " Washington," which he built in 1816,
the success of this kind of navigation on the river. From 1820
to the Civil War the steamboat on the system of inland water-
ways of which the Ohio was a part was a dominant factor in the
industrial life of the Middle West. Cincinnati, Louisville and
Pittsburg on its banks were extensively engaged in buOding
these vessels. The river was dotted with floating shops — dry-
goods boats fitted with counters, boats containing a tinner's
estabhshment, a blacksmith's shop, a factory, or a lottery office.
Until the Erie Canal was opened in 1825 the Ohio river was the
chief commercial highway between the East and the West.
It was connected with Lake Erie in 1832 by the Ohio & Erie
Canal from Portsmouth to Cleveland, and in 1845 by the Miami
& Erie Canal from Cincinnati to Toledo.
In the natural state of the river navigation was usually almost
whoDy suspended during low water from July to November,
and it was dangerous at all times on account of the numerous
snags. The Federal government in 1827 undertook to remove
the snags and to increase the depth of water on the bars by the
construction of contraction works, such as dikes and wing dams,
and appropriations for these purposes as well as for dredging
were continued until 1844 and resumed in 1866; but as the
channel obtained was less than 3 ft. in 1870, locks with movable
dams — that is, dams that can be thrown down on the approach
of a flood — were then advocated, and five years later Congress
made an appropriation for constructing such a dam, the Davis
Island Dam immediately below Pittsburg, as an experiment.
This was opened in 1885 and was a recognized success; and in
189s the Ohio Valley Improvement Association was organized
in an effort to have the system extended. At first the association
asked only for a channel 6 ft. in depth; and between 1896 and
1905 Congress authorized the necessary surveys and made appro-
priations for thirty-six locks and dams from the Davis Island
Dam to the mouth of the Great Miami river. As the association
then urged that the channel be made 9 ft. in depth Congress
authorized the secretary of war to appoint a board of engineers
which should make a thorough examination and report on the
comparative merits of a channel 9 ft. in depth, and one 6 ft. in
depth. The board reported in 1908 in favour of a 9-ft. channel
and stated that fifty-four locks and dams would be necessary for
such a channel throughout the course of the river, and Congress
adopted this project. At the Falls is the LouisviDe & Portland
Canal, originally built by a private corporation, with the United
States as one of the stockholders, and opened in 1830, with a
width of 50 ft., a length of 200 ft., and three locks, each w^th
a lift of about 8f ft. In 1860-1872 the width was increased
to 90 ft. and the three old locks were replaced by two new ones.
The United States gradually increased its holdings of stock
until in 1855 it became owner of all but five shares; it assumed
the management of the canal in 1874, abolished tolls in 1880,
and thereafter improved it in many respects. Sixty-eight locks
and dams have been constructed on the principal tributaries,
and the Allegheny, Monongahela, Cumberland, Tennessee,
OHLAU— OHLENSCHLAGER
33
Muskingum, Kanawha, Little Kanawha, Big Sandy, Wabash,
and Green now afford a total of about 960 m. of slack-water
navigation.
See the Board of Engineers' Report 0} Examination of Ohio River
with a view to obtaining Channel Depths 0/ 6 and Q ft. respectively
(Washington, 1908); A. B. Hulbert, Waterways of Westward Ex-
pansion (Cleveland, 1903) and The Ohio River, a Course of Empire
(New York, 1906); also R. G. Thwaites, Afloat on the Ohio (New
York, 1900).
OHLAU, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Silesia,
16 m. by rail S.E. of Breslau, on the left bank of the Oder. Pop.
(1905) 9233. It has two Roman Catholic and two Evangelical
churches, and a castle. Ohlau is the centre of a tobacco-growing
district and has manufactures of tobacco and cigars, machinery,
beer, shoes and bricks. It became a town in 1291 and passed
to Prussia in 1742. In the 17th and i8th centuries it was often
the residence of the dukes of Brieg and of the Sobicski family.
See SQhu\z, AusOhlausVergangenheit (Ohlau, 1902).
OHLENSCHLAGER, ADAM GOTTLOB (1779-1850), Danish
poet, was born in Vesterbro, a suburb of Copenhagen, on the
14th of November 1779. His father, a Schleswiger by birth,
was at that time organist, and later became keeper, of the royal
palace of Frederiksberg; he was a very brisk and cheerful man.
The poet's mother, on the other hand, who was partly German
by extraction, suffered from depressed spirits, which afterwards
deepened into melancholy madness. Adam and his sister Sofia
were allowed their own way throughout their childhood, and were
taught nothing, except to read and write, until their twelfth
year. At the age of nine Adam began to make fluent verses.
Three years later, while walking in Frederiksberg Gardens, he
attracted the notice of the poet Edvard Storm, and the result
of the conversation was that he received a nomination to the
college called " Posterity's High School," an important institution
of which Storm was the principal. Storm himself taught the class
of Scandinavian mythology, and thus Ohlenschlager received
his earliest bias towards the poetical religion of his ancestors.
He was confirmed in 1795, and was to have been apprenticed
to a tradesman in Copenhagen. To his great delight there was
a hitch in the preliminaries, and he returned to his father's
house. He now, in his eighteenth year, suddenly took up study
with great zeal, but soon again abandoned his books for the stage,
where a small position was offered him. In 1797 he actually
made his appearance on the boards in several successive parts,
but soon discovered that he possessed no real histrionic talent.
The brothers Orsted, with whom he had formed an intimacy
fruitful of profit to him, persuaded him to quit the stage, and in
1800 he entered the university of Copenhagen as a student.
He was doomed, however, to disturbance in his studies, first
from the death of his mother, next from his inveterate tendency
towards poetry, and finally from the attack of the English upon
Copenhagen in April 1801, which, however, inspired a dramatic
sketch {April the Second iSoi) which is the first thing of the
kind by Ohlenschlager that we possess. In the summer of
1802, when Ohlenschlager had an old Scandinavian romance,
as well as a volume of lyrics, in the press, the young Norse
philosopher, Henrik Steffens, came back to Copenhagen after
a long visit to Schelling in Germany, full of new romantic ideas.
His lectures at the university, in which Goethe and Schiller
were for the first time revealed to the Danish public, created
a great sensation. Steffens and Ohlenschlager met one day at
Dreier's Club, and after a conversation of sixteen hours the latter
went home, suppressed his two coming volumes, and wrote
at a sitting his splendid poem Guldhornene, in a manner totally
new to Danish literature. The result of his new enthusiasm
speedily showed itself in a somewhat hasty volume of poems,
published in 1803, now chiefly remembered as containing the
lovely piece called Sanct-Hansafteft-Spil. The next two years saw
the production of several exquisite works, in particular the
epic of Thors Reise til Jotunheim, the charming poem in hexa-
meters called Langelandsreisen, and the bewitching piece of
fantasy Aladdin's Lampe (1805). At the age of twenty-six
Ohlenschlager was universally recognized, even by the opponents
of the romantic revival, as the leading poet of Denmark. He
now collected his Poetical Writings in two volumes. He found
no difficulty in obtaining a grant for foreign travel from the
government, and he left his native country for the first time,
joining Steffens at Halle in August 1805. Here he wrote the
first of his great historical tragedies, Hakon Jarl, which he sent
off to Copenhagen, and then proceeded for the winter months
to Berlin, where he associated with Humboldt, Fichte, and
the leading men of the day, and met Goethe for the first time.
In the spring of 1806 he went on to Weimar, where he spent
several months in daily intercourse with Goethe. The
autumn of the same year he spent with Tieck in Dresden,
and proceeded in December to Paris. Here he resided eighteen
months and wrote his three famous masterpieces, Baldur hin
Code (1808), Palnaloke (1809), and Axel og Valborg (1810).
In July 1808 he left Paris and spent the autumn and winter
in Switzerland as the guest of Madame de Stael-Holstein at
Coppet, in the midst of her circle of wits. In the spring of 1809
Ohlenschlager went to Rome to visit Thorwaldsen, and in his
house wrote his tragedy of Corrcggio. He hurriedly returned
to Denmark in the spring of 1810, partly to take the chair of
aesthetics at the university of Copenhagen, partly to marry
the sister-in-law of Rahbek, to whom he had been long betrothed.
His first course of lectures dealt with his Danish predecessor
Ewald, the second with Schiller. From this time forward
his literary activity became very great; in 181 1 he published
the Oriental tale of AH og Gulhyndi, and in 181 2 the last of his
great tragedies, Staerkodder. From 1814 to 1819 he, or rather
his admirers, were engaged in a longandangry controversy with
Baggesen, who represented the old didactic school. This contest
seems to have disturbed the peace of Ohlenschlager's mind, and
to have undermined his genius. His talent may be said to have
culminated in the glorious cycle of verse-romances called Helge,
published in 1814. The tragedy of Hagbarth og Sigtie, 1815,
showed a distinct falling-off in style. In 1817 he went back
to Paris, and published Hroars Saga and the tragedy of Fost-
brodrene. In 1818 he was again in Copenhagen, and wrote
the idyll of Den lille Hyrdedreng and the Eddaic cycle called
Nordens Guder. His next productions were the tragedies of
Erik og Abel (1820) and Vaeringerne i Miklagaard (1826), and
the epic of HrolJ Krake (1829). It was in the last-mentioned
year that, being in Sweden, Ohlenschlager was publicly crowned
with laurel in front of the high altar in Lund cathedral by
Bishop Esaias Tegner, as the " Scandinavian King of Song."
His last volumes were Tordenskjold (1833), Dronning Margrethe
(1833), Sokrates (1835), Olaf den Hellige (1836), Knud den Store
(1838), Dina (1842), Erik Clipping (1843), and Kiartan og
Gudrun (1847). On his seventieth birthday, 14th November
1849, a public festival was arranged in his honour, and he was
decorated by the king of Denmark under circumstances of great
pomp. He died on the 20th of January 1850, and was buried
in the cemetery of Frederiksberg. Immediately after his death
his Recollections were published in two volumes.
With the exception of Holberg, there has been no Danish writer
who has exercised so wide an influence as Ohlenschlager. His
great work was to awaken in the breasts of his countrymen an
enthusiasm for the poetry and religion of their ancestors, and this
he performed to so complete an extent that his name remains to
this day synonymous with Scandinavian romance. He supplied
his countrymen with romantic tragedies at the very moment
when all eyes were turned to the stage, and when the old-fashioned
pieces were felt to be inadequate. His plays, partly, no doubt,
in consequence of his own early familiarity with acting, fulfilled
the stage requirements of the day, and were popular beyond
all expectation. The earliest are the best — Ohlenschlager's
dramatic masterpiece being, without doubt his first tragedy,
Hakon Jarl. In his poems and plays alike his style is limpid,
elevated, profuse; his flight is sustained at a high pitch without
visible excitement. His fluent tenderness and romantic zest have
been the secrets of his extreme popularity. Although his
inspiration came from Germany, he is not much like a German
poet, except when he is consciously following Goethe; his
analogy is much rather to be found among the English poets.
XX. 2
'34
iiaOHLIGS— OHMMETERfO
his eoritemporaries. His mission towards antiquity reminds
us of Scott, but he is, as a poet, a better artist than Scott;
he has sometimes touches of exquisite diction and of over-
wrought sensibility which recall Coleridge to us. In his wide
ambition and profuseness he possessed some characteristics
of Southey, although his style has far more vitality. With all
his faults he was a very great writer, and one of the principal
pioneers of the romantic movement in Europe. (E. G.)
OHLIGS, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine Province,
17 m. by rail N. of Cologne, on the railway to Elberfeld. Pop.
(1Q05) 24,264. Its chief manufactures are cutlery and hardware,
and there are iron-foundries and flour-mills. Other industries
are brewing, dyeing, weaving and brick-making. Before 1891
it was known as Merscheid.
OHM, GEORG SIMON (1787-1854), German physicist, was
born at Erlangen on the i6th of March 1787, and was educated
at the university there. He became professor of mathematics
in the Jesuits' college at Cologne in 181 7 and in the polytechnic
school of Nuremberg in 1833, and in 1852 professor of experi-
mental physics in the university of Munich, where he died on
the 7th of July 1854. His writings were numerous, but, with
one important e.xception, not of the first order. The excep-
tion is his pamphlet published in Berlin in 1827, with the
title Die gahaiiische Kelle malhematisc.h bcarheitet. This work,
the germs of which had appeared during the two preceding
years in the journals of Schweigger and Poggendorff, has exerted
most important influence on the whole development of the
theory and applications of current electricity, and Ohm's name
has been incorporated in the terminology of electrical science.
Nowadays " Ohm's Law," as it is called, in which all that is
most valuable in the pamphlet is summarized, is as universally
known as anything in physics. The equation for the propaga-
tion of electricity formed on Ohm's principles is identical with
that of J. B. J. Fourier for the propagation of heat; and if, in
Fourier's solution of any problem of heat-conduction, we change
the word " temperature " to " potential " and write " electric
current " instead of " flux of heat," we have the solution of
a corresponding problem of electric conduction. The basis
of Fourier's work was his clear conception and definition of
conductivity. But this involves an assumption, undoubtedly
true for small temperature-gradients, but still an assumption,
viz. that, all else being the same, the flux of heat is strictly
proportional to the gradient of temperature. An exactly similar
assumption is made in the statement of Ohm's law, i.e. that,
other things being alike, the strength of the current is at each
point proportional to the gradient of potential. It happens, how-
ever, that with our modern methods it is much more easy to test
the accuracy of the assumption in the case of electricity than
in that of heat; and it has accordingly been shown by J. Clerk
Maxwell and George Chrystal that Ohm's law is true, within the
limits of experimental error, even when the currents are so
powerful as almost to fuse the conducting wire.
OHMMETER.an electrical instrument employed for measuring
insulation-resistance or other high electrical resistances. For
the purpose of measuring resistances up to a few thousand ohms,
the most convenient appliance is a Wheatstone's Bridge {q.v),
but when the resistance of the conductor to be measured is
several hundred thousand ohms, or if it is the resistance of a
so-called insulator, such as the insulating covering of the copper
wires employed for distributing electric current in houses and
buildings for electric lighting, then the ohmmeter is more con-
venient. An ohmmeter in one form consists of two pairs of coils,
one pair called the scries coil and the other called the shunt coil.
These coils are placed with their axes at right angles to one
another, and at the point where the axes intersect a small pivoted
needle of soft iron is placed, carrying a longer index needle
moving over a scale.
Suppose it is desired to measure the insulation-resistance of a
system of electric house wiring ; the ohmmeter circuits are then joined
up as shown in fig; i, where VV represents a portion of the wiring
of the building and I a portion of the insulating materials surrounding
it. The object of the test is to discover the resistance of the insulator
I, that is, to determine how much current flows through this insulator
/"
-^AAAAA/V^
Se
I
Fig.
JS
by leakage under a certain electromotive force or voltage which must
not be less than that which will be employed in practice when the
electric lights supplied through these wires are in operation. For
this purpose the ohmmeter is provided with a small dynamo D,
contained in a box, which produces a continuous electromotive
force of from 200 to 500 -, „
volts when the handle ^ .
of the instrument is " '
steadily turned. In
making the test, the
whole of the copper
wires belonging to any
section of the wiring and
the test must be con- ( jj j sh<
nected together at some
point and then con-
nected through the scries
coil of the ohmmeter
with one terminal of the
dynamo. The shunt coil
Sh and the series coil Se
are connected together
at one point, and the
remaining terminals of
the dynamo and shunt coil must be connected to a "good
earth," which is generally the gas or water pipes w of the
building. On setting the dynamo in operation, a current passes
through the shunt coil of the ohmmeter proportional to the voltage
of the dynamo, and, if there is any sensible leakage through the
insulator to earth, at the same time another current passes through
the scries coil proportional to the conductivity of the insulation of
the wiring under the electromotive force used. The two coils, the
shunt and the series coil, then produce two magnetic fields, with
their lines of force at right angles to one another. The small pivoted
iron needle ns placed in their common field therefore takes up a
certain position, dependent on the relative value of these fields.
The tangent of the angle of deflection d of this needle measured from
its position, when the shunt coil is disconnected, is equal to the ratio
of the voltage of the dynamo to the current through the insulator. If
we call this last resistance R, the voltage of the working dynamo V,
and the current through the insulator C, then tan 9=C/V = R.
Hence the deflection of the needle is proportional to the insulation
resistance, and the scale can be graduated to show directly this
resistance in megohms.
The Evershed and Vignoles form of the instrument is much used
in testing the insulation resistance of electric wiring in houses.
In this case the dynamo and ohmmeter are combined in one instru-
ment. The field magnet of the dynamo has two gaps in it. In one
the exciting armature is rotated, producing the working voltage of
250, 500 or 1000 volts. In the other gap are pivoted two coils
wound on an iron core and connected at nearly a right angle to
each other. One of these coils is in series with the armature circuit
and with the insulation or high resistance to be measured. The other
is a shunt across the terminals of the armature. When the armature
is rotated, these two coils endeavour to place themselves in certain
directions in the field so as to be perforated by the greatest magnetic
flux. The exact position of the core, and, therefore, of an index
needle connected with it, is dependent on the ratio of the voltage
applied to the terminals of the high resistance or insulator and the
current passing through it. This, however, is a measure of the
insulation-resistance. Hence the instrument can be graduated to
show this directly.
In the Nalder ohmmeter the electrostatic principle is employed.
The instrument consists of a high-voltage continuous -current
dynamo which creates a potential difference between the needle
and the two quadrants of a quadrant electrometer (see Electro-
meter). These two quadrants are interconnected by the high resist-
ance to be measured, and, therefore, themselves differ in potential.
The exact position taken up by the needle is therefore determined
by the potential difference (P.D.) of the quadrants and the P.D.
of the needle and each quadrant, and, therefore, by the ratios of the
P.D. of the ends of the insulator and the current flowing through it,
that is, by its insulation resistance.
The ohmmeter recommends itself by its portability, but in
default of the possession of an ohmmeter the insulation-resistance
can be measured by means of an ordinary mirror galvanometer
(see Galvanometer) and insulated battery of suitable voltage.
In this case one terminal of the battery is connected to the earth,
and the other terminal is connected through the galvanometer
with the copper wire, the insulation of which it is desired to test.
If any sensible current flows through this insulator the galvano-
meter will show a deflection.
The meaning of this deflection can be interpreted as follows:
If a galvanometer has a resistance R and is shunted by a shunt of
resistance S, and the shunted galvanometer is placed in series with
a large resistance R' of the order of a megohm, and if the same
OHNET— OIL ENGINE
35
battery is applied to the shunted galvanometer, then the current C
passing through the galvanometer will be given Viy the expression
*-"R'(R+Sj+RS'
where V is the electromotive force of the battery. It is possible so
to arrange the value of the shunt and of the high resistance K'
that the same or nearly the same deflection of the galvanometer is
obtained as when it is used in series with the battery and the insula-
tion-resistance. In these circumstances the current passing through
the galvanometer is known, provided that the voltage of the battery
is determined Ijy means of a potentiometer (q.v.). Hence the
resistance of the insulator can be ascertained, since it is expressed
in ohms by the ratio of the voltage of the battery in volts to the
current through the
C C galvanometer in
amperes. In ajiply-
ing this method to
test the insulation of
indiarubber - covered
r of insulated
opper wire, before
employing it for
electrical purposes,
it is usual to place
the coil of wire W
(fig. 2) in an insulated
tank of water T,
which is connected
to one terminal of
Fig. 2.
the insulated battery B, the other terminal being connected to the
metallic conductor CC of the wire under test, through a galvano-
meter G. To prevent leakage over the surface of the insulating
covering of the wire which projects above the surface of the water,
it is necessary to employ a " guard wire " P, which consists of a
piece of fine copper wire, twisted round the extremity of the insu-
lated wire and connected to the battery. This guard wire pre-
vents any current which leaks over the surface of the insulator
from passing through the galvanometer G, and the galvanometer
indication is therefore only determined by the amount of current
which passes through the insulator, or by its insulation-resistance.
For further information on the measurement of high resistance,
see J. A. Fleming, A Handbook for the Electrical Laboratory and
Testing Room (2 vols., London, 1904); H. R. Kempe, A Handbook
of Electrical Testing (London, 1900) ; H. L. Webb, A Practical Guide
to the Testing of Insulated Wires and Cables (New York, 1902).
(J. A. F.)
OHNET. GEORGES (1848- ), French novelist and man of
letters, was born in Paris on the 3rd of April 184S. After the war
of 1870 he became editor of the Pays and the Consiitutionnel in
succession. In collaboration with the engineer and dramatist
Louis Denayrouze (b. 1848) he produced the play Regina Sarpi,
and in 1877 Marlhe. He was an admirer of Georges Sand and
bitterly opposed to the reahstic modern novel. He began a
series of novels, Les Batailles dc la vie, of a simple and idealistic
character, which, although attacked by the critics as unreal and
commonplace, were very popular. The series included Serge
Panine (1881) which was crowned by the Academy; Le Maitrc
de forges (1882), La Grande Marniere (1885), Volonte (1888),
Dernier amour (1891). Many of his novels have been dramatized
with great success, Le Maitre dc forges, produced at the Gymnase
in 1883, holding the stage for a whole year. His later pubhcations
include Le Crepiiscide (1902), Le Marchand de poisons (1903),
La Conqueranie (1905), La Dixieme Mtise (1906).
OHRDRUF, a town of Germany in the duchy of Saxe-Coburg-
Gotha, II m. by rail S.E. of Gotha. Pop. (1905) 61 14. It
has a castle, two Evangelical churches, a technical and other
schools, and manufactures of porcelain, paper, copper
goods, shoes and small wares. Close by is the summer resort
of Luisenthal. As early as 725 there was a monastery at
Ohrdruf, which received municipal rights in 1399. With six
neighbouring villages it forms the county of Obergleichen.
OIHENART, ARNAULD DE (i 592-1668), Basque historian
and poet, was born at Mauleon, and studied law at Bordeaux,
where he took his degree in 161 2. He practised first in his native
town, and after his marriage with Jeanne d'Erdoy, the heiress
of a noble family of Saint-Palais, at the bar of the parlement
of Navarre. He spent his leisure and his fortune in the search
for documents bearing on the old Basque and Bearnese provinces;
and the fruits of his studies in the archives of Bayonne, Toulouse,
Pau, Perigord and other cities were embodied in foity-five MS.
volumes, which were sent by his son Gabriel to Colbert. Twenty-
three of these are in the Bibliotheque Nationale of Paris (Coll.
Duchesne).
Oihcnart published in 1625 a Declaration hislorique de I'injuste
usurpation et retention de la Navarre par les Kspagnols and a fragment
of a Latin work on the same subject is in< luded in Galland's Me.moires
pour I'histoire de Navarre (164H). His most important work is
Notitia utriusque Vasconiae, turn Ibcricae, turn A quitanicae , qua
praeter situm regionis et alia scilu digna, Navarrae regum coeter-
arumque: in iis insignum vctustate et dignitate familiurum . . .
(Paris, 1638 and 1O56), a description of Gascony and Navarre.
His collection of over five hundred Basque proverbs, Atsotizac edo
Kefravac, included in a volume of his poems U"" Gastaroa Nevrthize-
tan, printed in Paris in 1657, was supplemented by a second collection,
Atsotizen Vrrhenquina. The proverbs were edited by Francisque
Michel (Paris, 1847), and the su|)plcmcnt by P. Hariston (Bayonne,
1892) and by V. Stempf (Bordeaux, 1894). See Julien Vinson, £iiat
d'une bibliographie de la langue basque (Paris, l8gi); J. B. E. de
Jaurgain, Arnaud d'Oihenart et sa famille (Paris, 1885).
OIL CITY, a city of Venango county, Pennsylvariia, U.S.A.,
on the Allegheny river, at the mouth of Oil Creek, about 55 m.
S.S.E. of Erie and about 135 m. N. of Pittsburg. Pop. (1890)
10,932; (1900) 13,264, of whom 2001 were foreign-bom and 184
were negroes; (1906 eslimate) 14,662. It is served by the
Pennsylvania (two lines), the Erie, and the Lake Shore &
Michigan Southern railways. The city hes about 1000 ft. above
the sea, and is divided by the river and the creek into three
sections connected by bridges. The business part of the city
is on the low ground north of the river; "the residential districts
are the South Side, a portion of the flats, the West Side, and
Cottage Hill and Palace HiU on the North Side. Oil City is
the centre and the principal market of the Pennsylvania oil
region. It has exten.sive oil refineries and foundries and machine
shops, and manufactures oil-well supplies and a few other
commodities. The city's factory products were valued at
$5,164,059 in 1900 and at $3,217,208 in 1905, and in the latter
year foundry and machine-shop products were valued at
$2,317,505, or 72% of the total. Natural gas is used for power,
heat and light. OU City was founded in i860, incorporated as
a borough in 1863 and chartered as a city in 1874. The city
was partially destroyed by flood in 1865, and by flood and fire
in 1866 and again in 1892; on this last occasion Oil Creek w^as
swollen by a cloud-burst on the 5th of June, and several tanks
farther up the valley, which seem to have been struck by
lightning, gave way and a mass of burning oil was carried by
the creek to Oil City, where some sixty lives were lost and
property valued at more than $1,000,000 was destroyed.
OIL ENGINE. Oil engines, like gas engines (q.v.), are internal
combustion motors in which motive power is produced by the
explosion or expansion of a mixture of inflammable material
and air. The inflammable fluid used, however, consists of
vapour produced from oil instead of permanent gas. The
thermodynamic operations are the same as in gas engines, and
the structural and mechanical differences are due to the devices
required to vaporize the oil and supply the measured proportion
of vapour which is to mix with the air in the cylinders.
Light and heavy oils are used; light oUs may be defined as
those which are readily volatile at ordinary atmospheric tempera-
tures, while heavy oils are those which require special heating
or spraying processes in order to produce an inflammable vapour
capable of forming explosive mixture to be suppUed to the
cylinders. Of the light oils the most important is known as
petrol. It is not a definite chemical compound. It is a mixture
of various hydrocarbons of the paraflin and define series produced
from the distillation of petroleum and paraffin oils. It consists,
in fact, of the lighter fractions which distil over first in the
process of purifying petroleums or paraffins.
The specific gravity of the standard petrols of commerce
generally ranges between 0-700 to about 0-740; and the heat
value on complete combustion per tV gallon burned varies
from 14,240 to 14,850 British thermal units. The thermal
value per gallon thus increases with the density, but the volatility
diminishes. Thus, samples of petrol examined by Mr Blount
36
OIL ENGINE
' <^,
of from -700 to -739 specific gravity showed that 98% of the
lighter sample distilled over below 120° C. while only 88% of
the heavier came over within the same temperature range.
The heavier petrol is not so easily converted into vapour. The
great modern development of the motor car gives the light oil
engine a most important place as one of the leading sources of
motive power in the world. The total petrol power now applied
to cars on land and to vessels on sea amounts to at least two
million H.P. The petrol engine has also enabled aeroplanes to
be used in practice.
The earliest proposal to use oil as a means to produce motive
power was made by an English inventor — Street — in 1794, but
the first practical petroleum engine was that of Julius Hock
of Vienna, produced in 1870. This engine, like Lenoir's gas
engine, operated without compression. The piston took in a
charge of air and light petroleum spray which was ignited by
a flame jet and produced a low-pressure explosion. Like all
non-compression engines, Hock's machine was very cumbrous
and gave little power. In 1873, Brayton, an English engineer,
who had settled in America, produced a light oil engine working
on the constant pressure system without explosion. This
appears to have been the earliest compression engine to use
oil fuel instead of gas.
Shortly after the introduction of the " Otto " gas engine
in 1876, a motor of this type v/as operated by an inflammable
vapour produced by passing air on its way to the cylinder
through the light oO then known as gasolene. A further air
supply was drawn into the cylinder to form the required explosive
mixture, which was subsequently compressed and ignited in the
usual way. The Spiel petroleum engine was the first Otto
cycle motor introduced into practice which dispensed with an
independent vaporizing apparatus. Light hydrocarbon of a
specific gravity of not greater than 0.725 was injected directly
into the cylinder on the suction stroke by means of a pump.
In entering it formed spray mixed with the air, was vaporized,
and on compression an explosion was obtained just as in the
gas engine.
Until the year 1883 the different gas and oU engines constructed
were of a heavy type rotating at about 150 to 250 revolutions
per minute. In that year Daimler conceived the idea of con-
structing very small engines with light moving parts, in order
to enable them to be rotated at such high speeds as 800 and 1000
revolutions per minute. At that time engineers did not consider
it practicable to run engines at such speeds; it was supposed
that low speed was necessary to durability and smooth running.
Daimler showed this idea to be wrong by producing his first
small engine in 1883. In 1886 he made his first experiment
with a motor bicycle, and on the 4th of March 1887 he ran for
the first time a motor car propelled by a petrol engine. Daimler
deserves great credit for realizing the possibUity of producing
durable and effective engines rotating at such unusually high
speeds; and, further, for proving that his ideas were right in
actual practice. His little engines contained nothing new in
their cycles of operation, but they provided the first step in the
startlingly rapid development of petrol motive power which
we have seen in the last twenty years. The high speed of
rotation enabled motors to be constructed giving a very large
power for a very small weight.
Fig. I is a diagrammatic section of an early Daimler motor. A
is the cylinder, B the piston, C the connecting rod, and D the
crank, which is entirely enclosed in a casing. A small fly-wheel is
carried by the crank-shaft, and it serves the double purpose of a fly-
wheel and a clutch, a is the combustion space, E the single port,
which serves both for inlet of the charge and for discharge of exhaust.
W is the exhaust valve, F the charge inlet valve, which is automatic
in its action, and is held closed by a spring /, G the carburettor,
H the igniter tube, I the igniter tube lamp, K the charge inlet passage,
L the air filter chamber, and M an adjustable air inlet cap for regu-
lating the air inlet area. The light oil — or petrol, as it is commonly
called — is supplied to the float chamber N of the vaporizer by means
of the valve O. So lon^ as the level of the petrol is high, the float n,
acting by levers about it, holds the valve O closed against oil forced
by air pressure along the pipe P When the level falls, however,
the valve opens and more petrol is admitted. When the piston B
makes its suction stroke, air passes from the atmosphere by the
passage K through the valve F, which it opens automatically.
The pressure falls within the passage K, and a spurt of petrol passes
by the jet G', separate air at the same time passing by the passage
K' round the jet. The petrol breaks up into spray by impact
against the walls of the passage K, and then it vaporizes and passes
into the cylinder A as an inflammable mixture. When the piston B
returns it compresses the charge into a, and upon compression the
incandescent igniter tube H fires the charge. H is a short platinum
tube, which is always open to the compression space. It is rendered
incandescent by the burner I, fed with petrol from the pipe supplying
the vaporizer. The open incandescent tube is found to act well
for small engines, and it does not ignite the charge until the com-
pression takes place, because the inflammable mixture cannot come
into contact with the hot part till it is forced up the tube by the
Fig. I.
compression. The engine is started by giving the crank-shaft a
smart turn round by means of a detachable handle. The exhaust is
alone actuated from the valve shaft. The shaft Q is operated by
pinion and a spur-wheel Q^ at half the rate of the crank-shaft. The
governing is accomplished by cutting out explosions as with the gas
engine, but the governor operates by preventing the exhaust valve
from opening, so that no charge is discharged from the cylinder,
and therefore no charge is drawn in. The cam R operates the exhaust
valve, the levers shown are so controlled by the governor (not shown)
that the knife edge S is pressed out when speed is too high, and
cannot engage the recess T until it falls. The engine has a water
jacket V, through which water is circulated. Cooling devices are
used to economize water.
Benz of Mannheim followed close on the work of Daimler,
and in France Panhard and Levassor, Peugeot, De Dion,
Delahaye and Renault all contributed to the development
of the petrol engine, while Napier, Lanchester, Royce and
Austin were the most prominent among the many English
designers.
The modern petrol engine differs in many respects from
the Daimler engine just described both as to general design,
method of carburetting, ignitmg and controlling the power
and speed. The carburettor now used is usually of the float
and jet type shown in fig. i, but alterations have been made to
OIL ENGINE
37
allow of the production of uniform mixture in the cylinder
under widely varying conditions of speed and load. The original
form of carburettor was not well adapted to allow of great
change of volume per suction stroke. Tube ignition has been
abandoned, and the electric system is now supreme. The
favourite type at present is that of the high-tension magneto.
Valves are now all mechanically operated; the automatic inlet
valve has practically disappeared. Engines are no longer
controlled by cutting out impulses; the governing is effected
by throtthng the charge, that is by diminishing the volume
of charge admitted to the cylinder at one stroke. Broadly,
throttling by reducing charge weight reduces pressure of com-
pression and so allows the power of the explosion to be graduated
within wide hmits while maintaining continuity of impulses.
The object of the throttle control is to keep up continuous
impulses for each cycle of operation, while graduating the power
produced by each impulse so as to meet the conditions of the
load.
Originally three types of carburettor were employed for
dealing with light oil; first, the surface carburettor; second, the
wick carburettor; and third, the jet carburettor. The surface
carburettor has entirely disappeared. In it air was passed over
a surface of light oil or bubbled through it; the air carried off
a vapour to form explosive mixture. It was found, however,
that the oil remaining in the carburettor gradually became
heavier and heavier, so that ultimately no proper vaporization
took place. This was due to the fractional evaporation of the
oil which tended to carry away the light vapours, leaving in the
vessel the oil, which produced heavy vapours. To avoid this
fractionation the wick carburettor was introduced and here
a complete portion of oil was evaporated at each operation so
that no concentration of heavy oil was possible. The wick
carburettor is stiU used in some cars, but the jet carburettor
is practically universal. It has the advantage of discharging
separate portions of oil into the air entering the engine, each
portion being carried away and evaporated with aU its fractions
to produce the charge in the cylinder.
The modern jet carburettor appears to have originated with
Butler, an English engineer, but it was first extensively used
in the modification produced by Maybach as shown in fig. i .
A diagrammatic section of a carburettor of the Maybach type is
shown in a larger scale in fig. 2.
Petrol is admitted to the chamber A by the valve B which is
controlled by the float C acting through the levers D, so that the valve
Fig. 2.
B is closed when the float reaches a determined level and opened when
it falls below it. The petrol flows into a jet E and stands at an
approximately constant level within it. When the engine piston
makes its suction stroke, the air enters from the atmosphere at F and
passes to the cylinder through G. The pressure around the jet E
thus falls, and the pressure of the atmosphere in the chamber A
forces the petrol through E as a jet during the greater part of the
suction stroke. An inflammable mixture is thus formed, which
enters the cylinder by way of G. The area for the passage of air
around the petrol jet £ is constricted to a sufficient extent to produce
the pressure fall necessary to propel the petrol through the jet E,
and the area of the discharge aperture of the petrol jet E is pro-
portioned to give the desired volume of petrol to form the proper
mixture with air. The device in this form works quite well when the
range of speed required from the engine is not great ; that is, within
limits, the volume of petrol thrown by the jet is fairly proportional
to the air passing the jet. When, however, the speed range is great,
such as in modern motors, which may vary from 300 to ijof) revolu-
tions per minute under light and heavy loads, then it becomes
impossible to secure proportionality sufficiently accurate for regular
ignition. This implies not only a change of engine speed but
a change of volume entering the cylinder at each stroke as deter-
mined by the position of the throttle. This introduces further
complications. Throttle control implies a change of total charge
volume per stroke, which change may occur either at a low or at a
high speed. To meet this change the petrol jet should respond in
such manner as to give a constant proportionality of petr<jl weight
to air weight throughout all the variations — otherwise sometimes
petrol will be present in excess with no oxygen to burn it, and at
other times the mixture may be so dilute as to miss firing altogether.
To meet these varying conditions many carburettors have been pro-
duced which seek by various devices to maintain uniformity of
quality of mixture by the automatic change of throttle around the jet.
Fig. 3 shows in diagrammatic section one of the simplest of
these contrivances, known as the I'Crebs carburettor. The petrol
enters from the float |*
chamber to the jet
E; and, while the
engine is running
slowly, the whole
supply of air enters
by way of the
passage F, mixes
with the petrol and
reaches the cylin-
ders by way of the
pipeG. The volume
of charge entering
the cylinder per
stroke is controlled
by the piston
throttle valve H,
operated by the rod
I ; and so long as
the charge volume
required remains t^iq -i
small, air from the ' _
atmosphere enters only by F. When speed rises, however, and the
throttle is sufficiently opened, the pressure within the apparatus falls
and affects a spring-pressed diaphragm K, which actuates a piston
valve controlling the air passages L, so that- this valve opens to the
atmosphere more and more with increasing pressure reduction, and
additional air thus flows into the carburettor and mixes with the
air and petrol entering through F. By this device the required
proportion of air to petrol is maintained through a comparatively
large volume range. This change of air admission is rendered
necessary because of the difference between the laws of air and
petrol flow. In order to give a sufficient weight of petrol at low
speeds when the pressure drop is small, it is necessary to provide
a somewhat large area of petrol jet. When suction increases
owing to high speed, this large area discharges too much petrol, and
so necessitates a device, such as that described, which admits
more air.
A still simpler device is adopted in many carburettors — that of an
additional air inlet valve, kept closed until wanted by a spring.
Fig. 4 shows a diagrammatic section as used in the Vauxhall car-
burettor. Here the petrol jet and primary and secondary air passages
are lettered as before.
The same effect is produced by devices which alter the area of the
petrol jet or increase or diminish the number of petrol jets exposed
as required. Although engine designers have succeeded in pro-
portioning mixture through a considerable range of speed and charge
demand, so as to obtain effective power explosions under all these
conditions, yet much remains to be done to secure constancy of
mixture at all speeds. Notwithstanding much which has been said
as to varying mixture, there is only one mixture of air and petrol
which gives the best results — that in which there is some excess of
oxygen, more than sufficient to burn all the hydrogen and carbon
present. It is necessary to secure this mixture under all conditions,
not only to obtain economy in running but also to maintain purity
of exhaust gases. Most engines at certain speeds discharge consider-
able quantities of carbonic oxide into the atmosphere with their
exhaust gases, and some discharge so much as to give rise to danger
in a closed garage. Carbonic oxide is an extremely poisonous gas
which should be reduced to the minimum in the interests of the health
of our large cities. The enormous increase of motor traffic makes it
important to render the exhaust gases as pure and innocuous as
possible. Tests were made by the Royal Automobile Club some
years ago which clearly showed that carbonic oxide should be kept
down to 2% and under when carburettors were properly adjusted.
Subsequent experiments have been made by Hopkinson, Clerk and
38
OIL ENGINE
Watson, which clearly prove that in some cases as much as 30%
of the whole heat of the petrol is lost in the exhaust gases by im-
F
Fig. 4.
perfect combustion This opens a wide field for improvement, and
makes it probable that with better carburettors motor cars would
not only discharge purer exhaust gases but would work on very
much less petrol than they do at present.
Practically all modern petrol engines are controlled by throttling
the whole charge. In the earlier days several methods of control
were attempted: (i) missing impulses as in fig. i of the Daimler
engines; (2) altering the timing of spark; (3) throttling petrol
supply, and (4) throttling the mixture of petrol and air. The
last method has proved to be the best. By maintaining the
proportion of explosive mixture, but diminishing the total
volume admitted to the cylinder per stroke, graduated impulses
are obtained without any, or but few, missed ignitions. The
effect of the throttling is to reduce compression by diminish-
ing total charge weight. To a certain extent the proportion of
petrol to total charge also varies, because the residual exhaust
gases remain constant through a wide range. The thermal
efficiency diminishes as the throttling increases; but, down to
a third of the brake power, the diminution is not great, because
although compression is reduced the expansion remains the same.
At low compressions, however, the engine works practically
as a non-compression engine, and the point of maximum
pressure becomes greatly delayed. The efficiency, therefore, falls
markedly, but this is not of much importance at light loads.
Experiments by Callendar, Hopkinson, Watson and others
have proved that the thermal efficiency obtained from these
small engines with the throttle full open is very high indeed;
28% of the whole heat in the petrol is often given as indicated
work when the carburettor is properly adjusted. As a large gas
engine for the same compression cannot do better than 35%,
it appears that the loss of heat due to small dimensions is com-
pensated by the small time of exposure of the gases of explosion
due to the high speed of rotation. Throttle control is very
effective, and it has the great advantage of diminishing maximum
A.^ — Cylinders.
B. — Water Jackets.
. — Oil Scoops on Big Ends.
—Water Uptake.
—Crank Chamber.
— Under Cover to Crank Chbr.
— Distribution Gear Case.
— Oil Sump.
.—Oil Pump.
M'. — Oil Suction Pipe and Filler.
N. — Oil Channels.
O.— Cam Shaft.
Q. — Throttle and Automatic Air
R. — Main Mixture Pipe. [Valve.
S. — Carburetter.
U. — Magneto.
V. — Inlet Valve.
W.— Inlet Trunk.
Fig. 5.
OIL ENGINE
39
pressures to which the piston and cylinders are exposed whDe the
engine is running at the lower loads. This is important both for
smooth running and good wearing qualities. Theoretically,
better results could be obtained from the point of view of economy
by retaining a constant compression pressure, constant charge
of air, and producing ignition, somewhat in the manner of the
Diesel engine. Such a method, however, would have the dis-
advantage of producing practically the same maximum pressure
for all loads, and this would tend to give an engine which would
not run smoothly at slow speeds.
As has been said, tube ignition was speedily abandoned for
electric ignition by accumulator, induction coil distributor and
sparking plug. This in its turn was largely displaced by the
low-tension magneto system, in which the spark was formed
between contacts which were mechanically separated within the
cylinders. The separable contacts gave rise to complications,
andat present the most popular system of ignition is undoubtedly
that of the high-tension magneto. In this system the ordinary
high-tension sparking plugs are used, and the high-tension
current is generated in a secondary winding on the armature
of the magneto, and reaches the sparking plugs by way of a
rotary distributor. In many cases the high-tension magneto
system is used for the ordinary running of the engine, combined
with an accumulator or battery and induction coil for starting
the engine from rest. Such systems are called dual ignition
system.s. Sometimes the same ignition plugs are adapted to
spark from either source, and in other cases separate plugs
are used. The magneto systems have the great advantage of
generating current without battery, and by their use noise is
reduced to a minimum. All electrical systems are now arranged
to allow of advancing and retarding the spark from the steering
wheel. In modern magneto methods, however, the spark is
automatically retarded when the engine slows and advanced
when the speed rises, so that less change is required from the
wheel than is necessary with battery and coO.
Sir Oliver Lodge has invented a most interesting system of
electric ignition, depending upon the production of an extra
oscillatory current of enormous tension produced by the combined
use of spark gap and condenser. This extra spark passes freely
even under water, and it is impossible to stop it by any ordinary
sooting or fouling of the ignition plug.
The most popular engines are now of the four and six cylinder
types.
Fig. 5 shows a modern four-cylinder engine in longitudinal and
transverse sections as made by the VVolseley Company. A, A are
the cylinders; B, B, water jackjts; G', oil scoops on the large ends
of the connecting-rods. These scoops take up oil from the crank
chamber. Forced lubrication is used. The oil pump M is of the
toothed wheel type, and it is driven by skew gearing. An oil sump
is arranged at L, and the oil is pumped from this sump by the pump
described. The overflow from the main bearings supplies the channels
in the crank cass from which the oil scoops take their charge. It will
be seen that the two inside pistons are attached to cranks of co-
incident centres, and this is true of the two outside pistons also.
This is the usual arrangement in four-cylinder engines. By this
device the primary forces are balanced ; but a small secondary
unbalanced force remains, due to the difference in motion of the
pistons at the up and down portions of their stroke. A six-cylinder
engine has the advantage of getting rid of this secondary unbalanced
force; but it requires a longer and more rigid crank chamber.
In this engine the inlet and exhaust valves of each cylinder are placed
in the same pocket and are driven from one cam-shaft. This is a
very favourite arrangement; but many engines are constructed
in which the inlet and exhaust valves operate on opposite sides of
the cylinder in separate ports and are driven from separate cam-
shafts. Dual ignition is applied to this engine; that is, an ignition
composed of high-tension magneto and also battery and coil for
starting. U is the high-tension magneto. Under the figure there is
shown a list of parts which sufficiently indicate the nature of the
engine.
An interesting and novel form of engine is shown at fig. 6. This
is a well-known engine designed by Mr Knight, an American inventor,
and now made by the Daimler and other companies. It will be
observed in the figure that the ordinary lift valves are entirely
dispensed with, and slide valves are used of the cylindrical shell
type. The engine operates on the ordinary Otto cycle, and all the
valve actions necessary to admit charge and discharge exhaust gases
are accomplished by means of two sleeves sliding one within the other.
The outer sleeve slides in the main cylinder and the inner sleeve
slides within the outer sleeve. The piston fits within the inner sleeve.
The sleeves receive separate motions from short connecting links
r ;md E, driven by eccentrics carried on a shaft W. This shaft is
driven from the main crank-shaft by a strong chain so as to make
half the revolutions of the crank-shaft in the usual manner of the
Otto cycle. The inlet port is formed on one side of the cylinder
and is marked I. The exhaust [)ort is arranged on the other side
and marked J. These ports are segmental. A water-jacketed
cylinder head carries stationary rings L, K, which press outwards.
These are clearly shown in the drawing. The inner sleeve ports run
past the lower broad ring L when compression is to be accomplished,
and the contents of the cylinder are retained within the cylinder and
compression space by the piston rings and the fixed rings referred to.
Fig. 6.
The outer sleeve does not require rings at all. Its function is simply
to distribute the gases so that the exhaust port is closed by the outer
sleeve when the inlet port is open. The outer sleeve acts really asa
distributor; the inner sleeve supplies the pressure tightness required
to resist compression and explosion. The idea of working exhaust
and inlet by two sleeves within which the main piston operates is
very daring and ingenious; and for these small engines the sleeve
valve system works admirably. There are many advantages; the
shape of the compression space is a most favourable one for reducing
loss by cooling. All the valve ports required in ordinary lift valve
engines are entirely dispensed with ; that is, the surface exposed to
the explosion causing loss of heat is reduced to a minimum. The
engines are found in use to be very flexible and economical.
The petrol engines hitherto described, although light compared
to the old stationary gas engines, are heavy when compared
with recent motors developed for the purpose of aeroplanes.
Many of these motors have been produced, but two only will
be noticed here — the Anzani, because Bleriot's great flight
40
OIL ENGINE
across the Channel was accomplished by means of an Anzani
engine, and the Gnome engine, because it was used in the aero-
plane with which Paulhan flew from London to Manchester.
Fig. 7 shows transverse and longitudinal sections through the
Anzani motor. Looking at the longitudinal section it will be observed
that the cylinders are of the air-cooled type; the exhaust valves
alone are positively operated, and the inlet valves are of the auto-
matic lift kind. The transverse section shows that three radially
arranged cylinders are used and three pistons act upon one crank-pin.
The Otto cycle is followed, so that two impulses are obtained for
Fig. 7.
every three revolutions. The cylinders are spaced apart 60° and
project from the upper side of the crank chamber. Although not
shown in the drawing, the pistons overrun a row of holes at the
out end of the stroke and the exhaust first discharges through these
holes. This is a very common device in aeroplane engines, and it
greatly increases the rapidity of the exhaust discharged and reduces
the work falling upon the exhaust valve. The pistons and cyhnders
are of cast iron; the rings are of cast iron; the ignition is electnc,
and the petrol is fed by gravity. The engine used by Blenot in his
Cross-Channel flight was 25 H.P., cyUnders 105 mm. boreX 130 mm.
stroke; revolutions, 1600 per minute; total weight, 145 _ft. The
engine, it will be seen, is exceidingly simple, although air-cooling
seems somewhat primitive for anything except short flights. The
larger Anzani motors are water-cooled.
A diagrammatic transverse section of the Gnome motor is shown
at fig. 8. In this interesting engine there are seven cylinders disposed
radially round a fixed crank-shaft. The seven pistons are all con-
nected to the same crank-shaft, one piston being rigidly connected
to a big end of peculiar construction by a connecting-rod, while
the other connecting-rods are linked on to the same big end by pins;
that is, a hollow fixed crank-shaft has a single throw to which only
one connecting-rod is attached; all the other connecting-rods
work on pins let into the big end of that connecting-rod. The
cylinders revolve round the fixed crank in the manner of the well-
known engines first introdued to practice by Mr John Rigg. The
explosive mixture is led from the carburettor through the hollow
crank-shaft into the crank-case, and it is admitted into the cylinders
by means of automatic inlet valves placed in the heads of the pistons.
The exhaust valves are arranged on the cylinder heads. Dual
ignition is provided by high tension magneto and storage battery and
coil. The cylinders are ribbed outside like the Anzani, and are
very effectively air-cooled by their rotation through the air as
well as by the passage of the aeroplane through the atmosphere.
The cylinders in the 35 H.P. motor are no mm. bore X 120 mm.
stroke. The speed of rotation is usually 1200 revolutions per minute.
The total weight of the engine complete is 180 lb, or just over 5_ lb
per brake horse-power. The subject of aeroplane petrol engines is a
most interesting one, and rapid progress is being made.
So far, only 4-cycle engines have been described, and they are
almost universal for use in motor-cars and aeroplanes. Some
motor cars, however, use 2-cycle engines. Several types follow
the "Clerk" cycle (see Gas Engine) and others the "Day"
cycle. In America the Day cycle is very popular for motor
Fig. 8.
launches, as the engine is of ^a very simple, easily managed kind.
At present, however, the two-cycle engine has made but little
way in motor car or aeroplane work. It is capable of great
development and the attention given to it is increasing.
So far, petrol has been alluded to as the main liquid fuel for
these motors. Other hydrocarbons have also been used ; benzol,
for example, obtained from gas tar is used to some extent, and
alcohol has been applied to a considerable extent both for
stationary and locomotive engines. Alcohol, however, has not
been entirely successful. The amount of heat obtained for a
given monetary expenditure is only about half that obtained
by means of petrol. On the continent of Europe, however,
alcohol motors have been considerably used for public vehicles.
The majority of petrol motors are provided with water jackets
around their cylinders and combustion spaces. As only a small
quantity of water can be carried, it is necessary to cool the water
as fast as it becomes hot. For this purpose radiators of various
constructions are applied. Generally a pump is used to produce
a forced circulation, discharging the hot water from the engine
jackets through the radiator and returning the cooled water to
the jackets at another place. The radiators consist in some
cases of fine tubes covered with projecting fins or gills; the motion
of the car forces air over the exterior of those surfaces and is
assisted by the operation of a powerful fan driven from the
engine. A favourite form of radiator consists of numerous
small tubes set into a casing and arranged somewhat Like a steam-
engine condenser. Water is forced by the pump round these
tubes, and air passes from the atmosphere through them. This
type of radiator is sometimes known as the " honeycomb '
OIL ENGINE
41
radiator. A very large cooling surface is provided, so that the
same water is used over and over again. In a day's run with a
modern petrol engine very little water is lost from the system.
Some engines dispense with a pump and depend on what is
called the thermo-syphon. This is the old gas-engine system
of circulation, depending on the different density of water when
hot and cool. The engine shown at fig. 5 is provided with a
water-circulation system of this kind. For the smaller engines
the thermo-syphon works extremely well.
Heavy oil engines are those which consume oil having a
flashing-point above 73° F. — the minimum at present allowed
by act of parliament in Great Britain for oils to be consumed
in ordinary illuminating lamps. Such oils are American and
Russian petroleums and Scottish paraffins. They vary in specific
gravity from -78 to -825, and in flashing-point from 75° to 152°
F. Engines burning such oils may be divided into three distinct
classes: (i) Engines in which the oil is subjected to a spraying
operation before vaporization; (2) Engines in which the oil
is injected into the cylinder and vaporized within the cylinder;
(3) Engines in which the oil is vaporized in a device external to
the cylinder and introduced into the cylinder in the state of
vapour.
The method of ignition might also be used to divide the engines
into those igniting by the electric spark, by an incandescent tube,
by compression, or by the heat of the internal surfaces of the
combustion space. Spiel's engine was ignited by a flame igniting
device similar to that used in Clerk's gas engine, and it was the
only one introduced into Great Britain in which this method
was adopted, though on the continent flame igniters were not
uncommon. Electrically-operated igniters have come into ex-
tensive use throughout the world.
The engines first used in Great Britain which fell under the
first head were the Priestman and Samuelson, the oil being
... . sprayed before being
vaporized in both. The
principle of the spray pro-
ducer used is that so well
and so widely known in
connexion with the atom-
izers or spray producers
used by perfumers. Fig. 9
shows such a spray pro-
ducer in section. An air
blast passing from the
small jet A crosses the top
of the tube B and creates
within it a partial vacuum.
The liquid contained in C
flows up the tube B and issuing at the top of the tube through
a smaU orifice is at once blown into very fine spray by the action
of the air jet. If such a scent distributor be filled with petroleum
oil, such as Royal Daylight or Russoline, the oil will be blown
into fine spray, which can be ignited by a flame and Vi'ill burn,
if the jets be properly proportioned, with an intense blue non-
luminous flame. The earlier inventors often expressed the idea
that an explosive mixture could be prepared without any
vaporization whatever, by simply producing an atmosphere
containing inflammable liquid in extremely small particles dis-
tributed throughout the air in such proportion as to allow of
complete combustion. The familiar explosive combustion of
lycopodium, and the disastrous explosions caused in the exhaus-
tion rooms of flour-mills by the presence of finely divided flour
in the air, have also suggested to inventors the idea of producing
explosions for power purposes from combustible solids. Al-
though, doubtless, explosions could be produced in that way, yet
in oil engines the production of spray is only a preliminary to
the vaporization of the oil. If a sample of oil is sprayed in the
manner just described, and injected in a hot chamber also filled
with hot air, it at once passes into a state of vapour within
that chamber, even though the air be at a temperature far
below the boiling-point of the oil; the spray producer, in fact,
furnishes a ready means of saturating any volume of air with
Fig. 9. — Perfume Spray Producer.
heavy petroleum oil to the full extent possible from the vapour
tension of the oil at that particular temperature. The oil
engines described below are in reality explosion gas engines of
the ordinary Otto type, with special arrangements to enable
them to vaporize the oil to be used. Only such parts of them
as are necessary for the treatment and ignition will therefore
be described.
Fig. 10 is a vertical section through the cylinder and vaporizer
of a Priestman engine, and fig. II is a section on a larger scale,
showing the vaporizing jet and the air admission and regulation valve
Fig. 10. — Priestman Oil Engine (vertical section through cylinder
and vaporizer).
leading to the vaporizer. Oil is forced by means of air pressure from
a reservoir through a pipe to the spraying nozzle a, and air passes
from an air-pump by way of the annular channel b into the sprayer c,
and there meets the oil jet issuing] from a. The^oil is thus broken
up into spray, and the air charged with spray flows into the vaporizer
E, which is heated up in the first place on starting the engine by
means of a lamp. In the vaporizer the oil spray becomes oil vapour,
saturating the air within the hot walls. On the out-charging stroke
of the piston the mixture passes by way of the inlet valve H into the
cylinder, air flowing into the vaporizer to replace it through the
valve / (fig. 11). The cylinder K is thus charged with a mi.\ture of
air and hydrocarbon vapour, some of which may exist in the form of
very fine spray. The piston L then returns and compresses the
mixture, and when the compression is quite complete an electric
spark is passed between the points M. and a compression explosion
is obtained precisely similar to that obtained in the gas engine.
The piston moves out, and on its return stroke the exhaust valve N
is opened and the exhaust gases discharged by way of the pipe O,
round the jacket P, enclosing
the vaporizing chamber. The
latter is thus kept hot by
the exhaust gases when the
engine is at work, and it
remains sufficiently hot with-
out the use of the lamp pro-
vided for starting. To obtain
the electric spark a bi-
chromate battery with an
induction coil is used. The
spark is timed by contact
pieces operated by an
eccentric rod, used to actuate
the exhaust valve and the
air-pump for supplying the
oil chamber and the spraying
jet. To start the engine a
hand pump is worked until
the pressure is sufficient to
force the oil through the
spraying nozzle, and oil spray
is formed in the starting lamp; the spray and air mixed produce
a blue flame which heats the vaporizer. The fly-wheel is then rotated
by hand and the engine moves away. The eccentric shaft is driven
from the crank-shaft by means of toothed wheels, which reduce the
speed to one-half the revolutions of the crank-shaft. The charging
inlet valve is automatic. Governing is effected by throttling the
oil and air supply. The governor operates on the butterfly valve T
(fig. 11), and on the plug-cock t connected to it, by means of the
spindle t'. The air and oil arc thus simultaneously reduced, and the
attempt is made_ to maintain the charge entering the cylinder at a
constant proportion by weight of oil and air, while reducing: the total
weight, and therefore volume, of the charge entering. The Priestman
engine thus gives an explosion on every second revolution in all
circumstances, whether the engine be running light or loaded.
XX. 2 a
Fig. II. — Priestman Oil Engine
(section on a larger scale).
42
OIL ENGINE
The compression pressure of the mixture before admission is, however,
steadily reduced as the load is reduced, and at very light loads the
engine is running practically as a non-compression engine.
A test by Professor Unwin of a 45 nominal horse-power Priestman
engine, cylinder 8-5 in, diameter, 12 in. stroke, normal speed 180
revolutions per minute, showed the consumption of oil per indicated
horse-power hour to be i'066 lb and per brake horse-power hour
1-243 ft- The oil used was that known as Broxburn Lighthouse, a
Scottish paraffin oil produced by the destructive distillation of
shale, having a density of -81 and a flashing-point about 152° F.
With a 5 H.P. engine of the same dimensions, the volume swept by
the piston per stroke being -395 cub. ft. and the clearance space in
the cylinder at the end of the stroke -210 cub. ft., the principal results
Indicated horse-power ....
Brake horse-power
Mean speed (revolutions per minute)
iVIean available pressure (revolutions per
minute) ... ....
Oil consumed per indicated horse-power
per hour
Oil consumed per brake horse-power per
hour
Daylight
Oil.
9 '369
7-722
204-33
53-2
-694 lb
•842 ft
Russoline
Oil.
7-408
6-765
207-73
41-38
■864 lb
•946 ft
With daylight oil the explosion pressure was 151-4 ft per square
inch above atmosphere, and with Russoline 134-3 ft. The terminal
pressure at the moment of opening the exhaust valve with daylight
oil was 35-4 ft and with Russoline 33-7 per square inch. The
compression pressure with daylight oil was 35 ft, and with Russoline
27-6 ft pressure above atmosphere. Professor Unwin calculated
the amount of heat accounted for by the indicator as 18-8% in the
case of daylight oil and 15-2 in the case of Russoline oil.
The Hornsby-Ackroyd engine is an example of the class in which
the oil is injected into the cylinder and there vaporized. Fig. 12
Fig. 12. — Hornsby-Ackroyd Fig. 13. — -Hornsby - Ackroyd
Engine (section through Engine (section through valves,
vaporizer and cylinder). vaporizer and cylinder).
is a section through the vaporizer and cylinder of this engine, and
fig. 13 shows the inlet and exhaust valves also in section placed in
front of the vaporizer and cylinder section. Vaporizing is conducted
in the interior of the combustion chamber, which is so arranged that
the heat of each explosion maintains it at a temperature sufficiently
high to enable the oil to be vaporized by mere injection upon the hot
surfaces. The vaporizer A is heated up by a separate lamp, the oil
is injected at the oil inlet B, and the
engine is rotated by hand. The piston
then takes in a charge of air by the air-
inlet valve into the cylinder, the air
passing by the port directly into the
cylinder without passing through the
vaporizer chamber. While the piston is
moving forward, taking in the charge of
air, the oil thrown into the vaporizer is
vaporizing and diffusing itself through
the vaporizer chamber, mixing, how-
ever, only with the hot products of com-
bustion left by the preceding explosion.
During the charging stroke the air enters
through the cylinder, and the vapour
formed from the oil is almost entirely
confined to the combustion chamber.
On the return stroke of the piston air is
forced through the somewhat narrow
neck a into the'combustion chamber, and
is there mixed with the vapour contained
in it. At first, however, the mixture is
too rich in inflammable vapour to be
capable of ignition. As the compression
proceeds, however, more and more air is forced into the vaporizer
chamber, and just as compression is completed the mixture attains
proper explosive proportions. The sides of the chamber are suffi-
ciently hot to cause explosion, under the pressure of which the piston
moves forward. As the vaporizer A is not water-jacketed, and is
connected to the metal of tfie back cover only by the small section
or area of cast-iron forming the metal neck a, the heat given to the
surface by each explosion is sufficient to keep its temperature at
about 700-800° C. Oil vapour mixed with air will explode by
contact with a metal surface at a comparatively low temperature;
this accounts for the explosion of the compressed mixture m the
combustion chamber A, which is never really raised to a red heat.
It has long been known that under certain conditions of internal
surface a gas engine may be made to run with very great regularity,
without incandescent tube or any other form of igniter, if some
portion of the interior surfaces of the cylinder or combustion space
be so arranged that the temperature can rise moderately; then,
although the temperature may be too low to ignite the mixture at
atmospheric temperature, yet when compression is completed the
mixture will often ignite in a perfectly regular manner. It is a curious
fact that with heavy oils ignition is more easily accomplished at a
low temperature than with light oils. The explanation seems to
be that, while in the case of light oils the hydrocarbon vapours
formed are tolerably stable from a chemical point of view, the heavy
oils very easily decompose by heat, and separate out their carbons,
liberating the combined hydrogen, and at the moment of liberation
the hydrogen, being in what chemists know as the nascent state,
very readily enters into combination with the o.xygen beside it. To
start the engine the vaporizer is heated by a separate heating lamp,
which is supplied with an air blast by means of a hand-operated fan.
This operation should take about nine minutes. The engine is then
moved round by hand, and starts in the usual manner. The oil tank
is placed in the bed plate of the engine. The air and exhaust valves
are driven by cams on a valve shaft. The governing is effected by a
centrifugal governor which operates a by-pass valve, opening it
when the speed is too high, and causes the oil pump to return the
oil to the oil tank. At a test of one of these engines, which weighed
40 cwt. and was given as of 8 brake horse-power, with cyhnder 10 in.
in diameter and 15 in. stroke, according to Professor Capper's report,
the revolutions were very constant, and the power developed did not
vary one quarter of a brake horse-power from day to day. The oil
consumed, reckoned on the average of the three days over which the
trial extended, was ■9i9;ftper brake horse-power per hour, the mean
power exerted being 8-35 brake horse. At another full-power trial
of the same engine a brake horse-power of 8-57 was obtained, the
mean speed being 239-66 revolutions per minute and the test lasting
for two hours; the indicated power was 10-3 horse, the explosions
per minute 119-83, the mean effective pressure 28-9 per sq. in.,
the oil used per indicated horse-power per hour was -81 ft, and per
brake horse-power per hour —-977 ft. In a test at half power, the
brake horse-power developed was 4-57 at 235-9 revolutions per
minute, and the oil used per brake horse-power was 1-48 ft. On a
four hours' test, without a load, at 240 revolutions per minute, the
consumption of oil was 4-23 ft per hour. Engines of this class are
those manufactured by Messrs Crossley Bros., Ltd., and the National
Gas Engine Co., Ltd.
Figs. 14 and 15 show a longitudinal section and detail views of the
operative parts of the Crossley oil engine. On the suction stroke,
air is drawn into the cylinder by the piston A through the automatic
inlet valve D, and oil is then pumped into the heated vaporizer C
through the oil sprayer G, as seen in section at fig. 15. The vaporizer
C is bolted to the water-jacketed part B ; and, like the Hornsby,
this vaporizer is first heated by lamp and then the heat of the ex-
plosions keeps up its temperature to a sufficiently high point to
vaporize the oil when sprayed against it. On the compression stroke
-,;-x^.^-\>x
y,v/// ./, -777777.
ri. A ' ff . n ' -.'or.VV.'. . . ...',■■ :' ^
\V\\'\'^
V^ sk Vk^^v^Vk^.y
^^^\\\v
??
if
'/Zi/.
c///,-:
\ VV \^\Vkk'-kk^kk'^^
Fig. 14. — Crossley Oil Engine.
of the piston A the charge of air is forced into the combustion
chamber B and the vaporizer chamber C, where it mixes with the oil
vapour, and the nii.xture is ignited at the termination of the stroke
by the ignition tube H. This tube is isolated to some extent from the
vaporizer chamber C, and so it becomes hotter than the chamber C
and is relied upon to ignite the mixture when formed at times when C
would be too cold for the purpose. E is the exhaust valve, which
OILLETS— OILS
43
operates in the usual way. The water circulation passes through
the jacket by way of the pipes J and K. When the engine is running
at heavy loads with full charges of oil delivered by the oil pump
tlirough the sprayer G, a second pump is caused to come into action,
which discharges a very small quantity of water through the water
sprayer valve F. This water passes into the vaporizer and com-
bustion chamber, together with a little air, which enters by the
automatic inlet valve, which serves as sprayer. This contrivance
is found useful to prevent the vaporizer from overheating at heavy
Fig. 15. — Crossley Oil Engine.
loads. The principal difference between this engine and the Hornsby
engine already described lies in the use of the separate ignition tube
H and in the water sprayer F, which acts as a sniffing valve, taking
in a little air and water when the engine becomes hot. Messrs
Crossley inform the writer that the consumption of either crude or
refined oil is about -63 of a pint per horse-power on full load. They
also give a test of a small engine developing 7 B.H.P., which consumed
•601 pint per B.H.P. per hour of Rock Light refined lamp oil and only
■603 pint per B.H.P. per hour of crude Borneo petroleum oil.
Engines in which the oil is vaporized in a device external to the
cylinder have almost disappeared, because of the great success of the
Hornsby-Ackroyd type, where oil is injected into, and vaporized
within, the cylinder. It has been found, however, that many petrol
engines having jet carburettors will operate with the heavier oils
if the jet carburettor is suitably heated by means of the exhaust gases.
In some engines it is customary to start with petrol, and then when
the parts have become sufficiently heated to substitute paraffin or
heavy petroleum oil, putting the heavy oil through the same spraying
process as the petrol and evaporating the spray by hot walls before
entering the cylinder.
Mr Diesel has produced a very interesting engine which departs
considerably from other types. In it air alone is drawn into the
cylinder on the charging stroke; the air is compressed on the return
stroke to a very high pressure generally to over 400 Itj per sq. in.
This compression raises the air to incandescence, and then heavy oil
is injected into the incandescent air by a small portion of air com-
pressed to a still higher point. The oil ignites at once as it enters
the combustion space, and so a power impulse is obtained, but with-
out explosion. The pressure does not rise above the pressure of
air and oil injection. The Diesel engine thus embodies two very-
original features; it operates at compression pressures very much
higher than those used in any other internal combustion engines,
and it dispenses with the usual igniting devices by rendering the air
charge incandescent by compression. The engine operates generally
on the Otto cycle, but it is also built giving an impulse at every
revolution. Mr Diesel has shown great determination and persever-
ance, and the engine has now attained a position of considerable
commercial importance. It is made on the continent, in England
and in America in sizes up to 1000 H.P., and it has been applied to
many purposes on land and also to the propulsion of small vessels.
The engine gives a very high thermal efficiency. The present writer
has calculated the following values from a test of a 500 B.H.P. Diesel
oil engine made by Mr Michael Longridge, M.Inst.C.E. The
engine had three cylinders, each of 22-05 'i- diameter and stroke
29-52 in., each cylinder operating on the " Otto " cycle. The main
results were as follows: —
Indicated power . ,
■ 595 horse
Brake power
■ 459 ..
Mechanical efficiency
77 /o
Indicated thermal efficiency .
. . . 41%
Brake thermal efficiency .
. . . 31-7%
(D.
C.)
OILLETS (from an O. Fr. diminutive of (eU, eye, in Mod. Fr.
(Billet; other English variants are oylets, eyelets, or eyelet-holes),
the architectural term given to the arrow slits in the walls of
medieval fortifications, but more strictly applied to the round
hole or circle with which the openings terminate. The same
term is applied to the small circles inserted in the tracery-head
of the windows of the Decorated and Perpendicular periods,
sometimes varied with trefoils and quatrefoils.
OILS (adopted from the Fr. oile, mod. huile, Lat. oleum, olive
oil), the generic expression for substances belonging to extensive
series of bodies of diverse chemical character, all of which have
the common physical property of being fluid either at the ordinary
temperature or at temperatures below the boiling-point of water.
Formerly, when substances were principally classified by obvious
characteristics, the word included such a body as " oil of vitriol "
(sulphuric acid), which has of course nothing in common with
what is now understood under the term oils. In its most com-
prehensive ordinary acceptation the word embraces at present
the fluid fixed oils or fatty oils [e.g. olive oil), the soft fats which
may be fluid in their country of origin (e.g. coco-nut oil, palm
oil), the hard fats {e.g. taUow), the still harder vegetable and
animal waxes {e.g. carnaiiba wax, beeswax), the odoriferous
ethereal (essential) oils, and the fluid and solid volatile hydro-
carbons — mineral hydrocarbons — found in nature or obtained
from natural products by destructive distillation.
The common characteristic of all these substances is that
they consist principally, in some cases exclusively, of carbon
and hydrogen. They are all readily inflammable and are practi-
cally insoluble in water. The mineral hydrocarbons found in
nature or obtained by destructive distillation do not come
within the range of this article (see Naphtha, Paraffin,
Petroleum), which is restricted to the following two large groups
of bodies, formed naturally within the vegetable and animal
organisms, viz. (i) Fixed oils, fats and waxes, and (2) Essential,
ethereal or volatile oils.
I. Fixed Oils, Fals and Waxes.
The substances to be considered under this head divide
themselves naturally into two large classes, viz. fatty (fixed)
oils and fats on the one hand, and waxes on the other, the dis-
tinction between the two classes being based on a most important
chemical difference. The fixed oils and fats consist essentially
of glycerides, i.e. esters formed by the union of three molecules
of fatty acids with one molecule of the trihydric alcohol glycerin
{q.v.), whereas the waxes consist of esters formed by the union of
one molecule of fatty acid with one molecule of a monohydric
alcohol, such as cetyl alcohol, cholesterol, &c. Only in the case
of the wax coccerin two molecules of fatty acids are combined
with one molecule of a dihydric (bivalent) alcohol. It must
be pointed out that in common parlance this distinction does not
find its ready expression. Thus Japan wax is a glyceride and
should be more correctly termed Japan tallow, whereas sperm oil
is, chemically speaking, a wax. Although these two classes of
substances have a number of physical properties in common,
they must be considered under separate heads. The true
chemical constitution of oils and fats was first expounded by
the classical researches of Chevreul, embodied in his work,
Rccherches sur les corps gras d'origine animale (1823, reprinted
1889).
(o) Fatty {fixed) Oils and Fats. — The fatty (fixed) oils and fats
form a well-defined and homogeneous group of substances,
passing through all gradations of consistency, from oils which are
fluid even below the freezing-point of water, up to the hardest
fats which melt at about 50° C. Therefore, no sharp distinction
can be made between fatty oils and fats. Nevertheless, it is
convenient to apply the term " oil " to those glycerides which are
fluid below about 20° C, and the term " fat " to those which are
solid above this temperature.
Chemical Composition. — No oil or fat is found in nature con-
sisting of a single chemical individual, i.e. a fat consisting of the
glyceride of one fatty acid orfly, such as stearin or tristearin,
C3H5(0-Ci8H350)3, the glycerin ester of stearic acid, CiiHss-COjH.
The natural oils and fats are mixtures of at least two or three
different triglycerides, the most important of which are tristearin,
tripalmitin, C3H5(0-Ci6H.iiO)3 and triolein, C3H5 (0-Ci8H330)3.
These three glycerides have been usually considered the chief
44
nr OILS TTO
constituents of most oils and fats, but latterly there have been
recognized as widely distributed trilinolin, the glyceride of
linolic acid, and trilinolenin, the glyceride of linolenic acid.
The two last-named glycerides are characteristic of the semi-
drying and drying oils respectively. In addition to the fatty
acids mentioned already there occur also, although in much
smaller quantities, other fatty acids combined with glycerin, as
natural glycerides, such as the glyceride of butyric acid in butter-
fat, of caproic, caprylic and capric acids in butter-fat and in
coco-nut oil, lauric acid in coco-nut and palm-nut oils, and
myristic acid in mace butter. These glycerides are, therefore,
characteristic of the oils and fats named.
In the classified hst below the most important fatty acids
occurring in oils and fats are enumerated (cf. Waxes, below).
Oils and fats must, therefore, not be looked upon as definite
chemical individuals, but as representatives of natural species
which vary, although within certain narrow limits, according
to the climate and soil in which the plants which produce them
are grown, or, in the case of animal fats, according to the climate,
the race, the age of the animal, and especially the food, and also
the idiosyncrasy of the individual animal. The oils and fats
are distributed throughout the animal and vegetable kingdom
from the lowest organism up to the most highly organized
forms of animal and vegetable life, and are found in almost
all tissues and organs. The vegetable oils and fats occur chiefly
in the seeds, where they are stored to nourish the embrj'O,
whereas in animals the oils and fats are enclosed mainly in the
cellular tissues of the intestines and of the back.
Boiling-point.
Melting-point.
"C.
Characteristic of
mm.
°C.
Pressure.
I. Acids of the Acetic series CnHjnOz —
Acetic acid
C2H.O2
760
119
17
Spindle-tree oil, Macassar oil
Butyric acid .......
C.H8O2
760
162-3
-6-5
Butter fat, Macassar oil
Isovaleric acid
CsHioOa
760
173-7
-51
Porpoise and dolphin oils
Caproic acid
C6H12O2
770
202-203
-8
/ Butter fat, coco-nut oil,
Caprylic acid
C8H16O2
761
236-237
16-5
I palm nut oil
Capric acid
C10H20O2
760
268-270
31-3
Lauric acid
C12H24O2
100
225
43-6
Laurel oil, coco-nut oil
Myristic acid
CuHoaO^
100
250-5
53-8
Mace butter, nutmeg butter
Isocetic acid (?)
C16H30O2
55
Purging nut
Palmitic acid
C16H32O2
100
271-5
62-62
Palm oil, Japan wax, myrtle
wax, lard, tallow, &c.
Stearic acid
CigHaeOj
100
291
69-32
Tallow, cacao butter, &c.
Arachidic acid
C20H 40O2
77-0
Arachis oil
Behenic acid
C22H44O2
83-84
Ben oil
Lignoceric acid
C24H48O2
80-5
Arachis oil
II. Acids of the Acrylic or Oleic series CnHa^sOj —
Tiglic acid
C5H8O2
760
198-5
64-5
Croton oil
Hypogaeic acid
CeHsoOj
15
236
33-34
Arachis oil
Physetoleic acid
C16H30O2
30
Caspian seal oil
Oleic acid
C18H34O2
100
285-5-286
14
Most oils and fats
Rapic acid
C18H34O2
Rape oils
Erucic acid
C22H42O2
30
281
33-34
Rape oils, fish oils
III. Acids of the Linolic series C„H2n-i02
Linolic acid
C18H32O2
Maize oil, cotton-seed oil
Tariric acid
C18H32O2
50-5
Oil of Picramnia Camboita
Telfairic acid
C,8H3202
13
220-225
Koeme oil
Elaeomargaric acid
C18H32O2
48
Tung oil
IV. Acids of the cyclic Chaulmoogric series
C„H2,^402—
Hydnocarpic acid
Cl6H2802
..
59-60
/ Hydnocarpus, Lukrabo and
) Chaulmoogra oils
Chaulmoogric acid
C18H32O2
20
247-248
68
V. Acids of the Linolenic series Ct.H2,^602 —
Linolenic acid
C18H 30O2
f Linseed oil
Isolinolenic acid
C18H30O2
VI. Acids of the series CnH2n-802 —
Clupanodonic acid
C18H28O2
(liquid)
Fish, liver and blubber oils
VII. Acids of the Ricinolelc series CnH2„_203 —
Ricinoleic acid
C18H34O3
15
250
4-5
Castor oil
Quince oil acid
C18H34O3
Quince oil
VIII. Dihydroxylated acids of the series C„H2„04—
Dihydroxystearic acid
C18H36O4
141-143
Castor oil
IX. Acids of the series C^H.^-^O,—
Japanic acid
C22H42O4
117-7-117-9
Japan wax
Up to recently the oils and fats were looked upon as consisting
in the main of a mixture of triglycerides, in which the three
combined fatty acids are identical, as is the case in the above-
named glycerides. Such glycerides are termed " simple
glycerides." Recently, however, glycerides have been found
in which the glycerin is combined with two and even three
different acid radicals; examples of such glycerides are dis-
tearo-olein, C3H5(0-Ci8H360)2, (O-CisHssO), and stearo-pal-
mito-olein, C3H5(0-Ci8H350) (0-C,6H3iO) (0-C,8H330). Such
glycerides are termed " mixed glycerides." The glycerides
occurring in natural oUs and fats differ, therefore, in the first
instance by the different fatty acids contained in them, and
secondly, even if they do contain the same fatty acids, by
different proportions of the several simple and mixed glycerides.
Since the methods of preparing the vegetable and animal
fats are comparatively crude ones, they usually contain certain
impurities of one kind or another, such as colouring and mucilagi-
nous matter, remnants of vegetable and animal tissues, &c. For
the most part these foreign substances can be removed by pro-
cesses of refining, but even after this purification they still retain
small quantities of foreign substances, such as traces of colouring
matters, albuminoid and (or) resinous substances, and other
foreign substances, which remain dissolved in the oils and fats,
and can only be isolated after saponification of the fat. These
foreign substances are comprised in the term " unsaponifiable
matter." The most important constituents of the " unsaponifiable
m.atter " are phytosterol C26H440 or C27H440(?), and the isomeric
cholesterol. The former occurs in all oils and fats of vegetable
OILS
45
origin; the latter is characteristic of all oils and fats of animal
origin. This important difference furnishes a method of dis-
tinguishing by chemical means vegetable oils and fats from
animal oils and fats. This distinction will be made use of in
the classilication of the oils and fats. A second guiding principle
is afforded by the different amounts of iodine (see Oil Testing
below) the various oils and fats are capable of absorbing. Since
this capacity runs parallel with one of the best-known properties
of oils and fats, viz. the power of absorbing larger or smaller
quantities of oxygen on exposure to the air, we arrive at the
following classification : —
I. Fatty Oils or Liquid Fats
A. Vegetable oils. B. Animal oils.
1. Drying oils. i. Marine animal oils.
2. Semi-drying oils. (a) Fish oils.
3. Non-drying oils. (b) Liver oils.
(c) Blubber oils.
2. Terrestrial animal oils.
A. Vegetable fats.
II. Solid Fats
B. Animal fats.
1. Drying fats.
2. Semi-drying fats.
3. Non-drying fats.
Physical Properties. — The specific gravities of oils and fats vary
between the limits of 0-910 and 0-975. The lowest specific gravity
is owned by the oils belonging to the rape oil group — from 0-913 to
0-916. The specific gravities of most non-drying oils lie between
0-916 and 0-920, and of most semi-drying oils between 0-920 and
0-925, whereas the drying oils have specific gravitie'^ of about 0-930.
The animal and vegetable fats possess somewhat higher specific
gravities, up to 0-930. The high specific gravity, 0-970, is owned by
castor oil and cacao butter, and the highest specific gravity observed
hitherto, 0-975, by Japan wax and myrtle wax.
In their liquid state oils and fats easily penetrate into the pores of
dry substances; on paper they leave a translucent spot — " greaee
spot " — which cannot be removed by washing with water and subse-
quent drying. A curious fact, which may be used for the detection
of the minutest quantity of oils and fats, is that camphor crushed
between layers of paper without having been touched with the
fingers rotates when thrown on clean water, the rotation ceasing
immediately when a trace of oil or fat is added, such as introduced
by touching the water with a needle which has been passed previously
through the hair.
The oils and fats are practically insoluble in water. With the
exception of castor oil they are insoluble in cold alcohol; in boiling
alcohol somewhat larger quantities dissolve. They are completely
soluble in ether, carbon bisulphide, chloroform, carbon tetrachloride,
petroleum ether, and benzene. Oils and fats have no distinct melting
or solidifying point. This is not only due to the fact that they are
mixtures of several glycerides, but also that even pure glycerides,
such as tristearin, exhibit two melting-points, a so-called " double
melting-point," the triglycerides melting at a certain temperature,
then solidifying at a higher temperature to melt again on further
heating. This curious behaviour was looked upon by Duffy as being
due to the existence of two isomeric modifications, the actual
occurrence of which has been proved (1907) in the case of several
mixed glycerides.
The freezing-points of those oils which are fluid at the ordinary
temperature range from a few degrees above zero down to -28° C.
(linseed oil). At low temperatures solid portions — usually termed
" stearine " — separate out from many oils; in the case of cotton-seed
oil the separation takes place at 12° C. These solid portions can be
filtered off, and thus are obtained the commercial " demargarinated
oils " or " winter oils."
Oils and fats can be heated to a temperature of 200° to 250° C.
without undergoing any material change, provided prolonged
contact with air is avoided. On being heated above 250° up to 300°
some oils, like linseed oil, safflower oil, tung oil (Chinese or Japanese
wood oil) and even castor oil, undergo a change which is most likely
due to polymerization. In the case of castor oil solid products are
formed. Above 300° C. all oils and fats are decomposed; this is
evidenced by the evolution of acrolein, which possesses the well-
known pungent odour of burning fat. At the same time hydro-
carbons are formed (see Petroleum).
On exposure to the atmosphere, oils and fats gradually undergo
certain changes. The drying oils absorb o.xygen somewhat
rapidly and dry to a film or skin, especially if exposed in a thin
layer. Extensive use of this property is made in the paint and
varnish trades. The semi-drying oils absorb oxygen more
slowly than the drying oils, and are, therefore, useless as paint
oils. Still, in course of time, they absorb oxygen distinctly
enough to become thickened. The property of the semi-drying
oils to absorb oxygen is accelerated by spreading such oils over
a large surface, notably over woollen or cotton fibres, when
absorption proceeds so rapidly that frequently spontaneous
combustion will ensue. Many fires in cotton and woollen mills
have been caused thereby. The non-drying oils, the type of
which is olive oil, do not become oxidized readily on exposure
to the air, although gradually a change takes place, the oils
thickening slightly and acquiring that peculiar disagreeable
smell and acrid taste, which are defined by the term " rancid."
The changes conditioning rancidity, although not yet fully
understood in all details, must be ascribed in the first instance
to slow hydrolysis (" saponification ") of the oils and fats by the
moisture of the air, especially if favoured by insolation, when
water is taken up by the oils and fats, and free fatty acids are
formed. The fatty acids so set free are then more readily
attacked by the oxygen of the air, and oxygenated products
are formed, which impart to the oils and fats the rancid smell
and taste. The products of oxidation are not yet fully known;
most likely they consist of lower fatty acids, such as formic
and acetic acids, and perhaps also of aldehydes and ketones.
If the fats and oils are well protected from air and light, they
can be kept indefinitely. In fact C. Friedel has found unchanged
triglycerides in the fat which had been buried several thousand
years ago in the tombs of Abydos. If the action of air and
moisture is allowed free play, the hydrolysis of the oils and
fats may become so complete that only the insoluble fatty
acids remain behind, the glycerin being washed away. This
is exemplified by adipocere, and also by Irish bog butter, which
consist chiefly of free fatty acids.
The property of oils and fats of being readily hydrolysed is a most
important one, and very extensive use of it is made in the arts (soap-
making, candle-making and recovery of their by-products). If oils
and fats are treated with water alone under high pressure (corre-
sponding to a temperature of about 220° C), or in the presence of
water with caustic alkalis or alkaline earths or basic metallic oxides
(which bodies act as " catalysers ") at lower pressures, they are
converted in the first instance into free fatty acids and glycerin.
If an amount of the bases sufficient to combine subsequently with
the fatty acids be present, then the corresponding salts of these fatty
acids are formed, such as sodium salts of fatty acids (hard soap) or
potassium salts of the fatty acids (soft soap), soaps of the alkaline
earth (lime soap), or soaps of the metallic oxides (zinc soap, &c.).
The conversion of the glycerides (triglycerides) into fatty acids
and glycerin must be looked upon as a reaction which takes place in
stages, one molecule of a triglyceride being converted first into
diglyceride and one molecule of fatty acid, the diglyceride then being
changed into monoglyceride, and a second molecule of fatty acid,
and finally the monoglyceride being converted into one molecule of
fatty acid and glycerin. All these reactions take place concurrently,
so that one molecule of a diglyceride may still retain its ephemeral
existence, whilst another molecule is already broken up completely
into free fatty acids and glycerin.
The oils and fats used in the industries are not drawn from
any very great number of sources. The tables on the following
pages contain chiefly the most important oils and fats together
with their sources, yields and principal uses, arranged according
to the above classification, and according to the magnitude of
the iodine value. It should be added that many other oils and
fats are only waiting improved conditions of transport to enter
into successful competition with some of those that are already
on the market.
Extraction. — Since the oils and fats have always served the
human race as one of the most important articles of food, the
oil and fat industry may well be considered to be as old as the
human race itself. The methods of preparing oils and fats
range themselves under three heads: (i) Extraction of oil by
" rendering," i.e. boiling out with water; (2) Extraction of oil
by expression; (3) Extraction of oil by means of solvents.
Rendering. — The crudest method of rendering oils from seeds, still
practised in Central Africa, in Indo-China and on some of the South
Sea Islands, consists in heaping up oleaginous fruits and allowing
them to melt by the heat of the sun, when the exuding oil runs off
and is collected. In a somewhat improved form this process of
rendering is practised in the preparation of palm oil, and the rendering
the best (Cochin) coco-nut oil by boiling the fresh kernels with water.
Since hardly any machinery', or only the simplest machinen,-, is
required for these processes, this method has some fascination for
1^^
OILS
inventors, and even at the present day processes are being patented,
having for their object the boiling out of fruits with water or salt
solutions, so as to facilitate the separation of the oil from the pulp by
gravitation. Naturally these processes can only be applied to those
seeds which contain large quantities of fatty matter, such as coco-
nuts and olives. The rendering process is, however, applied on a
verv large scale to the production of animal oils and fats. Formerly
the' animal oils and fats were obtained by heating the tissues con-
taining the oils or fats over a free fire, when the cell membranes
burst and the liquid fat flowed out. The cave-dweller who first
collected the fat dripping off the deer on the roasting spit may well
be looked upon as the first manufacturer of tallow. This crude
process is now classed amongst the noxious trades, owing to the
offensive stench given off, and must be considered as almost extinct
in this country. Even on whaling vessels, where up to recently
whale oil, seal oil and sperm oil (see Waxes, below) were obtained
exclusively by " trying," i.e. by melting the blubber over a free fire,
the process of rendering is fast becoming obsolete, the modern prac-
tice being to deliver the blubber in as fresh a state as possible to the
" whaling establishments," where the oil is rendered by methods
closely resembling those worked in the enormous rendering establish-
ments (for tallow, lard, bone fat) in the United States and in South
America. The method consists essentially in cutting up the fatty
matter into small fragments, which are transferred into vessels
containing water, wherein the comminuted mass is heated by
steam, either under ordinary pressure in open vessels or under
higher pressure in digestors. The fat gradually exudes and collects
on the top of the water, whilst the membranous matter, " greaves,"
falls to the bottom. The fat is then drawn off the aqueous (gluey)
layer, and strained through sieves or filters. The greaves are placed
Vegetable Oils
Name of Oil.
Source.
Yield
per cent.
Iodine
Value.
Principal Use.
Drying Oils.
Linseed
Linum usitatissimnm
38-40
175-205
Paint, varnish, linoleum, soap
Tung (Chinese or Japanese wood)
Aleurites cordala ....
40-41
150-165
Paint and varnish .i„,,m /.
Candle nut
Aleuriles moluccana
62-64
163
Burning oil, soap, paint '"' '
Hemp seed
Cannabis saliva ....
30-35
148
Paints and varnishes, soft soap
Walnut ; Nut .
Juglans regia
63-<>5
145
Oil painting
Safflower ....
Carthamus tinctorius
30-32
130-147
Burning, varnish (" roghan ")
Poppy seed
Papaver somniferum
41-50
123-143
Salad oil, painting, soft soap
Sunflower ....
Helianthus annuus ....
21-22
119-135
Edible oil, soap
Madia ....
Madia saliva
32-33
II8-5
Soap, burning
Semi-drying Oils.
Cameline (German Sesame) .
Camelina saliva ....
31-34
135
Burning, soap
Soja bean . .;,.-.
Soja hispida ....
122
Edible, burning
Maize; Corn '". '"
Zea Mays
6-10
113-125
Edible, soap
Beech nut
Fagus sylvatica ....
43-45
111-120
Food, burning
Kapok
Bomhax pentandrtim {Eriodendron
anfractuosiim) ....
30-32
116
Food, soap
Cotton-seed
Gossypium herbaceum
24-26
108-110
Food, soap
Sesame
Sesamnm orientale, S. indicum
50-57
103-108
Food, soap
Curcas, purging nut
Jatropha curcas ....
55-5-
98-110
Medicine, soap
Brazil nut
Bertholletia excelsa ....
90-106
Edible, soap
Croton
Crolon Tigliiim ....
53-56
102-104
Medicine
Ravison
Wild Brassica campestris
33-40
I 05-1 17
Lubricant, burning
Rape (Colza) .
•_
Brassica campestris
33-43
94-102
Lubricant, burning
Jamba
Brassica campestris var.?
24
95
Burning, lubricant
Non-drying Oils.
.\pricot kernel
Primus armeniaca ....
40-45
96-108
Perfumery, medicine
Peach kernel .
Prunus persica
32-35
93-109
Perfumery, medicine
Almond
Prunus amygdalus
45-55
93-100
Perfumery, medicine
.•\rachis (ground m'.t)
Arachis hypogaea
43-45
83-100
Edible, soap
Hazel nut
Corylus avellana
50-60
83^0
Edible, perfumery, lubricating
Olive
Oka europaea .
40-60
79-88
Edible, lubricating, burning, soap
Olive kernel
Olea europaea .
12-15
87
Edible, lubricating, burning, soap
Ben .
Moringa oleifera
35-36
82
Edible, perfumery, lubricating
Grape seed
Vitis vinifera .
10-20
96
Food, burning
Castor
Ricinus communis
46-53
83-86
Medicine, soap, lubricating, Turkey
red oil
.\xiMAL Oils
Name of Oil.
Source.
Yield
per cent.
Iodine
Value.
Principal LTse.
Fish oils —
Marine Animal Oi
Is.
Menhaden
Alosa menhaden ....
140-173
Currying leather
Sardine oil
Clupea sardinus ....
161-193
Currj'ing leather
Salmon ......
.Sal mo salar
161
Curn,'ing leather
Herring
Clupea harengus ....
124-142
Currying leather
Liver oils —
Cod liver
Gadtis morrhua ....
167
Medicine, currj'ing leather
Shark liver (Arctic)
Scymnus borealis ....
115
Currying leather
Blubber oils —
Seal
Plioca vilulina
127-147
Burning, currying leather
Whale
Balaefia mysticetus, &c. .
121-136
Burning, soap-making, fibre dress-
ing, currying leather
Dolphin, black fish, body oil .
Jaw oil
Delphinus globiceps . . \
99-126
33
( Lubricating oil for delicate
Porpoise Body oil . . .
Porpoise Jaw oil . . . .
■ Delphinus phocaena . . \
119
36
I machinery
Terrestrial Animal
Oils.
Sheep's foot
Ovis aries
74
Lubricating
Horses' foot
Equus caballus ....
74-90
Lubricating
Neat's foot
Bos taurus
67-73
Lubricating, leather dressing
Egg
Callus domesticus ....
68-82
Leather dressing
OILS
47
Vegetable Fats
Yield
Iodine
Name of Fat.
Source.
per cent.
Value.
Principal Use.
Laurel oil
Laurus nobilis
24-26
68-80
Medicine
Mahua butter, Illipe butter .
Bassia lalifoHa ....
50-55
53-67
Food, soap, candles
Mowrah butter
Bassia longijolia ....
50-55
50-62
Food, soap, can<lles
Shea butter (Galam butter) .
Bassia Parkii
49-52
56
Food, soap, candles
Palm oil
Elaeis guineensis, E. melanococca
65-72
53
Candles, soap
Mace butter ....
Myristica officinalis
38-40
40-52
Medicine, perfumery
Ghee butter (Phulwara butter)
Bassia butyracea
50-52
42
Food
Cacao butter ....
Theobroma cacao ....
44-50
32-41
Chocolate
Chinese vegetable tallow
Stiliingia sebifera {Crolon sebiferum)
22
28-32
Soap, candles
Kokum butter (Goa butter) .
Garcinia indica ....
49
33
Food
Borneo tallow ....
Shorea stenoptera, Hopea aspera
45-50
15-31
Food, candles
Mocaya oil
Cocos sclerocarpa ....
60-70
24
Food, soap
Maripa fat
Palma (?) Maripa ....
17
Food, soap
I'alm kernel oil (
Palm nut oil S
Elaeis guineensis, \ .
E. melanococca
45-50
13-14
Food, soap
Coco-nut oil
Cocos nucifera, C. bulyracca .
20-25
8-9
Food, soap, candles
Japan wax
Rhus succedanea, R. vernicijera
25
4-10
Polishes
Dika oiUoba oil, wild mango oil)
Irvingia gabonensis ....
60-65
5-2
Food
Myrtle wax ....
Myrica cerifera, M. carolinensis .
20-25
2-4
Soap, candles C')
Animal Fats
Yield
Iodine
Name of Fat.
Source.
per cent.
Value.
Principal Use.
Drying Fats.
Ice bear ......
Ursus maritimus ....
147
Pharmacy
Rattlesnake
Crotalus durissus ....
106
Pharmacy
Semi-drying Fa
'5.
Horses' fat | Equus caballus . . . \
.. 1
75-85 1
Food, soap
Non-drying Fat
s.
Goose fat
Anser cinereus |
1
70
Food, pomades
Lard
Sus scrofa
50-70
Food, soap, candles
Beef marrow .
Bos taurus
55
Pomades
Bone .
Bos, Ovis ....
46-56
Soap, candles
Tallow, beef
Bos taurus
38-46
Food, soap, candles, lubricants
Tallow, mutton
Ovis aries
35-46
Food, soap, candles, lubricants
Butter
Bos taurus
26-38
Food
in hair or woollen bags and submitted to hydraulic pressure, by
which a further portion of oil or fat is obtained (cf. Pressing, below).
In the case of those animal fats which are intended for edible pur-
poses, such as lard, suet for margarine, the greatest cleanliness must,
of course, be observed, and the temperature must be kept as low as
possible in order to obtain a perfectly sweet and pure material.
Pressing. — The boiling out process cannot be applied to small
seeds, such as linseed and rape seed. Whilst the original method of
obtaining seed oils may perhaps have been the same which is still
used in India, viz. trituration of (rape) seeds in a mortar so that the
oil can exude, it may be safely assumed that the process of expressing
has been applied in the first instance to the preparation of olive oil.
The first woman who expressed olives packed in a sack by heaping
stones on them may be considered as the forerunner of the inventors
of all the presses that subsequently came into use. Pliny describes
in detail the apparatus and processes for obtaining olive oil in vogue
among his Roman contemporaries, who used already a simple screw
press, a knowledge of which they had derived from the Greeks.
In the East, where vegetable oils form an important article of food
and serve also for other domestic purposes, various ingenious
applications of lever presses and wedge presses, and even of com-
bined lever and wedge presses, have been used from, the remotest
time. At an early stage of history the Chinese employed the same
series of operations which are followed in the most advanced oil mills
of modern time, viz. bruising and reducing the seeds to meal under an
edge-stone, heating the meal in an open pan, and pressing out the
oil in a wedge press in which the wedges were driven home by
hammers. This primitive process is still being carried out in Man-
churia, in the production of soja bean cake and soja bean oil, one of
the staple industries of that country. The olive press, which was
also used in the vineyards for expressing the grape juice, found its
way from the south of France to the north, and was employed there
for expressing poppy seed and rape seed. The apparatus was then
gradually improved, and thus were evolved the modern forms of
the screw press, next the Dutch or stamper press, and finally the
hydraulic press. With the screw press, even in its most improved
form, the amount of pressure practically obtainable is limited from
the failure of its parts under the severe inelastic strain. Hence this
kind of press finds only limited application, as in the industry of
olive oil for expressing the best and finest virgin oil, and in the
production of animal fats for edible purposes, such as lard and
oleomargarine. The Dutch or stamper press, invented in Holland
in the 17th century, was up to the early years of the 19th century
almost exclusively employed in Europe for pressing oil-seeds. It
consists of two principal parts, an oblong rectangular box with an
arrangement of plates, blocks and wedges, and over it a framework
with heavy stampers which produce the pressure by their fall.
The press box first consisted of strongly bound oaken planks, but
later on cast-iron boxes were introduced. At each extremity of the
box a bag of oil-meal was placed between two perforated iron plates,
next to which were inserted fiUing-up pieces of wood, two of which
were oblique, so that the wedges which exercised the pressure could
be readily driven home. This press has had to yield place to the
hydraulic press, although in some old-fashioned establishments in
Holland the stamper press could still be seen at work in the 'eighties
of the 19th century. The invention of the hydraulic press in 1795
by Joseph Bramah (Eng. pat., 30th .'\pril 1795) effected the greatest
revolution in the oil industry, bringing a new, easily controlled and
almost unlimited source of power into play; the limit of the power
being solely reached by the limit of the strength of the material
which the engineer is able to produce. Since then the hydraulic
press has practically completely superseded all other appliances
used for expression, and in consequence of this epoch-making in-
vention, assisted as it was later on by the accumulator — invented by
William George (later Lord) Armstrong in 1843 — the seed-crushing
industry reached a perfection of mechanical detail which soon
secured its supremacy for England.
The sequence of operations in treating oil seeds, oil nuts, &c.,
for the separation of their contained oils is at the present time as
follows: As a preliminary operation the oil seeds and nuts are freed
from dust, sand and other impurities by sifting in an inclined re-
volving cylinder or sieving machine, covered with woven wire,
having meshes varying according to the size and nature of the seed
operated upon. This preliminary purification is of the greatest
importance, especially for the preparation of edible oils and fats.
In the case of those seeds amongst which are found pieces of iron
(hammer heads amongst palm kernels, &c.), the seeds are passed
over magnetic separators, which retain the pieces of iron. The seeds
and nuts are then decorticated (where required), the shells removed,
and the kernels (" meats ") converted into a pulpy mass or meal
(in older establishments by crushing and grinding between stones in
edge-runners) on passing through a hopper over rollers consisting
of five chilled iron or steel cylinders mounted vertically like the bowls
of a calendar. These rollers are finely grooved so that the seed is
cut up whilst passing in succession between the first and second
rollers in the series, then between the second and the third, and so
4^
OILS
on to the last, when the grains are sufficiently bruised, crushed and
ground. The distance between the rollers can be easily regulated
so that the seed leaving the bottom roller has the desired fineness.
The comminuted mass, forming a more or less coarse meal, is either
expressed in this state or subjected to a preliminary heating, accord-
ing to the quality of the product to be manufactured. For the
preparation of edible oils and fats the meal is expressed in the cold,
after having been packed into bags and placed in hydraulic presses
under a pressure of three hundred atmospheres or even more. The
cakes are allowed to remain under pressure for about seven minutes.
The oil exuding in the cold dissolves the smallest amount of colouring
matter, &c., and hence has suffered least in its quality. Oils so
obtained are known in commerce as "cold drawn oils," " cold pressed
oils," " salad oils," " virgin oils."
By pressing in the cold, obviously only part of the oil or fat is
recovered. A further quantity is obtained by expressing the seed
meal at a somewhat elevated temperature, reached by warming the
comminuted seeds or fruits either immediately after they leave the
five-roller mill, or after the " cold drawn oil " has been taken off.
Of course the cold pressed cakes must lie first disintegrated, which
may be done under an edge-runner. The same operation may be
repeated once more. Thus oils of the " second expression " and of
the " third expression " are obtained.
In the case of oleaginous seeds of low value (cotton-seed, linseed)
it is of importance to express in one operation the largest possible
quantity of oil. Hence the bruised seed is, after leaving the five-
roller mill, generally warmed at once in a steam-jacketed kettle
fitted with a mixing gear, by passing steam into the jacket, and send-
ing at the same time some steam through a rose, fixed inside the
kettle, into the mass while it is being agitated. This practice is a
survival of the older method of moistening the seed with a little
water, while the seeds were bruised under edge-runners, so as to
lower the temperature and facilitate the bursting of the cells. The
warm meal is then delivered through measuring boxes into closed
prcssbags (" scourtins " of the " Marseilles " press), or through
measuring boxes, combined with an automatic moulding machine,
into cloths open at two sides (Anglo-American press), so that the
preliminarily pressed cakes can be put at once into the hydraulic
press. In the latest constructions of cage presses, the use of bags is
entirely dispensed with, a measured-out quantity of seed falling
direct into the circular press cage and being separated from the
material forming the next cake by a circular plate of sheet iron.
The essentials of proper oil pressing are a slowly accumulating
pressure, so that the liberated oil may have time to flow out and
escape, a pressure that increases in proportion as the resistance of
the material increases, and that maintains itself as the volume of
material decreases through the escape of oil.
Numerous forms of hydraulic presses have been devised. Hori-
zontal presses have practically ceased to be used in this branch of
industry. At present vertical presses are almost exclusively in
vogue; the three chief types of these have been already mentioned.
Continuously working presses (compression by a conical screw) have
been patented, but hitherto they have not been found practicable.
Of the vertical presses the Anglo-American type of press is most in
use. It represents an open press fitted with a number (usually
sixteen) of iron press plates, between which the cakes are inserted
by hand. A hydraulic ram then forces the table carrying the cakes
against a press-head, and the exuding oil flows down the sides into
a tank below. The " Marseilles press " is largely used in the south
of France. There the meal is packed by hand in " scourtins," bags
made of plaited coco-nut leaves — replacing the woollen cloths used
in England. The packing of the press requires more manual labour
than in the case of the Anglo-American press; moreover, the Mar-
seilles press offers inconvenience in keeping the bags straight, and
the pressure cannot be raised to the same height as in the more
modern hydraulic presses. Oil obtained from heated meal is usually
more highly coloured and harsher to the taste than cold drawn oil,
more of the extractive substances being dissolved and intermixed
with the oil. Such oils are hardly suitable for edible purposes, and
they are chiefly used for manufacturing processes. According to
the care e.xercised by the manufacturer in the range of temperature
to which the seed is heated, various grades of oils are obtained.
In the case of those seeds which contain more than 40% of oil,
such as arachis nuts and sesame seed, the first expression in pressbags
leads to difficulty, as the meal causes " spueing," i.e. the meal exudes
and escapes from the press. Hence, in modern installations, the
first expression of those seeds is carried out in so-called cage (clodding)
presses, consisting of hydraulic presses provided with circular boxes
or cages, into which the meal is filled. These cages or boxes are either
constructed of metal staves held together by a number of steel rings,
or consist of one cylinder having a large number of perforations.
The presses having perforated cylinders, although presenting
mechanically a more perfect arrangement, are not preferable to the
press cages formed by staves, as the holes become easily clogged up
by the meal, when the cylinder must be carefully cleaned out.
Modern improvements, with a view to cheapening of cost, effect the
transport of the cages from one press battery to another on rails.
In order to dispense even with the charging of the presses by hand,
in some systems the cages are first charged in a preliminary press,
from which they are transferred mechanically by a swinging arrange-
ment into the final press.
Whilst the meal is under pressure the oil works its way to the edge
of the cake, whence it exudes. For this reason an oblong form is the
most favourable one for the easy separation of the oil. The edges
of the cakes invariably retain a considerable portion of oil; hence
the soft edges are pared off, in the case of the oblong cake in a cake-
paring machine, and the parings are returned to edge-runners, to
be ground up and again pressed with fresh meal. Through the
introduction of the cage (clodding) presses circular cakes have become
fashionable, and as the material of these presses can be made much
stronger and therefore higher pressure can be employed, more oil is
expressed from the meal than in open presses. The oil flowing from
the presses is caught in reservoirs placed under the level of the floor,
f rom.which it is pumped into storage tanks for settling and clarifying.
Extraction by Solvents. — The cakes obtained in the foregoing
process still retain considerable proportions of oil, not less than
4 to 5% — usually, however, about 10%. If it be desired to obtain
larger quantities than are yielded by the above-described methods,
processes having for their object the extraction of the seeds by
volatile solvents must be resorted to. Extraction by means of carbon
bisulphide was first introduced in 1843 by Jesse Fisher of Birming-
ham. Thirteen years later E. Deiss of Brunswick again patented
the extraction by means of carbon bisulphide iEng. Pat. No. 390,
1 856), and added " chloroform, ether, essences, or benzine or benzole"
to the list of solvents. For several years afterwards the process
made little advance, for the colour of the oils produced was higher
and the taste much sharper. The oil retained traces of sulphur,
which showed themselves disagreeably in the smell of soaps made
from it, and in the blackening of substances with which it was used.
Of course, the meal left by the process was so tainted with carbon
bisulphide that it was absolutely out of the question to use the
extracted meal as cattle food. With the improvement in the manu-
facture of carbon bisulphide, these drawbacks have been surmounted
to a large extent, and the process of extracting with carbon bisulphide
has specially gained much extension in the extraction of expressed
olive marc in the south of France, in Italy and in Spain. Yet even
now traces of carbon bisulphide are retained by the extracted meal,
so that it is impossible to feed cattle with it. Carbon bisulphide is
comparatively cheap, and it is heavier than water, hence there are
certain advantages in storing so volatile and inflammable a liquid.
But owing to the physiological effect carbon bisulphide has on the
workmen, coupled with the chemical action of impure carbon
bisulphide on iron which has frequently led to conflagrations, the
employment of carbon bisulphide must remain restricted. In 1863
Richardson, Lundy and Irvine secured a patent {Eng. Pat. No.
2315) for obtaining oil from crushed seeds, or from refuse cake,
by the solvent action of volatile hydrocarbons from " petroleum,
earth oils, asphaltum oil, coal oil or shale oil, such hydrocarbons
being required to be volatile under 212° F." Since that time the
development of the petroleum industry in all parts of the world
and the large quantities of low boiling-point hydrocarbons — naphtha
— obtained from the petroleum fields, and also the improvements
in the apparatus employed, have raised this system of extraction
to the rank of a competing practical method of oil production.
Of the other proposed volatile solvents ordinary ether has found no
practical application, as it is far too volatile and hence far too
dangerous. Carbon tetrachloride, chloroform, acetone and benzene
are far too expensive. Carbon tetrachloride would be an ideal
solvent, as it is non-inflammable and shares with carbon bisulphide
the advantage of being heavier than water. Efforts have been made
during the last few years to introduce this solvent on a large scale,
but its high price and its physiological effect on the workmen have
hitherto militated against it. At the present time the choice lies
practically only between the two solvents, carbon bisulphide and
naphtha (petroleum ether). Naphtha is preferable for oil seeds, as
it extracts neither resins nor gummy matters from the oil seeds,
and takes up less colouring matter than carbon bisulphide. Yet even
with naphtha traces of the solvents remain, so that the meal obtained
cannot be used for cattle feeding, notwithstanding the many state-
ments by interested parties to the contrary. It is true that on the
continent extracted meal, especially rape meal from good Indian
seed and palm kernel meal, are somewhat largely used as focd for
cattle in admixture with press cakes, but in England no extracted
meal is used for feeding cattle, but finds its proper use in manuring
the land.
The apparatus employed on a large scale depends on the tempera-
ture at which the extraction is carried out. In the main two types
of extracting apparatus are differentiated, viz. for extraction in the
cold and for extraction in the hot. The seed is prepared in a similar
manner as for pressing, except that it is not reduced to a fine meal,
so as not to impede the percolation of the solvent through the mass.
In the case of cold extraction the seed is placed in a series of closed
vessels, through which the solvent percolates by displacement, on
the " counter-current " system. A battery of vessels is so arranged
that one vessel can always be made the last of the series to discharge
finished meal and to be recharged with fresh meal, so that the
process is practically a continuous one. The solution of the extracted
oil or fat is then transferred to a steam-heated still, where the solvent
OILS
49
is driven off and recovered by condensing the vapours in a cooling
coil, to be used again. The last remnant of volatile solvent in the oil
is driven off by a current of open steam blown through the oil in the
warm state. The extracting process in the hot is carried out in
apparatus, the principle of which is exemplified by the well-known
Soxhiet extractor. The comminuted seed is placed inside a vessel
connected with an upright refrigerator on trays or baskets, and is
surrounded there by the volatile solvent. On heating the solvent
with steam through a coil or jacket, the vapours rise through and
around the meal. They pass into the refrigerator, where they arc
condensed and fall back as a condensed liquid through the meal,
percolating it as they pass downwards, and reaching to the bottom
of the vessel as a more or less saturated solution of oil in the solvent.
The solvent is again evaporated, leaving the oil at the bottom of the
vessel until the extraction is deemed finished. The solution of fat is
then run off into a still, as described already, and the last traces of
solvent are driven out. The solvent is recovered and used again.
With regard to the merits and demerits of the last two mentioned
processes — expression and extraction — the adoption of either will
largely depend on local conditions and the objects for which the pro-
ducts are intended. Wherever the cake is the main product, ex-
pression will commend itself as the most advantageous process.
Where, however, the fatty material forms the main product, as in the
case of palm kernel oil, or sesame and coco-nut oils from damaged
seeds (which would no longer yield proper cattle food), the process of
e.xtraction will be preferred, especially when the price of oils is high.
In some cases the combination of the two processes commends
itself, as in the case of the production of olive oil. The fruits are
expressed, and after the edible qualities and best class of oils for
technical purposes have been taken ofi by expression, the remaining
pulp is extracted by means of solvents. This process is known under
the name of mi.xed process {huikrie mixte).
Refining and Bleaching. — The oils and fats prepared by any
of the methods detailed above are in their fresh state, and, if
got from perfectly fresh (" sweet ") material, practically neutral.
If care be exercised in the process of rendering animal oils
and fats or expressing oils in the cold, the products are, as a
rule, sufficiently pure to be delivered to the consumer, after a
preliminary settling has allowed any mucilaginous matter, such
as animal or vegetable fibres or other impurities, and also traces
of moisture, to separate out. This spontaneous clarification
was at one time the only method in vogue. This process is
now shortened by filtering oils through filter presses, or otherwise
brightening them, e.g. by blowing with air. In many cases
these methods still suffice for the production of commercial
oils and fats.
In special cases, such as the preparation of edible oils and fats, a
further improvement in colour and greater purity is obtained by
filtering the oils over charcoal, or over natural absorbent earths,
such as fuller's earth. Where this process does not sufifice, as in the
case of coco-nut oil or palm kernel oil, a preliminary purification
in a current of steam must be resorted to before the final purifica-
tion, described above, is carried out. Oils intended for use on the
table which deposit " stearine " in winter must be freed from such
solid fats. This is done by allowing the oil to cool down to a low
temperature and pressing it through cloths in a press, when a
limpid oil exudes, which remains proof against cold — " winter oil."
Most olive oils are naturally non-congealing oils, whereas the
Tunisian and Algerian olive oils deposit so much " stearine "
that they must be " demargarinated." Similar methods are em-
ployed in the production of lard oil, edible cotton-seed oil, &c.
For refining oils and fats intended for edible purposes only the
foregoing methods, which may be summarized by the name of
physical methods, can be used; the only chemicals permissible
are alkalis or alkaline earths to remove free fatty acids present.
Treatment with other chemicals renders the oils and fats unfit
for consumption. Therefore all bleaching and refining pro-
cesses involving other means than those enumerated can only
be used for techtiical oils and fats, such as lubricating oils,
burning oils, paint oils, soap-making oils, &c.
Bleaching by the aid of chemicals requires great circumspec-
tion. There is no universal method of oil-refining applicable
to any and every oil or fat. Not only must each kind of oil or
fat be considered as a special problem, but frequently even
varieties of one and the same oil or fat are apt to cause the
same difliculties as would a new individual. In many cases the
purification by means of sulphuric acid, invented and patented
by Charles Gower in 1792 (frequently ascribed to Thenard), is
still usefully applied. It consists in treating the oil with
a small percentage of a more or less concentrated sulphuric
acid, according to the nature of the oil or fat. The acid not
only takes up water, but it acts on the suspended impurities,
carbonizing them to some extent, and thus causing them to
coagulate and fall down in the form of a flocculent mass, which
carries with it mechanically other impurities which have not
been acted upon. This method is chiefly used in the refining
of linseed and rape oils. Purification by means of strong
caustic soda was first recommended as a general process by
Louis C. Arthur Barrcswil, his suggestion being to heal the oil
and add 2% to 3% of caustic soda. In most cases the purifica-
tion consisted in removing the free fatty acids from rancid oils
and fats, the caustic soda forming a soap with the fatty acids,
which would either rise as a scum and lift up with it impurities,
or fall to the bottom and carry down impurities. This process
is a useful one in the case of cotton-seed oO. As a rule,
however, it is a very precarious one, since emulsions are formed
which prevent in many cases the separation of oil altogether.
After the treatment with sulphuric acid or caustic soda, the oils
must be washed to remove the last traces of chemicals. The
water is then allowed to settle out, and the oils are finally
filtered. The number of chemicals which have been proposed
from time to time for the purification of oils and fats is almost
legion, and so long as the nature of oils and fats was little
understood, a secret trade in oil-purifying chemicals flourished.
With our present knowledge most of these chemicals may
be removed into the limbo of useless things. The general
methods of bleaching besides those mentioned already as
physical methods, viz. filtration over charcoal or bleaching
earth, are chiefly methods based on bleaching by means of
oxygen or by chlorine. The methods of bleaching by oxygen
include aU those which aim at the bleaching by exposure to
the air and to sunlight (as in the case of artists' linseed-oil),
or where oxygen or ozone is introduced in the form of gas or
is evolved by chemicals, as manganese dioxide, potassium
bichromate or potassium permanganate and sulphuric acid.
In the process of bleaching by means of chlorine either bleach-
ing powder or bichromates and hydrochloric acid are used. It
must again be emphasized that no general rule can be laid
down as to which process should be employed in each given
case. There is still a wide field open for the apphcation of
proper processes for the removal of impurities and colouring
matters without running the risk of attacking the oil or fat
itself.
Oil Testing. — Reliable scientific methods for testing oils and
fats date back only to the end of the 'seventies of the 19th
century. Before that time it was believed that not only could
individual oils and fats be distinguished from each other by
colour reactions, but it was also maintained that falsification
could be detected thereby. With one or two exceptions (detec-
tion of sesame oil and perhaps also of cotton-seed oil) all colour
reactions are entirely useless. The modern methods of oil
testing rest chiefly on so-called " quantitative " reactions, a
number of characteristic " values " being determined which,
being based on the special nature of the fatty acids contained in
each individual oil or fat, assist in identifying them and also
in revealing adulteration. These " values," together with other
useful methods, are enumerated in the order of their utihty for
the purposes of testing.
The saponification value (saponification number) denotes the
number of milligrams which one gramme of an oil or fat requires for
saponification, or, in other words, for the neutralization of the total 1
fatty acids contained in an oil or fat. We thus measure the alkali
absorption value of all fatty acids contained in an oil or fat. The
saponification values of most oils and fats lie in the neighbourhood
of 195. But the oils belonging to the rape oil group are characterized
by considerably lower saponification values, viz. about 175 on
account of their containing notable quantities of erucic acid, CjiHjjOg.
In the case of those oils which do not belong to the rape oils and yet
show abnormally low saponification values, the suspicion is raised at
once that a certain amount of mineral oils (which do not absorb
50
OILS
alkali and are therefore termed " unsaponifiable ") has been admixed
fraudulently. Their amount can be determined in a direct manner
by exhausting the saponified mass, after dilution with water, with
ether, evaporating the latter and weighing the amount of mineral
oil left behind. A few of the blubber oils, like dolphin jaw and
porpoise jaw oils (used for lubricating typewriting machines), have
exceedingly high saponification values owing to their containing
volatile fatty acids with a small number of carbon atoms. Notable
also are coco-nut and palm-nut oils, the saponification numbers of
which var\- from 240 to 260, and especially butter-fat, which has a
saponification value of about 227. These high saponification values
are due to the presence of (glycerides of) volatile fatty acids, and are
of extreme usefulness to the analyst, especially in testing butter-fat
for added margarine and other fats. These volatile acids are specially
measured by the Reichert value (Reichert-Wolbiy value). To ascertain
this value the volatile acids contained in 5 grammes of an oil or fat
are distilled in a minutely prescribed manner, and the distilled-oflf
acids are measured by titration with decinormal alkali. Whereas
most of the oils and fats, viz. all those the saponification value of
which lies at or below 195, contain practically no volatile acids.i.e.
have extremely low Reichert-WoUny values, all those oils and fats
having saponification values above 195 contain notable amounts of
volatile fatty acids. Thus, the Reichert-Meissl value of butter-fat
is 25-30, that of coco-nut oil 6-7, and of palm kernel oil about
5-6. This value is indispensable for judging the purity of a butter.
One of the most important values in oil testing is the iodine value.
This indicates the percentage of iodine absorbed by an oil or fat when
the latter is dissolved in chloroform or carbon tetrachloride, and
treated with an accurately measured amount of free iodine supplied
in the form of iodine chloride. By this means a measure is obtained
of the unsaturated fatty acids contained in an oil or fat. On this
value a scientific classification of all oils and fats can be based, as is
shown by the above-given list of oils and fats. The unsaturated
fatty acids which occur chiefly in oils and fats are oleic acid, iodine
value 90-07; erucic acid, iodine value 75-15; linolic acid, iodine
value 181-42; linolenic acid, iodine value 274-1; and clupanodonic
acid, iodine value 367-7. Oleic acid occurs in all non-drying oils
and fats, and to some extent in the semi-drying oils and fats. Linolic
acid is a characteristic constituent of all semi-drying, and to some
extent of all drying oils. Linolenic acid characterizes all vegetable
drying oils; similarly clupanodonic acid characterizes all marine
animal oils.
If one individual oil or fat is given, the iodine value alone
furnishes th-e readiest means of finding its place in the above system,
and in many cases of identifying it. Even if a mixture of several
oils and fats be present, the iodine value assists greatly in the
identification of the components of the mixture, and furnishes the
most important key for the attacking and resolving of this not very
simple problem. Thus it points the way to the application of a
further method to resolve the isolated fatty acids of an oil or fat
into saturated fatty acids, which do not absorb iodine, and into un-
saturated fatty acids, which absorb iodine in various proportions as
shown above. This separation is effected by converting the alkali
soaps of the fatty acids into lead soaps and treating the latter with
ether, in which the lead salts of the saturated acids are insoluble,
whereas the salts of the above-named unsaturated acids are soluble.
The saturated fatty acids can then be further examined, and valuable
information is gained by the determination of the melting-points
and by treatment with solvents. Thus some individual fatty acids,
such as stearic acid and arachidic acid (which is characteristic of
ground nut oil) can be identified. In the mixture of unsaturated
fatty acids, by means of some more refined methods, clupanodonic
acid, linolenic acid, linolic acid and oleic acid can be recognized.
By combining the various methods which have been outlined here,
and by the help of some further additional special methods, and
by reasoning in a strictly logical manner, it is possible to resolve a
mixture of two oils and fats, and even of three and four, into their
components and determine approximately their quantities. The
methods sketched here do not yet e.xhaust the armoury of the
analytical chemist, but it can only be pointed out in passing that the
detection of hydroxylated acids enables the analyst to ascertain the
presence of castor oil, just as the isolation and determination of
oxidized fatty acids enables him to differentiate blown oils from
other oils.
Tests such as the Maumene test, the elaidin test and others,
which formerly were the only resource of the chemist, have been
practically superseded by the foregoing methods. The viscosity
test, although of considerable importance in the examination of
lubricating oils, has been shown to have very little discriminative
value as a general test.
Commerce. — It may be safely said of the United Kingdom
that it takes the foremost position in the world as regards the
extent of the oil and fat industries. An estimate made by the
writer (Cantor Lectures, " Oils and Fats, their Uses and .Applica-
tions," Society of Arts, 1904, p. 795), and based on the most
reliable information obtainable, led to the conclusion that the
sums involved in the oil and fat trade exceeded £1,000,000 per
week; in 1907 they approximated £1,250,000 per week. The
great centres of the seed-oil trade (linseed, cotton-seed, rape-
seed, castor-seed) are Hull, London, Liverpool, Bristol, Leith and
Glasgow. Linseed is imported principally from the East Indies,
Argentina, Canada, Russia and the United States; cotton-seed
is chiefly supplied by Egypt and East India; rape-seed and
castor-seed chiefly by East India. The importation of copra
and palm kernels for the production of coco-nut oil and palm-
nut oil is also considerable, but in these two cases Great Britain
does not take the first place. Fish and blubber oils are principally
produced in Dundee, London and Greenock. The manufacture
of cod-liver oil for pharmaceutical purposes is naturally some-
what limited, as Norway, Newfoundland, and latterly also
Japan, are more favourably situated as regards the supply of
fresh cod, but the technical liver oils (cod oil, shark-liver oil)
are produced in very large quantities inGrimsby, Hull, Aberdeen,
and latterly also on the west coasts of the United Kingdom.
The production of edible fats (margarine, lard compounds,
and vegetable butters) has taken root in this country, and bids
fair to extend largely. With regard to edible oils, edible cotton-
seed oil is the only table oil produced in Great Britain. The
United Kingdom is also one of the largest importers of fatty
materials.
Practically the whole trade in palm oil, which comes
exclusively from West Africa, is confined to Liverpool, and
the bulk of the taUow imported into Europe from .Australasia,
South America and the United States, is sold in the marts of
London and Liverpool. Lard reaches Great Britain chiefly from
the United States. Amongst the edible oils and fats which are
largely imported, butter takes the first rank (to an amount of
almost £25,000,000 per annum). This food-stuff reaches Great
Britain not only from aU butter-e.xporting countries of the
continent of Europe, but in increasing quantities also from
Australia, Canada, Argentine, Siberia and the United States of
America. Next in importance is margarine, the British produc-
tion of which does not suffice for the consumption, so that large
quantities must be imported from Holland, edible olive oil
from Italy, the south of France, Spain and the Mediterranean
ports generally. Coco-nut oil and copra, both for edible and
technical purposes, are largely shipped to Great Britain from
the East Indies and Ceylon, Java and the West Indies. Of
lesser importance are greases, which form the by-product of
the large slaughter-houses in the United States and Argentina,
and American (Canadian) and Japanese fish oils.
On the continent of Europe the largest oil-trading centres are
on the Mediterranean (Marseilles and Triest), which are geo-
graphically more favourably placed than England for the produc-
tion of such edible oils (in addition to the home-grown olive oil)
as arachis oil, sesame oil and coco-nut oil. Moreover, the native
population itself constitutes a large consumer of these oils. In
the north of Europe, Hamburg, Rotterdam, Antwerp and
Copenhagen are the largest centres of the oil and fat trade.
Hamburg and its neighbourhood produces, curiously enough, at
present the largest amount of palm-nut oil. The United Slates
takes the foremost place in the world for the production of cotton-
seed and maize oils, lard, bone fat and fish oils. Canada is
likely to outstrip the United States in the trade of fish and
blubber oUs, and in the near future Japan bids fair to become
a very serious competitor in the supply of these oils. Vast
stores of hard vegetable fats are still practically wasted in
tropical countries, such as India, Indo-China and the Sunda
Islands, tropical South America, Africa and China. W^ith the
improvement in transport these will no doubt reach Europeau
manufacturing centres in larger quantities than has been the
case hitherto.
W.4XES
The waxes consist chiefly of the fatty acid esters of the higher
monohydric alcohols, with which are frequently associated free
alcohols as also free fatty acids. In the following two tables
the " acids " and " alcohols " hitherto identified in wa.xes are
enumerated in a classified order: —
OlhS
51
■^a'liiu-.hin jfl} nt ■
Acids
:ii.'
Boiling
Point.
.Melting Point.
°C.
Characteristic of
mm.
Pressure.
° C.
I. Acids of the Acetic series C
Ficocerylic acid
Myristic acid .
Palmitic acid .
Carnaubic acid
Pisangcerylic acid .
,Cerotic acid
Melissic acid .
Psyllostearylic acid
„H2„
O2-
CisHzfiOa
CmH2,Oo
C.6H3.02
C24H4802
C24H4802
C28H52O2
C3oHflo02
C30H60O2
100
100
2,So-5
271-5
57
53-8
62 '62
72-5
77-8
91
94-95
Gondang wax
Wcjol wax
Beeswax, .spermaceti
Carnaliba wax, wool wax
Pisang wax
Beeswax, wool wax, insect wax
Beeswax ir xt'j^ boLi .
Psylla wax , v ■
n. Acids of the Acrylic or Oleic series
CnH2n-2 Oj—
Physetoleic acid
Doeglic acid (?)
C16H30O2
C19H3CO2
30
[ Sperm oil
III. Hydroxylated acids of the series C„H-2,.0a —
Lanopalmic acid
Cocceric acid
C16H32OJ
C31H62O3
87-88
92-93
Wool wax
Cochineal wax
IV. Dihydroxylated acids of the scries C„H-.„04 —
Lanoceric acid
C30HG0O4
104-1 '0
Wool wax
Alcohols
Boiling Point.
mm.
Pressure.
'C.
Melting Point.
°C.
Characteristic of
I. Alcohols of the Ethane series C„H2„+20-
Pisangceryl alcohol
Cetyl alcohol (Ethal) .
Octodecyl alcohol .
Carnailbyl alcohol .
Ceryl alcohol .
Myricyl (Melissyl) alcohol
Psyllostearyl alcohol
II. Alcohols of the AUylic series C„H2„0—
Lanolin alcohol
[II.
-iO—
Alcohols of the series C„H2
Ficoceryl alcohol
1 V. Alcohols of the Glycolic series C„H2n
Cocceryl alcohol
V. Alcohols of the Cholesterol series —
Cholesterol .
Isocholesterol ....
2O2—
C16H34O
CieHieO
C„H3,0
C24lU„0
C.26H640
C30H62O
C 33 06^0
CnHjiO
Cl,H230
C30H62O2
C26H44O
C26H44O
760
15
344
2IO-5
78
50
59
68-69
79
85-88
68-70
102-104
198
101-104
i4S-4-i5n-8
137-138
Pisang wax
[ Spermaceti
Wool wax
Chinese wax, opium wax, wool fat
Beeswax, Carnaiiba wax
Psylla wax
Wool wax
Gondang wax
Cochineal wax
[ Wool wax
Spermaceti consists practically of cetyl palmitate, Chinese wax of
ceryl palmitate. The other waxes are of more complex composition,
especially so wool wax.
The waxes can be classified similarly to the oils and fats as
follows: — , , . . ,
1. Liquid waxes.
II. Solid waxes.
A. Vegetable waxes.
B. Animal waxes.
The table enumerates the most important waxes: — :
Waxes
Name of Wax.
Source.
Iodine
Value.
Principal Use.
Liquid Waxes.
Sperm oil
Physeter macrocephalus
81-90
Lubricant
Arctic sperm oil (Bottlenose oil)
Hyperoodon rostratus
67-82
Lubricant
Vegetable Waxes —
Solid Waxes.
Carnaiiba wax
Corypha cerifera .
13
Polishes. Phonograph mass
Animal Waxes —
Wool wax
Ovis aries
102
Ointment
Beeswax ....
Apis mellifica ....
8-II
Candles, polishes
Spermaceti (Cetin)
Physeter macrocephalus .
0-4
Candles, surgery
Insect wax, Chinese wax .
Coccus ceriferus
0-1-4
Candles, polishes, sizes
There are only two liquid wa.xes known, sperm oil and arctic
sperm oil (bottlenose- whale oil), formerly always classed together
with the animal oils. In their physical properties the natural
waxes simulate the fatty oils and fats. They behave similarly
to solvents; and in their liquid condition leave a grease spot
on paper. An important property of waxes is that of easily
forming emulsions with water, so that large quantities of water
can be incorporated with them (lanolin).
The liquid waxes occur in the blubber of the sperm whale,
and in the head cavities of those whales which yield spermaceti;
this latter is obtained by cooling the crude oil obtained from
the head cavities. Vegetable waxes appear to be ver>' widely
distributed throughout the vegetable kingdom, and occur mostly
as a very thin film covering
leaves and also fruits. A few
only are found in sufficiently
large quantities to be of com-
mercial importance. So far
carnaiiba wax is practically
the only vegetable wax which
is of importance in the world's
markets. The animal waxes
are widely distributed
amongst the insects, the most
important being beeswax,
which is collected in almost
all parts of the world. An ex-
ceptional position is occupied
by wool wax, the main constituent of the natural wool fat which
covers the hair of sheep, and is obtained as a by-product in scour-
ing the raw wool. Wool fat is now being purified on a large scale
and brought into commerce, under the name of lanolin, as an
S2
OILS
ointment the beneficent properties of which were known to
Dioscorides in the beginning of the present era. Its chemical
composition is exceedingly complex, and specially remarkable
on account of the considerable proportions of cholesterol and
isocholesterol it contains.
Commerce. — The sperm oils are generally sold in the same
markets as the fish and blubber oils (see above). For beeswax
London is one of the chief marts of the world. In Yorkshire,
the centre of the woollen industry, the largest amounts of wool-
fat are produced, all attempts to recover the hitherto wasted
material in Argentine and Australia having so far not been
attended with any marked success. Spermaceti is a compara-
tively unimportant article of commerce; and of Chinese wax
small quantities only are imported, as the home consumption
takes up the bulk of the wax for the manufacture of candles,
polishes and sizes.
2. Essential or Ethereal Oils.
The essential, ethereal, or " volatile " oils constitute a very
extensive class of bodies, which possess, in a concentrated form,
the odour characteristic of the plants or vegetable substances
from which they are obtained. The oils are usually contained
in special cells, glands, cavities, or canals within the plants
either as such or intermixed with resinous substances; in the
latter case the mixtures form oleo-resins, balsams or resins
according as the product is viscid, or solid and hard. A few
do not exist ready formed in the plants, but result from chemical
change of inodorous substances; as for instance, bitter almonds
and essential oil of mustard.
The essential oils are for the most part insoluble or only very
sparingly soluble in water, but in alcohol, ether, fatty oils and mineral
oils they dissolve freely. They ignite with great ease, emitting a
smoke freely, owing to the large proportion of carbon they contain.
Their chief physical distinction from the fatty oils is that they are
as a rule not oleaginous to the touch and leave no permanent grease
spot. They have an aromatic smell and a hot burning taste, and
can be distilled unchanged. The crude oils are at the ordinary
temperature mostly liquid, some are solid substances, others, again,
deposit on standing a crystalline portion (" stearoptene " in
contradistinction to the liquid portion (" elaeoptene "). The essential
oils possess a high refractive power, and most of them rotate the
plane of the polarized light. Even so nearly related oils as the oils
of turpentine, if obtained from different sources, rotate the plane of
the polarized light in opposite directions. In specific gravity the
essential oils range from 0-850 to 1-142; the majority are, however,
specifically lighter than water. In their chemical constitution the
essential oils present no relationship to the fats and oils. They
represent a large number of classes of substances of which the most
important are: (i) Hydrocarbons, such as pinene in oil of turpentine,
camphene in citronella oil, limonene in lemon and orange-peel oils,
caryophyllene in clove oil and cumene in oil of thyme; (2) ketones,
such as camphor from the camphor tree, and irone which occurs in
orris root; (3) phenols, such as eugenol in clove oil, thymol in thyme
oil, saffrol in sassafras oil, anethol in anise oil; (4) aldehydes, such
as citral and citronellal, the most important constituents of lemon
oil and lemon-grass oil, benzaldehyde in the oil of bitter almonds,
cinnamic aldehyde in cassia oil, vanillin in gum benzoin and helio-
tropin in the spiraea oil, &c. ; (5) alcohols and their esters, such as
geraniol (rhodinol) in rose oil and geranium oil, linalool, occurring
in bergamot and lavender oils, and as the acetic ester in rose oil,
terpineol in cardamom oil, menthol in peppermint oil, eucalyptol in
eucalyptus oil and borneol in rosemary oil and Borneo camphor;
(6) acids and their anhydrides, such as cinnamic acid in Peru balsam
and coumarin in woodruff; and (7) nitrogenous compounds, such as
mustard oil, indol in jasmine oil and anthranilic methyl-ester in
neroli and jasmine oils.
Preparation from Plants. — Before essential oils could be
prepared synthetically they were obtained from plants by one
of the following methods: (i) distillation, (2) expression,
(3) extraction, (4) enfleurage, (5) maceration.
The most important of these processes is the first, as it is applicable
to a large number of substances of the widest range, such as oil of
peppermint'and camphor. The process is based on the principle that
whilst the odoriferous substances are insoluble in water, their
vapour tension is reduced on being treated with steam so that they
are carried over by a current of steam. The distillation is generally
performed in a still with an inlet for steam and an outlet to carry
the vapours laden with essential oils into a condenser, where the
water and oil vapours are condensed. On standing, the distillate
separates into two layers, an aqueous and an oily layer, the oil
floating on or sinking through the water according to its specific
gravity. The process of expression is applicable to the obtaining of
essential oils which are contained in the rind or skin of the fruits
belonging to the citron family, such as orange and lemon oils. The
oranges, lemons, &c., are peeled, and the peel is pressed against a
large number of fine needles, the exuding oil being absorbed by
sponges. It is intended to introduce machinery to replace manual
labour. The process of extraction with volatile solvents is similar
to that used in the extraction of oils and fats, but as only the most
highly purified solvents can be used, this process has not yet gained
commercial importance. The process of enfleurage is used in those
cases where the odoriferous substance is present to a very small
extent, and is so tender and liable to deterioration that it cannot be
separated by way of distillation. Thus in the case of neroli oil the
petals of orange blossom are loosely spread on trays covered with
purified lard or with fine olive oil. The fatty materials then take up
and fix the essential oil. This process is principally employed for
preparing pomades and perfumed oils. Less tender plants can be
treated by the analogous method of maceration, which consists in
extracting the odoriferous substances by macerating the flowers
in hot oil or molten fat. The essential oil is then dissolved by the
fatty substances. The essential oil itself can be recovered from the
perfumed oils, prepared either by enfleurage or maceration, by
agitating the perfumed fat in a shaking machine with pure concen-
trated alcohol. The essential oil passes into the alcoholic solution,
which is used as such in perfumery.
Synthetic Preparation. — Since the chemistry of the essential
oils has been investigated in a systematic fashion a large number
of the chemical individuals mentioned above have been isolated
from the oils and identified.
This first step has led to the synthetical production of the most
characteristic substances of essential oils in the laboratory', and the
synthetical manufacture of essential oils bade fair to rival in im-
portance the production of tar colours from the hydrocarbons
obtained on distilling coal. One of the earliest triumphs of synthetical
chemistry in this direction was the production of terpineol, the
artificial lilac scent, from oil of turpentine. At present it is almost
a by-product in the manufacture of artificial camphor. This was
followed by the production of heliotropin, coumarin and vanillin,
and later on by the artificial preparation of ionone, the most char-
acteristic constituent of the violet scent. At present the manufacture
of artificial camphor may be considered a solved problem, although
it is doubtful whether such camphor will be able to compete in price
with the natural product in the future. The aim of the chemist to
produce essential oils on a manufacturing scale is naturally confined
at present to the more expensive oils. For so long as the great bulk
of oils is so cheaply produced in nature's laboratory, the natural
products will hold their field for a long time to come.
Applications. — Essential oils have an extensive range of uses,
of which the principal are their various applications in perfumery
(q.v.). Next to that they play an important part in connexion
with food. The value of flavouring herbs, condiments and
spices is due in a large measure to the essential oils contained
in them. The commercial value of tea, coffee, wine and other
beverages may be said to depend largely on the delicate aroma
which they owe to the presence of minute quantities of ethereal
oils. Hence, essential oils are extensively used for the flavour-
ing of liqueurs, aerated beverages and other drinks. Nor is their
employment less considerable in the manufacture of confectionery
and in the preparation of many dietetic articles. Most fruit
essences now employed in confectionery are artificially prepared
oils, especially is this the case with cheap confectionery (jams,
marmalades, &c.) in which the artificial fruit esters to a large
extent replace the natural fruity flavour. Thus amyl acetate
is used as an imitation of the jargonelle-pear flavour; amyl
valerate replaces apple flavour, and a mixture of ethyl and propyl
butyrates yields the so-called pine-apple flavour. Formic ether
gives a peach-like odour, and is used for flavouring fictitious
rum. Many of the essential oils find extensive use in medicine.
In the arts, oil of turpentine is used on the largest scale in the
manufacture of varnishes, and in smaller quantities for the
production of terpineol and of artificial camphor. Oil of cloves
is used in the silvering of mirror glasses. Oils of lavender and
of spike are used as vehicles for painting, more especially for
the painting of pottery and glass.
The examination of essential oils is by no means an easy task.
Each oil requires almost a special method, but with the progress of
chemistry the extensive adulteration that used to be practised with
fatty oils has almost disappeared, as the presence of fatty oils is
readily detected. Adulteration of expensive oil with cheaper oils is
now more extensively practised, and such tests as the determination
OIRON— OISE >
53
of the saponification value (see above) and of the optical rotation,
and in special cases the isolation and quantitative determination of
characteristic substances, leads in very many cases to reliable
results. The colour, the boiling-point, the specific gravity and
solubility in alcohol serve as most valuable adjuncts in the examina-
tion with a view to form an estimate of the genuineness and value
of a sample. Quite apart from the genuineness of a sample, its special
aroma constitutes the value of an oil, and in this respect the judging
of the value of a given oil may, apart from the purity, be more
readily solved by an experienced perfumer than by the chemist.
Thus roses of different origin or even of different years will yield rose
oils of widely different value. The cultivation of plants for essential
oils has become a large industry, and is especially practised as an
industry in the south of France (Grasse, Nice, Cannes). The rose
oil industry, which had been for centuries located in the valleys of
Bulgaria, has now been taken up in Germany (near Leipzig), where
roses are specially cultivated for the production of rose oil. India
and China are also very large producers of essential oils. Owing to
the climate other countries are less favoured, although lavender and
peppermint are largely cultivated at Mitcham in Surrey, in Hertford-
shire and Bedfordshire. Lavender and peppermint oils of English
origin rank as the best qualities. As an illustration of the extent
to which this part of the industry suffers from the climate, it may be
stated that oil from lavender plants grown in England never produces
more than 7 to 10% linalool acetate, which gives the characteristic
scent to lavender oil, whilst oil from lavender grown in the south of
France frequently yields as much as 35 % of the ester. The proof
that this is due mainly to climatic influences is furnished by the fact
that Mitcham lavender transplanted to France produces an oil
which year by year approximates more closely in respect of its
contents of linalool acetate to the product of the French plant.
Bibliography. — For the fixed oils, fats and waxes, see C. R. A.
Wright, Fixed Oils, Fats, Butters and Waxes (London, 2nd cd. by
C. A. Mitchell, 1903); W. Brannt, Animal and Vegetable Fats and
Oils (London, 1896); J. Lewkowitsch, Chemical Technology and
Analysis of Oils, Fats and Waxes (London, 4th ed., 3 vols., 1909;
also German ed., Brunswick, 1905; French ed., Paris, vol. i. 1906.
vol. ii. 1908, vol. iii. 1909); Laboratory Companion to Fats and Oil
Industries (London, 1902) ; Cantor Lectures of the Society of Arts,
Oils and Fats, tfieir Uses and Applications; Groves and Thorp,
Chemical Technology, vol. ii.; A. H. Gill, Oil Analyses (1909);
G. Hefter, Technologic der Fette und 6le (Berlin, vol. i. igo6; vol. ii.
1008) ; L. Ubbelohde, Handbuch der Chemie und Technologie der
Ole und Fette (Leipzig, vol. i., 1908); R. Benedikt and F. LUzer,
Analyse der Fette und Wachsarten (Berlin, 1908); J. Fritsch, Les
Huiles et graisses d'origine animate (Paris, 1907).
For the essential oils, see F. B. Power, Descriptive Catalogue of
Essential Oils; J. C. Sawer, Odorographia (London, 1892 and 1894);
E. Gildemeister and F. Hoffmann, Die aetherischen Ole (Berlin,
1899), trans. (1900) by E. Kremers under the title Volatile Oils (Mil-
waukee, Wisconsin) ; F. W. Semmler, Die aetherischen Ole nach
ihren chemischen Bestandleilen unter Beriicksichligung der geschicht-
lichen Entwickelung (Leipzig); M. Otto, U Industrie des parfums
(Paris, 1909); O. Aschan, Chemie der alicykhscheji Verbindungen
(Brunswick, 1905); F. R. Heussler (translated by Pond), The
Chemistry of the Terpenes (London, 1904). (J. Lh.)
OIRON, a village of western France, in the department of
Deux-Sevres, 7I m. E. by S. of Thouars by road. Oiron is
celebrated for its chateau, standing in a park and originally
built in the first half of the i6th century by the GoufEer family,
rebuilt in the latter half of the 17th century by Francis of
Aubusson, duke of La Feuillade, and purchased by Madame
de Montespan, who there passed the latter part of her life.
Marshal Villeroy afterwards lived there. The chateau consists
of a main building with two long projecting wings, one of which
is a graceful structure of the Renaissance period built over a
cloister. The adjoining church, begun in 1518, combines the
Gothic and Renaissance styles and contains the tombs of four
members of the Goulfier family. These together with other parts
of the chateau and church were mutilated by the Protestants
in 1568. The park contains a group of four dolmens.
For the Oiron pottery see Ceramics.
OISE, a river of northern France, tributary to the Seine,
flowing south-west from the Belgian frontier and traversing the
departments of Aisne, Oise and Seine-et-Oise. Length, 187 m.;
area of basin 6437 sq. m. Rising in Belgium, 5 m. S.E. of
Chimay (province of Namur) at a height of 980 ft., the river
enters France after a course of little more than 9 m. Flowing
through the district of Thierache, it divides below Guise into
several arms and proceeds to the confluence of the Serre, near
La Fere (Aisne). Thence as far as the confluence of the Ailette
its course lies through well-wooded country to Compiegne,
a short distance above which it receives the Aisne. Skirting
the forests of Compiegne, Halatte and Chantilly, all on its left
bank, and receiving near Creil the Therain and the Breche,
the river flows past Pontoise and debouches into the Seine
39 m. below Paris. Its channel is canalized (depth 6 ft. 6 in.)
from Janville above Compiegne, to its mouth over a section
60 m. in length. Above Janville a lateral canal continued by
the Sambre-Oise canal accompanies the river to Landrecies. It
communicates with the canal system of Flanders and with the
Somme canal by way of the St Quentin canal (Oozat branch)
which unites with it at Chauny. The same town is its point of
junction with the Aisne-Oise canal, by which it is linked with
the Eastern canal system.
OISE, a department of northern France, three-fourths of
which belonged to lle-dc-France and the rest to Picardy, bounded
N. by Somme, E. by Aisne, S. by Seine-et-Marne and Seine-et-
Oise, and W. by Eure and Seine-Inferieure. Pop. (1906)
410,049; area 2272 sq. m. The department is a moderately
elevated plateau with pleasant valleys and fine forests, such
as those of Compiegne, Ermenonville, Chantilly and Halatte,
all in the south-east. It belongs almost entirely to the basin of
the Seine — the Somme and the Bresle, which flow into the
English Channel, draining but a small area. The most important
river is the Oise, which flows through a broad and fertile valley
from north-east to south-west, past the towns of Noyon, Com-
piegne, Pont St Maxence and Creil. On its right it receives
the Breche and the Therain, and on its left the Aisne, which
brings down a larger volume of water than the Oise itself, the
Authonne, and the Nonette, which irrigates the valley of Senlis
and Chantilly. The Ourcq, a tributary of the Marne, in the
south-east, and the Epte, a tributary of the Seine, in the west,
also in part belong to the department. These streams are
separated by ranges of slight elevation or by isolated hills, the
highest point (770 ft.) being in the ridge of Bray, which stretches
from Dieppe to Precy-sur-Oise. The lowest point is at the
mouth of the Oise, only 66 ft. above sea-level. The climate
is very variable, but the range of temperature is moderate.
Clay for bricks and earthenware, sand and building-stone are
among the mineral products of Oise, and peat is also worked.
Pierrefonds, Gouvieux, ChantiUy and Fontaine Bonneleau
have mineral springs. Wheat, oats and other cereals, potatoes
and sugar beet are the chief agricultural crops. Cattle are
reared more especially in the western districts, where dairying is
actively carried on. Bee-keeping is general. Racing stables
are numerous in the neighbourhood of Chantilly and Compiegne.
Among the industries of the department of manufacture of
sugar and alcohol from beetroot occupies a foremost place.
The manufacture of furniture, brushes (Beauvais) and other
wooden goods and of toys, fancy-ware, buttons, fans and other
articles in wood, ivory, bone or mother-of-pearl are widespread
industries. There are also woollen and cotton mills, and the
making of woollen fabrics, blankets, carpets (Beauvais), hosiery
and lace (Chantilly and its vicinity) is actively carried on.
Creil and the neighbouring Montataire form an important
metallurgical centre. Oise is served by the Northern railway,
on which Creil is an important junction, and its commerce is
facilitated by the Oise and its lateral canal and the Aisne, which
afford about 70 m. of navigable waterway.
There are four arrondissements — Beauvais, Clermont, Com-
piegne and Senlis — with 35 cantons and 701 communes. The
department forms the diocese of Beauvais (province of Reims)
and part of the region of the II. army corps and of the academie
(educational division) of Paris. Its court of appeal is at Amiens.
The principal places are Beauvais, the capital, Chantilly, Cler-
mont-en-Beauvoisis, Compiegne, Noyon, Pierrefonds, Creil and
Senlis, which are treated separately. Among the more populous
places not mentioned is Meru (5317), a centre for fancy-ware
manufacture. The department abounds in old churches, among
which, besides those of Beauvais, Noyon and Senlis, may be
mentioned those at Morienval (nth and 12th centuries),
Maignelay (15th and 1 6th centuries), Crepy-en-Valois (St Thomas,
12th, 13th and 15th centuries), St Leu d'Esserent (mainly 12th
54
century), Tracy-le^Val , (mainly 12th century), Villers St Paul
(i2th and 13th centuries), St Germer-de-Fly (a fine example
of the transition from Romanesque to Gothic architecture),
and St Martin-aux-Bois (13th, 14th and 15th centuries). Pont-
point preserves the buildings of an abbey founded towards
the end of the 14th century and St Jean-aux-Bois the remains
of a priory including a church of the 13th century. There
are Gallo-Roman remains of Champlieu close to the forest of
Compiegne. At ErmenonviUe there is a chateau of the 17th
century where Rousseau died in 1778.
OJIBWAY (Ojibwa), or Chippeway (Chippewa), the name
given by the English to a large tribe of North American Indians
of Algonquian stock. They must not be confused with the
Chipewyan tribe of Athabascan stock settled around Lalce
Athabasca, Canada. They formerly occupied a vast tract of
country around Lakes Huron and Superior, and now are settled
on reservations in the neighbourhood. The name is from a
word meaning " to roast till puckered " or " drawn up," in refer-
ence, it is suggested, to a peculiar seam in their mocassins, though
other explanations have been proposed. They call themselves
Anishinabeg (" spontaneous men "), and the French called
them Saidteiirs ("People of the Falls"), from the first group
of them being met at Sault Ste JMarie. Tribal traditions declare
they migrated from the St Lawrence region together with
the Ottawa and Potawatomi, with which tribes they formed
a confederacy known as " The Three Fires." When first en-
countered about 1640 the Ojibway were inhabiting the coast
of Lake Superior, surrounded by the Sioux and Foxes on the
west and south. During the 18th century they conquered these
latter and occupied much of their territory. Throughout the
Colonial wars they were loyal to the French, but fought for the
English in the War of Independence and the War of 181 2,
and thereafter permanently maintained peace with the Whites.
The tribe was divided into ten divisions. They Kved chiefiy
by hunting and fishing. They had many tribal myths, which
were coUected by Henry R. Schoolcraft in his Algic Researches
(1839), upon which Longfellow founded his " Hiawatha."
See Indians, North AMERiCAN;also W. J. Hoffmann, "Midewiwin
of the Ojibwa," in ytli Report of Bureau oj American Ethnology (1891) ;
W. W. Warren, " History of the Ojibways," vol. v., Minnesota
Historical Society's Collections; G. Copway, History of the Ojibway
Indians (Boston, 1850); P. Jones, History of the Ojeirway Indians
(i 861 ) ; A. E. Jenks, " Wild Rice Gatherers," jgth Report of Bureau of
American Ethnology (1900).
OKAPL the native name of an African ruminant mammal
(Ocapia johnsloiii), belonging to the Girafidae, or giraffe-family,
but distinguished from giraffes by its shorter limbs and neck,
the absence of horns in the females, and its very remarkable type
of colouring. Its affinity with the giraffes is, however, clearly
revealed by the structure of the skull and teeth, more especially
the bilobed crown to the incisor-like lower canine teeth. At
the shoulder the okapi stands about 5 ft. In colour the sides of
the face are puce, and the neck and most of the bod)' purplish,
but the buttocks and upper part of both fore and hind limbs are
transversely barred with black and white, whUe their lower
portion is mainly white with black fetlock-rings, and in the front
pair a vertical black stripe on the anterior surface. Males have
a pair of dagger-shaped horns on the forehead, the tips of which,
in some cases at any rate, perforate the hairy skin with which
the rest of the horns are covered. As in all forest -dwelling
animals, the ears are large and capacious. The taU is shorter
than in giraffes, and not tufted at the tip. The okapi, of which
the first entire skin sent to Europe was received in England
from Sir H. H. Johnston in the spring of 1901, is a native of the
Semliki forest, in the district between Lakes ,\lbert and Albert
Edward. From certain differences in the striping of the legs, as
well as from variation in skuU-characters, the existence of more
than a single species has been suggested; but further evidence
is required before such a view can be definitely accepted.
Specimens in the museum at Tervueren near Brussels show that
in fuUy adult males the horns are subtriangular and inclined
somewhat backwards; each being capped with a small poHshed
epiphysis, which projects through the skin investing the rest
of the horn. As regards its general characters, the skull of the
OJIBWAY— OKAPI
okapi appears to be intermediate between that of the giraffe
on the one hand and that of the extinct Palaeotragus (or Samo-
therium) of the Lower PUocene deposits of southern Europe on the
other. It has, for instance, a greater development of air-cells in
the diploc than in the latter, but much less than in the former.
Again, in Palaeotragus the horns (present only in the male)
are situated immediately over the eye-sockets, in Ocapia they are
placed just behind the latter, while in Cirajfa they are partly on
the parietals. In general form, so far as can be judged from
the disarticulated skeleton, the okapi was more like an antelope
than a giraffe, the fore and hind cannon-bones, and consequently
the entire hmbs, being of approximately equal length. From
this it seems probable that Palaeotragus and Ocapia indicate the
ancestral type of the giraffe-line; while it has been further
suggested that the apparently hornless Hclladotherium of the
. '' ^:..
\' /
Female Okapi.
Grecian Pliocene may occupy a somewhat similar position in
regard to the horned Sivatherium of the Indian Siwaliks.
For these and other allied extinct genera see Pecora ; for a full
description of the okapi itself the reader should refer to an illustrated
memoir by Sir E. Ray Lankester in the Transactions of the Zoological
Society of London (xvi. 6, 1902), entitled " On Okapia, a New
Genus of Girafidae from Central Africa."
Little is known with regard to the habits of the okapi. It
appears, however, from the observations of Dr J. David, who spent
some time in the Albert Edward district, that the creature dwells
in the most dense parts of the primeval forest, where there is an
undergrowth of solid-leaved, swamp-loving plants, such as
arum, Donax and Phrynium, which, with orchids and climbing
plants, form a thick and confused mass of vegetation. The
leaves of these plants are blackish-green, and in the gloom of the
forest, grow more or less horizontally, and are ghstening with
moisture. The effect of the light falling upon them is to produce
along the midrib of each a number of short white streaks of
light, which contrast most strongly with the shadows cast by the
leaves themselves, and with the general twilight gloom of the
forest. On the other hand, the thick layer of fallen leaves on
the ground, and the bulk of the stems of the forest trees are bluish-
brown and russet, thus closely resembling the decaying leaves in
an European forest after heavy rain; while the whole effect is
precisely similar to that produced by the russet head and body
and the striped thighs and limbs of the okapi. The long and
mobile muzzle of the okapi appears to be adapted for feeding
OKEHAMPTON— OKEN
55
on the low forest underwood and the swamp-vegetation. The
small size of the horns of the males is probably also an adaptation
to life in thick underwood. In Dr David's opinion an okapi in
its native forest could not be seen at a distance of more than
twenty or twenty-five paces. At distances greater than this it
is impossible to see anything clearly in these equatorial forests,
and it is very difficult to do so even at this short distance. This
suggests that the colouring of the okapi is of purely protective
type.
By the Arabianized emancipated slaves of the Albert Edward
district the okapi is known as the kenge, 6-a-pi being the Pigmies'
name for the creature. Dr David adds that Junker may un-
doubtedly claim to be the discoverer of the okapi, for, as stated
on p. 2QQ of the third volume of the original German edition of
his Travels, he saw in 1878 or 1879 in the Nepo district a portion
of the skin with the characteristic black and white stripes.
Junker, by whom it was mistaken for a large water-chevrotain
or zebra-antelope, states that to the natives of the Nepo district
the okapi is known as the makape. (R. L.*)
OKEHAMPTON, a market town and municipal borough in the
Tavistock parhamentary division of Devonshire, England,
on the east and west Okement rivers, 22 m. W. by N. of Exeter
by the London & South-Western railway. Pop. (igoi) 2569.
The church of All Saints has a fine Perpendicular tower, left
uninjured when the nave and chancel were burned down in 1842.
Glass is made from granulite found in the Meldon VaUey, 3 m.
distant. Both branches of the river abound in small trout.
Okehampton Castle, one of the most picturesque ruins in Devon,
probably dates from the 15th century, though its keep may be
late Norman. It was dismantled under Henry VIII., but
considerable portions remain of the chapel, banqueting hall and
herald's tower. Immediately opposite are the traces of a sup-
posed British camp, and of the Roman road from Exeter to
Cornwall. The custom of toUing the curfew stiU prevails in
Okehampton. The town is, governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen
and 12 councillors. Area, 503 acres.
Okehampton (Oakmanton) was bestowed by William the
Conqueror on Baldwin de Brioniis, and became the caput of
the barony of Okehampton. At the time of the Domesday
Survey of 1086 it already ranked as a borough, with a castle,
a market paying 4 shillings, and four burgesses. In the i8th
century the manor passed by marriage to the Courtenays,
afterwards earls of Devon, and Robert de Courtenay in 1220
gave the king a palfrey to hold an annual fair at his manor of
Okehampton, on the vigil and feast day of St Thomas the
Apostle. In the reign of Henry III. the inhabitants received a
charter (undated) from the earl of Devon, confirming their
rights " in woods and in uplands, in ways and in paths, in
common of pastures, in waters and in mills. They were to be
free from all toll and to elect yearly a portreeve and a beadle."
A further grant of privileges was bestowed in 1292 by the earl
of Devon, but no charter of incorporation was granted until
that from James I. in 1623, and the confirmation of this by
Charles II. in 1684 continued to be the governing charter, the
corporation consisting of a mayor, seven principal burgesses
and eight assistant burgesses, until the Municipal Corporations
Act of 1882. On a petition from the inhabitants the town was
reincorporated by a new charter in 1885. Okehampton returned
two members to parliament in 1300, and again in 13 12 and
1313, after which there was an intermission tiU 1640, from
which date two members were returned regularly until by the
Reform Act of 1832 the borough was disfranchised.
See Victoria County History, Devonshire ; VV. B. Bridges, History of
Okehampton (1889).
OKEN, LORENZ (1779-1851), German naturalist, was born at
Bohlsbach, Swabia, on the ist of August 1779. His real name
was Lorenz Ockenfuss, and under that name he was entered at
the natural history and medical classes in the university of
Wiirzburg, whence he proceeded to that of Gottingen, where he
became a privat-docent, and abridged his name to Oken. As
Lorenz Oken he published in 1802 his small work entitled Grund-
riss der Nalurphilosophie, der Thcoric dcr Sinuc, iind der darauj
gegrundelen Classification der Thiere, the first of the series of
works which placed him at the head of the " natur-philosophie "
or physio-philosophical school of Germany. In it he extended
to physical science the philosophical principles which Kant
had applied to mental and moral science. Oken had, however,
in this appUcation been preceded by J. G. Fichte, who, acknow-
ledging that the materials for a universal science had been
discovered by Kant, declared that nothing more was needed
than a systematic co-ordination of these materials; and this
task Fichte undertook in his famous Doctrine of Science (Wissen-
schaftslehre), the aim of which was to construct a priori all
knowledge. In this attempt, however, Fichte did hltle more
than indicate the path; it was reserved for F. \V. J. von Schelling
fairly to enter upon it, and for Oken, following him, to explore
its mazes yet further, and to produce a systematic plan of the
country so surveyed.
In the Grundriss der Nalurphilosophie of 1802 Oken sketched
the outlines of the scheme he afterwards devoted himself to
perfect. The position which he advanced in that remarkable
work, and to which he ever after professed adherence, is that
" the animal classes are virtually nothing else than a representa-
tion of the sense-organs, and that they must be arranged in
accordance with them." Agreeably with this idea, Oken con-
tended that there are only five animal classes: (i) the Der-
malozoa, or invertebrates; (2) the Glossozoa, or Fishes, as being
those animals in which a true tongue makes, for the first time,
its appearance; (3) the Rhinozoa, or Reptiles, wherein the nose
opens for the first time into the mouth and inhales air; (4) the
Otozoa, or Birds, in which the ear for the first lime opens extern-
ally; and (5) Ophthalmozoa, or Mammals, in which all the
organs of sense are present and complete, the eyes being movable
and covered with two Hds.
In 1805 Oken made another characteristic advance in the
application of the a priori principle, by a book on generation
[Die Zeugung), wherein he maintained the proposition that
" all organic beings originate from and consist of vesicles or cells.
These vesicles, when singly detached and regarded in their
original process of production, are the infusorial mass or proto-
plasma (urschleim) whence all larger organisms fashion themselves
or are evolved. Their production is therefore nothing else
than a regular agglomeration of Infusoria — not, of course,
of species already elaborated or perfect, but of mucous vesicles
or points in general, which first form themselves by their union
or combination into particular species."
One year after the production of this remarkable treatise,
Oken advanced another step in the development of his system,
and in a volume published in 1S06, in which D. G. Kieser (1779-
1862) assisted him, entitled Bcitrage zur vcrglciciicnden Zoologic,
Anatomic, und Physiologic, he demonstrated that the intestines
originate from the umbilical vesicle, and that this corresponds
to the vitellus or yolk-bag. Caspar Friedrich Wolff had previ-
ously proved this fact in the chick {T/ieoria Generationis, 1774),
but he did not see its application as evidence of a general law.
Oken showed the importance of the discovery as an illustration
of his system. In the same work Oken described and recalled
attention to the corpora Wolffiana, or " primordial kidneys."
The reputation of the young privat-docent of Gottingen had
meanwhile reached the ear of Goethe, and in 1807 Oken was
invited to fill the ofiice of professor extraordinarius of the
medical sciences in the university of Jena. He accepted the
call, and selected for the subject of his inaugural discourse his
ideas on the " Signification of the Bones of the SkuU," based
upon a discovery he had made in the previous year. This
famous lecture was delivered in the presence of Goethe, as privy-
councillor and rector of the university, and was pubhshed in
the same year, with the title, Ueber die Bcdeutuiig dcr Schddcl-
knochen.
With regard to the origin of the idea, Oken narrates in his
Isis that, walking one autumn day in 1806 in the Harz forest,
he stumbled upon the blanched skull of a deer, picked up the
partially dislocated bones, and contemplated them for a while,
when the truth flashed across his mind, and he exclaimed, "It
56
OKEN
is a vertebral column!" At a meeting of the German naturalists
held at Jena some years afterwards Professor Kieser gave an
account of Oken's discovery in the presence of the grand-duke,
which account is printed in the tageblalt, or " proceedings," of
that meeting. The professor stated that Oken communicated
to him his discovery when journeying in 1806 to the island of
Wangeroog. On their return to Gottingen Oken explained his
ideas by reference to the skull of a turtle in Kieser's collection,
which he disarticulated for that purpose with his own hands.
" It is with the greatest pleasure," wrote Kieser, " that I am
able to show here the same skull, after having it thirty years
in my collection. The single bones of the skull are marked by
Oken's own handwriting, which may be so easily known."
The range of Oken's lectures at Jena was a wide one, and they
were highly esteemed. They embraced the subjects of natural
philosophy, general natural history, zoology, comparative
anatomy, the physiology of man, of animals and of plants.
The spirit with which he grappled with the vast scope of science is
characteristically illustrated in his essay Uebcr das Universum ah
Fortsetzung des Sinneusystems, 1808. In this work he lays it
down that " organism is none other than a combination of all the
universe's activities within a single individual body." This
doctrine led him to the conviction that " world and organism are
one in kind, and do not stand merely in harmony with each
other." In the same year he published his Erste Ideen zur
Theorie des Lklils, &c., in which he advanced the proposition
that " light could be nothing but a polar tension of the ether,
evoked by a central body in antagonism with the planets, and
heat was none other than a motion of this ether " — a sort of
vague anticipation of the doctrine of the " correlation of physical
forces." In 1809 Oken extended his system to the mineral world,
arranging the ores, not according to the metals, but agreeably
to their combinations with oxygen, acids and sulphur. In 1810
he summed up his views on organic and inorganic nature into
one compendious system. In the first edition of the Lehrbuch
der Naturphilosophic, which appeared in that and the following
years, he sought to bring his different doctrines into mutual con-
nexion, and to " show that the mineral, vegetable and animal
kingdoms are not to be arranged arbitrarily in accordance with
single and isolated characters, but to be based upon the cardinal
organs or anatomical systems, from which a firmly estabhshed
number of classes would necessarily be evolved; that each class,
moreover, takes its starting-point from below, and consequently
that all of them pass parallel to each other "; and that, " as in
chemistry, where the combinations foUow a definite numerical
law, so also in anatomy the organs, in physiology the functions,
and in natural history the classes, families, and even genera of
minerals, plants, and animals present a similar arithmetical
ratio." The Lehrbuch procured for Oken the title of Hofrath, or
court-councillor, and in 181 2 he was appointed ordinary professor
of the natural sciences.
In 1 81 6 he commenced the publication of his well-known
periodical, entitled Isis, eine encyclopddische Zcitschrijt, vorzUglich
fiir Naturgeschichle, vergleichende Anatomic imd Physiologie.
In this journal appeared essays and notices not only on the
natural sciences but on other subjects of interest; poetry, and
even comments on the poHtics of other German states, were
occasionally admitted. This led to representations and remon-
strances from the governments criticized or impugned, and the
court of Weimar called upon Oken either to suppress the Isis or
resign his professorship. He chose the latter alternative. The
publication of the Isis at Weimar was prohibited. Oken made
arrangements for its issue at Rudolstadt, and this continued
uninterruptedly until the year 1848.
In 182 1 Oken promulgated in his Isis the first idea of the
annual general meetings of the German naturalists and medical
practitioners, which happy idea was realized in the following
year, when the first meeting was held at Leipzig. The British
Association for the Advancement of Science was at the outset
avowedly organized after the German or Okenian model.
In 1828 Oken resumed his original humble duties as privat-
docent in the newly-established university of Munich, and soon
afterwards he was appointed ordinary professor in the same
university. In 1832, on the proposal by the Bavarian govern-
ment to transfer him to a professorship in a provincial university
of the state, he resigned his appointments and left the kingdom.
He was appointed in 1S33 to the professorship of natural history
in the then recently-established university of Zurich. There he
continued to reside, fulfilling his professional duties and pro-
moting the progress of his favourite sciences, until his death on
the nth of August 185 1.
All Oken's writings are eminently deductive illustrations of a
foregone and assumed principle, which, with other philosophers of
the transcendental school, he deemed equal to the explanation of
all the mysteries of nature. According to him, the head was a
repetition of the trunk — a kind of second trunk, with its limbs
and other appendages; this sum of his observations and comparisons
— fewj,of which he ever gave in detail — ought always to be borne
in mind in comparing the share taken by Oken in homological
anatomy with the progress made by other cultivators of that
philosophical branch of the science.
The idea of the analogy between the skull, or parts of the skull,
and the vertebral column had been previously propounded and
ventilated in their lectures by J. H. F. Autenreith and K. F. Kiel-
meyer, and in the writings of J. P. Frank. By Oken it was applied
chiefly in illustration of the mystical system of Schelling — the " all-
in-all " and " all-in-every-part." From the earliest to the latest of
Oken's writings on the subject, " the head is a repetition of the whole
trunk with all its systems: the brain is the spinal cord; the cranium
is the vertebral column; the mouth is intestine and abdomen;
the nose is the lungs and thorax; the jaws are the limbs; and the
teeth the claws or nails." J. B. von Spix, in his folio Cephalogenesis
(1818), richly illustrated comparative craniology, but presented the
facts under the same transcendental guise; and Cuvier ably availed
himself of the extravagances of these disciples of Schelling to cast
ridicule on the whole inquiry into those higher relations of parts to
the archetype which Sir Richard Owen called " general homologies."
The vertebral theory of the skull had practically disappeared
from anatomical science when the labours of Cuvier drew to their
close. In Owen's Archetype and Homologies of the Vertebrate Skeleton
the idea was not only revived but worked out for the first time
inductively, and the theory rightly stated, as follows: "The head
is not a virtual equivalent of the trunk, but is only a portion, i.e.
certain modified segments, of the whole body. The jaws are the
' haemal arches ' of the first two segments ; they are not limbs of
the head " (p. 176).
Vaguely and strangely, however, as Oken had blended the idea
with his a priori conception of the nature of the head, the chance
of • appropriating it seems to have overcome the moral sense of
Goethe — unless indeed the poet deceived himself. Comparative
osteology had early attracted Goethe's attention. In 1786 he
published at Jena his essay Ueber den Zwischenkieferknochen des
Menschen und der Thiere, showing that the intermaxillary bone
existed in man as well as in brutes. But not a word in this essay
gives the remotest hint of his having then possessed the idea of the
vertebral analogies of the skull. In 1820, in his Morphologic, he
first publicly stated that thirty years before the date of that publi-
cation he had discovered the secret relationship between the verte-
brae and the bones of the head, and that he had always continued
to meditate on this subject. The circumstances under which the
poet, in 1820, narrates having become inspired with the original
idea are suspiciously analogous to those described by Oken in 1807,
as producing the same effect on his mind. A bleached skull is
accidentally discovered in both instances: in Oken's it was that of
a deer in the Harz forest; in Goethe's it was that of a sheep picked
up on the shores of the Lido, at Venice.
It may be assumed that Oken when a privat-docent at Gottingen
in 1806 knew nothing of this unpublished idea or discovery of
Goethe, and that Goethe first became aware that Oken had the idea
of the vertebral relations of the skull when he listened to the intro-
ductory discourse in which the young professor, invited by the
poet to Jena, selected this very idea for its subject. It is incredible
that Oken, had he adopted the idea from Goethe, or been aware of
an anticipation by him, should have omitted to acknowledge the
source — should not rather have eagerly embraced so appropriate
an opportunity of doing graceful homage to the originality and
genius of his patron.
The anatomist having lectured for an hour plainly unconscious
of any such anticipation, it seems hardly less incredible that the
poet should not have mentioned to the young lecturer his previous
conception of the vertebro-cranial theory', and the singular coinci-
dence of the' accidental circumstance which he subsequently alleged
to have produced that discovery. On the contrary, Goethe permits
Oken to publish his famous lecture, with the same unconsciousness
of any anticipation as when he delivered it ; and Oken, in the same
state of belief, transmits a copy to Goethe {Isis, No. 7) who thereupon
honours the professor with special marks of attention and an in\'ita-
tion to his house. No hint of any claim of the host is given to the
guest; no word of reclamation in any shape appears for some
OKHOTSK— OKLAHOMA
57
years. In Goethe's Tages- und Jahres-Hefte, he refers to two friends,
Reimer and Voigt, as being cognizant in 1807 of his theory. Why
did not one or other of these make known to Oken that he had
been so anticipated? " I told my friends to keep quiet," writes
Goethe in 1825! Spi.\, in the meanwhile, in 1815, contributes
his share to the development of Oken's idea in his Cephalogenesis.
Ulrich follows in 1816 with his Schildkrotenschddel; next appears
the contribution, in 1818, by L. H. Bojanus, to the vertebral theory
of the skull, amplified in the Paragon to that anatomist's admirable
Analome Tesludinis Europaeae (1821). And now for the first time,
in 1818, Bojanus, visiting some friends at Weimar, there hears the
rumour that his friend Oken had been anticipated by the great
poet. He communicates it to Oken, who, like an honest man, at
once published the statement made by Goethe's friends in the Isis
of that year, offering no reflection on the poet, but restricting himself
to a detailed and interesting account of the circumstances under
which he himself had been led independently to make his discovery
when wandering in 1806 through the Harz. It was enough for him
thus to vindicate his own claims; he abstains from any comment
reflecting on Goethe, and maintained the same blameless silence
when Goethe ventured for the first time to claim for himself, in 1820,
the merit of having entertained the same idea, or made the discovery,
thirty years previously.
The German naturalists held their annual meeting at Jena in
1836, and there Kieser publicly bore testimony, from personal
knowledge, to the circumstances and dates of Oken's discovery.
However, in the edition of Hegel's works by Michelet (Berlin, 1842),
there appeared the following paragraph: "The type-bone is the
dorsal vertebra, provided inwards with a hole and outwards with
processes, every bone being only a modification of it. This idea
originated with Goethe, who worked it out in a treatise written in
1785, and published it in his Morphologic (1820), p. 162. Oken, to
whom the treatise was communicated, has pretended that the idea was
his own property, and has reaped the honour of it." This accusation
again called out Oken, who thoroughly refuted it in an able, circum-
stantial and temperate statement in part vii. of the Isis (1847).
Goethe's osteological essay of 1785, the only one he printed in that
century, is on a different subject. In the Morphologic of 1 820-1 824
Goethe distinctly declares that he had never published his ideas on
the vertebra! theory of the skull. He could not, therefore, have sent
any such essay to Oken before the year 1807. Oken, in reference to
his previous endurance of Goethe's pretensions, states that, " being
well aware that his fellow-labourers in natural science thoroughly
appreciated the true state of the case, he confided in quiet silence
in their judgment. Meckel, Spix, Ulrich, Bojanus, Carus, Cuvier,
GeofFroy St Hilaire, Albers, Straus-Durckheim, Owen, Kieser and
Lichtenstein had recorded their judgment in his favour and against
Goethe. But upon the appearance of the new assault in Michelet's
edition of Hegel he could no longer remain silent."
Oken's bold axiom that heat is but a mode of motion of light,
and the idea broached in his essay on generation (1805) that " all
the parts of higher animals are made up of an aggregate of Infusoria
or animated globular monads," are both of the same order as his
proposition of the head being a repetition of the trunk, with its
vertebrae and limbs. Science would have profited no more from
the one idea without the subsequent experimental discoveries of
H. C. Oersted and M. Faraday, or from the other without the micro-
scopical observations of Robert Brown, J. M. Schleiden and T.
Schwann, than from the third notion without the inductive demon-
stration of the segmental constitution of the skull by Owen. It is
questionable, indeed, whether in either case the discoverers of the
true theories were excited to their labours, or in any way influenced,
by the a priori guesses of Oken; more probable is it that the requisite
researches and genuine deductions therefrom were the results of the
correlated fitness of the stage of the science and the gifts of its true
cultivators at such particular stage.
The following is a list of Oken's principal works: Grundriss der
Naturphilosophie, der Theorie der Sinne, und der darauf gegriindeten
Classification der Thiere (1802); Die Zeugung (1805); Abriss der
Biologic (1805); Beitrdge zur vergleichenden-Zoologif, Anatomic und
Physiologic (along with Kieser, 1806-1807); Ueber die Bedeutung
der Schddelknochcn (1807); Ueber das Universum als Fortsetzungdes
Sinnensystems (1808); Erste Ideen zur Theorie des Lichts, der Finster-
niss, der Farben und der Wdrme (1808); Grundzeichnung des natiir-
lichen Systems der Erzc (1809); Ueber den Werth der Naturgeschichtc
(1809); Lehrbuch der Naturphilosophie (1809-1811; 2nd ed., 1831;
3rd ed., 1843; Eng. trans., Elements of Physiophilosophy, 1847);
Lehrbuch der Naturgeschichtc (1813, 1815, 1825); Handbuch der
Naturgeschichtc zum Gebrauch bei Vorlesungen {1S16-1820); Natur-
geschichtc fur Schulcn (1821); Esquissed'un Systeme d' Anatomic, dc
Physiologic, el d'Histoire Naturellc (1812); Allgemeine Naturgeschichtc
(i833~i842, 14 vols.). He also contributed a large number of papers
to the Isis and other journals. (R. O.)
OKHOTSK, SEA OF, a part of the western Pacific Ocean, lying
between the peninsula of Kamchatka, the Kurile Islands, the
Japanese island of Yezo, the island of Sakhalin, and the Amur
province of East Siberia. The Sakhalin Gulf and Gulf of
Tartary connect it with the Japanese Sea on the west of
the island of Sakhalin, and on the south of this island is the La
Perouse Strait.
OKI, a group of islands belonging to Japan, lying due north
of the province of Izumo, at the intersection of 36° N. and 133° E.
The group consists of one large island called Dogo, and three
smaller isles — Chiburi-shima, Nishi-no-shima, and Naka-no-
shima — which are collectively known as Dozen. These four
islands have a coast-line of 182 m., an area of 130 sq. m., and a
population of 63,000. The island of Dogo has two high peaks,
Daimanji-mine (2185 ft.) and Omine-yama (2128 ft.). The chief
town is Saigo in Dogo, distant about 40 m. from the port of Sakai
in Izumo. The name Oki-no-shima signifies " islands in the
offing," and the place is celebrated in Japanese history not only
because the possession of the islands was much disputed in
feudal days, but also because an ex-emperor and an emperor were
banished thither by the Hojo regents in the 13th century.
OKLAHOMA (a Choctaw Indian word meaning " red people "),
a south central state of the United States of America lying
between ^5° 35' and 37° N. lat. and 94° 29' and 103° W. long.
It is bounded N. by Colorado and Kansas; E. by Missouri and
Arkansas; S. by Texas, from which it is separated in part by the
Red river; and W. by Texas and New Mexico. It has a total
area of 70,057 sq. m., of which 643 sq. m. are water-surface.
Although the extreme western limit of the state is the 103rd
meridian, the only portion W. of the looth meridian is a strip of
land about 35 m. wide in the present Beaver, Texas and Cimarron
counties, and formerly designated as " No Man's Land."
Physiography. — The topographical features of the state exhibit
considerable diversity, ranging from wide treeless plains in the
W. to rugged and heavily wooded mountains in the E. In general
terms, however, the surface may be described as a vast rolling
plain having a gentle southern and eastern slope. The elevations
above the sea range from 4700 ft. in the extreme N.W. toabout
350 ft. in the S.E. The southern and eastern slopes are remark-
ably uniform; between the northern and southern boundaries
E. of the looth meridian there is a general difference in elevation
of from 200 to 300 ft., while from W. to E. there is an average
decline of about 3 ft. to the mile. The state has a mean elevation
of 1300 ft. with 34,930 sq. m. below 1000 ft; 25,400 sq. m.
between 1000 and 2000 ft.; 6500 sq. m. between 2000 and
3000 ft.; and 3600 sq. m. between 3000 and 5000 ft.
The western portion of the Ozark Mountains enters Oklahoma
near the centre of the eastern boundary, and extends W.S.W. half
way across the state in a chain of hills gradually decreasing in height.
In the south central part of the state is an elevated tableland known
as the Arbuckle Mountains. In its western portion this tableland
attains an elevation of about 1350 ft. above the sea and lies about
400 ft. above the bordering plains. At its eastern termination,
where it merges with the plains, it has an elevation of about 750 ft.
Sixty miles N.W. of this plateau lie the Wichita Mountains, a
straggling range of rugged peaks rising abruptly from a level plain.
This range extends from Fort Sill north-westward beyond Granite, a
distance of 65 m., with some breaks in the second half of this area.
The highest peaks are not more than 1500 ft. above the plain, but on
account of their steep and rugged slopes they are difficult to ascend.
A third group of hills, the Chautauqua Mountains, lie in the W. in
Blaine and Canadian counties, their main axis being almost parallel
with the North Fork of the Canadian river. With the exception of
these isolated clusters of hills the western portion of the state con-
sists almost entirely of rolling prairie. The extreme north-western
part of Oklahoma is a lofty tableland forming part of the Great
Plains region E. of the Rocky Mountains.
The prairies N. of the Arkansas and W. of the Neosho rivers are
deeply carved by small streams, and in the western portion of this
area, where the formation consists of alternating shales and sand-
stones, the easily eroded rocks have been carved into canyons, buttes
and mesas. South of the Arkansas ri\cr these ledges of sandstone
continue as far as Okmulgee, but the evidences of erosion are less
noticeable. East of the Neosho river the prairies merge into a hilly
woodland. In the N.W. four large salt plains form a striking
physical feature. Of these the most noted is the Big Salt Plain of
the Cimarron river, in Woodward county, which varies in width
from ^ m. to 2 m. and extends along the river for 8 m. The plain
is almost perfectly level, covered with snowy-white saline crj-stals,
and contains many salt springs. The other saline areas are the
Little Salt Plain, which lies on the Cimarron river, near the Kansas
boundary; the Salt Creek Plain, 3 m. long and 100 yds. wide, in
Blaine county; and the Salt Fork Plain, 6 m. wide and 8 m. long,
so called from its position on the Salt Fork of the Arkansas river.
58
AMOI OKLAHOMAUii^iO
Following the slope of the land, the important streams flow from
N.VV. to S.E. The Arkansas river enters the state from the N. near
the 97th meridian, and after following a general south-easterly
course, leaves it near the centre of the eastern boundary. Its tribu-
taries from the N. and E. — the Verdigris, Grand or Neosho and
Illinois — are small and unimportant; but from the S. and W. it
receives the waters of much larger streams — the Salt Fork, the
Cimarron and the Canadian, with its numerous tributaries. The
extreme southern portion of the state is drained by the Red River,
which forms the greater part of the southern boundary, and by its
tributaries, the North Fork, the Washita and the Kiamichi.
Fauna and Flora. — Of wild animals the most characteristic are
the black bear, puma, prairie wolf, timber wolf, fox, deer,
intelope, squirrel, rabbit and prairie dog. Hawks and turkey
buzzards are common types of the larger birds, and the wild turkey,
prairie chicken and quail are the principal game birds. The total
woodland area of the state was estimated in 1900 at 24,400 sq. m.,
or 34-8 % of the land area. The most densely wooded section is the
extreme E.; among the prairies of the VV. timber is seldom found
beyond the banks of streams. The most common trees are the
various species of the oak and cedar. The pine is confined to the
more mountainous sections of the E., and the black walnut is found
among the river bottom lands. These four varieties are of commercial
value. Other varieties, most of which are widely distributed, are
the ash, pecan, cottonwood, sycamore, elm, maple, hickory, elder,
gum, locust and river birch. The prairies are covered with valuable
l?unch, grama and dropseed grasses; in the extreme N-W. the
cactus, sagebrush and yucca, types characteristic of more arid regions,
are found.
Climate. — The climate of the state is of a continental type, with
great annual variations of temperature and a rainfall which, though
generally sufficient for the needs of vegetation, is considerably less
than that of the Atlantic Coast or the Mississippi Valley. The
western and central portions of the state are in general cooler and
dryer than the E., on account of their greater elevation and greater
distance from the Gulf Coast. Thus at Beaver, in the extreme N.W.,
the mean annual temperature is 57° F. and the mean annual rainfall
18-9 in.; while at Lehigh, in the S.E., these figures are respectively
62° and 35-1 in. At Oklahoma City, in the centre of the state, the
mean annual temperature is 59°; the mean for the summer (June,
July and August) is 78°, with an extreme recorded of 104°; the
mean for the winter (December, January and February) is 38°,
with an extreme recorded of -ij"- At Mangum, in the S.W., the
mean annual temperature is 61 ; the mean for the summer is 81°
and for the winter 41 °, while the highest and lowest temperatures
ever recorded are respectively 114° and -17°. The mean annual
precipitation for the state is 317 in.; the variation between the E.
and the W. being about 12 in.
Soils. — The prevailing type of soil is a deep dark-red loam, some-
times (especially in the east central part of the state) made up of a
decomposed sandstone, and again (in the north central part) made
up of shales and decomposed limestone. Not infrequently there are
a belt of red sandy loam on uplands N. of a river, a rich deposit of
black alluvium on valley bottom lands, a belt of red clay loam on
uplands S. of a river, and a deposit of wind-blown loess on the water
parting. Loess, often thin and always containing little humus,
also covers large areas on the high, semi-arid plains in the western
part of the state.
Agriculture and Stock-raising. — For some time before the first
opening to settlement by white men in 1899, the territory now em-
braced in Oklahoma was largely occupied by great herds of cattle
driven in from Texas, and since then, although the opening was
piecemeal, the agricultural development has been remarkably rapid.
By 1900, 22,988,339 acres, or 52-1 %, of the total land surface was
included in farms, and 8,574,187 acres, or 37-7 %, of the farm land
was improved.^ The farm land was divided among 108,000 farms
containing an average of 212-85 acres; 26,121 of them contained
less than 50 acres, but the most usual size was 160 acres; and
48,983, or 45-35 "'o, contained from 100 to 174 acres. _ A considerable
portion of the larger farms (there were 2390 containing 500 acres or
more) were owned by Indians but leased to white men. Much land
as late as 1900 was held in common by Indian tribes, but has since
been allotted to the members of those tribes and most of it is leased to
whites. In 1900, 59,367 (or a little more than one-half of all) farms
were worked by owners or part owners, 33,347 were worked by share
tenants, and 13,903 were worked by cash tenants. Indian corn,
wheat, cotton, oats and hay are the principal crops, but the variety
of farm and garden produce is great, and includes Kafir corn, broom
corn, barley, rye, buckwheat, flax, tobacco, beans, castor beans,
peanuts, pecans, sorghum cane, sugar cane, and nearly all the fruits
and vegetables common to the temperate zone; stock-raising, too,
is a very important industry. Of the total acreage of all crops in
1900, 4,431,819 acres, or 68-64 °'o, were of cereals; and of the cereal
acreage 56-45 % was of Indian corn, 34-45 % was of wheat and
7'I5 % was of oats. The acreage of Indian corn increased from
;! The statistics in this article were obtained by adding to those
for Oklahoma those for Indian Territory, which was combined with
it in 1907.
2,501,945 acres in 1900 to 5,950,000 acres in 1909; * between 1899
and 1909 the yield increased from 68,949,300 bushels to 101,150,006
bushels. The acreage of wheat decreased during this period from
1,704,909 acres to 1,225,000 acres, and the yield from 20,328,300
bushels to 15,680,000 bushels. The acreage of oats increased from
317,076 acres to 550,000 acres, and the yield increased from
9,511,340 bushels to 15,950,000 bushels. The hay crop of 1899 was
grown on 1,095,706 acres and amounted to 1,617,905 tons, but
nearly one-half of this was made from wild grasses; since then the
amounts of fodder obtained from alfalfa, Kafir corn, sorghum cane
and timothy have much increased, and that obtained from wild
grasses has decreased; in 1909 the acreage was 900,000 and the
crop 810,000 tons. Except in the W. section, where there is good
grazing but generally an insufficient rainfall for growing crops,
cattle-raising on the range has in considerable measure given way to
stock-raising on the farm, and nearly everywhere the quality of the
cattle has been greatly improved. The total number of cattle
decreased from 3,236,008 in 1900 to 1,992,000 in 1910, but at the same
time the number of dairy cows increased from 276,539 to 355,000.
The number of horses increased from 557,153 in 1900 to 804,000 in
1910; of mules from 117,562 to 191,000 ; of swine from 1,265,189
to 1,302,000; and of sheep from 88,741 to 108,000. Winter wheat is
used extensively for pasturage during the winter months with little
or no damage to the crop. No other branch of agriculture in Okla-
homa has advanced so rapidly as the production of cotton; the
culture of this fibre was introduced in 1890, and the acreage increased
from 682,743 acres in 1899 to 2,037,000 acres in 1909, and the yield
increased from 227,741 bales to 617,000 bales (in 1907 it was 862,383
bales). There was only a very small crop of broom corn in 1889, but
in 1899 the crop was 3,565,510 fb. The state has risen to high rank
in the production of sorghum cane and castor beans also; in 1899
16,477 acres of the cane yielded 40,259 tons, and 14,070 acres of
castor beans yielded 77,409 bushels. Two crops of potatoes may be
grown on the same ground in one year, and the acreage of potatoes
increased from 15,360 acres in 1899 to 27,000 acres in 1909, and the
yield from 1,191,997 bushels to 1,890,000 bushels. Oklahoma is
already producing large crops of apples, peaches, grapes, water-melons
and musk-melons, and many large apple and peach orchards and
vineyards have been planted. Pears, plums, apricots, cherries,
strawberries, blackberries, raspberries, currants, gooseberries,
cabbages, onions, sweet potatoes, tomatoes and cucumbers are
grown in considerable quantities. The cereals and most of the
fruits and vegetables are grown throughout the greater portion of
the middle and E. parts of the state, although the soil of the N.
middle section yields the best crops of wheat. Kafir corn and sorghum
cane are the most common in the W. sections, where the climate is
too dry for other crops. Some cotton is grown N. of the middle of
the state, but the S.E. quarter takes in most of the cotton belt.
Broom corn grows best in Woods county on the N. border, and
castor beans in the central and N. central sections. About 3000
acres (nearly one-half in the narrow extension in the N.W.) were
already irrigated in 1909, and surveys had been made by the Federal
Reclamation Service with a view to irrigating about 100,000 acres
more — 10,000 to 14,000 acres in Beaver and Woodward counties,
under the Cimarron project, and 80,000 to 100,000 acres in Kiowa
and Comanche counties, under the Red River project.
Lumber and Timber Products. — The merchantable timber is mostly
in that part of the state which formerly constituted Indian Territory,
and consists largely of black walnut and other valuable hard woods
in the bottom lands, of black jack and post oak on the uplands
and of pine on the higher elevations S. of the Arkansas river. The
manufactured forest products of Indian Territory increased in value
from $189,373 in 1900 to $588,078 in 1905, or 205-78 %.
Minerals. — The coal-fields extend from Kansas on the N. to
Arkansas on the E., and have an area of about 20,000 sq. m. The
principal mining centres are McAlester, Wilburton, Hartshorn,
Coalgate and Phillips. In quality the coal varies from a low grade
to a high grade bituminous, and some of the latter is good for coking.
The output increased from 446,429 short tons in 1885 to 1,922,298
short tons in 1900, and to 2,948,116 short tons in 1908, the output
for the last-named year being much less than for 1906 or 1907,
when it was over 3,500,000 tons. The range of hills extending
from the centre of the state N.W. to and beyond the Kansas border
are composed chiefly of great deposits of rock gypsum. A similar
but minor range extends parallel with it 40 to 50 m. S.W. There are
also deposits in Greer county in the S.VV. corner, and some gypsite
in Kay county on the N. middle border. For working these extensive
deposits there are, however, few mills; these are in Kay, Canadian
and Blaine counties. Some petroleum was discovered in the N. part
of Indian Territory near the Oklahoma border as early as 1890,
but there was little development until 1903, when several wells
were drilled in the vicinity of Bartlesville. Then wells were drilled
to the W. on the Osage Reserv^ation, and to the S., until in 1906
about 110 wells were drilled into the famous Glen Pool near Sapulpa.
One of these wells has a flow of about 1000 barrels a day, and the
total product from the Oklahoma oil-field (which includes wells in
- The agricultural statistics for 1909 are taken from the Year-Book
of the United States Department of Agriculture.
OKLAHOMA
59
what was Indian Territory) increased from 10,000 barrels in 1901
to 138,911 in 1903, 1,366,748 in 1904 and 45,79^,765 in I9"S, when
it was valued at $17,694,843. Natural gas abounds in the same
region, and several strong wells were developed in 191^, and immedi-
ately afterwards gas began to be used largely for industrial purposes
for which in 1908 the price was from l| to 15 cents per 1000 ft. Pipe
lines have been constructed. The value of the output increased
from $360 in 1902 to $130,137 in 1905 and to $860,159 in 1908.
In the central part of the state S. of the Canadian river are extensive
deposits of asphaltum, but their development has been undertaken
only oA a small scale: in 1908, 2402 short tons were put on the
market, the value being $23,820. Lead and zinc are found in the
Miami district, the Peoria district and the Quapaw district; and in
1908 the lead (1409 tons) was valued at $118,356 and the zinc (2235
tons) at $210,090. The total value of the mineral products in 1908
was $26,586,751.
Manufactures. — The manufactures in 1905 were still largely such
as are closely related to agriculture. Measured by the value of the
products, 61 -8% were represented by flour and grist mill products
and cottonseed oil and cake. Among the manufacturing centres are
Oklahoma City and Guthrie, and the combined value of their factory
products increased from $1,493,998 in 1900 to $4,871,392 in 1905.
Transportalion and Commerce. — The navigable waters in Oklahoma
are of little importance, and the state is almost wholly dependent
on railways as a means of transportation. The first railway was that
of the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, which completed a line across the
territory to Denison, Texas, in 1872. The railway mileage was slowly
increased to 1260 m. in 1890, and on the 1st of January 1909 was
5829 m. The Missouri, Kansas & Texas railway crosses the E. part
of the state, and somewhat parallel with this to the westward arc
the St Louis & San Francisco, the Atchison, Topeka & Santa F6,
two lines of the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, and the Kansas
City, Mexico & Orient railways. The Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific
also crosses the middle of the state from E. to W. The Atchison,
Topeka & Santa F6 and the Chicago, Rock Island & Gulf cross the
N.W. part. The St Louis & San Fiancisco crosses the S.E. quarter.
A line of the Frisco system extends along the S. border from the
Arkansas line to the middle of the state, and with these main lines
numerous branches form an extensive network.
Population. — The population of the territory now embraced
within the state increased from 258,657 in 1890, when the first
census was taken, to 790,391 In 1900, or 205-6%, to 1,414,177
in 1907, and to 1,657,155 in 1910. Of the total population
in 1900, 769,853, or 97-4%, were native-born. The white popula-
tion increased from 172,554 in 1890 to 1,054,376 in 1907, or
611%, the negro population during the same period from 21,609
to 112,160, or 419%, and the Indian population from 64,456
to 75,012, or 16-3%. In 1800 the Indians and negroes constituted
33'i°/o o^ the total population, but in 1907 they (with the
Mongolians, who numbered 75) constituted only 13-2% of the
total. The only Indians who are natives of this region are a
few members of the Kiowa, Comanche and Apache tribes.
The others are the remnants of a number of tribes collected here
from various parts of the country; Choctaws, Chickasaws,
Cherokees, Creeks, Seminoles, Osages, Kaws, Pcncas, Otoes,
Cheyennes, lowas, Kickapoos, Sauk and Foxes, Sioux, Miamis,
Shawnees, Pawnees, Ottawas and several others. Until 1906
the Osages lived on a reservation touching Kansas on the N. and
the Arkansas river on the W. (since then almost all allotted) ;
but to the greater portion of the Indians the government has
made individual allotments. Only about one-fourth of the so-
called Indians are full bloods. A large portion are one-half or
more white blood and the Creeks and some others have more or
less negro blood. In igo6 there were 257,100 communicants
of various churches in Oklahoma and Indian Territory, the
Methodist Episcopalians being the most numerous, and next
to them the Baptists. The population in places having 4000
inhabitants or more increased from 29,978 in 1900 to 140,579
in 1907, or 368-9%, while the population outside of such places
increased from 760,413 to 1,273,598, or only 67-5%. The
principal cities in 1907 were Oklahoma City, Muskogee, Guthrie
(the capital), Shawnee, Enid, Ardmore, McAlestcr and Chickasha.
Administration. — The constitution now in operation was
adopted in September 1907, and is that with which the state
was admitted into the Union in November of the same year.
Amendments may be submitted through a majority of the
members elected to both houses of the legislature or through a
petition signed by i5%o of the electorate, and a proposed
amendment becomes a part of the constitution if the majority
of the votes Cast at a popular election aire in favour of it. The
legislature may also at any time propose a convention for
amending or revising the constitution, but no such convention
can be called without first obtaining the approval of the elector-
ate. An elector must be able to read or write (unless he or an
ancestor was a voter in 1866 or then lived in some foreign
nation) and must be 21 years old, and a resident of the state
for one year, in the county six months, and in the election
precinct 30 days, and women have the privilege of voting at
school meetings. General elections are held on the first Tuesday
after the first Monday in November in odd-numbered years and
party candidates for state, district, county and municipal
offices and for the United States Senate are chosen at primary
elections held on the first Tuesday in August. The Massa-
chusetts ballot which had been in use in 1897-1899 was again
adopted in 1909. Oklahoma has put into its constitution many
things which in the older states were left to legislative enactment.
The governor is elected for a term of four years but is in-
eligible for the next succeeding term. The number of officers
whom he appoints is rather limited and for most of his appoint-
ments the confirmation of the Senate is required. He is not
permitted to pardon a criminal until he has obtained the arhnce
of the board of pardons which is composed of the state super-
intendent of public instruction, the president of the board of
agriculture and the state auditor. He is a member of some
important administrative boards, his veto power extends to
items in appropriation bills, and to pass a bill over his veto a
vote of two-thirds of the members elected to each house is re-
quired. A lieutenant-governor, secretary of state, treasurer,
auditor, examiner, and inspector, commissioner of labour, com-
missioner of insurance, chief mine inspector, commissioner of
charities and corrections, and president of the board of agri-
culture are elected each for a term of four years, and the
secretary of state, auditor and treasurer are, Uke the governor,
ineligible for the next succeeding term.
The law-making bodies are a Senate and a House of Repre-
sentatives. One-half the senators and all the representatives
are elected every two years, senators by districts and repre-
sentatives by counties. Sessions are held biennially in even-
numbered years and begin the first Tuesday after the first Monday
in January. The constitution reserves to the people the privilege
of rejecting any act or any item of any act whenever 5% of the
legal voters ask that the matter be voted upon at a general
election; and the people may initiate legislation by a petition
signed by 8 % of the electorate.
For the administration of justice there have been established
a supreme court composed of six justices elected for a term of
six years; a criminal court of appeals composed of three justices
appointed by the governor with the advice and consent of the
Senate; twenty-one district courts each with one or more
justices elected for a term of four years; a county court in each
county with one justice elected for a term of two years; a court
of a justice of the peace, elected for a term of two years, in each
of six districts of each county, and police courts in the cities.
The supreme court has appellate jurisdiction in all civil cases,
but its original jurisdiction is restricted to a general control of
the lower courts. The criminal court of appeals has jurisdiction
in all criminal cases appealed from the district and county courts.
The district courts have exclusive jurisdiction in civil actions
for sums exceeding $1000, concurrent jurisdiction with the
county courts in civil actions for sums greater than $500 and not
exceeding $1000, and original or appellate in criminal cases.
The county courts have, besides the concurrent jurisdiction
above stated, original jurisdiction in all probate matters, original
jurisdiction in civil actions for sums greater than $200 and
not exceeding $500, concurrent jurisdiction with the justices
of the peace in misdemeanour cases, and appellate jurisdiction
in all cases brought from a justice of the peace or a police court.
Local Government. — The general management of county affairs
is intrusted to three commissioners elected by districts, but these
commissioners are not permitted to incur extraordinary expenses
or Ie\'y a tax exceeding fi\e mills on a dollar without first obtaining
the consent of the people at a general or special election. The
6o
OKLAHOMA
other county officers are a treasurer, clerk, register of deeds, attorney,
surveyor, sheriff, assessor and superintendent of public instruction.
The counties have been divided into municipal townships, each of
which elects a trustee, a clerk and a treasurer, who together con-
stitute a board of directors for the management of township affairs.
The trustee is also the assessor. Cities or towns having a population
of 2000 or more may become cities of the first class when-
ever a favourable majority vote is obtained at a general or special
election held in that city or town, and this question must be sub-
mitted at such an election whenever 35 % of the legal voters
petition for it.
Miscellaneous Laws. — The property rights of husband and wife are
practically equal, and either may buy, sell or mortgage real estate,
other than the homestead, without the consent of the other. Among
the grounds for a divorce are adultery, extreme cruelty, habitual
drunkenness, gross neglect of duty and imprisonment for felony.
Article XII. of the constitution exempts from forced sale the home-
stead of any family in the state to the extent of 160 acres of land in
the country, or i acre in a city, town or village, provided the value
of the same does not exceed S5000 and that the claims against it are
not for purchase money, improvements or taxes. A corporation
commission of three members, elected for a term of six years, is
intrusted with the necessary powers for a rigid control of public
service corporations. A state board of arbitration, composed of
two farmers, two employers and two employes is authorized to
investigate the causes of any strike affecting the public interests,
and publish what it finds to be the facts in the case, together with
recommendations for settlement. Labour laws, passed by the first
legislature (1908), were amended and made more radical by the
legislature of 1909: a child labour law forbids the employment of
children under 14 in factories, workshops, theatres, bowling-alleys,
pool-halls, steam-laundries or other dangerous places (to be defined
by the commissioner of labour), and no child under 16 is to be
employed in such places unless able to read and write simple English
sentences or without having attended school during the previous
year; no child under 16 is to be employed in any of several
(enumerated) dangerous occupations; no child under 16 is to be
employed more than 8 hours in any one day, or more than 48 hours
in any one week in any gainful occupation other than agriculture
or domestic service; age and schooling certificates are required of
children between 14 and 16 in certain occupations. A state dis-
pensary system for the sale of into.xicating liquors was authorized
by the constitution, but the popular vote in 1908 was unfavourable
to the continuance of the system, the sentiment seeming to be
for rigid prohibition of the sale of intoxicating liquors. A law
pcissed in May 1908 against nepotism (closely following the Texas
law of 1907) forbids public officers to appoint (or vote for) any
person related to them by affinity or consanguinity within the
third degree to any position in the government of which they are a
part; makes persons thus related to public officers ineligible to
positions in the branch in which their relative is an official ; and
renders any official making such an appointment liable to fine and
removal from office.
Education. — The common school system is administered by a
state superintendent of public instruction, a state board of education,
county superintendents and district boards. The state board is
composed of the state superintendent, who is president of the board ;
the secretary of state, who is secretary of the board ; the attorney-
general and the governor. Each district board is composed of three
members elected for a term of three years, one each year. Each
district school must be open at least three months each year, and
children between the ages of eight and sixteen are required to
attend either a public or a private school, unless excused because
of physical or mental infirmity. There are separate schools for whites
and negroes. In addition to instruction in the ordinary branches,
the teaching in the district schools of the elementary principles of
agriculture, horticulture, animal husbandry, stock-feeding, forestry,
building country roads and domestic science is required. A law of
1908 requires that an agricultural school of secondary grade be
established in each of the five supreme court judicial districts, and
that an experimental farm be operated in connexion with each;
and in 1909 the number of these districts was increased to six.
There is a state industrial school for girls, teaching domestic science
and the fine arts. The higher institutions of learning established
by the state are the Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechanical College,
a land grant college with an agricultural experiment station at
Stillwater; the Oklahoma School of Mines at Wilburton; the
Colored Agricultural and Normal University at Langston; the
Central Normal School at Edmond; the North-western Normal
School at Alva; the South-western Normal School at Weatherford,
Custer county; the South-eastern Normal School at Durant, Bryan
county; the East Central Normal School at Ada; the North-
eastern Normal School at Tahlequah, Cherokee county; and the
University of Oklahoma at Norman. The State University (estab-
lished in 1892, opened in 1893) embraces a college of arts and sciences,
and schools of fine arts, applied science, medicine, mines and phar-
macy. In 1907-1908 it had 40 instructors and 790 students. There
is a University Preparatory School (1901) at Tonkawa in Kay
county, and there are state schools of agriculture at Tishomingo and
at Warner. The common schools are in large part maintained out
of the proceeds of the school lands (about 1,200,000 acres), which
are sections 16 and 36 in each township of that portion of the state
which formerly constituted Oklahoma Territory, and a Congres-
sional appropriation of $5,000,000 in lieu of these sections in
what was formerly Indian Territory. The university, agricultural
and mechanical college and normal schools also are maintained
to a considerable extent out of the proceeds of section 13 in
several townships. The university owns land valued at §3,670,000.
Among the institutions of learning, neither maintained nor controlled
by the state, are Epworth University (Methodist Episcopal, 1901)
at Oklahoma City, and Kingfisher College at Kingfisher.
Charilies and Correctional Institutions. — The state has a hospital
for the insane at Fort Supply, the Whitaker Orphans' Home at
Pryor Creek, the Oklahoma School for the Blind at Fort Gibson
and the Oklahoma School for the Deaf at Sulphur; and the legisla-
ture of 1908 appropriated money for the East Oklahoma Hospital
for the Insane at Vinita, a School for the Feeble-Minded at Enid, a
State Training School for Boys at Wynnewood and a State Reforma-
tory (at Granite, Greer county) for first-time convicts between the
ages of sixteen and twenty-five. Under the constitution the super-
vision and inspection of charities and institutions of correction is
m the hands of a State Commissioner of Charities and Corrections,
elected by the people. The commissioner must inspect once each
year all penal, correctional and eleemosynary institutions, including
public hospitals, jails, poorhouses and corporations and organizations
doing charitable work ; and the commissioner appears as next friend
in cases affecting the property of orphan minors, and has power to
investigate complaints against public and private institutions whose
charters may be revoked for cause by the commissioner. By act of
legislature a State Board of Public Affairs was created; it is made of
five members appointed by the governor, with charge of the fiscal
affairs of all state institutions. Convicts were sent to the state
penitentiary of Kansas until January 1909, when it was charged
that they were treated cruelly there; in 1909 work was begun on a
penitentiary at McAlester.
Banking and Finance. — The unique feature of the banking system
(with amendments adopted by the second legislature becoming
effective on the nth of June 1909) is a fund for the guaranty of
deposits. The state banking board, which is composed of the
governor, lieutenant-governor, president of the board of agriculture,
state treasurer and state auditor, levies against the capital stock of
each state bank and trust company, organized or existing, under
the laws of the state to create a fund equal to 5 % of average daily
deposits other than the deposits of state funds properly secured.
One-fifth of this fund is payable the first year and one-twentieth
each year thereafter; i % of the increase in average deposits is
collected each year. Emergency assessments, not to exceed 2 %,
may be made whenever necessary to pay in full the depositors in an
insolvent bank; if the guaranty fund is impaired to such a degree
that it is not made up by the 2 % emergency assessment, the state
banking board issues certificates of indebtedness which draw 6 %
interest and which are paid out of the assessment. Any national bank
may secure its depositors in this manner if it so desires. The bank
guarantee law was held to be valid by the United States Supreme
Court in 1908 after the attorney-general of the United States had
decided that it was illegal.
The revenue for state and local purposes is derived chiefly from
taxes. The constitutional limit on the state tax levy is 3j mills on
a dollar, and legislation has fixed the limit of the county levy at 5
mills, of the levy in cities at 7, in incorporated towns at 5, in town-
ships at 3, and in school districts at 5. There is a tax on the gross
receipts of corporations, a graduated land tax on all holdings exceed-
ing 640 acres, a tax on income exceeding S3500, and a tax on gifts
and inheritances. The aggregate amount of indebtedness which
the state may have at any time is limited by the constitution to
§400,000, save when borrowing is necessary to repel an invasion,
suppress an insurrection or defend the state in war.
History. — With the exception of the narrow strip N. of the
most N. section of Texas the territory comprising the present
state of Oklahoma was set apart by Congress in 1834, under the
name of Indian Territory, for the possession of the five southern
tribes (Cherokees, Creeks, Seminoles, Choctaws and Chickasaws)
and the Quapaw Agency. Early in 1809 some Cherokees in
the south-eastern states made known to President Jefferson
their desire to remove to hunting grounds W. of the Mississippi,
and at first they were allowed to occupy lands in what is now
Arkansas, but by a new arrangement first entered into in 1828
they received instead, in 1838, a patent for a wide strip extending
along the entire N. border of Indian Territory with the exception
of the small section in the N.E. corner which was reserved to
the Quapaw Agency. By treaties negotiated in 1820, 1825,
1830 and 1842 the Choctaws received for themselves and the
Chickasaws a patent for aU that portion of the territory which
OKLAHOMA CITY— OKUMA
6i
lies S. of the Canadian and Arkansas rivers, and by treaties
negotiated in 1824, 1833 and 1851 the Creeks received for them-
selves and the Seminoles a patent for the remaining or middle
portion. Many of the Indians of these tribes brought slaves with
them from the Southern states and during the Civil War they
supported the Confederacy, but when that war was over the
Federal government demanded not only the liberation of the
slaves but new treaties, partly on the ground that the tribal lands
must be divided with the freedmen. By these treaties, negotiated
in 1866, the Cherokees gave the United States permission to
settle other Indians on what was approximately the western
half of their domain; the Seminoles, to whom the Creeks in
1855 had granted as their portion the strip between the Canadian
river and its North Fork, ceded all of theirs, and the Creeks,
Choctaws and Chickasaws ceded the western half of theirs back
to the United States for occupancy by freedmen or other Indians.
In the E. portion of the lands thus placed at its disposal by the
Cherokees and the Creeks the Federal government within the
next seventeen years made a number of small grants as follows:
to the Seminoles in 1866, to the Sauk and Foxes in 1867, to the
Osages, Kansas, Pottawatomies, Absentee Shawnces and
Wichitas in 1871-1872, to the Pawnees in 1876, to the Poncas
and Nez Perces in 1878, to the Otoes and Missouris in 1881,
and to the lowas and Kickapoos in 1883; in the S.W. quarter
of the Territory, also, the Kiowas, Comanches and Apaches
were located in 1867 and the Cheyennes and Arapahoes in 1869.
There still remained unassigned the greater part of the Cherokee
Strip besides a tract embracing 1,887,800 acres of choice land
in the centre of the Territory, and the agitation for the opening
of this to settlement by white people increased until in 1889 a
complete title to the central tract was purchased from the
Creeks and Seminoles. Soon after the purchase President
Benjamin Harrison issued a proclamation announcing that this
land woidd be opened to homestead settlement at twelve o'clock
noon, on the 22nd of April 1889. At that hour no less than 20,000
people were on the border, and when the signal was given there
ensued a remarkably spectacular race for homes. In the next
year that portion of Indian Territory which lay S. of the Cherokee
Strip and W. of the lands occupied by the five tribes, together
with the narrow strip N. of Texas which had been denied to that
state in 1850, was organized as the Territory of Oklahoma. In
the meantime negotiations were begun for acquiring a clear
title to the unoccupied portion of the Cherokee Strip, for in-
dividual allotments to the members of the several small tribes
who had received tribal allotments since 1866, and for the
purchase of what remained after such individual allotments
had been made. As these negotiations were successful most of
the land between the tract first opened and that of the Creeks
was opened to settlement in 1891, a large tract to the W. of the
centre was opened in 1892, a tract S. of the Canadian river and
W. of the Chickasaws was opened in 1902, and by 1904 the entire
Territory had been opened to settlement with the exception of
a tract in the N.E. which was occupied by the Osages, Kaws,
Poncas and Otoes. By the treaties with the five southern tribes
they were to be permitted to make their own laws so long as
they preserved their tribal relations, but since the Civil War
many whites had mingled with these Indians, gained control
for their own selfish ends of such government as there was,
and made the country a refuge for fugitives from justice. Con-
sequently, in 1893, Congress appointed the Dawes Commission
to induce the tribes to consent to individual allotments as well
as to a government administered from Washington, and in 1898
the Curtis Act was passed for making such allotments and for the
estabhshment of a territorial government. When the allot-
ments were nearly all made Congress in 1 906 authorized Oklahoma
and Indian Territories to qualify for admission to the Union as
one state. As both Territories approved, a constitutional
convention (composed of 100 Democrats and 12 Republicans)
met at Guthrie on the 20th of November 1906. The constitution
framed by this body was approved by the electorate on the
17 th of September 1907, and the state was admitted to the
Union on the 1 6th of November. ,, ,
Governors of Oklahoma — Territorial.
George W. Steele 1890-1891
Robert Martin (acting) 1891-1892
Abraham J. Seay 1892- 1893
William Gary Renfrew 1893-1897
Cassius McUonaUl Barnes 1897-1901
William M. Jenkins 1901
Thompson B. Ferguson 1901— 1906
Frank Frantz 1906-1907
State.
Charles Nathaniel Haskell, Democrat. . 1907-191 1
Lee Cruce, Democrat 191 1-
BlBLlOGRAPHY. — See the Biennial Reports (Guthrie, 1904 sqq.)
of the Oklahoma Department of Geology and Natural History;
the Oklahoma Geological Survey, Bulletin No. 1: Preliminary
Report on the Mineral Resources of Oklahoma (Norman, 1908);
C. N. Gould, Geology and Water Resources of Oklahoma (Washington,
1905), being Water Supply and Irrigation I-'aper, No. 148 of the
United States Geological Survey; A. J. Henry, Climatology of the
United States, pp. 442-453 (Washington, 1906), being Bulletin Q of
the Weather Bureau of the United States Department of Agriculture;
Mineral Resources of the United States, annual reports published by
the United States Geological Survey (Washington, 1883 sqq.);
Charles Evans and C. O. Bunn, Oklahoma Civil Government (Ardmore,
1908); C. A. Beard, " Constitution of Oklahoma," in the Political
Science Quarterly, vol. 24 (Boston, 1909); R. L. Owen, "Com-
ments on the Constitution of Oklahoma, ' in the Proceedings of the
American Political Science Association, vol. 5 (Baltimore, 1909);
S. J. Buck, The Settlement of Oklahoma (Madison, 1907), reprinted
from the Transactions of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and
Letters; and D. C. Gideon, Indian Territory, Descriptive, Biographical
and Genealogical . . . with a General History of the Territory (New
York, 1901).
OKLAHOMA CITY, a city and the county-seat of Oklahoma
County, Oklahoma, U.S.A., on the North Fork of the Canadian
river, near the geographical centre of the state. Pop. (1890)
4151; (1900) 10,037; (1907) 32,452; (1910) 64,205.^ It
is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe, the Chicago,
Rock Island & Pacific, the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, and the
St Louis & San Francisco railways, and by inter-urban electric
lines. It lies partly in a valley, partly on an upland, in a rich
agricultural region. The city is the seat of Epworth University
(founded in 1901 by the joint action of the Methodist Episcopal
Church and the Methodist Episcopal Church, South). Oklahoma
City's prosperity is due chiefly to its jobbing trade, with an
extensive farming and stock-raising region, but it has also cotton
compresses and cotton gins, and various manufactures. The
total value of the factory products in 1905 was $3,670,730.
Natural gas is largely used as a fuel. A large settlement was
established here on the 22nd of April 1889, the day on which
the country was by proclamation declared open for settlement.
The city was chartered in 1890.
OKUBO TOSHIMITSU (1830-1878), Japanese statesman, a
samurai of Satsuma, was one of the five great nobles who led
the revolution in 1868 against the shogunate. He became one
of the mikado's principal ministers, and in the Satsuma troubles
which followed he was the chief opponent of Saigo Takamori.
But the suppression of the Satsuma rebellion brought upon him
the personal revenge of Saigo's sympathizers, and in the spring
of 1878 he was assassinated by six clansmen. Okubo was one
of the leading men of his day, and in 1872 was one of the Japanese
mission which was sent round the world to get ideas for organizing
the new regime.
OKUMA (SHIGENOBU), Count (1838- ), Japanese states-
man, was born in the province of Hizen in 1838. His father was
an officer in the artillery, and during his early years his education
consisted mainly of the study of Chinese literature. Happily
for him, however, he was able to acquire in his youth a knowledge
of English and Dutch, and by the help of some missionaries he
succeeded in obtaining books in those languages on both scientific
and political subjects. These works effected a complete revolu-
tion in his mind. He had been designed by his parents for the
military profession, but the new light which now broke in upon
him determined him to devote his entire energies to the abolition
of the existing feudal system and to the establishment of a
constitutional government. With impetuous zeal he urged his
views on his countrymen, and though he took no active part
62
AMU^IO- OLAF MOHAJ^O
in the revolution of 1868, the effect of his opinions exercised no
slight weight in the struggle. Already he was a marked man,
and no sooner was the government reorganized, with the mikado
as the sole wielder of power, than he was appointed chief assistant
in the department of foreign affairs. In 1869 he succeeded to the
post of secretary of the joint departments of the interior and of
finance, and for the next fourteen years he devoted himself
wholly to politics. In 1870 he was made a councillor of state,
and a few months later he accepted the office of president of
the commission which represented the Japanese government
at the Vienna Exhibition. In 1872 he was again appointed
minister of finance, and when the expedition under General
Saigo was sent to Formosa (1874) to chastise the natives of that
island for the murder of some shipwrecked fishermen, he was
nominated president of the commission appointed to supervise
the campaign. By one of those waves of popular feehng to which
the Japanese people are peculiarly liable, the nation which had
supported him up to a certain point suddenly veered round
and opposed him with heated violence. So strong was the feeling
against him that on one occasion a would-be assassin threw at
him a dynamite shell, which blew off one of his legs. During
the whole of his public life he recognized the necessity of promot-
ing education. When he resigned office in the early 'eighties
he estabUshed the Semmon Gako, or school for special studies,
at the cost of the 30,000 yen which had been voted him when he
received the title of count, and subsequently he was instrumental
in founding other schools and colleges. In 1896 he joined the
Matsukata cabinet, and resigned in the following year in conse-
quence of intrigues which produced an estrangement between
him and the prime minister. On the retirement of Marquis
Ito in 1898 he again took otfice, combining the duties of premier
with those of minister of foreign affairs. But dissensions having
arisen in the cabinet, he resigned a few months later, and retired
into private life, cultivating his beautiful garden at Waseda
near Tokyo.
OLAF, the name of five kings of Norway.
Olaf I. Tryggvesson (969-1000) was iDorn in 969, and began
his meteoric career in exile. It is even said that he was bought as
a slave in Esthonia. After a boyhood spent in Novgorod under
the protection of King Valdemar, Olaf fought for the emperor
Otto III. under the Wendish king Burislav, whose daughter he
had married. On her death he followed the example of his
countrymen, and harried in France and the British Isles, till,
in a good day for the peace of those countries, he was converted
to Christianity by a hermit in the Scilly Islands, and his maraud-
ing expeditions ceased since he would not harry those of his new
faith. In England he married Gyda, sister of Olaf Kvaran,
king of Dublin, and it was only after some years spent in admini-
stering her property in England and Ireland that he set sail
for Norway, fired by reports of the unpopularity of its ruler
Earl Haakon. Arriving in Norway in the autumn of 995, he
was unanimously accepted as king, and at once set about the
conversion of the country to Christianity, undeterred by the
obstinate resistance of the people. It has been suggested that
Olaf's ambition was to rule a united, as well as a Christian,
Scandinavia, and we know that he made overtures of marriage
to Sigrid, queen of Sweden', and set about adding new ships to
his fleet, when negotiations fell through owing to her obstinate
heathenism. He made an enemy of her, and did not hesitate
to involve himself in a quarrel with King Sveyn of Denmark
by marrying his sister Thyre, who had fled from her heathen
husband Burislav in defiance of her brother's authority.
Both his Wendish and his Irish wife had brought Olaf wealth and
good fortune, but Thyre was his undoing, for it was on an
expedition undertaken in the year 1000 to wrest her lands from
Burislav that he was waylaid off the island Svold, near Rugen,
by the combined Swedish and Danish fleets, together with the
ships of Earl Haakon's sons. The battle ended in the annihila-
tion of the Norwegians. Olaf fought to the last on his great
Vessel, the " Long Snake," the mightiest ship in the North, and
finally leapt overboard and was no more seen. Full of energy
and daring, skilled in the use of every kind of weapon, genial and
open-handed to his friends, implacable to his enemies, Olaf's
personality was the ideal of the heathendom he had trodden
down with such reckless disregard of his people's prejudices,
and it was no doubt as much owing to the popularity his char-
acter won for him as to the strength of his position that he was
able to force his will on the country with impunity. After his
death he remained the hero of his people, who whispered that
he was yet alive and looked for his return. " But however
that may be," says the story, " Olaf Tryggvesson never came
back to his kingdom in Norway."
Olaf (II.) Haraldsson (995-1030), king from 1016-1029,
called during his lifetime " the Fat," and afterwards known as
St Olaf, was born in 995, the year in which Olaf Tryggvesson
came to Norway. After some years' absence in England,
fighting the Danes, he returned to Norway in 1015 and declared
himself king, obtaining the support of the five petty kings of the
Uplands. In 1016 he defeated Earl Sveyn, hitherto the virtual
ruler of Norway, at the battle of Nesje, and within a few years
had won more power than had been enjoyed by any of his pre-
decessors on the throne. He had annihilated the petty kings
of the South, had crushed the aristocracy, enforced the acceptance
of Christianity throughout the kingdom, asserted his suzerainty
in the Orkney Islands, had humbled the king of Sweden and
married his daughter in his despite, and had conducted a success-
ful raid on Denmark. But his success was short-lived, for in
1029 the Norwegian nobles, seething with discontent, rallied
round the invading Knut the Great, and Olaf had to flee to
Russia. On his return a year later he fell at the battle of Stikle-
stad, where his own subjects were arrayed against him. The
succeeding years of disunion and misrule under the Danes
explain the belated affection with which his countrymen came
to regard him. The cunning and cruelty which marred his
character were forgotten, and his services to his church and
country remembered. Miracles were worked at his tomb, and
in 1164 he was canonized and was declared the patron saint
of Norway, whence his fame spread throughout Scandinavia
and even to England, where churches are dedicated to him.
The Norwegian order of knighthood of St Olaf was founded in
1847 by Oscar I., king of Sweden and Norway, in memory of this
king.
The three remaining Norwegian kings of this name are persons
of minor importance (see Norway: History).
OLAF, or Anlaf (d. 981), king of the Danish kingdoms of
Northumbria and of Dublin, was a son of Sitric, king of Deira, and
was related to the English king ^thelstan. As his name indicates
he was of Norse descent, and he married a daughter of Constan-
tine II., king of the Scots. When Sitric died about 927 iEthelstan
annexed Deira, and Olaf took refuge in Scotland and in Ireland
until 937, when he was one of the leaders of the formidable
league of princes which was destroyed by ^thelstan at the
famous battle of Brunanburh. Again he sought a home among
his kinsfolk in Ireland, but just after ^thelstan's death in 940
he or Olaf Godfreyson was recalled to England by the North-
umbrians. Both crossed over, and in 941 the new English king,
Edmund, gave up Deira to the former. The peace between the
English and the Danes did not, however, last long. Wulfstan,
archbishop of York, sided with Olaf; but in 944 this king was
driven from Northumbria by Edmund, and crossing to Ireland
he ruled over the Danish kingdom of Dublin. From 949 to
952 he was again king of Northumbria, until he was expelled
once more, and he passed the remainder of his active life in
warfare in Ireland. But in 980 his dominion was shattered by
the defeat of the Danes at the battle of Tara. He went to lona,
where he died probably in 981, although one account says he
was in Dublin in 994. This, however, is unlikely. In the
sagas he is known as Olaf the Red.
This Olaf must not be confused with his kinsman and ally,
Olaf (d. 941), also king of Northumbria and of Dublin, who was
a son of Godfrey, king of Dublin. The latter Olaf became king
of Dublin in 934; but he was in England in 937, as he took part
in the fight at Brunanburh. After this event he returned
to Ireland, but he appears to have acted for a very short
I
cl/lOi OLAND— OLBIAAldJO
63
time as joint king of Northumbria with Olaf Sitricson. It is
possible that he was the " Olaf of Ireland " who was called by
the Northumbrians after ^^thelstan's death, but both the Olafs
appear to have accepted the invitation. He was killed in 941
at Tyningham near Dunliar.
See W. F. Skene, Celtic Scotland, vol. i. (1876), and J. R. Green,
The Conquest oj England, vol. i. (iy99).
OLAND, an island in the Baltic Sea, next to Gotland the
largest belonging to Sweden, stretching for 85 m. along the east
coast of the southern extremity of that country, from which
it is separated by Kalmar Sound which is from 5 to 15 m. broad.
The greatest breadth of the island is 10 m., and its area 519 sq. m.
Pop. (1900) 30,408. Consisting for the most part of Silurian
limestone, and thus forming a striking contrast to the mainland
with its granite and gneiss, Oland is further remarkable on
account of the pecuharities of its structure. Down the west side
for a considerable distance runs a limestone ridge, rising usually
in terraces, but at times in steep cliffs, to an extreme height of
200 ft.; and along the east side there is a parallel ridge of sand,
resting on limestone, never exceeding 90 ft. These ridges, known
as the Western and Eastern Landborgar, are connected towards
the north and the south by belts of sand and heath; and the
hollow between them is occupied by a desolate and almost barren
tract: the southern portion, or Alfvar (forming fully half of the
southern part of the island), presents a surface of bare red lime-
stone scored by superficial cracks and unfathomed fissures, and
calcined by the heat refracted from the surrounding heights.
The northern portion is covered at best with a copse of hazel
bushes. Outside the ridges, however, Oland has quite a different
aspect, the hillsides being not infrequently clothed with clumps
of trees, while the narrow strip of alluvial coast-land, with its
cornfields, windmills, villages and church towers, appears
fruitful and prosperous. There are a few small streams in the
island; and one lake, Hornsjo, about 3 m. long, deserves mention.
Of the fir woods which once clothed a considerable area in the
north the Boda crown-park is the only remnant. Grain, especi-
ally barley, and sandstone, are exported from the island, and
there are cement works. A number of monuments of unknown
age exist, including stones (stcnsdUningar) arranged in groups
to represent ships. The only town is Borgholm, a watering-place
on the west coast, with one of the finest castle ruins in Sweden.
The town was founded in 181 7, but the castle, dating at least
from the 13th century, was one of the strongest fortresses, and
afterwards, as erected by the architect Nicodemus Tessin the
elder (1615-1681), one of the most stately palaces in the country.
The island was joined in 1824 to the administrative district (liin)
of Kalmar. Its inhabitants were formerly styled Oningar, and
show considerable diversity of origin in the matter of speech,
local customs and physical appearance.
From the raid of Ragnar Lodbrok's sons in 775 Oland is
frequently mentioned in Scandinavian history, and especially as a
battleground in the wars between Denmark and the northern
kingdoms. In the middle ages it formed a separate legislative
and administrative unity.
OLAUS MAGNUS, or Magni (Magnus, i.e. Stora, great, being
the family name, and not a personal epithet), Swedish ecclesi-
astic and author, was born at Linkoping in 1490 and died at
Rome in 1558. Like his elder brother, Johannes Magnus, he
obtained several ecclesiastical preferments (a canonry at Upsala
and at Linkoping, and the archdeaconry of Strengnes), and was
employed on various diplomatic services (such as a mission to
Rome, from Gustavus I., to procure the appointment of Johannes
Magnus as archbishop of Upsala) ; but on the success of the
reformation in Sweden his attachment to the old church led
him to accompany his brother into exile. Settling at Rome,
from 1527, he acted as his brother's secretary, and ultimately
became his successor in the (now titular) archbishopric of
Upsala. Pope Paul III., in 1546, sent him to the council of
.T^rent; later, he became canon of St Lambert in Liege; King
Sigismund I. of Poland also offered him a canonry at Posen;
but most of his life, after his brother's death, seems to have
been spent in the monastery of St Brigitta in Rome, where he
subsisted on a pension assigned him by the pope. He is best
remembered as the author of the famous Historia de Gentilnis
Scptcntrionalibus (Rome, 1555), a work which long remained for
the rest of Europe the chief authority on Swedish matters and
is still a valuable repertory of much curious information in
regard to Scandinavian customs and folk-lore.
The Historia was translated into Italian (Venice, 1565), German
(Strassburg, 1567), English (London, 1658) and Dutch (Amsterdam,
1665); abridgments of the work appeared also at Antwerp (1558
and 1562), Paris (a French abridged version, 1561), Amsterdam
(1586), Frankfort (1618) and Leiden (1652). Glaus also wrote a
Tabula terrarum septentnonaliurn . . . (Venice, 1539).
OLBERS, HEINRICH WILHELM MATTHIAS (1758-1840),
German astronomer, was born on the nth of October 1758
at Arbergen, a village near Bremen, where his father was minister.
He studied medicine at Gottingen, 1777-1780, attending at the
same time Kaestner's mathematical course; and in 1779, while
watchingby the sick-bed of a fellow-student, he devised a method
of calculating cometary orbits which made an epoch in the
treatment of the subject, and is still extensively used. The
treatise containing this important invention was made public
by Baron von Zach under the title Ucbcr die hichtcstc und
bcquemste Methodc dif Balm cincs Cometen zu bercchnen (Weimar,
1797). A table of eighty-seven calculated orbits was appended,
enlarged by Encke in the second edition (1847) to 178, and by
Galle in the third (1864) to 242. Olbers settled as a physician
in Bremen towards the end of 1781, and practised actively for
above forty years, finally retiring on the 1st of January 1823.
The greater part of each night (he never slept more than four
hours) was meantime devoted to astronomy, the upper portion
of his house being fitted up as an observatory. He paid special
attention to comets, and that of 1815 (period seventy-four
years) bears his name in commemoration of its detection by
him. He also took a leading part in the discovery of the minor
planets, re-identified Ceres on the 1st of January 1802, and
detected Pallas on the 28th of March following. His bold
hypothesis of their origin by the disruption of a primitive
large planet {Monailiche Correspondcnz, vi. 88), although now
discarded, received countenance from the finding of Juno by
Harding, and of Vesta by himself, in the precise regions of
Cetus and Virgo where the nodes of such supposed planetary
fragments should be situated. Olbers was deputed by his
fellow-citizens to assist at the baptism of the king of Rome
on the 9th of June 1811, and he was a member of the corps
Icgislatif in Paris 1812-1813. He died on the 2nd of March
1840, at the age of eighty-one. He was twice married, and one
son survived him.
See Biographische Skizzen verstorbener Bremischer Aerzte, by Dr
G. Barkhausen (Bremen, 1844); Allgemeine geographische Ephcmeri-
den, iv. 283 (1799); Abstracts Phil. Trans, iv. 268 (1843):
Astronomische Nachrichten. xxii. 265 (Bessel), also appended
to A. Erman's Briefwechsel zivischen Olbers und Bessel (2 vols.,
Leipzig, 1852); Allgemeine Deutsche Biographic (S. Giinther);
R. Grant, Hist, of Phys. Astr. p. 239; R. Wolf, Ceschichte der
Astronomie, p. 517. The first two volumes of Dr C. Schilling's
exhaustive work, Wilhelm Others, sein Leben und seine Werke. appeared
at Berlin in 1894 and 1900, a third and later volume including his
personal correspondence and biography. A list of Olbers's contri-
butions to scientific periodicals is given at p. xxxv of the 3rd cd. of
his Leichteste Methode, and his unique collection of works relating
to comets now forms part of the Pulkowa library.
OLBIA, the chief Greek settlement in the north-west of the
Euxine. It was generally known to the Greeks of Hellas as
Borysthenes, though its actual site was on the right bank of
the Hypanis (Bug) 4 m. above its junction with the estuary of
the Borysthenes river (Dnieper). Eusebius says that it was
founded from Miletus c. 650 B.C., a statement which is borne
out by the discovery of Milesian pottery of the 7th century.
It first appears as enjoying friendly relations with its neighbours
the Scythians and standing at the head of trade routes leading
far to the north-east (Herodotus iv.). Its wares also penetrated
northward. It exchanged the manufactures of Ionia and,
from the 5th century, of Attica for the slaves, hides and corn of
Scythia. Changes of the native population (see Scythw)
interrupted this commerce, and the city was hard put to it to
64
OLBIA— OLD-AGE PENSIONS
defend itself against the surrounding barbarians. We know
of these difficulties and of the democratic constitution of the
city from a decree in honour of Protogenes in the 3rd century
B.C. {C.I.G. ii. 2058, Inscr. Or. Sepknt. Pont. Euxin. i. 16).
In the following century it fell under the suzerainty of Scilurus,
whose name appears on its coins, and when his power was
broken by Mithradates VI. the Great, of Pontus, it submitted
to the latter. About 50 B.C. it was entirely destroyed by the
Getae and lay waste for many years. Ultimately at the wish
of, and, to judge by the coins, under the protection of the natives
themselves, it was restored, but Dio Chrysostom {Or. xxxvi.),
who visited it about a.d. 83, gives a curious picture of its poor
state. During the 2nd century a.d. it prospered better with
Roman support and was quite flourishing from the time of
Septimius Severus, when it was incorporated in Lower Moesia,
to 248, when its coins came to an end, probably owing to its
sack by the Goths. It was once more restored in some sort
and lingered on to an unknown date. Excavations have shown
the position of the old Greek walls and of those which enclosed
the narrower site of the Roman city, an interesting Hellenistic
house, and cemeteries of various dates. The principal cult
was that of Achilles Pontarches, to whom the archons made
dedications. It has another centre at Leuce (Phidonisi) and
at various points in the north Euxine. Secondary was that
of Apollo Prostates, the patron of the strategi; but the worship
of most of the Hellenic deities is testified to in the inscriptions.
The coinage begins with large round copper pieces comparable
only to the Roman aes grave and smaller pieces in the shape of
dolphins; these both go back into the 6th century B.C. Later
the city adopted silver and gold coins of the Aeginetic standard.
See E. H. Minns, Scythians and Greeks (Cambridge, 1909) ; V. V.
Latyshev, Olbia (St Petersburg, 1887, in Russian). For inscriptions,
Boeckh, C.I.G. vol. ii. ; V. V. Latyshev, Inscr. Orae Seplent. Ponti
Euxini, vols. i. and iv. For excavations, Reports of B. V. Pharmak-
ovsky in Compte rendu de la Comm. imp. archeolog. (St Petersburg,
1901 sqq.), and Bulletin of the same, Nos. 8, 13, &c., summarized in
Archdologischer Anzeiger (1903 sqq.). (E. H. M.)
OLBIA (Gr. 6X(3ia, i.e. happy; mod. Terranova Pausania,
q.v.), an ancient seaport city of Sardinia, on the east coast. The
name indicates that it was of Greek origin, and tradition attri-
butes its foundation to the Boeotians and Thespians under
lolaus (see Sardinia). Pais considers that it was founded by
the Phocaeans of Massilia before the 4th century B.C. (in Tam-
poni, op. cit. p. 83). It is situated on low ground, at the extremity
of a deep recess, now called the Golfo di Terranova. It was
besieged unsuccessfully by L. Cornelius Scipio in 259 B.C. Its
territory was ravaged in 210 B.C. by a Carthaginian fleet. In
Roman times it was the regular landing-place for travellers
from Italy. Cicero notes the receipt of a letter from his brother
from Olbia in 56 B.C., and obviously shared the prevaihng
belief as to the unhealthiness of Sardinia. Traces of the pre-
Roman city have not been found. The line of the Roman city
walls has been determined on the N. and E., the N.E. angle
being at the ancient harbour, which lay to the N. of the modern
{Notizie degli Scavi, 1890, p. 224). Among the inscriptions are
two tombstones, one of an imperial freedwoman,' the other
of a freedman of Acte, the concubine of Nero; a similar tomb-
stone was also found at Carales, and tiles bearing her name
have been found in several parts of the island, but especially
at Olbia, where in building a modern house in 1881 about one
thousand were discovered. Pais [op. cit. 89 sqq.) attributes
to Olbia an inscription now in the Campo Santo at Pisa, an
epistyle bearing the words " Cereri sacrum Claudia Aug. lib.
Acte," and made of Sardinian (?) granite. In any case it is
clear that Acte must have had considerable property in the
island {Corp. Inscr. Lat. x. 7980). Discoveries of buildings
and tombs have frequently occurred within the area of the
town and in its neighbourhood. Some scanty remains of an
aqueduct exist outside the town, but hardly anything else of
' The freedwoman had been a slave of Acte before passing into
the property of the emperor, and took the cognomen Acteniana — a
practice which otherwise only occurs in the case of slaves of citizens
of the highest rank or of foreign kings.
antiquity is to be seen in situ. A large number of milestones,
fifty-one in aU, with inscriptions, and several more with illegible
ones, belonging to the first twelve miles of the Roman road
between Olbia and Carales, have been discovered, and are now
kept in the church of S. Simplicio {Notizie degli Scavi, 1888,
p. 535; 1889, p. 258; 1892, pp. 217, 366; Classical Review, 1889,
p. 228; 1890, p. 65; P. Tamponi, Silloge Epigrafica, Olbiense,
Sassari, 1895). This large number may be accounted for by the
fact that a new stone was often erected for a new emperor. They
range in date from a.d. 245 to 375 (one is possibly of Domitian).
The itineraries state that the main road from Carales to Olbia
ran through the centre of the island to the east of Gennargentu
(see Sardinia); but a branch certainly diverged from the main
road from Carales to Turris Libisonis (which kept farther west,
more or less along the hne followed by the modern railway) and
came to Olbia. The distance by both lines is much the same;
and all these milestones belong to the last portion which was
common to both roads. (T. As.)
OLD-AGE PENSIONS. The provision of annuities for aged
poor by the state was proposed in England in the i8th century —
e.g. by Francis Maseres, cursitor baron of the Exchequer, in
1772, and by Mr Mark RoUe, M.P., in 1787. Suggestions for
subsidizing friendly societies have also been frequent — e.^.byT.
Paine in 1795, tentatively in Sturges Bourne's Report on the
Poor Laws, 181 7, and by Lord Lansdowne in 1837. The subject
again became prominent in the latter part of the 19th century.
Canon Blackley, who started this movement, proposed to com-
pel every one to insure with a state department against sickness
and old age, and essentially his scheme was one for the relief
of the ratepayers and a more equitable readjustment of the poor-
rate. The terms provisionally put forward by him required
that every one in youth should pay £10, in return for which the
state was to grant 8s. a week sick allowance and 4s. pension
after seventy. These proposals were submitted to the Select
Committee on National Provident Insurance, 1885-1887. This
body reported unfavourably, more especially on the sick in-
surance part of the scheme, but the idea of old-age pension
survived, and was taken up by the National Provident League,
of which Mr (afterwards Sir) J. Rankin, M.P., was chairman.
The subject was discussed in the constituencies and expectation
was aroused. An unofficial parliamentary committee was
formed, with Mr J. Chamberlain as chairman. This committee
published proposals in March 1892, which showa very interesting
change of attitude on the part of the promoters. Compulsion,
which at the earlier period had found favour with Canon Blackley,
Sir J. Rankin and even Mr Chamberlain, was no longer urged.
Theannuitant was no longer required to pay a premium adequate
to the benefits promised, as in Canon Blackley's proposal. The
benefit was no longer a pure annuity, but premiums were, in
certain cases, returnable, and allowances were provided for
widows, children (if any) and for the next of kin. Canon
Blackley's professed object was to supersede the friendly societies,
which, he alleged, were more or less insolvent; a proposal was
now introduced to double every half-crown of pension derived
by members from their friendly societies. This suggestion
was criticized, even by supporters of the principle of state aid,
on the ground that unless a pension was gratuitous, the class
from which pauperism is really drawn could not profit by it.
Mr Charles Booth in particular took this line. He accordingly
proposed that there should be a general endowment of old
age, ss. a week to every one at the age of sixty-five.
This proposal was calculated to involve an expenditure of
£18,000,000 for England and Wales and £24,000,000 for the
United Kingdom, exclusive of the cost of administration. While
Mr Booth severely criticized the weak points of the contributory
and voluntary schemes, their most influential advocate, Mr
Chamberlain, did not spare Mr Booth's proposals. Speaking
at Highbury, for instance, on the 24th of May 1899, he described
Mr Booth's universal scheme as " a gigantic system of out-door
relief for every one, good and bad, thrifty and unthrifty, the
waster, drunkard and idler, as well as the industrious," and
very forcibly stated his inability to support it.
OLD-AGE PENSIONS
65
In 1893 Mr Gladstone referred the whole question to a
royal commission (Lord Aberdare, chairman). A majority
report, adverse to the principle of state pensions, was issued
in 1895. A minority report, signed by Mr Chamberlain and
others, dissented, mainly on the ground that public expectation
would be disappointed if nothing was done. In 1896 Lord
Salisbury appointed a committee " of experts " (Lord Rothschild,
chairman) to report on schemes submitted, and, if necessary,
to devise a scheme. The committee were unable to recommend
any of the schemes submitted, and added that, " we ourselves
are unable, after repeated attempts, to devise any proposal free
from grave inherent disadvantages." This second condemnation
was not considered conclusive, and a select committee of the
House of Commons (Mr Chaplin, chairman) was appointed to
consider the condition of " the aged deserving poor." After
an ineffectual attempt by Mr Chaplin to induce the committee
to drop the pension idea, and to consider the provision made
for the aged by the poor law, the committee somewhat hastily
promulgated a scheme of gratuitous pensions for persons possess-
ing certain qualifications. Of these the following were the most
important: age of sixty-five; no conviction for crime; no
poor-law relief, " unless under exceptional circumstances,"
within twenty years; non-possession of income of los. a week;
proved industry, or proved exercise of reasonable providence
by some definite mode of thrift. The committee refrained
from explaining the machinery and from estimating the cost,
and suggested that this last problem should be submitted to
yet another committee.
Accordingly a departmental committee (chairman. Sir E.
Hamilton) was appointed, which reported in January 1900.
The estimated cost of the above plan was, by this committee,
calculated at £10,300,000 in 1901, rising to £15,650.000 in 1921.
Mr Chaplin had publicly suggested that £2,000,000, the proceeds
of a IS. duty on corn, would go a long way to meet the needs of
the case — a conjecture which was obviously far too sanguine.
These unfavourable reports discouraged the more responsible
advocates of state pensions. Mr Chamberlain appealed to the
friendly societies to formulate a plan, an invitation which they
showed no disposition to accept. Efforts continued to be made
to press forward Mr Booth's universal endowment scheme or
some modification of it. To this Mr Chamberlain declared his
hostility. And here the matter rested, till in his Budget speech
in 1907 Mr Asquith pledged the Liberal government to start
a scheme in 1908.
In 1908 accordingly there was passed the Old- Age Pensions
Act, which carried into effect a scheme for state pensions,
payable as from the ist of January 1909 to persons of the age
of 70 years and over. The act grants a pension according to
a graduated scale of not exceeding 5s. a week to every person,
male and female, who fulfils certain statutory conditions, and at
the same time is not subject to certain disquahfications. The
statutory conditions, as set out in § 2 of the act, are: (i) The
person must have attained the age of seventy; (2) must satisfy
the pension authorities that for at least twenty years up to the
date of receipt of pension he has been a British subject and has
had his residence in the United Kingdom; and (3) the person
must satisfy the pension authorities that his yearly means do
not exceed £31, los. In § 4 of the act there are elaborate pro-
visions for the calculation of yearly means, but the following
may be particularly noticed: (i) in calculating the means of
a person being one of a married couple living together in the
same house, the means shall not in any case be taken to be a
less amount than half the total means of the couple, and (2) if
any person directly or indirectly deprives himself of any income
or property in order to qualify for an old-age pension, it shall
nevertheless be taken to be part of his means. The disqualifica-
tions are (i) receipt of poor-law relief (this qualification was
specially removed as from the ist of January 1911); (2) habitual
failure to work (except in the case of those who have continuously
for ten years up to the age of sixty made provision for their
future by payments to friendly, provident or other societies or
trade unions; (3) detention in a pauper or criminal lunatic
asylum; (4) imprisonment without the option of a fine, which
disqualifies for ten years; and (5) liability to disqualification
for a period not exceeding ten years in the case of an habitual
drunkard. The graduated scale of pensions is given in a schedule-
to the act, and provide that when the yearly means of a pensioner
do not exceed £21 he shall have the full pension of 5s. a week,
which diminishes by is. a week for every addition of £2, 12s. 6d.
to his income, until the latter reaches £31, los., when no pension
is payable. The pension is paid weekly, on Fridays (§5), and is
inalienable (§ 6).
All claims for, and questions relating to, pensions are deter-
mined by the pension authorities. They are (i) pension officers
appointed by the Treasury from among inland revenue officers;
(2) a central pension authority, which is the Local Government
Board or a committee appointed by it, and (3) local pension com-
mittees appointed for every borough and urban district with a
population of over 20,000, and for every county.
During the first three months of the year 1909, in which the
act came into operation, there were 837,831 claims made for
pensions: 490,755 in England and W'ales, 85,408 in Scotland,
and 261,668 in Ireland. Of these claims a total of 647,494 were
granted: 393,700 in England and Wales, 70,294 in Scotland, and
183,500 in Ireland. The pensions in force on the 31st of March
1909 were as follows: 582,565 of 5s., 23,616 of 4s., 23,275 of
3s., 11,429 of 2S., and 6609 of is. By the 30th of September
the total amount of money paid to 682,768 pensioners was
£6,063,658, andin the estimates of 1909-1910 a sum of £8,750,000
was provided for the payment of pensions.
Germany. — The movement in favour of state aid to provision
for old age has been largely due to the example of Germany.
The German system (which for old age dates from 1891) is
a form of compulsory and contributory insurance. One half
of the premium payable is paid by the labourer, the other
half by the employer. The state adds a subvention to the
allowances paid to the annuitant. (See Germany.)
France. — By a law of April 1910 a system of old-age
pensions, designed to come into operation in 191 1, was adopted.
It is a contributory system, embracing all wage-earners, with
the exception of railway servants, miners and saDors on the
special reserve list of the navy. It applies also to small
landowners, tenant farmers and farm labourers. All are
eligible for a pension at the age of 65, if in receipt of less
than £120 a year. The actual rente or pension is calculated
on the basis of the total obligatory contribution, together
with a fi.xed viagere or state annuity. Male wage-earners are
required to contribute 9 francs a year, and females 6 francs,
the employers contributing a like amount. The largest pension
obtainable is for life contributions and amounts to 414 francs.
A clause in the act permits wage-earners to claim the rente
at the age of 55 on a proportionately reduced scale without
the viagere. The total cost of providing pensions in 191 1 is
estimated at over £5,500,000.
Denmark. — The Danish system of old-age pensions was in-
stituted by a law of 1891, and has been extended by further
acts of 1902 and 1908. By the law of 1891 the burden of
maintaining the aged was in part transferred from the local to
the national taxes, and relief from this latter source was called
a pension. Recipients of public assistance must be over
60 years of age, they must be of good character and for 5
years previous to receipt must have had their domicile in
Denmark without receiving public charity. Such public assist-
ance may be granted either in money, or kind, or by residence
in an institution, such as an hospital. The assistance given,
whatever it may be, must be sufficient for maintenance, and
for attendance in case of illness. The actual amount is
determined by the poor-law authorities, but all private assist-
ance amounting to more than 100 kroner (£5, 13s.) a year is
taken into account in measuring the poverty of the applicant.
The cost of assistance is met in the first case by the commune
in which the recipient is domiciled, but half the amount is
afterwards refunded by the state. In 1907-100S, 71,185 persons
were assisted — 53,008 by money and 18,177 otherwise. The
total expenditure was £489,200, £242,660 being refunded by
the state.
XX. 3
M
OLDBURY— OLDCASTLE
New Zealand. — In 1898 a bill, introduced by the Rt. Hon. R. J.
Seddon, premier, became law which provided for the payment of
an old-age pension out of the consolidated fund (revenue of the
general government) to persons duly qualified, without contribution
by the beneficiaries. The claimants must be 65 years of age,
resident in the colony, and have so resided for 25 years. They must
be free from conviction for lesser legal offences for 12 years, and
for more serious breaches of the law for 25 years, previous to the
application. They must be of good moral character and have a
record of sobriety and respectability for five years. Their yearly
income must not exceed £52, and they must not be owners of
property exceeding in value £270. Aliens, aborigines, Chinese
and Asiatics are excluded. The pensions are for £18 per annum,
but for each £1 of yearly income over and above £34, and also for
each £15 of capital over and above £50, £1 is deducted from the
amount of the pension. Applications have to be made to the
deputy registrars of one of 72 districts into which the colony is
for this purpose divided. The claim is then recorded and submitted
to a stipendiary magistrate, before whom the claimant has to prove
his qualifications and submit to cross-examination. If the claim is
admitted, a certificate is issued to the deputy registrar and in due
course handed to the claimant. Payment is made through the local
post-office as desired by the pensioner. The act came into force
on the 1st of November 1898. An amending act of 1905 increased
the amount of the maximum pension to £26 a year. See further. New
Zealand. The authors of the measure maintain that it is a great
success, while others point to the invidious character of the cross-
examination required in proving the necessary degree of poverty,
and allege that the arrangement penalizes the thrifty members of the
poorer class, and is a direct incentive to transfer of property, of a
more or less fraudulent character, between members of a family.
Victoria. — By the Old-Age Pensions Act 1900, £75,000 was
appropriated for the purpose of paying a pension of not more than
los. per week to any person who fulfilled the necessary conditions,
of which the following were the principal : The pensioner must
be 65 years of age or permanently disabled, must fill up a declara-
tion that he has lived twenty years in the state; has not been
convicted of drunkenness, wife-desertion, &c.; that his weekly
income and his property do not exceed a given sum (the regulation
of this and other details is intrusted to the governor in council).
Further sums were subsequently appropriated to the purposes of
the act.
Authorities. — Report and Evidence of Select Committee on
National Provident Insurance (1887); Report of Royal Commission
on Aged Poor (1895); Report of Lord Rothschild's Committee
(1898); Report of the Select Committee on Aged Deserving Poor
(1899); Report of Departmental Committee, &c., about the Aged
Deserving Poor (1900); J. A. Spender, The Stale and Pensions
tn Old Age (1892); George King, Old Age Pensions (1899); Reports
of Poor Law Conferences; Annual Reports of the Chief Registrar
of Friendly Societies; E. W. Brabrook, Provident Societies and the
Public Welfare (1898), ch. viii. For: Charles Booth, The Aged Poor
in England and Wales (1894); Old Age Pensions (1899); Right Hon.
Joseph Chamberlain, " The Labour Question," Nineteenth Century
(November 1892); Speeches (21st April 1891 and 24th May 1899) ;
Rev. J. Frome Wilkinson, Pensions and Pauperism (1892): Publi-
cations of the National Providence League. Against: C. J. Radley,
Self-Help versus Stale-Pensions (3rd edition) ; P/ea /or Liberty {i8q2);
Report of Royal Commission from a Friendly Society Point of View,
reprint from Oddfellows' Magazine (1895); The Foresters' Miscellany
(February 1902); Unity, a Monthly Journal of Foresters, &c.
(February 1902) ; C. S. Loch, Old-Age Pensions atid Pauperism
(1892); Reply of Bradfield Board of Guardians to circular of
National Provident League (1891); Publications of the Charity
Organization Society.
OLDBURY, an urban district in the Oldbury parliamentary
division of Worcestershire, England, 5 m. W. of Birmingham,
on the Great Western and London & North-Western railways
and the Birmingham canal. Pop. (iqoi) 25,191. Coal, iron and
limestone abound in the neighbourhood, and the town possesses
alkali and chemical works, railway-carriage works, iron, edge-
tool, nail and steel works, makings, corn-mills, and brick and
tile kilns. The urban district includes the townships of Langley
and Warley.
OLDCASTLE, SIR JOHN (d. 1417), English LoUard leader, was
son of Sir Richard Oldcastle of Almeley in Herefordshire. He
is first mentioned as serving in the expedition to Scotland in 1400,
when he was probably quite a young man. Next year he was
in charge of Builth castle in Brecon, and serving all through
the Welsh campaigns won the friendship and esteem of Henry,
the prince of Wales. Oldcastle represented Herefordshire in the
parliament of 1404. Four years later he married Joan, the heiress
of Cobham, and was thereon summoned to parliament as Lord
Cobham in her right. As a trusted supporter of the prince,
Oldcastle held a high command in the expedition which the young
Henry sent to France in 141 1. LoUardy had many supporters
in Herefordshire, and Oldcastle himself had adopted Lollard
opinions before 1410, when the churches on his wife's estates
in Kent were laid under interdict for unlicensed preaching.
In the convocation which met in March 1413, shortly before the
death of Henry IV., Oldcastle was at once accused of heresy.
But his friendship with the new king prevented any decisive
action till convincing evidence was found in a book belonging to
Oldcastle, which was discovered in a shop in Paternoster Row.
The matter was brought before the king, who desired that nothing
should be done till he had tried his personal influence. Old-
castle declared his readiness to submit to the king " all his fortune
in this world," but was firm in his religious behefs. When he
fled from Windsor to his own castle at Cowling, Henry at last
consented to a prosecution. Oldcastle refused to obey the
archbishop's repeated citations, and it was only under a royal
writ that he at last appeared before the ecclesiastical court on
the 23rd of September. In a confession of his [faith he declared
his behef in the sacraments and the necessity of penance and
true confession; but to put hope, faith or trust in images was
the great sin of idolatry. But he would not assent to the ortho-
dox doctrine of the sacrament as stated by the bishops, nor
admit the necessity of confession to a priest. So on the 25th of
September he was convicted as a heretic. Henry was still anxious
to find a way of escape for his old comrade, and granted a respite
of forty days. Before that time had expired Oldcastle escaped
from the Tower by the help of one William Fisher, a parchment-
maker of Smithfield (Riley, Memorials of London, 641). Old-
castle now put himself at the head of a wide-spread Lollard
conspiracy, which assumed a definitely poUtical character.
The design was to seize the king and his brothers during a
Twelfth-night mumming at Eltham, and perhaps, as was alleged,
to establish some sort of commonwealth. Henry, forewarned
of their intention, removed to London, and when the Lollards
assembled in force in St Giles's Fields on the loth of January
they were easily dispersed. Oldcastle himself escaped into
Herefordshire, and for nearly four years avoided capture.
Apparently he was privy to the Scrope and Cambridge plot in
July 1415, when he stirred some movement in the Welsh Marches.
On the failure of the scheme he went again into hiding. Oldcastle
was no doubt the instigator of the abortive Lollard plots of 1416,
and appears to have intrigued with the Scots. But at last his
hiding-place was discovered and in November 141 7 he was
captured by the Lord Charlton of Powis. Oldcastle who was
" sore wounded ere he would be taken," was brought to London
in a horse-Htter. On the 14th of December he was formally
condemned, on the record of his previous conviction, and that
same day was hung in St Giles's Fields, and burnt " gallows and
alL" It is not clear that he was burnt ahve.
Oldcastle died a martyr. He was no doubt a man of fine
quality, but circumstances made him a traitor, and it is impossible
altogether to condemn his execution. His unpopular opinions
and early friendship with Henry V. created a traditional scandal
which long continued. In the old play The Famous Victories
of Henry V., written before 1588, Oldcastle figures as the prince's
boon companion. When Shakespeare adapted that play in
Henry IV., Oldcastle still appeared; but when the play was
printed in 1598 Falstaff's name was substituted, in deference,
as it is said, to the then Lord Cobham. Though the fat knight
still remains " my old lad of the Castle," the stage character
has nothing to do with the Lollard leader.
Bibliography. — The record of Oldcastle's trial is printed in
Fasciculi Zizaniorum (Rolls series) and in W'ilkins's Concilia, iii.
351-357- The chief contemporary notices of his later career are
given in Gesta Henrici Quinti (Eng. Hist. Soc.) and in Walsingham's
Historia Anglicana. There have been many lives of Oldcastle,
mainly based on Tlie Actes and Monuments of John Foxe, who in his
turn followed the Briefe Chronycle of John Bale, first published
in 1544. For notes on Oldcastle's early career, consult J. H. Wylie,
History of England under Henry IV. For literary history sec the
Introductions to Richard James's Iter Lancastrense (Chctham Soc,
1845) and to Grosart's edition of the Poems of Richard James (1880).
See also W. Barske, Oldcastle- Fal staff in der englischen Literatur bis
zu Shakespeare (Palaestra, 1. Berlin, 1905). For a recent Life, see
W. T. Waugh in the English Historical Review, vol. xx. (C. L- K-i
OLD CATHOLICS
67
OLD CATHOLICS (Ger. Altkatholiken) , the designation assumed
by those members of the Roman Catholic Church who refused
to accept the decrees of the Vatican Council of 1870 defining
the dogma of papal infaUibility (see Vatican Council and
Infallibility) and ultimately set up a separate ecclesiastical
organization on the episcopal model. The Old Catholic move-
ment, at the outset at least, differed fundamentally from the
Protestant Reformation of the i6th century in that it aimed
not at any drastic changes in doctrine but at the restoration
of the ancient Catholic system, founded on the diocesan episco-
pate, which under the influence of the ultramontane movement
of the 19th century had been finally displaced by the rigidly
centralized system of the papal monarchy. In this rcsjject it
represented a tendency of old standing within the Church and
one which, in the i8th century, had all but gained the upper
hand (see Febronianism and Gallicanism) . Protestantism
takes for its standard the Bible and the supposed doctrines
and institutions of the apostolic age. Old Catholicism sets up
the authority of the undivided Church, and accepts the decrees
of the first seven general councils — down to the second council
of Nicaea (787), a principle which has necessarily involved a
certain amount of doctrinal divergence both from the standards
of Rome and those of the Protestant Churches.
The proceedings of the Vatican council and their outcome
had at first threatened to lead to a serious schism in the Church.
The minority against the decrees included many of the most
distinguished prelates and theologians of the Roman com-
munion, and the methods by which their opposition had been
overcome seemed to make it difficult for them to submit. The
pressure put upon them was, however, immense, and the reasons
for submission may well have seemed overwhelming; in the
end, after more or less delay, all the recalcitrant bishops gave
in their adhesion to the decrees.
The " sacrificio dell' intelletto," as it was termed — the sub-
ordination of individual opinion to the general authority of
the Church — was the maxim adopted by one and all. Seventeen
of the German bishops almost immediately receded from the
position they had taken up at Rome and assented to the dogma,
publishing at the same time a pastoral letter in which they sought
to justify their change of sentiment on the ground of expediency
in relation to the interests of the Church (Michelis, Der neue
Fuldaer Hirtenbricf, 1870). Their example was followed by all
the other bishops of Germany. Darboy, archbishop of Paris,
and Dupanloup, bishop of Orleans, in France adopted a like
course, and took with them the entire body of the French clergy.
Each bishop demanded in turn the same submission from the
clergy of his diocese, the alternative being suspension from
pastoral functions, to be foOowed by deprivation of office. It
may be urged as some extenuation of this general abandonment
of a great principle, that those who had refused to subscribe
to the dogma received but languid support, and in some cases
direct discouragement, from their respective governments.
The submission of the illustrious Karl Joseph von Hefele was
generally attributed to the influence exerted by the courL of
Wiirttemberg.
The universities, being less directly under the control of
the Church, were prepared to show a bolder front. Dr J. F.
von Schulte, professor at Prague, was one of the first to publish
a formal protest. A meeting of Catholic professors and dis-
tinguished scholars convened at Nuremberg (August 1870)
recorded a like dissent, and resolved on the adoption of measures
for bringing about the assembling of a really free council north
of the Alps. The Appel aux Evcqucs Catholiques of M. Hyacinthe
Loyson (better known as " Pere Hyacinthe" ), after referring
to the overthrow of " the two despotisms," " the empire of the
Napoleons and the temporal power of the popes," appealed
to the Catholic bishops throughout the world to put an end
to the schism by declaring whether the recent decrees were or
were not binding on the faith of the Church. This appeal, on
its appearance in La Lihertd, early in 1871, was suppressed by
the order of the king of Italy. On the 28th of March DoUinger,
in a letter of some length, set forth the reasons which com-
pelled him also to withhold his submission alike as " a Christian,
a theologian, an historical student and a citizen." The publica-
tion of this letter was shortly followed by a sentence of ex-
communication pronounced against DoUinger and Professor
Johannes Friedrich {q.v.), and read to the different congrega-
tions from the pulpits of Munich. The professors of the univer-
sity, on the other hand, had shortly before evinced their resolu-
tion of affording DoUinger all the moral support in their power
by an address (April 3, 1871) in which they denounced the
Vatican decrees with unsparing severity, declaring that, at the
very time when the German people had " won for themselves
the post of honour on the battlefield among the nations of
the earth," the German bishops had stooped to the dishonouring
task of " forcing consciences in the service of an unchristian
tyranny, of reducing many pious and upright men to distress
and want, and of persecuting those who had but stood steadfast
in their aUegiance to the ancient faith" (Friedberg, Akknstiicke
z. ersien V aticanischen Condi, p. 187). An address to the king,
drawn up a few days later, received the signatures of 12,000
Catholics. The refusal of the rites of the Church to one of the
signatories, Dr Zenger, when on his deathbed, elicited strong
expressions of disapproval;' and when, shortly after, it became
necessary to fill up by election six vacancies in the council of
the university, the feeling of the electors was indicated by the
return of candidates distinguished by their dissent from the
new decrees. In the following September the demand for
another and a free council was responded to by the assembling
of a congress at Munich. It was composed of nearly 500 dele-
gates, convened from almost all parts of the world; but the
Teutonic element was now as manifestly predominant as the
Latin element had been at Rome. The proceedings were pre-
sided over by Professor von Schulte, and lasted three days.
Among those who took a prominent part in the deliberations
were Landammann Keller, VVindscheid, DoUinger, Reinkens,
Maassen (professor of canon law at Vienna), F'riedrich and
Huber. The arrangements finally agreed upon were mainly
provisional; but one of the resolutions plainly declared that
it was desirable if possible to effect a reunion with the Oriental
Greek and Russian Churches, and also to arrive at an " under-
standing " with the Protestant and Episcopal communions.
In the following year lectures were delivered at Munich by
various supporters of the new movement, and the learning and
eloquence of Reinkens were displayed with marked effect. In
France the adhesion of the abbe Michaud to the cause attracted
considerable interest, not only from his reputation as a preacher,
but also from the notable step in advance made by his declara-
tion that, inasmuch as the adoption of the standpoint of the
Tridentine canons would render reunion with the Lutheran
and the Reformed Churches impossible, the wisest course would
be to insist on nothing more with respect to doctrinal belief
than was embodied in the canons of the first seven oecumenical
councils. In the same year the Old Catholics, as they now
began to be termed, entered into relations with the historical
little Jansenist Church of Utrecht. DoUinger, in delivering his
inaugural address as rector of the university of Munich, expressed
his conviction that theology had received a fresh impulse and
that the religious history of Europe was entering upon a new
phase.
Other circumstances contributed to invest Old Catholicism
with additional importance. It was evident that the relations
between the Roman Curia and the Prussian government were
becoming extremely strained. In February 1S72 appeared
the first measures of the Falk ministry, having for their object
the control of the influence of the clergy in the schools, and in
May the pope refused to accept Cardinal Hohenlohe, who during
the council had opposed the definition of the dogma, as Prussian
minister at the Vatican. In the same year two humble parish
priests, Renftle of Mering in Bavaria and Tangermann of Unkel
in the Rhineland, set an example of independence by refusing
' The rites were administered and the burial service conducted
by Friedrich, who had refused to acknowledge his excom-
munication.
68
OLD CATHOLICS
to accept the decrees. The former, driven from his parish
church, was followed by the majority of his congregation, who,
in spite of every discouragement, continued faithful to him;
and for years after, as successive members were removed by
death, the crosses over their graves recorded that they had died
" true to their ancient belief." Tangermann, the poet, expelled
in like manner from his parish by the archbishop of Cologne,
before long found himself the minister of a much larger congre-
gation in the episcopal city itself. These examples exercised
no Httle influence, and congregations of Old Catholics were
shortly after formed at numerous towns and villages in Bavaria,
Baden, Prussia, German Switzerland, and even in Austria.
At Warnsdorf in Bohemia a congregation was collected which
still represents one of the most important centres of the move-
ment. In September the second congress was held at Cologne.
It was attended by some 500 delegates or visitors from all parts
of Europe, and the English Church was represented by the
bishops of Ely and Lincoln and other distinguished members.
At this congress Friedrich boldly declared that the movement
was directed " against the whole papal system, a system of
errors during a thousand years, which had only reached its
climax in the doctrine of infallibility."
The movement thus entered a new phase, the congress
occupying itself mainly with the formation of a more definite
organization and with the question'of reunion with other Churches.
The immediate effect was a fateful divergence of opinion; for
many who sympathized with the opposition to the extreme
papal claims shrank from the creation of a fresh schism. Prince
Chlodwig Hohenlohe, who as prime minister of Bavaria had
attempted to unite the governments against the definition of
the dogma, refused to have anything to do with proceedings
which could only end in the creation of a fresh sect, and would
make the prospect of the reform of the Church from within
hopeless; more] important still, Dollinger refused to take part
in setting up a separate organization, and though he afterwards
so far modified his opinion as to help the Old Catholic community
with sympathy and advice, he never formally joined it.
Meanwhile, the progress of the quarrel between the Prussian
government and the Curia had been highly favourable to the
movement. In May 1873 the celebrated Falk laws were enacted,
whereby the articles 15 and 18 of the Prussian constitution were
modified, so as to legalize a systematic state supervision over
the education of the clergy of aU denominations, and also over
the appointment and dismissal of all ministers of religion. The
measure, which was a direct response to the Vatican decrees,
inspired the Old Catholics with a not unreasonable expectation
that the moral support of the government would henceforth
be enlisted on their side. On the nth of August Professor J. H.
Reinkens of Breslau, having been duly elected bishop of the
new community,' was consecrated at Rotterdam by Bishop
Heykamp of Deventer, the archbishop of Utrecht, who was
to have performed the ceremony, having died a few days before.
In the meantime the extension of the movement in Switzerland
had been proceeding rapidly, and it was resolved to hold the
third congress at Constance. The proceedings occupied three
days (12th to 14th September), the subjects discussed being
chiefly the institution of a synod ^ as the legislative and executive
organ of the Church, and schemes of reunion with the Greek,
the African and the Protestant communions. On the 20th
of September the election of Bishop Reinkens was formally
recognized by the Prussian government, and on the 7th of
October he took the oath of allegiance to the king.
The following year (1874) was marked by the assembling
of the first_ synod and a conference at Bonn, and of a congress
' Reinkens was elected at Cologne in primitive Christian fashion
by clergy and people, the latter being representatives of Old Catholic
congregations.
* The diocesan synod, under the presidency of the bishop, consists
of the clergy of the diocese and one lay delegate for every 200
church members. It now meets twice a year and transacts the
business prepared for it by an executive committee of 4 clergy and
5 laymen. In Switzerland the organization is still more democratic;
the bishop does not preside over the synod and may be deposed by it.
at Freiburg-im-Breisgau. At the congress Bishop Reinkens spoke
in hopeful terms of the results of his observations during a
recent missionary tour throughout Germany. The conference,
held on the 14th, isth and i6th of September, had for its special
object the discussion of the early confessions as a basis of agree-
ment, though not necessarily of fusion, between the different
communions above-named. The meetings, which were presided
over by Dolhnger, successively took into consideration the
Filioque clause in the Nicene creed, the sacraments, the canon of
Scripture, the episcopal succession in the EngUsh Church, the
confessional, indulgences, prayers for the dead, and the eucharist
(see Dollinger). The synod (May 27-29) was the first of a
series, held yearly till 1879 and afterwards twice a year, in which
the doctrine and discipline of the new Church were gradually
formulated. The tendency was, naturally, to move further
and further away from the Roman model; and though the synod
expressly renounced any claim to formulate dogma, or any
intention of destroying the unity of the faith, the " Catholic
Catechism" adopted by it in 1874 contained several articles
fundamentally at variance with the teaching of Rome.' At the
first synod, too, it was decided to make confession and fasting
optional, while later synods pronounced in favour of using the
vernacular in public worship, allowing the marriage of priests, and
permitting them to administer the communion in both kinds
to members of the Anglican Church attending their services. J
Of these developments that aboUshing the compulsory celibacy \
of the clergy led to the most opposition; some opposed it as
inexpedient, others — notably the Jansenist clergy of Holland —
as wrong in itself, and when it was ultimately passed in 1878
some of the clergy, notably Tangermann and Reusch, withdrew
from the Old CathoUc movement. 1
Meanwhile the movement had made some progress in other,
countries — in Austria, in Italy and in Mexico; but everywhere!
it was hampered by the inevitable controversies, which either
broke up its organization or hindered its development. In.
Switzerland, where important conferences were successively
convened (at Solothurn in 1871, at Olten in 1872, 1873 and
1874), the unanimity of the " Christian Catholics," as they
preferred to call themselves, seemed at one time in danger of
being shipwrecked on the question of episcopacy. It was not
until September i8th, 1876, that the conflict of opinions was
so far composed as to allow of the consecration of Bishop Herzog
by Bishop Reinkens. The reforms introduced by M. Hyacinthe
Loyson in his church at Geneva received only a partial assent
from the general body. Among the more practical results of
his example is to be reckoned, however, the fact that in French
Switzerland nearly all the clergy, in German Switzerland about
one half, are married men.
The end of the Kulturkampf in 1878, and the new alliance
between Bismarck and Pope Leo XIII. against revolutionary
Sociahsm, deprived the Old Catholics of the special favour
which had been shown them by the Prussian government; they
continued, however, to enjoy the legal status of Catholics, and
their communities retained the rights and the property secured
to them by the law of the 4th of July 1875. In Bavaria, on the
other hand, they were in March 1890, after the death of Dollinger,
definitely reduced to the status of a private reUgious sect,
with very narrow rights. When Bishop Reinkens died in
January 1896 his successor Theodor Weber, professor of theology
at Breslau, elected bishop on the 4th of March, was recognized
only by the governments of Prussia, Baden and Hesse. The
present position of the Old Catholic Church has disappointed
the expectation of its friends and of its enemies. It has neither
advanced rapidly, as the former had hoped, nor retrograded,
as the latter have frequently predicted it would do. In Germany
there are 90 congregations, served by 60 priests, and the number
of adherents is estimated at about 60,000. In Switzerland there
are 40 parishes (of which only one, that at Lucerne, is in the
I E.g. especially Question 164: " this (the Christian) community
is invisible," and Question 167, " one may belong to the invisible
Church {i.e. of those sharing in Christ's redemption) without belong-
ing to the visible Church."
OLD DEER— OLDENBARNEVELDT
69
Roman Catholic cantons), 60 clergy and about 50,000 adherents.
In Austria, though some accessions have been received since
the Los von Rom movement began in 1899, the Old Catholic
Church has not made much headway; it has some 15 churches
and about 15,000 adherents. In Holland the Old Catholic or
Jansenist Church has 3 bishops, about 30 congregations and over
8000 adherents. In France the movement headed by Loyson
did not go far. There is but one congregation, in Paris,
where it has built for itself a beautiful new church on
the Boulevard Blanqin. Its priest is George Volet, who was
ordained by Herzog, and it has just over 300 members. It
is under the supervision of the Old Catholic archbishops of
Utrecht. In Italy a branch of the Old Catholic communion
was established in 1881 by Count Enrico di Campcllo, a former
canon of St Peter's at Rome. A church was opened in Rome
by Monsignor Savarese and Count Campcllo, under the super-
vision of the bishop of Long Island in the United States, who
undertook the superintendence of the congregation in accordance
with the regulations laid down by the Lambeth conference.
But dissensions arose between the two men. The church in
Rome was closed; Savarese returned to the Roman Church;
and Campcllo commenced a reform work in the rural districts
of Umbria, under the episcopal guidance of the bishop of Salisbury.
This was in 1885. In 1900 Campcllo returned to Rome, and once
more opened a church there. In 1902 he retired from active
participation in the work, on account of age and bodily infirmity;
and his place at the head of it was taken by Professor Cicchitti
of Milan. Campello ultimately returned to the Roman com-
munion. There are half-a-dozen priests, who are either in
Roman or Old Catholic orders, and about twice as many con-
gregations. Old Catholicism has spread to America. The
Polish Romanists there, in 1899, complained of the rule of Irish
bishops; elected a bishop of their own, Herr Anton Kozlowski;
presented him to the Old Catholic bishops in Europe for consecra-
tion; and he presides over seven congregations in Chicago and
the neighbourhood. The Austrian and Italian churches possess
no bishops, and the Austrian government refuses to allow the
Old Catholic bishops of other countries to perform their functions
in Austria. Every Old Catholic congregation has its choral
union, its poor relief, and its mutual improvement society.
Theological faculties exist at Bonn and Bern, and at the former
a residential college for theological students was established
by Bishop Reinkens. Old Catholicism has eight newspapers —
two in Italy, two in Switzerland, and one each in Holland,
Germany, Austria and France. It has held reunion conferences
at Lucerne in 1892, at Rotterdam in 1894, and at Vienna in 1897.
At these, members of the various episcopal bodies have been
welcomed. It has also estabhshed a quarterly publication, the
Revue internationale de theologie, which has admitted articles
in French, German and Enghsh, contributed not merely by
Old Catholics, but by members of the Anglican, Russian, Greek
and Slavonic churches. Old Catholic theologians have been
very active, and the work of DoUinger and Reusch on the Jesuits,
and the history of the Roman Church by Professor Langen,
have attained a European reputation.
An outline of the whole movement up to the year 1875 will be
found in The New Reformation, by " Theodorus "(J. Bass MuUinger) ;
and an excellent r6sum6 of the main facts in the history of the
movement in each European country, as connected with other
developments of liberal thought, and with political history, is giver
in the second volume of Dr F. Nippold's HandBuch der neueslen
Kirchengeschichte, vol. ii. (1883). See also A. M. E. Scarth, The
Story of the Old Catholic and Kindred Movements (London, 1883);
Biihler, Der Allkatholicismus (Leiden, 1880); J. F von Schulte,
Der Allkatholizismus (Giessen, 1887); and article in Hauck-Herzog's
Realencyk. fiir prot. Theol. und Kirche, i. 415. Fordetails the follow-
ing sources may be consulted : (a) For the proceedings of the
successive congresses: the Stenographische Berichle, published at
Munich, Cologne, Constance, &c. ; those of the congress of Constance
were summarized in an English form, with other elucidatory matter,
by Professor John Mayor, (b) For the questions involved in the
consecration of Bishop Reinkens : Rechtsgutachten ilber die Frage der
Anerkennung des altkaiholischen Bijchofs Dr Reinkens in Bayern
(Munich, 1874); Emit Friedberg, Der Stoat und d. Bischofswahlen in
Deutschland (Leipzig, 1874) ; F. von Sybel, Das altkatholische Bisthum
und das Vermogen d. romischkatholischen Kirchengesellschaften in
Preussen (Bonn, 1874). (c) Reinkens's own speeches and pastorals,
some of which have been translated into English, give his personal
views and experiences; the Life of Huber has been written and
published by Eberhard Stirngiebl; and the persecutions to which
the Old Catholic clergy were exposed have been set forth in a pamphlet
by J. Mayor, Facts and Documents (London, 1875). {d) For Switzer-
land, C. Herzog, Beitrdge zur Vorgeschichle der Christkathol. Kirche der
Schweiz (Bern, 1896}.
OLD DEER, a parish and village in the district of Buchan,
Aberdeenshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901), 4313. The village lies
on the Deer or South Ugie Water, 10^- m. W. of Peterhead,
and 2 m. from Mintlaw station on the Great North of Scotland
Railway Company's branch line from Aberdeen to Peterhead.
The industries include distiUing, brewing, and the manufacture
of woollens, and there are quarries of granite and limestone.
Columba and his nephew Drostan founded a monastery here in
the 6th century, of which no trace remains. A most interesting
relic of the monks was discovered in 1857 in the Cambridge
University library by Henry Bradshaw. It consisted of a small
MS. of the Gospels in the Vulgate, fragments of the liturgy
of the Celtic church, and notes, in the GaeUc script of the 12th
century, referring to the charters of the ancient monastery,
including a summary of that granted by David I. These are
among the oldest examples of Scottish Gaelic. The MS. was also
adorned with Gaelic designs. It had belonged to the monks of
Deer and been in the possession of the University Library since
1715. It was edited by John Stuart (1813-1877) for the Spalding
Club, by whom it was published in 1869 under the title of
The Book of Deer. In 1218 William Comyn, earl of Buchan,
founded the Abbey of St Mary of Deer, now in ruins, | m. farther
up the river than the monastery and on the opposite bank.
Although it was erected for Cistercians from the priory of Kinloss,
near Forres, the property of the Columban monastery was re-
moved to it. The founder (d. 1233) and his countess were buried
in the church. The parish is rich in antiquities, but the most
noted of them — the Stone of Deer, a sculptured block of syenite,
which stood near the Abbey — was destroyed in 1854. The
thriving village of New Deer (formerly called Auchriddie)
lies about 7 m. W. of the older village; it includes the ruined
castle of Fedderat.
OLDENBARNEVELDT, JOHAN VAN (i 547-1619), Dutch
statesman, was born at Amersfoort on the 14th of September
1547. The family from which he claimed descent was of ancient
lineage. After studying law at Louvain, Bourges and Heidelberg,
and travelling in France and Italy, Oldenbarneveldt settled down
to practise in the law courts at the Hague. In religion a moderate
Calvinist, he threw himself with ardour into the revolt against
Spanish tyranny and became a zealous adherent of William the
Silent. He served as a volunteer for the reUef of Haarlem (1573)
and again at Leiden (1574). In 1576 he obtained the important
post of pensionary of Rotterdam, an office which carried with it
ofticial membership of the States of Holland. In this capacity
his industry, singular grasp of affairs, and persuasive powers of
speech speedily gained for him a position of influence. He was
active in promoting the Union of Utrecht (1579) and the accept-
ance of the countship of Holland and Zeeland by WiUiam {1584)
On the assassination of Orange it was at the proposal of Olden-
barneveldt that the youthful Maurice of Nassau was at once
elected stadholder, captain-general and admiral of Holland.
During the governorship of Leicester he was the leader of the
strenuous opposition offered by the States of Holland to the
centralizing poUcy of the governor. In 1586 he was appointed,
in succession to Paul Buys, to the post of Land's Advocate of
Holland. This great ofiice, which he held for 32 years, gave
to a man of commanding ability and industry unbounded
influence in a many -headed republic without any central executive
authority. Though nominally the servant of the States of
Holland he made himself pohtically the personification of the
province which bore more than half the entire charge of the union,
and as its mouthpiece in the states-general he practically
dominated that assembly. In a brief period he became entrusted
with such large and far-reaching authority in all the details o£
administration, as to be virtually " minister of all afiairs."
m
XQja'OLDENBARNEVELDT
During the two critical years which followed the withdrawal
of Leicester, it was the statesmanship of the advocate which kept
the United Provinces from falhng asunder through their own
inherent separatist tendencies, and prevented them from becom-
ing an easy conquest to the formidable army of Alexander of
Parma. Fortunately for the Netherlands the attention of Philip
was at their time of greatest weakness riveted upon his con-
templated invasion of England, and a respite was afforded
which enabled Oldenbarneveldt to supply the lack of any central
organized government by gathering into his own hands the con-
trol of administrative affairs. His task was made the easier
by the whole-hearted support he received from Maurice of
Nassau, who, after 1589, held the Stadholderate of five provinces,
and was likewise captain-general and admiral of the xmion.
The interests and ambitions of the two men did not clash, for
Maurice's thoughts were centred on the training and leadership
of armies and he had no special capacity as a statesman or in-
chnation for politics. The first rift between them came in 1600,
when Maurice was forced against his will by the states-general,
under the advocate's influence, to undertake an expedition
into Flanders, which was only saved from disaster by desperate
efforts which ended in victory at Nieuwport. In 1598 Olden-
barneveldt took part in special embassies to Henry IV. and
EUzabeth, and again in 1605 in a special mission sent to con-
gratulate James I. on his accession.
The opening of negotiations by Albert and Isabel in 1606 for
a peace or long truce led to a great division of opinion in the
Netherlands. The archdukes having consented to treat with the
United Provinces " as free provinces and states over which they
had no pretensions," Oldenbarneveldt, who had with him the
States of Holland and the majority of burgher regents throughout
the county, was for peace, provided that Uberty of trading was
conceded. Maurice and his cousin WiUiam Louis, stadholder of
Frisia, with the military and naval leaders and the Calvtnist
clergy, were opposed to it, on the ground that the Spanish king
was merely seeking an interval of repose in which to recuperate
his strength for a renewed attack on the independence of the
Netherlands. For some three years the negotiations went on,
but at last after endless parleying, on the 9th of April 1609, a
truce for twelve years was concluded. AU that the Dutch asked
was directly or indirectly granted, and Maurice felt obhged to
give a reluctant and somewhat sullen assent to the favourable
conditions obtained by the firm and skilful diplomacy of the
advocate.
The immediate effect of the truce was a strengthening of
Oldenbarneveldt 's influence in the government of the republic,
now recognized as a "free and independent state"; external peace,
however, was to bring with it internal strife. For some years
there had been a war of words between the rehgious parties,
known as the Gomarists (strict Calvinists) and the Arminians
(moderate Calvinists). In 1610 the Arminians drew up a petition,
known as the Remonstrance, in which they asked that their
tenets (defined in five articles) should be submitted to a national
synod, summoned by the civil government. It was no secret that
this action of the Arminians was taken with the approval and
connivance of the advocate, who was what was styled a libertine,
i.e. an upholder of the principle of toleration in rehgious opinions.
The Gomarists in reply drew up a Contra-Remonstrance in seven
articles, and appealed to a purely church synod. The whole land
was henceforth divided into Remonstrants and Contra-Re-
monstrants; the States of Holland under the influence of
Oldenbarneveldt supported the former, and refused to sanction
the summoning of a purely chiirch synod (1613). They likewise
(1614) forbade the preachers in the Province of HoUand to treat
of disputed subjects from their pulpits. Obedience was difficult
to enforce without military help, riots broke out in certain towns,
and when Maurice was appealed to, as captain-general, he
declined to act. He did more, though in no sense a theologian; he
declared himself on the side of the Contra-Remonstrants, and
established a preacher of that persuasion in a church at the
Hague (1617).
The advocate now took a bold step. He proposed that the
States of Holland should, on their own authority, as a sovereign
province, raise a local force of 4000 men {waardgelders) to keep
the peace. The states-general meanwhile by a bare majority
(4 provinces to 3) agreed to the summoning of a national church
synod. The States of Holland, also by a narrow majority, refused
their assent to this, and passed (August 4, 161 7) a strong
resolution {Scherpe Rcsolutie) by which all magistrates, ofiicials
and soldiers in the pay of the province were required to take an
oath of obedience to the states on pain of dismissal, and were to be
held accountable not to the ordinary tribunals, but to the States
of Holland. It was a declaration of sovereign independence on
the part of Holland, and the states-general took up the challenge
and determined on decisive action. A commission was appointed
with Maurice at its head to compel the disbanding of the waard-
gelders. On the 31st of July 1618 the stadholder appeared at
Utrecht, which had thrown in its lot with HoUand, at the head
of a body of troops, and at his command the local levies at once
laid down their arms. His progress through the towns of
Holland met with no opposition. The states party was crushed
without a blow being struck. On the 23rd of August, by order of
the states-general, the advocate and his chief supporters, de
Groot and Hoogerbeets, were arrested.
Oldenbarneveldt was with his friends kept in the strictest
confinement untU November, and then brought for examination
before a commission appointed by the states-general. He
appeared more than sixty times before the commissioners and
was examined most severely upon the whole course of his
official life, and was, most unjustly, allowed neither to consult
papers nor to put his defence in writing. On the 20th of February
1619 he was arraigned before a special court of twenty-four
members, only half of whom were Hollanders, and nearly all of
them his personal enemies. It was in no sense a legal court, nor
had it any jurisdiction over the prisoner, but the protest of the
advocate, who claimed his right to be tried by the sovereign
province of HoUand, whose servant he was, was disregarded.
He was allowed no advocates, nor the use of documents, pen or
paper. It was in fact not a trial at aU, and the packed bench of
judges on Sunday, the 1 2th of May, pronounced sentence of death.
On the following day the old statesman, at the age of seventy-one,
was beheaded in the Binnenhof at the Hague. Such, to use his
own words, was his reward for serving his country forty-three
years.
The accusations brought against Oldenbarneveldt of having
been a traitor to his country, whose interests he had betrayed for
foreign gold, have no basis in fact. The whole Hfe of the
advocate disproves them, and not a shred of evidence has ever
been produced to throw suspicion upon the patriot statesman's
conduct. AU his private papers fell into the hands of his foes,
but not even the bitterest and ablest of his personal enemies,
Francis Aarssens (see Aarssens), could extract from them
anything to show that Oldenbarneveldt at any time betrayed
his country's interests. That he was an ambitious man, fond
of power, and haughty in his attitude to those who differed from
him in opinion, may be granted, but it must also be conceded
that he sought for power in order to confer invaluable services
upon his country, and that impatience of opposition was not
unnatural in a man who had exercised an almost supreme
control of administrative affairs for upwards of three decades.
His high-handed course of action in defence of what he conceived to
be the sovereign rights of his own province of Holland to decide
upon religious questions within its borders may be challenged on
the ground of inexpediency, but not of illegality. The harshness
of the treatment meted out by Maurice to his father's old friend,
the faithful counseUor and protector of his own early years,
leaves a stain upon the stadholder's memory which can never be
washed away. That the prince should have felt compeUed in the
last resort to take up arms for the Union against the attempt of
the province of Holland to defy the authority of the Generahty
may be justified by the plea reipublicae saliis suprema lex. To
eject the advocate from power was one thing, to execute him as
a traitor quite another. The condemnation of Oldenbarneveldt
was carried out with Maurice's consent and approval, and he
OLDENBURG
71
cannot be acquitted of a prominent share in what posterity has
pronounced to be a judicial murder.
Oldenbarneveldt was married in 1575 to Maria van Utrecht.
He left two sons, the lords of Groeneveld and Stoutenburg, and
two daughters. A conspiracy against the hfe of Maurice, in
which the sons of OldentDarneveldt took part, was discovered in
1623. Stoutenburg, who was the chief accomplice, made his
escape and entered the service of Spain; Groeneveld was
executed.
Bibliography. — L. v. Deventer, Gedenkstukken van Johan v.
Oldenbarneveldt en zijn tijd (1577-1609; 3 vols., 1860-1865); J. van
Oldenbarneveldt, Historic Warachtige van de ghevanckennise . . .
lesCe wonder ende droevige doot van J. v. O. . . . uyt de verklaringe
van Z. E. dienaar Johan Francken (1620); Historic van het leven en
slerven van den Heer Johan van Olden Barneveldt (1648); Groen van
Prinsterer, Maurice et Barneveldt (1875); J. L. Motley, Life and
Death of John of Barneveldt (2 vols., 1874). lioo)] -.xi^C^E))'!
OLDENBURG, a grand-duchy of Germany, with an area of
2479 sq. m. It consists of three widely separated portions of
territory — (i) the duchy of Oldenburg, (2) the principahty of
Liibeck, and (3) the principality of Birkenfeld. It ranks tenth
among the states of the German empire and has one vote in
the Bundesrat (federal council) and three members in the
Reichstag.
I. The duchy of Oldenburg, comprising fully four-fifths of
the entire area and population, lies between 52° 29' and 53°
44' N. and between 7° 37' and 8° 37' E., and is bounded on the N.
by the North Sea and on the other three sides by Hanover, with
the exception of a small strip on the east, where it is conter-
minous with the territory of the free city of Bremen. It forms
part of the north-western German plain lying between the Weser
and the Ems, and, except on the south, where the Dammerge-
birge attain a height of 478 ft., it is almost entirely flat, with a
slight inclination towards the sea. In respect of its soil it is
divided broadly into two parts — the higher and inland-lying
Geest, consisting of sandy plains intermixed with extensive
heaths and moors, and the marsh lands along the coast, con-
sisting of rich but somewhat swampy alluvial soil. The latter,
which compose about one-fifth of the duchy, are protected
against the inroads of the sea by dikes as in Holland; and
beyond these are the so-called Watten, generally covered at high
tide, but at many points being gradually reclaimed. The
climate is temperate and humid; the mean temperature of the
coldest month at the town of Oldenburg is 26° F. of the warmest
66°. Storms are numerous, and their violence is the more felt
owing to the almost entire absence of trees; and fogs and ague
are prevalent in the marsh lands. The chief rivers are the
Hunte, flowng into the Weser, and the Hase and Leda flowing
into the Ems. The Weser itself forms the eastern boundary
for 42 m., and internal navigation is greatly facilitated by a
canal, passing through the heart of the duchy and connecting
the Hunte and the Leda. On the north there are several small
coast streams conducted through the dikes by sluices, the only
one of importance being the Jade, which empties itself into the
Jade Busen, a deep gulf affording good accommodation for
shipping. The duchy also contains numerous small lakes, the
chief of which is the Diimmer See in the south-east corner,
measuring 4 m. in length by 25 in width. About 30°/o of the
area of the duchy is under cultivation and 17% under pasture
and meadows, while the rest consists mainly of marsh, moor and
heath. Forests occupy a very small proportion of the whole, but
there are some fine old oaks. In the Geest the principal crops are
rye, oats, potatoes and buckwheat, for which the heath is some-
times prepared by burning. Large tracts of moorland, however,
are useful only as producing peat for fuel, or as affording pasture
to the flocks of small coarse-woolled Oldenburg sheep. The rich
soil of the marsh lands produces good crops of wheat, oats, rye,
hemp and rape, but is especially adapted for grazing. The
cattle and horses raised on it are highly esteemed throughout
Germany, and the former are exported in large numbers to
England. Bee-keeping is much in vogue on the moors. The live
stock of Oldenburg forms a great part of its wealth, and the ratio
of cattle, sheep and horses to the population is one of the highest
among the German states. There are few large estates, and the
ground is mostly in the hands of smaU farmers, who enjoy the
right of fishing and shooting on their holdings. Game is scarce,
but fishing is fairly productive. The mineral wealth of Oldenburg
is very small. WooUen and cotton fabrics, stockings, jute and
cigars are made at Varel, Delmenhorst and Lohne; cork-cutting
is extensively practised in some districts, and there are a few
iron-foundries. Trade is relatively of more importance, chiefly
owing to the proximity of Bremen. The agricultural produce of
the duchy is exported to Scandinavia, Russia, England and the
United States, in return for colonial goods and manufactures.
Varel, Brake and Elsfleth are the chief commercial harbours.
II. The principality of Liibeck has an area of 209 sq. m. and
shares in the general physical characteristita of east Holstein,
within which it lies. On the east it extends to Liibeck Bay of the
Baltic Sea, and on the south-east it is bounded by the Trave.
The chief rivers are the Schwartau, a tributary of the Trave, and
the Schwentine, flowing northwards to the Gulf of Kiel. The
scenery of Lubeck is often picturesque, especially in the vicinity
of the Plon See and the Eutin See, the most important of the small
lakes with which it is dotted. Agriculture is practised here
even more extensively than in the duchy of Oldenburg, about
75% of the area being cultivated. The population in 15(05 *ks
III. The principality of Birkenfeld, 312 sq. m. in extent, lies in
the midst of the Prussian province of the Rhine, about 30 m. W.
of the Rhine at Worms and 150 m. S. of the duchy of Oldenburg.
The population in 1905 was 46,484. (See Birkenfeld.)
The total population of the grand-duchy of Oldenburg in 1880
was 337,478, and in 1905 438,856. The bulk of the inhabitants
are of the Saxon stock, but to the north and west of the duchy
there are numerous descendants of the ancient Frisians. The
differences between the two races are still to some extent percept-
ible, but Low German {Platt-dcutsch) is universally spoken, except
in one limited district, where a Frisian dialect has maintained
itself. In general characteristics the Oldenburg peasants resemble
the Dutch, and the absence of large landowners has contributed
to make them sturdy and independent. The population of
Oldenburg is somewhat unequally distributed, some parts of the
marsh lands containing over 300 persons to the square mile,
while in the Geest the number occasionally sinks as low as 40.
About 70% of the inhabitants belong to the " rural " population.
The town of Oldenburg is the capital of the grand-duchy. The
war-harbour of Wilhelmshaven, on the shore of the Jade Busen,
was built by Prussia on land bought from Oldenburg. The
chief towns of Birkenfeld and Lubeck respectively are Birkenfeld
and Eutin.
Oldenburg is a Protestant country, and the grand-duke is
required to be a member of the Lutheran Church. Roman
Catholicism, however, preponderates in the south-western pro-
vinces, which formerly belonged to the bishopric of Miinster.
Oldenburg Roman Catholics are under the sway of the bishops of
Miinster, who is represented by an official at Vechta. The
educational system of Oldenburg is on a similar footing to
that of north Germany in general, though the scattered posi-
tion of the farmhouses interferes to some extent with school
attendance.
The constitution of Oldenburg, based upon a decree of 1849,
revised in 1852, is one of the most hberal in Germany. It pro-
vides for a single representative chamber {Landtag), elected
indirectly by universal suffrage and exercising concurrent rights
of legislation and taxation with the grand-duke. The chamber,
which consists of forty members, one for every 10,000 inhabitants,
is elected every three years. The executive consists of three
ministers, who are aided by a committee of the Landtag, when
that body is not in session. The local affairs of Birkenfeld and
Lubeck are entrusted to provincial councils of fifteen members
each. All citizens paying taxes and not having been convicted
of felony are enfranchised. The municipal communities enjoy
an unusual amount of independence. The finances of each
constituent state of the grand-duchy are managed separately,
and there is also a fourth budget concerned with the joint
72
OLDENBURG
administration. The total revenue and expenditure are each
about £650,000 annuaUy. The grand-duchy had a debt in 1907
of £2,958,409.
History. — The earliest recorded inhabitants of the district
now called Oldenburg were a Teutonic people, the Chauci, who
were afterwards merged in the Frisians. The chroniclers delight
in tracing the genealogy of the counts of Oldenburg to the Saxon
hero, Widukind, the stubborn opponent of Charlemagne, but
their first historical representative is one Elimar (d. 1108) who
. is described as comes in confinio Saxoniae et Frisiae. Ehmar's
descendants appear as vassals, although sometimes rebelhous
ones, of the dukes of Saxony; but they attained the dignity
of princes of the empire when the emperor Frederick I. dis-
membered the Saxon duchy in 1 180. At this time the county of
Delmenhorst formed part of the dominions of the counts of
Oldenburg, but afterwards it was on several occasions separated
from them to form an apanage for younger branches of the
family. This was the case between 1262 and 1447, between
1463 and 1547, and between 1577 and 1617. The northern and
western parts of the present grand-duchy of Oldenburg were in
the hands of independent, or semi-independent, Frisian princes,
who were usually heathens, and during the early part of the
13th century the counts carried on a series of wars with these
small potentates which resulted in a gradual expansion of their
territory. The free city of Bremen and the bishop of Miinster
were also frequently at war with the counts of Oldenburg.
The successor of Count Dietrich (d. 1440), called Fortunatus,
was his son Christian, who in 1448 was chosen king of Denmark
as Christian I. In 1450 he became king of Norway and in 1457
king of Sweden; in 1460 he inherited the duchy of Schleswig
and the county of Holstein, an event of high importance for
the future history of Oldenburg. In 1454 he handed over Olden-
burg to his brother Gerhard (c. 1430-1499) a turbulent prince,
who was constantly at war with the bishop of Bremen and other
neighbours. In 1483 Gerhard was compelled to abdicate in
favour of his sons, and he died whilst on a pilgrimage in Spain.
Early in the i6th century Oldenburg was again enlarged at the
expense of the Frisians. Protestantism was introduced into the
county by Count Anton I. (1505-1573), who also suppressed
the monasteries; however, he remained loyal to Charles V.
during the war of the league of Schmalkalden, and was able
thus to increase his territories, obtaining Delmenhorst in 1547.
One of Anton's brothers, Count Christopher (c. 1506-1560),
won some reputation as a soldier. Anton's grandson, Anton
Gunther (1583-1667), who succeeded in 1603, proved himself
the wisest prince who had yet ruled Oldenburg. Jever had been
acquired before he became count, but in 1624 he added Knyp-
hausen and Varel to his lands, with which in 1647 Delmenhorst
was finally united. By his prudent neutraUty during the
Thirty Years' War Anton Gunther secured for his dominions an
immunity from the terrible devastations to which nearly all
the other states of Germany were exposed. He also obtained
from the emperor the right to levy tolls on vessels passing along
the Weser, a lucrative grant which soon formed a material
addition to his resources.
j , When Count Anton Giinther died in June 1667 Oldenburg
was inherited by virtue of a compact made in 1649 by Frederick
III., king of Denmark, and Christian Albert, duke of Holstein-
Gottorp. Some difficulties, however, arose from this joint
ownership, but eventuaUy these were satisfactorily settled, and
from 1702 to 1773 the county was ruled by the kings of Denmark
only, this period being on the whole one of peaceful development.
Then in 1773 another change took place. Christian VII. of
Denmark surrendered Oldenburg to Paul, duke of Holstein-
Gottorp, afterwards the emperor Paul of Russia,' and in return
Paul gave up to Christian his duchy of Holstein-Gottorp and his
claims on the duchies of Schlesmg and Holstein. At once Paul
handed over Oldenburg to his kinsman, Frederick Augustus,
Jjishop of Liibeck, the representative of a younger branch of
•■' ' His father, Charles Frederick of Holstein-Gottorp (1700-1739),
a descendant of Christian I. of Denmark, married Anne, daughter of
Peter the Great, and became tsar as Peter HI. in 1762.
the family,^ and in 1777 the county was raised to the rank of a
duchy. The bishop's son WiUiam, who succeeded his father
as duke in 1785, was a man of weak intellect, and his cousin
Peter Frederick, bishop of Liibeck, acted as administrator and
eventually, in 1823, inherited the duchy. This prince is the
direct ancestor of the present grand duke.
To Peter fell the onerous task of governing the duchy during
the time of the Napoleonic wars. In 1806 Oldenburg was occupied
by the French and the Dutch, the duke and the regent being
put to flight; but in 1807 William was restored, and in 1808 he
joined the Confederation of the Rhine. However, in 1810 his
lands were forcibly seized by Napoleon because he refused to
exchange them for Erfurt. This drove him to join the Allies,
and at the congress of Vienna his services were rewarded by the
grant of [the principality of Birkenfeld, an addition to his lands
due to the good offices of the tsar Alexander I. At this time
Oldenburg was made a grand duchy, but the title of grand-duke
was not formally assumed until 1829, when Augustus succeeded
his father Peter as rulec Under Peter's rule the area of Olden-
burg had been increased, not only by Birkenfeld, but by the
bishopric of Liibeck (secularized in 1802) and some smaller
pieces of territory.
Oldenburg did not entirely escape from the revolutionary
movement which swept across Europe in 1848, but no serious
disturbances took place therein. In 1849 the grand-duke granted
a constitution of a very Uberal character to his subjects. Hitherto
his country had been ruled in the spirit of enhghtened despotism,
which was strengthened by the absence of a privileged class of
nobles, by the comparative independence of the peasantry,
and by the unimportance of the towns; and thus a certain
amount of friction was inevitable in the working of the new order.
In 1852 some modifications were introduced into the constitution,
which, nevertheless, remained one of the most liberal in Germany.
Important alterations were made in the administrative system
in 1855, and again in 1868, and church affairs were ordered by
a law of 1853. In 1863 the grand-duke Peter II. (1827-1900),
who had ruled Oldenburg since the death of his father Augustus
in 1853, seemed inclined to press a claim to the vacant duchies
of Schleswig and Holstein, but ultimately in 1867 he abandoned
this in favour of Prussia, and received some slight compensation.
In 1866 he had sided with this power against Austria and had
joined the North German Confederation; in 1871 Oldenburg
became a state of the new German empire. In June 1900
P'rederick Augustus (b. 1852) succeeded his father Peter as grand-
duke. By a law passed in 1904 the succession to Oldenburg
was vested in Frederick Ferdinand, duke of Schleswig-Holstein-
Sonderburg-GlUcksburg, and his family, after the extinction of
the present ruhng house. This arrangement was rendered
advisable because the grand-duke Frederick Augustus had only
one son Nicholas (b. 1897), and his only brother George Louis
(1855) was unmarried.
For the history of Oldenburg see Runde, Oldenhurgische Chronik
(Oldenbuig, 1863); E. Pleitner, Oldenburg im ig Jahrhundert
(Oldenburg, 1899-1900) ; and Oldenburgisches Quellenbuch (Olden-
burg, 1903). See also the Jahrbuch fiir die Geschichte des Herzogtums
Oldenburg (1892 seq.).
OLDENBURG, a town of Germany, and capital of the grand-
duchy of Oldenburg. It is a quiet and pleasant-looking town,
situated 27 m. by rail W. of Bremen, on the navigable Hunte
and the Hunte-Ems canal. Pop. (1905), including the suburbs,
28,565. The inner or old town, with its somewhat narrow
streets, is surrounded by avenues laid out on the site of the
former ramparts, beyond which are the villas, promenades
and gardens of the modern quarters. Oldenburg has almost
nothing to show in the shape of interesting old buildings. The
' To this branch belonged Adolphus Frederick, son of Christian
Augustus bishop of Liibeck (d. 1726), who in 1751 became king of
Sweden.
Another branch of the Oldenburg family, descended from John,
son of Christian HI. of Denmark, is that of Holstein-Sonderburg.
This was subdivided into the lines of Sonderburg-Augustenburg and
Sonderburg-Gliicksburg. Prince Christian, who married Princess
Helena of Great Britain, belongs to the former of them. To the
latter belong the kings of Denmark, Greece and Norway.
OLDFIELD— OLDHAM, T.
73
Evangelical Lambertikirche, though dating from the 13th century,
has been so transformed in the last century (1874-1886) as to
show no trace of its antiquity. The palaces of the grand-duke
and the old town-hall are Renaissance buildings of the 17th and
1 8th centuries. Among the other prominent buildings — all
modern — are the palace of the heir apparent, the new town-
hall, the theatre, the law-courts, the gymnasium, the com-
mercial school, the three hospitals and the new Roman Catholic
church. The grand-ducal picture gallery in the Augusteum
includes works by Veronese, Velasquez, Murillo and Rubens,
and there are collections of modern paintings and sculptures
in the two palaces. The public library contains 110,000 volumes
and the duke's private library 55,000. There is also a large
natural history museum and a museum with a collection of
antiquities. The industries of Oldenburg, which are of no
great importance, include iron-founding, spinning and the
making of glass, tobacco, gloves, soap and leather. A consider-
able trade is carried on in grain, and the horse fairs are largely
frequented. According to popular tradition Oldenburg was
founded by Walbert, grandson of the Saxon hero, Widukind,
and was named after his wife Altburga, but the first historical
mention of it occurs in a document of 1108. It was fortified
in 115s, and received a municipal charter in 1345. The sub-
sequent history of the town is merged in that of the grand-
duchy.
See Sello, Historische Wanderting durch die Stadt Oldenburg (Olden-
burg, 1896); and Alt-Oldenburg (Oldenburg, 1903); and Kohl,
Die AUmende der Stadt Oldenburg (Oldenburg, 1903).
OLDOPIELD, ANNE (1683-1730), English actress, was born
in London, the daughter of a soldier. She worked for a time
as apprentice to a semptress, until she attracted George
Farquhar's attention by reciting some lines from a play in his
hearing. She thereupon obtained an engagement at Drury
Lane, where her beauty rather than her ability slowly brought
her into favour, and it was not until ten years later that she
was generally acknowledged as the best actress of her time.
In polite comedy, especially, she was unrivalled, and even the
usually grudging Gibber acknowledged that she had as much as
he to do with the success of the Careless Husband (1704), in
which she created the part of Lady Modish, reluctantly given
her because Mrs Verbniggen was ill. In tragedy, too, she won
laurels, and the list of her parts, many of them original, is a
long and varied one. She was the theatrical idol of her day.
Her exquisite acting and lady-like carriage were the delight
of her contemporaries, and her beauty and generosity found
innumerable eulogists, as well as sneering detractors. Alexander
Pope, in his Sober Advice from Horace, wrote of her —
" Engaging Oldfield, who, with grace and ease,
Could join the arts to ruin and to please."
It was to her that the satirist alluded as the lady who detested
being buried in wooUen, who said to her maid — ■
" No, let a charming chintz and Brussels lace
Wrap my cold limbs and shade my lifeless face;
One would not, sure, be frightful when one's dead,
And — Betty — give this cheek a little red."
She was but forty-seven when she died on the 23rd of October
1730, leaving all the court and half the town in tears.
She divided her property, for that time a large one, between
her natural sons, the first by Arthur Mainwaring (166S-1712) —
who had left her and his son half his fortune on his death —
and the second by Lieut. -General Charles Churchill (d. 1745).
Mrs Oldfield was buried in Westminster Abbey, beneath the
monument to Congreve, but when Churchill applied for per-
mission to erect a monument there to her memory the dean of
Westminster refused it.
OLD FORGE, a borough of Lackawanna county, Pennsylvania,
U.S.A., on the Lackawanna river, about 6 m. S.W. of Scranton.
Pop. (1900) 5630, of whom 2494 were foreign-born (principally
Italians). It is served by the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western
and the Lehigh Valley railways. The principal public buildings
are the town-hall and the high school. The borough is situated
in^ the anthracite coal region, and the mining of coal is the
principal industry, though there are also various manufactures.
Old Forge was settled in 1830 and incorporated as a borough
in 1899. ■'/
OLDHAM, JOHN (1653-1683), English satirist, son'tofri'
Presbyterian minister, was born at Shipion Moyne, nearTetbury,
Gloucestershire, on the 9th of August 1653. He graduated
from St Edmund Hall, Oxford, in 1C74, and was for three years
an usher in a school at Croydon. Some of his verses attracted
the attention of the town, and the earl of Rochester, with Sir
Charles Sedley and other wits, came down to see him. The
visit did not aflect his career apparently, for he stayed at Croy-
don until 1681, when he became tutor to the grandsons of Sir
Edward Thurland, near Reigate. Meanwhile he had tried, he
says, to conquer his inclination for the unprofitable trade of
poetry, but in the panic caused by the revelations of Titus
Oates, he found an opportunity for the'exercise of his gifl for
rough satire. Garnet's Ghost was pubhshed as a broadside in
1679, but the other Satires on the Jesuits, although written at
the same time, were not printed until 1681. The success of these
dramatic and unsparing invectives apparently gave Oldham
hope that he might become independent of teaching. But his
undoubted services to the Country Party brought no reward
from its leaders. He became tutor to the son of Sir William
Hickes, and was eventually glad to accept the patronage of
WiUiam Pierrepont, earl of Kingston, whose kindly offer of a
chaplaincy he had refused earlier. He died at Holme-Pierre-
point, near Nottingham, on the 9th of December 1683^
of smallpox. . -■^-
Oldham took Juvenal for his model, and in breadth of treat-
ment and power of invective surpassed his English predecessors.
He was original in the dramatic setting provided for his satires.
Thomas Garnet, who suffered for supposed implication in the
Gunpowder Plot, rose from the dead to encourage the Jesuits
in the first satire, and in the third Ignatius Loyola is represented
as dictating his wishes to his disciples from his death-bed. Old-
ham wrote other satires, notably one " addressed to a friend
about to leave the university," which contains a well-known
description of the state of slavery of the private chaplain, and
another " dissuading from poetry," describing the ingratitude
shown to Edmund Spenser, whose ghost is the speaker, to
Samuel Butler and to Abraham Cowley. Oldham's verse is
rugged, and his rhymes often defective, but he met with a
generous appreciation from Dryden, whose own satiric bent
was perhaps influenced by his efforts. He says (" To the Memory
of Mr Oldham," Worlis, ed. Scott, vol. xi. p. 99):—
" For sure our souls were near allied, and thine
Cast in the same poetic mould with mine."
The real wit and rigour of Oldham's satirical poetry are un-
deniable, while its faults— its frenzied extravagance and lack
of metrical polish— might, as Dryden suggests, have been cured
with time, for Oldham was only thirty when he died.
The best edition of his works is The Compositions in Prose and
Verse of Mr John Oldham . . . (1770). with memoir and explanatory
notes by Edward Thompson. -
OLDHAM, THOMAS (1816-1878) British geologist, was bom'
m Dublin on the 4th of May 1816. He was educated there at
Trinity College, graduating B.A. in 1836, and afterwards studied
engineering in Edinburgh, where he gained a good knowledge
of geology and mineralogy under Jameson. On his return to
Ireland in 1839 he became chief assistant to Captain (afterwards
Major General) Portlock, who conducted the geological depart-
ment of the Ordnance Survey, and he rendered much help in
the field and office in the preparation of the Report on the Geology-
of Londonderry, &-c. (1S43). Subsequently he served under''
Captain (afterwards Sir Henry) James, the first local director
of the Geological Survey of Ireland, whom he succeeded in 1S46.
Meanwhile in 1845 he was appointed professor of Geology in
the university of Dublin. In 1848 he was elected F.R.S. In
1849 he discovered in the Cambrian rocks of Bray Head the
problematical fossil named Oldhamia. In 1850 he was selected
to take charge of the Geological Survey of India, which he
organized, and in due course he established the Memoirs, the
Palaeontologia Indica and the Records, to which he contributed
xx. i a
74
OLDHAM— OLD TOWN
many important articles. In 1864 he published an elaborate
report On the Coal Resources of India. He retired in 1876, and
died at Rugby on the 17th of July 1878.
OLDHAM, a municipal coimty and parliamentary borough of
Lancashire, England, 7 m. N.E. of Manchester, on the London &
North-Western, Great Central and Lancashire & Yorkshire
railways and the Oldham canal. Pop. (1891) 131,463; (1901)
137,246. The principal railway station is called Mumps, but
there are several others. The town lies high, near the source of
the small river Medlock. Its growth as a manufacturing centre
gives it a wholly modern appearance. Among several handsome
churches the oldest dates only from the later i8th century.
The principal buildings and institutions include the town-hall,
with tetrastyle portico copied from the Ionic temple of Ceres
near Athens, the reference library, art gallery and museum,
the Union Street baths, commemorating Sir Robert Peel the
statesman, and the county court. Of educational establishments
the chief are the Lyceum, a building in Italian style, containing
schools of art and science, and including an observatory; the
largely-endowed blue-coat school founded in 1808 by Thomas
Henshaw, a wealthy manufacturer of hats; the Hulme grammar
school (1895), and municipal technical schools. The Alexandra
Park, opened in 1865, was laid out by operatives who were
thrown out of employment owing to the cotton famine in the
years previous to that date. The site is picturesquely undulating
and terraced. Oldliam is one of the most important centres
of the cotton manufactures, the consumption of cotton being
about one-fifth of the total importation into the United Kingdom,
the factories numbering some 230, and the spindles over 13
millions, while some 35,000 operatives are employed. The
principal manufactures are fustians, velvets, cords, shirtings,
sheetings and nankeens. There are also large foundries and
mUl and cotton machinery works; and works for the construction
of gas-meters and sewing-machines; while all these industries
are assisted by the immediate presence of collieries. There are
extensive markets and numerous fairs are held. Oldham was
incorporated in 1849, and became a county borough in 1888.
The corporation consists of a mayor, 12 aldermen and 36
councillors. The parliamentary borough has returned two
members since 1832. Area of municipal borough, 4736 acres.
A Roman road, of which some traces are still left, passes
through the site of the township, but it does not appear to have
been a Roman station. It is not mentioned in Domesday; but
in the reign of Henry III. Alwardus de Aldholme is referred to as
holding land in Vernet (Werneth). A daughter and co-heiress
of this Alwardus conveyed Werneth Hall and its manor to the
Cudworths, a branch of the Yorkshire family, with whom it
remained till the early part of the i8th century. From the
Oldhams was descended Hugh Oldham, who died bishop of Exeter
in 1519. From entries in the church registers it would appear
that hnens were manufactured in Oldham as early as 1630.
WatermiUs were introduced in 1770, and with the adoption of
Ark Wright's inventions the cotton industry grew with great
rapidity.
OLD MAID, a game of cards. Any number may play, and the
full pack is used, the Queen of Hearts being removed. The
cards are dealt out one by one until exhausted, and each player
then sorts his hand and discards the pairs. The dealer then
offers his hand, spread out face downwards to the next player,
who draws a card, which, if it completes a pair, is discarded,
but otherwise remains in the hand. The process continues from
player to player, until all the cards have been paired and dis-
carded excepting the odd queen, the holder of which is the " Old
Maid."
OLDMIXON, JOHN (1673-1742), English historian, was a son
of John 01dnu.\on of Oldmixon, near Bridgwater. His first
writings were poems and dramas, among them being Amores
Britannici; Epistles historical and gallant (1703); and a tragedy.
The- Governor 0/ Cyprus. His earliest historical work was
The British Empire in America (1708 and again 1741), which
was followed by The Secret History of Europe (1712-1715); by
Arcana Gallica^ or the Secret History of France for the last Century
boJudiilnoD or! rljirl.
(1714); and by other smaller writings. More important, how-
ever, although of a very partisan character, are Oldmixon's
works on EngUsh history. His Critical history of England (1724-
1726) contains attacks on Clarendon and a defence of Bishop
Burnet, and its publication led to a controversy between Dr
Zachary Grey (1688-1766) and the author, who replied to Grey
in his Clarendon and Whitlock compared (1727). On the same,
lines he wrote his History of England during the Reigns of the Royal '
House of Stuart (1730). Herein he charged Bishop Atterbury and'
other of Clarendon's editors with tampering with the text of the .
History. From his exile Atterbury replied to this charge in a'
Vindication, and although Oldmixon continued the controversy"!
it is practically certain that he was in the wrong. He completed
a continuous history of England by writing the History of England"
during the Reigns of William and Mary, Anne and George I. (1735) ;'
and the History of England during the Reigns of Henry VIII.,''
Edward VI., Mary and Elizabeth (1739). Among his other'''
writings are, Memoirs of North Britain (17 15), Essay on Criticism'
(1728) and Memoirs of the Press 17 10-17 40 (1742), which was only
published after his death. Oldmixon had much to do with
editing two periodicals. The Muses Mercury and The Medley,'^
and he often complained that his services were overlooked by'"
the government. He died on the 9th of July 1742. [
OLD POINT COMFORT, a summer and wmter resort, in'
Elizabeth City county, Virginia, U.S.A., at the southern end^^
of a narrow, sandy peninsula projecting into Hampton Roads '
(at the mouth of the James river), about 12 m. N. by W. of
Norfolk. It is served directly by the Chesapeake & Ohio raUway,
and indirectly by the New York, Philadelphia & Norfolk (Penn-
sylvania System), passengers and freight being carried by
steamer from the terminus at Cape Charles; by steamboat Hnes
connecting with the principal cities along the Atlantic coast,
and with cities along the James river; by ferry, connecting with
Norfolk and Portsmouth; and by electric railway (3 m.) to
Hampton and (i 2 m.) to Newport News. There is a U.S. garrison .
at Fort Monroe, one of the most important fortifications on the./
Atlantic coast of the United States. Old Point Comfort is I
included in the reservation of Fort Monroe. The fort lies within ;
the tract of 252 acres ceded, for coast defence purposes, to therl
Federal government by the state of Virginia in 1821, the surveys
for the original fortifications having been made in 1818, and the '
building begun in 1819. It was named in honour of President
Monroe and was first regularly garrisoned in 1823; in 1824 theil
Artillery School of Practice (now called the United States;!
Coast Artillery School) was established to provide commissioned o
ofScers of the Coast Artillery with instruction in professional;}
work and to give technical instruction to the non-commissioned £
staff. During the Civil War the fort was the rendezvous for
several military expeditions, notably those of General Benjamin
F. Butler to Hatteras Inlet, in 1861; of General A. E. Burnside, t
to North Carohna, in 1862; and of General A. H. Terry, against J
Fort Fisher, in 1865; within sight of its parapets was fought the
famous duel between the " Monitor " and the " Merrimac "
(March 9, 1862). Jefferson Davis was a prisoner here for two
years, from the 22nd of May 1865, and Clement Claiborne Clay.
(1819-1882), a prominent Confederate, from the same date until
April 1866. Between Fort Monroe and Sewell's Point is Fort
Wool, almost covering a small island called Rip Raps. The
expedition which settled Jamestown rounded this peninsula
(April 26, 1607), opened its sealed instructions here, and named
the peninsula Poynt Comfort, in recognition of the sheltered
harbour. (The " Old " was added subsequently to distinguish
it from a Point Comfort settlement at the mouth of the York
river on Chesapeake Bay). On the site of the present fortifica-
tion a fort was erected by the whites as early as 1630.
OLD TOWN, a city of Penobscot county, Maine, U.S.A., on
the Penobscot river, about 12 m. N.E. of Bangor. Pop. (1890)
5312; (1900) 5763, of whom 1247 were foreign born. It is
served by the Maine Central and the Bangor & Aroostook
railways, and by an electric line connecting with Bangor. The
city proper is on an island (Marsh, or Old Town Island), but
considerable territory on the W. bank of the river is included
OLDYS— OLEASTER
75
within tlie municipal limits. The manufacture of lumber is
the principal industry of the city. On Indian Island (opposite
the city) is the principal settlement of the Penobscot Indians,
an Abnaki tribe, now wards of the state. The abbe Louis
Pierre Thury was sent here from Quebec about 1687 and built
a church in 1 688-1 689; in 1705 the mission passed under the
control of the Jesuits. The first white settler in the vicinity
seems to have been John Marsh, who came about 1774, and who
bought the island now known as Marsh Island. From 1806 to
1840, when it was incorporated as a separate township, Old
Town was a part of Orono. In 1891 it was chartered as a city.
One of the oldest railways in the United States, and the first in
Maine, was completed to Old Town from Bangor in 1836.
OLDYS, WILLIAM (1696-1761), English antiquary and biblio-
grapher, natural son of Dr William Oldys, chancellor of Lincoln,
was born on the 14th of July 1696, probably in London. His
father had also held the office of advocate of the admiralty, but
lost it in 1693 because he would not prosecute as traitors and
pirates the sailors who had served against England under
James 11. William Oldys, the younger, lost part of his small
patrimony in the South Sea Bubble, and in 1724 went to York-
shire, spending the greater part of the next six years as the
guest of the earl of Malton. On his return to London he found
that his landlord had disposed of the books and papers left
in his charge. Among these was an annotated copy of Gerard
Langbaine's Dramatick Poets. The book came into the hands of
Thomas Coxeter (1689-1747), and subsequently into Theophilus
Gibber's possession, and furnished the basis of the Lives of
the Poets (1753) published with Gibber's name on the title page,
though most of it was written by Robert Shiels. In 1731 Oldys
sold his collections to Edward Harley, second earl of Oxford,
who appointed him his Hterary secretary in 1738. Three years
later his patron died, and from that time he worked for the
bookseUers. His habits were irregular, and in 1751 his debts
drove him to the Fleet prison. After two years' imprisonment
he was released through the kindness of friends who paid his
debts, and in April 1755 he was appointed Norroy king-at-arms
by the duke of Norfolk. He died on the isth of April 1761.
Oldys's chief works are : The British Librarian, a review of scarce
and valuable books in print and in manuscript (1737-173B); the
Harleian Miscellany (1744-1746), a collection of tracts and pamphlets
in the earl of Oxford's library, undertaken in conjunction with
Dr Johnson; twenty-two articles contributed to the Biographia
Britannica (1747-1760) ; an edition of Raleigh's History of the World,
with a Life of the author (1736); Life of Charles Cotton prefixed to
Sir John Hawkins's edition (1760) of the Compleat Angler. In 1727
Oldys began to annotate another Langbaine to replace the one he
had lost. This valuable book, with a MS. collection of notes by
Oldys on various bibliographical subjects, is preserved in the British
Museum.
OLEAN, a city of Gattaraugus county, in south-western New
York, U.S.A., on Olean Creek and the N. side of the Allegheny
river, 70 m. S.E. of Buffalo. Pop. (1880), 3036; (1890), 7358;
(1900), 9462, of whom 1514 were foreign-born and 122 were
negroes; (1910 census), 14,743. The city is served by the
Erie, the Pittsburg, Shawmut & Northern, and the Pennsylvania
railways (the last has large car shops here); and is connected
with Bradford, Pa., Allegany, Pa., Salamanca, N.Y., Little
Valley, N.Y., and Bolivar, N.y.^ by electric lines. Olean is
situated in a level valley 1440 ft. above sea-level. The sur-
rounding country is rich in oil and natural gas. Six miles from
Olean and 2000 ft. above the sea-level is Rock Gity, a group of
immense, strangely regular, conglomerate rocks (some of them
pure white) covering about 40 acres. They are remnants of
a bed of Upper Devonian Conglomerate, which broke along
the joint planes, leaving a group of huge blocks. In the city
are a public library, a general hospital and a state armoury;
and at Allegany (pop. 1905, 1330), about 3 m. W. of Olean, is
St Bonaventure's College (1850; Roman CathoHc). Olean's
factory product was valued at $4,677,477 in 1905; the city is
the terminus of an Ohio pipe line, and of a sea-board pipe line
for petroleum; and among its industries are oil-refining and
the refining of wood alcohol, tanning, currying, and finishing
leather; and the manufacture of flour, glass (mostly bottles).
lumber, &c. The vicinity was settled in 1804, and'this was
the first township organized (1808), being then coextensive with
the county. Olean Greek was called Ischue (or Ischua) ; then
Olean was suggested, possibly in reference to the oil-springs in
the vicinity. The vDlage was oftlcially called Hamilton for a
time, but Olean was the name given to the post-office in 181 7,
and Olean Point was the popular local name. In 1909 several
suburbs, including the village of North Olean (pop. in 1965.
1761), were annexed to Olean, considerably increasing its area
and population. ' i'.',.
See History of Cattaraugus County, New York (Philadelphia, I'Syg)'.
OLEANDER, the common name for the shrub known to
botanists as Nerium Oleander. It is a native of the Mediterranean
and Levant, and is characterized by its taU shrubby habit and
its thick lance-shaped opposite leaves, which exude a milky
juice when punctured. The flowers are borne in terminal
clusters, and are like those of the common perivvinkle(F'«;ca), but
are of a rose colour, rarely white, and the throat or upper edge
of the tube of the corolla is occupied by outgrowths in the
form of lobed and fringed petal-like scales. The hairy anthers
adhere to the thickened stigma. The fruit or seed-vessel consists
of two long pods, which, bursting along one edge, liberate a
number of seeds, each of which has a tuft of silky hairs like thistle
down at the upper end.
The genus belongs to
the natural order
Apocynaceae, a family
that, as is usual where
the juice has a milky
appearance, is marked
by its poisonous pro-
perties. Gases are re-
corded by Lindley of
children poisoned by
the flowers. The same
author also narrates how
inthecourseof thePenin-
sular War some French
soldiers died in conse-
quence of employing
skewers made from
fieshly-cut twigs of oleander for roasting their meat. The
oleander was known to the Greeks under three names, viz.
rhododendron, nerion and rhododaphnc, and is well described
by Pliny (xvi. 20), who mentions its rose-like flowers and
poisonous qualities, at the same time stating that it was
considered serviceable as a remedy against snake-bite. The
name is supposed to be a corruption of lorandrum, latiridcndrum
(Du Gange), influenced by olca, the olive-tree, lorandrum being
itself a corruption of rhododendroti. The modern Greeks still
know the plant as^o5o5d<^f7), although in a figure in the Rinuccini
MSS. of Dioscorides a plant is represented under this name,
which, however, had rather the appearance of a willow herb
(Epilobium). The oleander has long been cultivated in green-
houses in England, being, as Gerard says, " a small shrub of a
gallant shewe "; numerous varieties, differing in the colour of their
flowers, which are often double, have been introduced.
OLEASTER, known botanically as Elaeagnus hortensis, a
handsome deciduous tree, ij to 20 ft. high, growing in the
Mediterranean region and temperate Asia, where it is commonly
cultivated for its edible fruit. The brown smooth branches
are more or less spiny; the narrow leaves have a hoary look
from the presence of a dense covering of star-shaped hairs;
the small fragrant yellow flowers, which are borne in the axils
of the leaves, are scaly on the outside. The genus contains other
species of ornamental deciduous or evergreen shrubs or small
trees. E. argcntea, a native of North America, has leaves and
fruit covered with shining silvery scales. In E. glabra, from
Japan, the evergreen leaves are clothed beneath with rust-
coloured scales; variegated forms of this are cultivated, as
also of E. pungens, another Japanese species, a spiny shrub
with leaves silvery beneath. , • . -: ,,;•.. j... ^j.,,^
Nerium Oleander.
76
9 OLEFINE— OLEG
OLEFINE, in organic chemistry, the generic name given to
open chain jhydrocarbons having only singly and doubly linked
pairs of carbon atoms. The word is derived from the French
olefianl (from oUfier, to make oil), which was the name given to
ethylene, the first member of the series, by the Dutch chemists,
J. R. Deiman, Pacts van Troostwyk, N. Bondt and A. Lauweren-
burgh in 1795. The simple olefines containing one doubly-
linked pair of carbon atoms have the general formula (C„H2„;
the di-olefines, containing two doubly-linked pairs, have the
general formula CnH2n-2 and are consequently isomeric with the
simple acetylenes. Tri-, tetra- and more complicated members
are also known. The name of any particular member of the
series is derived from that of the corresponding member of the
paraffin series by removing the final syllable " -ane," and replac-
ing it by the syllable " ylene." Isomerism in the olefine series
does not appear untU the third member of the series is reached.
The higher oleiines are found in the tar which is obtained by
distilHng bituminous shales, in illuminating gas, and among the
products formed by distilling paraffin under pressure (T. E.
Thorpe and J. Young, Ann., 1873, 165, p. i). The olefines
may be synthetically prepared by eliminating water from the
alcohols of the general formula C„H2„+i -OH, using sulphuric
acid or zinc chloride generally as the dehydrating agent, although
phosphorus pentoxide, syrupy phosphoric acid and anhydrous
oxalic acid may frequently be substituted. In this method of
preparation it is found that the secondary alcohols decompose
more readily that the primary alcohols of the series, and when
sulphuric acid is used, two phases are present in the reaction,
the first being the building up of an intermediate sulphuric acid
ester, which then decomposes into sulphuric acid and hydro-
carbon: CoHsOH^CjHs-HSOi-^CoHi+HoSOi. As an alter-
native to the above method, V. Ipatiew {Bcr., 1901, 34, p. 596
et seq.) has shown that the alcohols break up into ethylenes and
water when their vapour is passed through a heated tube
containing some " contact " substance, such as graphite, kiesel-
guhr, &c. (see also J. B. Senderens, Comptes rendus, 1907, 144,
pp. 382, 1109).
They may also be prepared by eliminating the halogen hydride
from the alkyl halides by heating with alcoholic potash, or with
litharge at 220° C. (A. Eltekow, Ber., 1878, 11, p. 414); by the
action of metals on the halogen compounds C„H2„Br2; by boiling
the aqueous solution of nitrites of the primary amines (V. Meyer,
Ber., 1876, 9, p. 543), C3H7NHj+HN02 = N2+2H20-l-C3H6;_by the
electrolysis of the alkali salts of saturated dicarboxylic acids; by
the decomposition of /3-haloid fatty acids with sodium carbonate,
CH3CHBrCH(CH3)-C02H =C02 + HBr + CH3CH iCH-CHs; by dis-
tilling the barium salts of acids C„H2n-202 with sodium methylate
in vacuo (I. Mai, Ber., 1889, 22, p. 2135); from the higher alcohols
by converting them into esters which are then distilled (F. Krafft,
Ber., 1883, 16, p. 3018):
Ci6H33CH2-CH2-OH->Ci6H33CH2-CH2-0'CO-R^
CeHssCH : CH2-I-R-C00H ;
from tertiary alcohols by the action of acetic anhydride in the
presence of a small quantity of sulphuric acid (L. Henry, Comptes
rendus, 1907, 144, p. 552):
(CH3)2-C(OH)-CH(CH3)2^(CH3)2C:C(CH3)2+CH2:C(CH3)-CH
_ (CH,)2;
from unsaturated alcohols by the action of metal-ammonium com-
pounds (E. Chablay, Comptes rendus, 1906, 143, p. 123):
2CH2:CH-CH20H-|-2NH3Na = CH2:CH-CH3+CH2;CH-CH20Na
-|-NaOH-|-2NH3;
from the lower members of the series by heating them with alkyl
halides in the presence of lead oxide or lime: C5Hio-t-2CH3l =2HI +
C7H14; and by the action of the zinc alkyls upon the halogen
substituted olefines.
A. Mailhe {Chem. Zeit., 1906, 30, p. 37) has shown that on passing
the monohalogen derivatives of the paraffins through a glass tube
containing reduced nickel, copper or cobalt at 250° C, olefines are
produced, together with the halogen acids, and recombination
is prevented by passing the gases through a solution of potash.
The reaction probably proceeds thus: MCU-l-CnHjn+iCl-^HCl-l-
Cl-M-C„H2„Cl^MCl2-i-C„H2n, since the haloid derivatives of the
monovalent metals do not act similarly. The anhydrous chlorides
of nickel, cobalt, cadmium, barium, iron and lead act in the same way
as catalysts at about 300° C, and the bromides of lead, cadmium,
nickel and barium at about 320° C.
In their physical properties, the olefines resemble the normal
paraffins, the lower members of the series being inflammable
gases, the members from Cs to Cu liquids insoluble in water,
and from ds upwards of solids. The chief normal members
of the series are shown in the table.
Name.
Formula.
Melting-
point. C.
Boiling-point. C.
Ethylene .
Propylene .
Butylene
Amylene
Hexylene
Heptylene .
Octylene
Decylene .
Undecylene.
Duodecvlene
CH2:CH2
CH3CH:CH2
C2Hs-CH:CH2
C3H7-CH:CH2
C4H8CH:CH2
C6Hi,CH:CH2
CeHisCH :CH2
C8H„CH:CH^
C9H19CH :CH2
^-ioH2iCH :CH2
-169°
-31°
-102-7° (757 mm.)
-50-2° (749 mm.)
-5°
39°-40°
68°— 70°
122°— 123°
172°
84° (18 mm.)
96° (15 mm.)
In chemical properties, however, they differ very markedly
from the paraffins. As unsaturated compounds they can combine
with two monovalent atoms. Hydrogen is absorbed readily at
ordinary temperature in the presence of platinum black, and
paraffins are formed; the halogens (chlorine and bromine)
combine directly with them, giving dihalogen substituted com-
pounds; the halogen halides to form monohalogen derivatives
(hydriodic acid reacts most readily, hydrochloric acid, least) ;
and it is to be noted that the haloid acids attach themselves
in such a manner that the halogen atom unites itself to the
carbon atom which is in combination with the fewest hydrogen
atoms (W. Markownikow, Ann., 1870, 153, p. 256).
They combine with hypochlorous acid to form chlorhydrins;
and are easily soluble in concentrated sulphuric acid, giving rise to
sulphuric acid esters; consequently if the solution be boiled with
water, the alcohol from which the olefine was in the first place derived
is regenerated. The oxides of nitrogen convert them into nitrosites
and nitrosates (O. Wallach, Ann., 1887, 241, p. 288, &c.; J. Schmidt,
Ber., 1902, 35, pp. 2323 et seq.). They also combine with nitrosyl
bromide and chloride, and with many metallic haloid salts (platinum
bichloride, iridium chloride), with mercury salts (see K. A. Hofmann
and J. Sand, Ber., 1900, 33, pp. 1340 et seq.), and those with a
tertiary carbon atom yield double salts with zinc chloride. Dilute
potassium permanganate oxidizes the olefines to glycols (G. Wagner,
Ber., 1888, 21, p. 3359). With ozone they form ozonides (C. Harries,
Ber., 1904, 37, p. 839). The higher members of the series readily
polymerize in the presence of dilute sulphuric acid, zinc chloride, &c.
For the first member of the series see Ethylene.
Propylene, C3H6, may be obtained by passing the vapour of
trimethylene through a heated tube (S. M. Tanatar, Ber., 1899, 32,
pp. 702, 1965). It is a colourless gas which may be liquefied by a
pressure of 7 to 8 atmospheres. Butylene, C4H8, exists in three
isomeric forms: normal butylene, 'C2Hs-CH :CH2; pseudo-butylene,
CH3-CH :CH-CH3; and isobutylene, (CH3)2C : CH2. Normal butylene
is a readily condensible gas. Two spatial modifications of pseudo-
butylene, CH3-CH:CH-CH3,are known, the cis and the trans; they
are prepared by heating the sodium salts of hydro-iodo-tiglic and
hydro-iodo-angelic acids respectively (J. Wislicenus, Ann., 1900,
313, p. 228). Isobutylene, (CH3)2C:CH2, is formed in the dry distil-
lation of fats, and also occurs among the products obtained when the
vapour of fusel oil is led through a heated tube. It is a gas at
ordinary temperature, and may be liquefied, the liquid boiling at
-5° C. It combines with acetyl chloride in the presence of zinc
chloride to form a ketone, which on warming breaks down into
hydrochloric acid and mesityl oxide (I. L. Kondakow, Jour. Russ.
pliys. chem. Soc. 26, p. 12). It polymerizes, giving isodibutylene,
CsHie, and isotributylene, Ci2H24, Hquids which boil at 110-113°
and 178-181° C. Amylene, CsHio, exists in five isomeric forms, viz.
(n) propylethylene, CHs-CHo-CHj-CH :CH2; isopropylethylene,
(CH3)2CH-CH : CH2; symmetrical methy 1-et hyl-ethy lene,
CHs- CH : CH ■ C2H6; unsymmetrical methyl-ethyl-ethylene,
(CH3)(C2H6)C:CH2; and trimethyl ethylene, (CH3)2C: CH(CH3).
The highest members of the series as yet known are cerotene, Cs6H62,
which is obtained by the distillation of Chinese wax and is a paraffin-
like solid which melts at 57° C, and melene, C3oH6c(?), which is
obtained by the distillation of bees'-wax. It melts at 62° C. (B. J.
Brodie, Ann., 1848, 67, p. 210; 1849, 71, p. 156).
OLEG (?-9i2), prince of Kiev, succeeded Rurik, as being the
eldest member of the ducal family, in the principality of Great
Novgorod, the first Russian metropolis. Three years later he
moved southwards and, after taking Smolensk and other places,
fixed his residence at Kiev, which he made his capital. He then
proceeded to build a fortress there and gradually compelled the
surrounding tribes to pay him tribute, extending his conquests
in all directions (883-903) at the expense of the Khazars, who
hitherto had held all southern Russia to tribute. In 907,
OLEIC ACID— OLFACTORY SYSTEM
11
with a host made up of all the subject tribes, Slavonic and Finnic,
he sailed against the Greeks in a fleet consisting, according to
the lyetopis, of 2000 vessels, each of which held 40 men; but this
estimate is plainly an exaggeration. On reaching Constantinople,
Oleg disembarked his forces, mercilessly ravaged the suburbs
of the imperial city, and compelled the emperor to pay tribute,
provide the Russians with provisions for the return journey,
and take fifty of them over the city. A formal treaty was then
concluded, which the Slavonians swore to observe in the names
of their gods Perun and Volos. Oleg returned to Kiev laden with
golden ornaments, costly cloths, wines, and aU manner of precious
things. In 911 he sent an embassy of fourteen persons to
Constantinople to get the former treaty confirmed and enlarged.
The names of these ambassadors are preserved and they point
to the Scandinavian origin of Oleg's host; there is not a Slavonic
name among them. A new and elaborate treaty, the terms of
which have come down to us, was now concluded between the
Russians and Greeks, a treaty which evidently sought to bind
the two nations closely together and obviate all possible differences
which might arise between them in the future. There was also
to be free trade between the two nations, and the Russians
might enter the service of the Greek emperor if they desired it.
The envoys returned to Kiev in 912 after being shown the
splendours of the Greek capital and being instructed in the
rudiments of the Greek faith. In the autumn of the same year
Oleg died and was buried at Kiev.
See S. M. Solovev, History of Russia (Rus.), vol. i. (St Petersburg,
1895, &c.) ; M. F. Vladimirsky-Budanov, Chrestomathy of the History
oj Russian Law (Rus.), pt. i. (Kiev, 1889). (R. N. B.)
OLEIC ACID, C,3H3402 or C8H,7-CH:CH- [CHj], • CO2 H, an
organic acid occurring as a glyceride, triolein, in nearly all fats,
and in many oils — olive, almond, cod-liver, &c. (see Oils). It
appears as a by-product in the manufacture of candles. To
prepare it olive oil is saponified with potash, and lead acetate
added; the lead salts are separated, dried, and extracted with
ether, which dissolves the lead oleate; the solution is then
treated with hydrochloric acid, the lead chloride filtered off,
the liquid concentrated, and finally distilled under diminished
pressure. Oleic acid is a colourless, odourless solid, melting at
14° and boiling at 223° (lo mm.). On exposure it turns yellow,
becoming rancid. Nitric acid oxidizes it to all the fatty acids
from acetic to capric. Nitrous acid gives the isomeric elaidic
acid, CsHa-CH: CH-(CH2]7 -COaH, which is crystalline and
melts at 51°. Hydriodic acid reduces both oleic and elaidic
acids to stearic acid.
Erucic acid, CsHij-CH : CH-JCHiJirCGoH, and the isomeric
brassidic acid, belong to the oleic acid series. They occur as gly-
cerides in rape-seed oil, in the fatty oil of mustard, and in the oil of
grape seeds. Linoleic acid, CiaHsjOj, found as glyceride in drying
oils, and ricinoleic acid, Ci8H33(OH)02, found as glyceride in castor
oil, closely resemble oleic acid.
OLEN, a semi-legendary Greek bard and seer, and writer of
hymns. He is said to have been the first priest of Apollo, his
connexion with whom is indicated by his traditional birthplace —
Lycia or the land of the Hyperboreans, favourite haunts of the
god. The Delphian poetess Boeo attributed to him theintroduc-
ion of the cult of Apollo and the invention of the epic metre.
Many hymns, nomes (simple songs to accompany the circular
dance of the chorus), and oracles, attributed to Olen, were pre-
served in Delos. In his hymns he celebrated Opis and Arge,
two Hyperborean maidens who founded the cult of Apollo in
Delos, and in the hymn to Eilythyia the birth of Apollo and
Artemis and the foundation of the Delian sanctuary. His reputed
Lycian origin corroborates the view that the cult of Apollo was
an importation from Asia to Greece. His poetry generally was
of the kind called hieratic.
See Callimachus, Hymn to Delos, 305; Pausanias i. 18; ii. 13;
v. 7; ix. 27; X. 5; Herodotus iv. 35.
OL^RON, an island lying off the west coast of France, opposite
the mouths of the Charente and Seudre, and included in the
department of Charente-Inferieure. In 1906 the population
numbered 16,747. In area (66 sq. m.) it ranks next to Corsica
among French islands. It is about 18 m. in length from N.W.
to S.E., and 7 in extreme breadth; the width of the strait
(Pcrluis de Maumusson) separating it from the mainland is at
one point less than a mile. The island is flat and low-lying and
fringed by dunes on the coast. The greater part is very fertile,
but there are also some extensive salt marshes, and oyster
culture and fishing are carried on. The chief products are
corn, wine, fruit and vegetables. The inhabitants are mostly
Protestants and make excellent sailors. The chief places are
St Pierre (pop. 1582 in 1906), Le Chateau d'OIeron (1546),
and the watering-place of St Trojan-les-Bains.
Oleron, the Uliartis Insula of Pliny, formed part of the duchy
of Aquitaine, and finally came into the possession of the French
crown in 1370. It gave its name to a medieval code of maritime
laws promulgated by Eleanor of Guicnne.
OLFACTORY SYSTEM, in anatomy. The olfactory system
consists of the outer nose, which projects from the face, and the
nasal cavities, contained in the skull, which support the olfactory
mucous membrane for the perception of smell in their upper
parts, and act as respiratory passages below. •
The bony framework of the nose is part of the skull iq.v.), but the
outer nose is only supported by bone above; lower down its
shape is kept by an " upper " and " lower lateral cartilage " and
two or three smaller plates known as " cartilagines minores."
Nasal bone.
Nasal process of
superior maxilla'
From R. Howden, in Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy.
t'lG. I. — Profile View of the Bony and Cartilaginous Skeleton of
the Nose.
The expanded lower part of the side of the outer nose is known
as the " ala " and is only formed of skin, both externally and
internally, with fibro-fatty tissue between the layers. The inner
nose or nasal cavities are separated by a septum, which is seldom
quite median and is covered in its lower two-thirds by thick,
highly vascular mucous membrane composed of columnar
ciliated epithelium with masses of acinous glands (see Epithelial
Tissues) embedded in it, while in its upper part it is covered
by the less vascular but more speciahzed olfactory membrane.
Near the front of the lower part of the septum a slight opening
into a short blind tube, which runs upward and backward, may
sometimes be found; this is the vestigial remnant of " Jacobson's
organ," which will be noticed later. The supporting framework
of the septum is made up of ethmoid above, vomer below, and
the " septal cartilage " in front. The outer wall of each nasal
cavity is divided into three meatus by the overhanging turbinated
7«
W^T OLFACTORY SYSTEM IHJO
bones (see fig. 2). Above the superior turbinated is a space
between it and the roof known as the " recessus spheno-ethmoi-
dalis," into the back of which the " sphenoidal air sinus " opens.
Between the superior and middle turbinated bones is the
" superior meatus," containing the openings of the " posterior
ethmoidal air cells," while between the middle and inferior
turbinateds is the "middle meatus," which is the largest of the
three and contains a rounded elevation known as the " bulla
ethmoidahs." Above and behind this is often an opening for
the " middle ethmoidal cells," while below and in front a deep
sickle-shaped gutter runs, the " hiatus semilunaris," which
communicates above with the " frontal air sinus " and below
with the opening into the " antrum of Highmore " or " maxillary
antrum." So deep is this hiatus semilunaris that if, in the dead
subject, water is poured into the frontal sinus it all passes into[the
Frontal air-sinus.
Bristle passed
fr<.m it into
infundibulum
Opening of middle ethmoidal cells
Openings of posterior ethmoidal cells
Recessus spheno-ethmoidalis
Sphenoidal air -sinus
From R. Howden, in Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy.
Fig. 2. — View of the Outer Wall of the Nose
1. Vestibule.
2. Opening of antrum of Highmore.
3. Hiatus semilunaris.
4. Bulla ethmoidalis.
5. Agger nasi.
antrum and none escapes through the nostrils until that cavity
is fuU. The passage from the frontal sinus to the hiatus semi-
lunaris is known as the " infundibulum," and into this open the
" anterior ethmoidal cells," so that the antrum acts as a sink
for the secretion of these cells and of the frontal sinus. Running
downward and forward from the front of the middle turbinated
bone is a curved ridge known as the " agger nasi," which forms
the anterior boundary of a slightly depressed area called the
" atrium."
The " inferior meatus" is below the inferior turbinated bone,
and, when that is Ufted up, the valvular opening of the nasal
duct (see Eye) is seen. In front of the inferior meatus there is a
depression just above the nostril which is Uned with skin instead
of mucous membrane and from which short hairs grow; this is
called the " vestibule." The roof of the nose is very narrow,
and here the olfactory nerves pass in through the cribriform
plate. The floor is a good deal wider so that a coronal section
through each nasal cavity has roughly the appearance of a right-
angled triangle. The anterior wall is formed by the nasal bones
and the upper and lower lateral cartilages, while posteriorly
the sphenoidal turbinated bone separates the nasal cavity from
the sphenoidal sinus above, and below there is an opening into
the naso-pharynx known as the " posterior nasal aperture "
or " choana." The mucous membrane of the outer wall is
characteristic of the respiratory tract as high as the superior
turbinated bone; it is ciliated all over and very vascular where
it covers the inferior turbinated ; superficial to and above the
superior turbinated the olfactory tract is reached and the
speciahzed olfactory epithelium begins.
Embryology.
In the third week of intra-uterinc life two pits make their appear-
ance on the under side of the front of the head, and are known as the
olfactory or nasal pits; they are the first appearance of the true
olfactory region of the nose, and some of their epithelial lining cells
send off a.xons (see Nervous System) which arborize with the
dendrites of the cells of the olfactory lobe
of the brain and so form the olfactory
nerves (see J. Disse, Anat. Hefte, 1897;
also P. Anat. Soc, J. Anat. and Pliys.,
1897, p. 12). Between the olfactory pits
the broad median fronto-nasal process
grows down from the forehead region to
form the dorsum of the nose (see fig. 3),
and the anterior part of the nasal septum,
while outside them the lateral nasal pro-
cesses grow down, and later on meet the
maxillary processes from the first visceral
arch. In this way the nasal cavities are
formed, but for some time they are
separated from the mouth by a thin bucco-
nasal membrane which eventually is broken
through; after this the mouth and nose
are one cavity until the formation of the
palate in the third month (see Mouth and
Salivary Glands). In the third month
Jacobson's organ may be seen as a well-
marked tube lined with respiratory mucous
membrane and running upw^ard and back-
ward, close to the septum, from its orifice,
which is just abo\-e the foramen of Stensen
in the anterior palatine canal. In man it
never has any connexion with the olfactory
membrane or olfactory nerves. Internally
and below it is surrounded by a delicate
sheet of cartilage, which is distinct from
that of the nasal septum. No explana-
tion of the function of Jacobson's organ in
man is known, and it is probably entirely
atavistic. At birth the nasal cavities are
very shallow from above downward, but
they rapidly deepen till the age of puberty.
The external nose at birth projects very
little from the plane of the face except at
the tip, the button-like shape of which in
babies is well known. In the second and
third year the bridge becomes more promi-
nent, but after puberty the nasal bones tend
to tilt upward at their lower ends to form
the eminence which is seen at its best in
the Roman nose. (For further details see
Quain's Atialomy, vol. i., London, 1908.)
Comparative A natomy.
In Amphioxus among the Acrania there is a ciliated pit above the
anterior end of the central nervous system, which is probably a rudi-
ment of an unpaired olfactory organ. In the Cyclostomata (lampreys
and hags) the pit is at first ventral, but later becomes dorsal and
shares a common opening with the pituitary invagination. It
furthermore becomes divided internally into two lateral halves.
In fishes there are also two lateral pits, the nostrils of which open
sometimes, as in the elasmobranchs (sharks and rays), on to the
ventral surface of the snout, and sometimes, as in the higher fishes,
on to the dorsal surface. Up to this stage the olfactory organs are
mere pits, but in the Dipnoi (mud-fish) an opening is established
from them into the front of the roof of the mouth, and so they serve
as respiratory passages as well as organs for the sense of smell.
In the higher Amphibia the nasal organ becomes included in the skull
and respiratory and olfactory parts are distinguished. In this class,
too, turbinal ingrowths are found, aiid the naso-lachrymal duct
appears. In the lizards, among the Reptilia, the olfactory and
respiratory parts are very distinct, the latter being lined only by
stratified epithelium unconnected with the olfacton,- nerves. There
is one true turbinal bone growing from the outer wall, and close to
this is a large nasal gland. In crocodiles the hard palate is formed,
and there is henceforward a considerable distance between the open-
ings of the external and internal nares. In this order, too (Crocodilia)
-the Turbinated Bones having been removed.
6. Opening of anterior ethmoidal cells.
7. Cut edge of superior turbinated bone.
8. Cut edge of middle turbinated bone.
9. Pharyngeal orifice of Eustachian tube.
OLFACTORY SYSTEM
79
air sinuses are first found extending from the olfactory cavities
into the skull-ljones. The birds' arrangement is very like that of the
reptiles; olfactory and respiratory chambers are present, and into
the latter projects the true turbinal, though there is a pseudo-turbinal
in the upper or olfactory chamber. In mammals the olfactory
chamber of the nose is variously developed; most of them are
" macrosmatic," and have a large area of olfactory mucous mem-
brane; some, like the seals, whalebone whales, monkeys and man are
" microsmatic," while the toothed whales have the olfactory region
practically suppressed in the adult, and are said to be " anosmatic."
There are generally five turbinal bones in macrosmatic marnmals,
so that man has a reduced number. The lowest of the series or
" maxillo-turbinal " is the equivalent of the single true turbinal bone
of birds and reptiles, and in most mammals is a double scroll, one
Mesencephalon
Eye
Mcixillary
process
/ Mandibular arch
Prosencephalon
Prosencephalon
Mesial nasal
process
StomatodaeiuQ
dj bsbi
From A. H. Young and A. Robinson, in Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy.
Fig. 3.
I. Side view of the head of human embryo
about 27 days old, showing the olfactory
pit and the visceral arches and clefts
(from His).
II. Transverse section through the head of
an embryo, showing the relation of the
olfactory pits to the forebrain and to
the roof of the stomatodaeal space.
III. Head of human embryo about 29 days
old, showing the division of the lower
part of the mesial frontal process into
P. Zool. Soc. (189T), and in the kangaroo, J. Anal, and Phys.,vti\.
26 (1891); also G. Eliot Smith on Jacobson's organ, Anatom.
Anzeiger, xi. Band No. 6 (i«95j. For general literature on the
comparative anatomy of the olfactory system up to 1906, see
R. Wiedersheim's Comparalive Anatomy of Vertebrates, translated
and adapted by W. N. Parker (London, 1907;. (F. G. P.)
Diseases of Olfactory System
External Affections and Injuries of the Nose. — Acne rosacea is one
of the most frequent nasal skin affections. In an early stage it
consists of dilatation or congestion of the capillaries, and later of a
hypertrophy of the sebaceous follicles. This may be accompanied
by the formation of pustules. In an exaggerated stage the sefmceous
glands become overgrown, forming l.irge protuberant nodular masses
over which the dilated capillaries are
plainly visible. This condition is termed
lipoma nasi (rhinophynia or hammer
nosej, though there is no increase in fatty
tissue. Nasal acne occurs mainly in
dyspeptics and tea drinkers, and the
more advanced condition, lipoma nasi,
chielly in elderly men addicted to al-
coholism. The treatment of acne is the
removal of the dyspepsia with the local
application of sulphur ointment or of a
lotion of perchloride of mercury. Un-
sightly capillaries may be destroyed by an
application of the galvano-cautery or by
electrolysis. Free dissection of the re-
dundant tissue from around the nasal
cartilages is necessary in lipoma nasi,
skin being grafted on to the raw surface.
The nasal bones are frequently frac-
tured as the result of direct violence, as
by a blow from a cricket ball or stick.
The fracture is usually transverse, and
may be communicated, leading to much
deformity if left untreated. The treat-
ment is the immediate reposition of the
bony fragments. The old-standing cases
where tliere is considerable depression
Cerebral wiring the fragments may be resorted to.
hemi- In numerous cases the subcutaneous
sphere injection of paraffin may improve the
shape of the organ. Deflection of the
septum may also result from similar
injuries, and lateral displacement may
cause subsequent nasal obstruction and
-,, require the straightening of the septum,
pit^*^ °^^ Lesions involving considerable loss of
substance due to injury or to syphilitic or
tuberculous disease have led to many
methods being devised to supply the
missing part. In the Indian method of
rhinoplasty a flap is cut from the fore-
head, to which it is left attached by a
pedicle; the flap is then turned down-
wards to cover the missing portion of the
nose; when the parts have united, the
pedicle is cut through. In the Italian
leaf turning upward and the other down. Jacobson's organ first
appears in amphibians, where it is found as an anteroposterior
gutter in the floor of the nasal cavity, sometimes being close to the
septum, at other times far away, though the former position is the
more primitive. In reptiles the roof of the gutter closes in on each
side, and a tube is formed lying below and internal to the nasal
cavity, opening anteriorly into the mouth and ending by a blind
extremity, posteriorly to which branches of the olfactory and tri-
geminal nerves are distributed. In the higher reptiles (crocodiles
and chelonians) the organ is suppressed in the adult, and the same
applies to birds; but in the lower mammals, especially the mono-
tremes, it is very well developed, and is enclosed in a cartilaginous
sheath, from which a turbinal process projects into its interior.
In other mammals, with the exception of the Primates and perhaps
the Chiroptera, the organ is quite distinct, though even in man,
as has been shown, its presence can be demonstrated in the embryo.
The special opening through which it communicates with the mouth
is the foramen of Stensen in the anterior palatine canal.
See J. Symington on the organ of Jacobson in the Ornithorynchus,
the two globular processes, the inter-
vention of the olfactory pits between operation devised by fagliacotius (Taglia-
the mesial and lateral nasal processes, cozzi), a flap was taken from the patient's
and the approximation of the maxillary arm, the arm being kept fixed to the
and lateral nasal processes, which, how- head until the flap has united,
ever, are separated by the oculo-nasal Diseases of the Interior of the Nose. —
sulcus (from His). Epistaxis or bleeding of the nose may
IV. Transverse section of head of embryo, arise from many conditions. It is par-
showing the deepening of the olfactory ticularly common in young girls at the
pits and their relation to the hemi- time of puberty, being a form of vicarious
sphere vesicles of the fore-brain. menstruation. It also occurs in cerebral
congestion, heart disease, scur\'y, haemo-
phylia, or as a sign of local disease. The treatment will depend
upon the cause. In patients with high arterial tension epistaxis
may be of direct benefit. In other cases rest on the back may be
tried, %vith the local application of tanno-gallic acid or hazelin or
adrenalin, either in a spray or on absorbent cotton. If these should
not stop the haemorrhage the nose must be plugged. In cases which
arise from specific forms of ulceration, such as tuberculosis and
syphilis, the area should be rendered anaesthetic by cocaine, the
bleeding points found, and the vessels obliterated by the electro-
cautery. Polypi in the nasal passages are also a frequent cause of
epistaxis.
Rhinitis, or inflammation of the mucous membrane of the nose,
occurs both in acute and chronic forms. Of the acute the simple
catarrhal form termed " coryza " forms the widely known " cold in
the head." The tendency of acute cor>'za to affect entire families,
and to be communicable from one person to another, points to its
infectious nature, though probably some predisposing condition of
health is necessary for its development. It is considered proved
that the symptoms are due to the presence and development of
8o
OLGA— OLHAO
r^
several distinct micro-organisms. Of these the most important is the
micrococcus catarrhalis described by Martin Kirchner in 1890, but
Friedlander's pneumo-bacillus has also been found. In ordinary
cases of coryza, sneezing, congestion of the nasal mucous membrane
and a profuse watery discharge usher in the attack, and the inflam-
mation may extend to the pharynx, larynx and trachea, blocking
of the Eustachian tube producing a temporary deafness. Later the
discharge may become muco-purulent. One attack of coryza
conveys no immunity from subsequent attacks, and some persons
seem particularly susceptible. The treatment is directed towards
increasing the action of the kidneys, skin and bowels. A brisk
mercurial purgative is indicated, and salicin and aspirin are useful
in many cases. Considerable relief may be obtained by washing
out the nasal cavities several times a day with a warm lotion con-
taining boric acid. Those who are unusually prone to catch cold
should habituate themselves to an open air life by day and an open
window by night, adenoids or enlarged tonsils should be removed,
and the diet should be modified so as not to contain an excess of
starchy foods. An acute croupous inflammation occasionally attacks
the nasal mucous membrane when the Klebs-Loffler bacillus is not
present, but the nasal membrane often shares in true diphtheria,
or it may be the only organ to be infected thereby. The diagnosis is
of course bacteriological.
As a result of frequent catarrhal attacks the nasal mucous mem-
brane may become the seat of a chronic rhinitis in which the turbinals
become swollen with oedema, and congested and finally thickened
by increase in the fibrous tissue. There is an excessive muco-purulent
discharge, and the patient is unable to breathe through the nose;
deafness and adenoid vegetations may be the result. In the early
stages the nasal cavity should be washed out night and morning
with an alkaline lotion, such as bicarbonate of soda, or a caustic,
such as chromic acid, should be used in swabbing over the affected
part. The application of the galvano-cauter>' here is useful, but
when the areas are much hypertrophied the hypertrophied portion
of the inferior turbinals may have to be removed under cocaine.
A special form of recurrent hypertrophic rhinitis is hay fever (q.v.).
Rhinitis Sicca is a form of chronic rhinitis in which there is but
little discharge, crusts or scabs which may be difficult to remove
forming in the nasal cavities; the pharynx may be also affected.
Atrophic rhinitis or ozaena usually attacks children and young
adults, following on measles or scarlet fever. Crusts form, and favour
the retention of the purulent discharge. The disease may e-xtend to
the nasal sinuses and septic absorption take place. The treatment
is to keep the nasal cavity clean by irrigation with solution of per-
manganate of potash or carbolic acid lotion, the nose then being
wiped and smeared with lanolin or partially plugged with a tampon
of cotton-wool, the process being repeated at frequent intervals, the
general treatment being that for anaemia. Disease of the middle
turbinated bone is also a cause of an offensive nasal discharge, and
rhinitis occurring in infants gives rise to the obstructed respiration
known as " the snuffles."
Three forms of nasal polypi are described, the mucous, the fibrous
and the malignant. The general symptoms of nasal polypus are a
feeling of stuffiness in one or both nostrils, inability to breathe down
the nose and a thin watery discharge. A nasal tone of voice, together
with cough and asthma, may be present, or there may be partial
or complete loss of the sense of smell (anosmia). The treatment of
mucous polypi is their removal by the forceps or the snare, the base
of the growth being afterwards carefully examined and cauterized
with the galvano-cautery.
Fibrous polypi are usually very vascular, and may be a cause of
severe epistaxis as well as of obstruction of breathing, " dead voice,"
sleepiness and deafness. The increasing growth may lead to ex-
pansion of the bridge of the nose and deformity of the facial bones,
known as " frog-face." The tendency of fibrous polypi to take on
malignant sarcomatous characters is specially noticeable. Extir-
pation of the growth as soon as its nature is recognized is therefore
urgently demanded.
The chief diseases of the nasal septum are abscesses, due to the
breaking down of haematomata, syphilitic gummata (leading to deep
excavation and bony destruction), tuberculous disease in which
a small yellowish grey ulcer forms and what is known as perforating
ulcer of the septum, which is met with just within the nostril.
The latter tends to run a chronic course, and the detachment of one
of its crusts may cause epistaxis. Rhinoscleroma was first described
by F. Hebra in 1870, and is endemic in Russian Poland, Galicia and
Hungary, but is unknown in England, except amongst alien immi-
grants. The infecting organism is a specific bacillus, and the disease
starts as a chronic smooth painless obstruction with the formation
of dense plate-like masses of tissue of stony hardness. Treatment
other than that of excision of the masses has proved useless,
though the recent plan of introduction of the injection of a
vaccine of the bacillus may in future modify the progress of the
disease.
The accessory sinuses of the nose are also prone to disease. The
maxillary antrum may become filled with muco-pus, forming an
empyema, pus escaping intermittently by way of the nose. The
condition causes pain and swelling, and may require the irrigation
and drainage of the antrum. The frontal sinuses may become filled
with mucous, owing to the swelling of the nasal mucous membrane
over the middle turbinated bone, or an acute inflammation may
spread to the frontal sinuses, giving rise to an empyema in that
locality. There is severe frontal pain, and in some cases a fulness
on the forehead over the affected side, the pus often pointing in this
site, or there may be a discharge of pus through the nose. The
treatment is that of incision and irrigation of the sinus (in some cases
scraping out of the sinus) and the re-establishment of communication
with the nose, with free drainage. The ethmoidal and sphenoidal
sinuses are also frequently the site of empyemata, giving rise to pain
in the orbit and the back of the nose, and a discharge into the naso-
pharynx. In the case of the ethmoidal sinus it may give rise to '
exophthalmus and to strabismus (squint), with the formation of a
tumour at the inner wall of the orbit and fever and delirium at night.
In the young the condition may become rapidly fatal. Suppuration
in the sphenoidal sinus may lead to blindness from involvement of
the sheath of the optic nerve, and dangerous complications such as
septic basal meningitis and thrombosis of the cavernous sinus may
occur. Acute ethmoiditis and sphenoiditis are serious conditions
demanding immediate surgical intervention. (H. L. H.)
OLGA, wife of Igor, prince of Kiev, and afterwards (from 945)
regent for Sviatoslav her son, was baptized at Constantinople
about 955 and died about 969. She was afterwards canonized in
the Russian church, and is now commemorated on the nth of
July.
OLGIERD (d. 1377), grand-duke of Lithuania, was one of the
seven sons of Gedymin, grand-duke of Lithuania, among whom
on his death in 1341 he divided his domains, leaving the youngest,
Yavnuty, in possession of the capital, VVilna, with a nominal
priority. With the aid of his brother Kiejstut, Olgierd in 1345
drove out the incapable Yavnuty and declared himself grand-
duke. The two and thirty years of his reign (1345-1377) were
devoted to the development and extension of Lithuania, and he
lived to make it one of the greatest states in Europe. Two
factors contributed to produce this result, the extraordinary
political sagacity of Olgierd and the life-long devotion of his
brother Kiejstut. The Teutonic knights in the north and the
Tatar hordes in the south were equally bent on the subjection
of Lithuania, while Olgierd's eastern and western neighbours,
Muscovy and Poland, were far more frequently hostile competitors
than serviceable allies. Nevertheless, Olgierd not only succeeded
in holding his own, but acquired influence and territory at the
expense of both Muscovy and the Tatars, and extended the
borders of Lithuania to the shores of the Black Sea. The principal
efforts of this eminent empire-maker were directed to securing
those of the Russian lands which had formed part of the ancient
grand-duchy of Kiev. He procured the election of his son
Andrew as prince of Pskov, and a powerful minority of the citizens
of the republic of Novgorod held the balance in his favour against
the Muscovite influence, but his ascendancy in both these
commercial centres was at the best precarious. On the other
hand he acquired permanently the important principalities of
Smolensk and Bryansk in central Russia. His relations with
the grand-dukes of Muscovy were friendly on the whole, and
twice he married orthodox Russian princesses; but this did not
prevent him from besieging Moscow in 1368 and again in 1372,
both times unsuccessfully. Olgierd's most memorable feat was
his great victory over the Tatars at Siniya Vodui on the Bug in
1362, which practically broke up the great Kipchak horde and
compelled the khan to migrate still farther south and establish his
headquarters for the future in the Crimea. Indeed, but for the
unceasing simultaneous struggle with the Teutonic knights,
the burden of which was heroically borne by Kiejstut, Russian
historians frankly admit that Lithuania, not Muscovy, must have
become the dominant power of eastern Europe. Olgierd died
in 1377, accepting both Christianity and the tonsure shortly
before his death. His son JagieUo ultimately ascended the
Polish throne, and was the founder of the dynasty which ruled
Poland for nearly 200 years.
See Kazimierz Stadnicki, The Sons of Gedymin (Pol.) (Lemberg,
1849-1853); Vladimir Bonifatevich Antonovich, Monograph on the
History of Western Russia (Rus.), vol. i. (Kiev, 1885). (R. N. B.)
OLHAO, a seaport of southern Portugal, in the district of
Faro; 5 m. E. of Faro, on the Atlantic coast. Pop. (1900) 10,009.
Olhao has a good harbour at the head of the Barra Nova, a deep
channel among the sandy islands which fringe the coast. Wine,
fruit, cork, baskets and sumach are exported in small coasting
OLIGARCHY— OLIGOCENE SYSTEM
8iH
vessels; there are important sardine and tunny fisheries; and
boats, sails and cordage .are manufactured.
OLIGARCHY (Gr. 6X1701, few, apxri, rule), in political philo-
sophy, the term applied to a government exercised by a relatively
small number of the members of a community. It is thus the
appropriate term for what is now generally known as " aristo-
cracy " iq.v.). The meaning of the terms has substantially
altered since Plato's day, for in the Republic " oligarchy "
meant the rule of the wealthy, and " aristocracy " that of the
really best people.
OLIGOCENE SYSTEM (from the Gr. 6X170S, few, and Kai.vb$,
recent), in geology, the name given to the second division of the
older Tertiary rocks, viz. those which occur above the Eocene
and below the Miocene strata. These rocks were originally classed
by Sir C. Lyell as " older Miocene," the term Oligocene being
proposed by H. E. Beyrich in 1854 and again in 1858. Following
A. de Lapparent, the Oligocene is here regarded as divisible
into two stages, an upper one, the Etampian (from Etampes),
equivalent to the Rupelian of A. Dumont (1849), and a lower
one, the Sannoisian (from Sannois near Paris), equivalent to
the Tongrian (from Tongris in Limburg) of Dumont (1859).
This lower division is the Ligurian of some authors, and corre-
sponds with the Lattorfian (Latdorf) of K. Mayer in north
Germany; it is in part the equivalent of the older term Ludian
of de Lapparent. It should be pointed out that several authors
retain the Aquitanian stage (see Miocene) at the top of the
Oligocene, but there are sufficiently good reasons for removing
it to the younger system.
The Oligocene deposits are of fresh-water, brackish, marine
and terrestrial origin; they include soft sands, sandstones, grits,
marls, shales, limestones, conglomerates and lignites. The
geographical aspect of Europe during this period is indicated
on the accompanying map. Here and there, as in N. Germany,
After A.de L^rpareru
Emery "V^tkcr sc
the sea gained ground that had been unoccupied by Eocene
waters, but important changes, associated with the continuation
of elevatory processes in the Pyrenees and Alps which had
begun in the preceding period, were in progress, and a general
relative uplifting took place which caused much of the Eocene
sea floor to be occupied at this time by lake basins and lagoons.
The movements, however, were not all of a negative character
as regards the water areas, for oscillations were evidently
frequent, and subsidence must have been considerable in some
regions to admit of the accumulation of the great thickness of
material found deposited there. Perhaps the most striking
change from Eocene topography in Europe is to be seen in the
extension of the Oligocene sea over North Germany, whence
it extended eastward through Poland and Russia to the Aral-
Caspian region, communicating thence with Arctic waters by
way of a Ural depression. The Asian extension of the central
mediterranean sea appears to have begun to be limited. It was
later in the period when the wide-spread emersion set in.
In Britain Oligocene formations are found only in the Hampshire
Basin and the Isle of Wight; from the admixture of fresh-water,
marine and estuarine deposits, E. Forbes named these the " Fluvio-
marine series." The following are the more important subdivisions,
in descending order; The Hamstcad (Hampstead) beds, marine at
the top, with Ostrea callifera, Natica, &c., estuarine and fresh- .
water below, with Unto, Viviparus and the remains of crocodiles,
turtles and mammals. The Bembridge marls, fresh-water, estuarine
and marine, resting upon the Bembridge limestone, with many
fresh-water fossils such as Limnaea, Planorbis, Chara, large land
snails, Amphidromus, Helix, Glandina, and many insects and plant
leaves. The Osborne beds, marls, clays and limestones, with Unio,
Limnaea, &c. The Headon beds (upper), fresh-water clays, marls
and limestones (middle), brackish and marine, more sandy (lower),
brackish and fresh-water clays, marls, tufaceous limestones and
.sandstones. The clays and sands of the Bovey Basin in Uevonshire
were formerly classed as Miocene, but they are now regarded by
C. Reid as Eocene on the evidence of the plant remains, though there
is still a possibility that they may be found to be of Oligocene ape.
In France the best-known tract of Oligocene rocks rests in the
Paris basin in close relationship with the underlying Eocene. These
rocks include the first and second gypsum beds, the source of " plaster
of Paris"; at Montmartre the first or upper bed is 20 metres in
thickness, and some of the beds contain siliceous nodules (fusils)
and numerous mammalian remains. Above the gypsum beds is the
travertine of Champigny-sur-Marne, a series of blue and white marls
(supra-gypseous marls), followed by the " glaises verts " or greenish
marls. At the top of the lower Oligocene of this district is the
lacustrine " calcaire de Brie " or middle travertine, which at Ferte-
sous-Jouane is exploited for millstones; this is associated with the
Fontainebleau limestone, which at Chateau-Landon and Souppes is
sufficiently compact to form an important building stone, used in the
Arc de Triomphe and other structures in Paris. The upper Oligocene
of Paris begins with the marnes d huitres, followed by the brackish
ami fresh-water molasse of Etrechy, and a series of sandy beds, of
which the best known are those of Fontainebleau, fitampes and
Ormoy; in these occur the groups of calcite crystals, charged with
sand, familiar in all mineral collections. Elsewhere in France similar
mixed marine, fresh-water and brackish beds are found: in Aqui-
taine there are marine and lacustrine marls, limestones and molasse;
marine beds occur at Biarritz; lacustrine and fresh-water marls and
limestones with lignite appear in the sub-Pyrenees; in Provence
there are brackish red clays, conglomerates and lignites, with
limestones in the upper parts; and in Limagne there are mottled
sands, arkoses, clays and fresh-water limestones. In the Jura region
and on the borders of the central massif a peculiar group of deposits,
the terrain siderolithique , is found in beds and in pockets in Jurassic
limestones. Sometimes this deposit consists of red clay (bolus) with
nests of pisolitic iron, as in Jura and Franche-comte, Alsace, &c. ;
occasionally, as in Bourgogne, Berry, the valley of the Aubois,
Chatillon, it is made up of a breccia or conglomerate of Jurassic
pebbles cemented with limonite and carbonate of lime or silica
(an intimate mixture of marl and iron ore in these districts is called
" castillard "). At Quercy the cementing material is phosphate of
lime derived from the bones of mammals {Adapis, Necrolemur,
Palaeotherium, Xiphodon, &c.), which are so numerous that it has
been suggested that these animals must have been suffocated by
gaseous emanations. Similar ferruginous deposits occur in South
Germany.
In the Alpine region the Oligocene rocks assume the character
of the Flysch, a complex assemblage of marly and sandy shales and
soft sandstones with calcareous cement (" macigno "). The Flysch
phase of deposition had begun before the close of the preceding
period, but the bulk of it belongs to the Oligocene, and is especially
characteristic of the lower part. The Flysch may attain a very great
thickness; in Dauphine it is said to be 2000 metres. Obscure plant-
like impressions are common on certain horizons of this formation,
and have received such names as Chondrites, _ Fucoids, Helmin-
thoidea. The " gres de Taveyannaz " and " Wildflysch " of Lake
Thun contain fragments of eruptive rocks. Marine beds occur at
Barreme, Desert, Chambery, &c., and parallel with the normal Flysch
in the higher Alps of Vaudois is a nummulitic limestone; both
here and near Interlaken, in the marble of Ralligstocke, calcareous
algae are abundant. Part of the " schistes des Orisons " (" Bundner
Schiefer ") have been regarded as of Oligocene age. In the Leman
region the " Flysch rouge " at the foot of the Dent du Midi belongs
to the upper part of the Flysch formation.
In North Germany the lower Oligocene consists largely of sandy
marls, often glauconitic ; typical localities are Egeln near Magdeburg
and Latdorf near Bernburg; at Samland the glauconitic sand con-
tains nodules of amber, with insects, derived from Eocene strata.
The upper Oligocene beds, which cover a wide area, comprise the
Stettin sands and Septarian Clay or Rupelton, marine beds tending
to merge laterally one into another. In the Mainz basin a petroleum-
Isearing sandy marl is found at Pechelbronn and Lobsann in Alsace
underlying a fresh-water limestone which is followed by the marine
" Meeressand " of Alzey. Lignites (Braunkohl) are widely spread in
this region and appear at Latdorf, Leipzig, in Westphalia and
Mecklenburg; at Halle is a variety called pyropissite, which is
exploited at Weisse.nfels for the manufacture of paraffin.
82
1 OLIGOCLASE— OLIPHANT, L.
In Belgium a sandy series (Wemmelian, Asschian, Henisian),
mainly of brackish-water origin, is succeeded by the marine sands of
Bergh (with the clay of Boom), which pass up through the inferior
sands of Bolderberg into the Miocene. In Switzerland, beyond the
limits of the Flysch, nearer the Alpine massif, is a belt of grits,
limestones and clays in an uncompacted condition, to which the name
" molasse " is usually given; mixed with the molasse is an inconstant
conglomeratic littoral formation, called Nagelfluh. The molasse
occurs also in Bavaria, where it is several thousand feet thick and
contains lignites. Oligocene deposits occur in the Carpathian region
and Tirol; as Flysch and brackish and lacustrine beds with lignite
in Klausenburg, lignites at Haring in Tirol. In the Spanish Pyrenees
they arc well developed; in the Apennines the scaly clays (" argille
scagliose ") are of this age; while in Calabria they are represented
by thick conglomerates and Flysch. Flysch appears also in Dalmatia
and Istria (where it is called " tassello ") and in North Bosnia,
where it contains marine limestones. Lignites are found at Sotzka
and Styria, marine beds in the Balkan peninsula, glauconitic sands
prevail in South Russia, Flysch with sands and grits in the Caucasus,
while marine deposits also occupy the Aral-Caspian region and Ar-
menia, and are to be traced into Persia. Oligocene rocks are known
in North Africa, Algeria, Tunis and Egypt, with the silicified trees
and basalt sheets north of the Fayum. In North America the rocks
of this period have not been very clearly differentiated, but they
may possibly be represented by the White river beds of S. Dakota,
the white and blue marls of Jackson on the Mississippi, the " Jack-
sonian " white limestone of Alabama, the limestone of Ocala in
Florida, certain lacustrine clays in the Uinta basin, and by the rib-
band shales with asphalt and petroleum in the coastal range of
California. In South America and the Antilles upper Oligocene is
found, and the lignite beds of Coronel and Lota in Chile and in the
Straits of Magellan may be of this age; in Patagonia are the lower
Oligocene marine beds (" Patagonian ") and beds with mammalian
remains. In New Zealand the Oamaru series of J. Hutton is regarded
as Oligocene; at its base are interstratified basic volcanic rocks.
A correlation of Oligocene strata is summarized in the following
table : —
in the Eocene seas [Coelopleurus, Echinolampus , Clypeaster, Scutella).
Corals were abundant, and nummulites still continued till near the
close of the period, but they were diminished in size.
References.—" Geology of the Isle of Wight," Mem. Geol.
Survey (2nd ed. 1889); A. von Koenen, Abhand. geol. Specialkart
Preuss. X. (1889-1894); M. VoUest, Der Braunkohlenbergbaum
(Halle, 1889); E. van den Brocek, " Mat<5riaux pour I'etude de
l'01igoc6ne beige," Bull. Soc. Belg. Geol. (1894); also the works of
O. Heer, H. Filhol, G. Vasseur, H. F. Osborn, A. Gaudry, H. Douvill^,
R. B. Newton, H. Dall, M. Cossmann, G. Lambert, &c., and the
article Flysch. (j. a. H.)
OLIGOCLASE, a rock-forming mineral belonging to the
plagioclase {q.v.) division of the felspars. In chemical com-
position and in its crystallographical and physical characters
it is intermediate between albite (NaAlSiaOg) and anorthite
(CaAljSioOs), being an isomorphous mixture of three to six ;
molecules of the former with one of the latter. It is thus a soda- ;
lime felspar crystallizing in the anorthic system. Varieties \
intermediate between oligoclase and albite are known as oMgo-
clase-albite. The name ohgoclase was given by A. Breithaupt
in 1826 from the Gr. 6X1705, Httle, and K\i.v, to break, because the
mineral was thought to have a less perfect cleavage than albite.
It had previously been recognized as a distinct species by J. J. ;
Berzehus in 1824, and was named by him soda-spodumene ■
{Natron -spodumen), because of its resemblance in appearance,
to spodumene. The hardness is 6| and the sp. gr. 2-65-2-67.
In colour it is usually whitish, with shades of grey, green or red.
Perfectly colourless and transparent glassy material found at
BakersviUe in North Carolina has occasionally been faceted as
a gem-stone. Another variety more frequently used as a gem-
stone is the aventurine-felspar or " sun-stone " {q.v.) found as
reddish cleavage masses in gneiss at Tvedestrand in southern
Oligocene System 8.
England.
ParU Basin.
Belgium.
North German Region.
Other Localities.
Alps and S.
Europe.
Hamstead Beds.
Sands and sandstones of
Ormoy, rontainebieau and
Pierrefltte.
Sands of MoriKny, Falun of
Jeurre, Oyster marls.
Molasse of Etrechy.
Lower sands of
Bolderberg.
Sands of Bergh
with
Clay of Boom.
Septarian Clay,
or
Rupelton.
Stettin sands.
Cyrena marls of Mainz.
Lignites of Haring.
Gypsiferous limestone of Aix,
and
Lower marine Molasse of
Basel.
Bembridge Beds.
Osborne Beds.
Headon Beds.
Limestone of Brie,
marine beds of Sannois,
''Glaises vertes." and
Cyrene marls.
Supragj-pseous marls,
limestones of Champigny,
'"First" and "Second"
masses of gypsum.
Sands of \'ieu-x-Jones.
Clays of Henis.
Sands of Grimmertingen.
Sands of Wemrael.
Clays of Egeln and
Latdorf.
Amber-bearing
Glauconitic sands of
Samland.
Lignites of Celas
(Languedoc).
Lignites of Brunstatt.
Marls of Priabona,
limestones of Crosara.
The land flora of this period was a rich one consisting largely of
evergreens with characters akin to those of tropical India and
Australia and subtropical America. Sequoias, sabal palms, ferns,
cinnamon-trees, gum-trees, oaks, figs, laurels and willows were
common. Chara is a common fossil in the fresh-water beds. The
most interesting feature of the land fauna was undoubtedly the
astonishing variety of mammalians, especially the long series from
the White river beds and others in the interior of North America.
Pachyderms were very numerous. Many of the mammals were of
mixed types, Hyaenodon (between marsupials and placentals),
Adapis (between pachyderms and lemurs), and many were clearly
the forerunners of living genera. Rhinocerids were represented in
the upper Oligocene by the hornless Aceratherium; Palaeomastodon
and Arsinoitheriuvi, from Eg\'pt are early proboscidian forms
which may have lived in this period; Anchitherium, Anchippus, &c.,
were forerunners of the horse. Palaeotherium, Anthracotherium,
Palaeogale, Sleneofiber, Cytwdiclis, Dinictis, Ictops, Palaeolagus,
Sciurus, Colodoii, Hyopotamus, Oreodon, Poehrotheriiim, Protoceras,
Hypertragulns and the gigantic Titanotherids {Titanotherhim,
Bronlotherium, &c.) are some of the important genera, representatives
of most of the modern groups, including carnivores (Canidae and
Felidae), insectivores, rodents, ruminants, camels. Tortoises were
abundant, and the genus Rana made its appearance. Rays and dog-
fish were the dominant marine fish; logoonal brackish-water fish
are represented by Prolebias, Smerdis, &c. Insects abounded and
arachnids were rapidh' developing. Gasteropods were increasing in
importance, most of the genera still existing {Cerithium, Potamides,
Melania, large Naticas, Pleurolomaria, Valuta, Turritella, Rostdlaria,
Pyrula). Cephalopods, on the other hand, show a falling off.
Pelecypods include the genera Cardila, Pectunctdus, Lucina, Ostrea,
Cyrena, Cytherea. Bryozoa were very abundant {Membranipora,
Lepralia, Hornera, Idmonea). Echinoids were less numerous than
Norway; this presents a brilliant red metalhc ghtter, due to the
presenceof numerous small scales of haematite or gothite enclosed
in the felspar.
Oligoclase occurs, often accompanying orthoclase, as a con-
stituent of igneous rocks of various kinds; for instance, amongst
plutonic rocks in granite, syenite, diorite; amongst dike-rocks
in porphyry and diabase; and amongst volcanic rocks in andesite
and trachyte. It also occurs in gneiss. The best developed and
largest crystals are those found with orthoclase, quartz, epidote
and calcite in veins in granite at Arendal in Norway. (L. J. S.)
OLIPHANT, LAURENCE (1S29-1SSS), British author, son
of Anthony Ohphant (i 793-1859),' was born at Cape Town.
^ The family to which Oliphant belonged is old and famous in
Scottish history. Sir Laurence Oliphant of Aberdalgie, Perthshire,
who was created a lord of the Scottish parliament before 1458, was
descended from Sir William Oliphant of Aberdalgie and on the
female side from King Robert the Bruce. Sir William (d. 1329) is
renowned for his brave defence of Stirling castle against Edward I.
in 1304. Sir Laurence was sent to conclude a treaty with England
in 1484; he helped to establish the young king James IV. on his
throne, and he died about 1500. His son John, the 2nd lord (d. 1516),
having lost his son and heir, Colin, at Flodden, was succeeded
by his grandson Laurence (d. 1566), who was taken prisoner by the
English at the rout of Solway Moss in 1542. Laurence's son, Laur-
ence, the 4th lord (1529-1593), was a partisan of Mary queen of
Scots, and was succeeded by his grandson Laurence (1583-1631),
who left no sons when he died. The 6th lord was Patrick Oliphant,
a descendant of the 4th lord, and the title was held by his descendants
8: OLIPHANT, M. O.
H3
His father was then attorney-general in Cape Colony, but was
soon transferred as chief justice to Ceylon. The boy's education
was of the most desultory kind. Far the least useless portion
of it belonged to the years 1848 and 1849, when he accompanied
his parents on a tour on the continent of Europe. In 1851
he accompanied Jung Bahadur from Colombo to Ncpaul. He
passed an agreeable time there, and saw enough that was new
to enable him to write his first book, A Journey to Katmandu
(1852). From Nepaul he returned to Ceylon and thence to
England, dallied a little with the English bar, so far at least
as to eat dinners at Lincoln's Inn, and then with the Scottish
bar, so far at least as to pass an examination in Roman law.
He was more happily inspired when he threw over his legal
studies and went to travel in Russia. The outcome of that tour
was his book on The Russian Shores oj the Black Sea (1853).
Between 1853 and 1861 he was successively secretary to Lord
Elgin during the negotiation of the Canada Reciprocity treaty
at Washington, the companion of the duke of Newcastle on a
visit to the Circassian coast during the Crimean War, and Lord
Elgin's private secretary on his expedition to China. Each
of these experiences produced a pleasant book of travel. In
1861 he was appointed first secretary in Japan, and might have
made a successful diplomatic career if it had not been interrupted,
almost at the outset, by a night attack on the legation, in which
he nearly lost his life. It seems probable that he never properly
recovered from this affair. He returned to England and resigned
the service, and was elected to parliament in 1865 for the Stirling
Burghs.
Oliphant did not show any conspicuous parliamentary ability,
but made a great success by his vivacious and witty novel,
Piccadilly (1870). He fell, however, under the influence of the
spiritualist prophet Thomas Lake Harris (q.v.), who about 1861
had organized a small community, the Brotherhood of the New
Life,' which at this time was settled at Brocton on Lake Erie
and subsequently moved to Santa Rosa in California. Harris
obtained so strange an ascendancy over Oliphant that the latter
left parliament in 1868, followed him to Brocton, and lived there
the life of a farm labourer, in obedience to the imperious will of
his spiritual guide. The cause of this painful and grotesque
aberration has never been made quite clear. It was part of the
Brocton regime that members of the community should be
allowed to return into the world from time to time, to make
money for its advantage. After three years this was permitted
to Oliphant, who, when once more in Europe, acted as corres-
pondent of The Times during the Franco-German War, and spent
afterwards several years at Paris in the service of that journal.
There he met Miss Alice le Strange, whom he married. In 1873
he went back to Brocton, taking with him his wife and mother.
During the years which followed he continued to be employed
in the service of the community and its head, but on work very
different from that with which he had been occupied on his first
sojourn. His new work was chiefly financial, and took him much
to New York and a good deal to England. As late as December
1878 he continued to believe that Harris was an incarnation of
the Deity. By that time, however, his mind was occupied with
a large project of colonization in Palestine, and he made in 1879
an extensive journey in that country, going also to Constantinople,
until the death of Francis, the loth lord, in April 1748. It has
since been claimed by several persons, but without success.
Another member of the family was Laurence Oliphant (1691-
1767) the Jacobite, who belonged to a branch settled at Gask in
Perthshire. He took part in the rising of I7i5,and both he and his
son Laurence (d. 1792) were actively concerned in that of 1745,
being present at the battles of Falkirk and Culloden. After the ruin
of the Stuart cause they escaped to France, but were afterwards
allowed to return to Scotland. One of this Oliphant's descendants
was Carolina, Baroness Nairne (q.v.).
' It should be mentioned that the unfavourable view of Harris
taken by Oliphant's own biographer, and certainly not shaken by
subsequent evidence, has been strongly repudiated by some who
knew him. Mr J. Cuming Walters, for instance, in the Westminster
Gazette (London, July 28, 1906) defends the purity of his character.
It is difficult to arrive at the exact truth as to Oliphant's relations
with him, or the financial scandal which ended them; and it must
be admitted that Oliphant himself was at least decidedly cranky.
in the vain hope of obtaining a lease of the northern half of the
Holy Land with a view to settling large numbers of Jews there.
This he conceived would be an easy task from a financial point
of view, as there were so many persons in England and America
" anxious to fulfil the prophecies, and bring about the end of the
world." He landed once more in England without having
accomplished anything definite; but his wife, who had been
banished from him for years and had been living in California,
was allowed to rejoin him, and they went to Egypt together.
In 1881 he crossed again to America. It was on this visit that
he became utterly disgusted with Harris, and finally split from
him. He was at first a little afraid that his wife would not
follow him in his renunciation of " the prophet," but this
was not the case, and they settled themselves very agree-
ably, with one house in the midst of the German community
at Haifa, and another about twelve miles ofi' at Dalieh on Mount
Carmel.
It was at Haifa in 1884 that they wrote together the strange
book called Sympneumata: Evolutionary Forces now active in
Man, and in the next year Oliphant produced there his novel
Masollam, which may be taken to contain its author's latest
views with regard to the personage whom he long considered
as " a new Avatar." One of his cleverest works, Altiora Peto.
had been pubhshed in 1883. In 1886 an attack of fever, caught
on the shores of the Lake of Tiberias, resulted in the death of his
wife, whose constitution had been undermined by the hardships
of her American life. He was persuaded that after death he was
in much closer relation with her than when she was still alive,
and conceived that it was under her influence that he wrote
the book to which he gave the name of Scientific Religion. In
November 1887 he went to England to publish that book.
By the Whitsuntide of 1888 he had completed it and started
for America. There he determined to marry again, his second
wife being a granddaughter of Robert Owen the Socialist. They
were married at Malvern, and meant to have gone to Haifa, but
Oliphant was taken very ill at Twickenham, and died on the
23rd of December 1888. Although a very clever man and a
delightful companion, full of high aspiration and noble feeling,
Oliphant was only partially sane. In any case, his education
was ludicrously inappropriate for a man who aspired to be an
authority on religion and philosophy. He had gone through
no philosophical discipline in his early life, and knew next to
nothing of the subjects with regard to which he imagined it
was in his power to pour a flood of new light upon the world.
His shortcomings and eccentricities, however, did not prevent
his being a brilliant writer and talker, and a notable figure in
any society.
See Mrs (Margaret) Oliphant, Memoir of the Life of Laurence
Oliphant and of Alice Oliphant his Wife (1892). (M. G. D.)
OLIPHANT, MARGARET OLIPHANT (1828-1897), British
novelist and historical writer, daughter of Francis Wilson, was
born at Wallyford,near Musselburgh, Midlothian, in 1828. Her
childhood was spent at Lasswade (near Dalkeith), Glasgow
and Liverpool. As a girl she constantly occupied herself with
literary experiments, and in 1840 published her first novel,
Passages in the Life of Mrs Margaret Maitland. It dealt with the
Scottish Free Church movement, with which Mr and Mrs Wilson
both sympathized, and had some success. This she followed
up in 1851 with Caleb Field, and in the same year met Major
Blackwood in Edinburgh, and was invited by him to contribute
to the famous Blackwood's Magazine. The connexion thus
early commenced lasted during her whole lifetime, and she
contributed considerably more than 100 articles to its pages.
In May 1852 she married her cousin, Frank Wilson Oliphant.
at Birkenhead, and settled at Harrington Square, in London.
Her husband was an artist, principally in stained glass. He
had very delicate health, and twoof their children died in infancj',
while the father himself developed alarming symptoms of
consumption. For the sake of his health the\' moved in January
1S50 to Florence, and thence to Rome, where Frank Oliphant
died. His wife, left almost entirely without resources, returned
to England and took up the burden of supporting her three
H
OLTPHANT— OLIVARES
children by her own literary activity. She had now become a
popular writer, and worked with amazing industry to sustain
her position. Unfortunately, her home life was full of sorrow
and disappointment. In January 1864 her only daughter died
in Rome, and was buried in her father's grave. Her brother,
who had emigrated to Canada, was shortly afterwards involved
in financial ruin, and Mrs Oliphant offered a home to him and
his children, and added their support to her already heavy
responsibilities. In 1866 she settled at Windsor to be near her
sons who were being educated at Eton. This was her home for
the rest of her life, and for more than thirty years she pursued
a varied literary career with courage scarcely broken by a series
of the gravest troubles. The ambitions she cherished for her
sons were unfulfilled. Cyril Francis, the elder, died in 1890,
leaving a Life of Alfred de Mussel, incorporated in his mother's
Foreign Classics for English Readers. The younger, Frank,
collaborated with her in the Victorian Age of English Literature
and won a position at the British Museum, but was rejected by
the doctors. He died in 1894. With the last of her children
lost to her, she had but little further interest in life. Her health
steadily declined, and she died at Wimbledon, on the 25th of
June 1897.
In the course of her long struggle with circumstances, Mrs
Oliphant produced more than 120 separate works, including
novels, books of travel and description, histories and volumes
of literary criticism. Among the best known of her works of
fiction are Adam Graeme (1852), Magdalen Hepburn (1854),
Lilliesleaf (1855), The Laird of Norlaut (1858) and a series of
stories with the collective title of The Chronicles of Carlingford,
which, originally appearing in ^/actoooff'j Magazine (1862-1865),
did much to widen her reputation. This series included Salem
Chapel (1863), The Rector; and the Doctor's Family (1863),
The Perpetual Curate (1S64) and Miss Marjoribanks (1S66).
Other successful novels were Madonna Mary (1867), Squire Ardcn
(1871), He that will not when he may (1880), Hester (i8&i),Kirslecn
(1890), The Marriageof Elinor {i8g2) und The Ways of Life{i8g-]).
Her tendency to mysticism found expression in The Beleaguered
City (1880) and A Little Pilgrim in the Unseen (1882). Her
biographies of Edward Irving (1862) a.nd Laurence Oliphant (1892),
together with her Hfe of Sheridan in the "English Men of Letters "
(1883), have vivacity and a sympathetic touch. She also wrote
historical and critical works of considerable variety, including
Historical Sketches of the Reign of George II. (1869), The Makers
of Florence (1876), A Literary History of England from lygo to
1825 (1882), The Makers of Venice (1887), Royal Edinburgh
(1890), Jerusalem (1891) and The Mak-ers of Modern Rome{i8gs),
while at the time of her death she was still occupied upon Annals
of a Publishing House, a record of the progress and achievement
of the firm of Blackwood, with which she had been so long and
honourably connected.
Her Autobiography and Letters, which present a touching picture of
her domestic anxieties, appeared in 1899.
OLIPHANT, Olifant (Ger. H elf ant), the large' signal horn of
the middle ages, made, as its name indicates, from the tusk of
an elephant. The oliphant was the instrument of knights and
men of high degree, and was usually ornamented with scenes of
hunting or war carved either lengthways or round the horn in
sections divided by bands of gold and studded with gems. The
knights used their oliphants in the hunting field and in battle,
and the loss of this precious horn was considered as shameful as
the loss of sword or banner.
OLIVA, FERNAN PEREZ DE (1492?-! 530), Spanish man of
letters, was born at Cordova about 1492. After studying at
Salamanca, Alcala, Paris and Rome, he was appointed rector
at Salamanca, where he died in 1 530. His Didlogo de la dignidad
del hombre (1543), an unfinished work completed by Francisco
Cervantes de Salazar, was written chiefly to prove the suitability
of Spanish as a vehicle for philosophic discussion. He also
published translations of the Amphitruo (1525), the Electra
(1528) and the Hecuba (1528).
OLIVARES. CASPAR DE GUZMAN, count of Olivares and
duke of San Lucar (1587-1645), Spanish royal favourite and
minister, was born in Rome, where his father was Spanish
ambassador, on the 6th of January 1587. His compound title is
e.xplained by the fact that he inherited the title of count of
Olivares, but was created duke of San Lucar by the favour of
Philip IV'. He begged the king to allow him to preserve his
inherited title in combination with the new honour — according
to a practice of which there are a few other examples in Spanish
history. Therefore he was commonly spoken of as el conde-
duque. During the life of PhUip III. he was appointed to a post
in the household of the heir apparent, Phihp, by the interest of
his maternal uncle Don Baltasar de Zuniga, who was the head of
the prince's establishment. Olivares made it his business to
acquire the most complete influence over the yotuig prince.
When Philip IV. ascended the throne in 1621, at the age of six-
teen, he showed his confidence in Olivares by ordering that all
papers requiring the royal signature should first be sent to the
count-duke. Ohvares could now boast to his uncle Don
Baltasar de Zuniga that he was " all." He became what is
known in Spain as a valido — something more than a prime
minister, the favourite and alter ego of the king. For twenty-two
years he directed the pohcy of Spain. It was a period of constant
war, and finaUy of disaster abroad and of rebeUion at home.
The Spaniards, who were too thoroughly monarchical to blame
the king, held his favourite responsible for the misfortunes of the
country. The count-duke became, and for long remained, in
the opinion of his countrymen, the accepted model of a grasping
and incapable favourite. Of late, largely under the inspiration
of Don Antonio Canovas, there has been a certain reaction in his
favour. It would certainly be most unjust to blame Olivares
alone for the decadence of Spain, which was due to internal
causes of long standing. The gross errors of his pohcy — the
renewal of the war with Holland in 1621, the persistence of Spain
in taking part in the Thirty Years' War, the lesser wars undertaken
in northern Italy, and the entire neglect of all efTort to promote
the unification of the different states forming the peninsular
kingdom — were shared by him with the king, the Church and
the commercial classes. When he had fallen from power he
wrote an apology, in which he maintained that he had always
wished to see more attention paid to internal government, and
above all to the complete unification of Portugal with Spain.
But if this was not an afterthought, he must, on his own showing,
stand accused of having carried out during long years a policy
which he knew to be disastrous to his country, rather than risk
the loss of the king's favour and of his place. Olivares did not
share the king's taste for art and literature, but he formed a vast
collection of state papers, ancient and contemporary, which he
endeavoured to protect from destruction by entaUing them as an
heirloom. He also formed a splendid aviary which, under the
name of the " hencoop," was a favourite subject of ridicule with
his enemies. Towards the end of his period of favour he caused
great offence by legitimizing a supposed bastard son of very
doubtful paternity and worthless personal character, and by
arranging a rich marriage for him. The faU of Olivares was
immediately due to the revolts of Portugal and Catalonia in 1640.
The king parted with him reluctantly, and only under the pressure
of a strong court intrigue headed by Queen Isabella. It was
noted with anxiety by his enemies that he was succeeded in the
king's confidence by his nephew the count of Haro. There
remains, however, a letter from the king, in which Philip tells his
old favourite, with frivolous ferocity, that it might be necessary
to sacrifice his life in order to avert unpopularity from the royal
house. Olivares was driven from office in 1643. He retired by
the king's order to Toro. Here he endeavoured to satisfy his
passion for activity, partly by sharing in the municipal govern-
ment of the town and the regulation of its commons, woods and
pastures, and partly by the composition of the apology he
published under the title of El Nicandro, which was perhaps
written by an agent, but was undeniably inspired by the fallen
minister. The Nicandro was denounced to the Inquisition, and
it is not impossible that Olivares might have ended in the prisons
of the Holy Office, or on the scaffold, if he had not died on the
22nd of July 1645.
OLIVE
85
See the Esiudios del reinado de Felipe I V. of Don Antonio Canovas
(Madrid, 1889); and Don F. Silvela's introduction, much less
favourable to Olivares, to his edition of the Cartas de Sor Maria de
Agreda y del rey Felipe IV. (Madrid, 1885-1886).
OLIVE {Olea europaea), the plant that yields the olive oil of
commerce, belonging to a section of the natural order Oleaceae,
of which it has been taken as the type. The genus Olea includes
about thirty species, very widely scattered, chiefly over the
Old World, from the basin of the Mediterranean to South
Africa and New Zealand. The wild olive is a small tree or
bush of rather straggling growth, with thorny branchei and
opposite oblong pointed leaves, dark greyish-green above and,
in the young state, hoary beneath with whitish scales; the small
white flowers, with four-cleft calyx and corolla, two stamens
and bifid stigma, are borne on the last year's wood, in racemes
springing from the axils of the leaves; the drupaceous fruit
is small in the wild plant, and the fleshy pericarp, which gives
the cultivated olive its economic value, is hard and comparatively
thin. In the cultivated forms the tree acquires a more compact
habit, the branches lose their spinous character, while the young
shoots become more or less angular; the leaves are always
hoary on the under-side,
and are generally lanceo-
late in shape, though
varying much in breadth
and size in the different
kinds. The fruit is sub-
ject to still greater
changes of form and
colour; usually oval or
nearly globular, in some
sorts it is egg-shaped, in
others much elongated;
while the dark hue that
it commonly assumes
when ripe is exchanged
in many varieties for
violet, green or almost
white. At present the
wild olive is found in
most of the countries
around the Mediter-
ranean, extending its
A, Shoot of olive (0/eaettro/>aeo) (from range on the west to
nature), reduced; B, opened flower; C, Portugal, and eastward
vertical section of pistil. B and C en- to the vicinity of the
'^'■S'^'^- Caspian, whUe, locally,
it occurs even in Afghanistan. An undoubted native of
Syria and the maritime parts of Asia Minor, its abund-
ance in Greece and the islands of the Archipelago, and the
frequent allusions to it by the earliest poets, seem to
indicate that it was there also indigenous; but in localities
remote from the Levant it may have escaped from cultivation,
reverting more or less to its primitive type. It shows a marked
preference for calcareous soils and a partiahty for the sea-breeze,
flourishing with especial luxuriance on the limestone slopes
and crags that often form the shores of the Greek peninsula
and adjacent islands.
The varieties of olive known to the modem cultivator are
extremely numerous — according to some authorities equalling
or exceeding in number those of the vine. In France and Italy
at least thirty kinds have been enumerated, but comparatively
few are grown to any large extent. None of these can be safely
identified with ancient descriptions, though it is not unlikely
that some of the narrow-leaved sorts that are most esteemed
may be descendants of the famed " Licinian " (see below).
Italy retains its old pre-eminence in olive cultivation; and,
though its ancient Gallic province now excels it in the production
of the finer oils, its fast-improving culture may restore the old
prestige. The broad-leaved olive trees of Spain bear a larger
fruit, but the pericarp is of more bitter flavour and the oil of
ranker quality. The olive tree, even when free increase is
unchecked by pruning, is of very slow growth; but, where
allowed for ages its natural development, the trunk sometimes
attains a considerable diameter. De Candolle records one
exceeding 23 ft. in girth, the age being supposed to amount
to seven centuries. Some old Italian ohves have been credited
with an antiquity reaching back to the first years of the empire,
or even to the days of repubhcan Rome; but the age of such
ancient trees is always doubtful during growth, and their identity
with old descriptions still more difficult to establish. The tree
in cultivation rarely exceeds 30 ft. in height, and in France
and Italy is generally confined to much more limited dimensions
by frequent pruning. The wood, of a yellow or light greenish-
brown hue, is often finely veined with a darker tint, and, being
very hard and close grained, is valued by the cabinetmaker
and ornamental turner.
The olive is propagated in various ways, but cuttings or layers are
generally preferred ; the tree roots in favourable soil almost as easily
as the willow, and throws up suckers from the stump when cut down.
Branches of various thickness are cut into lengths of several feet
each, and, planted rather deeply in manured ground, soon vegetate;
shorter pieces are sometimes laid horizontally in shallow trenches,
when, covered with a few inches of soil, they rapidly throw up sucker-
like shoots. In Greece and the islands grafting the cultivated tree
on the wild form is a common practice. In Italy embryonic buds,
which form small swellings on the stems, are carefully excised and
planted beneath the surface, where they grow readily, these " uovoli "
soon forming a vigorous shoot. Occasionally the larger boughs are
inarched, and young trees thus soon obtained. The olive is also
sometimes raised from seed, the oily pericarp being first softened by
slight rotting, or soaking in hot water or in an alkaline solution, to
facilitate germination. The olives in the East often receive little
attention from the husbandman, the branches being allowed to grow
freely and without curtailment by the pruning-knife; water, how-
ever, must be supplied in long droughts to ensure a crop; with this
neglectful culture the trees bear abundantly only at intervals of
three or four years; thus, although wild growth is favourable to
the picturesque aspect of the plantation, it is not to be recommended
on economic grounds. Where the olive is carefully cultivated, as in
Languedoc and Provence, it is planted in rows at regular intervals,
the distance between the trees var>'ing in different "olivettes,"
according to the variety grown. Careful pruning is practised, the
object being to preserve the flower-bearing shoots of the preceding
year, while keeping the head of the tree low, so as to allow the easy
gathering of the fruit; a dome or rounded form is generally the aim
of the pruner. The spaces between the trees are occasionally
manured with rotten dung or other nitrogenous matter; in France
woollen rags are in high esteem for this purpose. Various annual
crops are sometimes raised between the rows, and in Calabria wheat
even is grown in this way; but the trees are better without any
intermediate cropping. Latterly a dwarf variety, very prolific and
with green fruit, has come into favour in certain localities, especially
in America, where it is said to have produced a crop two or three
seasons after planting. The ordinary kinds do not become profitable
to the grower until from five to seven years after the cuttings are
placed in the olive-ground. Apart from occasional damage by
weather or organic foes, the olive crop is somewhat precarious even
with the most careful cultivation, and the large untended trees so
often seen in Spain and Italy do not yield that certain income to the
peasant proprietor that some authors have attributed to them; the
crop from these old trees is often enormous, but they seldom bear
well two years in succession, and in many instances a luxuriant
harvest can only be reckoned upon every si.xth or seventh season.
The fruit when ripe is, by the careful grower, picked by hand and
deposited in cloths or baskets for conveyance to the mill ; but in
many parts of Spain and Greece, and generally in Asia, the olives
are beaten down by poles or by shaking the boughs, or even allowed
to drop naturally, often lying on the ground until the convenience
of the owner admits of their removal; much of the inferior oil
owes its bad quality to the carelessness of the proprietor of the trees.
In southern Europe the olive harvest is in the winter months, con-
tinuing for several weeks; but the time varies in each country, and
also with the season and the kinds cultivated. The amount of oil
contained in the fruit differs much in the various sorts; the pericarp
usually yields from 60 to 70%. The ancient agriculturists believed
that the olive would not succeed if planted more than a few leagues
from the sea (Theophrastus gives 300 stadia as the limit), but modern
experience does not confirm the idea, and, though showing a prefer-
ence for the coast, it has long been grown far inland. A calcareous
soil, however dry or poor, seems best adapted to its healthy develop-
ment, though the tree will grow in any light soil, and even on clay if
well drained ; but, as remarked by Pliny, the plant is more liable to
disease on rich soils, and the oil is inferior to the produce of the
poorer and more rocky ground the species naturally affects. The
olive suffers greatly in some years from the attacks of various
enemies. A fungoid growth has at times infested the trees for several
86
OLIVE
successive seasons, to the great damage of the plantations. A
species of coccus, C. oleae, attaches itself to the shoots, and certain
lepidopterous caterpillars feed on the leaves, while the " olive-fly "
attacks the fruit. In France the olivettes suffer occasionally
from frost; in the early part of the i8th century many trees
were cut to the ground by a winter of e.\ceptional severity. Gales
and long-continued ra.ins during the gathering season also cause
mischief.
The unripe fruit of the olive is largely used in modern as in ancient
times as an article of dessert, to enhance the flavour of wine, and to
renew the sensitiveness of the palate for other viands. For this
purpose the fruit is picked while green, soaked for a few hours in an
alkaline ley, washed well in clean water and then placed in bottles
or jars filled with brine; the Romans added amiirca to the salt to
increase the bitter flavour of the olives, and at the present day spices
are sometimes used.
The leaves and bark of the tree are employed in the south, as a
tonic medicine, in intermittent fever. A resinous matter called
" olive gum," or Lucca gum, formed by the exuding juice in hot
seasons, was anciently in medical esteem, and in modern Italy is used
as a perfume.
In England the olive is not hardy, though in the southern counties
it will stand ordinary winters with only the protection of a wall,
and will bear fruit in such situations; but the leaves are generally
shed in the autumn, and the olives rarely ripen.
The genus Oka includes several other species of some economic
importance. 0. paniculata is a larger tree, attaining a height of 50
or 60 ft. in the forests of Queensland, and yielding a hard and tough
timber. Tl)e yet harder wood of 0. laurifolia, an inhabitant of Natal,
is the black ironwood of the South African colonist.
At what remote period of human progress the wild olive
passed under the care of the husbandman and became the
fruitful garden olive it is impossible to conjecture. The frequent
reference in the Bible to the plant and its produce, its implied
abundance in the land of Canaan, the important place it has
always held in the economy of the inhabitants of Syria, lead
us to consider that country the birthplace of the cultivated
olive. An improved variety, possessed at first by some small
Semitic sept, it was probably slowly distributed to adjacent
tribes; and, yielding profusely, with little labour, that oily
matter so essential to healthy life in the dry hot climates of the
East, the gift of the fruitful tree became in that primitive age
a symbol of peace and goodwill among the warlike barbarians.
hi a later period, with the development of maritime enterprise,
the oil was conveyed, as an article of trade, to the neighbouring
Pelasgic and Ionian nations, and the plant, doubtless, soon
followed.
In the Homeric world, as depicted in the Iliad, olive oil is
known only as a lu.xury of the wealthy — an e.xotic product,
prized chiefly for its value in the heroic toilet; the warriors
anoint themselves with it after the bath, and the body of Patroclus
is similarly sprinkled; but no mention of the culture of the plant
is made, nor does it find any place on the Achillean shield,
on which a vineyard is represented. But, although no reference
to the cultivation of the oUve occurs in the Iliad, the presence
of the tree in the garden of Acinous and other familiar allusions
show it to have been known when the Odyssey was written.
Whenever the introduction may have taken place, all tradition
points to the limestone hills of Attica as the seat of its first
cultivation on the Hellenic peninsula. When Poseidon and
Athena contended for the future city, an olive sprang from the
barren rock at the bidding of the goddess, the patron of those
arts that were to bring undying influence to the rising state.
That this myth has some relation to the first planting of the
olive in Greece seems certain from the remarkable story told
by Herodotus of the Epidaurians, who, on their crops failing,
applied for counsel to the Delphic oracle, and were enjoined
to erect statues to Damia and Auxesia (symbols of fertility)
carved from the wood of the true garden olive, then possessed
only by the Athenians, who granted their request for a tree on
condition of their making an annual sacrifice to Athena, its
patron; they thus obeyed the command of the Pythian, and their
lands became again fertile. The sacred tree of the goddess long
stood on the Acropolis, and, though destroyed in the Persian
invasion, sprouted again from the root — some suckers of which
were said to have produced those olive trees of the Academy in
an after age no less revered. By the time of Solon the olive had
so spread that he found it necessary to enact laws to regulate
the cultivation of the tree in .Attica, from which country it was
probably distributed gradually to aU the Athenian allies and
tributary states. To the Ionian coast, where it abounded in
the time of Thales, it may have been in an earlier age brought
by Phoenician vessels; some of the Sporades may have received
it from the same source; the olives of Rhodes and Crete had
perhaps a similar origin. Samos, if we may judge from the
epithet of Aeschylus (eKad>4>VT0%) , must have had the fruitful
plant long before the Persian wars.
It is not unlikely that the valued tree was taken to Magna
Graecia by the first Achaean colonists, and the assertion of
Pliny (quoted from Fenestella), that no olives existed in Italy
in the reign of Tarquinius Priscus, must be received with the
caution due to many statements of that industrious compiler.
In Latin Italy the cultivation seems to have spread slowly,
for it was not until the consulship of Pompey that the production
of oil became sufficient to permit of its exportation. In Pliny's
time it was already grown abundantly in the two Gallic provinces
and in Spain; indeed, in the earlier days of Strabo the
Ligurians supplied the Alpine barbarians with oil, in exchange
for the wild produce of their mountains; the plant may have
been introduced into those districts by Greek settlers in a
previous age. Africa was indebted for the olive mainly to
Semitic agencies. In Egypt the culture never seems to have
made much progress; the oil found in Theban tombs was
probably imported from Syria. Along the southern shore of
the great inland sea the tree was carried by the Phoenicians,
at a remote period, to their numerous colonies in Africa — •
though the abundant olives of Cyrene, to which allusion
is made by Theophrastus, and the glaucous foliage of whose
descendants still clothes the rocks of the deserted Cyrenaica,
may have been the offspring of Greek plants brought by the
first settlers. The tree was most likely introduced into southern
Spain, and perhaps into Sardinia and the Balearic Islands, by
Phoenician merchants; and, if it be true that old olive trees
were found in the Canaries on their rediscovery by medieval
navigators, the venerable trees probably owed their origin
to the same enterprising pioneers of the ancient world. De
Candolle says that the means by which the olive was distributed
to the two opposite shores of the Mediterranean are indicated
by the names given to the plant by their respective inhabitants —
the Greek eXota passing into the Latin olca and oliva, that in
its turn becoming the ulivo of the modern Italian, the olivo
of the Spaniard, and the olive, olivier, of the French, while in
Africa and southern Spain the olive retains appellatives derived
from the Semitic zait or scit; but the complete subjugation of
Barbary by the Saracens sufficiently accounts for the prevalence
of Semitic forms in that region; and accytuno (Arab, zcih'ui),
the .^ndalusian name of the fruit, locally given to the tree
itself, is but a vestige of the Moorish conquest.
Yielding a grateful substitute for the butter and animal fats
consumed by the races of the north, the olive, among the southern
nations of antiquity, became an emblem not only of peace but of
national wealth and domestic plenty; the branches borne in the
Panathenaea, the wild olive spray of the Olympic victor, the olive
crown of the Roman conqueror at ovation, and those of the
equites at their imperial review alike typified gifts of peace that,
in a barbarous age, could be secured by victory alone. Among
the Greeks the oil was valued as an important article of diet,
as well as for its external use. The Roman people employed
it largely in food and cookery — the wealthy as an indispensable
adjunct to the toilet; and in the luxurious days of the later
empire it became a favourite axiom that long and pleasant life
depended on two fluids, " wine within and oil without." Pliny
vagtiely describes fifteen varieties of olive cultivated in his day,
that called the " Licinian " being held in most esteem, and the
oil obtained from it at Venafrum in Campania the finest known
to Roman connoisseurs; the produce of Istria and Baetica was
regarded as second only to that of the Italian peninsula. The gour-
met of the empire valued the unripe fruit, steeped in brine, as a
provocative to the palate, no less than his modern representative;
OLIVEIRA MARTINS— OLIVENITE
87
and pickled olives, retaining their characteristic flavour, have
been found among the buried stores of Pompeii. The bitter
juice or refuse deposited during expression of the oil (called
amurca), and the astringent leaves of the tree have many virtues
attributed to them by ancient authors. The oil of the bitter wild
olive was employed by the Roman physicians in medicine,
but does not appear ever to have been used as food or in the
culinary art.
In modern times the olive has been spread widely over the
world; and, though the Mediterranean lands that were its ancient
home still yield the chief supply of the oil, the tree is now culti-
vated successfully in many regions unknown to its early dis-
tributors. Soon after the discovery of the American continent
it was conveyed thither by the Spanish settlers. In Chile it
flourishes as luxuriantly as in its native land, the trunk some-
times becoming of large girth, while oil of fair quality is yielded
by the fruit. To Peru it was carried at a later date, but has not
there been equally successful. Introduced into Mexico by the
Jesuit missionaries of the 17th century, it was planted by similar
agency in Upper California, where it has prospered latterly under
the more careful management of the Anglo-Saxon conqueror. Its
cultivation has also been attempted in the south-eastern states,
especially in S. Carolina, Florida and Mississippi. In the eastern
hemisphere the olive has been established in many ink'nd districts
which would have been anciently considered ill-adapted for its
culture. To Armenia and Persia it was known at a comparatively
early period of history, and many olive-yards now exist in Upper
Egypt. The tree has been introduced into Chinese agriculture,
and has become an important addition to the resources of the
Austrahan planter. In Queensland the olive has found a climate
specially suited to its wants; in South Australia, near Adelaide,
it also grows vigorously; and there are probably few coast
districts of the vast island-continent where the tree would not
flourish. It has hkewise been successfully introduced into some
parts of Cape Colony.
OLIVEIRA MARTINS, JOAQUIM PEDRO DE (1845-1894),
Portuguese writer, was born in Lisbon and received his early
education at the Lyceo Nacional and the Academia das Bellas
Artes. At the age of fourteen his father's death compelled him
to seek a living as clerk in a commercial house, but he gradually
improved his position until in 1870 he was appointed manager
of the mine of St Eufemia near Cordova. In Spain he wrote
0. Soa'alismo, and developed that sympathy for the industrial
classes of which he gave proof throughout his life. Returning to
Portugal in 1874, he became administrator of the railway from
Oporto to Povoa, residing in Oporto. He had married when only
nineteen, and for many years devoted his leisure hours to the
study of economics, geography and history. In 1S78 his memoir
A Circula0o fiduciaria brought him the gold medal and member-
ship of the Royal Academy of Sciences of Lisbon. Two years
later he was elected president of the Society of Commercial
Geography of Oporto, and in 1884 he became director of the
Industrial and Commercial Museum in that city. In 1885 he
entered public life, and in the following year represented Vianna
do Castello in parhament, and in 1887 Oporto. Removing to
Lisbon in 1888, he continued the journalistic work which he had
commenced when living in the north, by editing the Reporter,
and in 1889 he was named administrator of the Tobacco Regie.
He represented Portugal at international conferences in Berlin
and Madrid in 1890, and was chosen to speak at the celebration of
the fourth centenary of Columbus held in Madrid in 1891, which
gained him membership of the Spanish Royal Academy of
History. He became minister of finance on the 17th of January
1892, and later vice-president of the Junta do Credito Publico.
His health, however, began to break down as a result of a life
spent in unremitting toil, and he died on the 24th of August
1894.
His youthful struggles and privations had taught him a serious
view of life, which, with his acute sensibility, gave him a reserved
manner, but Oliveira Martins was one of the most generous and
noble of men. Like Anthero de Quental, he was impregnated
with modern German philosophy, and his perception of the low
moral standard prevailing in public life made him a pessimist
who despaired of his country's future, but his sense of proportion,
and the necessity which impelled him to work, saved him from
the fate which befell his friend, and he died a believing Catholic.
At once a gifted psychologist, a profound sociologist, a stern
moralist, and an ardent patriot, Ohveira Martins deserved his
European reputation. His Bibliotheca das sciencias sociaes,
a veritable encyclopaedia, comprises literary criticism, socialism,
economics, anthropology, histories of Iberian civilization, of the
Roman Republic, Portugal and Brazil. Towards the end of his
life he specialized in the isth century and produced two notable
volumes, Os fithos de D. Jodo I. and A vida de Nun' Alvares,
leaving unfinished O principe perfcito, a study on King
John II., which was edited by his friend Henrique de Barros
Gomes.
As the literary leader of a national revival, Oliveira Martins
occupied an almost unique position in Portugal during the last
third of the 19th century. If he judged and condemned the
parliamentary regime and destroyed many illusions in his sensa-
tional Contemporary Portugal, and if in his philosophic History of
Portugal he showed, in a series of impressionist pictures, the slow
decline of his country commencing in the golden age of the
discoveries and conquests, he at the same time directed the gaze
of his coisntrymen to the days of their real greatness under the
House of Aviz, and incited them to work for a better future by
describing the faith and patriotism which had animated the
foremost men of the race in the middle ages. He had neither
time nor opportunity for original research, but his powerful
imagination and picturesque style enabled him to evoke the
past and make it present to his readers.
The chief characteristics of the man — psychological imagination
combined with realism and a gentle irony— make his strength
as a historian and his charm as a writer. When some critics
objected that his Historia de Portugal ought rather to be named
" Ideas on Portuguese History," he replied that a synthetic
and dramatic picture of one of those collective beings called
nations gives the mind a clearer, truer and more lasting impression
than a summary narrative of successive events. But just
because he possessed the talents and temperament of a poet,
Oliveira Martins was fated to make frequent mistakes as well as
to discover important truths. He must be read with care because
he is emotional, and cannot let facts speak for themselves, but
interrupts the narrative with expressions of praise or blame.
Some of his books resemble a series of visions, while, despite his
immense erudition, he does not always supply notes or refer to
authorities. He can draw admirable portraits, rich with colour
and life; in his Historia de Portugal and Contcmporaneo Portugal
those of King Pedro I. and Herculano are among the best known.
He describes to perfection such striking events as the Lisbon
earthquake, and excels in the appreciation of an epoch. In
these respects Castelar considered him superior to Macaulay,
and declared that few men in Europe possessed the universal
aptitude and the fuUness of knowledge displayed by Oliveira
Martins.
The works of Oliveira Martins include Elementos de anthropologia,
As Ra^as humanas e a civilisa^do primitiva, Systema dos mythos
religiosos, Quadro das institui^oes primitivas, O Regime das
riquezas, Politica e economia nacional. Taboos de chronologia e
geographia historica, Hellenismo e a civilisagao christa. Historia
da Repiiblica Rotnana, Historia da civilisaQdo iberica, Historia de
Portugiial, Brazil e as colonias portuguezas, Portugal nos Mares,
Portugal em Africa, Portugal contemporaneo, Cam&s os Lusiadas
e a renascenqa em Portugal — a brilliant commentary on the physiog-
nomy of the poet and his poem, Os Filhos de D. Jodo I., the preface
to which gives his views on the writing of history- — A Vida de
Nun' Alvares; and A. Inglaterra de Hoje — the result of a visit to
England.
See Moniz Barrcto, Oliveira Martins, estudo de psychologia (Paris,
1887), a remarkable study; F. Diniz D'Ayalla, Os Ideaes de Oliveira
Martins (Lisbon, 1897), which contains an admirable statement of
his ideas, philosophical and otherwise; Anthero de Quental, Oliveira
Martinis (Lisbon, 1894) and Diccionario bibliographico portuguez,
xii. 125. (E. Pr.)
OLIVENITE, a mineral consisting of basic copper arsenate
with the formula Cu2(OH)As04. It crystallizes in the ortho-
88
3H; OLIVER, I.— OLIVIERl'IVIJO
rhombic system, and is sometimes found in small brilliant crystals
of simple prismatic habit terminated by domal faces. More
usually, however, it occurs as globular aggregates of acicular
crystals, these fibrous forms often having a velvety lustre:
sometimes it is lamellar in structure, or soft and earthy. A
characteristic feature, and one to which thenameaUudes (German,
Olivenerz, of A. G. Werner, 1789), is the oUve-green colour,
which varies in shade from blackish-green in the crystals to
almost white in the finely fibrous variety known as " wood-
copper." The hardness is 3, and the sp. gr. 4-3. The
mineral was formerly found in some abundance, associated with
Umonite and quartz, in the upper workings in the copper mines
of the St Day district in Cornwall; also near Redruth, and in the
Tintic district in Utah. It is a mineral of secondary origin,
having been formed by the alteration of copper ores and
mispickel.
The arsenic of oUvenite is sometimes partly replaced by a small
amount of phosphorus, and in the species hbethenite we have
the corresponding basic copper phosphate Cu2(OH)P04. This
is found as small dark green crystals resembling ohvenite at
Libethen in Hungary, and in small amount also in Cornwall.
Other members of this isomorphous group of minerals are adamite,
Zn2(OH)As04, and descloizite (q.v.). (L. J. S.)
OLIVER, ISAAC (c. 1566-1617), English miniature painter, was
probably born in London, as in 1571 a certain Peter OHvier of
Rouen was residing in London with his wife and had been there
for three years with one " chylde " named " Isake." It would
seem hkelj', therefore, that he was not at that time more than six
years old. It has been suggested by Mr Lionel Cust, from the
Huguenot records, that he is identical with one Isaac Oliver of
Rouen, married at the Dutch church in Austin Friars in 1602.
His death occurred in 161 7, and he was buried in the church
of St Anne, Blackfriars. He was probably a pupil of Nicholas
Hilliard, and connected through his wife, whose name is un-
known, with the artists Gheeraerts and De Critz. He was an
exceedingly expert miniature painter, and splendid examples of
his work can be seen at Montagu House, Windsor Castle, Sher-
borne Castle and in the collections of Mr J. Pierpont Morgan
and the late Baroness Burdett-Coutts. Some of his pen draw-
ings are in the British Museum. (G. C. W.)
OLIVER, PETER (1594-1648), English miniature painter, was
the eldest son of Isaac OHver, probably by his first wife;
and to him Isaac Oliver left his finished and unfinished
drawings, with the hope that he would hve to exercise the
art of his father. The younger sons of the artist appear to
have been under age at the time of his death, and were probably
therefore sons by a later wife than the mother of Peter Oliver.
He resided at Isleworth, and was buried beside his father at
St Anne's, Blackfriars. He was even more eminent in minia-
ture painting than his father, and is specially remarkable for a
series of copies in water-colour he made after celebrated pictures
by old masters. Most of these were done by the desire of the
king, and seven of them stiU remain at Windsor Castle. A great
many of Oliver's works were purchased by Charles II. from his
widow; several of his drawings are in existence, and a leaf from
his pocket-book in the collection of the earl of Derby. His most
important work is the group of the three grandsons of the ist
Viscount Montacute with their servant, now belonging to the
marquess of Exeter; and there are fine miniatures by him at
Welbeck Abbey, Montagu House, Sherborne Castle, Minley
Manor, Belvoir Castle and in the private collection of the queen
of Holland. (G. C. W.)
OLIVES, MOUNT OF, or Mount Olivet ("Opos 'EXaiwj'os or
Tcov 'EXataJf; mod. Jebel-et-Tur), the ridge facing the Temple
Mount at Jerusalem on the east, and separated from it by the
Kidron. A basis of hard cretaceous limestone is topped with
softer deposits of the same, quaternary deposits forming the
summit. There are four distinct elevations in the ridge: tradi-
tionally the southernmost, which is separated by a cleft from the
others, is called the " Hill of Offence," and said to be the scene of
Solomon's idolatry. The summit to the north of this is often
(wrongly) spoken of as Olivet proper. Still worse is the error of
calling the next hiU but one to the north " Scopus." The top of
the ridge affords a comprehensive view. There are four Old
Testament references: 2 Sam. xv. 30 sqq., Neh. viii. 15, Ezek. xi.
23, Zech. .xiv. 4. In the New Testament the place is mentioned
in connexion with the last days of the life of Jesus. He crossed
it on his kingly entry into Jerusalem, and upon it he dehvered
his great eschatological address (Markxiii. 3). That the Ascension
took pla.ce front the summit of the Mount of Olives is not necessarily
implied in Acts i. 12; the words "over against Bethany"
(Luke xxiv. 50) perhaps mean one of the secluded ravines on
the eastern slope, beside one of which that village stands. But
since Constantine erected the " BasiUca of the Ascension " on the
spot marked by a certain sacred cave (Euseb. Vita Const, iii. 41),
the site of this event has been placed here and marked by a
succession of churches. The present building is quite modern,
and is in the hands of the Moslems. Close to the Chapel of the
Ascension is the vault of St Pelagia, and a little way down the
hill is the labyrinth of early Christian rock-hewn sepulchral
chambers now called the " Tombs of the Prophets." During
the middle ages Ohvet was also shown as the mount of the
Transfiguration. A chapel, bearing the name of the Caliph Omar,
and said to occupy the place where he encamped when Jerusalem
surrendered to the Moslems, formerly stood beside the Church
of the Ascension. There are a considerable number of monasteries
and churches of various religious orders and sects on the hill,
from whose beauty their uniform and unredeemed ugliness
detracts sadly. On Easter day 1907 was laid the foundation
of a hospice for pilgrims, under the patronage of the German
empress.
OLIVETANS, one of the lesser monastic orders following the
Benedictine Rule, founded by St Bernard Tolomei, a Sienese
nobleman. At the age of forty, when the leading man in Siena,
he retired along with two companions to live a hermit's life at
Accona, a desert place fifteen miles to the south of Siena, 1313.
Soon others joined them, and in 1324 John XXII. approved of
the formation of an order. The Benedictine Rule was taken as
the basis of the life; but austerities were introduced beyond
what St Benedict prescribed, and the government was framed
on the mendicant, not the monastic, model, the superiors being
appointed only for a short term of years. The habit is white.
Partly from the olive trees that abound there, and partly out of
devotion to the Passion, Accona was christened Monte Ohveto,
whence the order received its name. By the end of the 14th
century there were upwards of a hundred monasteries, chiefly
in Italy; and in the i8th there stiU were eighty, one of the most
famous being San Miniato at Florence. The monastery of
Monte Oliveto Maggiore is an extensive building of considerable
artistic interest, enhanced by frescoes of SignoreUi and Sodoma;
it is now a national monument occupied by two or three monks
as custodians, though it could accommodate three hundred. The
Olivetans have a house in Rome and a few others, including one
founded in Austria in 1899. There are about 125 monks in all,
54 being priests. In America are some convents of Olivetan
nuns.
See Helyot, Hist, des ordres religieux (1718), vi. c. 24; Max
Heimbucher, Orden u. Kongregationen (1907), i. § 30; Wetzer u.
Wehe, Kirchenlcxicon (ed. 2); J. A. Svmonds, Sketches and Studies
in Italy (1898), " Monte Oliveto "; B.' M. Marechaux, Vie de bien-
heureux Bernard Tolomei (1888). (E. C. B.)
OLIVIER, JUSTE DANIEL (1807-1876), Swiss poet, was born
near Nyon in the canton of Vaud; he was brought up as a
peasant, but studied at the college of Nyon, and later at the
academy of Lausanne. Though originaUy intended for the
ministry, his poetic genius (foreshadowed by the prizes he
obtained in 1823 and 182S for poems on Marcos Bolzaris and
Julia Alpinula respectively) inclined him towards literary
studies. He was named professor of literature at Neuchatel
(1830), but before taking up the duties of his post made a visit
to Paris, where he completed his education and became associated
with Ste Beuve, especially from 1837 onwards. He professed
history at Lausanne from 1S33 to 1846, when he lost his chair
in consequence of the religious troubles. He then went to Paris,
.a .1 OLIVINE— OLLIVIER,,,..iu
89
where he remained till 1870, earning his bread by various means,
but being nearly forgotten in his native land, to which he
remained tenderly attached. From 1845 till i860 (when the
magazine was merged in the Biblioth'eque wiivcrsellc) Olivier
and his wife wrote in the Revue Suisse the Paris letter, which
had been started by Ste Beuve in 1843, when Olivier became
the owner of the periodical. After the war of 1870 he settled
down in Switzerland, spending his summers at his beloved Gryon,
and died at Geneva on the 7th of January 1876. Besides some
novels, a semi-poetical work on the Canton of Vaud (2 vols.,
1837-1841), and a volume of historical essays entitled Etudes
d'histoire nationale (1842), he published several volumes of
poems, Deux Voix (1835), Chansons lointaines (1847) and its
continuation Chansons du soir (1867), and Senliers dc monlagnc
(Gryon, 1875). His younger brother, Urbain (1810-1888), was
well known from 1856 onwards as the author of numerous
popular tales of rural life in the Canton of Vaud, especially of the
region near Nyon.
Life by Rambert (1877), republished in his &rivains de la Suisse
romande (1889), and also prefixed to his edition of Olivier's CEuvres
choisies (Lausanne, 1879). (W. A. B. C.)
OLIVINE, a rock-forming mineral composed of magnesium
and ferrous orthosilicate, the formula being (Mg, Fe)2Si04.
The name olivine, proposed by A. G. Werner in 1790, alludes to
the ohve-green colour commonly shown by the mineral. The
transparent varieties, or " precious olivine " used in jewelry,
are known as chrysolite {q.v.) and peridot {q.v.). The term
olivine is often applied incorrectly by jewellers to various green
stones.
Olivine crystallizes in the orthorhombic system, but distinctly
developed crystals are comparatively rare, the mineral more
often occurring as compact or granular masses or as grains and
blebs embedded in the igneous rocks of which it forms a con-
stituent part. There are indistinct cleavages parallel to the
macropinacoid (M in the fig.) and the brachypinacoid. The
hardness is 6J; and the sp. gr. 3- 27-3 -37,
but reaching 3' 57 in the highly ferru-
ginous variety known as hyalosiderite.
The amount of ferrous oxide varies from
5 (about 9 % in the gem varieties to 30 %
in hyalosiderite. The depth of the green,
or yellowish-brown colour, also varies with
the amount of iron. The lustre is vitreous.
The indices of refraction ( i-66 and 1-70)
and the double refraction are higher than
in many other rock-forming minerals; and
these characters, together with the indistinct cleavage, enable
the mineral to be readily distinguished in thin rock-sections
under the microscope. The mineral is decomposed by hot
hydrochloric acid with separation of gelatinous silica. Olivine
often contains small amounts of nickel and titanium dioxide;
the latter replaces silica, and in the variety known as titan-
olivine reaches 5%.
Olivine is a common constituent of many basic and ultrabasic
rocks, such as basalt, diabase, gabbro and peridotite: the
dunite, of Dun Mountain near Nelson in New Zealand, is an
almost pure olivine-rock. In basalts it is often present as small
porphyritic crystals or as large granular aggregates. It also
occurs as an accessory constituent of some granular dolomitic
limestones and crystalline schists. With enstatite it forms the
bulk of the material of meteoric stones; and in another type of
meteorites large blebs of glassy olivine fill spaces in a cellular
mass of metallic iron.
Olivine is especially liable to alteration into serpentine (hydrated
magnesium silicate) ; the alteration proceeds from the outside of
the crystals and grains or along irregular cracks in their interior,
and gives rise to the separation of iron oxides and an irregular
net-work of fibrous serpentine, which in rock-sections presents
a very characteristic appearance. Large greenish-yellow crystals
from Snarum in Buskerud, Norway, at one time thought to be
crystals of serpentine, really consist of serpentine pseudo-
morphous after olivine. Many of the large rock-masses of
serpentine have been derived by the serpentinization of olivine-
rocks. Olivine also sometimes alters, especially in crystalline
schists, to a fibrous, colourless amphibole, to which the name
pilite has been given. By ordinary weathering processes it
alters to limonite and silica.
Closely related to olivine are several other species, which are
included together in the olivine group : thty have the orthosilicate
formula R'2Si04, where K" represents calcium, magnesium, iron,
manganese and rarely zinc; they all crystallize in the orthorhombic
system, and are isomorphous with olivine. The following may be
mentioned ;—
Monticellite, CaMgSI04, a rare mineral occurring as yellowish-
grey crystals and grains in granular limestone at Monte Somma,
Vesuvius.
Forsterite, Mg2Si04, as colourless or yellowish grains embedded
in many crystalline limestones.
Fayalite, Fe2Si04, or iron olivine is dark brown or black in colour.
It occurs as nodules in a volcanic rock at Fayal in the Azores, and in
granitejat the Mourne Mountains in Ireland; and as small crystals in
cavities in rhyolite at the Yellowstone Park, U.S.A. It is a common
constituent of crystalline iron slags.
Tephroite, Mn2Si04, a grey (re^pos, ash-coloured), cleavable
mineral occurring with other manganiferous minerals in Sweden and
New Jersey. (L. J. S.) ;
OLLIVIER, OLIVIER tlfllLE (1825- ), French statesman,
was born at Marseilles on the 2nd of July 1825. His father,
Demosthenes Ollivier (1799-1884), was a vehement opponent
of the July monarchy, and was returned by Marseilles to the
Constituent Assembly in 1848. His opposition to Louis Napoleon
led to his banishment after the coup d'etat of December 1851, and
he only returned to France in i860. On the establishment of
the short-lived Second Republic his father's influence with
Ledru-Rollin secured for fimile Ollivier the position of com-
missary-general of the department of Bouches-du-Rhone.
Ollivier was then twenty-three and had just been called to the
Parisian bar. Less radical in his political opinions than his
father, his repression of a socialist outbreak at Marseilles com-
mended him to General Cavaignac, who continued him in his
functions by making him prefect of the department. He was
shortly afterwards removed to the comparatively unimportant
prefecture of Chaumont (Haute-Marne), a semi-disgrace which
he ascribed to his father's enemies. He therefore resigned from
the civil service to take up practice at the bar, where his brilliant
abilities assured his success.
He re-entered political life in 1857 as deputy for the 3rd
circumscription of the Seine. His candidature had been sup-
ported by the Siecle, and he joined the constitutional opposition.
With Alfred Darimon, Jules Favre, J. L. Henon and Ernest
Picard he formed the group known as Les Cinq, which wrung
from Napoleon III. some concessions in the direction of con-
stitutional government. The imperial decree of the 24th of
November, permitting the insertion of parliamentary reports
in the Moniteur, and an address from the Corps Legislatif in
reply to the speech from the throne, were welcomed by him as a
first instalment of reform. This acquiescence marked a consider-
able change of attitude, for only a year previously a violent attack
on the imperial government, in the course of a defence of fitienne
Vacherot, brought to trial for the publication of La Democratie,
had resulted in his suspension from the bar for three months.
He gradually separated from his old associates, who grouped
themselves around Jules Favre, and during the session of i856-
1867 Ollivier formed a third party, which definitely supported the
principle of a Liberal Empire. On the last day of December 1866,
Count A. F. J. Walewski, acting in continuance of negotiations
already begun by the due de Momy, offered OUivier the ministry
of education with the function of representing the general policy
of the government in the Chamber. The imperial decree of the
19th of January 1867, together with the promise inserted in
the Moniteur of a relaxation of the stringency of the press laws
and of concessions in respect of the right of public meeting, failed
to satisfy Ollivier's demands, and he refused office. On the eve
of the general election of 1869 he published a manifesto, Le ig
Janvier, in justification of his policy. The senattts-consulle of the
8th of September 1869 gave the two chambers the ordinary
90
OLMSTED, D.— OLMSTED, F. L.
parliamentary rights, and was followed by the dismissal of
Rouher and the formation in the last week of 1869 of a responsible
ministry of which M. Ollivier was really premier, although that
office was not nominally recognized by the constitution. The
new cabinet, known as the ministry of the 2nd of January, had
a hard task before it, complicated a week after its formation by
the shooting of Victor Noir by Prince Pierre Bonaparte. Ollivier
immediately summoned the high court of justice for the judgment
of Prince Bonaparte and Prince Joachim Murat. The riots
following on the murder were suppressed without bloodshed;
circulars were sent round to the prefects forbidding them in
future to put pressure on the electors in favour of official candi-
dates; Baron Haussmann was dismissed from the prefecture
of the Seine; the violence of the press campaign against the
emperor, to whom he had promised a happy old age, was broken
by the prosecution of Henri Rochefort; and on the 20th of
April a senatus-considte was issued which accomplished the
transformation of the Empire into a constitutional monarchy.
Neither concessions nor firmness sufficed to appease the " Irre-
concilables " of the opposition, who since the relaxation of the
press laws were able to influence the electorate. On the 8th
of May, however, the amended constitution was submitted,
on Rouher's advice, to a plebiscite, which resulted in a vote of
nearly seven to one in favour of the government. The most
distinguished members of the Left in his cabinet — L. J. Buffet,
Napoleon Daru and Talhouet Roy — resigned in April on the
question of the plebiscite. OUivier himself held the ministry of
foreign affairs for a few weeks, until Daru was replaced by the
due de Gramont, destined to be OUivier's evil genius. The
other vacancies were filled by J. P. Mege and C. I. Plichon, both
of them of Conservative tendencies.
The revival of the candidature of Prince Leopold of Hohen-
zolIern-Sigmaringen for the throne of Spain early in 1870 dis-
concerted OUivier's plans. The French government, following
Gramont's advice, instructed Benedetti to demand from the king
of Prussia a formal disavowal of the Hohenzollern candidature.
Ollivier allowed himself to be gained by the war party. The
story of Benedetti's reception at Ems and of Bismarck's mani-
pulation of the Ems telegram is told elsewhere (see Bismarck).
It is unlikely that Ollivier could have prevented the eventual
outbreak of war, but he might perhaps have postponed it at that
time, if he had taken time to hear Benedetti's account of the
incident. He was outmanoeuvred by Bismarck, and on the
15th of July he made a hasty declaration in the Chamber that the
Prussian government had issued to the powers a note announcing
the rebuff received by Benedetti. He obtained a war vote of
500,000,000 francs, and used the fatal words that he accepted
the responsibility of the war " with a light heart," sajang that the
war had been forced on France. On the gth of August, with the
news of the first disaster, the OUivier cabinet was driven from
office, and its chief sought refuge from the general rage in Italy.
He returned to France in 1873, but although he carried on an
active campaign in the Bonapartist Estafettc his political power
was gone, and even in his own party he came into collision in
1880 with M. Paul de Cassagnac. During his retirement he
employed himself in writing a history of L' Empire liberal, the first
volume of which appeared in 1895. The work really dealt with
the remote and immediate causes of the war, and was the author's
apology for his blunder. The 13th volume showed that the
immediate blame could not justly be placed entirely on his
shoulders. His other works include Democralie et liberie (1867),
Le Minislere du 2 Janvier, mes discours (1875), Principes et
conduite (1875), L'Eglise et I'Etat au concile du Vatican (2 vols.,
1879), Solutions politiques et sociales (1893), Nouveau Manuel
du droit ecclesiastique franqais (1885). He had many connexions
with the literary and artistic world, being one of the early
Parisian champions of Wagner. Elected to the Academy
in 1870, he did not take his seat, his reception being
indefinitely postponed. His first wife, Blandine Liszt, was
the daughter of the Abbe Liszt by Mme d'Agoult (Daniel
Stern). She died in 1862, and Ollivier married in 1869 Mile
Gravier.
OUivier's own view of his political life is given in his L'Empire
liberal, which must always be an important " document " for the
history of his time; but the book must be treated with no less
caution than respect.
OLMSTED, DENISON (1791-1859), American man of science,
was born at East Hartford, Connecticut, U.S.A., on the i8th of
June 1791, and in 1813 graduated at Yale, where he acted as
college tutor from 1815 to 1817. In the latter year he was
appointed to the chair of chemistry, mineralogy and geology in
the university of North Carolina. This chair he exchanged for
that of mathematics and physics at Yale in 1825; in 1836, when
this professorship was divided, he retained that of astronomy
and natural philosophy. He died at New Haven, Connecticut,
on the 13th of May 1850. r ■' >'-"l
His first publication (1824-1825) was the Report of his geological
survey cf the state of North Carolina. It was followed by various
text-books on natural philosophy and astronomy, but he is chiefly
known to the scientific world for his observations on hail (1830),
on meteors and on the aurora borealis (see Smithsonian Contributions,
vol. viii.).
OLMSTED, FREDERICK LAW (1822-1903), American land-
scape architect, was born in Hartford, Connecticut, on the 27th
of April 1822. From his earliest years he was a wanderer.
WhOe still a lad he shipped before the mast as a sailor; then he
took a course in the Yale Scientific School; worked for several
farmers; and, finally, began farming for himself on Staten
Island, where he met Calvert Vaux, with whom later he formed
a business partnership. All this time he wrote for the agricul-
tural papers. In 1850 he made a walking tour through England,
his observations being published in Walks and Talks of an
American Farmer in England (1852). A horseback trip through
the Southern States was recorded in A Journey in the Seaboard
Slave States (1856), A Journey through Texas (1857) and A
Journey in the Back Cotmtry (i860). These three volumes,
reprinted in England in two as Journeys and Explorations in the
Cotton Kingdom (1861), gave a picture of the conditions surround-
ing American slavery that had great influence on British opinion,
and they were much quoted in the controversies at the time of the
Civil War. During the war he was the untiring secretary of the
U.S. Sanitary Commission. He happened to be in New York
City when Central Park was projected, and, in conjunction with
Vaux, proposed the plan which, in competition with more than
thirty others, won first prize. Olmsted was made superintendent
to carry out the plan. This was practically the first attempt in
the United States to apply art to the improvement or embellish-
ment of nature in a public park; it attracted great attention,
and the work was so satisfactorily done that he was engaged
thereafter in most of the important works of a similar nature in
America — Prospect Park, Brooklyn; Fairmount Park, Phila-
delphia; South Park, Chicago; Riverside and Morningside
Parks, New York; Mount Royal Park, Montreal; the grounds
surrounding the Capitol at Washington, and at Leland Stanford
University at Palo Alto (California) ; and many others. He took
the bare stretch of lake front at Chicago and developed it into
the beautiful World's Fair grounds, placing all the buildings and
contributing much to the architectural beauty and the success
of the exposition. He was greatly interested in the Niagara
reservation, made the plans for the park there, and also did much
to influence the state of New York to provide the Niagara Park.
He was the first commissioner of the National Park of the
Yosemite and the Mariposa Grove, directing the survey and
taking charge of the property for the state of California. He
had also held directing appointments under the cities of New
York, Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Wilmington and San
Francisco, the Joint Committee on Buildings and Grounds of
Congress, the Niagara Falls Reservation Commission, the
trustees of Harvard, Yale, Amherst and other colleges and public
institutions. Subsequently to 1886 he was largely occupied in
laying out an extensive system of parks and parkways for the
city of Boston and the town of Brookline, and on a scheme of
landscape improvement of Boston harbour. Olmsted received
honorary degrees from Harvard, Amherst and Yale in 1864,
1867 and 1893. He died on the 28th of August 1903.
OLMUTZ— OLONETS
n>
OLMUTZ (Czech, Olontouc or Holomauc), a town of Austria,
in Moravia, 67 m. N.E. of Briinn by rail. Pop. (1900) 21,033,
of which two-thirds are Germans. It is situated on the March,
and is the ecclesiastical metropolis of Moravia. Until 1886
Olmiitz was one of the strongest fortresses of Austria, but the
fortifications have been removed, and their place is occupied by
a town park, gardens and promenades. Like most Slavonic
towns, it contains several large squares, the chief of which is
adorned with a trinity column, 115 ft. high, erected in 1740.
The most prominent church is the cathedral, a Gothic building
of the 14th century, restored in 1883-1886, with a tower 328 ft.
high and the biggest church-bell in Moravia. It contains the
tomb of King Wcnceslaus III., who was murdered here in 1306.
The Mauritius church, a fine Gothic building of the 15th century,
and the St Michael church are also worth mentioning. The
principal secular building is the town-hall, completed in the
15th century, flanked on one side by a Gothic chapel, trans-
formed now into a museum. It possesses a tower 250 ft. high,
adorned with an astronomical clock, an artistic and famous
work, executed by Anton Pohl in 1422. The old university,
founded in 1570 and suppressed in 1858, is now represented by
a theological seminary, which contains a very valuable library
and an important collection of manuscripts and early prints.
Olmiitz is an important railway junction, and is the emporium
of a busy mining and industrial district. Its industries include
brewing and distilling and the manufacture of malt, sugar and
starch.
Olmiitz is said to occupy the site of a Roman fort founded
in the imperial period, the original name of which, Mons Juiii,
has been gradually corrupted to the present form. At a later
period Olmiitz was long the capital of the Slavonic kingdom of
Moravia, but it ceded that position to Briinn in 1640. The
Mongols were defeated here in 1241 by Yaroslav von Sternberg.
During the Thirty Years' War it was occupied by the Swedes
for eight years. The town was originally fortified by Maria
Theresa during the wars with Frederick the Great, who besieged
the town unsuccessfully for seven weeks in 1758. In 1848
Olmiitz was the scene of the emperor Ferdinand's abdication,
and in 1850 an important conference took place here between
Austrian and German statesmen. The bishopric of Olmiitz
was founded in 1073, and raised to the rank of an archbishopric
in 1777. The bishops were created princes of the empire in 1588.
The archbishop is the only one in the Austrian empire who is
elected by the cathedral chapter.
See W. Miiller, Geschichte der kdniglichen Hauptstadi Olmiitz
(2nd ed., Olmiitz, 1895).
OLNEY, RICHARD (1835- ), American statesman, was
born at O.xford, Massachusetts, on the 15th of September 1S35.
He graduated from Brown University in 1856, and from the Law
School of Harvard University in 1858. In 1859 he began the
practice of law at Boston, Massachusetts, and attained a high
position at the bar. He served in the state house of repre-
sentatives in 1874, and in March 1893 became attorney-general
of the United States in the cabinet of President Cleveland.
In this position, during the strike of the railway employes in
Chicago in 1894, he instructed the district attorneys to secure
from the Federal Courts writs of injunction restraining the
strikers from acts of violence, and thus set a precedent for
" government by injunction." He also advised the use of
Federal troops to quell the disturbances in the city, on the
ground that the government must prevent interference with its
mails and with the general railway transportation between the
states. Upon the death of Secretary W. Q. Gresham (1832-1895),
Olney succeeded him as secretary of state on the loth of June
1895. He became specially prominent in the controversy with
Great Britain concerning the boundary dispute between the
British and Venezuelan governments (see Venezuela), and in
his correspondence with Lord Salisbury gave an extended
interpretation to the Monroe Doctrine which went considerably
beyond previous statements on the subject. In 1897, at the
expiration of President Cleveland's term, he returned to the
practice of the law.
OLNEY, a market town in the Buckingham parliamentary
division of Buckinghamshire, England, 59 m. N.W. by N. of
London, on a branch of the iVlidland railway. Pop. of urban
district (iQoi) 2634. It hes in the open valley of the Oase on
the north (left) bank of the river. The church of St Peter and
St Paul is Decorated. It has a fine tower and spire; and the
chancel has a northerly inclination from the alignment of the
nave. The town is chiefly noted for its connexion with William
Cowper, who came to live here in 1767 and remained until 1786,
when he removed to the neighbouring village of Weston Under-
wood. His house and garden at Olney retain relics of the poet,
and the house at Weston also remains. In the garden at Olney
are his favourite seat and the house in which he kept his tame
hares. John Newton, curate of Olney, had the assistance of
Cowper in the production of the collection of Olney Hymns.
The trade of Olney is principally agricultural; the town also
shares in the manufacture of boots and shoes common to many
places in the neighbouring county of Northampton.
OLNEY, a city and the county-seat of Richland county,
Illinois, U.S.A., about 30 m. W. of Vincennes, Indiana. Pop.
1(1890) 3S31; (1900) 4260 (235 foreign-born); (1910) 5011.
Olney is served by the Baltimore & Ohio South-western, the
Illinois Central, and the Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton railways,
and is a terminus of the Ohio River Division of the last. It
has a Carnegie library and a city park of 55 acres. Olney is
an important shipping point for the agricultural products of
this district; oil is found in the vicinity; and the city has various
manufactures. The municipality owns its water-works. Olney
was settled about 1842 and was first chartered as a city in 1867.
OLONETS, a government of north-western Russia, extending
from Lake Ladoga almost to the White Sea, bounded W. by
Finland, N. and E. by Archangel and Vologda, and S. by
Novgorod and St Petersburg. The area is 57,422 sq. m., of which
6794 sq. m. are lakes. Its north-western portion belongs oro-
graphically and geologically to the Finland region; it is thickly
dotted with hills reaching 1000 ft. in altitude, and diversified
by numberless smaller ridges and hollows running from north-
west to south-east. The rest of the government is a flat plateau
sloping towards the marshy lowlands of the south. The geological
structure is very varied. Granites, syenites and diorites,
covered with Laurentian metamorphic slates, occur extensively
in the north-west. Near Lake Onega they are overlain with
Devonian sandstones and limestones, yielding marble and
sandstone for buOding; to the south of that lake Carboniferous
limestones and clays make their appearance. The whole is
sheeted with boulder-clay, the bottom moraine of the great
ice-sheet of the Glacial period. The entire region bears traces
of glaciation, either in the shape of scratchings and elongated
grooves on the rocks, or of eskers (dsar, selgas) running parallel to
the glacial striations. Numberless lakes occupy the depressions,
while a great many more have left evidences of their existence
in the extensive marshes. Lake Onega covers 3764 sq. m., and
reaches a depth of 400 ft. Lakes Zeg, Vyg, Lacha, Loksha,
Tulos and Vodl cover from 140 to 480 sq. m. each, and their
crustacean fauna indicates a former connexion with the Arctic
Ocean. The south-eastern part of Lake Ladoga falls also within
the government of Olonets. The rivers drain to the Baltic and
White Sea basins. To the former system belong Lakes Ladoga
and Onega, which are connected by the Svir and receive numerous
streams; of these the Vytcgra, which communicates with the
Mariinsk canal-system, and the Oyat, an aiBuent of Lake Ladoga,
are important for navigation. Large quantities of timber,
fire-wood, stone, metal and flour are annually shipped on waters
belonging to this government. The Onega river, which has its
source in the south-east of the government and flows into the
White Sea, is of minor importance. Sixty-three per cent of the
area of Olonets is occupied by forests; those of the crown,
maintained for shipbuilding purposes, extend to more than
800,000 acres. The climate is harsh and moist, the average
yearly temperature at Petrozavodsk (61° 8' N.) being 33-6° F.
(i2-o° in January, 57-4'^ in July); but the thermometer rarely
falls below— 30° F.
92
OLOPAN— OLYBRIUS
The population, which numbered 321,250 in 1881, reached
367,902 in 1897, and 401,100 (estimate) in 1906. They are
principally Great Russians and Finns. The people belong
mostly to the Orthodox Greek Church, or are Nonconformists.
Rye and oats are the principal crops, and some flax, barley
and turnips are grown, but the total cultivated area does not
exceed 25% of the whole government. The chief source of
wealth is timber, next to which come fishing and hunting.
Mushrooms and berries are exported to St Petersburg. There
are quarries and iron-mines, saw-mills, tanneries, iron-works,
distilleries and flour-mills. More than one-fifth of the entire
male population leave their homes every year in search of tem-
porary employment. Olonets is divided into seven districts,
of which the chief towns are Petrozavodsk, Kargopol, Lodeinoye
Pole, Olonets, Povyenets, Pudozh and Vytegra. It includes
the Olonets mining district, a territory belonging to the crown,
which covers 432 sq. m. and extends into the Serdobol district
of Finland; the ironworks were begun by Peter the Great in
1 701-17 14. Olonets was colonized by Novgorod in the nth
century, and though it suffered much from Swedish invasion its
towns soon became wealthy trading centres. Ivan III. annexed
it to the principality of Moscow in the second half of the i6th
century.
OLOPAN, Olopuen or Olopen (probably a Chinese form
of the Syriac Rabban, i.e. monk: fl. a.d. 635), the first Christian
missionary in China (setting aside vague stories of St Thomas,
St Bartholomew, &c.), and founder of the Nestorian Church
in the Far East. According to the Si-ngan-fu inscription, our
sole authority, Olopan came to China from Ta T'sin (the Roman
empire) in the ninth year of the emperor T'ai-Tsung (a.d. 635),
bringing sacred books and images. He was received with favour;
his teaching was examined and approved; his Scriptures were
translated for the imperial library; and in 638 an imperial edict
declared Christianity a tolerated religion. T'ai-Tsung's successor,
Kao-Tsung (650-683), was still more friendly, and Olopan now
became a " guardian of the empire " and " lord of the great
law." After this followed (c 683-744) a time of disfavour and
oppression for Chinese Christians, followed by a revival dating
from the arrival of a fresh missionary, Kiho, from the Roman
empire.
The Si-ngan-fu inscription, which alone records these facts,
was erected in 781, and rediscovered in 1625 by workmen digging
in the Chang-ngan suburb of Si-ngan-fu city. It consists of
1789 Chinese characters, giving a history of the Christian mission
down to 781, together with a sketch of Nestorian doctrine, the
decree of T'ai-Tsung in favour of Christianity, the date of erection,
and names of various persons connected with the church in China
when the monument was put up. Additional notes in Syriac
(Estrangelo characters) repeat the date and record the names
of the reigning Nestorian patriarch, the Nestorian bishop in
China, and a number of the Nestorian clergy.
See Kircher, China Illustrata; G. Pauthier, De V authenticite de
Vinscription nestorienne de Si-ngan-fou (Paris, 1857) and L' inscription
syro-chinoise de Si-ngan-fou (Paris, 1858); Henry Yule, Cathay,
Preliminary Essay, xcii.-xciv. clxxxi.-clx.xxiii. (London, Hakluyt See,
1866): F. Hirth, China and the Roman Orient, 323, &c.; Father
Henri Havret, La stele chretienne de Si-ngan-fou, two parts (text
and history) published out of three (Shanghai, 1895 and 1897);
Dr James Legge's edition and translation of the text, The Nestorian
Monument of Hst-an-Fu (London, 1888); Yule and Cordier, Marco
Polo, ii. 27-29 (London, 1903); C. R. Beazley, Dawn of Modern
Geography, i. 215-218.
OLORON-SAINTE-MARIE, a town of south-western France,
capital of an arrondissement in the department of Basses-
Pyrenees, 21 m. S.W. of Pau on a branch of the Southern raOway.
It lies at the confluence of the mountain torrents (locally known
as gaves) Aspe and Ossau, which, after dividing it into three
parts, unite to form the Oloron, a tributary of the Pau. The
united population of the old feudal town of Sainte-Croix or
Oloron proper, which is situated on an eminence between the
two rivers, of Sainte-Marie on the left bank of the Aspe, and of
the new quarters on the right bank of the Ossau, is 7715. Oloron
has remains of old ramparts and pleasant promenades with
beautiful views, and there are several old houses of the 15th,
i6th and 17th centuries, one of which is occupied by the h6tel
de ville. The church of Sainte-Croix, the building of most
interest, belongs mainly to the nth century; the chief feature
of the exterior is the central Byzantine cupola; in the interior
there is a large altar of gilded wood, constructed i- the Spanish
style of the 17th century. The church of Sainte-Marie, which
formerly served as the cathedral of Oloron, is in the old ecclesi-
astical quarter of Sainte-Marie. It is a medley of various styles
from the nth to the 14th century. A square tower at the west
end shelters a fine Romanesque portal. In the new quarter
there is the modern church of Notre-Dame. Remains of a castle
of the 14th century are also still to be seen. Oloron is the
seat of a sub-prefect, and its public institutions include tribunals
of first instance and of commerce, and a chamber of arts and
manufactures. It is the most important commercial centre of its
department after Bayonne, and carries on a thriving trade with
Spain by way of the passes of Somport and Anso.
A Celtiberian and then a Gallo-Roman town, known as Iluro,
occupied the hill on which Sainte-Croix now stands. Devastated
by the Vascones in the 6th and by the Saracens in the 8th century,
it was abandoned, and it was not until the nth century that
the quarter of Sainte-Marie was re-estabhshed by the bishops.
In 1080 the viscount of Beam took possession of the old town.
The two quarters remained distinct till the union of Beam with
the crown at the accession of Henry IV. At the Reformation
the place became a centre of Catholic reaction. In the 17th
century it carried on a considerable trade with Aragon, until
the Spaniards, jealous of its prosperity, pillaged the estabhsh-
ments of the Oloron merchants at Saragossa in 1694 — a disaster
from which it only slowly recovered. The bishopric was sup-
pressed in 1790.
OLSHAUSEN, HERMANN (i 796-1839), German theologian,
was born at Oldeslohe in Holstein on the 21st of August 1796,
and was educated at the universities of Kiel (1814) and Berlin
(1816), where he was influenced by Schleiermacher and Neander.
In 1820 he became Privatdozent and in 1821 professor extra-
ordinarius at Berlin; in 1827 professor at Konigsberg, in 1834
at Erlangen. He died on the 4th of September 1839. Olshausen's
department was New Testament exegesis; his Commentary
(completed and revised by Ebrard and Wiesinger) began to
appear at Konigsberg in 1830, and was translated into Enghsh
in 4 vols. (Edinburgh, 1847-1849). He had prepared for it by
his other works. Die Achtheit d. vier Kanon. Evangelien (1823),
Ein Wort iiber tieferen Scliriftsinn (1824) and Die bibliscke
Schriftauslegung (1S25).
OLTENITZA (Oltenita), a town of Rumania, on the left bank
of the river Argesh, ss m. from its outflow into the Danube,
and at a terminus of a branch railway from Bucharest. Pop.
(1900) 5S01. The principal trade is in grain, timber (floated
down the Argesh) and fish. Lake Greca, famous for its carp,
lies 10 m. E. and has an area of about 45 sq. m. Its waters'
reach the Danube through a network of streams, marshes and
meres. Oltenitza is the ancient Constantiola, which was the
seat of the first bishopric established in Dacia. In the Crimean
War the Turks forced the river at this point and inflicted heav/
losses on the Russians.
OLUSTEE, a village of Baker county, Florida, U.S.A., in
the precinct of Olustee, about 46 m. W. by S. of Jackson vDle.
Pop. of the precinct (1905) 397. The village is served by the
Seaboard Air Line. The battle of Olustee, or Ocean Pond (the
name of a small body of water in the vicinity), one of the most
sanguinary engagements of the Civil War in proportion to the
numbers engaged, was fought on the 20th of February 1864, about
2 m. east of Olustee, between about 5500 Federal troops, under
General Truman Seymour (1824-1S91), and about 5400 Con-
federates, under General Joseph Finegan, the Federal forces
being decisively defeated, with a loss, in killed and wounded,
of about one-third of their number, including several officers.
The Confederate losses, in killed and wounded, were about 940.
OLYBRIUS, Roman emperor of the West from the nth of
July to the 23rd of October 472, was a member of a noble family
and a native of Rome. After the sack of the city by Genseric
OLYMPIA
93
(Geiseric) in 455, he fled to Constantinople, where in 464 he was
made consul, and about the same time married Placidia, daughter
of Valentinian III. and Eudoxia. This afforded Genseric,
whose son Hunneric had married Eudocia, the elder sister
of Placidia, the opportunity of claiming the empire of the
West for Olybrius. In 472 Olybrius was sent to Italy by the
emperor Leo to assist the emperor Anthemius against his
son-in-law Ricimer, but, having entered into negotiations with
the latter, was himself proclaimed emperor against his will, and
on the murder of his rival ascended the throne unopposed. His
reign was as uneventful as it was brief.
See Gibbon, Decline and Fall, ch. xxxvi.; J. B. Bury, Later Roman
Empire.
OLYMPIA, the scene of the famous Olympic games, is on the
right or north bank of the Alpheus (mod. Ruphia), about 11 m.
E. of the modern Pyrgos. The course of the river is here from
E. to W., and the average breadth of the valley is about J m.
At this point a small stream, the ancient Cladeus, flows from
the north into the Alpheus. The area known as Olympia is
boundedonthewest by the Cladeus, on the south by the Alpheus,
on the north by the low heights which shut in the Alpheus valley,
and on the east by the ancient racecourses. One group of the
northern heights terminates in a conical hill, about 400 ft. high,
which is cut off from the rest by a deep cleft, and descends
abruptly on Olympia. This hill is the famous Cronion, sacred to
Cronus, the father of Zeus.
The natural situation of Olympia is, in one sense, of great
beauty. When Lysias, in his Olympiacus (spoken here), calls it
" the fairest spot of Greece," he was doubtless thinking also —
or perhaps chiefly — of the masterpieces which art, in all its forms,
had contributed to the embellishment of this national sanctuary.
But even now the praise seems hardly excessive to a visitor who,
looking eastward up the fertile and well- wooded valley of Olympia,
sees the snow-crowned chains of Erymanthus and Cyllene rising
in the distance. The valley, at once spacious and definite, is a
natural precinct, and it is probable that no artificial boundaries
of the Altis, or sacred grove, existed until comparatively late
times.
History. — The importance of Olympia in the history of
Greece is religious and political. The religious associations of the
place date from the prehistoric age, when, before the states of
Elis and Pisa had been founded, there was a centre of worship
in this valley which is attested by early votive offerings found
beneath the Heraeum and an altar near it. The earliest extant
building on the site is the temple of Hera, which probably dates
in its original form from about 1000 B.C. There were various
traditions as to the origin of the games. According to one of
them, the first race was that between Pelops and Oenomaus,
who used to challenge the suitors of his daughter Hippodameia
and then slay them. According to another, the festival was
founded by Heracles, either the well-known hero or the Idaean
Dactyl of that name. The control of the festival belonged in
early times to Pisa, but Elis seems to have claimed association
with it. Sixteen women, representing eight towns of Ehs and
eight of Pisatis, wove the festal robe for the Olympian Hera.
Olympia thus became the centre of an amphictyony {q.v.), or
federal league under religious sanction, for the west coast of
the Peloponnesus, as Delphi was for its neighbours in northern
Greece. It suited the interests of Sparta to join this amphictyony ;
and, before the regular catalogue of Olympic victors begins in
776 B.C., Sparta had formed an alliance with Elis. Aristotle
saw in the temple of Hera at Olympia a bronze disk, recording
the traditional laws of the festival, on which the name of Lycurgus
stood next to that of Iphitus, king of Elis. Whatever may have
been the age of the disk itself, the relation which it indicates is
well attested. Elis and Sparta, making common cause, had no
difficulty in excluding the Pisatans from their proper share in the
management of the Olympian sanctuary. Pisa had, indeed, a
brief moment of better fortune, when Pheidon of Argos
celebrated the 28th Olympiad under the presidency of the
Pisatans. This festival, from which the Eleans and Spartans
were excluded, was afterwards struck out of the oflicial register,
as having no proper existence. The destruction of Pisa (before
572 B.C.) by the combined forces of Sparta and Elis put an end
to the long rivalry. Not only Pisatis, but also the district of
Triphylia to the south of it, became dependent on Elis. So far
as the rehgious side of the festival was concerned, the Eleans had
an unquestioned supremacy. It was at Elis, in the gymnasium,
that candidates from all parts of Greece were tested, before they
were admitted to the athletic competitions at Olympia. To have
passed through the training (usually of ten months) at Elis was
regarded as the most valuable preparation. Elcan officials, who
not only adjudged the prizes at Olympia, but decided who should
be admitted to compete, marked the national aspect of their
functions by assuming the title of Hcllanodicae.
Long before the overthrow of Pisa the list of contests had been
so enlarged as to invest the celebration with a Panhellenic
character. Exercises of a Spartan type — testing endurance and
strength with an especial view to war — had almost exclusively
formed the earher programme. But as early as the 25th
Olympiad — i.e. several years before the interference of Pheidon
on behalf of Pisa— the four-horse chariot -race was added. This
was an invitation to wealthy competitors from every part of
the Hellenic world, and was also the recognition of a popular
or spectacular element, as distinct from the skill which had
a merely athletic or mihtary interest. Horse-races were added
later. For such contests the hippodrome was set apart. Mean-
while the list of contests on the old racecourse, the stadium, had
been enlarged. Besides the foot-race in which the course was
traversed once only, there were now the diaulos or double
course, and the " long " foot-race (dolichos). Wrestling and
boxing were combined in the pancration. Leaping, quoit-
throwing, javelin-throwing, running and wresthng were com-,
bined in the pentathlon. The festival was to acquire a new
importance under the protection of the Spartans, who, having
failed in their plans of actual conquest in the Peloponnese, sought
to gain at least the hegemony (acknowledged predominance)
of the peninsula. As the Eleans, therefore, were the religious
supervisors of Olympia, so the Spartans aimed at constituting
themselves its political protectors. Their military strength —
greatly superior at the time to that of any other state — enabled
them to do this. Spartan arms could enforce the sanction which
the Olympian Zeus gave to the oaths of the amphictyones,
whose federal bond was symbolized by common worship at his
shrine. Spartan arms could punish any violation of that " sacred
truce " which was indispensable if HeUenes from all cities were
to have peaceable access to the Olympian festival. And in the
eyes of all Dorians the assured dignity thus added to Olympia
would be enhanced by the fact that the protectors were the
Spartan Heraclidae.
Olympia entered on a new phase of brilliant and secure exist-
ence as a recognized Panhellenic institution. This phase may
be considered as beginning after the establishment of Elean
supremacy in 572 B.C. And so to the last Olympia always remained
a central expression of the Greek ideas that thebody of man has
a glory as well as his intellect and spirit, that body and mind
should alike be disciplined, and that it is by the harmonious
discipline of both that men best honour Zeus. The significance
of Olympia was larger and higher than the pohtical fortunes
of the Greeks who met there, and it survived the overthrow of
Greek independence. In the Macedonian and Roman ages the
temples and contests of Olympia still interpreted the ideal at
which free Greece had aimed. Philip of Macedon and Nero are,
as we shaD see, among those whose names have a record in the
Altis. Such names are typical of long series of visitors who paid
homage to Olympia. According to Cedrenus, a Greek writer
of the nth century (Suvoi^ts Tcrroptoji', i. 326), the Olympian
festival ceased to be held after a.d. 393, the first year of the 293rd
Olympiad. The list of Olympian victors, which begins in 776 B.C. ,
with Coroebus of Elis, closes with the name of an Armenian,;
Varastad. who is said to have belonged to the race of the Arsacidae.
In the 5th century the desolation of Olympia had set in. The
chryselephantine statue of the Olympian Zeus, by Pheidias, was
carried to Constantinople, and perished in a great fire, a.d. 476.
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OLYMPIA
The Olympian temple of Zeus is said to have been dismantled,
either by the Goths or by Christian zeal, in the reign of Theodosius
II. (a.d. 402-450). After this the inhabitants converted the
temple of Zeus and the region to the south of it into a fortress, by
constructing a wall from materials found among the ancient
buildings. The temple was probably thrown down by earth-
quakes in the 6th century a.d.
Excavations. — The German excavations were begun in 1875.
After six campaigns, of which the first five lasted from September
to June, they were completed on the 20th of March 1881. The
result of these six years' labours was, first, to strip off a thick
covering of earth from the Altis, the consecrated precinct of
the Olympian Zeus. This covering had been formed, during some
twelve centuries, partly by clay swept down from the Cronion,
partly by deposit from the overflo\\ings of the Cladeus. The
coating of earth over the Altis had an average depth of no less
than 16 ft.
The work could not, however, be restricted to the Altis. It
wasnecessary to dig beyond it, especially on the west, the south
and the east, where several ancient buUdings existed, not in-
cluded within the sacred precinct itself. The comple.xity of the
task was further increased by the fact that in many places early
Greek work had later Greek on top of it, or late Greek work
had been overlaid with Roman. In a concise survey of the results
obtained, it wiU be best to begin with the remains external to
the precinct of Zeus.
I. Remains outside the Altis
A. West Side. — The wall bounding the Altis on the west belongs
probably to the time of Nero. In the west wall were two gates,
one at its northern and the other at its southern extremity. The
latter must have served as the processional entrance. Each gate
was irpon-riiXos, having before it on the west a colonnade consisting
of a row of four columns. There is a third and smaller gate at about
the middle point of the west wall, and nearly opposite the Pelopion
in the Altis.
West of the west Altis wall, on the strip of ground between the
Altis and the river Cladeus (of which the course is roughly parallel
to the west Altis wall), the following buildings were traced. The
order in which they are placed here is that in which they succeed
each other from north to south.
1. Just outside the Altis at its north-west corner was a Gymnasium.
A large open space, not regularly rectangular, was enclosed on two
sides — possibly on three — by Doric colonnades. On the south it
was bordered by a portico with a single row of columns in front;
on the east by a double portico, more than a stadium in length
(220 yds.), and serving as a racecourse for practice in bad weather.
At the south-east corner of the gymnasium, in the angle between
the south and the east portico, was a Corinthian doorway, which a
double row of columns divided into three passages. Immediately
to the east of this doorvvay was the gate giving access to the Altis
at its north-west corner. The gymnasium was u^ed as an e-xercise
ground for competitors during the last month of their training.
2. Immediately adjoining the gymnasium on the south was a
Palaestra, the place of exercise for wrestlers and boxers. It was
in the form of a square, of which each side was about 70 yds. long, ■
enclosing an inner building surrounded by a Doric colonnade.'
Facing this inner building on north, east and west were rooms of
different sizes, to which doors or colonnades gave access. The
chief entrances to the palaestra were at south-west and south-east,
separated by a double colonnade which extended along the south '
side. I
3. Near the_ palaestra on the south a" Byzantine church forms
the central point in a complex group of remains, (a) The church
itself occupies the site of an older brick building, which is perhaps
a remnant of the " workshop of Pheidias " seen by Pausanias.
(h) North of the church is a square court with a well in the middle,
of the Hellenic age. (c) West of this is a small circular structure,
enclosed by square walls. An altar found (/n situ) on the south side
of the circular enclosure shows by an inscription that this was the
Ileroum, where worship of the heroes was practised down to a late
period, {d) East of the court stood a large building, of Roman
age at latest, arranged round an inner hall with colonnades. These •
buildings probably formed the Theocoleon, house of the priests.
(e) There is also a long and narrow building on the south of the ,
Byzantine church. This may have been occupied by the ^aiSpiiiToi, '
those alleged" descendants of Pheidias" (Pausanias v. 14) whose
hereditary privilege it was to keep the statue of Zeus clean. The
so-called " workshop of Pheidias " (see a) evidently owed its preser-
vation to the fact that it continued to be used for actual work,
Plan of
OLYMPIA
Scale of Yards
o 10 2o 30 40 50 100
Stadia
Scale of Melrt.-^
O 10 20 AO
Water Courses shown thu% ■
ErricrvU/'^UtCT ■*
OLYMPIA
95
and the adjacent building would have been a convenient lodging
for the artists.
4. South of the group described above occur the remains of a
large building shown by its inscription to be the Leonidaeum,
dedicated by an Elean named Leonidas in the 4th century B.C.,
and probably intended for the reception of distinguished visitors
during the games, such as the heads of the special missions from
the various Greek cities. It is an oblong, of which the north and
south sides measure about 250 ft., the east and west about 230.
Its orientation differs from that of all the other buildings above
mentioned, being not from N. to S., but from W.S.W. to E.N.E.
Externally it is an Ionic peripteros, enclosing suites of rooms, large
and small, grouped round a small interior Doric peristyle. In Roman
times it was altered in such a way as to distribute the rooms into
(apparently) four quarters, each having an atrium with six or four
columns. Traces existing within the exterior porticos on north,
west and east indicate much carriage traffic.
B. South Side. — Although the limits of the Altis on the south
(i.e. on the side towards the Alpheus) can be traced with approxi-
mate accuracy, the precise line of the south wall becomes doubtful
after we have advanced a little more than one-third of the distance
from the west to the east end of the south side. The middle and
eastern portions of the south side were places at which architectural
changes, large or small, were numerous down to the latest times,
and where the older buildings met with scant mercy.
1. The Council Hall (Bouleuterium,_ Paus. v. 23) was just outside
the Altis, nearly at the middle of its south wall. It comprised
two separate Doric buildings of different date but identical form, viz.
oblong, having a single row of columns dividing the length into two
naves and terminating to the west in a semicircular apse. The
orientation of each was from west-south-west to east-north-east, one
being south-south-east of the other. In the space between stood a
small square building. In front, on the east, was a portico extending
along the front of all three buildings; and east of this again a
large trapeze-shaped vestibule or fore-hall, enclosed by a colonnade.
This bouleuterium would have been available on all occasions when
Olympia became the scene of conference or debate between the
representatives of different states — whether the subject was properly
political, as concerning the amphictyonic treaties, or related more
directly to the administration of the sanctuary and festival. Two
smaller Hellenic buildings stood immediately west of the bouleu-
terium. The more northerly of the two opened on the Altis. Their
purpose is uncertain.
2. Close to the bouleuterium on the south, and running parallel
with it from south-west by west to north-east by east, was the South
Colonnade, a late but handsome structure, closed on the north side,
open on the south and at the east and west ends. _ The external
colonnade (on south, cast and west) was Doric; the interior row of
columns Corinthian. It was used as a promenade, and as a place
from which to view the festal processions as they passed towards
the Altis.
3. East of the bouleuterium was a triumphal gateway of Roman
age, with triple entrance, the central being the widest, opening on
the Altis from the south. North of this gateway, but at a somewhat
greater depth, traces of a pavement were found in the Altis.
C. East Side. — The line of the east wall, running due north and
south, can be traced from the north-east corner of the Altis down
about three-fifths of the east side, when it breaks off at the remains
known as " Nero's house." These are the first which claim attention
on the east side.
1. To the south-east of the Altis is a building of 4th-century date
and of uncertain purpose. This was afterwards absorbed into a
Roman house which projected beyond the Altis on the east, the
south part of the east Altis wall being destroyed to admit of this.
A piece of leaden water-pipe found in the house bears NER. AVG.
Only a Roman master could have dealt thus with the Altis, and with
a building which stood within its sacred precinct. It cannot be
doubted that the Roman house — from which three doors ga\'e access
to the Altis — was that occupied by Nero when he visited Olympia.
Later Roman hands I again enlarged and altered the building,
which may perhaps have been used for the reception of Roman
governors.
2. Following northwards the line of the east wall, we reach at
the north-east corner of the Altis the entrance to the Stadium, which
extends east of the Altis in a direction from west-south-west to
east-north-east. The apparently strange and inconvenient position
of the Stadium relatively to the Altis was due simply to the necessity
of obeying the conditions of the ground, here determined by the
curve of the lowc slopes which bound the valley on the north. The
German explorers excavated the Stadium so far as was necessary
for the ascertainment of all essential points. Low embankments
had originally been built on west, east and south, the north boundary
being forn^ed by the natural slope of the hill. These were after-
wards thickened and raised. The space thus defined was a large
oblong, about 234 yds. in length by 35 in breadth. There were no
artificial seats. It is computed that from 40,000 to 45,000 spectators
could have found sitting-room, though it is hardly probable that
such a number was ever reached. The exact length of the Stadium
itself — which was primarily the course for the foot-race — was about
210 yds. or 192-27 metres — an important result, as it determines
the Olympian foot to be 0-3204 metre or a little more than an
English foot (1-05). In the Heraeum at Olympia, it may be remarked,
the unit adopted was not this Olympian foot, but an older one of
0297 metre, and in the temple of Zeus an Attic foot of l-oB English
foot was used. The starting-point and the goal in the Stadium
were marked by limestone thresholds. Provision for drainage was
made by a channel running round the enclosure. The Stadium was
used not only for foot-races, but for boxing, wrestling, leaping,
quoit-throwing and javelin-throwing.
The entrance to the Stadium from the north-east corner of the
Altis was a privileged one, reserved for the judges of the games,
the competitors and the heralds. Its form was that of a vaulted
tunnel, 100 Olympian feet in length. It was probably constructed
in Roman times. To the west was a vestibule, from which the Altis
was entered by a handsome gateway.
3. The Hippodrome, in which the chariot-races and horse-races
were held, can no longer be accurately traced. The overflowings of
the Alpheus have washed away all certain indications of its limits.
But it is clear that it extended south and south-east of the Stadium,
and roughly parallel with it, though stretching far beyond it to
the east. From the state of the ground the German explorers
inferred that the length of the hippodrome was 770 metres or 4
Olympic stadia.
D. North Side. — If the northern limit of the Altis, like the west,
south and east, had been traced by a boundary wall, this would
have had the effect of excluding from the precinct a spot so sacred
as the Cronion, " Hill of Cronus," inseparably associated with the
oldest worship of Zeus at Olympia. It seems therefore unlikely
that any such northern boundary wall ever existed. But the line
which such a boundary would have followed is partly represented by
the remains of a wall running from east to west immediately north
of the treasure-houses (see below), which it was designed to protect
against the descent of earth from the Cronion just above. This
was the wall along which, about a.d. 157, the main water-channel
constructed by Herodes Atticus was carried.
Having now surveyed the chief remains external to the sacred
precinct on west, south, east and north, we proceed to notice those
which have been traced within it.
II. — Remains within the Altis
The form of the Altis, as indicated by the existing traces, is not
regularly rectangular. The length of the west side, where the line
of direction is from south-south-east to north-north-west, is about
215 yds. The south side, running nearly due east and west, is
about equally long, if measured from the end of the west wall to
the point which the east wall would touch when produced due south
in a straight line from the place at which it was demolished to
make way for " Nero's house." The east side, measured to a point
just behind the treasure-houses, is the shortest, about 200 yds.
The north side is the longest. A line drawn eastward behind the
treasure-houses, from the Prytaneum at the north-west angle, would
give about 275 yds.
The remains or sites within the Altis may conveniently be classed
in three main groups, viz. — (A) the chief centres of religious worship;
(B) votive buildings; (C) buildings, &c., connected with the ad-
ministration of Olympia or the reception of visitors.
A. Chief Centres of Religious Worship. — i. There are traces of an
altar near the Heraeum which was probably older than the great
altar of Zeus; this was probably the original centre of worship.
The great altar of Zeus was of elliptic form, the length of the lozenge
being directed from south-south-west to north-north-east, in such a
manner that the a.xis would pass through the Cronion. The upper
structure imposed on this basis was in two tiers, and also, probably,
lozenge-shaped. This was the famous " ash-altar " at which the
lamidae, the hereditary gens of seers, practised those rights of divina-
tion by fire in virtue of which more especially Olympia is saluted
by Pindar as " mistress of truth." The steps by which the priests
mounted the altar seem to have been at north and south.
2. The Pelopium, to the west of the Altar of Zeus, was a small
precinct in which sacrifices were offered to the hero Pelops. The
traces agree with the account of Pausanias. Walls, inclined to each
other at obtuse angles, enclosed a plot of ground having in the
middle a low tumulus of elliptic form, about 35 metres from east
to west by 20 from north to south. A Doric propylon with three
doors gave access on the south-west side.
The three temples of the Altis were those of Zeus, Hera and the
Mother of the gods. All were Doric. All, too, were completely
surrounded by a colonnade, i.e. were " peripteral."
3. The Temple of Zeus, south of the Pelopium, stood on a high
substructure with three steps. It was probably built about 470 B.C.
The colonnades at the east and west side were of six columns each;
those at the north and south sides (counting the corner columns
again) of thirteen each. The cella had a prodomos on the east and
an opisthodomos on the west. The cella itself was divided longi-
tudinally (i.e. from east to west) into three partitions by a double
row of columns. The central partition, which was the widest,
consisted of three sections. The west section contained the throne
and image of the Olympian Zeus. The middle section, next to the
east, which was shut off by low screens, contained a table and
stelae. Here, probably, the wreaths were presented to the victors.
96
/OLYMPIA
The third or easternmost section was open to the public. This
temple was most richly adorned with statues and reliefs. On the
east front were represented in twenty-one colossal figures the moment
before the contest between Oenomaus and Pelops. The west front
exhibited the fight of the Lapithae and Centaurs. The statement of
Pausanias that the two pediments were made by Paeonius and
Alcamenes is now generally supposed to be an error. The Twelve
Labours of Heracles were depicted on the metopes of the prodomos
and opisthodomos; and of these reliefs much the greater part was
found — enough to determine with certainty all the essential features
of the composition. It was near this temple, at a point about 38 yds.
E.S.E. from the south-east angle, that the explorers found the statue
of a flying goddess of victory — the Nike of Paeonius.
4. The Temple of Hera (Heraeum), north of the Pelopium, was
raised on two steps. It is probably the oldest of extant Greek
temples, and may date from about 1000 B.C. It has colonnades of
six columns each at east and west, and of sixteen each (counting
the corner columns again) at north and south. It was smaller than
the temple of Zeus, and, while resembling it in general plan, differed
from it by its singular length relatively to its breadth. When
Pausanias saw it, one of the two columns of the opisthodomos (at
the west end of the cella) was of wood; and for a long period all
the columns of this temple had probably been of the same material.
A good deal of patch-work in the restoration of particular parts
seems to have been done at various periods. Only the lower part
of the cella wall was of stone, the rest being of unbaked brick; the
entablature above the columns was of wood covered with terra-
cotta. The cella — divided, like that of Zeus, into three partitions
by a double row of columns — had four " tongue-walls," or small
screens, projecting at right angles from its north wall, and as many
from the south wall. Five niches were thus formed on the north side
and five on the south. In the third niche from the east, on the north
side of the cella, was found one of the greatest of all the treasures
which rewarded the German explorers — the Hermes of Praxiteles
(1878).
5. The Temple of the Great Mother of tlie Gods (Metroum) was again
considerably smaller than the Heraeum. It stood to the east of the
latter, and had a different orientation, viz. not west to east, but
west-north-west to east-south-east. It was raised on three steps,
and had a peripteros of six columns (east and west) by eleven (north
and south), having thus a slightly smaller length relatively to its
breadth than either of the other two temples. Here also the cella
had prodomos and opisthodomos. The adornment and painting of
this temple had once been very rich and varied. It was probably
built in the 4th century, and there are indications that in Roman
times it underwent a restoration.
B. Votive Edifices. — Under this head are placed buildings erected,
either by states or by individuals, as offerings to the Olympian god.
1. The twelve Treasure-houses on the north side of the Altis,
immediately under the Cronion, belong to this class.
The same general character — that of a Doric temple in otitis,
facing south — is traceable in all the treasure-houses. In the cases
of several of these the fragments are sufficient to aid a reconstruction.
Two — viz. the 2nd and 3rd counting from the west — had been dis-
mantled at an early date, and their site was traversed by a roadway
winding upward towards the Cronion. This roadway seems to have
been older at least than A.D. 157, since it caused a deflexion in the
watercourse along the base of the Cronion constructed by Herodes
Atticus. Pausanias, therefore, would not have seen treasure-houses
Nos. 2 and 3. This explains the fact that, though we can trace
twelve, he names only ten.
As the temples of ancient Greece partly served the purposes of
banks in which precious objects could be securely deposited, so the
form of a small Doric chapel was a natural one for the " treasure-
house " to assume. Each of these treasure-houses was erected by a
Greek state, either as a thank-offering for Olympian victories gained
by its citizens, or as a general mark of homage to the Olympian Zeus.
The treasure-houses were designed to contain the various ivaBiiiiaTa
or dedicated gifts (such as gold and silver plate, &c.), in which the
wealth of the sanctuary partly consisted. The temple inventories
recently discovered at Delos illustrate the great quantity of such
possessions which were apt to accumulate at a shrine of Panhellenic
celebrity. Taken in order from the west, the treasure-houses
were founded by the following states: i, Sicyon; 2, 3, unknown;
4, Syracuse (referred by Pausanias to Carthage); 5, Epidamnus;
6, Byzantium; 7, Sybaris; 8, Cyrene; 9, Selinus; 10, Metapontum;
II, Megara; 12, Gela. It is interesting to remark how this list
represents the Greek colonies, from Libya to Sicily, from the Euxine
to the Adriatic. Greece proper, on the other hand, is represented
only by Megara and Sicyon. The dates of the foundations cannot
be fixed. The architectural members of some of the treasure-houses
have been found built into the Byzantine wall, or elsewhere on
the site, as well as the terra-cotta plates that overlaid the stone-
work in some cases, and the pedimental figures, representing the
battle of the gods and giants, from the treasure-house of the
Megarians.
2. The Philippeum stood near the north-west corner of the Altis,
a short space west-south-west of the Heraeum. It was dedicated
by Philip of Macedon, after his victory at Chaeronea (338 B.C.).
As a thank-offering for the overthrow of Greek freedom, it might
seem strangely placed in the Olympian Altis. But it is, in fact,
only another illustration of the manner in which Philip's position
and power enabled him to place a decent disguise on the real nature
of the change. Without risking any revolt of Hellenic feeling,
the new " captain-general " of Greece could erect a monument of
his triumph in the very heart of the Panhellenic sanctuary. The
building consisted of a circular Ionic colonnade (of eighteen columns),
about ig metres in diameter, raised on three steps and enclosing
a small circular cella, probably adorned with fourteen Corinthian
half-columns. It contained portraits by Leochares of Philip,
Alexander, and other members of their family, in gold and ivory.
3. The Exedra of Herodes Atticus stood at the north limit of the
Altis, close to the north-east angle of the Heraeum, and immediately
west of the westernmost treasure-house (that of Sicyon). It con-
sisted of a half-dome of brick, 54 ft. in diameter, with south-south-
west aspect. Under the half-dome were placed twenty-one marble
statues, representing the family of Antoninus Pius, of Marcus
Aurelius, and of the founder, Herodes Atticus. In front of the half-
dome on the south, and extending slightly beyond it, was a basin of
water for drinking, 71 i ft. long. The ends of the basin at north-
north-west and south-south-east were adorned by very small open
temples, each with a circular colonnade of eight pillars. A marble
bull, in front of the basin, bore an inscription saying that Herodes
dedicates the whole to Zeus, in the name of his wife, Annia Regilla.
The exedra must have been seen by Pausanias, but he does not
mention it.
C. It remains to notice those features of the Altis which were
connected with the management of the sanctuary or with the
accommodation of its guests.
1. Olympia, besides its religious character, originally possessed
also a political character, as the centre of an amphictyony. It
was, in fact, a sacred ttoXis. We have seen that it had a bouleu-
terium for purposes of public debate or conference. So also it was
needful that, like a Greek city, it should have a public hearth or
prytaneum, where fire should always burn on the altar of the
Olympian Hestia, and where the controllers of Olympia should
exercise public hospitality. The Prytaneum was at the north-west
corner of the Altis, in such a position that its south-east angle was
close to the north-west angle of the Heraeum. It was apparently a
square building, of which each side measured 100 Olympian feet,
with a south-west aspect. It contained a chapel of Hestia at the
front or south-west side, before which a portico was afterwards
built. The dining-hall was at the back (north-east), the kitchen
on the north-west side. On the same side with the kitchen, and
also on the opposite side (south-east), there were some smaller
rooms.
2. The Porch of Echo, also called the " Painted Porch," extended
to a length of 100 yds. along the east Altis wall. Raised on three
steps, and formed by a single Doric colonnade, open towards the
Altis, it afforded a place from which spectators could conveniently
view the passage of processions and the sacrifices at the great altar
of Zeus. It was built in the Macedonian period to replace an earlier
portico which stood farther back. In front of it was a series of
pedestals for votive offerings, including two colossal Ionic columns.
These columns, as the inscriptions show, once supported statues of
Ptolemy and Berenice.
3. Tfie Agora was the name given to that part of the Altis which
had the Porch of Echo on the east, the Altar of Zeus on the west, the
Metroum on the north, and the precinct of the Temple of Zeus on
the south-west. In this part stood the altars of Zeus Agoraios and
Artemis Agoraia.
4. The Zanes were bronze images of Zeus, the cost of making
which was defrayed by the fines exacted from competitors who had
infringed the rules of the contests at Olympia. These images stood
at the northern side of the Agora, in a row, which extended from the
north-east angle of the Metroum to the gate of the private entrance
from the Altis into the Stadium. Sixteen pedestals were here dis-
covered in situ. A lesson of loyalty was thus impressed on aspirants
to renown by the last objects which met their eyes as they passed
from the sacred enclosure to the scene of their trial.
5. Arrangements for Water-supply.— A copious supply of water
was required for the service of the altars and temples, for the private
dwellings of priests and officials, for the use of the gymnasium,
palaestra, &c., and for the thermae which arose in Roman times.
In the Hellenic age the water was derived wholly from theCladeus
and from the small lateral tributaries of its valley. A basin, to serve
as a chief reservoir, was built at the north-west corner of the Altis:
and a supplementary reservoir was afterward.^ constructed a little
to the north-east of this, on the slope of the Cronion. A new source
of supply was for the first time made available by Herodes Atticus,
c. A.D. 157. At a short distance east of Olympia, near the village of
Miraka, small streams flow from comparatively high ground through
the side-valleys which descend towards the right or northern bank
of the Alpheus. From these side-valleys water was now conducted
to Olympia, entering the Altis at its north-east corner by an arched
canal which passed behind the treasure-houses to the reservoir at the
back of the exedra. The large basin of drinking-water in front of the
exedra was fed thence, and served to associate the name of Herodes
with a benefit of the highest practical value. Olympia further
possessed several fountains, enclosed by round or square walls.
OLYMPIA— OLYMPUS
97
chiefly in connexion with the buildings outside the Altis. The
drainage of the Altis followed two main lines. One, for the west
part, passed from the south-west angle of the Heraeum to the south
portico outside the south Altis wall. The other, which served for the
treasure-houses, passed in front of the Porch of Echo parallel with
the line of the east Altis wall.
See the official Die Ausgrabungen zu Olympia (5 vols., 1875-1881) ;
Laloux and Monceaux, Restauration de I'Olympie (1889); Curtius
and Adler, Olympia die Ergebnisse der Ausgrabungen (1890-1897),
I. " Topographie und Geschichte," II. " Baudenkmiiler," III.
" Bildwerke in Stein und Thon " (Treu), IV. " Bronzen " (Furt-
waneler), V. " Inschriften " (Dittenberger and Purgold).
(R. C. J.;E. Gr.)
OLYMPIA, the capital of the state of Washington, U.S.At,
and the county-seat of Thurston county, on the Des Chutes
river and Budd's Inlet, at the head of Puget Sound, about 50 m.
S.S.W. of Seattle. Pop. (1S90) 4698; (1900) 3863, of whom
591 were foreign-born; (state estimate, 1905) 8000. It is
served by the Northern Pacific and the Port Townsend Southern
railways, and by steamboat lines to other ports on the Sound
and along the Pacific coast. Budd's Inlet is spanned here by a
wagon bridge and a railway bridge. .A.mong the prominent
buildings are the Capitol, which is constructed of native sand-
stone and stands in a park of considerable beauty, the county
court-house, St Peter's hospital, the governor's mansion and
the city hall. The state library is housed in the Capitol. At
Tumwater, the oldest settlement (1845) on Puget Sound, about
2 m. S. of Olympia, are the Tumwater Falls of the Des Chutes,
which provide good water power. The city's chief industry is
the cutting, sawing and dressing of lumber obtained from the
neighbouring forests. Olympia oysters are widely known in
the Pacific coast region; they are obtained chiefly from
Oyster Bay, Skookum Bay, North Bay and South Bay, all
near Olympia. Olympia was laid out in 1851, became the
capital of Washington in 1853, and was chartered as a city
in 1859.
OLYMPIAD, in Greek chronology, a period of four years, used
as a method of dating for literary purposes, but never adopted
in every-day life. The four years were reckoned from one
celebration of the Olympian games to another, the first Olympiad
beginning with 776 B.C., the year of Coroebus, the first victor in
the games after their suspension for 86 years, the last with
A.D. 394, when they were finally abolished during the reign of
Theodosius the Great. The system was first regularly used by
the Sicilian historian Timaeus (352-256 B.C.).
OLYMPIAS, daughter of Neoptolemus, king of Epirus, wife
of Philip II. of Macedon, and mother of Alexander the Great.
Her father claimed descent from Pyrrhus, son of Achilles. It
is said that Philip fell in love with her in Samothrace, where
they were both being initiated into the mysteries (Plutarch,
Alexander, 2). The marriage took place in 359 B.C., shortly
after Philip's accession, and Alexander was born in 356. The
fickleness of Philip and the jealous temper of Olympias led to
a growing estrangement, which became complete when Philip
married a new wife. Cleopatra, in 337. Alexander, who sided
with his mother, withdrew, along with her, into Epirus, whence
they both returned in the following year, after the assassination
of Philip, which Olympias is said to have countenanced. During
the absence of Alexander, with whom she regularly corresponded
on public as well as domestic aftairs, she had great influence, and
by her arrogance and ambition caused such trouble to the regent
Antipater that on Alexander's death (323) she found it prudent
to withdraw into Epirus. Here she remained until 317, when,
allying herself with Polyperchon, by whom her old enemy had
been succeeded in 319, she took the field with an Epirote army;
the opposing troops at once declared in her favour, and for a
short period Olympias was mistress of Macedonia. Cassander,
Antipater's son, hastened from Peloponnesus, and, after an
obstinate siege, compelled the surrender of Pydna, where she
had taken refuge. One of the terms of the capitulation had been
that her life should be spared; but in spite of this she was brought
to trial for the numerous and cruel executions of which she had
been guilty during her short lease of power. Condemned
without a hearing, she was put to death (316) by the friends
of those whom she had slain, and Cassander is said to have
denied her remains the rites of burial.
See Plutarch, Alexander, 9, 39, 68; Justin, vii. 6, ix. 7, xiv. 5, 6;
Arrian, Anab. vii. 12; Diod. Sic. xviii. 49-65, xix. 11-51; also the
articles Alexander III. the Great and Macedonian Empire.
OLYMPIODORUS, the name of several Greek authors, of
whom the following are the most important, (i) An historical
writer (5th century a.d.), born at Thebes in Egypt, who was
sent on a mission to Attila by the emperor Honorius in 412,
and later lived at the court of Theodosius. He was the author
of a history {'IcropcKol A&yoi.) in 22 books of the Western Empire
from 407 to 425. The original is lost, but an abstract is given
by Photius, according to whom he was an alchemist (TTOtTjriis).
A MS. treatise on alchemy, reputed to be by him, is preserved
in the National Library in Paris, and was printed with a transla-
tion by P. E. M. Berthelot in his Collection des akhimisles grecs
(1887-1888). (2) A Peripatetic philosopher (5th century A.D.),
an elder contemporary of Proclus. He hved at Alexandria and
lectured on Aristotle with considerable success. His best-known
pupil was Proclus, to whom he wished to betroth his daughter.
(3) A Neoplatonist philosopher, also of Alexandria, who flourished
in the 6th century of our era, during the reign of Justinian. He
was, therefore, a younger contemporary of Damascius, and
seems to have carried on the Platonic tradition after the closing
of the Athenian School in 529, at a time when the old pagan
philosophy was at its last ebb. His philosophy is in close
conformity with that of Damascius, and, apart from great
lucidity of expression, shows no strikiiig features. He is,
however, important as a critic and a commentator, and preserved
much that was valuable in the writings of lamblichus, Damascius
and Syrianus. He made a close and intelligent study of the
dialogues of Plato, and his notes, formulated and collected by
his pupils (aTTO 0cok^s 'OXfyUTrtoSoipou tov /xtyaXov (piKoabcfiov) , are
extremely valuable. In one of his :ommentaries he makes the
interesting statement that the Platonic succession had not been
interrupted by the numerous confiscations it had sufi'ered.
Zeller points out that this refers to the Alexandrian, not to the
Athenian, succession; but internal evidence makes it clear
that he does not draw a hard line of demarcation between
the two schools. The works which have been preserved are a
life of Plato, an attack on Strato and Scholia on the Phaedo,
Alcibiades I., Philebus and Gorgias. (4) An Aristotelian who
wrote a commentary on the Metcorologica of Aristotle. He also
lived at Alexandria in the 6th century, and from a reference
in his work to a comet must have lived after a.d. 564. But
Zeller (iii. 2, p. 582, n. i) maintains that he is identical with the
commentator on Plato (2, above) in spite of the late date of his
death. His work, like that of Simplicius, endeavours to reconcile
Plato and Aristotle, and refers to Proclus with reverence. The
commentary was printed by the Aldine Press at Venice about
1550-
OLYMPUS, the name of many mountains in Greece and Asia
Minor, and of the fabled home of the gods, and also a city name
and a personal name.
I. Of the mountains bearing the name the most famous
is the lofty ridge on the borders of Thessaly and Macedonia.
The river Peneus, which drains Thessaly, finds its way to the
sea through the great gorge of Tempe, which is close below the
south-eastern end of Olympus and separates it from Mount Ossa.
The highest peak of Olympus is nearly 10,000 ft. high; it is
covered with snow for great part of the year. Olympus is a
mountain of massive appearance, in many places rising in
tremendous precipices broken by vast ravines, above which
is the broad summit. The lower parts are densely wooded;
the summit is naked rock. Homer calls the mountain
ayavvLKpoi, yuaKpos, iroXvdeLpas : the epithets vi4>o(is, Tro\v8ev8pos,
frondosiis and opaciis are used by other poets. The modern
name is "EXu/xtto, a dialectic form of the ancient word.
The peak of Mount Lycaeus in the south-west of Arcadia
was called Olympus. East of Olympia, on the north bank of
the Alpheus, was a hiU bearing this name; beside SeUasia in
Laconia another. The name was even commoner in Asia
XX. 4
98
OLYNTHUS— OMAHA
Minor: a lofty chain in Mysia (Keshish Dagh), a ridge east
of Smyrna (Nif Dagh), other mountains in Lycia, in Galatia,
in Cilicia, in Cyprus, &c., were all called Olympus.
II. A lofty peak, rising high above the clouds of the lower
atmosphere into the clear ether, seemed to be the chosen seat
of the deity. In the Iliad the gods are described as dwelling on
the top of the mountain; in the Odyssey Olympus is regarded
as a more remote and less definite locality; and in later poets
we find similar divergence of ideas, from a definite mountain to
a vague conception of heaven. In the elaborate mythology of
Greek literature Olympus was the common home of the multitude
of gods. Each deity had his special haunts, but all had a
residence at the court of Zeus on Olympus; here were held the
assemblies and the common feasts of the gods.
III. There was a city in Lycia named Olympus; it was a
bishopric in the Byzantine time.
OLYNTHUS, an ancient city of Chalcidice, situated in a
fertile plain at the head of the Gulf of Torone, near the neck
of the peninsula of Tallene, at some little distance from the
sea, and about 60 stadia (7 or 8 m.) from Potidaea. The district
had belonged to a Thracian tribe, the Bottiaeans, in whose
possession the town of Olynthus remained till 479 B.C.' In that
year the Persian general Artabazus, on his return from escorting
Xerxes to the Hellespont, suspecting that a revolt from the
Great King was meditated, slew the inhabitants and handed the
town over to a fresh population, consisting of Greeks from the
neighbouring region of Chalcidice (Herod, viii. 127). Olynthus
thus became a Greek polls, but it remained insignificant (in the
quota-lists of the Delian League it appears as paying on the
average 2 talents, as compared with 9 paid by Scione, 8 by Mende,
6 by Torone) until the synoecism (oT/votKto'yuos) , effected in
432 through the influence of King Perdiccas of Macedon, as the
result of which the inhabitants of a number of petty Chalcidian
towns in the neighbourhood were added to itspopulation(Thucyd.
i. 58). Henceforward it ranks as the chief Hellenic city west of
the Strymon. It had been enrolled as a member of the Delian
League {q.v.) in the early days of the league, but it revolted from
Athens at the time of its synoecism, and was never again reduced.
It formed a base for Brasidas during his expedition (424). In
the 4th century it attained to great importance in the pohtics of
the age as the head of the Chalcidic League {to kolvov tuv
XaKKi.dfcol') . The league may probably be traced back to the
period of the peace of Nicias (421), when we find the Chalcidians
(ot cirt QpaK-qs Xa\Ki5rji) taking diplomatic action in common,
and enrolled as members of the Argive alliance. There are coins
of the league which can be dated with certainty as early as
405; one specimen may perhaps go back to 415-420. Un-
questionably, then, the league originated before the end of the
5th century, and the motive for its formation is almost certainly
to be found in the fear of Athenian attack. After the end of
the Peloponnesian War the development of the league was rapid.
About 390 we find it concluding an important treaty with
Amyntas, king of Macedon (the father of Philip) ,2 and by 382
it had absorbed most of the Greek cities west of the Strymon,
and had even got possession of Pella, the chief city in Macedonia
(Xenophon, Hell. v. 2, 12). In this year Sparta was induced
by an embassy from Acanthus and Apollonia, which anticipated
conquest by the league, to send an expedition against Olynthus.
After three years of indecisive warfare Olynthus consented
to dissolve the confederacy (379). It is clear, however, that the
dissolution was little more than formal, as the Chalcidians
(XaXwSrjs airo QpaK-q^) appear, only a year or two later, among
the members of the Athenian naval confederacy of 378-377.'
Twenty years later, in the reign of Philip, the power of Olynthus
is asserted by Demosthenes to have been much greater than
before the Spartan expedition.* The town itself at this period
' If Olynthus was one of the early colonies of Chalcis (and there
is numismatic evidence for this view; see Head, Hist. Numorum,
p. 185) it must have subsequently passed into the hands of the
Bottiaeans.
' For the inscription see Hicks, Manual of Greek Inscriptions,
No. 74. ^ Hicks, No. 81; C.I. .4. n. I7-
* Demosthenes, De falsa legatione, §§ 263-266.
is spoken of as a city of the first rank (ttoXis ixvplavipo%) , and
the league included thirty-two cities. When war broke out
between Philip and Athens (357), Olynthus was at first in
alliance with Philip. Subsequently, in alarm at the growth of his
power, it concluded an alliance with Athens; but in spite of all
the efforts of the latter state, and of its great orator Demosthenes,
it fell before Philip, who razed it to the ground (348).
The history of the confederacy of Olynthus illustrates at once
the strength and the weakness of that movement towards federa-
tion which is one of the most marked features of the later stages
of Greek history. The strength of the movement is shown
both by the duration and by the extent of the Chalcidic League.
It lasted for something like seventy years; it survived defeat
and temporary dissolution, and it embraced upwards of thirty
cities. Yet, in the end, the centrifugal forces proved stronger
than the centripetal; the sentiment of autonomy stronger
than the sentiment of union. It is clear that Philip's victory
was mainly due to the spirit of dissidence within the league itself,
just as the victory of Sparta had been (cf. Diod. xvi. 53, 2 with
Xen. Hell. v. 2, 24). The mere fact that Philip captured all
the thirty-two towns without serious resistance is sufficient
evidence of this. It is probable that the strength of the league
was more seriously undermined by the policy of Athens than
by the action of Sparta. The successes of Athens at the
expense of Olynthus, shortly before Philip's accession, must
have fatally divided the Greek interest north of the Aegean
in the struggle with Macedon.
Authorities. — The chief passages in ancient literature are the
Olynthiac Orations of Demosthenes, and Xenophon, Hell. v. 2.
See E. A. Freeman, History of Federal Government, ch. iv. ; A. H. J.
Greenidge, Handbook of Greek Constitutional History (1896), p. 228;
B. V. Head, Historia Numorum, pp. 184-186; G. Gilbert, Griechische
Staatsalterthunier , vol. ii. pp. 197-198. The view taken by all these
authorities as to the date of the formation of the Confederacy of
Olynthus differs widely from that put forward above. Freeman
and Greenidge suppose the league to have originated in 382, Head in
392, Hicks (Manual of Greek Inscriptions, No. 74) before 390. The
decisive test is the numismatic one. There are coins of the league
in the British Museum which are earlier than 400, and one in the
possession of Professor Oman, of Oxford, which he and Mr Head
are disposed to think may be as early as 415-420. (E. M. W.)
OMAGH, a market town and the county town of county
Tyrone, Ireland, on the river Strule, 1291 m. N.W. by N. from
Dublin by the Londonderry line of the Great Northern railway,
here joined by a branch from Enniskillen. Pop. (1901) 4789.
The greater part of the town is picturesquely situated on a steep
slope above the river. The milling and linen industries are
carried on, and monthly fairs are held. The Protestant church
has a lofty and handsome spire, and the Roman Catholic church
stands well on the summit of a hill. A castle, of which there are
scanty remains, was of sufficient importance to stand sieges
in 1509 and 1641, being rebuilt after its total destruction
in the first case. The town is governed by an urban district
council.
OMAGUAS, Uman.as or Cambevas (flat-heads), a tribe
of South American Indians of the Amazon valley. Fabulous
stories about the wealth of the Omaguas led to several early
expeditions into their country, the most famous of which were
those of George of Spires in 1536, of Philip von Hutten in 1541
and of Pedro de Ursua in 1560. In 1645 Jesuits began work.
In 1687 Father Fritz, " apostle of the Omaguas," established
some forty mission villages. The Omaguas are still numerous
and powerful around the head waters of the Japura and Uaupes.
OMAHA, the county-seat of Douglas county and the largest i
city in Nebraska, U.S.A., situated on the W. bank of the Missouri ^
river, about 20 m. above the mouth of the Platte. Pop. (1880)
30,5r8, (1890) 66,536,-'' (1900) 102,555, of whom 23,552
(comprising 5522 Germans, 3968 Swedes, 2430 Danes, 2170
Bohemians, 2164 Irish, 1526 English, 1141 English Canadians,
^ These are the figures given in Census Bulletin 71, Estimates of
Population, IQ04, IQOS, 1Q06 (1907), and are the arithmetical mean
between the figures for 1880 and those for 1900, those of the census
of 1890 being 140,452; these are substituted by the Bureau of the
Census, as the 1890 census was in error. In 1910, according to
the U.S. census, the population was 124,096.
I
T
OMAHAS— OMAN
99
997 Russians, &c.) were foreign-born and 3443 were negroes,
(1906 estimate) 124,167. Originally, with Council Bluffs, Iowa,
the eastern terminus of the first Pacific railway, Omaha now has
outlets over nine great railway systems: the Chicago, Burlington &
Quincy, the Union Pacific, the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific,
the Chicago Great-Western, the Chicago & North-Western, the
Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, the Illinois Central, the Missouri
Pacific and the Wabash. Bridges over the Missouri river
connect Omaha with Council Bluffs. The original town site
occupied an elongated and elevated river terrace, now given over
wholly to business; behind this are hills and bluffs, over which
the residential districts have extended.
Among the more important buildings are the Federal
Building, Court House, a city-hall, two high schools, one of
which is one of the finest in the country, a convention hall, the
Auditorium and the Public Library. Omaha is the see of Roman
Catholic and Protestant Episcopal bishoprics. Among the
educational institutions are a state school for the deaf (1867);
the medical department and orthopaedic branch of the University
of Nebraska (whose other departments are at Lincoln); a
Presbyterian Theological Seminary (1891); and Creighton
University (Roman CathoUc, under Jesuit control). This
university, which was founded in honour of Edward Creighton
(d. 1874) (whose brother. Count John A. Creighton, d. 1907,
gave large sums in his lifetime and about $1,250,000 by his will),
by his wife Mary Lucretia Creighton (d. 1876), was incorporated
in 1879; it includes the Creighton Academy, Creighton CoDege
(1875), to which a Scientific Department was added in 1883, the
John A. Creighton Medical College (1892), the Creighton Univer-
sity College of Law (1904), the Creighton University Dental
College (1905) and the Creighton College of Pharmacy (1905).
In 1909-1910 it had 120 instructors and 800 students. St
Joseph's Hospital (Roman Catholic) was built as a memorial
to John A. Creighton. The principal newspapers are the Omaha
Bee, the World-Herald and the News. The Omaha Bee was
established in 1871 by Edward Rosewater (1841-1906), who
made it one of the most influential Republican journals in the
West. The World-Herald (Democratic), founded in 1865 by
George L. Miller, was edited by William Jennings Bryan from
1894 to 1896.
Omaha is the headquarters of the United States military
department of the Missouri, and there are military posts at Fort
Omaha (signal corps and station for experiments with war bal-
loons), immediately north, and Fort Crook (infantry), 10 m. S.
of the city. A carnival, the " Festival of Ak-Sar-Ben," is held
in Omaha every autumn. Among the manufacturing establish-
ments of Omaha are breweries (product value in 1905, $1,141,424)
and distilleries, silver and lead smelting and refining works,
railway shops, flour and grist-mills and dairies. The product-
value of its manufactures in 1900 (143,168,876) constituted 30%
of the total output of the state, not including the greater product
(48-7% of the total) of South Omaha (g.».), where the industrial
interests of Omaha are largely concentrated. The " factory "
product of Omaha in 1905 was valued at $54,003,704, an increase
of 41-8 % over that ($38,074,244) for 1900. The net debt of
the city on the ist of May 1909 was $5,770,000; its assessed
value in 1909 (about \ of cash value) was $26,749,148, and its
total tax-rate was $5-73 per fiooo.
In 1804 Meriwether Lewis and William Clark camped on the
Omaha plateau. In 1825 a licensed Indian post was established
here. In 1846 the Mormons settled at " Winter Quarters " —
after 1854 called Florence (pop. in 1900, 668), and in the immedi-
ate environs (6 m. N.) of the present Omaha — and by 1847 had
built up camps of some 12,000 inhabitants on the Nebraska and
Iowa sides of the Missouri. Compelled to remove from the Indian
reservation within which Winter Quarters lay, they founded
Kanesville" on the Iowa side (which also was called Winter
Quarters by the Mormons, and after 1853 was known as Council
Bluffs), gradually emigrating to Utah in the years following.
Winter Quarters (Florence) was deserted in 1848, but many
Mormons were still in Nebraska and Iowa, and their local in-
fluence was strong for nearly a decade afterwards. Not all had
left Nebraska in 1853. Speculative land " squatters " intruded
upon the Indian lands in that year, and a rush of settlers followed
the opening of Nebraska Territory under the Kansas-Nebraska
Bill of 1854. Omaha (named from the Omaha Indians) was
platted in 1854, and was first chartered as a city in 1857. It was
the provisional territorial capital in 1854-1855, and the regular
capital in 1855-1867. Its charter status has often been modified.
Since 1887 it has been the only city of the state governed under
the general charter for metropolitan cities. Prairie freighting
and Missouri river navigation were of importance before the
construction of the Union Pacific railway, and the activity of
the city in securing the freighting interest gave her an initial
start over the other cities of the state. Council Bluffs was the
legal, but Omaha the practical, eastern terminus of that great
undertaking, work on which began at Omaha in December 1863.
The city was already connected as early as 1863 by telegraph
with Chicago, St Louis, and since 1861 with San Francisco.
Lines of the present great Rock Island, Burlington and North-
western railway systems all entered the city in the years 1867-
1868. Meat-packing began as early as 1871, but its first great
advance followed the removal of the Union stock yards south
of the city in 1884. South Omaha {q.v.) was rapidly built up
around them. A Trans-Mississippi Exposition illustrating the
progress and resources of the states west of the Mississippi was
held at Omaha in i8g8. It represented an investment of
$2,000,000, and in spite of financial depression and wartime,
90% of their subscriptions were returned in dividends to the
stockholders.
OMAHAS, a tribe of North American Indians of Siouan stock.
They were found on St Peter's river, Minnesota, where they
lived an agricultural hfe. Owing to a severe epidemic of small-
pox they abandoned their village, and wandered westward to
the Niobrara river in Nebraska. After a succession of treaties
and removals they are now located on a reservation in eastern
Nebraska, and number some 1200.
OMALIUS D'HALLOY, JEAN BAPTISTE JULIEN D* (1783-
1875), Belgian geologist, was born on the i6th of February 1783
at Liege, and educated firstly in that city and afterwards in
Paris. While a youth he became interested in geology, and
being of independent means he was able to devote his energies
to geological researches. As early as 1808 he communicated to
the Journal des mines a paper entitled Essai sur la geologie
dii Nord de la France. He became mairc of Skeuvre in 1807,
governor of the province of Namur in 181 5, and from 1848
occupied a place in the Belgian senate. He was an active
member of the Belgian Academy of Sciences from 1816, and
served three times as president. He was likewise president of
the Geological Society of France in 1852. In Belgium and the
Rhine provinces he was one of the geological pioneers in deter-
mining the stratigraphy of the Carboniferous and other rocks.
He studied also in detail the Tertiary depositsof the Paris Basin,
and ascertained the extent of the Cretaceous and some of the
older strata, which he for the first time clearly depicted on a
map (1817). He was distinguished as an ethnologist, and when
nearly ninety years of age he was chosen president of the Congress
of Pre-historic Archaeology (Brussels, 1872). He died on the
15th of January 1875. His chief works were: Memoires pour
servir a la description geologique des Pays-Bas, de la France et de
quelques conlrees voisines (1828); Elements de giologie (1831,
3rd ed. 1S39); Abrege de geologie (1S53, 7th ed. 1862); Des
races humaines, ou elements d' ethnographic (5th ed., 1869).
Obituary by J. Gosselet, Bull. soc. geol. de France, ser. 3, vol. vi.
(1878).
OMAN, a kingdom occupying the south-eastern coast districts
of Arabia, its southern limits being a little to the west of the
meridian of 55° E. long., and the boundary on the north the
southern borders of El Hasa. Oman and Hasa between them
occupy the eastern coast districts of Arabia to the head of the
Persian Gulf. The Oman-Hasa boundary has been usually drawn
north of the promontory of El Katr. This is, however, incorrect.
In 1870 Katr was under Wahhabi rule, but in the year 1871
Turkish assistance was requested to aid the settlement of a
lOO
OMAR— 'OMAR KHAYYAM
family quarrel between certain Wahhabi chiefs, and the Turks
thus obtained a footing in Katr, which they have retained ever
since. Turkish occupation (now firmly established throughout
El Hasa) includes Katif (the ancient Gerrha), and El Bidia on the
coast of Katr. But the pearl fisheries of Katr are stiU under the
protection of the chiefs of Bahrein, who are themselves under
British suzerainty. In 1895 the chief of Katr (Sheikh Jasim ben
Thani), instigated by the Turks, attacked Sheikh Isa of Bahrein,
but his fleet of dhows was destroyed by a British gunboat, and
Bahrein (like Zanzibar) has since been detached from Oman
and placed directly under British protection.
Oman is a mountainous district dominated by a range called
Jebel Akhdar (or the Green Mountain), which is 10,000 ft. in
altitude, and is flanked by minor ranges running approximately
parallel to the coast, and shutting off the harbours from the
interior. They enclose long lateral vaUeys, some of which are
fertile and highly cultivated, and traversed by narrow precipitous
gorges at intervals, which form the only means of access to the
interior from the sea. Beyond the mountains which flank the
cultivated valleys of Semail and Tyin, to the west, there stretches
the great Ruba el Khali, or Dahna, the central desert of southern
Arabia, which reaches across the continent to the borders of
Yemen, isolating the province on the landward side just as the
rugged mountain barriers shut it off from the sea. The wadis
(or vaDeys) of Oman (Uke the wadis of Arabia generally) are
merely torrential channels, dry for the greater part of the year.
Water is obtained from wells and springs in sufficient quantity
to supply an extensive system of irrigation.
The only good harbour on the coast is that of Muscat , the capital
of the kingdom, which, however, is not directly connected with
the interior by any mountain route. The httle port of Matrah,
immediately contiguous to Muscat, offers the only opportunity
for penetrating into the interior by the wadi Kahza, a rough pass
which is held for the sultan or imam of Muscat by the Rehbayin
chief. In 1883, owing to the treachery of this chief, Muscat
was besieged by a rebel army, and disaster was only averted by
the guns of H.M.S. " Philomel." About 50 m. south of Muscat
the port of Kuryat is again connected with the inland valleys
by the wadi HaU, leading to the gorges of the wadi Thaika or
" Devil's Gap." Both routes give access to the wadi Tyin, which,
enclosed between the mountain of El Beideh and Hallowi (from
2000 to 3000 ft. high), is the garden of Oman. Fifty miles to the
north-west of Muscat this interior region may again be reached
by the transverse valley of SemaO, leading into the wadi Munsab,
and from thence to Tyin. This is generally reckoned the easiest
hne for travellers. But aU routes are chfficult, winding between
granite and hmestone rocks, and abounding in narrow defiles
and rugged torrent beds. Vegetation is, however, tolerably
abundant — tamarisks, oleanders, kafas, euphorbias, the milk
bush, rhamnus and acacias being the most common and most
characteristic forms of vegetable life, and pools of water are
frequent. The rich oasis of Tyin contains many villages em-
bosomed in palm groves and surrounded with orchards and
fields.
In addition to cereals and vegetables, the cultivation of
fruit is abundant throughout the valley. After the date, vines,
peaches, apricots, oranges, mangoes, melons and mulberries find
special favour with the Rehbayin, who exhibit aU the skill and
perseverance of the Arab agriculturist of Yemen, and cultivate
everything that the soil is capable of producing.
The sultan, a descendant of those Yemenite imams who con-
solidated Arab power in Zanzibar and on the East African coast,
and raised Oman to its position as the most powerful state
in Arabia during the first half of the igth century, resides at
Muscat, where his palace directly faces the harbour, not far
from the British residency. The little port of Gwadar, on the
Makran coast of the Arabian Sea, a station of the Persian Gulf
telegraph system, is stiU a dependency of Oman.
See Colonel Miles, Geographical Journal, vol. vii. (1896); Com-
mander Stiffe, Geographical Journal (1899). (T. H. H.*)
OMAR (c. 58 1-644), in full "Omar ibn al-Khattab, the second
of the Mahommedan caliphs (see Caliphate, A, §§ i and 2).
Originally opposed to Mahomet, he became later one of the ablest
advisers both of him and of the first caHph, Abu Bekr. His own
reign (634-644) saw Islam's transformation from a religious
sect to an imperial power. The chief events were the defeat
of the Persians at Kadisiya (637) and the conquest of Syria and
Palestine. The conquest of Egypt followed (see Egypt and
Amr ibn el-Ass) and the final rout of the Persians at Nehawend
(641) brought Iran under Arab rule. Omar was assassinated by
a Persian slave in 644, and though he lingered several days after
the attack, he appointed no successor, but only a body of six
Muhajirun who should select a new caliph. Omar was a wise
and far-sighted ruler and rendered great service to Islam.
He is said to have built the so-called " Mosque of Omar "
(" the Dome of the Rock ") in Jerusalem, which contains the
rock regarded by Mahommedans as the scene of Mahomet's
ascent to heaven, and by the Jews as that of the proposed
sacrifice of Isaac.
'OMAR KHAYYAM [in full, Ghiyathuddin Abulfath
'Omar bin Ibr.ahim al-Khayyami], the great Persian mathe-
matician, astronomer, freethinker and epigrammatist, who
derived the epithet Khayyam (the tentmaker) most likely from
his father's trade, was born in or near Nishaptir, where he is said
to have died in a.h. 517 (a.d. 1123). At an early age he entered
into a close friendship both with Nizam-ul-mulk and his school-
fellow Hassan ibn Sabbah, who founded afterwards the terrible
sect of the Assassins. When Nizam-ul-mulk was raised to the
rank of vizier by the SeljUk sultan Alp-Arslan (a.d. 1063-1073)
he bestowed upon Hassan ibn Sabbah the dignity of a chamber-
lain, whilst offering a similar court office to 'Omar Khayyam.
But the latter contented himself with an annual stipend which
would enable him to devote aU his time to his favourite studies
of mathematics and astronomy. His standard work on algebra,
written in Arabic, and other treatises of a similar character
raised him at once to the foremost rank among the mathemati-
cians of that age, and induced Sultan Malik-Shah to summon him
in A.H. 467 (a.d. 1074) to institute astronomical observations
on a larger scale, and to aid him in his great enterprise of a
thorough reform of the calendar. The results of 'Omar's research
were — a revised edition of the Zij or astronomical tables, and the
introduction of the Ta'rikh-i-Malikshahl or Jalali, that is, the
so-called JalaUan or Seljuk era, which commences in a.h. 471
(a.d. 1070, isth March).
"Omar's great scientific fame, however, is nearly eclipsed by
his still greater poetical renown, which he owes to his rubd'is or
quatrains, a collection of about 500 epigrams. The peculiar
form of the ruba'i — viz. four lines, the first, second and fourth
of which have the same rhyme, while the third usually (but not
always) remains rhymeless — was first successfully introduced
into Persian literature as the exclusive vehicle for subtle thoughts
on the various topics of Sufic mysticism by the sheikh AbQ Sa'ld
bin Abulkhair,' but 'Omar differs in its treatment considerably
from Abu Sa'ld. Although some of his quatrains are purely
mystic and pantheistic, most of them bear quite another stamp;
they are the breviary of a radical freethinker, who protests in
the most forcible manner both against the narrowness, bigotry
and uncompromising austerity of the orthodox ulema and the
eccentricity, hypocrisy and wild ravings of advanced Siifis,
whom he successfully combats with their own weapons, using
the whole mystic terminology simply to ridicule mysticism
itself. There is in this respect a great resemblance between
him and Hafiz, but 'Omar is decidedly superior. He has often
been called the Voltaire of the East, and cried down as materialist
and atheist. As far as purity of diction, fine wit, crushing
satire against a debased and ignorant clergy, and a general
sympathy with suffering humanity are concerned, "Omar certainly
reminds us of the great Frenchman; but there the comparison
ceases. Voltaire never wrote anything equal to 'Omar's fascinat-
ing rhapsodies in praise of wine, love and all earthly joys,
and his passionate denunciations of a malevolent and inexorable
' Died Jan. 1049. Comp. Eth6's edition of his ruba'is in Sitzungs-
berichtederbayr. Akademie (1875), pp. I45seq.,and (1878) pp. 38seq.;
I and E. G. Browne's Literary Hist, of Persia, ii. 261.
I
OMBRE— OMELETTE
lOI
fate which dooms to slow decay or sudden death and to eternal
oblivion all that is great, good and beautiful in this world.
There is a touch of Byron, Swinburne and even of Schopenhauer
in many of his rubd'is, which clearly proves that the modern
pessimist is by no means a novel creature in the realm of philo-
sophic thought and poetical imagination.
The Leiden copy of 'Omar Khayyam's work on algebra was
noticed as far back as 1742 by Gerald Meerman in the preface to
his Specimen calculi fluxionalis ; further notices of the same work
by Scdillot appeared in the Nouv. Jour. As. (1834) and in vol. xiii.
of the Notices et extrails des MSS. de la Bibl. roy. The complete
text, together with a French translation (on the basis of the Leiden
and Paris copies, the latter first discovered by M. Libri, see his
Histoire des sciences mathemaliques en Italic, i. 300), was edited
by F. Woepcke, L'Algebre d'Omar Alkhayydmi (Paris, 1851). Articles
on 'Omar's life and works are found in Reinaud's Geographie d'Abonl-
feda, pref., p. loi ; Notices et extrails, ix. 143 seq.; Garcin de Tassy,
Note siir les Rubd'iyat de 'Omar Hhaiyam (Paris, 1857); Rieu, Cat.
Pers. MSS. in the Br. Mus., ii. 546; A. Christensen, Recherches
sur les Ruba'iyat de 'Omar IJayyani (Heidelberg, 1905); V. Zhukov-
ski's 'Umar Khayyam and the " Wandering" Quatrains, translated
from the Russian by E. D. Ross in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic
Society, xxx. (1898); E. G. Browne, Literary History of Persia, ii.
246. The quatrains have been edited at Calcutta (1836) and
Teheran (1857 and 1862); text and French translation by J. B.
Nicolas (Paris, 1867) (very incorrect and misleading); a portion of
the same, rendered in English verse, by E. FitzGerald (London,
1859, 1872 and 1879). FitzGerald's translation has been edited
with commentary by H. M. Batson (1900), and the 2nd ed. of the
same (1868) by E. lieron Allen (1908). A new English version was
published in Triibner's " Oriental " series (1882) by E. H. Whinficld,
and the first critical edition of the text, with translation, by the
same (1883). Important later works are N. H. Dole's variorum
edition (1896), J. Payne's translation (1898), E. Heron Allen's
edition (1898) and the Life by ]. K. M. Shirazi (1905); but the
literature in new translations and imitations has recently multiplied
exceedingly. (H. E. ; X.)
OMBRE, a card game, very fashionable at the end of the i8th
century, but now practically obsolete. The following recom-
mendation of the game is taken from the Court Gamester, a
book published in 1720 for the use of the daughters of the prince
of Wales, afterwards George II: —
"The game of Ombre owes its invention to the Spaniards, and it
has in it a great deal of the gravity peculiaf to that nation. It is
called Ombre, or The Man. It was so named as requiring thought
and reflection, which are qualities peculiar to many or rather alluding
to him who undertakes to play the game against the rest of the
gamesters, and is called the man. To play it well requires a great
deal of application, and let a man be ever so expert, he will be apt
to fall into mistakes if he think of anything else or is disturbed by
the conversation of them that look on. ... It will be found the
most delightful and entertaining of all games to those who have
anything in them of what we call the spirit of play."
Ombre is played by three players with a pack of 40 cards,
the 8, 9 and 10 being dispensed with. The order of value
of the hands is irregiUar, being different for trumps and suits not
trumps. In a suit not trumps the order is, for red suits: K, Q,
Kn, ace, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7; for black suits: K, Q, Kn, 7, 6, 5, 4,
3,2. In trump suits the ace of spades, called spadille, is always
a trump, and the highest one, whichever of the four suits may
be trumps. The order for red suit trumps is; ace of spades 7
(called manille), ace of clubs (called basto), ace (called ponto),
K, Q, Kn, 2, 3, 4, Si 6. For black suit trumps: ace of spades
{spadille), 2 {manille), ace {basto), K, Q, Kn, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3. There
is no ponto in black trumps. The three highest trumps are
called matadores (or mats) . The holder of them has the privilege
of not following suit, except when a higher mat is played, which
forces a lower one if the hand contains no other trump.
Cards are dealt round, and the receiver of the first black ace
is the dealer. He deals (towards his right) nine cards, by threes,
to each player. The remaining 13 cards form the stock or talon,
as at piquet. Each deal constitutes a game. One hand plays
against the other two, the solo player being called the Ombre.
The player at the dealer's right has the first option of being
Ombre, which entails two privileges: that of naming the trump
suit, and that of throwing away as many of his cards as he chooses,
receiving new ones in their place, as at poker. If, with these
advantages in mind, he thinks he can win against the other
two hands, he says, " I ask leave," or " I play." But in this
case his right-hand neighbour has the privilege of claiming
Ombre for himself, providing he is willing to play his hand without
drawing new cards, or, as the phrase goes, sans prendre. If, how-
ever, the other player reconsiders and decides that he will himself
play without drawing cards, he can still remain Ombre. If
the second player passes, the dealer in his turn may ask to play
sans prendre, as above. If all three pass a new deal ensues.
After the Ombre discards (if he does not play sans prendre) the
two others in turn do likewise, and, if any cards are left in the
stock, the last discarder may look at them (as at piquet) and the
others after him. But if he does not look at them the others
lose the privilege of doing so.
The manner of play is Hke whist, except that it is towards
the right. The second and third players combine to defeat
Ombre. If in the sequel Ombre makes more tricks than either
of his opponents he wins. If one of his opponents makes more
than Ombre the latter loses (called codillc). If Ombre and one
or both of his opponents make the same number of tricks the
game is drawn. When Ombre makes all nine tricks he wins
a vole. The game is played with counters having certain
values, the pool being emptied by the winner. If all pass, a
counter of low value is paid into the pool by each player. If
Ombre wins he takes the entire pool. If he draws he forfeits
to the pool a sum equal to that already in it, i.e. the pool is
doubled. If either of his opponents makes the majority of the
tricks {codille), Ombre pays him a sum equal to that in the pool,
which itself remains untouched until the next game. When the
pool is emptied each player pays in three counters.
OMDURMAN, a town of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, on the
west bank of the Nile, immediately north of the junction of the
White and Blue Niles in 15° 38' N., 32° 29' E., 2 m. N. by W.
of Khartum. Pop. (1909 census) 42,779, of whom 541 were
Europeans. The town covers a large area, being over 5 m. long
and 2 broad. It consists for the most part of mud huts, but
there are some houses built of sun-dried bricks. Save for two or
three wide streets which traverse it from end to end the town is
a network of narrow lanes. In the centre facing an open space are
the ruins of the tomb of the Mahdi and behind is the house in
which he lived. The Khalifa's house (a two-storeyed building),
the mosque, the Beit el Amana (arsenal) and other houses famed
in the history of the town also face the central square. A high
wall runs behind these buildings parallel with the Nile.
Omdurman is the headquarters of the native traders in the
Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, the chief articles of commerce being
ivory, ostrich feathers and gum arable from Darfur and Kordofan.
There is also an important camel and cattle market. Nearly
every tribe in the Sudan is represented in the population of the
city. Among the native artificers the metal workers and leather
dressers are noted. The government maintains elementary
and technical schools. Mission work is undertaken by various
Protestant and Roman Catholic societies.
Omdurman, then an insignificant village, was chosen in 1884
by the Mahdi Mahommed Ahmed as his capital and so continued
after the fall of Khartum in January 1885. Its growth was
rapid, the Khalifa (who succeeded the Mahdi) compelling
large numbers of disaffected tribesmen to live in the town under
the eye of his soldiery. Here also were imprisoned the European
captives of the Mahdists — notably Slatin Pasha and Father
Ohrwalder. On the 2nd of September 1898 the Anglo-Egyptian
army under Lord Kitchener totaUy defeated the forces of the
Khalifa at Kerreri, 7 m. N. of the town. A marble obelisk marks
the spot where the 21st Lancers made a charge. Within the
enclosure of the Khalifa's house is the tomb of Hubert Howard,
son of the 9th earl of Carlisle, who was killed in the house at the
capture of the city by a sphnter of a shell fired at the Mahdi's
tomb. (See Sudan: Angle-Egyptian.)
OMELETTE, sometimes Anglicized as "omelet," a French
word of which the history is an example of the curious changes
a word may undergo. The ultimate origin is Lat. lamella,
diminutive of lamina, plate; this became in French lamellc, and
a wrong division of /(! lamellc gave alamcllc, alcmcllc, or alumelle;
thence alemette, metathesized to omelette and aiimclete, the form
in which the word appears in the 15th and i6th centuries. The
I02
OMEN
original meaning seems to be a pancake of a thin flat shape.
Omelettes are made with eggs, beaten up lightly, with the
addition of mUk, flour, herbs, cheese, mushrooms, &c., according
to the requirement, and cooked quickly in a buttered pan.
OMEN (a Latin word, either connected with os, mouth, or
more probably with auris (Gr. o5s, ear; apparently, meaning
" a thing heard " or " spoken "), a sign in divination, favourable
or unfavourable as the case may be (see Divination, Augurs
and Oracle). The taking of omens may be said to be a part of
all systems of divination, in which the future is predicted by
means of indications of one sort or another; and tradition has
thus gathered round many subjects — events, actions, colours,
numbers, &c. — which are considered " ominous," an adjective
which generally connotes iU-fortune.
One of the oldest and most widespread methods of divining
the future, both among primitive people and among several of
the civilizations of antiquity, was the reading of omens in the
signs noted on the liver of the animal offered as a sacrifice to
some deity. The custom is vouched for by travellers as still
observed in Borneo, Burma, Uganda and elsewhere, the animal
chosen being a pig or a fowl. It constituted the most common
form of divination in ancient Babylonia, where it can be traced
back to the 3rd millennium B.C. Among the Etruscans the
prominence of the rite led to the liver being looked upon as
the trade-mark of the priest. From the Etruscans it made its
way to the Romans, though as we shall see it was also modified
by them. The evidence for the rite among the Greeks is sufiicient
to warrant the conclusion of its introduction at a very early
period and its persistence to a late day.
The theory upon which the rite everywhere rests is clearly
the belief, for which there is an abundance of concurrent testi-
mony, that the liver was at one time regarded as the seat of
vitality. This belief appears to be of a more primitive character
than the view which places the seat of life in the heart, though
we are accustomed to think that the latter was the prevailing
view in antiquity. The fact, however, appears to be that the
prominence given to the heart in popular beUefs dates from the
time when in the course of the development of anatomical
knowledge the important function of the heart in animal life
came to be recognized, whereas the supposition that the liver
is the seat of vitality rests upon other factors than anatomical
knowledge, and, being independent of such knowledge, also
antedates it. Among the reasons which led people to identify
the liver with the very source of life, and hence as the seat of all
affections and emotions, including what to us are intellectual
functions, we may name the bloody appearance of that organ.
Filled with blood, it was natural to regard it as the seat of the
blood, and as a matter of fact one-sixth of the entire blood of
man is in the liver, while in the case of some animals the propor-
tion is even larger. Now blood was everywhere in antiquity
associated with life, and the biblical passage. Genesis ix. 3,
which identifies the blood with the soul of the animal and there-
fore prohibits its use fairly represents the current conception
both among primitive peoples as well as among those who had
advanced along the road of culture and civiKzation. The liver
being regarded as the seat of the blood, it was a natural and
short step to identify the liver with the soul as well as with the
seat of life, and therefore as the centre of all manifestations of
vitality and activity. In this stage of belief, therefore, the liver
is the seat of all emotions and affections, as well as of intellectual
functions, and it is only when with advancing anatomical know-
ledge the functions of the heart and then of the brain come to be
recognized that a differentiation of functions takes place which
had its outcome in the assignment of intellectual activity to the
brain or head, of the higher emotions and affections (as love and
courage) to the heart, while the liver was degraded to the rank
of being regarded as the seat of the lower emotions and affections,
such as jealousy, moroseness and the like.
Hepatoscopy, or divination throiigh the liver, belongs therefore
to the primitive period when that organ summed up all vitality
and was regarded as the seat of all the emotions and affections —
the higher as well as the lower — and also astheseatof intellectual
functions. The question, however, still remains to be answered
how people came to the belief or to the assumption that through
the soul, or the seat of life of the sacrificial animal, the intention
of the gods could be divined. There are two theories that m.ay
be put forward. The one is that the animal sacrificed was looked
upon as a deity, and that, therefore, the liver represented the
soul of the god; the other theory is that the deity in accepting
the sacrifice identified himself with the animal, and that, there-
fore, the liver as the soul of the animal was the counterpart of
the soul of the god. It is true that the killing of the god plays
a prominent part in primitive cults, as has been shown more
particularly through the valuable researches of J. G. Frazer.
{The Golden Bough). On the other hand, serious difficulties
arise if we assume that every animal sacrificed represents a
deity; and even assuming that such a belief underlies the rite
of animal sacrifice, a modification of the belief must have been
introduced when such sacrifices became a common rite resorted
to on every occasion when a deity was to be approached. It is
manifestly impossible to assume, e.g. that the daily sacrifices
which form a feature of advanced cults involved the belief of the
daily slaughter of some deity, and even before this stage was
reached the primitive belief of the actual identification of the
god with the animal must have yielded to some such belief as
that the deity in accepting the sacrifice assimilates the animal
to his own being, precisely as man assimilates the food that
enters into his body. The animal is in a certain sense, indeed,
the food of the god.
The theory underlying hepatoscopy therefore consists of the.se
two factors: the belief (i) that the liver is the seat of life, or,
to put it more succinctly, what was currently regarded as the
soul of the animal; and (2) that the liver of the sacrificial
animal, by virtue of its acceptance on the part of the god, took
on the same character as the soul of the god to whom it was
offered. The two souls acted in accord, the soul of the animal
becoming a reflection, as it were, of the soul of the god. If,
therefore, one understood the signs noted on a particular liver,
one entered, as it were, into the mind — as one of the manifesta-
tions of soul-life — of the deity who had assimilated the being of
the animal to his own being. To know the mind of the god was
equivalent to knowing what the god in question proposed to do.
Hence, when one approached a deity with an inquiry as to the
outcome of some undertaking, the reading of the signs on the
liver afforded a direct means of determining the course of future
events, which was, according to current beliefs, in the control
of the gods. That there are defects in the logical process as here
outlined to account for the curious rite constitutes no valid
objection to the theory advanced, for, in the first place, primitive
logic in matters of belief is inherently defective and even contra-
dictory, and, secondly, the strong desire to pierce the mysterious
future, forming an impelling factor in all religions — even in the
most advanced of our own day — would tend to obscure the
weakness of any theory developed to explain a rite which
represents merely one endeavour among many to divine the
intention and plans of the gods, upon the knowledge of which
so much of man's happiness and welfare depended.
Passing now to typical examples, the beginning must be made
with Babylonia, which is also the richest source of our knowledge
of the detaOs of the rite. Hepatoscopy in the Euphrates valley
can be traced back to the 3rd millennium before cur era, which
may be taken as sufficient evidence for its survival from the
period of primitive culture, while the supreme importance
attached to signs read on the livers of sacrificial animals — usually
a sheep — follows from the care with which omens derived from
such inspection on occasions of historical significance were pre-
served as guides to later generations of priests. Thus we have
a collection of the signs noted during the career of Sargon I. of
Agade {c. 2800 B.C.), which in some way were handed down till
the days of the Assyrian king Assur-bani-pal (668-626 B.C.). One
of the chief names for the priest was bdril — literaUy the " in-
spector " — which was given to him because of the prominence
of his function as an inspector of livers for the purpose of divining
the intention of the gods. It is to the collections formed by these
OMEN
103
6afM-priests as a guidance for themselves and as a basis of
instruction for those in training for the priesthood that we owe
our knowledge of the parts of the liver to which particular
attention was directed, of the signs noted, and of the principles
guiding the interpretation of the signs.
The inspection of the liver for purposes of divination led to
the study of the anatomy of the liver, and there are indeed good
reasons for believing that hepatoscopy represents the starting-
point for the study of animal anatomy in general. We find in
the Babylonian-Assyrian omen-texts special designations for
the three main lobes of the sheep's liver — the lobus dexter, the
lobus sinister and the lohis caudatus; the first-named being
called " the right wing of the liver," the second " the left wing
of the liver," and the third " the middle of the liver." Whether
the division of the lobus dexter into two divisions — (i) lobus
dexter proper and (2) lobus quadratus, as in modern anatomical
nomenclature — was also assumed in Babylonian hepatoscopy,
is not certain, but the groove separating the right lobe into two
sections — the fossa venae umbilicalis — was recognized and dis-
tinguished by the designation of " river of the liver." The two
appendixes attached to the upper lobe or lohis pyramidalis,
and known in modern nomenclature as processus pyramidalis and
processus papillaris, were described respectively as the "finger"
of the liver and as the " offshoot." The former of these two
appendixes pJays an especially important part in hepatoscopy,
and, according to its shape and peculiarities, furnishes a good
or bad omen. The gall-bladder, appropriately designated as
" the bitter," was regarded as a part of the liver, and the cystic
duct (compared, apparently, to a " penis") to which it is joined,
as well as the hepatic duct (pictured as an " outlet ") and the
ductus choleductus (described as a " yoke "), aU had their special
designations. The depression separating the two lower lobes
from the lobus caudattis, and known as the porta hcpatis, was
appropriately designated as the " crucible " of the Liver. Lastly,
to pass over unnecessary details, the markings of various kinds
to be observed on the lobes of the livers of freshly-slaughtered
animals, which are due mainly to the traces left by the sub-
sidiary hepatic ducts a,nd hepatic veins on the liver surface,
were described as " holes," " paths," " clubs " and the like.
The constantly varying character of these markings, no two
livers being alike in this respect, furnished a particularly large
field for the fancy of the 6aw-priest.
In the interpretation of these signs the two chief factors were
association of ideas and association of words. If, for example,
the processus pyramidalis was abnormally small and the pro-
cessus papillaris abnormaOy large, it pointed to a reversion of
the natural order, to wit, that the servant should control the
master or that the son would be above the father. A long cystic
duct would point to a long reign of the king. If the gaU-bladder
was swollen, it pointed to an extension or enlargement of some
kind. If the porta hcpatis was torn it prognosticated a plundering
of the enemy's land. As among most people, a sign on the right
side was favourable, but the same sign on the left side unfavour-
able. If, for example, the porta hepatis was long on the right
side and short on the left side, it was a good sign for the king's
army, but if short on the right side and long on the left, it was
unfavourable; and similarly for a whole series of phenomena
connected with any one of the various subdivisions of the liver.
Past experience constituted another important factor in establish-
ing the interpretation of signs noted. If, for example, on a certain
occasion when the liver of a sacrificial animal was examined,
certain events of a favourable character followed, the conclusion
was drawn that the signs observed were favourable, and hence
the recurrence of these signs on another occasion suggested a
favourable answer to the question put to the priests. With
this in view, omens given in the reigns of prominent rulers were
preserved with special care as guides to the priests.
In the course of time the collections of signs and their inter-
pretation made by the Aam-priests grew in number until elaborate
series were produced in which the endeavour was made to exhaust
so far as possible all the varieties and modifications of the many
signs, so as to furnish a complete handbook both for purposes
of instruction and as a basis for the practical work of divination.
Divination through the liver remained in force among the
Assyrians and Babylonians down to the end of the Babylonian
Empire.
Among the Greeks and Romans likewise it was the liver that
continued throughout all periods to play the chief role in divina-
tion through the sacrificial animal. Blecher {De Extispicio
Capita Tria, Giessen, 1905, pp. 3-22) has recently collected most
of the references in Greek and Latin authors to animal divination,
and an examination of these shows conclusively that, although
the general term used for the inspection of the sacrificial animal
was iera or iereia {i.e. " victims " or " sacred parts ") in Greek,
and exta in Latin, when specific illustrations are introduced,
the reference is almost invariably to some sign or signs on the
liver; and we have an interesting statement in Pliny (Hist. Nal.
xi. § 186), furnishing the date (274 B.C.) when the examination
of the heart was for the first time introduced by the side of the
liver as a means of divining the future, while the lungs are not
mentioned till we reach the days of Cicero (de Divinatione, i. 85).
We are justified in concluding, therefore, that among the Greeks
and Romans likewise the examination of the liver was the basis
of divination in the case of the sacrificial animal. It is well
known that the Romans borrowed their methods of hepatoscopy
from the Etruscans, and, apart from the direct evidence for this
in Latin writings, we have, in the case of the bronze model of
a liver found near Piacenza in 1877, and of Etruscan origin, the
unmistakable proof that among the Etruscans the examination
of the liver was the basis of animal divination. Besides this
object dating from about the 3rd century B.C., according to the
latest investigator, G. Korte (" Die Bronzeleber von Piacenza,"
in Mitt. d. K. D. Archaeol. Instiluts, 1905, xx. pp. 348-379),
there are other Etruscan monuments, e.g. the figure of an
Etruscan augur holding a liver in his hand as his trade-mark
(Korte, ib. pi. xiv.), which point in the same direction, and
indicate that the model of the liver was used as an object lesson
to illustrate the method of divination through the liver. For
further details the reader is referred to Thulin's monograph,
Die Etruskische Disciplin, II Die Haruspicin (Gothenburg,
1Q06).
As for the Greeks, it is still an open question whether they
perfected their method of hepatoscopy under Etruscan influence
or through the Babylonians. In any case, since the Eastern
origin of the Etruscans is now generally admitted, we may
temporarily, at least, accept the conclusion that hepatoscopy
as a method of divination owes its survival in advanced forms
of culture to the elaborate system devised in the course of
centuries by the Babylonian priests, and to the influence, direct
and indirect, exerted by this system in the ancient world. But
for this system hepatoscopy, the theoretic basis of which as
above set forth falls within the sphere of ideas that belong to
primitive culture, would have passed away as higher stages of
civilization were reached; and as a matter of fact it plays no
part in the Egyptian culture or in the civilization of India, while
among the Hebrews only faint traces of the primitive idea of
the liver as the seat of the soul are to be met with in the Old
Testament, among which an allusion in the indirect form of a
protest against the use of the sacrificial animal for purposes of
divination in the ordinance (Exodus xxix. 13, 22; Leviticus
iii. 4, 10, 15, &c.) to burn the processus pyramidalis of the liver,
which played a particularly significant role in hepatoscopy,
calls for special mention.
In modern times hepatoscopy still survives among primitive
peoples in Borneo, Burma, Uganda, &c.
It but remains to call attention to the fact that the earlier
view of the liver as the seat of the soul gave way among many
ancient nations to the theory which, reflecting the growth of
anatomical knowledge, assigned that function to the heart,
while, with the further change which led to placing the seat
of soul-life in the brain, an attempt was made to partition the
various functions of manifestations of personality among the
three organs, brain, heart and liver, the intellectual activity
being assigned to the first-named; the higher emotions, as love
I04
OMICHUND— ONAGRACEAE
and courage, to the second; while the liver, once the master
of the entire domain of soul-Ufe as understood in antiquity, was
degraded to serve as the seat of the lower emotions, such as
jealousy, anger and the Uke. This is substantially the view set
forth in the Timacus of Plato (§71 c). The addition of the heart
to the hver as an organ of the revelation of the divine will,
reflects the stage which assigned to the heart the position once
occupied by the hver. By the time the third stage, which placed
the seat of soul-life in the brain, was reached through the further
advance of anatomical knowledge, the rehgious rites of Greece
and Rome were too deeply incrusted to admit of further radical
changes, and faith in the gods had already declined too far to
bring new elements into the reUgion. In phrenology, however,
as popularly carried on as an unofficial cult, we may recognize
a modified form of divination, co-ordinate with the third stage
in the development of beliefs regarding the seat of soul and based
on the assumption that this organ is — as were its predecessors —
a medium of revelation of otherwise hidden knowledge.
(M. JA.)
OMICHUND (d. 1767), an Indian whose name is indelibly
associated with the treaty negotiated by Clive before the battle
of Plassey in 1757. His real name was Amir Chand; and he
was not a Bengali, as stated by Macaulay, but a Sikh from the
Punjab. It is impossible now to unravel the intrigues in which
he may have engaged, but some facts about his career can be
stated. He had long been resident at Calcutta, where he had
acquired a large fortune by providing the " investment " for
the Company, and also by acting as intermediary between the
English and the native court at Murshidabad. In a letter of
Mr Watts of later date he is represented as saying to the nawab
(Suraj-ud-daula) : " He had lived under the English protection
these forty years; that he never knew them once to break their
agreement, to the truth of which he took his oath by touching a
Brahman's foot; and that if a lie could be proved in England
upon any one, they were spit upon and never trusted." Several
houses owned by him in Calcutta are mentioned in connexion
with the fighting that preceded the tragedy of the Black Hole
in 1756, and it is on record that he suffered heavy losses at that
time. He had been arrested by the English on suspicion of
treachery, but afterwards he was forward in giving help to the
fugitives and also valuable advice. On the recapture of Calcutta
he was sent by Clive to accompany Mr Watts as agent at Mur-
shidabad. It seems to have been through his influence that the
nawab gave reluctant consent to Clive's attack on Chandernagore.
Later, when the treaty with Mir Jafar was being negotiated, he
put in a claim for 5 % on all the treasure to be recovered, under
threat of disclosing the plot. To defeat him, two copies of the
treaty were drawn up: the one, the true treaty, omitting his
claim; the other containing it, to be shown to him, which
Admiral Watson refused to sign, but Chve directed the admiral's
signature to be appended. When the truth was revealed to
Onu'chund after Plassey, Macaulay states (following Orme) that
he sank gradually into idiocy, languished a few months, and
then died. As a matter of fact, he survived for ten years, till
1767; and by his will he bequeathed £2000 to the Foundling
Hospital (where his name may be seen in the hst of benefactors
as " a black merchant of Calcutta ") and also to the Magdalen
Hospital in London. (J. S. Co.)
OMNIBUS (Lat. " for all "), a large closed pubhc conveyance
with seats for passengers inside and out (see Carriage). The
name, colloquially shortened to " bus," was, in the form voilurc
omnibus, first used for such conveyances in Paris in 182S, and
was taken by Shilhbeer for the vehicle he ran on the Paddington
road in 1829. The word is also apphed to a bo.x at the opera
which is shared by several subscribers, to a bill or act of parlia-
ment deaUng with a variety of subjects, and in electrical engineer-
ing to the bar to which the terminals of the generators are
attached and from which the current is taken off by the wires
supplying the various consumers.
OMRI, in the Bible, the first great king of Israel after the
separation of the two kingdoms of Israel and Judah, who
flourished in the early part of the 9th century B.C. The
dynasty of Jeroboam had been exterminated by Baasha (see
Asa) at a revolt when the army was besieging the Philistines at
Gibbethon, an unidentified Danite site. A quarter of a century
later, Baasha's son Elah, after a reign of two years, was slain by
Zimri, captain of the chariots, in a drinking bout, and again the
royal family were put to the sword. Meanwhile, the general
Omri, who was at Gibbethon, was promptly elected king by the
army, and Zimri himself in a short while ' met his death in the
royal city of Tirzah. However, fresh disturbance v/as caused by
Tibni ben Ginath (perhaps of Naphtah),and Israel was divided
into rival factions. Ultimately Tibni and his brother Joram
(i Kings xvi. 22, LXX.) were overcome, and Omri remained in
sole possession of the throne. The compiler of the bibhcal
narratives takes little interest in Omri's work (i Kings xvi.
15-28), and records briefly his purchase of Samaria, which became
the capital of his dynasty (see Samaria). The inscription of
Mesha throws welcome light upon his conquest of Moab {q.v.);
the position of Israel during the reign of Orari's son Ahab {q.v.)
bears testimony to the success of the father; and the fact that
the land continued to be known to the Assyrians down to the time
of Sargon as " house of Omri " indicates the reputation which
this little-known king enjoyed. (S. A. C.)
OMSK, a town of Russia, capital of the province of Akmohnsk,
capital of western Siberia from 1839 to 1882, and now capital
of the general-governorship of the Steppes. Pop. (1881) 31,000,
(1900) 53,050. It is the seat of administration of the Siberian
Cossacks, and the see of the bishop of Omsk. Situated on the
right bank of the Irtysh, at its confluence with the Om, at an
altitude of 285 ft., and on the Siberian railway, 1862 m. via
Chelyabinsk from Moscow, and 586 m. W.S.W. of Tomsk, it is
the meeting-place of the highways to middle Russia, Orenburg
and Turkestan. Steamers ply down the Irtysh and the Ob,
and up the former to the Altai towns and Lake Zaisan. The
climate is dry and relatively temperate, but marked by violent
snow-storms and sand-storms. The average temperatures are,
for the year, 31° F.; for January, 5°; for July, 68°; the annual
rainfall is 12-4 in. The town ii. poorly built. Apart from the
railway workshops, its industries are unimportant (steam saw-
mill, tanneries); but the trade, especiaUy since the construction
of the railway, is growing. There are two yearly fairs. Omsk
has a society for education, which organizes schools, kinder-
gartens, libraries and lectures for the people. There are a corps
of cadets, medical, dramatic and musical societies, and the
west Siberian section of the Russian Geographical Society, with
a museum.
The " fort " of Omsk was erected in 1716 to protect the block-
houses on the Russian frontier, along the Ishim and the Irtysh.
In consequence of the frequent incursions of the Kirghiz about
the end of the i8th century, stronger earthworks were erected
on the right bank of the Om; but these have now almost entirely
disappeared.
ONAGRACEAE, in botany, an order of dicotyledons belonging
to the series Myrtiflorae, to which belongs also the myrtle
order, Myrtaceae. It contains about 36 genera and 300 species,
and occurs chiefly in the temperate zone of the New World,
especially on the Pacific side. It is represented in Britain by
several species of Epilobium (willow-herb), Circaea (enchanter's
nightshade), and Ludwigia, a small perennial herb very rare in
boggy pools in Sussex and Hampshire. The plants are generally
herbaceous, sometimes annual, as species of Epilobium, Clarkia,
Godelia, or biennial, as Oenothera biennis — evening primrose —
or sometimes become shrubby or arborescent, as Fuchsia (q.v.).
The simple leaves are generally entire or inconspicuously toothed,
and are alternate, opposite or whorled in arrangement; they are
generally exstipulate, but small caducous stipules occur in
Fuchsia, Circaea and other genera. The flowers are often
solitary in the leaf-axils, as in many fuchsias, Clarkia, &c., or
associated, as in Epilobium and Oenothera, in large showy
terminal spikes or racemes; in Circaea the small white or red
' He is said to have reigned seven days, but the LXX. (B) in
I Kings xvi. 15 read seven years. Further confusion is caused by
the fact that the LXX. reads Zimri throughout for Omri.
ONATAS— ONEGA
105
flowers are borne in terminal and lateral racemcr. The regular
flowers have the parts in fours, the typical arrangement as
illustrated by Epilobium, Oenothera and Fuchsia being as
follows: 4 sepals, 4
petals, two alternating
whorls of 4 stamens, and
4 inferior carpels. The
floral receptacle is pro-
duced above the ovary
into the so-called calyx-
tube, which is often
petaloid, as in Fuchsia,
and is sharply distin-
guished from the ovary,
from which it separates
after flowering.
In Clarkia the inner
whorl of stamens is often
barren, and in an allied
genus, Eucharidium, it
is absent. In Circaca
the flower has its parts
Fig. I. — Fuchsia coccinea, 5 nat. size. Fig. 2. — Floral diagram
I, Flower cut open after removal of of Circaea.
sepals; 2, fruit; 3, floral diagram.
in twos. Both sepals and petals are free; the former have
a broad insertion, are valvate in bud, and reflexed in the
flower; in Fuchsia they are petaloid. The petals have a narrow
attachment, and are generally convolute in bud; they are entire
(Fuchsia) or bilobed {Epilobium); in some species of Fuchsia
they are small and scale-like, or absent {F. apctala). The
stamens are free, and those of the inner whorl are generally shorter
than those of the outer whorl. The flowers oi Lopezia (Central
America) have only one fertile stamen. The large spherical
pollen grains are connected by
viscid threads. The typically
quadrilocular ovary contains
,. HI Kv » a\\e numerous ovules on axile
fc' J ,.* — ^^ii-'Wil'.fflW placentas; the i-to-2-cellcd
ovary of Circaea has a single
ovule in each loculus. The
longslender style has a capitate
(Fuchsia), 4-rayed {Oenothera,
Epilobium) or 4-notched {Cir-
caea) stigma. The flowers,
which have generally an at-
tractive corolla and honey
secreted by a swollen disk at
the base of the style or on the
lower part of the " calyx-tube,"
are adapted for pollination by
insects, chiefly bees and lepi-
VTomWn^' SMents'Tcx'^Book of Botany, doptera; sometimes by night-
by permission of Swan Sonnenschein & Co. flying inSeCtS when the flowers
Fig. 3. are pale and open towards
A, Young flower of Epilobium evening, as in evening primrose.
hirsulum. c, petals; /, inferior rr., , °.' . .."^ ,
ovary ; k, sepals ; s, pedicel. The fruit is generally a capsule
B, Fruit of Epilobium after splitting into 4 valves and
dehiscence, w, outer wall; m, leaving a central column on
columella formed by the septa; ^hich the seeds are borne as
M, seed with tuits ol hairs. • r^^-j l- j /-, w
in Epilobttim and Oenothera —
in the former the seeds are scattered by aid of a long tuft of
silky hairs on the broader end. In Fuchsia the fruit is a berry,
which is sometimes edible, and in Circaea a nut bearing
recurved bristles. The seeds are exalbuminous. Several of
the genera are well known as garden plants, e.g. Fuchsia,
Oenothera, Clarkia and Godetia. Evening primrose {Oenothera
biennis), a native of North America, occurs apparently wild as
a garden escape in Britain. Jussieua is a tropical genus
of water- and marsh-herbs with well-developed aerating
tissue.
ONATAS, a Greek sculptor of the time of the Persian wars, a
member cf the flourishing school of Aegina. Many of his works
are mentioned by Pausanias; they included a Hermes carrying
the ram, and a strange image of the Black Demeter made for the
people of Phigalia; also some elaborate groups in bronze set up
at Ol^^mpia and Delphi. For Hiero I., king of Syracuse, Onatas
executed a votive chariot in bronze dedicated at Olynipia. If we
compare the descriptions of the works of Onatas given us by
Pausanias with the well-known pediments of Aegina at Munich
we shall find so close an agreement that we may safely take
the pedimental figures as an index of the style of Onatas. They
are manly, vigorous, athletic, showing great knowledge of the
human form, but somewhat stiff and automaton-like.
ONEGA, the largest lake in Europe next to Ladoga, having an
area of 3764 sq. m. It is situated in the government of Olonets
in European Russia, and, discharging its waters by the Svir into
Lake Ladoga, belongs to the system of the Neva. The lake basin
extends north-west and south-east, the direction characteristic
of the lakes of Finland and the line of glacier-scoring observed in
that region. Between the northern and southern divisions of
the lake there is a considerable difference: while the latter has a
comparatively regular outHne, and contains hardly any islands,
the former splits up into a number of inlets, the largest being
Povyenets Bay, and is crowded with islands {e.g. Klimetsk) and
submerged rocks. It is thus the northern division which brings
the coast-line up to 870 m. and causes the navigation of the
lake to be so dangerous. The north-western shore between Petro-
zavodsk and the mouth of the river Lumbosha consists of dark
clay slates, generally arranged in horizontal strata and broken
by protruding, parallel ridges of diorite, which extend far into the
lake. The eastern shore, as far as the mouth of the Andoma, is
for the most part alluvial, with outcroppings of red granite and
in one place (the mouth of the Pyalma) diorite and dolomite.
To the south-east are sedimentary Devonian rocks, and the general
level of the coast is broken by Mount Andoma and Cape Petro-
pavlovskiy (160 ft. above the lake); to the south-west a quartz
sandstone (used as a building and monumental stone in St
Petersburg) forms a fairly bold rim. Lake Onega lies 125 ft.
above the sea. The greatest depths, 318 to 408 ft., occur at the
entrance to the double bay of Lizhemsk and Unitsk. On the
continuation of this line the depth exceeds 240 ft. in several
places. In the middle of the lake the depth is 120 to 282 ft., and
less than 120 ft. in the south. The lake is 145 m. long, with an
average breadth of 50 m. The most important aflluents, the
Vodka, the Andoma and the Vytegra, come from the east. The
Kumsa, a northern tributary, is sometimes represented as if it
connected the lake with Lake Seg, but at the present time the
latter drains to the White Sea. The Onega canal (45 ni. long)
was constructed in 1818-1851 alongthe southern shore in order
to connect the Svir (and hence Lake Ladoga and the Baltic)
with the Vytegra, which connects with the Volga. Lake
Onega remains free from ice for 209 days in the year
(middle of May to second week of December). The water is
at its lowest level in the beginning of March; by June it has
risen 2 ft. A considerable population is scattered along the
shores of the lake, mainly occupied in the timber trade, fisheries
and mining industries. Salmon, palya (a kind of trout), burbot,
pike, perchpike and perch are among the fish caught in the lake.
Steamboats were introduced in 1832.
The river Onega, which, after a course of 250 m., reaches the
Gulf of Onega, an inlet of the White Sea. has no connexion
with Lake Onega. At the mouth of this river (on the right bank)
stands the town and port of Onega (pop. 2604 in 1897), which
dates from settlements made by the people of Novgorod in the
15th century, and known in history as Ustenskaya or Ustyans-
kaya. It has a cathedral, erected ini 796. (P. A. K.; J. T.Be.)
XX. 4 a
io6
ONEIDA— ONEIDA COMMUNITY
ONEIDA, a city of Madison county, New York, U.S.A.,
on Oneida Creek, about 6 m. S.E. of Oneida Lake, about 26 m.
W. of Utica, and about 26 m. E.N.E. of Syracuse. Pop. (1890)
6083; (1900) 6364, of whom 784 were foreign-born; (1910,
U.S. census) 8317. It is served by the New York Central &
Hudson River, the New York, Ontario & Western, the West
Shore and the Oneida (electric) railways (the last connecting
with Utica and Syracuse), and by the Erie Canal. The city
lies about 440 ft. above the sea on a level site. Across Oneida
Creek, to the south-east, in Oneida county, is the vQlage of
Oneida Castle (pop. in 1905, 357), situated in the township of
Vernon (pop. in 1905, 3072), and the former gathering place of
the Oneida Indians, some of whom stUl live in the township of
Vernon and in the city of Oneida. In the south-eastern part of
the city is the headquarters of the Oneida Community (q.v.),
which controls important industries here, at Niagara Falls, and
elsewhere. Immediately west of Oneida is the vUlage of Wamps-
ville (incorporated in 1908), the county-seat of Madison county.
Among the manufactures of Oneida are wagons, cigars, furniture,
caskets, silver-plated ware, engines and machinery, steel and
wooden pulleys and chucks, steel grave vaults, hosiery, and milk
bottle caps. In the vicinity the Oneida Community manu-
factures chains and animal traps. The site of Oneida was
purchased in 1829-1830 by Sands Higinbotham, in honour of
whom one of the municipal parks (the other is Allen Park)
is named. Oneida was incorporated as a vLUage in 1848 and
chartered as a city in 1901.
ONEIDA (a corruption of their proper name Oneyotka-ono,
" people of the stone," in allusion to the Oneida stone, a granite
boulder near their former village, which was held sacred by
them), a tribe of North American Indians of Iroquoian stock,
forming one of the Six Nations. They lived around Oneida
Lake in New York state, in the region southward to the
Susquehanna. They were not loyal to the League's poHcy of
friendliness to the English, but inchned towards the French,
and were practically the only Iroquois who fought for the
Americans in the War of Independence. As a consequence
they were attacked by others of the Iroquois under Joseph
Brant and took refuge within the American settlements till the
war ended, when the majority returned to their former home,
while some migrated to the Thames river district, Ontario.
Early in the 19th century they sold their lands, and most of
thetti settled on a reservation at Green Bay, Wisconsin, some
few remaining in New York state. The tribe now numbers
more than 3000, of whom about two-thirds are in Wisconsin, a
few hundreds in New York state, and about 800 in Ontario.
They are civilized and prosperous.
ONEIDA COMMUNITY (or Bible Communists), an American
communistic society at Oneida, Madison county. New York, which
has attracted wide interest on account of its pecuniary success
and its pecuhar religious and social principles (see Communism).
Its founder, John Humphrey Noyes (1811-1886), was born
in Brattleboro, Vermont, on the 3rd of September 181 1. He
was of good parentage; his father, John Noyes (1763-1841),
was a graduate of and for a time a tutor in Dartmouth College,
and was a representative in Congress in i8r5-i8i7; and his
mother, Polly Hayes, was an aunt of Rutherford B. Hayes,
president of the United States. The son graduated at Dartmouth
in 1830, and studied law for a year, but having been converted
in a protracted revival in 1831 he turned to the ministry, studied
theology for one year at Andover (where he was a member of
" The Brethren," a secret society of students preparing for
foreign missionary work), and then a year and a half at Yale,
and in 1833 was licensed to preach by the New Haven Association;
but his open preaching of his new religious doctrines, and
especially that of present salvation from sin, resulted in the
revocation of his license in 1834, and his thereafter being called
a Perfectionist. He continued to promulgate his ideas of a
higher Christian life, and soon had disciples in many places, one of
whom, Harriet A. Holton, a woman of means, he married in
1838. In 1836 he returned to his father's home in Putney,
Vt., and founded a Bible School; in 1843 he entered into
a " contract of Partnership " with his Putney followers; and in
March 1845 the Putney Corporation or Association of Perfec-
tionists was formed.
Although the Putney Corporation or Association was never
a community in the sense of common-property ownership, yet
it was practically a communal organization, and embodied the
radical religious and social principles that subsequently gave
such fame to the Oneida Community, of which it may justly
be regarded as the beginning and precursor. These principles
naturally excited the opposition of the churches in the small
Vermont village where the Perfectionists resided, and indignation
meetings against them were held; and although they resulted
in no personal violence Mr Noyes and his followers considered
it prudent to remove to a place where they were sure of more
liberal treatment. They accordingly withdrew from Putney
in 1847, 3-id accepting the invitation of Jonathan Burt and
others, settled near Oneida, Madison county, New York.
Here the community at first devoted itself to agriculture and
fruit raising, but had little financial success until it began the
manufacture of a steel trap, invented by one of its members,
Sewall Newhouse; the manufacture of steel chains for use with
the traps followed; the canning of vegetables and fruits was
begun about 1854, and the manufacture of sewing and embroidery
silk in 1866. Having started with a very small capital (the
inventoried valuation of its property in 1857 was only $67,000),
the community gradually grew in numbers and prospered as a
business concern. Its relations with the surrounding population,
after the first few years, became very friendly. The members
won the reputation of being good, industrious citizens, whose word
was always " as good as their bond "; against whom no charge
of intemperance, profanity or crime was ever brought. But the
communists claimed that among true Christians " mine and
thine " in property matters should cease to exist, as among the
early pentecostal beUevers; and, moreover, that the same
unselfish spirit should pervade and control all human relations.
And notwithstanding these very radical principles, which were
freely propounded and discussed in their weekly paper, the
communists were not seriously disturbed for a quarter of a
century. But from 1873 to 1879 active measures favouring
legislative action against the community, specially instigated
by Prof. John W. Mears (1825-1881), were taken by several
ecclesiastical bodies of Central New York. These measures
culminated in a conference held at Syracuse University on the
14th of February 1879, when denunciatory resolutions against
the community were passed and legal measures advised.
Mr Noyes, the founder and leader of the community, had
repeatedly said to his followers that the time might come when
it would be necessary, in deference to public opinion, to recede
from the practical assertion of their social principles; and on
the 20th of August of this year (1879) he said definitely to them
that in his judgment that time had come, and he thereupon
proposed that the community " give up the practice of Complex
Marriage, not as renouncing belief in the principles and pro-
spective finality of that institution, but in deference to public
sentiment." This proposition was considered and accepted in
full assembly of the community on the 26th of the same month.
This great change was followed by other changes of vital
importance, finally resulting in the transformation of the Oneida
Community into the incorporated Oneida Community, Limited,
a co-operative joint-stock company, in which each person's
interest was represented by the shares of stock standing in his
name on the books of the company.
In the reorganization the adult members fared alike in the
matter of remuneration for past services — those who by reason
of ill-health had been unable to contribute to the common fund
receiving the same as those who by reason of strength and ability
had contributed most thereto; besides, the old and infirm had
the option of accepting a life-guaranty in lieu of work; and
hence there were no cases of suffering and want at the time
the transformation from a common-property interest to an
individual stock interest was made; and in the new company
all were guaranteed remunerative labour.
O'NEILL (FAMILY)
107
This occurred on the ist of January 1881, at which time the
business and property of the community were transferred to
the incorporated stock company, and stoclc issued therefor to
the amount of |6oo,ooo. In the subsequent twenty-eight years
this capital stock was doubled, and dividends averaging more
than 6% per annum were paid. Aside from the home buildings
and the large acreage devoted to agriculture and fruit raising,
the present capital of the company is invested, first, in its hard-
ware department at Kenwood, N.Y., manufacturing stee! game-
traps, and weldless chains of every description; second, the silk
department at Kenwood, N.Y., manufacturing sewing silk,
machine twist and embroidery silks; third, the fruit department
at Kenwood, N.Y., whose reputation for putting up pure, whole-
some fruits and vegetables is probably the highest in the country;
fourth, the tableware department, at Niagara Falls, N.Y., which
manufactures the now celebrated Community Silver; fifth, the
Canadian department, with factory at Niagara Falls, Ontario,
Canada, where the hardware lines are manufactured forCanachan
trade. The annual sales of all departments aggregate over
$2,000,000. The olTicers of the company consist of a president,
secretary, treasurer and assistant treasurer, and there were in
1909 eleven directors. Each of the five leading departments is
managed by a superintendent, and all are under the supervision
of the general manager. Nearly all the superintendents and the
general manager were in 1909 young men who were born in the
community, and have devoted their life-work to the interests of
the company. Selling offices are maintained in New York City.
Chicago, St Louis, Cleveland, O., Richmond, Va., Atlanta, Ga.,
and San Francisco.
In addition to the members of the society the company employs
between 1500 and 2000 workmen. The policy has been to avoid
trade-unions, but to pay higher wages and give better conditions
than other employers in similar lines, and by so doing to obtain
a better selection of workmen. The conditions of work as well
as of living have been studied and developed with the idea of
making both healthful and attractive. With this in view the
company has laid out small villages, in many ways making them
attractive and sanitary, and has encouraged the building of
houses by its employes. Much has been accomplished in this
direction by providing desirable building-sites at moderate
expense, and paying a bonus of from. $100 to $200 in cash to
every employe who builds his own home. The company has also
taken an interest in the schools in the vicinity of its factories,
with the idea of offering to the children of its employes facihties
for a good education.
The communism of John H. Noyes was based on his inter-
pretation of the New Testament. In his pamphlet, Bible
Communism (1848), he affirmed that the second coming of Christ
occurred at the close of the apostolic age, immediately after
the destruction of Jerusalem, and he argued from many New
Testament passages, especially i John i, 7, that after the second
coming and the beginning of Christ's reign upon the earth, the
true standard of Christian character was sinlessness, which was
possible through vital union with Christ, that aU selfishness
was to be done away with, both in property in things and in
persons, or, in other words, that communism was to be finally
estabUshed in all the relations of life. But, while affirming that
the same spirit which on the day of Pentecost abolished ex-
clusiveness in regard to money tends to obliterate all other
property distinctions, he had no affihation with those commonly
termed Free Lovers, because their principles and practices seemed
to him to tend toward anarchy. " Our Communities," he said,
" are families as distinctly bounded and separated from promiscu-
ous society as ordinary households. The tie that binds us
together is as permanent and sacred, to say the least, as that of
common marriage, for it is our religion. We receive no new
members (except by deception and mistake) who do not give
heart and hand to the family interest for life and for ever. Com-
munity of property extends just as far as freedom of love.
Every man's care and every dollar of the common property are
pledged for the maintenance and protection of the women and
the education of the children of the Community."
The community was much interested in the question of race im-
provement by scientific means, and maintained with much force
of argument that at least as much scientific attention should be
given to the physical improvement of human beings as is given
to the improvement of domestic animals; and they referred
to the results of their own incomplete slirpicultural experiments
as indicative of what may be expected in the far future, when
the conditions of human reproduction are no longer controlled
by chance, social position, wealth, impulse or lust.
The community claimed to have solved among themselves
the labour question, all kinds of service being regarded as equally
honourable, and every person being respected according to his
real character.
The members had some peculiarities of dress, mostly confined,
however, to the women, whose costumes included a short dress
and pantalets, which were appreciated for their convenience, if
not for their beauty. 'J'he women also adopted the practice of
wearing short hair, which it was claimed saved time and vanity.
Tobacco, intoxicants, profanity, obscenity found no place in
the community. The community diet consisted largely of
vegetables and fruits; meat, tea and coffee being served only
occasionally.
For securing good order and the improvement of the members,
the community placed much reliance upon a very peculiar system
of plain speaking they termed mutual criticism, which originated
in a secret society of missionary brethren with which Mr Noyes
was connected while pursuing his theological studies at Andover
Seminary, and whose members submitted themselves in turn to
the sincerest comment of one another as a means of personal
improvement. Under Mr Noyes's supervision it became in the
Oneida Community a principal means of discipline and govern-
ment. There was a standing committee of criticism, selected by
the community, and changed from time to time, thus giving all
an opportunity to serve both as critics and subjects, and justi-
fying the term " mutual " which they gave to the system.
The subject was free to have others besides the committee present,
or to have critics only of his own choice, or to invite an expression
from the whole community.
Noyes edited The Perfectionist (New Haven, Connecticut, 1834,
and Putney, Vermont, 1843-1846); The Witness (Ithaca, New
York, and Putney, 1838-1843); The Spiritual Magazine (Putney,
1846-1847; Oneida, 1848-1850); The Free Church Ciicular (Oneida,
1850-1851); and virtually, though not always nominally. The
Circular and The Oneida Circular (Brooklyn, 1851-1854; Oneida,
N.Y., and Wallingford, Conn., 1854-1876); and The American
Socialist (Oneida, 1 876-1 880). He was the author of The Way of
Hoiinesi (Putney, 1838); The Berean (Putney, 1847), containing
an exposition of his doctrines of Salvation from Sin; the Second
Coming of Christ; the Origin of Evil; the Atonement; the Second
Birth; the Millennium; Our Relations to the Primitive Church,
&c. &c.; History of American Socialism (Philadelphia, 1870);
Home Talks (Oneida, 1876); and numerous pamphlets.
See a scries of articles in the Manufacturer and Builder (New York,
1891-1894), by " C. R. Edson " {i.e. C. E. Robinson); The Oneida
Community, by Allan Estlake (a member of the community) (1900);
Morris Hillquit's History of Socialism in the United States (New York,
1903), and especially William A. Hinds' American Communities and
Co-operative Colonies (3rd ed., Chicago, 1908). (W. A. H.)
O'NEILL, the name of an Irish family tracing descent from
Niall, king of Ireland early in the 5th century, and known in
Irish history and legend as NiaU of the Nine Hostages. He is said
to have made war not only against lesser rulers in Ireland, but
also in Britain and Gaul, stories of his exploits being related in
the Book of Lcinster and the Book of Ballymotc, both of which,
however, are many centuries later than the time of Niall. This
king had fourteen sons, one of whom was Eoghan (Owen), from
whom the O'Neills of the later history were descended. The
descendants of Niall spread over Ireland and became divided
into two main branches, the northern and the southern Hy
Neill. to one or other of which nearly all the high-kings (ard-ri)
of Ireland from the 5th to the 12th century belonged; the
descendants of Eoghan being the chief of the northern Hy Neill.'
Eoghan was grandfather of Murkertagh (Muircheartach) (d. 533),
' A list of these kings will be found in P. W. Joyce's A Social
History of Ancient Ireland (London, 1903), vol. i. pp. 70, 71.
io8
O'NEILL (FAMILY)
said to have been the first Christian king of Ireland, whose mother,
Eire or Erca, became by a subsequent marriage the grandmother of
St Columba. Of this monarch, known as Murkertagh MacNeill
(NialJ), and sometimes by reference to his mother as Murkertagh
Mac Erca, the story is told, illustrating an ancient Celtic custom,
that in making a league with a tribe in Meath he emphasized
the inviolability of the treaty by having it written with the blood
of both clans mixed in one vessel. Murkertagh was chief of the
great north Irish clan, the Cinel Eoghain,' and after becoming
king of Ireland about the year 517, he wrested from a neighbour-
ing clan a tract of country in the modern County Derry, which
remained till the 17th century in the possession of the Cinel
Eoghain. The inauguration stone of the Irish kings, the Lia
Fail, or Stone of Destiny, fabled to have been the pillow
of the patriarch Jacob on the occasion of his dream of the
heavenly ladder, was said to have been presented by Murkertagh
to the king of Dalriada,by whom it was conveyed toDunstaffnage
Castle in Scotland (see Scone). A lineal descendent of Murker-
tagh was NiaU Frassach {i.e. of the showers), who became king
of Ireland in 763; his surname, of which several fanciful ex-
planations have been suggested, probably commemorating
merely weather of exceptional severity at his birth. His grand-
son, Niall (791-845), drove back the Vikings who in his time
began to infest the coast of Donegal. Niall's son, Aedh (Hugh)
Finnlaith, was father of Niall Glundubh {i.e. Niall of the black
knee), one of the most famous of the early Irish kings, from
whom the family surname of the O'Neills was derived. His
brother Domhnall (DonneU) was king of Ailech, a district in
Donegal and Derry; the royal palace, the ruined masonry of
which is stiU to be seen, being on the summit of a hill 800 ft.
high overlooking loughs Foyle and Swilly. On the death of
Domhnall in gii Niall Glundubh became king of AQech, and he
then attacked and defeated the king of Dalriada at Glarryford,
in County Antrim, and the king of Ulidia near Ballymena.
Having thus extended his dominion he became king of Ireland
in 915. To him is attributed the revival of the ancient meeting
of Irish clans known as the Fair of Telltown (see Ireland: Early
History). He fought many battles against the Norsemen, in
one of which he was killed in gig at Kilmashoge, where his place
of burial is still to be seen.
His son Murkertagh, who gained a great victory over the Norse
in 926, is celebrated for his triumphant march round Ireland, the
MoirlhimcheU Eiream, in which, starting from Portglenone on
the Bann, he completed a circuit of the island at the head of
his armed clan, returning with many captive kings and chieftains.
From the dress of his followers in this expedition he was called
" Murkertagh of the Leather Cloaks." The exploit was cele-
brated by Cormacan, the king's bard, in a poem that has been
printed by the Irish Archaeological Society; and a number of
Murkertagh's other deeds are related in the Book of Lcinster.
He was killed in battle against the Norse in 943, and was suc-
ceeded as king of Ailech by his son, DonneU Ua Niall {i.e. O'Neill,
grandson of Neill, or Niall, the name O'Neill becoming about
this time an hereditary family surname'), whose grandson,
Flaherty, became renowned for piety by going on a pilgrimage
to Rome in 1030.
Aedh (Hugh) O'Neill, chief of the Cinel Eoghain, or lord of
Tir-Eoghain (Tir-Owen, Tyrone) at the end of the 12th century,
was the first of the family to be brought prominently into
conflict with the Anglo-Norman monarchy, whose pretensions
he took the lead in disputing in Ulster. It was probably his son
or nephew (for the relationship is uncertain, the genealogies of
the O'Neills being rendered obscure by the contemporaneous
occurrence of the same name in different branches of the family)
Hugh O'Neill, lord of Tyrone, who was styled " Head of the
liberality and valour of the Irish." Hugh's son, Brian, by gaining
1 The Cinel, or Kind, was a group of related clans occupying an
extensive district. See Joyce, op. cit. i. 166.
''The adoption of hereditary names became general in Ireland,
in obedience, it is said, to an ordinance of Brian Boru, about the end
of the loth century. For the method of their formation see Joyce,
op. cit. ii. 19.
the support of the earl of Ulster, was inaugurated' prince, or
lord, of Tyrone in 1291; and his son Henry became lord of the
Clann Aodha Buidhe (Clanaboy or Clandeboye), early in the
14th century. Henry's son Murkertagh the Strongminded, and
his great-grandson Hugh, described as " the most renowned,
hospitable and valorous of the princes of Ireland in his time,"
greatly consolidated the power of the O'Neills. NiaU Og O'NeiU,
one of the four kings of Ireland, accepted knighthood from
Richard II. of England; and his son Eoghan formally acknow-
ledged the supremacy of the English crown, though he after-
wards ravaged the Pale, and was inaugurated " the O'NeiU "
{i.e. chief of the clan) on the death of his kinsman DomhnaU Boy
O'Neill; a dignity from which he was deposed in 1455 by his son
Henry, who in 1463 was acknowledged as chief of the Irish kings
by Henry VII. of England. Contemporary with him was NeiU
Mor O'NeUl (see below), lord of Clanaboy, from whose son Brian
was descended the branch of the O'Neills who, settling in Portugal
in the i8th century, became prominent among the Portuguese
nobility, and who at the present day are the representatives La
the male line of the ancient Irish kings of the house of O'Neill.
Conn O'Neill {c. 1480-1559), ist earl of Tyrone, surnamed
Bacach (the Lame), grandson of Henry O'NeiU mentioned above,
was the first of the O'Neills whom the attempts of the English
in the i6th century to subjugate Ireland brought to the front
as leaders of the native Irish. Conn, who was related through
his mother with the earl of Kildare (Fitzgerald), became chief
of the Tyrone branch of the O'Neills (Cinel Eoghain) about 1520.
When Kildare became viceroy in 1524, O'Neill consented to act
as his swordbearer in ceremonies of state; but his allegiance
was not to be reckoned upon, and while ready enough to give
verbal assurances of loyalty, he could not be persuaded to give
hostages as security for his conduct; but Tyrone having been
invaded in 1541 by Sir Anthony St Leger, the lord deputy. Conn
delivered up his son as a hostage, attended a parliament held at
Trim, and, crossing to England, made his submission at Green-
wich to Henry VIII., who created him earl of Tyrone for life,
and made him a present of money and a valuable gold chain.
He was also made a privy councillor in Ireland, and received a
grant of lands within the Pale. This event created a deep im-
pression in Ireland, where O'Neill's submission to the EngUsh
king, and his acceptance of an English title, were resented by
his clansmen and dependents. The rest of the earl's life was
mainly occupied by endeavours to maintain his influence, and
by an undying feud with his son Shane (John), arising out of his
transaction with Henry VIII. For not only did the nomination
of O'Neill's reputed son Matthew as his heir with the title of
baron of Dungannon by the English king conflict with the Irish
custom of tanistry {q.v.) which regulated the chieftainship of the
Irish clans, but Matthew, if indeed he was O'NeiU's son at aU,
was illegitimate; while Shane, Conn's eldest legitimate son,
was not the man to submit tamely to any invasion of his rights.
The fierce family feud only terminated when Matthew was
murdered by agents of Shane in 1558; Conn dying about a year
later. Conn was twice married, Shane being the son of his first
wife, a daughter of Hugh Boy O'NeiU of Clanaboy. An ille-
gitimate daughter of Conn married the celebrated Sorley Boy
MacDonneU {q.v.).
Shane O'Neill (c. 1530-1567) was a chieftain whose support
was worth gaining by the English even during his father's life-
time; but rejecting overtures from the earl of Sussex, the lord
deputy, Shane refused to help the English against the Scottish
settlers on the coast of Antrim, allying himself instead with the
MacDonnells, the most powerful of these immigrants. Neverthe-
less Queen Elizabeth, on succeeding to the English throne, was
disposed to come to terms with Shane, who after his father's
death was de facto chief of the formidable O'NeiU clan. She
accordingly agreed to recognize his claims to the chieftainship,
thus throwing over Brian O'NeiU, son of the murdered Matthew,
' The ceremony of " inauguration " among the ancient Irish clans
was an elaborate and important one. A stone inauguration chair of
the O'Neills is preserved in the Belfast Museum. See Joyce, op.
cit. i. 46.
O'NEILL (FAMILY)
baron of Dungannon, if Shane would submit to iicr authority
and that of her deputy. O'Neill, however, refused to put himself
in the power of Sussex without a guarantee for his safety;
and his claims in other respects were so exacting that Elizabeth
consented to measures being taken to subdue him and to restore
Brian. An attempt to foment the enmity of the O'Donnelis
against him was frustrated by Shane's capture of Calvagh
O'Donnell, whom he kept a close prisoner for nearly three years.
Elizabeth, whose prudence and parsimony were averse to so
formidable an undertaking as the complete subjugation of the
powerful Irish chieftain, desired peace with him at almost any
price; especially when the devastation of his territory by
Sussex brought him no nearer to submission. Sussex, indignant
at Shane's request for his sister's hand in marriage, and his
demand for the withdrawal of the English garrison from Armagh,
was not supported by the queen, who sent the earl of Kildare to
arrange terms with O'Neill. The latter, making some trifling
concessions, consented to present himself before Elizabeth.
Accompanied by Ormonde and Kildare he reached London on
the 4th of January 1562. Camden describes the wonder with
which O'Neill's wild gallowglasses were seen in the English
capital, with their heads bare, their long hair falling over their
shoulders and clipped short in front above the eyes, and clothed
in rough yeUow shirts. Elizabeth was less concerned with the
respective claims of Brian and Shane, the one resting on an
English patent and the other on the Celtic custom, than with
the question of policy involved in supporting or rejecting the
demands of her proud suppliant. Characteristically, she tem-
porized; but finding that O'Neill was in danger of becoming a
tool in the hands of Spanish intriguers, she permitted him to
return to Ireland, recognizing him as " the O'Neill," and chieftain
of Tyrone; though a reservation was made of the rights of Hugh
O'Neill, who had meantime succeeded his brother Brian as baron
of Dungannon, Brian having been murdered in April 1562 by
his kinsman Turlough Luineach O'NeiO.
There were at this time three powerful contemporary members
of the O'Neill family in Ireland — Shane, Turlough and Hugh,
2nd earl of Tyrone. Turlough had been elected tanist (see
Tanistry) when his cousin Shane was inaugurated the O'Neill,
and he schemed to supplant him in the higher dignity during
Shane's absence in London. The feud did not long survive
Shane's return to Ireland, where he quickly re-estabUshed his
authority, and in spite of Sussex renewed his turbulent tribal
warfare against the O'Donnelis and others. Elizabeth at last
authorized Sussex to take the field against Shane, but two
several expeditions failed to accomplish anything except some
depredation in O'Neill's country. Sussex had tried in 1561
to procure Shane's assassination, and Shane now laid the whole
blame for his lawless conduct on the lord deputy's repeated
alleged attempts on his life. Force having ignominiously failed,
Elizabeth consented to treat, and hostihties were stopped on
terms that gave O'Neill practically the whole of his demands.
O'Neill now turned his hand against the MacDonneUs, claiming
that he was serving the queen of England in harrying the Scots.
He fought an indecisive battle with Sorley Boy MacDonnell near
Coleraine in 1564, and the following year marched from Antrim
through the mountains by Clogh to the neighbourhood of
Ballycastle, where he routed the MacDonneUs and took Sorley
Boy prisoner. This victory greatly strengthened Shane O'Neill's
position, and Sir Henry Sidney, who became lord deputy in
1566, declared to the earl of Leicester that Lucifer himself
was not more puffed up with pride and ambition than O'Neill.
Preparations were made in earnest for his subjugation. O'Neill
ravaged the Pale, failed in an attempt on Dundalk, made a
truce with the MacDonneUs, and sought help from the earl of
Desmond. The English, on the other hand, invaded Donegal
and restored O'Donnell. Failing in an attempt to arrange
terms, and also in obtaining the help which he solicited from
France, O'Neill was utterly routed by the O'Donnelis at Letter-
kenny; and seeking safety in flight, he threw himself on the
mercy of his enemies, the MacDonneUs. Attended by a small
body of gallowglasses, and taking his prisoner Sorley Boy with
109
him, he presented himself among the MacDonneUs near Cushen-
dun, on the Antrim coast. Here, on the 2nd of June 1567,
whether by premeditated treachery or in a sudden brawl is
uncertain, he was slain by the MacDonneUs, and was buried
at Glenarm. In his private character Shane O'Neill was a brutal,
uneducated savage. He divorced his first wife, a daughter of
James MacDonnell, and treated his second, a sister of Calvagh
O'DonneU, with gross cruelty in revenge for her brother's
hostility; Calvagh himself, when Shane's prisoner, he subjected
to continual torture; and Calvagh's wife, whom he made his
mistress, and by whom he had several children, endured iU-usage
at the hands of her drunken captor, who is said to have married
her in 1565.
Turlough Luineach O'Neill (c. i 530-1 595), earl of Clan-
connell, was inaugurated chief of Tyrone on Shane's death.
Making professions of loyalty to the queen of England, he sought
to strengthen his position by aUiance with the O'Donnelis,
MacDonneUs and MacQuUlans. But his conduct giving rise
to suspicions, an expedition under the earl of Essex was sent
against him, which met with such doubtful success that in 1575
a treaty was arranged by which O'NeiU received extensive grants
of lands and permission to employ three hundred Scottish mercen-
aries. In 1578 he was created baron of Clogher and earl of
ClanconneU for life; but on the outbreak of rebeUion in Munster
his attitude again became menacing, and for the next few years
he continued to intrigue against the English authorities. The
latter, as a counterpoise to Turlough, supported his cousin
Hugh, brother of Brian, whom Turlough had murdered. After
several years of rivalry and much fighting between the two
relatives, Turlough resigned the headship of the clan in favour
of Hugh, who was inaugurated O'NeiU in 1593. Turlough died
in 1S9S-
Hugh O'Neill (c. 1540-1616), 2nd earl (known as the great
earl) of Tyrone, was the second son of Matthew, reputed
iUegitimate son of Conn, ist earl of Tyrone.' He succeeded
his brother, Brian, when the latter was murdered by Turlough
in 1562, as baron of Dungannon. He was brought up in London,
but returned to Ireland in 1567 after the death of Shane, under
the protection of Sir Henry Sidney. He served with the Enghsh
against Desmond in Munster in 1580, and assisted Sir John
Perrot against the Scots of Ulster in 1584. In the foUowing
year he was allowed to attend parliament as earl of Tyrone,
though Conn's title had been for life only, and had not been
assumed by Brian. Hugh's constant disputes with Turlough
were fomented by the English with a view to weakening the power
of the O'NeUls, but after Hugh's inauguration as the O'NeiU on
Turlough 's resignation in 1593, he was left without a rival in
the north. His career was marked by unceasing duplicity, at
one time giving evidence of submission to the English authorities,
at another intriguing against them in conjunction with lesser
Irish chieftains. Having roused the ire of Sir Henry Bagnal
(or Bagenal) by eloping with his sister in 1591, he afterwards
assisted him in defeating Hugh Maguire at BeUeek in 1503;
and then again went into opposition and sought aid from Spain
and Scotland. Sir John Norris was accordingly ordered to Ireland
with a considerable force to subdue him in 1595, but Tyrone
succeeded in taking the Blackwater Fort and Sligo Castle
before Norris was prepared; and he was thereupon proclaimed
a traitor of Dundalk. In spite of the traditional enmity between
the O'NeiUs and the O'DonneUs, Tyrone alUed himself with
Hugh Roe O'DonneU, nephew of Shane's former enemy Calvagh
O'Donnell, and the two chieftains opened communications
with Philip II. of Spain, their letters to whom were intercepted
by the viceroy. Sir William RusseU. They put themselves
forward as the champions of the Catholic religion, claiming
liberty of conscience as well as poUtical liberty for the native
inhabitants of Ireland. In April 1596 Tyrone received promises
of help from Spain. This increased his anxiety to temporize,
which he did with signal success for more than two years, making
' The grave doubt as to the paternity of Matthew involved a doubt
whether the great earl of Tyrone and his equally famous nephew
Owen Roe had in fact any O'Neill blood in their veins.
I lO
O'NEILL (FAMILY)
from time to time as circumstances required, professions of
loyalty which deceived Sir John Norris and the earl of Ormonde.
In 1598 a cessation of hostilities was arranged, and a formal
pardon granted to Tyrone by Elizabeth. Within two months
he was again in the field, and on the 14th of August he destroyed
an English force under Bagnal at the Yellow Ford on the Black-
water. If the earl had known how to profit by this victory,
he might now have successfully withstood the English power
in Ireland; for in every part of Ireland — and especially in the
south, where James Fitzthomas Fitzgerald with O'Neill's support
was asserting his claim to the earldom of Desmond at the head
of a formidable army of Geraldine clansmen — discontent broke
into flame. But Tyrone, who possessed but little generalship,
procrastinated until the golden opportunity was lost. Eight
months after the battle of the Yellow Ford, the earl of Essex
landed in Ireland to find that Tyrone had done nothing in
the interval to improve his position. Acting on the queen's
explicit instructions, Essex, after some ill-managed operations,
had a meeting with Tyrone at a ford on the Lagan on th 7th
of September 1599, when a truce was arranged; but EHzabeth
was displeased by the favourable conditions allowed to the
O'Neill and by Essex's treatment of him as an equal. Tyrone
continued to concert measures with the Irish leaders in Munster,
and issued a manifesto to the Catholics of Ireland summoning
them to join his standard; protesting that the interests of religion
were his first care. After an inconclusive campaign in Munster
in January 1600, he returned in haste to Donegal, where he
received supplies from Spain and a token of encouragement
from Pope Clement VIII. In May of the same year Sir Henry
Docwra, at the head of a considerable army, took up a position
at Derry, while Mountjoy marched from Westmeath to Newry
to support him, compelling O'Neill to retire to Armagh, a large
reward having been offered for his capture alive or dead.
The appearance of a Spanish force at Kinsale drew Mountjoy
to Munster in 1601; Tyrone followed him, and at Bandon joined
forces with O'Donnell and with the Spaniards under Don John
D'Aquila. The attack of these allies on the English completely
failed. O'Donnell went to Spain, where he died soon afterwards,
and Tyrone with a shattered force made his way once more to
the north, where he renewed his policy of ostensibly seeking
pardon whOe warily evading his enemies. Early in 1603 Ehzabeth
instructed Mountjoy to open negotiations with the rebellious
chieftains; and in April, Tyrone, in ignorance of Elizabeth's death,
made his submission to Mountjoy. In Dublin, whither he
proceeded with Mountjoy, he heard of the accession of King
James, at whose court he presented himself in June accompanied
by Rory O'Donnell, who had become chief of the O'Donnells
after the departure of his brother Hugh Roe. The English
courtiers were greatly incensed at the gracious reception accorded
to these notable rebels by King James; but although Tyrone
was confirmed in his title and estates, he had no sooner returned
to Ireland than he again engaged in dispute with the government
concerning his rights over certain of his feudatories, of whom
Donnal O'Cahan was the most important. This dispute dragged
on till 1607, when Tyrone arranged to go to London to submit
the matter to the king. Warned, however, that his arrest was
imminent, and possibly persuaded by Rory O'Donnell (created
earl of Tyrconnel in 1603), whose relations with Spain had en-
dangered his own safety, Tyrone resolved to fly from the country.
" The flight of the earls," one of the most celebrated episodes
in Irish history, occurred on the 14th of September 1607, when
Tyrone and Tyrconnel embarked at midnight at Rathmullen
on Lough SwQly, with their wives, families and retainers,
numbering ninety-nine persons, and sailed for Spain. Driven by
contrary winds to take shelter in the Seine, the refugees passed
the winter in the Netherlands, and in April 1608 proceeded to
Rome, where they were welcomed and hospitably entertained by
Pope Paul v., and where Tyrconnel died the same year. In 1613
Tyrone was outlawed and attainted by the Irish parliament, and
he died in Rome on the 20th of July 1616. He was four times
married, and had a large number both of legitimate and illegi-
timate children.
Sir Phelim O'Neill (c. 1603-1653), a kinsman and younger
contemporary of the earl of Tyrone, took a prominent part in the
rebellion of 1641. In that year he was elected member of the
Irish parhament for Dungannon, and joined the earl of Antrim
and other lords in concerting measures for supporting Charles I.
in his struggle with the parliament. On the 22nd of October
1641 he surprised and captured Charlemont Castle; and having
been chosen commander-in-chief of the Irish forces in the north,
he forged and issued a pretended commission from Charles I.
sanctioning his proceedings. Phelim and his followers com-
mitted much depredation in Ulster on the pretext of reducing
the Scots; and he attempted without success to take Drogheda,
being compelled by Ormonde to raise the siege in April 1642.
He was responsible for many of the barbarities committed by the
Catholics during the rebellion.' During the summer his fortunes
ebbed, and he was soon superseded by his kinsman Owen Roe
O'Neill, who returned from military service abroad at the end
of July.
Owen Roe O'Neill (c. 1590-1649), one of the most celebrated
of the O'Neills, the subject of the well-known ballad " The
Lament for Owen Roe," was the son of Art O'Neill, a younger
brother of Hugh, 2nd earl of Tyrone. Having served with
distinction for many years in the Spanish army, he was im-
mediately recognized on his return to Ireland as the leading
representative of the O'Neills. Phelim resigned the northern
command in his favour, and escorted him from Lough Swilly to
Charlemont. But jealousy between the kinsmen was com-
plicated by differences between Owen Roe and the Catholic
councO which met at Kilkenny in October 1642. Owen Roe
professed to be acting in the interest of Charles I.; but his real
aim was the complete independence of Ireland, while the Anglo-
Norman Catholics represented by the council desired to secure
religious liberty and an Irish constitution under the crown of
England. Although Owen Roe O'Neill possessed the qualities
of a general, the struggle dragged on inconclusively for three or
four years. In March 1646 a cessation of hostilities was arranged
between Ormonde and the Catholics; and O'Neill, furnished
with supplies by the papal nuncio, Rinuccini, turned against the
Scottish parliamentary army under General Monro, who had been
operating with fluctuating success in Ireland since April 1642. On
the sth of June 1646 O'Neill utterly routed Monro at Benburb, on
the Blackwater; but, being surnmoned to the south by Rinuccini,
he failed to take advantage of the victory, and suffered Monro
to remain unmolested at Carrickfergus. For the next two years
confusion reigned supreme among the numerous factions in
Ireland, O'NeOl supporting the party led by Rinuccini, though
continuing to profess loyalty to Ormonde as the king of England's
representative. Isolated by the departure of the papal nuncio
from Ireland in February 1649, he made overtures for alliance to
Ormonde, and afterwards with success to Monck, who had
superseded Monro in command of the parliamentarians in the
north. O'Neill's chief need was supplies for his forces, and failing
to obtain them from Monck he turned once more to Ormonde
and the Catholic confederates, with whom he prepared to
co-operate more earnestly when Cromwell's arrival in Ireland
in August 1649 brought the Catholic party face to face with
serious danger. Before, however, anything was accomplished
by this combination, Owen Roe died on the 6th of November
1649.
The alliance between Owen Roe and Ormonde had been opposed
by Phelim O'Neill, who after his kinsman's death expected to be
restored to his former position of command. In this he was
disappointed; but he continued to fight against the parhamen-
tarians till August 1652, when a reward was offered for his
apprehension. Betrayed by a kinsman while hiding in Tyrone,
he was tried for high treason in Dublin, and executed on the
loth of March 1653. Phelim married a daughter of the marquis
of Huntly, by whom he had a son Gordon O'Neill, who was
member of parliament for Tyrone in 1689; fought for the king
at the siege of Derry and at the battles of Aughrim and the
1 See W. E. H. Lecky, Hist, of Ireland in the Eighteenth Century, i.
66-68 (Cabinet edition, 5 vols., London, 1892).
O'NEILL, E.— ONEONTA
III
Boyne; and afterwards commanded an Irish regiment in the
French service, and died in 1704.
Daniel O'Neill (c. 1612-1664), son of Conn MacNeill
MacFagartach O'Neill, a member of the Clanaboy branch of
the family, whose wife was a sister of Owen Roe, was prominent
in the Civil Wars. He spent much of his early life at the court
of Charles I., and became a Protestant. He commanded a troop
of horse in Scotland in 1639; was involved in army plots in 1641,
for which he was committed to the Tower, but escaped abroad;
and on the outbreak of the Civil War returned to England and
served with Prince Rupert, being present at Marston Moor, the
second battle of Newbury and Naseby. He then went to
Ireland to negotiate between Ormonde and his uncle, Owen
Roe O'Neill. He was made a major-general in 1649, and but for
his Protestantism would have succeeded Owen Roe as chief of
the O'Neills. He joined Charles II. at the Hague, and took part
in the expedition to Scotland and the Scotch invasion of England
in 1652. At the Restoration he received many marks cf favour
from the king, including grants of land and lucrative monopolies.
He died in 1664.
Hugh O'Neill (d. c. 1660), son of Owen Roe's brother Art
Oge, and therefore known as Hugh Mac Art, had served with
some distinction in Spain before he accompanied his uncle,
Owen Roe, to Ireland in 1642. In 1646 he was made a major-
general of the forces commanded by Owen Roe; and after the
death of the latter he successfully defended Clonmel in 1650
against Cromwell, on whom he inflicted the latter's most severe
defeat in Ireland. In the following year he so stubbornly
resisted Ireton's attack on Limerick that he was excepted from
the benefit of the capitulation, and, after being condemned to
death and reprieved, was sent as a prisoner to the Tower of
London. Released in 1652 on the representation of the Spanish
ambassador that O'Neill was a Spanish subject, he repaired to
Spain, whence he wrote to Charles II. in 1660 claiming the
earldom of Tyrone. He probably died in Spain, but the date of
his death is unknown.
The Clanaboy (or Clandeboye) branch of the O'Neills descended
from the ancient kings through Neiil Mor O'Neill, lord of
Clanaboy in the time of Henry VIII. , ancestor (as mentioned
above) of the Portuguese O'Neills. NeiU Mor's great-great-
grandson, Henry O'Neill, was created baronet of Killeleagh in
1666. His son, Sir Neill O'Neill fought for James II. in Ireland,
and died of wounds received at the battle of the Boyne. Through
an elder line from Neill Mor was descended Brian Mac Phelim
O'Neill, who was treacherously seized in 1573 by the earl of
Essex, whom he was hospitably entertaining, and executed
together with his wife and brother, some two hundred of his clan
being at the same time massacred by the orders of Essex. (See
Essex, Walter Devereux, ist earl of.) Sir Brian Mac Phelim's
son, Shane Mac Brian O'Neill, was the last lord of Clanaboy, and
from him the family castle of Edenduffcarrick, on the shore of
Lough Neagh in Co. Antrim, was named Shane's Castle. He
joined the rebellion of his kinsman Hugh, earl of Tyrone, but
submitted in 1586.
In the i8th century the commanding importance of the
O'Neills in Irish history had come to an end. But John O'Neill
( 1 740-1 708), Tvfho represented Randalstown in the Irish parlia-
ment 1 761-1783, and the county of Antrim from the latter year
till his death, took an active part in debate on the popular side,
being a strong supporter of Catholic emancipation. He was
one of the delegates in 1789 from the Irish parliament to George,
prince of Wales, requesting him to assume the regency as a
matter of right. In 1793 he was raised to the peerage of Ireland
as Baron O'Neill of Shane's Castle, and in 1795 was created a
viscount. In defending the town of Antrim against the rebels
in 1798 O'NeOl received wounds from which he died on the i8th
of June, being succeeded as Viscount O'Nefll by his son Charles
Henry St John (1779-1841), who in 1800 was created Earl
O'Neill. Dying unmarried, when the earldom therefore became
extinct, Charles was succeeded as Viscount O'Neill by his brother
John Bruce Richard (1780-1855), a general in the British army;
on whose death without issue in 1855 the male line in the United
Kingdom became extinct. The estates then devolved on
William Chichester, great-grandson of Arthur Chichester and
his wife Mary, only child and heiress of Henry (d. 1721), eldest
son of John O'Neill of Shane's Castle.
William Chichester (1813-1883), ist Baron O'Neill, a
clergyman, on succeeding to the estates as heir-general, assumed
by royal Ucence the surname and arms of O'Neill; and in 1868
was created Baron O'Neill of Shane's Castle. On his death in
1883 he was succeeded by his son Edward, 2nd Baron O'Neill
(b. 1839), who was member of parliament for Co. Antrim
1863-1880, and who married in 1873 Louisa, daughter of the
1 ith earl of Dundonald.
For the history of the ancient Irish kings of the Hy Neill see:
The Book of Leinster, edited with introduction by R. Atkinson
(Royal Irish Academy, Dublin, 1880); The Annals of Ulster, edited
by W. M. Hennessyand B. MacCarthy (4 vols., Dublin, 1887-1901);
The Annals of Loch Cc, edited by W. M. Hennessy (Rolls Series,
London, 1 871). For the later period see: P. W. Joyce, A Short
History of Ireland (London, 1893), and A Social History of Ancient
Ireland (2 vols., London, 1903); Tiic Annals of Ireland by the Four
Masters, edited by J. O'Donovan (7 vols., Dublin, 1851); Sir J. T.
GWhert, History of the Viceroys of Ireland (Dublin, 1865), and, especi-
ally for Owen Roe O'Neill, Contemporary History of A fairs in Ireland,
j64i-i6$2 (Irish Archaeol. Soc, 3 vols., Dublin, 1879); also History
of the Irish Confederation and the War in Ireland (Dublin, 1882);
John O'Hart, Irish Pedigrees (Dublin, 1881) ; The Montgomery MSS.,
" The Flight of the Earls, 1607 " (p. 767), edited by George Hill
(Belfast, 1878) ; Thomas Carte, History of tlie Life of James, Duke of
Ormonde (3 vols., London, 1735); C. P. Meehan, Fate and Fortunes
of Hugh O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone, and Rory O'Donel, Earl of Tyrconnel
(Dublin, 1886); Richard Bagwell, Ireland under the Tudors, with an
Account of the Earlier History (3 vols., London, 1885-1890); J. F.
Taylor, Oiven Roe O'Neill (London, 1896); John Mitchell, Life and
Times of Hugh, Earl of Tyrone, with an Account of his Predecessors,
Con, Shane, Turlough (Dublin, 1846); L. O'Clery, Life of Hugh Roe
O'Donnell (Dublin, 1893). For the O'Neills of the i8th century,
and especially the Ist Viscount O'Neill, see The Charlemont Papers,
and F. Hardy, Memoirs of J. Cauljield, Earl of Charlemont (2 vols.,
London, 1812). The O'Neills of Ulster: Their History and Genealogy,
by Thomas Mathews (3 vols., Dublin, 1907), an ill-arranged and un-
critical work, has little historical value, but contains a mass of
traditional and legendary lore, and a number of translations of ancient
poems, and genealogical tables of doubtful authority. (R. J. M.)
O'NEILL, ELIZA (1791-1872), Irish actress, was the daughter
of an actor and stage manager. Her first appearance on the
stage was made at the Crow Street theatre in 181 1 as the Widow
Cheerly in The Soldier's Daughter, and after several years in
Ireland she came to London and made an immediate success
as Juliet at Covent Garden in 1814. For five years she was
the favourite of the town in comedy as well as tragedy, but in
the latter she particularly excelled, being frequently compared,
not to her disadvantage, with Mrs Siddons. In 1819 she married
William Wrixon Becher, an Irish M.P. who was created a
baronet in 1831. She never returned to the stage, and died on
the 29th of October 1872.
ONEONTA, a city in the township of the same name, in the
south-central part of Otsego county, New York, U.S.A., on the
N. side of the Susquehanna river, about 82 m. S.W. of Albany.
Pop. (1S80) 3002, (1890) 6272, (1900) 7147, of whom 456 were
foreign-born, (1910, U.S. census) 9491. The city lies about
1 100 ft. above sea-level. It is served by the Ulster & Delaware,
by the Susquehanna division of the Delaware & Hudson, and by
the Oneonta & Mohawk Valley (electric) railways. In Oneonta
are a state normal school (1889), a state armoury, and the
Aurelia Fox Memorial Hospital. The city is situated in a good
agricultural region. The principal manufactures are machine-
shop products (the Delaware & Hudson has repair and machine
shops at Oneonta), knit goods, silk goods, lumber and planing
mill products, &c. The first settlement was made about 1780.
The township was erected in 1830 from parts of Milford and
Otego. Oneonta was known as Milfordville until 1S30, when
it received its present name. It was first incorporated as a
village in 1848, and was chartered as a city in 1908, the charter
coming into effect on the ist of January 1909. The name
" Oneonta " is derived from Onahrenton or Onarenta, the
Indian name of a creek flowing through the city.
See Edwin F. Bacon, Otsego County, N. Y. (Oneonta, 1902) ; and
Dudley M. Campbell, A History of Oneonta (Oneonta, 1906).
112
ONESICRITUS— ONONDAGA
ONESICRITUS, or Onesicrates, of Aegina or Astypaleia
(probably simply the " old city " of Aegina), one of the writers
on Alexander the Great. At an advanced age he became a
pupil of Diogenes the Cynic, and gained such repute as a student
of philosophy that he was selected by Alexander to hold a
conference with the Indian Gymnosophists. When the fleet
was constructed on the Hydaspes, Onesicritus was appointed
chief pilot (in his vanity he calls himself commander), and in
this capacity accompanied Nearchus on the voyage from the
mouth of the Indus to the Persian gulf. He wrote a diffuse
biography of Alexander, which in addition to historical details
contained descriptions of the countries visited, especially India.
After the king's death, Onesicritus appears to have completed
his work at the court of Lysimachus, king of Thrace. Its
historical value was considered smaU, it being avowedly a
panegyric, and contemporaries (including even Alexander
himself) regarded it as untrustworthy. Strabo especially takes
Onesicritus to task for his • exaggeration and love of the
marvellous. His Paraplus (or description of the coasts of India)
probably formed part of the work, and, incorporated by Juba II.
of Mauretania with the accounts of coasting voyages by Nearchus
and other geographers, and circulated by him under the name
of Onesicritus, was largely used by Pliny.
See Arrian, Anabasis, vi. 2; Indica, 32; Diogenes Laertius vi.
75; Plutarch, Alexander, 46, 65; Strabo xv. 698; Pliny, Nat.
Hist. vi. 26; Aulus Gellius ix. 4; fragments and life in C. W. Miiller,
appendix to F. Dubner's Arrian (1846); monograph by F. Lilie
(Bonn, 1864); E. H. Bunbury, Hist, of Ancient Geography, i. (1879);
Meier in Ersch and Gruber's Allgemeine Encyclopddie.
ONION (Fr. oignon, Lat. unio, liberally unity, oneness, applied
to a large pearl and to a species of onion), Allium Cepa (nat.
ord. Liliaceae), a hardy bulbous biennial, which has been culti-
vated in Britain from time immemorial, and is one of the earliest
of cultivated species; it is represented on Egyptian monuments,
and one variety cultivated in Egypt was accorded divine honours.
It is commonly cultivated in India, China and Japan. A. de
Candolle, arguing from its ancient cultivation and the antiquity
of the Sanskrit and Hebrew names, regards it as a native of
western Asia.
The onion should be grown in an open situation, and on a
light, rich, well-worked soil, which has not been recently manured.
In England the principal crop may be sown at any time from
the middle of February to the middle of March, if the weather
is fine and the ground sufficiently dry. The seed should be sown
in shallow drills, 10 in. apart, the ground being made as level
and firm as possible, and the plants should be regularly thinned,
hoed and kept free from weeds. At the final thinning they
should be set from 3 to 6 in. apart, the latter distance in
very rich soil. About the beginning of September the crop is
ripe, which is known by the withering of the leaves; the bulbs
are then to be puUed, and exposed on the ground till well dried,
and they are then to be put away in a store-room, or loft, where
they may be perfectly secured from frost and damp.
About the end of August a crop is sown to afford a supply of
young onions in the spring months. Those which are not
required for the kitchen, if allowed to stand, and if the flower-bud
is picked out on its first appearance, and the earth stirred
about them, frequently produce bulbs equal in size and quality
to the large ones that are imported from the Continent. A crop
of very large bulbs may also be secured by sowing about the
beginning of September, and transplanting early in spring to
very rich soil. Another plan is to sow in May on dry poor soil,
when a crop of small bulbs will be produced; these are to be
stored in the usual way, and planted in rich soil about February,
on ground made firm by treading, in rows about i ft. apcrt,
the bulbs being set near the surface, and about 6 in. asunder.
The White Spanish and Tripoli are good sorts for this purpose.
To obtain a crop of bulbs for pickling, seed should be sown
thickly in March, in rather poor soil, the seeds being very thinly
covered, and the surface well rolled; these are not to be thinned,
but should be pulled and harvested when ripe. The best sorts
for this crop are the Silver-skinned, Early Silver-skinned, Nocera
and Queen.
Onions may be forced like mustard and cress if required for
winter salads, the seeds being sown thickly in boxes which are
to be placed in a warm house or frame. The young onions are
of course pulled while quite small.
The Potato Onion, Allium Cepa var. aggregatum, is propagated by
the lateral bulbs, which it throws out, under ground, in considerable
numbers. This variety is very prolific, and is useful when other
sorts do not keep well. It is sometimes planted about midwinter,
and then ripens in summer, but for use during the spring and early
summer it is best planted in spring. It is also known as the under-
ground onion, from its habit of producing its bulbs beneath the
surface.
The Tree Onion or Egyptian Onion, Allium Cepa var. proliferum,
produces small bulbs instead of flowers, and a few offsets also
underground. These small stem bulbs are excellent for pickling.
The Welsh Onion or Ciboule, Allium fistulosum, is a hardy perennial,
native of Siberia. It was unknown to the ancients, and must have
come into Europe through Russia in the middle ages or later. It
forms no bulbs, but, on account of its extreme hardiness, is sown in
July or early in August, to furnish a reliable supply of young onions
for use in salads during the early spring. These bulbless onions are
sometimes called Scallions, a name which is also applied to old onions
which have stem and leaves but no bulbs.
The following are among the best varieties of onions for various
purposes : —
For Summer and Autumn. — Queen; Early White Naples: these
two sorts also excellent for sowing in autumn for spring salading.
Silver-skinned; Tripoli, including Giant Rocca.
For Winter. — Brown Globe, including Magnum Bonum; White
Globe; Yellow Danvers; White Spanish, in its several forms;
Trebons, the finest variety for autumn sowing, attaining a large size
early, ripening well, and keeping good till after Christmas; Ailsa
Craig; Ronsham Park Hero; James's Keeping; Cranston's
Excelsior; Blood Red, strong-flavoured.
For Pickling. — Queen, Early Silver-skinned, White Nocera,
Egyptian.
ONOMACRITUS (c. 530-480 B.C.), seer, priest and poet of
Attica. His importance lies in his connexion with the religious
movements in Attica during the 6th century B.C. He had great
influence on the development of the Orphic rehgion and mysteries,
and was said to have composed a poem on initiatory rites.
The works of Musaeus, the legendary founder of Orphism in
Attica, are said to have been reduced to order (if not actually
written) by him (Clem. Alex. Stromata, i. p. 143 [397];
Pausanias i. 22, 7). He was in high favour at the court of the
Peisistratidae tiU he was banished by Hipparchus for making
additions of his own in an oracle of Musaeus. When the
Peisistratidae were themselves expelled and were living in
Persia, he furnished them with oracles encouraging Xerxes to
invade Greece and restore the tyrants in Athens (Herodotus
vii. 6). He is also said to have been employed by Peisistratus
in editing the Homeric poems, and to have introduced interpola-
tions of his own {e.g. a passage in the episode of the visit of
Odysseus to the world below). According to Pausanias (viii.
31. 3; 37. 5; ix. 35, 5) he was also the author of poems on mytho-
logical subjects.
See F. W. Ritschl, " Onomakritos von Athen," in his Opusctila, i.
(1866), and p. 35 of the same volume; U. von Wilamowitz-MoUen-
dorff, " Homerische Untersuchungen" (pp. 199-226 on the Orphic
interpolation in Odyssey, X 566-631), in Kiessling-Mollendorff,
Philologische Untersuchungen, Heft 7 (1884).
ONOMATOPOEIA, literaUy the making or formation of words
(Gr. bvonarcrvoLLa, from ovoiia, name, word,7roteti', to make), hence
a term used in philology for the formation of words by imitation
of natural sounds, e.g. " hiss," " hush," " click." Modern philo-
logists prefer the term " echoism," " echoic " for this process,
as suggesting the imitative repetition of the sounds heard.
At one time there was an exaggerated tendency to find in echoism
a principal source in the origin and growth of language, ridiculed
as the "bow-wow" theory of language; it is now recognized
that it has played only a limited part.
ONONDAGA, a tribe of North American Indians of Iroquoian
stock, forming one of the Six Nations. The tribal headquarters
was about the lake and creek of the same name in New York
state. Their territory extended northward to Lake Ontario
and southward to the Susquehanna river. They were the
official guardians of the council-fire of the Iroquois. Their chief
town, near the site of the present Onondaga, consisted of some
140 houses in the middle of the 17th century, when the tribe
ONOSANDER— ONTARIO
113
was estimated as numbering between 1500 and 1700. During
the i8th century the tribe divided, part loyally supporting the
Iroquois league, while part, having come under the influence of
French missionaries, migrated to the Catholic Iroquois settle-
ments in Canada. Of those who supported the league, the
majority, after the War of Independence, settled on a reservation
on Grand river, Ontario, where their descendants still are.
About 500 are upon the Onondaga reservation in New York state.
For Onondaga cosmology see 21st Ann. Report Bureau Amer.
Ethnol. (1899- 1 900).
ONOSANDER, or Onasander, Greek philosopher, lived during
the ist century a.d. He was the author of a commentary on
the Republic of Plato, which is lost, but we still possess by him
a short but comprehensive work (liTpaTTiyiKos) on the duties of a
general. It is dedicated to Quinlus Veranius Nepos, consul 49,
and legate of Britain. It was the chief authority for the military
writings of the emperors Maurice and Leo, and Maurice of Saxony,
who consulted it in a French translation, expressed a high opinion
of it.
Edition by H. Kochly (i860); see also G. Rathgeber in Ersch and
Gruber's Allgemeine Encyclopddie.
ONSLOW, EARL OF, a title borne by an English family
claiming descent from Roger, lord of Ondeslowe in the liberty of
Shrewsbury in the 13th century. Richard Onslow (1528-1571),
solicitor-general and then Speaker of the House of Commons
in the reign of Elizabeth, was grandfather of Sir Richard Onslow
(1601-1664), who inherited the family estate on the death of his
brother. Sir Thomas Onslow, in 1616. Sir Richard was a member
of the Long Parliament, and during the great Rebellion was a
colonel in the parliamentary army. He was a member of Crom-
well's parliament in 1654 and again in 1656, and was also a
member of his House of Lords. His son. Sir Arthur Onslow (1621-
1688), succeeded in 1687 by special remainder to the baronetcy
of his father-in-law. Sir Thomas Foot, lord mayor of London.
Sir Arthur's son. Sir Richard (1654-1717), was Speaker of the
House of Commons from 1708 to 17 10, and chancellor of the
e.xchequer in 1715. In 1716 he was created Baron Onslow of
Onslow and of Clandon. He was uncle of Arthur Onslow, the
famous Speaker (see below), whose only son George became
4th Baron Onslow on the death of his kinsman Richard in October
1776. The 4th baron (1731-1814) had entered parliament
in 1754, and was very active in the House of Commons; and in
May 1776, just before he succeeded to the family barony, he was
created Baron Cranley of Imbercourt. He was comptroller
and then treasurer of the royal household, and was present at
the marriage of the prince of Wales, afterwards George IV.,
with Mrs Fitzherbert in 1785. In 1801 he was created Viscount
Cranley and earl of Onslow, and he died at his Surrey residence,
Clandon Park, on the 17th of May 1814. The second earl was his
eldest son Thomas (1754-1827), whose son Arthur George
(1 777-1870), the 3rd earl, died without surviving male issue
in October 1870. He was succeeded by his grand-nephew,
William Hillier, 4th earl of Onslow (b. 1853), who was governor
of New Zealand from 1888 to 1892; under-secretary for India
from 1895 to 1900; and under-secretary for the Colonies from
I goo to 1903. From 1903 to 1905 he was a member of the Con-
servative cabinet as president of the board of agriculture.
ONSLOW, ARTHUR (1691-1768), EngHsh politician, elder son
of Foot Onslow (d. 1710), wasbornat Chelsea on the ist of October
1691. Educated at Winchester and at Wadham College, Oxford,
he became a barrister and in 1720 entered parliament as a member
for the borough of Guildford. Seven years later he became one of
the members for Surrey, and he retained this seat until 1761. In
1728 he was elected Speaker of the House of Commons, being
the third member of his family to hold this office; he was also
'chancellor to George II. 's queen, Caroline, and from 1734 to
1742 he was treasurer of the navy. He retired from the position
of Speaker and from parliament in 1761, and enjoyed an annuity
of £3000 until his death on the 17th of February 1768. As
Speaker, Onslow was a conspicuous success, displaying know-
ledge, tact and firmness in his office; in his leisure hours he was
a collector of books.
Speaker Onslow's nephew, George Onslow (1731-1792), a
son of his brother Richard, v/as a lieutenant-colonel and member
of parliament for Guildford from 1760101784. He had a younger
brother Richard (1741-1817), who entered the navy and was
made an admiral in 1799.
ONTARIO, a province of Canada, having the province of
Quebec to the E., the states of New York, Ohio, Michigan,
Wisconsin, and Minnesota to the S., Manitoba to the W., and
the district of Keewatin with James Bay to the N. In most
cases the actual boundary consists of rivers or lakes, the Ottawa
to the north-east, the St Lawrence and its chain of lakes and
rivers to the south as far as Pigeon river, which separates Ontario
from Minnesota. From this a canoe route over small rivers and
lakes leads to the Lake-of-the-Woods, which lies between
Ontario, Minnesota and Manitoba; and English and Albany
rivers with various lakes carry the boundary to James Bay.
From Lake Temiscaming northwards the boundary is the
meridian of 79° 30'.
Physical Geography. — Ontario extends 1000 m. from E. to W.
and more than 700 m. from N. to S., between latitudes 55° and
42°, including the most southerly point in Canada. Its area is
260,862 sq. m. (40,354 water), and it is the most populous of the
provinces, nine-tenths of its inhabitants living, however, in one-
tenth of its area, between the Great Lakes, the Ottawa and the
St Lawrence. This forms part of the plain of the St Lawrence,
underlain by Palaeozoic limestones and shales, with some sand-
stone, all furnishing useful building material and working up
into a good soil. The lowest part of the plain, including an area
of 4500 sq. m. lying between elevations of 100 and 400 ft., was
covered by the sea at the close of the Ice Age, which left behind
broad deposits of clay and sand with marine shells.
The south-western part is naturally divided into two tracts by
the Niagara escarpment, a line of cliffs capped by. hard Silurian
limestones, running from Queenston Heights near the falls of Niagara
west to the head of Lake Ontario near Hamilton, and then north-
west to the Bruce Peninsula on Georgian Bay. The tract north-east
of the escarpment has an area of 9000 sq. m. and an altitude of 400
to 1000 ft., and the south-western tract includes 15,000 sq. ra.
with an elevation of 600 to 1700 ft. In the last petroleum, natural
gas, salt and gypsum are obtained, but elsewhere in southern Ontario
no economic minerals except building materials are obtained.
Covering the higher parts of the south-western Palaeozoic area in
most places are rolling hills of boulder clay or stony moraines;
while the lower levels are plains gently sloping toward the nearest
of the Great Lakes and sheeted with silt deposited in more ancient
lakes when the St Lawrence outlet was blocked with ice at the end
of the glacial period. The old shore cliffs and gravel bars of these
glacial lakes are still well-marked topographical features, and provide
favourite sites for towns and cities. London, for e.xample, is built
on the old shore of Lake Warren, the highest of the extinct lakes;
and St Catharines, Hamilton and Toronto are on the old shore of
Lake Iroquois, the lowest. The Niagara escarpment mentioned
above, generally called " the mountain " in Ontario, is the cause of
waterfalls on all the rivers which plunge over it, Niagara Falls
being, of course, the most important; and in most cases these falls
have eaten their way back into the tableland, forming deep gorges
or canyons like that below Niagara itself, through which the water
pours as violent rapids. Between the Palaeozoic area near Ottawa,
and Georgian Bay to the north of the region just referred to, there
is a southward projection of the Archaean protaxis consisting of
granite and gneiss of the Laurentian, enclosing bands of crj'stalline
limestone and schists, which are of interest as furnishing the only
mines of " Old Ontario." From these rocks in the Ottawa valley
are quarried or mined granite, marble, magnificent blue sodalite,
felspar, talc, actinolite, mica, apatite, graphite and corundum;
the latter mineral, which occurs on a larger scale here than else-
where, is rapidly replacing emery as an abrasive. Several metals
have been mined also, including gold, copper, lead, iron and arsenic;
but the amounts produced have not been great, and many of the
mines are no longer working.
While all the larger cities and most of the manufacturing and
farming districts of the province belong to old Ontario, there is
now in process of development a " New Ontario," stretching for
hundreds of miles to the north and north-west of the region just
described and covering a far larger area, chiefly made up of Lauren-
tian and Huronian rocks of the .Archaean protaxis. The rocky hills
of the tableland to the north long repelled settlement, the region
being looked on by the thrifty farmers of the south as a wilderness
useless except for its forests and its furs; and unfortunate settlers
who ventured into it usually failed and went west or south in search
of better land. Gradually, however, areas of good soil were opened
114
ONTARIO
up, in the Rainy river valley, near Lake Temiscaming and elsewhere,
and mines of various kinds were discovered, as the Canadian Pacific
railway and its branches extended through the region, and at length
the finding of very rich silver mines attracted world-wide attention
to northern Ontario. In the better explored parts along the great
lakes and the railways, ores of gold, silver, nickel, cobalt, antimony,
arsenic, bismuth and molybdenum have been obtained, and several
important mines have been opened up. Gold has been found at
many points across the whole province, from the mines of the Lake-
of-the-Woods on the west to the discoveries at Larder Lake on the
east; but in most cases the returns have been unsatisfactory, and
only a few of the gold mines are working. Silver mines have proved
of far greater importance, in early days near Thunder Bay on Lake
Superior, more recently in the cobalt region near Lake Temiscaming
on the east side of the province. Silver Islet mine in Lake Superior
produced in all $3,250,000 worth of silver, but this record will no
doubt be surpassed by some of the mines in the extraordinarily rich
cobalt district. The veins are small, but contain native silver and
other rich silver ores running sometimes several thousand ounces
per ton, the output being 5,500,000 oz. in 1906. Associated with
the silver minerals are rich ores of cobalt and nickel, combined
with arsenic, antimony and sulphur, which would be considered
valuable if occurring alone, but are not paid for under present
conditions, since they are difficult to separate and refine. The
cobalt silver ores arc found mainly in Huronian conglomerate, but
also in older Keewatin rocks and younger diabase, and the silver-
bearing region, which at first included only a few square miles, is
found to extend 25 m. to the west and as much to the north. Up
to the present the most important mineral product of Ontario is
nickel, which is mined only in the neighbourhood of Sudbury,
where the ores occur in very large deposits, which in 1905 produced
9503 tons, more than half of the world's supply of the metal. With
the nickel copper is always found, and copper ores are worked on
their own account in a few localities, such as Bruce mines. Iron
ores have been discovered in many places in corinexion with the
" iron formation " of the Keewatin, but nowhere in amounts com-
parable with those of the same formation in Michigan and Minnesota.
The total mineral output of Ontario, including building materials
and cement, is larger than that of any other province of the dominion,
and as more careful exploration is carried on in the northern parts,
no doubt many more deposits of value will be discovered. It has
been found that northern Ontario beyond the divide between the
Great Lakes and Hudson Bay possesses many millions of acres of
arable land, clay deposits in a post-glacial lake, like those in the
southern part of the province, running from east to west from Lake
Abitibbi to a point north of Lake Nipigon. Railways are opening
up this tract. The clay belt is in latitudes south of Winnipeg,
with a good summer climate but cold winters. The spruce timber
covering much of the area is of great value, compensating for the
labour of clearing the land.
Lakes and Rivers. — All parts of Ontario are well provided with
lakes and rivers, the most important chain being that of the St
Lawrence and the Great Lakes with their tributaries, which drain
the more populous southern districts, and, with the aid of canals,
furnish communication by fairly large vessels between the lower St
Lawrence and the Lake Superior. Lake Nipigon, a beautiful body
of water 852 ft. above the sea, 70 m. long and 50 m. wide, may be
looked upon as the headwaters of the St Lawrence, since Nipigon
river is the largest tributary of Lake Superior, though several other
important rivers, such as the Kaministiquia, the Pic and the Michi-
picoten, enter it from the north. All these rivers have high falls
not far from Lake Superior, and Kakebeka Falls on the Kamin-
istiquia supplies power to the twin cities of Fort William and Port
Arthur, while the deep water of its mouth makes the great shipping
port for western wheat during the summer. The north shore of
Lake Superior is bold and rugged with many islands, such as Ignace
and Michipicoten, but with very few settlements, except fishing
stations, owing to its rocky character. At the south-eastern end St
Mary's river carries its waters to Lake Huron, with a fall of 602 to
581 ft., most of which takes place at Sault Sainte Marie, where the
largest locks in the world permit vessels of 10,000 tons to pass from
one lake to the other, and where water-power has been greatly
developed for use in the rolling mills and wood pulp industry. The
north-east shores of Lake Huron and its large expansion Georgian
Bay are fringed with thousands of islands, mostly small, but one 01
them, Manitoulin Island, is 80 m. long and 30 m. broad. _ French
river, the outlet of Lake Nipissing, and Severn river, draining Lake
Simcoe, come into Georgian Bay from the east, and canals have
been projected to connect Lake Huron with the St Lawrence by
each of these routes, the northern one to make use of the Ottawa
and the southern one of Trent river. The Trent Valley canal is
partly in operation. Georgian Bay is cut off from the main lake by
Manitoulin Island and the long promontory of Bruce Peninsula.
Lakes Superior and Huron both reach depths hundreds of feet
below sea-level, but the next lake in the series, St Clair, towards
which Lake Huron drains southward through St Clair river, is very
shallow and marshy. Detroit river connects Lake St Clair with
Lake Erie at an elevation of 570 ft. ; and this comparatively shallow
lake, running for 240 m. east and west, empties northwards by
Niagara riv-er into Lake Ontario, which is only 247 ft. above the sea.
Niagara Falls, with rapids above and below, carry the waters of
the upper lakes over the Niagara escarpment. Power from the
falls is put to use in New York state and Ontario, a large amount
being sent to Toronto 80 m. away. Welland canal, between Port
Colborne on Lake Erie and Dalhousie on Lake Ontario, carries
vessels of 14 ft. draught from one lake to the other. From Lake
Ontario the St Lawrence emerges through the meshes of the Thousand
Islands, where it crosses Archaean rocks, after which follow several
rapids separated by quieter stretches before Montreal is reached at
the head of ocean navigation. Steamers not of too great draught
can run the rapids going down, but vessels must come up through
the canals. All the other rivers in southern Ontario are tributaries
of the lakes or of the St Lawrence, the Ottawa, navigable in many
parts, being the largest, and the Trent next in importance. In
northern Ontario lakes are innumerable and often very picturesque,
forming favourite summer resorts, such as Lake Temagami, the
Muskoka Lakes and Lake-of-the- Woods. The latter lake with
Rainy Lake and other connected bodies of water belong to the
Hudson Bay system of waters, their outlet being by Winnipeg river
to Lake Winnipeg, from which flows Nelson river. In Ontario the
Albany, Moose, Missanabi and Abitibbi flow into Hudson Bay, but
none of these rivers is navigable except for canoes.
Climate. — The climate of Ontario varies greatly, as might be
expected from its wide range in latitude and the relationships of the
Great Lakes to the southern peninsula of the province. The northern
parts as far soath as the north shore of Lake Superior have long and
cold but bright winters, sometimes with temperatures reaching 50° F.
below zero; while their summers are delightful, with much sunshine
and some hot days but pleasantly cool nights. Between Georgian
Bay and Ottawa the winters are less cold, but usually with a plentiful
snowfall; while the summers are warm and sometimes even hot.
The south-west peninsula of Ontario has its climate greatly modified
by the lakes which almost enclose it. As the lakes never freeze,
the prevalent cold north-west winds of North America are warmed
in their passage over them, and often much of the winter precipita-
tion is in the form of rain, so that the weather has much less certainty
than in the north. The summers are often sultry, though the
presence of the lakes prevents the intense heat experienced in the
states to the west and south. Owing to the mildness of its winters,
the south-west peninsula is a famous fruit country with many vine-
yards and orchards of apples, plums and peaches. Indian corn
(maize) is an important field crop, and tobacco is cultivated on a
large scale. Small fruits and tomatoes are widely grown for the city
markets and for canning, giving rise to an important industry.
The normal temperatures (Fahr.) for three points in the south-
western, eastern and north-western portions are given below: —
Toronto.
December, January and February .
March, April and May
June, July and August
September, October and November
Average annual precipitation .
23-7
40-6
65-4
47-0
in.
33-944
Ottawa.
13-3
38-5
67-4
44.8
in.
32-650
Port.
Arthur.
7-3
3I-I
58-9
3.8-5
in.
23-580
(A. P. C.)
Population. — The following table shows the population of the
province: —
1S81.
1891.
1901.
' Townships.
- Towns and villages .
Cities
1,346,623
323.188
257. Ill
1,283,281
432,912
398,128
1,247,190
( 935.757
1,926,922
2,114,321
2,182,947
' The name given to the rural municipalities.
' Any town in Canada can become incorporated as a city on
attaining a population of 10,000.
Ontario is thus pre-eminently an agricultural province, though
the growth of manufactures has increased the importance of the
towns and cities, and many of the farmers are seeking new homes
in the provinces of Manitoba, Alberta and Saskatchewan. This
emigration accounts in large measure for the slow increase of the
population, though there has also been a slight decrease in the
birth-rate. The population was long entirely confined to the
southern and eastern sections of the province, which comprise
an area of about 33,000 sq. m.; but in these districts it is now
stationary or decreasing, whereas the northern and western
portions are filling up rapidly. Toronto, the provincial capital,
has grown from 59,000 in 1871 to about 300,000, partly through
the absorption of neighbouring towns and villages. Other
ONTARIO
115
important cities are Ottawa (the capital of the Dominion)
(59,928 in 1901), Hamilton (52,634), London (37,981), Kingston
(17,961). The number of males slightly exceeds that of females.
The population is chiefly of British descent, though in the
eastern counties numerous French Canadians are flocking in
from Quebec and in some instances by purchase of farms replacing
the British. There are also about 20,000 Indians, many of
whom are civilized, enjoy the franchise and are enrolled in the
Dominion mihtia. There is no state Church, though buildings
devoted to religious purposes are almost wholly exempt from
municipal taxation. The Methodists are, numerically, the
strongest religious body, then come Presbyterians, Roman
Catholics and Anglicans, in the order named.
Administration.— The executive power is vested in a Heutenant-
governor appointed for live years by the federal government,
and assisted by an executive council, who have seats in and are
responsible to the local legislature. This consists of one house only,
of 106 members, elected by what is practically manhood suffrage.
The municipal system still embodies the spirit and purpose of
the Baldwin Municipal Act which originated it in 1849. Though
based rather on the simple English model than on the more
complicated municipal governments of the United States, it
has certain features of its own, and is revised from year to year.
On it have been modelled the municipal systems of the other
provinces. Municipal ownership does not prevail to any extent,
and in the larger cities the powers of certain great corporations
have tended to cause friction, but such matters as the provision
of electric power and light are gradually being taken in hand both
by the municipalities and by the province, and a railway and
municipal board appointed by the local legislature has certain
powers over the railways and electric tramlines.
Finance. — By the British North America Act, which formed in
1867 the Dominion of Canada, the provinces have the right of direct
taxation only. Against this, however, a strong prejudice exists,
and in Ontario the only direct taxation takes the form of taxes on
corporations (insurance, loan and railway companies), succession
duties, liquor licences, &c. These, together with returns from
various investments, earnings of provincial buildings, &c., yield about
one-third of the revenue. Another third comes from the Dominion
subsidy, granted in lieu of the power of indirect taxation, and the
remainder from the sale or lease of crown lands, timber and minerals.
Owing to the excellence of the municipal system there has been a
tendency to devolve thereoij, in whole or in part, certain financial
burdens on the plea of decentralization. The finances of the province
have been well administered, and only in recent years has a debt
been incurred, chiefly owing to the construction of a provincial railway
to aid in the development of the northern districts.
Education. — As early as 1797 500,000 acres of crown lands were
set apart for educational purposes, and a well-organized system of
education now exists, which, since 1876, has constituted a department
of the provincial government. A laudable attempt has been made
to keep the education department free from the vagaries and the
strife of party politics, and the advantages of political control have
been as much felt as its drawbacks. Since 1906 a superintendent has
been appointed with large powers, independent of political control
and with the assistance of an advisory council; attention is also
paid to the advice of the provincial Educational Association, which
meets yearly at Toronto.
School attendance is compulsory between the ages of eight and
fourteen, and is enforced by truant officers. The primarj' or public
schools are free and undenominational. They cannot, however, be
called secular, as they are opened and closed with the Lord's Prayer
and closed with the reading of the Bible. From these religious
exercises any children may absent themselves whose parents profess
conscientious objections. After a long and bitter struggle the Roman
Catholics won in 1863 the right to separate schools. These may be
set up in any district upon the request of not less than five heads of
families. The rates levied on their supporters are devoted exclusively
to the separate schools, which also share pro rata in the government
grant. Although many Roman Catholic children attend the public
schools, the number of separate schools is, under the influence of the
priesthood, steadily increasing. Under certain conditions, Protest-
ants and coloured persons may also claim separate schools, but of
these only four or five exist. Numerous kindergartens have been
established in the cities.
Secondary education is imparted in high schools and collegiate'
institutes. These may exact fees or give free education at the
' A high school is raised to the rank of collegiate institute on
complying with certain provisions, chief among which are the em-
ployment of at least four teachers with Degrees in Honours from a
recognized Canadian university. Such an institution receives a
slightly larger government grant.
option of the local trustees. There are also numerous private schools.
Of these such as are incor|juratLil are aided by exemption frum
municipal taxation. In and around Toronto are r.umerous fjoarding
schools and colleges, of which those for boys arc on the model of
the great public schools of England. Of these the most celebrated
is Upper Canada College, founded in 1K29, and long part of the edu-
cational system of the ]jrovince, but now uikIlt private control.
The provincial university is situated in Toronto, and since 1906
has been governed by an independent board, rjver which a power of
veto is retained by the lieutenant-governor in council. With the
affiliated colleges, it had in 1908 a staff of 356, and 3545 students.
There are also numerous universities throughout the province,
founded in early days by the various religious bodies. Of these
Victoria (Methodist) and Trinity (Anglican) are in Toronto, and
have become federated with the provincial university, in which
they have merged their degree-conferring powers. MacMaster
(Baptist) is also in Toronto, and retains its independence. The
others are Queen's University, Kingston (Presbyterian) ; the
Western University, London (Anglican) ; and the university of
Ottawa (Roman Cathclic). Women students are admitted to all the
universities save Ottawa on the same terms as men, and form nearly
one-third of the whole number of students. Theological colleges are
supported by the various religious bodies, and are in affiliation with
one or other of the universities.
The public and high schools tend rather to follow American
than British methods, though less freedom is allowed to the local
authorities than in most of the American states. Only those text
books authorized by the central department may be used. Free
text books may be issued at the discretion of the local authorities,
but in most cases are provided by parents. Every school, public,
separate or high, shares in the provincial grant, but the chief financial
burden falls on the local authorities.
Owing to the low rate of salaries, the percentage of women teachers,
especially in the public schools, is steadily increasing, and now
amounts in these to almost 83%. The same cause has also reduced
their age, and the teachers are in many cases exceedingly immature.
The institution of a minimum salary by the provincial department
led to such resistance that it was withdrawn, but a distinct advance
in salaries has taken place since 1906. In the rural districts an
attempt is being made to increase efficiency by the consolidation of
several small schools and the conveyance of the children to one central
building.
The curriculum, originally modelled on that of England, is being
gradually modified by the necessities of a new country. In addition
to the ordinary literary and scientific subjects, manual training,
domestic science, agriculture and kindred subjects are taught in
the public and high schools, and in the larger towns technical
institutes are being founded. Many of the rural schools have gardens,
in which the elements of agriculture, botany and kindred subjects
are taught in a practical manner. Travelling libraries are sent
through the country districts, and an attempt is being made to
extend similar aid to the lumber-camps.
The training of teachers is carefully supervised. Numerous model
and normal schools exist, and a well-equipped normal college at
Toronto. The smaller county model schools have, since 1906-1907,
been consolidated and centralized in the larger towns.
At Guelph is the Ontario Agricultural College, founded and en-
dowed by the provincial government, and greatly enlarged and
improved by the generosity of Sir William Macdonald (b. 1832).
Its services in placing provincial agriculture on a scientific basis
cannot be over-estimated. The government also maintains an
institute for the deaf and dumb at Belleville and for the blind at
Brantford. At Kingston it supports a dairy school and a large
school of mining.
Agriculture. — About three-fifths of the inhabitants are engaged
in agricultural pursuits, and in 1910 the amount invested in lands,
buildings, implements and stock was double that invested in the
manufactures of the whole Dominion. Nearly all the farms are
worked by their owners, and a simple and efficient system of land-
transfer is in use. The farming population in the older parts of the
province tends to decline in numbers, owing to emigration, partly to
the towns, but especially to the newer lands of Manitoba and the west.
Yet, owing to the increasing use of scientific implements and methods
promoted by the federal and provincial governments, the total value
of agricultural products increased by over 50% between 1881 and
1910. In general, the soil is fertile and the climate favourable.
The district north of the Height of Land, long supposed to be a
barren wilderness, has proved in part suitable for agriculture, and
is steadily increasing in population. Mixed farming and the raising
of live stock is becoming more and more the rule, so that the failure
of any one crop becomes of less vital importance. The average farm
varies in size from 100 to 200 acres. Wheat, barley, oats, peas,
potatoes and other roots are staple crops, the average yield of wheat
being about 20 bushels an acre; cattle are increasing in number and
improving in quality, and all branches of dain,' farming prosper.
Owing to tariff restrictions, the United States' market is being
more and more abandoned, and improvements in cold storage are
making it possible to export to Great Britain increasing quantities
of butter and cheese. The collection of milk by the creameries and
cheese-factories is carried on with great efficiency. The number of
ii6
ONTARIO
horses and sheep is stationary or declining, but the raising of hogs,
formerly abandoned in great part to the western states, is becoming
an increasing industry. Large quantities of peas, corn, tomatoes
and other vegetables are canned, chiefly for home consumption.
Three-quarters of the orchard lands of Canada are in Ontario, the
chief crops being apples and peaches. The cultivation of the latter
centres in the Niagara peninsula, but apples flourish along the great
lakes and the St Lawrence from Goderich to Cornwall. In Essex
and Kent, and along the shore of Lake Erie, tobacco and grapes
form a staple crop, and wine of fair quality is produced.
Lumber. — Slightly less than half remains of the forest which once
covered the whole province. The lumber industry exceeds that of
any other part of the Dominion, though Quebec possesses greater
timber areas untouched. The numerous lakes and rivers greatly
facilitate the bringing of the timber to market. All trees were long
little thought of in comparison with the pine, but of late years
poplar and Spruce have proved of great value in the making of
paper pulp, and hard-wood (oak, beech, ash, elm, certain varieties
of maple) is becoming increasingly valuable for use in flooring and
the making of furniture. In the spring the making of syrup and
sugar from the sap of the sugar-maple is a typical industry.
Much splendid timber has been needlessly destroyed, chiefly by
forest-fires, but also by improvident farmers in their haste to clear
the land. Increased attention is now being paid by both provincial
and federal governments to preservation and to reforestation.
Special areas have been set apart on which no timber may be cut,
and on which the problems of scientific forestry may be studied.
Of these, the earliest was the Algonquin National Park, which also
forms a haven of refuge for the wild creatures.
Northern Ontario is still a valuable fur-bearing and hunting
country, moose, caribou, fox, bear, otter, mink and skunk being
found in large quantities. Wolves, once numerous, have now been
almost extirpated, though a bounty on each head is still paid.
Minerals. — The geographical distribution of the great mineral
wealth of Ontario has already been indicated (see Physical Geography,
above). Save for beds of lignite, said to exist in the extreme north,
coal is not found, and has to be imported, chiefly from the states of
Ohio and Pennsylvania, though Nova Scotia furnishes an increasing
quantity. The production of iron is stimulated by federal and
provincial bounties. The province supplies over two-thirds of the
iron ore mined in the Dominion, but much is still imported. The
output of gold is decreasing. The nickel mines in the neighbourhood
of Sudbury are the largest in the world, outrivalling those of New
Caledonia. In the same district, and chiefly in connexion with the
nickel mines, large quantities of copper are produced. When in
1905 the rich silver area was found in northern Ontario, a rush was
made to it, comparable to those to the Australian and Californian
goldfields. Cobalt, the centre of this area, is 103 m. from North Bay
by the provincial railway (Temiscaming & North Ontario railway).
In the same neighbourhood are found cobalt, arsenic and bismuth.
In the older districts of the province are found petroleum and salt.
The district around Petrolea produces about 30,000,000 gallons of
petroleum yearly, practically the whole output of the dominion.
Salt is worked in the vicinity of Lake Huron, but the production is
less than half that imported. Natural gas is produced in the counties
of Welland and Essex, and exported in pipes to Buffalo and Detroit.
Among the less important metals and minerals which are also mined,
is corundum of especial purity.
Manufactures and Commerce. — Manufactures are becoming of
increasing importance. The obstacle due to lack of coal is offset by
the splendid water powers afforded by the rapid streams in all parts
of the province. Save for the flour and grist mills, few do more than
supply the markets of the Dominion, of which they control an in-
creasing portion. Woollen mills, distilleries and breweries and
manufactures of leather, locomotives and iron-work, furniture,
agricultural implements, cloth and paper are the chief. The great
agricultural development of the western provinces, in which manu-
factures are little advanced, has given a great impetus to the in-
dustries of the older provinces, especially Ontario.
Communications. — Numerous lakes and rivers afford means of
communication, and obstacles thereon have been largely overcome
by canals (see Canada). Railways gridiron the province, which
contains over one-third the total mileage of the dominion; their
construction is aided by provincial and municipal subsidies, in
addition to that paid by the federal government. The provincial
government owns a line running north from North Bay, operated by
a board of commissioners. The other railways are owned by private
companies, but are subject to the decisions of a federal railway
commission. The provincial railway and municipal board also
exercises control, especially over the city and suburban electric lines.
History. — The first white man known to have set foot in what
is now Ontario was Champlain. In 1613 he explored the Ottawa
river as far as Allumette Island; in 1615, starting from Montreal,
he reached the Georgian Bay by way of the Ottawa river, Lake
Nipissing and French river, and then by way of Lakes Couchiching
and Simcoe and the Trent river system of lakes and streams made
his way to Lake Ontario, called by him Entouhoronon. The
winter of 1615-1616 he spent among the Huron Indians, near the
Georgian Bay. In 1615 a mission among these Indians was
founded by the Recollet friars, and carried on with great success
and devotion by the Jesuits, but in 1648-1650 the Huron nation
was almost utterly destroyed by an invasion of their hereditary
foes, the Iroquois. From its centre at Quebec French civilization
extended along the Mississippi and the Great Lakes, and also
northwards to Hudson's Bay. In the western country numerous
posts were founded, wherein fur-trader and missionary were often
at variance, the trader finding brandy his best medium of ex-
change, while the missionary tried in vain to stay its ravages
among his flock. On the frontiers of what is now Ontario the
chief points were at the strategic centres of Fort Frontenac
(now Kingston), Niagara, Michihmackinac and Sault-Ste-Marie.
Farther north, in what is now New Ontario, their English rivals,
the Hudson's Bay Company, had more or less permanent posts,
especially at Fort Albany and Moose Factory.
With the cession of French North America to Great Britain in
1763, the Indian lords of the soil rose under Pontiac in a last
attempt to shake off the white man, and in 1 763-1 765 there was
hard lighting along the western frontier from Sault-Ste-Marie
to Detroit. Thereafter for almost twenty years, Ontario was 11
traversed only by wandering bands of trappers, chiefly belonging l|
to the Hudson's Bay Company; but in 1782 bands of American
loyalists began to occupy the fertile country along the Bay of
Quinte, and in the Niagara peninsula, the first settlement being
made in 1782 at Kingston. Between 1 782-1 784 about 5000
loyalists entered Ontario, and were given liberal grants of land
by the British government.
The oligarchic constitution estabUshed in Canada in 1774 by
the Quebec Act did not suit men trained in the school of local
self-government which Britain had unwittingly estabUshed in
the American colonies, and the gift of representative institutions
was soon necessary. In the debates in the British parliament
Fox urged that the whole territory should remain one province,
and of this the governor-general, the ist baron Dorchester (q.v.),
was on the whole in favour, but in 1791 Pitt introduced and
carried the Constitutional Act, by which Upper and Lower
Canada were separated. The Ottawa river was chosen as the
main boundary between them, but the retention by Lower
Canada of the seigneuries of New Longueuil and Vaudreuil, on
the western side of the river, is a curious instance of the triumph
of social and historical conditions over geographical. To the new
province were given EngHsh civil and criminal law, a legislative
assembly and council and a lieutenant-governor; in the words of
its first governor, Colonel John Graves Simcoe, it had, " the
British Constitution, and all the forms which secure and maintain
it." Simcoe set to work with great energy to develop the pro-
vince, but he quarrelled with the governor-general over his pet
scheme of founding military colonies of retired soldiers in different
parts of the province, and retired in 1796. Even before his
retirement political feuds had broken out, which increased in
bitterness year by year. In so far as these had other causes than
the Anglo-Saxon love of faction, they were due to the formation
by the loyahsts, their descendants and hangers-on of a chque
who more and more engrossed political and social power. The
English church also formed a quasi-official clerical oHgarchy,
and the land reserved by the Constitutional Act for the support
of " a protestant clergy " formed a fruitful source of bitterness.
For a time the War of 1812-1814 with the United States put an
end to the strife. The war gave some heroic traditions to the
province, and in special cemented that loyalty to Great Britain
for which Ontario has been conspicuous. On the other hand, the
natural dishke of the United States felt by the loyalists and their
descendants was deepened and broadened, and has not yet wholly
died away, especially among the women of the province. The
jobbing of land by the official clique, whose frequent inter-
marriages won for them the name of " The Family Compact,"
the undoubted grievance of the " Clergy Reserves " and the
well-meaning high-handedness and social exclusiveness of military
governors, who tried hard but unavailingly to stay the democratic
wave, soon revived political discord, which found a voice in
ONTARIO, LAKE
117
that born agitator, William Lyon Mackenzie. A wiser but less
vigorous reformer was Robert Baldwin, who saw that in respons-
ible government lay the cure for the pohtical green-sickness from
which Upper Canada was suffering. But though Baldwin and
Mackenzie were in the right, it is very doubtful whether their
party could at the time have given the country as cheap and
efficient a civil service as was given by the Family Compact,
who had at least education and an honourable tradition.
In 1837 discontent flared up into a pitiful httle rebellion, led
by Mackenzie. This tragical farce was soon at an end and its
author a fugitive in the United States, whence he instigated
bands of hooligans to make piratical attacks upon the Canadian
frontier. Thus forcibly reminded of the existence of Canada,
the British government sent out Lord Durham to investigate, and
as a result of his report the two Canadas were in 1841 united in a
legislative union.
Meanwhile the southern part of the province had been filling
up. In 1791 the population was probably under 20,000; in
1824 it was 150,066, and in 1S41, 455,688. The eastern counties
of Stormont and Glengarry, and parts of the western peninsula,
had been settled by Highlanders; the Canada Company,
organized in 1825 by the Scottish novehst, John Gait, had
founded the town of Guelph, had cleared large tracts of land in
the western peninsula, and settled thereon hundreds of the best
class of English and Scotch settlers.
Once granted responsible government, and the liberty to
make her own mistakes. Upper Canada went ahead. The popula-
tion rose to 952,004 in 1851 and to 1,396,091 in 1861. Pohtically
she found Lower Canada an uneasy yoke-fellow. The equality
of representation, granted at the union, at first unfair to Lower
Canada, became still more unfair to Upper Canada, as her
population first equalled and then surpassed that of her sister
province. The Roman CathoUc claim to separate state-aided
schools, at length conceded in 1863, long set the religious
bodies by the ears. Materially the province prospered. The
" Clergy Reserves " were secularized in 1854, and in 1851 began
a railway development, the excitement and extravagance caused
by which led in 1857 to a financial crisis and the bankruptcy of
various municipalities, but which on the whole produced great
and lasting benefit. The Reciprocity Treaty with the United
States, in operation from 1854 to 1866, and the high prices for
farm produce due to the American Civil War, brought about an
almost hectic prosperity. In the discussions from which sprang
the federation of 1867, Ontario was the one province strongly in
favour of the union, which was only rendered possible by the
coalition of her rival leaders, J. A. Macdonald and George Brown.
Since Federation Upper Canada has been known as the province
of Ontario. The first provincial government, formed on coahtion
fines by John Sandfield Macdonald, was thrifty and not unpro-
gressive, but in 1S71 was defeated by a reorganized liberal party,
which held power from 1871 to 1905, and on the whole worthily.
Under Oliver Mowat, premier from 1873 to 1896, the govern-
ment, though strongly partisan, was thrifty and honest. An
excellent system of primary and secondary schools was organized
by Egerton Ryerson (1803-1882) and G. W. Ross (q.v.), higher
education was aided and a school of practical science established
in Toronto and of mining in Kingston; agriculture was fostered,
and an excellent agricultural college founded at Guelph in 1874.
The great struggle of the time was with the federal govern-
ment on the question of provincial rights. Several questions in
which Ontario and the Dominion came into conflict were carried
to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, and in all of
them Mowat was successful. Connected with this was the
boundary struggle with Manitoba, the latter province being
aided by the federal government, partly out of dislike for Mowat,
partly because the crown lands in the disputed territory would,
had it been adjudged to Manitoba, have been under federal
control. Had Manitoba won, the boundary line would have been
drawn about 6 m. east of Port Arthur, but in 1884 the Judicial
Committee of the Privy Council unanimously decided in favour of
Ontario; and in 1888 another decision gave her absolute control
of the crown lands of New Ontario. Under Mowat 's successors
the barnacles which always attach to a party long in power
became unpleasantly conspicuous, and in January 1905 the
conscience of Ontario sent the conservatives into power, more
from disgust at their opponents than from any enthusiasm for
themselves. The new government displayed unexpected energy,
abihty and strength. The primary and model schools were con-
solidated and improved; the provincial university was given
increased aid from the succession duties; various public utilities,
previously operated by private companies, were taken over by
the province, and worked with vigour and success. At the
election of the 8th of June 1908 the conservative government was
returned by an increased majority.
Bibliography. — Statistical: The various departments of the
provincial government publish annual reports, and frequent special
reports. Among these may be noted those of the Bureau of Mines
and the archaeological reports by Uavid Boyle (1886-1906). Since
1889 the university of Toronto has published numerous valuable
studies on historical, economic and social questions, e.g. Adam
Shortt, Municipal Government in Ontario.
Historical: The early history of the province is best given in the
general histories of Canada by MacMuUen and Kingsford (see
Canada). Ernest Cruikshanks has published numerous excellent
studies on the Ontario section of the War of 1812. Lord Durham's
celebrated i^e^ori (1839, reprinted 1902) is less trustworthy on Ontario
than on Quebec. R. and K. M. Lizar's hi the Days of the Canada
Company depicts the life of the early settlers. Biographies exist of
most of the chief men: C. R. W. Biggar, Sir Oliver Mowat (2 vols.,
1905), is practically a history of Ontario from 1867 to 1896. The
provincial government has issued an excellent Documentary History
of Education in Ontario, by J. G. Hodgins (28 vols.). See alsoW.
Kingsford, Early Bibliography of Ontario. (W. L. G.)
ONTARIO, LAKE, the smallest and most easterly of the Great
Lakes of North America. It hes between 43° 11' and 44° 12' N.
and 76° 12' and 79° 49' W., and is bounded on the N. by the
province of Ontario and on the S. by the state of New York.
It is roughly eUiptical, its major axis, 180 m. long, lying nearly
east and west, and its greatest breadth is 53 m. The area of its
water surface is 7260 sq. m. and the total area of its basin
32,980 sq. m. Its greatest depth is 738 ft., its average depth
much in excess of that of Lake Erie, and it is as a general rule
free from outlying shoals or dangers.
On the north side of the lake the land rises gradually from
the shore, and spreads out into broad plains, which are thickly
settled by farmers. A marked feature of the topography of the
south shore is what is known as the Lake ridge, or, as it approaches
the Niagara river, the Mountain ridge. This ridge extends, with
breaks, from Sodus to the Niagara river, and is distant from the
lake 3 to 8 m. The low ground between it and the shore, and
between the Niagara escarpment and the water on the Canadian
shore, is a celebrated fruit growing district, covered with vine-
yards, peach, apple and pear orchards and fruit farms. The
Niagara river is the main feeder of the lake; the other largest
rivers emptying into the lake are the Genesee, Oswego and Black
from the south side, and the Trent, which discharges into the
upper end of the bay of Quinte, a picturesque inlet 70 m. long,
on the north shore, between the peninsula of Prince Edward,
near the eastern extremity of the lake, and the mainland. The
east end of the lake, where it is 30 m. wide, is crossed by a chain of
five islands, and the lake has its outlet near Kingston, where it
discharges into the head of the St Lawrence river between a
group of islands. Elsewhere the lake is practicaUy free from
islands. There is a general surface current down the lake towards
the eastward of about 8 m. a day, strongest along the south shore,
but no noticeable return current. As a result of its relatively
great depth there are seldom any great fluctuations of level in this
lake due to wind disturbance, but the lake follows the general
rule of the Great Lakes (q.v.) of seasonal and annual variation.
Standard high water (of 1870) is 2-77 ft. below the mean level,
of 246-18 ft. above mean sea-level, and standard low water
3-24 ft. below the same plane. The lake never freezes over,
and is less obstructed by ice than the other lakes, but the harbours
are closed by ice from about the middle of December to the middle
of Aprfl.
The commerce of Lake Ontario is Hmited in comparison with
that of the lakes above Niagara Falls, and is restricted to vessels
ii8
ONTENIENTE— OOLITE
that can pass through the Welland canal locks, which are 270 ft.
long, 45 ft. wide and 14 ft. deep. Freight consists principally of
coal shipped from Charlotte, Great and Little Sodus bays and
Oswego to Canadian ports in the lakes, and to ports on the St
Lawrence river; of grain shipped through the Welland canal
to the St Lawrence; and of lumber from Canadian ports. There
is a large passenger traffic, including pleasure trips, principally
radiating from Toronto. Ports on the lake are limited in capacity
to vessels drawing not more than 14 ft. of water. The principal
Canadian ports are Kingston, at the head of the St Lawrence
river; Toronto, where the harbour is formed by an island with
improved entrance channels constructed both east and west of it;
and Hamilton, at the head of the lake, situated on a landlocked
lagoon, connected with the main lake by Burlington channel, an
artificial cut. The principal United States port is Oswego, where
a breakwater has been built, making an outer harbour. The
construction of a breakwater was undertaken in 1907 by the
United States government at Cape Vincent to form a harbour
where westbound vessels can shelter from storm before crossing
the lake.
The difference of 327 ft. in level between Lake Ontario and Lake
Erie is overcome by the Welland canal, which leads southward
from Port Dalhousie. It accommodates vessels 255 ft. in length,
with a draught of 14 ft. The Murray canal, opened for traffic on
the 14th of April 1890, extends from Presqu'ile bay, on the north
of the lake, to the head of the bay of Quinte, and enables vessels
to avoid 70 m. of open navigation. It is 11 ft. deep below the
lowest lake level, and has no locks. It is proposed to have the
eastern terminus of the Trent canal system (see Great Lakes)
at the head of the bay of Quinte, entering through the Trent
river. At Kingston the Rideau canal, extending 128 m. to
Ottawa, enters the St Lawrence river at the foot of the lake.
Bibliography. — Bulletin No. 17, Survey of Northern and North-
western Lakes, LI.S. Lake Survey Office (Detroit, Mich., 1907);
Publication No. I08 D., Sailing Directions for Lake Ontario, Hydro-
graphic Office, LT.S. Navy (Washington, D.C., 1902); St Lawrence
Pilot (7th ed.), Hydrographic Office, Admiralty (London, 1906).
(W. P. A.)
ONTENIENTE, a town of eastern Spain, in the province of
Valencia; on the right bank of the Clariano or Onteniente,
a sub-tributary of the Jucar, and on the Jativa-Villena railway.
Pop. (1900) 11,430. Onteniente has a parish church remarkable
for its lofty square tower, and a palace of the dukes of Almodovar.
There is a large modern suburb outside the old town, which was
formerly a walled city; some vestiges of the ramparts still
remain. Linen and woollen cloth, paper, biandy, furniture and
earthenware are manufactured; and there is some trade in
cereals, wine and oil.
ONTOLOGY (adapted from a modem Latin form ontologia
used by Jean le Clerc 1692; Gr. &v, ovtos, pres. part, of dvai,
to be, and X670S, science), the name given to that branch of
philosophy which deals speciaOy with the nature of being (oixrta)
i.e. reality in the abstract. The idea, denoted in modem philo-
sophy by the term " ontology " in contrast to the broader
" metaphysics " and the correlative " epistemology," goes back
to such phrases as ovrcos ovra, which Plato uses to describe the
absolute reality of ideas; Plato, however, uses the term "dia-
lectic " for this particular branch of metaphysics. Aristotle,
likewise, holding that the separate sciences have each their own
subject matter, postulates a prior science of existence in general
which he describes as " first philosophy." So far, therefore, the
science of being is distinguished not from that of knowing but
from that of the special forms of being: as to the possibility of
objective reaUty there is no question. A new distinction arises
in the philosophy of V/olff who first made " ontology " a technical
term. Theoretical philosophy (metaphysics) is by him divided
into that which deals v/ith being in general whether objective
or subjective, as contrasted with the particular entities, the soul,
the world and God. The former is ontology. This intermediate
stage in the evolution of the science of being gave place to the
modern view that the first duty of the philosopher is to consider
knowledge itself (see Epistemology), and that only in the light
of conclusion as to this primary problem is it possible to consider
the nature of being. The evolution of metaphysics has thus
relegated ontology to a secondary place. On the other hand it
remains true that the science of knowing is inseparable from,
and in a sense identical with that of being. Epistemological
conclusions cannot be expressed ultimately without the aid of
ontological terms-.
For the wider relations of ontology, see further Philosophy.
ONYX, a banded chalcedony or striped agate, composed of
white layers alternating with others of black, brown or red
colour. A typical onyx consists of two or more black and white
strata, whilst the term sardonyx is applied to the stone if it
contains red or brown bands (see Sardonyx). Probably those
varieties which show red and white zones originally suggested
the name " onyx," from Gr. ovv^ (a finger nail), since the colours
of such stones may be not unlike those of the nail. The onyx
when worked by the lapidary was often designated by the
diminutive ovvxlov; and at the present day the term nicolo,
a corruption of the Italian diminutive onycolo, is applied to an
onyx which presents a thin layer of chalcedony deriving a bluish
tint from the subjacent black ground. The Hebrew so/iani is
translated in the authorized version of the Old Testament
" onyx," but the revised version gives in some of the passages
an alternative marginal reading of " beryl." The position of the
land of Havilah, which yielded the onyx-stone, is uncertain.
India has for ages supplied the finest onyxes, and hence
jewellers apply the expression " Oriental onyx " to any stone
remarkable for beauty of colour and regularity of stratification,
quite regardless of its locality. As far back as the ist century the
author of the Periplus Maris Erythraei mentions the onyx
among the products of Plythanae, a locality probably identified
with Paithan on the Godavari; and he further states that the
stones were taken down to Barygaza, the modern Broach, where
the agate trade still flourishes. It is probable that the early
Greeks and Romans derived their prized agate-cups from this
locality. The Indian onyx is found, with agate and jasper-
pebbles, in river gravels derived from the disintegration of the
amygdaloidal volcanic rocks of the Deccan. A great deal of
onyx now sold is obtained from South American agates, cut in
Germany. It often happens that the lower deposits in an agate-
nodule are in horizontal layers, forming onyx, while the other
deposits have adapted themselves to the curved contours of the
cavity. The onyxes cut from agate-nodules are usually stained
artificially, as explained under Agate.
The onyx is largely used for beads, brooches, pins, ring-stones
and other small ornamental objects, while the larger pieces are
occasionally wrought in the form of cups, bowls, vases, &c.
Onyx is the favourite stone for cameo work, advantage being
taken of the differently-coloured layers to produce a subject in
relief on a background of another colour. For fine examples
of ancient cameo-work in onyx and sardonyx see Gem.
It should be noted that the term onyx, or onychite, was
formerly, and is still sometimes, applied to certain kinds of
banded marble, like the " oriental alabaster " (see Alabaster).
Such substances are quite distinct from the hard sUiceous onyx,
being much softer and less precious: they are, in fact, usually
deposits of calcium carbonate like stalagmite and travertine.
The ornamental stones known as Mexican onyx, or TecaU marble,
and Algerian onyx are of this character; and in order to avoid
any confusion with the true onyx it is well to distinguish all
the calcareous " onyxes " as onyx-marble. The well-known
" Gibraltar stone " is an onyx-marble, with brown bands, from
caverns in the limestone of Gibraltar. The Tecah onyx, some-
times with delicate green shades, takes its name from the district
of Tecali; one of its localities being La Pedrara, about 21 m.
from the city of Puebla.
For on>'x-marbies see Dr G. P. Merrill, Rep. U.S. Nat. Mus. for
1893 (1895)- p. 539- (F- W. R.*)
OOLITE (Gr. 0561-, egg, XWos, stone), in geology, a term
having two distinct meanings. In petrology {q.v.) it denotes a
type of rock structure characterized by the presence of minute
spherical grains resembling the roe of a fish; if the grains become
larger, the structure is said to be pisolitic (Gr. iriaos, pea). In
OOLITE
IK
stratigraphical geology, the oolite is a division of the Jurassic
system {q.v.). The term appears to have been first apphed in this
latter sense by A. J. M. Brochant de Villiers in 1803, and through
the labours of W. Smith, W. D. Conybeare, W. Buckland and
others, it was gradually introduced for the calcareous rocks of
the British Jurassic until it came to comprehend the whole
system above the Lias. Custom still sanctions its use in England,
but it has been objected that the Oolitic (Jurassic) system
contains many strata that are not oolitic; and since oolitic
structure occurs in limestones of all ages, it is misleading to
employ the word in this way.
The oohtes are usually divided into: the Upper or Portland
Oolite, comprising the Purbeck, Portland and Kimeridge stages;
the Middle or Oxford Oolite, including the Corallian, Oxfordian
and Kellaways beds; and the Lower Oolites, with the Cornbrash,
Great or Bath Oolite (Bathonian), Fullonian and the Inferior
Oolite (Bajocian). The Great Oolite and Inferior Oolite arc
treated here.
The Inferior Oolite, called by William Smith the " Under
Oolite " from its occurrence beneath the Great or " Upper
Oohte " in the neighbourhood of Bath, received its present name
from J. Townsend in 1813. It is an extremely variable
assemblage of strata. In the Cottcswold Hills it is a series of
marine deposits, 264 ft. thick near Cheltenham, but within 25 m.
the strata thin out to 30 ft. at Fawler in Oxfordshire. A typical
section N.E. of Dursley contains the following subdivisions: —
W-- °
o
(UO
a
a
. .5 ft.
6-15 ft.
&J White Freestone
j^ 1 Clypeus Grit .
fe r Upper Trigonia Grit 2-12 ft.
I - Gryphite Grit . . . 2-12 ft.
J L LowerTrigonia Grit .2-12 ft.
ii ti r Upper Freestone . 6-20 ft.
t^\ Oolite Marl . . . 5-10 ft.
fc 2 |_ Lower Freestone 45-130 ft.
O
Leu
.0 ("Pea Grit .... 3-20 ft.
S 1 Lower Limestone 10-25 ft.
Zone Fossils.
^ Cosmoceras Parkin-
soni.
^Stephanoceras
Humphriesianum.
- Har pacer as
Murchisonae.
4) o ("2 • r
"to ^' J •.2'^ J CephalopodLimestone2-7 ft. \Lioceras opalinum.
rt"? J 1 ^ n! 1 Cotteswold Sands 10-120 it. j Lytoceras jurense.
The basal sandy series, which is closely related with the
underlying Lias, is usually described as the Midford Sands
(from Midford, near Bath), but it is also known locally as the
Bradford, Yeovil or Cotteswold Sands. The Pea Grit series
contains pisolitic limestone and coarse, iron-stained oolite
and sandy limestone. The freestones are compact oolite lime-
stones. The ragstones are fossiliferous, earthy and iron-stained
oolitic limestones. The " grits " are really coarse-grained
limestones or calciferous sandstones. Between Andoversford
and Bourton-in-the-Water the Inferior Oolite is represented
by ragstones (Ferruginous beds, Clypeus Grit, Trigonia bed,
Notgrove Freestone, Gryphite Grit) and freestones (Upper
Freestones and Harford Sands, Oolite Marl, Lower Freestone).
Near Chipping Norton in Oxfordshire the " Chipping Norton
Limestone " Ues at the top of a very variable series of rocks.
In Rutlandshire, Northamptonshire and Lincolnshire the follow-
ing beds, in descending order, belong to the Inferior Oohte:
Lincolnshire limestone (shelly, coral-bearing and oolitic), CoUy-
weston slate. Lower Estuarine series and Northampton Sands
(hard calcareous sandstones, blue and greenish ironstones and
sandy limestones). The Colly weston slates are arenaceous
hmestones which have been used for roofing slates since the
time of Henry VII.; Easton, Dene and Kirkby are important
localities. The fissility of the rock is developed by exposure
to frost. Similar beds are the Whittering Pendle and White
Pendle or Duston slate.
• The Inferior Oolite of Yorkshire differs from that of the
Cotteswold district; in place of the marine hmestones of the
latter area there is a thick series of sands and sandstones with
shales and beds of coal; these deposits are mainly estuarine with
occasional marine beds. The principal subdivisions, in descend-
ing order, are: the Scarborough or Grey Limestone series,
the Middle Estuarine series with their coal scams; the Millcpore
series and Whitwell or Cave OoUle; the Lower Estuarine series
with the Eller Beck bed and Hydraulic Limestone; the Dogger
and Blea Wyke beds. The last-named beds, like the Midford
Sands, exhibit a passage between the Inferior Oolite and the Lias.
In Skye and Raasay the Inferior Oolite is represented by sand-
stones.
The fossils of the Inferior Oolite are abundant. Over 200 species
of Ammonite are known; gasteropods are numerous; Trigonia,
Lima, Oslrea, Gervillia, Pecten, are common pelecypods; Terebratula,
Waldheimia and Rhynchonella are the prevailing brachicjpods.
Corals are very numerous in some limestones [Isastrea, Monlivaullia).
Urchins are represented by Cidaris, Acrosalenia, Nucleolites, Pygaster,
Pseudodiadema, Hemicidaris; starfish by Solaster, Aslropeclen, and
Crinoids by Pentacrinus, Apiocrinus. Plant remains, cycads, ferns,
(iinkgo and coniferous trees are found most abundantly in the
Yorkshire area.
The economic products of the Inferior Oolite include many
well-known building stones, notably those of Ham HiU, Doulling,
Dundry, Painswick, Cheltenham, Duston, Weldon, Ketton,
Barnack, Stamford, Casterton, Clipsham, Great Ponton, Ancaster,
Aislaby (Lower Estuarine series). Several of the stones are
used for road metal. Iron ores have been worked in the Grey
Limestone, the Eller Beck bed, the Dogger and the Northampton
beds, the latter being the most important.
The Great or Bath Oolite is typically developed in the neighbour-
hood of Bath, and except in a modified form it docs not extend
beyond the counties of Wiltshire, Somersetshire, Gloucestershire
and Oxfordshire. It does not reach so far as Yorkshire, unless
the Upper Estuarine series of that district is its representative.
The principal subdivisions of the series are: —
a
a
Wiltshire, Somersetshire,
Gloucestershire, Oxfordshire.
False - bedded Oolites =
Kemble beds, " White
Limestone, " pale, earthy
Limestones, occasionally
oolitic, and Marls.
Upper Ragstones of Bath.
False - bedded Oolites = the
principal building stones,
" Bath Freestone."
Fissile calcareous Sandstones;
oolitic Limestones and
Clays; Lower Ragstones of
Bath and Stonesfield Slate.
Thickness, 100-130 ft.
Northamptonshire,
Buckinghamshire, Bed-
fordshire, Lincolnshire.
Great Oolite Clay = Ells-
worth Clay.
Great Oolite Limestone
(generally non-oolitic).
Upper Estuarine scries
Thickness, 20-100 ft.
An exact correlation of the Great Oolite strata in the N.E. area
with those of the S.W. is not possible on account of the great
variabihty and impersislence of the beds. Current bedding
is very prevalent, and minor stratigraphical breaks are common.
The absence of the typical Great Oolite from the N.E. district
is probably due in part to contemporaneous erosion with overstep
of the succeeding formation, and in part to local changes in the
sediment in the shaUow waters of this epoch. This may also
explain the rapid thinning-out of the Great Oohte south of Bath,
where its place may be taken, to some extent, by the Bradford
Clay, Forest Marble and Fullonian.
The Great Oolite is not readily divisible into palaeontological
zones, but the ammonite Perisphincles arbustigerus may be taken
as the characteristic form along with Belemnites bessimis and Tere-
bratula maxillata. Corals (Isastraea, Thamnastria) and Polyzoa
(Stomatopora, Diastopora) are abundant. Hemicidaris, Cidaris,
Acrosalenia, Clypeus and other urchins are common: Pentacrinus
and Apiocrinus represent the Crinoids. Terebratula, Rhynchonella,
Waldheimia, Crania are the prevailing brachiopods; the common
pelecypods, Pecten, Ostrca, Lima, Trigonia, Modiola; Nalica,
Nerinea and other gasteropods are found. Perisphincles grandes,
Macrocephalites subcontractus , Oppelia discus and Nautilus dispansus
are among the more common cephalopods. The remains of fish
{Mespdon,Hybodus), CTocoAi\es {Teliosaurus), dinosaurs {Cetiosaurus,
I20
OOSTERZEE— OPAL
Megalosaurus), pterosaurs (Rhamphocephalus), and in the Stonesfield
slate the jaws of marsupial mammals {Amphitherium, Amphilestes,
Phascoloiherium) occur.
The building stones of the Great Oolite are mainly oolitic
freestones, viz. the varieties of " Bath stone " quarried and mined
in the neighbourhood of that city (Corsham Down, Monks Park,
Coombe Down, Odd Down, Box Ground, &c.) and more shelly
limestones Uke the Taynton and Milton stone. The Stonesfield
slate has been largely worked near Woodstock in Oxfordshire
and in Gloucestershire for roofing, &c. The " slates " are brown
calcareous sandstone, grey and shghtly oohtic calcareous sand-
stone, and blue and grey oolitic limestone. A curious modifica-
tion of the Great Oohte — White Limestone division — is character-
ized by irregular ramifying tubular cavities, usually filled with
ochreous material; this rock occurs in blocks and layers, and
is used for rockeries under the name of " Dagham stone " from
Dagham Down north of Cirencester. (See also Jurassic.)
(J.A.H.)
OOSTERZEE, JAN JACOB VAN (1S17-1882), Dutch divine,
was born at Rotterdam on the ist of April 1817. After acting
as pastor at Alkmaar and Rotterdam, in 1863 he was made
professor of biblical and practical theology at the university
of Utrecht. Oosterzee earned a reputation as a preacher, was
editor of the Theolog. JahrbiUher from 1845, wrote a number
of noteworthy books on reUgious history, and pubhshed poems
in Dutch (18S2). He died on the 29th of July 1882.
A collected edition of Gosterzee's works was published in French,
CEuvres completes, in three volumes (1877-1880). His autobiography
appeared in 1882.
OOTACAMUND, or Utakamand, a town of British India,
headquarters of the Nilgiris district in Madras, approached
by a rack railway from the MettapoUiem station on the Madras
railway. Pop. (1901) 18,596. It is the principal sanatorium
of southern India, and summer headquarters of the Madras
government. It is placed on a plateau about 7230 ft. above
the sea, with a fine artificial lake, and mountains rising above
8000 ft. The mean annual temperature is 58° F. , with a minimum
of 38° in January and a maximum of 76° in May; average
annual rainfaU, 49 in. The houses are scattered on the hillsides
amid luxuriant gardens, and there are extensive carriage drives.
In the neighbourhood are plantations of coffee, tea and cinchona.
There are a brewery and two dairy farms. The Lawrence
asylum for the children of European soldiers was founded
in 1858, and there are also the Breeks memorial and Basel
Mission high schools.
See Sir F. Price, Oolacamund: A History (Madras, 1908).
OOZE (0. Eng. li'dse, cognate with an obsolete waise, mud;
cf. O. Nor. veisa, muddy pool), the slime or mud at the bottom
of a river, stream, especially of a tidal river or estuary, and so
particularly used in deep-sea soundings of the deposit of fine
calcareous mud, in which remains of foraminifera are largely
present. The word " ooze " is also used as a technical term
in tanning, of the hquor in a tan vat in which the hides are
steeped, made of a solution of oak bark or other substances
which yield tannin. This word is in origin different from " ooze "
in its first sense. It appears in O. Eng. as wos, and meant the
juice of plants, fruits, &c.
OPAH (Lampris luiia), a pelagic fish, the affinities of which are
still a puzzle to ichthyologists. The body is compressed and
deep (more so than in the bream) and the scales are minute.
A long dorsal fin, high and pointed anteriorly, runs along nearly
the whole length of the back; the caudal is strong and deeply
cleft. The ventral fin is also elongated, and all the fins are
destitute of spines. The pelvic fins are abdominal in position,
long and pointed in shape, and the pelvic bones are connected
with the caracoids. These fins contain numerous (15-17) rays,
a feature in which the fish differs from the Acanthopterygians.
In its gorgeous colours the opah surpasses even the dolphins,
all the fins being of a bright scarlet. The sides are bluish green
above, violet in the middle, red beneath, variegated with oval
spots of brilliant silver. It is only occasionally found near the
shore; its real home is the Atlantic, especially near Madeira
and the Azores, but many captures are recorded from Great
Britain, Ireland and Scandinavia; it strays as far north as
Iceland and Newfoundland, and probably southwards to the
latitudes of the coast of Guinea. It is rare in the Mediterranean.
The name opah, which is now generally used, is derived from
the statement of a native of the coast of Guinea who happened
to be in England when the first specimen was exhibited (1750),
and who thought he recognized in it a fish well known by that
name in his native country. From its habit of coming to the
surface in calm weather, showing its high dorsal fin above the
water, it has also received the name of " sun-fish," which it
shares with Orthagoriscus and the basking shark. It grows to a
length of 4 to 5 ft. and a weight exceeding 100 lb, and is highly
esteemed on account of the excellent flavour of its flesh.
OPAL, an amorphous or non-crystalline mineral consisting
of hydrated sihca, occasionally displaying a beautiful play of
colour, whence its value as a gem-stone. It is named from
Lat. opaltis, Gr. bwaWLOv, with which may be compared Sansk.
upala, a precious stone. Opal commonly occurs in nodular or
stalactitic masses, in the cavities of volcanic rocks, having been
deposited in a gelatinous or colloidal condition. It is inferior to
quartz in hardness (H. 5-5 to 6-5) and in density (S. G. 1-9 to
2-3), whilst it differs also by its solubihty in caustic alkahs.
The proportion of water in opal varies usually from 3 to 12%,
and it is said that occasionally no water can be detected,
the mineral having apparently suffered dehydration. Though
normally isotropic, opal is frequently doubly refracting, the
anomaly being due to tension set up during consohdation.
The mineral when pure is transparent and colourless, as well
seen in the variety which, from its vitreous appearance, was
called by A. G. Werner hyalite (Gr. i;aXos, glass), or popularly
" Miiller's glass," a name said to have been taken from its
discoverer. This pellucid opahne sUica occurs as an incrustation
in small globules, and is by no means a common mineral, being
chiefly found at certain localities in Bohemia, Mexico and
Colorado, U.S.A. (Cripple Creek).
The beautiful variety known as " noble " or " precious opal "
owes its value to the brilhant flashes of colour which it displays
by reflected Ught. The colours are not due to the presence of
any material pigment, but result from certain structural peculi-
arities in the stone, perhaps from microscopic fissures or pores
or from delicate striae, but more probably from very thin
lamellae of foreign matter, or of opaline sihca, having a different
index of refraction from that of the matrix. The origin of
the colours in opal has been studied by Sir D. Brewster, Sir W.
Crookes, Lord Rayleigh and H. Behrens. In the variety known
to jewellers as " harlequin opal," the rainbow-like tints are
flashed forth from small angular surfaces, forming a kind of
polychromatic mosaic, whilst in other varieties the colours are
disposed in broad bands or irregular patches of comparatively
large area. By moving the stone, a brilliant succession of
fiery flashes may sometimes be obtained. The opal is usually
cut with a convex surface, and, being a soft stone, should be
protected from friction hkely to produce abrasion; nor should
it be exposed to sudden alternations of temperature. The loss
of water, sometimes effected by heat, greatly impairs the colour,
though moderate warmth may improve it. According to Phny
the opal ranked next in value to the emerald, and he relates
that the rich Roman senator Nonius was exiled by Mark Antony
for sake of his magnificent opal, as large as a hazel nut. The
opal, on account of its unique characters, has been the subject
of remarkable superstition, and even in modern times has often
been regarded as an unlucky stone, but in recent years it has
regained popular favour and is now when fine, among the most
highly valued gem-stones.
Precious opal is a mineral of very limited distribution. Though
ancient writers state that it was brought from India, and fine
stones are still called in trade " Oriental opal," its occurrence is
not known in the East. The finest opals seem to have been
always obtained from Hungary, where the mineral occurs,
associated with much common opal, in nests in an altered
andesitic rock. The fine opals occur only at the Dubnyik mine,
near the village of V'orosvagas (Czerwenitza). The workings
OPALINA— OPERA
121
have been carried on for centuries in the mountains near Eperjes,
and some remarkable stones from this locality are preserved
in the Imperial Natural History Museum in Vienna, including an
uncut specimen weighing about 3000 carats. Precious opal is
found also in Honduras, especially in trachyte near Gracias a
Dios; and in Mexico, where it occurs in a porphyritic rock at
Esperanza in the state of Queretaro. A remarkable kind of
opal, of yellow or hyacinth-red colour, occurs in trachytic
porphyry at Zimapan in Hidalgo, Mexico, and is known as
" fire-opal." This variety is not only cut en cabochon but is
also faceted. Fire-opal is sometimes called " girasol." Much
precious opal is worked in Australia. In Queensland it is found
lining cracks in nodules of brown ironstone in the Desert Sand-
stone, a rock of Upper Cretaceous age, and is distributed over
a wide area near the Barcoo river. Bulla Creek is a well-known
locality. The layer of opal, when too thin to be cut with a
convex surface, is used for inlaid work or is carved into cameos
which show to much advantage against the dark-brown matrix.
The matrix penetrated by veins and spots of opal, and perhaps
heightened in colour artificially, has been called " black opal ";
but true black opal occurs in New South Wales. I'he " root of
opal " consists of the mineral disseminated through the matrix.
In New South Wales precious opal was accidentally discovered
in 1889, and is now largely worked at White Cliffs, Yungnulgra
county, where it is found in nodules and seams in a siliceous rock
of the Upper Cretaceous series. It is notable that the opal
sometimes replaces shells and even reptilian bones, whilst curious
pscudomorphs, known as " pineapple opal," show the opal in
the form of aggregated crystals, perhaps of gypsum, gaylussite
or glauberite.
" Common opal " is the name generally applied to the varieties
which exhibit no beauty of colour, and may be nearly opaque.
It is frequently found in the vesicular lavas of the N.E. of Ireland,
the west of Scotland, the Faroe Isles and Iceland. When of
milky-white colour it is known as " milk opal "; when of
resinous and waxy appearance as "resin opal"; if banded
it is called "agate opal"; a green variety is termed "prase
opal "; a dark red, ferruginous variety " jaspar opal "; whilst
" rose opal " is a beautiful pink mineral, coloured with organic
matter, found at Quincy, near Mehun-sur-Yevre, in France.
A brown or grey concretionary opal from Tertiary shales at
Menilmontant, near Paris, is known as menilite or " hver opal."
A dull opaque form of opal, with a fracture imperfectly con-
choidal, is called "semi-opal"; whilst the opal which not
infrequently forms the minerahzing substance of fossil wood
passes as " wood opal." The name hydrophane is applied to
a porous opal, perhaps partially dehydrated, which is almost
opaque when dry but becomes more or less transparent when
immersed in water. It has been sometimes sold in America as
" magic stone." Cacholong is another kind of porous opal with
a lustre rather like that of mother-of-pearl, said to have been
named from the Cach river in Bokhara, but the word is probably
of Tatar origin.
Opaline silica is frequently deposited from hot siliceous springs,
often in cauliflower-like masses, and is known as geyserite. This
occurs in Iceland. New Zealand and the Yellowstone National Park.
The fiorite from the hot springs of Santa Fiora, in Tuscany, is opaline
silica, with a rather pearly lustre. A variety containing an excep-
tionally small proportion of water, obtained from the Yellowstone
Park, was named pealite, after the chemist A. C. Peale. The
siliceous deposits from springs, often due to organic agencies, are
knovyn generally as " siliceous sinter " or, if very loose in texture, as
" siliceous tuff." Opaline silica forms the material of many organic
structures, like the frustules of diatoms and the tests of radiolarians,
which may accumulate as deposits of tripoli, and be used for polishing
purposes. (F. W. R.*)
OPALINA (so named by J. E. Purkinje and G. Valentin),
a genus of Protozoa, without mouth or contractile vacuole,
covered with nearly equal flagelliform cilia, and possessing
numerous nuclei, all similar. It has been referred to Aspirotricha
by Biitschli, but by M. Hartog {Cambridge Natural History, vol. ii.,
1906) has been transferred to the Flagellates (q.v.). All the
species are parasitic in cold-blooded Vertebrates.
See Bezzenberger in Archiv.f. Protistenkunde (1903), iii. 138.
OPATA (" enemies," so called by their neighbours the Pimas),
a tribe of Mexican Indians of Piman stock. Their country is
the mountainous district of north-eastern Sonora and north-
western Chihuahua, Mexico. Though usually loyal to. the
Mexican government, they rebelled in 1820, Ijut after a gallant
effort were defeated. They number now about 5000, and still
largely retain their ancient autonomy.
OPERA (Italian for " work "), a drama set to music, as
distinguished from plays in which music is merely incidental.
Music has been a resource of the drama from the earhesl times,
and doubtless the results of researches in the early history of
this connexion have been made very interesting, but they are
hardly relevant to a history of opera as an art-form. If language
has meaning, an art-form can hardly be said to exist under
conditions where the only real connexions between its alleged
origin* and its modern maturity are such universal means of
expression as can equally well connect it with almost every-
thing else. We v/ill therefore pass over the orthodox history
of opera as traceable from the music of Greek tragedy to that
of miracle-plays, and will begin with its real beginning, the first
dramas that were set to music in order to be produced as musical
works of art, at the beginning of the 17th century.
There seems no reason to doubt the story, given by Doni, of
the meetings held byagroup of amateurs at the house of theBardi
in Florence in the last years of the i6th century, with the object
of trying experiments in emotional musical expression by the
use of instruments and solo voices. Before this time there was
no real opportunity for music-drama. The only high musical
art of the i6th century was unaccompanied choral music: its
expression was perfect within its limits, and its hmits so abso-
lutely excluded all but what may be called static or contemplative
emotion that " dramatic music " was as inconceivable as
" dramatic architecture." But the literary and musical dilettanti
who met at the house of the Bardi were not mature musical
artists; they therefore had no scruples, and their imaginations
were fired by the dream of restoring the glories of Greek tragedy,
especially on the side of its musical declamation. The first
pioneer in the new " monodic " movement seems to have been
Vincenzo Galilei, the father of Galileo. This enthusiastic
amateur warbled the story of Ugolino to the accompaniment of
the lute, much to the amusement of expert musicians; but he
gained the respect and sympathy of those whose culture was
literary rather than musical. His efforts must have been not unHke
a wild caricature of JSIr. W. B. Yeats's method of reciting poetry
to the psaltery. The first public production in the new style
was Jacopo Peri's Eur id ice (1600), which was followed by a less
successful effort of Caccini's on the same subject. To us it is
astonishing that an art so great as the polyphony of the i6th
century could ever have become forgotten in a new venture so
feeble in its first steps. Sir Hubert Parry has happily charac-
terized the general effect of the new movement on contemporary
imagination as something like that of laying a foundation-
stone — the suggestion of a vista of possibihties so inspiriting
as to exclude all sense of the triviality of the present achievement.
Meanwhile those composers who retained the mastery of poly-
phonic music tried to find a purely vocal and polyphonic solution
of the problem of music-drama; and the Amfiparnasso of Orazio
Vecchi (written in 1594, the year of Palestrina's death, and pro-
duced three years later) is not alone, though it is by far the most
remarkable, among attempts to make a music-drama out of a
series of madrigals. From the woodcuts which adorn the first
edition of the Amfiparnasso it has been conjectured that the
actors sang one voice each, while the rest of the harmony was
supplied by singers behind the stage'; and this may have been
the case with other works of this kind. But the words of Vecchi's
introductory chorus contradict this idea, for they teU the audience
that " the theatre of this drama is the world " and that the
spectators must " hear instead of seeing."
' The first story in Berlioz's Soirees d'orchestre is about a young
16th-century genius who revolts from this practice and becomes a
pioneer of monody. The picture is brilliant, though the young genius
evidently learnt all his music in Paris somewhere about 1830.
122
OPERA
With the decadence of the madrigal, Monteverde brought a
real musical power to hear on the new style. His results are
now intelligible only to historians, and they seem to us artistically
nugatory; but in their day they were so impressive as to render the
further continuance of 16th-century choral art impossible. At the
beginning of the 17th century no young musician of lively artistic
receptivity could fail to be profoundly stirred by Monteverde's
Orfeo (1602), Arianna (1608) and// Combattimcnto di Tancredi e
Clorinda (1624), works in which the resources of instruments
were developed with the same archaic boldness, the same grasp
of immediate emotional effect and the same lack of artistic
organization as the harmonic resources. The spark of Monte-
verde's genius produced in musical history a result more like
an explosion than an enlightenment; and the emotional rhetoric
of his art was so uncontrollable, and at the same time so much
more impressive in suggestion than in realization, that we cannot
be surprised that the next definite step in the history of opera
took the direction of mere musical form, and was not only un-
dramatic but anti-dramatic.
The system of free musical declamation known as recitative is
said to have been used by EmiUo del Cavalieri as early as 1588,
and it was in the nature of things almost the only means of
vocal expression conceivable by the pioneers of opera. Formal
melody, such as that of popular songs, was as much beneath
their dignity as it had been beneath that of the high art from
which they revolted; but, in the absence of any harmonic
system but that of the church modes, which was manifestly
incapable of assimilating the new " unprepared discords," and
in the utter chaos of early experiments in instrumentation,
formal melody proved a godsend as the novelty of recitative faded.
Tunes were soon legalized at moments of dramatic repose when
it was possible for the actors to indulge in either a dance or a
display of vocalization; it was in the tunes that the strong
harmonic system of modern tonality took shape; and by the
early days of Alessandro Scarlatti, before the end of the 17th
century, the art of tune-making had perennially blossomed
into the musically safe and effective form of the aria (q.v.).
From this time until the death of Handel the history of opera
is simply the history of the aria; except in so far as in France,
under Lully, it is also the history of baDet-music, the other main
theatrical occasion for the art of tune-making. With opera
before Gluck there is little interest in tracing schools and develop-
ments, for the musical art had as mechanical a connexion with
drama as it had with the art of scene-painting, and neither it
nor the drama which was attached to it showed any real develop-
ment at all, though the librettist Metastasio presented as imposing
a figure in 18th-century Italian literature as Handel presented in
Italian opera. Before this period of stagnation we find an almost
solitary and provincial outburst of life in the wonderful patch-
work of Purcell's art (1658-1695). Whether he is producing
genuine opera (as in the unique case of Dido and Aeneas) or
merely incidental music to plays (as in the so-called opera King
Arthur), his deeply inspired essays in dramatic music are no less
interesting in their historic isolation from everything except the
influence of Lully than they are admirable as evidences of a
genius which, with the opportunities of 50 years later or 150
years earlier, might assuredly have proved one of the greatest
in all music. Another sign of life has been appreciated by
recent research in the interesting farcical operas (mostly Nea-
politan) of certain early 18th-century Italian composers (see
Leo, Pergolese, Logroscino), which have some bearing on
the antecedents of Mozart.
The real reason for the stagnation of high opera before Gluck
is (as explained in the articles Music and Sonata Forms) that
the forms of music known before 1750 could not express dramatic
change without losing artistic organization. The " spirit of
the age " can have had little to do wath the difficulty, or why
should Shakespeare not have had a contemporary operatic
brother-artist during the " Golden Age " of music? The
opportunity for reform came with the rise of the sonata style.
It was fortunate for Gluck that the music of his time was too
vigorously organized to be upset by new discoveries. Gluck was
a much greater artist than Monteverde, but he too was not over-
loaded with academic mastery; indeed, though historians have
denied it, Monteverde was by far the better contrapuntist, and
seems rather to have renounced his musical powers than to have
struggled for need of them. But instead of memories of a
Golden Age, Gluck had behind him 150 years of harmonic and
orchestral knowledge of good and evil. He also had almost as
clear a sense of symphonic form as could find scope in opera at
all; and his melodic power was generally of the highest order.
It is often said that his work was too far in advance of his time
to establish his intended reform; and, if this means that un-
dramatic ItaUan operas continued to outnumber those dramatic
masterpieces w^hich no smaller man could achieve, the statement
is as true as it is of every great artist. If, however, it is taken
to mean that because Mozart 's triumphs do not lie in serious opera
he owes nothing to Gluck, then the statement is misleading
(see GLtJCK). The influence of Gluck on Mozart was profound,
not only where it is relevant to the particular type of libretto,
as in Idomcneo, but also on the broad dramatic basis which
includes Greek tragedy and the 18th-century comedy of manners.
Mozart, whose first impulse was always to make his music coherent'
in itself, for some time continued to cultivate side by side with his
growing polyphony and freedom of movement certain Italian
formahties which, though musicaOy effective and flattering to
singers, were dramatically vicious. But these features, though
they spoil Idomeneo, correspond to much that in Gluck's operas
shows mere helplessness; and in comic opera they may even
become dramatically appropriate. Thus in Cosi fan tutti the
florid arias in which the two heroines protest their fidelity are
the arias of ladies who do protest too much; and in Die Zauher-
flote the extravagant vocal fireworks of the Queen of Night are
the displays of one who, in the words of the high priest Sarastro,
" hopes to cajole the people with illusions and superstition."
In the article Mozart we have discussed other evidences of his
stagecraft and insight into character, talents for which his comic
subjects gave him far more scope than those of classical tragedy
had given to Gluck. Mozart always extracts the utmost musical
effect from every situation in his absurd and often tiresome
libretti (especiaUy in vocal ensemble), while his musical effects
are always such as give dramatic life to what in other hands are
conventional musical forms. These merits would never have
been gainsaid but for the violence of Wagner's earlier partisans
in their revolt from the uncritical classicism of his denser and
noisier opponents. Wagner himself stands as far aloof from
Wagnerian Philistinism as from uncritical classicism. He was
a fierce critic of social conditions and by no means incapable
of hasty iconoclastic judgments; but he would have treated
with scant respect the criticism that censures Mozart for super-
ficiality in rejecting the radically unmusical element of mordant
social satire which distinguishes the Figaro of Beaumarchais
from the most perfect opera in all classical music.
It cannot be said that in any high artistic sense Italian comic
opera has developed continuously since Mozart. The vocal
athleticism of singers; the acceptance and great development by
Mozart of what we may call symphonic (as distinguished from
Handehan) forms of aria and ensemble; and the enlargement of
the orchestra; these processes gave the Itahan composers of
Mozart's and later times prosaically golden opportunities for
hfting spectators and singers to the seventh heaven of flattered
vanity, while the music, in itself no less than in its relation to the
drama, was steadily degraded. The decline begins with Mozart's
contemporary and survivor, D. Cimarosa, whose ideas are genuine
and, in the main, refined, but who lacks power and resource.
His style was by no means debased, but it was just so sKght that
contemporaries found it fairly easy. His most famous work,
// Matrimonio Segreto, is an opera biijfa which is still occasionally
revived, and it is very like the sort of thing that people who
despise Mozart imagine Figaro to be. Unless it is approached
with sympathy, its effect aittr Figaro is hardly more exhilarating
than that of the once pilloried spurious " Second Part " to the
Pickwick Papers. But this is harsh judgment; for it proves to
be a good semi-classic as soon as we take it on its own merits.
OPERA
123
It is far more musical, if less vivacious, than Rossini's Barhierc;
and the decline of Italian opera is more significantly foreshadowed
in Cimarosa's other chef-d'osuvre, the remarkable opera scria,
Gli Orazzi ed i Curiazzi. Here the arias and ensembles are serious
art, showing a pale reflection of Mozart, and not wholly without
Mozart's spirit, the choruses, notably the first of all, have fine
moments; and the treatment of conflicting emotions at one
crisis, where military music is heard behind the scenes, is masterly.
Lastly, the abrupt conclusion at the moment of the catastrophe
is good and was novel at the time, though it foreshadows that
sacrifice of true dramatic and musical breadth to the desire for an
"effective curtain," and that mortal fear of anti-climax which in
classical French opera rendered a great musical finale almost
impossible. But the interesting and dramatic features in Gli
Orazzi are unfortunately less significant historically than the
vulgarity of its overture, and the impossibility, after the beautiful
opening chorus, of tracing any unmistakably tragic style in the
whole work except by the negative sign of dullness.
Before Cimarosa's overwhelming successor Rossini had retired
from his indolent career, these tendencies had already reduced
both composers and spectators to a supreme indifference to the
mood of the libretto, an indifference far more fatal than mere
inattention to the plot. Nobody cares to follow the plot of
Mozart's Figaro; but then no spectator of Beaumarchais's
Mariage de Figaro is prevented by the intricacy of its plot from
enjoying it as a play. In both cases we are interested in the
character-drawing and in each situation as it arises; and we do
no justice to Mozart's music when we forget this interest, even
in cases where the libretto has none of the literary merit that
survives in the transformation of Beaumarchais's comedy into an
Italian libretto. But with the Rossinian decline all charitable
scruples of criticism are misplaced, for Italian opera once more
became as purely a pantomimic concert as in the Handelian
period; and we must not ignore the difference that it was now a
concert of very vulgar music, the vileness of which was only
aggravated by the growing range and interest of dramatic
subjects. The best that can be said in defence of it was that
the vulgarity was not pretentious and unhealthy, like Meyerbeer's;
mdeed, if the famous "Mad Scene" in Donizetti's Lucia di
Lammernioor had only been meant to be funny it would not
have been vulgar at all. Occasionally the drama pierced through
the empty breeziness of the music; and so the spirit of Shake-
speare, even when smothered in an Italian hbretto unsuccessfully
set to music by Rossini, proved so powerful that one spectator
of Rossini's Olello is recorded to have started out of his seat
at the catastrophe, exclaiming "Good Heavens! the tenor is
murdering the soprano!" And in times of political unrest
more than one opera became as dangerous as an over-censored
theatre could make it. An historical case in point is brilliantly
described in George Meredith's Vittoria. But what has this
to do with the progress of music? The history of Italian opera
from after its culmination in Mozart to its subsidence on the
big drum amd cymbals of the Rossinians is the history of a
protected industry. Verdi's art, both in its burly youth and in
its shrewd old age, is far more the crown of his native genius
than of his native traditions; and, though opinions differ as
to the spontaneity and depth of the change, the paradox is true
that the Wagnerization of Verdi was the musical emancipation
of Italy.
After Mozart the next step in the development of true operatic
art was neither Italian nor German, but French. The French
sense of dramatic fitness had a wonderfully stimulating effect
upon every foreign composer who came to France. Rossini
himself, in Guillaume Tell, was electrified into a dramatic and
orchestral life of an incomparably higher order than the rollicking
rattle of serious and comic Italian opera in its decline. He was
in the prime of life when he wrote it, but it exhausted him and
was practically his last important work, though he lived to a
cheerful old age. The defects of its libretto were grave, but he
made unprecedented efforts to remedy them, and finally suc-
ceeded, at the cost of an entire act. The experience was very
significant; for, from the time of Gluck onwards, while it
cannot be denied that native and naturalized French operatic
art has suffered from many forms of musical and dramatic
debasement, we may safely say that no opera has met with
success in France that is without theatrical merit. And- the
French contribution to musical history between Gluck and
Rossini is of great nobility. If Cherubini and Mehul had had
Gluck's melodic power, the classics of French opera would have
been the greatest achievements in semi-tragic music-drama
before Wagner. As it is, their austerity is not that of the highest
classics. It is negative, and tends to exclude outward attractive-
ness rather because it cannot achieve it than because it contains
all things in due proportion. Be this as it may, Cherubini had
a real influence on Beethoven; not to mention that the liljretti
of Fidelio and Les Deux journees were originally by the same
author, though Fidelio underwent great changes in translation
and revision. It is impossible to say what French o[)era might
have done for music through Beethoven if Fidelio had not
remained his solitary (because very nearly unsuccessful) operatic
monument; but there is no doubt as to its effect on Weber,
whose two greatest works, Der Freischiilz and Eiiryanthe, are
two giant strides from Cherubini to Wagner. Euryanthe is in
respect of Leit-motif (see below) almost more Wagnerian than
Lohengrin, Wagner's fourth published opera. It failed to make
an epoch in history because of its dreary libretto, to which,
however, the highly dramatic libretto of Lohengrin owes a
surprising number of points.
The libretti of classical opera set too low a literary standard
to induce critics to give sufficient attention to their aesthetic
bearings; and perhaps the great scholar Otto Jahn is the only
writer who has apphed a first-rate Uterary analysis to the subject
(see his Lije of Mozart); a subject which, though of great
importance to music, has, like the music itself, been generally
thrust into the background by the countless externals that give
theatrical works and institutions a national or political import-
ance independent of artistic merit and historical development.
Much that finds prominent place in the orthodox history of
opera is really outside the scope of musical and dramatic discus-
sion; and it may therefore be safely left to be discovered under
non-musical headings elsewhere in this Encyclopaedia. Even
when what passes for operatic history has a more real connexion
with the art than the history of locomotion has with physical
science, the importance of the connexion is often overrated.
For example, much has been said as to the progress in German
opera from the choice of remote subjects like Mozart's Die
EntfUhrung aus dem Serail to the choice of a subject so thoroughly
German as Der Freischiitz: but this is only part of the general
progress made, chiefly in France, towards the choice of romantic
instead of classical subjects. Whatever the intrinsic interest
of musical ethnology, and whatever hght it may throw upon the
reasons why an art will develop and decline sooner in one country
than in another, racial character will not suffice to produce an
art for which no technique as yet exists. Nor will it suffice in
any country to check the development or destroy the value of an
art of which the principles were developed elsewhere. No
music of Mozart's time could have handled Weber's romantic
subjects, and all the Teutonism in history could not have pre-
vented Mozart from adopting and developing those Italian
methods that gave him scope. Again, in the time of LuUy,
who was the contemporary of Moliere, the French genius of
stagectaft was devoted to reducing opera to an effective series
of ballets; yet so httle did this hamper composers of real
dramatic power that Quinault's libretto to Lully's verv' successful
Armide served Gluck unaltered for one of his greatest works
90 years later. If LuUy owes so little to Cambert as to be rightly
entitled the founder of French opera, if Gluck is a greater
reformer than his predecessor Rameau, if Cherubini is a more
powerful artist than Mehul, and if, lastly, Meyerbeer developed
the vices of the French histrionic machinery with a plausibility
which has never been surpassed, then we must reconcile our
racial theories with the historic process by which the French
Grand Opera, one of the most pronounced national types in all
music, was founded by an Itahan Jew, reformed by an Austrian,
124
OPERA
classicized by another Italian, and debased by a German Jew.
This only enhances the significance of that French dramatic
sense which stimulated foreign composers and widened their
choice of subjects, as it also preserved all except the Italian
forms of opera from falling into that elsewhere prevalent early
19th-century operatic style in which there was no means of
guessing by the music whether any situation was tragic or comic.
From the time of Meyerbeer onwards, trivial and vulgar opera
has been as common in France as elsewhere; but there is a world
of difference between, for example, a garish tune naively intended
for a funeral march, and a similar tune used in a serious situation
with a dramatic sense of its association with other incidents in
the opera, and of its contrast with the sympathies of spectators
and actors. The first case is as typical of 19th-century musical
Italy as the second case is of musical France and all that has
come under French influence.
As Wagner slowly and painfuUy attained his maturity he
learned to abhor the influence of Meyerbeer, and indeed it
accounts for much of the inequality of his earlier work. But
it can hardly have failed to stimulate his sense of effect; and
without the help of Meyerbeer's outwardly successful novelties
it is doubtful whether even Wagner's determination could
have faced the task of his early work, a task so negative and
destructive in its first stages. We have elsewhere (see Music,
Sonata Forms ad finem, and Symphonic Poem) described how
if music of any kind, instrumental or dramatic, was to advance
beyond the range of the classical symphony, there was need
to devise a kind of musical motion and proportion as different
from that of the sonata or symphony as the sonata style is
different from that of the suite. All the vexed questions of the
function of vocal ensemble, of the structure of the Ubretto, and
of instrumentation, are but aspects and results of this change
in what is as much a primary category of music as extension
is a primary category of matter. Wagnerian opera, a generation
after Wagner's death, was still an unique phenomenon, the
rational influence of which was not yet sifted from the con-
comitant confusions of thought prevalent among many composers
of symphony, oratorio, and other forms of which Wagner's
principles can be relevant only with incalculable modifications.
With Wagner the history of classical opera ends and a new
history begins, for in Wagner's hands opera first became a single
art-form, a true and indivisible music-drama, instead of a kind
of dramatic casket for a collection of objets d'ari more or less
aptly arranged in theatrical tableaux.
Forms and Terminology of Opera.
The history of pre- Wagnerian opera is not, like that of the
sonata forms, a history in which the technical terminology has
a clear relationship to the aesthetic development. In order to
understand the progress of classical opera we must understand
the whole progress of classical music; and this not merely for
the general reason that the development of an art-form is
inseparable from the development of the whole art, but because
in the case of opera only the most external terminology and the
most unreal and incoherent history of fashions and factions
remain for consideration after the general development of
musical art has been discussed. For completeness, however, the
terminology must be included; and a commentary on it v/ill
complete our sketch in better historical perspective than any
attempt to amplify details on the lines of a continuous history.
I. Secco-recitathe is the delivery of ordinary operatic dialogue
in prosaic recitative-formulas, accompanied by nothing but a
harpsichord or pianoforte. In comic operas it was not so bad
a method as some critics imagine; for the conductor (who sat
at the harpsichord or pianoforte) would, if he had the wits
expected of him by the composer, extemporize his accompani-
ments in an unobtrusively amusing manner, while the actors
delivered their recitative rapidly in a conversational style known
as parlante. In serious operas, however, the conductor dare
not be frivolous; and accordingly secco-recitative outside
comic opera is the dreariest of makeshifts, and is not tolerated
by Gluck in his mature works. He accompanies his recitatives
with the string band, introducing other instruments freely as
the situation suggests.
2. Accompanied recitative was used in all kinds of opera, as
introductory to important arias and other movements, and also
in the course of finales. Magnificent examples abound in
Idomeneo, Figaro and Don Giovanni; and one of the longest
recitatives before Wagner is that near the beginning of the
finale of the first act of Die Zauberflote. Beethoven's two
examples in Fidelia are short but of overwhelming pathos.
3. Melodrama is the use of an orchestral accompaniment to
spoken dialogue (see Benda). It is wonderfully promising in
theory, but generally disappointing in effect, unless the actors
are successfully trained to speak without being dragged by the
music into an out-of-tune sing-song. Classical examples are
generally short and cautious, but very impressive; there is one
in Fidelio in which the orchestra quotes two points from earlier
movements in a thoroughly Wagnerian way (see Leitmotif
below). But the device is more prominent in incidental music
to plays, as in Beethoven's music for Goethe's £g»zo«<. Mendels-
sohn's music for A Midsummer Night's Dream contains the most
brilliant and resourceful examples yet achieved in this art;
but they are beyond the musical capacity of the English stage,
which, however, has practised the worst forms of the method
until it has become a disease, many modern performances of
Shakespeare attaining an almost operatic continuity of bad
music.
4. Opera buffa is classical Italian comic opera with secco-
recitative. Its central classics are, of course, Figaro and Don
Giovanni, whUe Cimarosa's Matrimonio Segreto and Rossini's
Barbiere are the most important steps from the culmination
to the fall. - > -■"
5. Opera seria is classical Italian opera with secco-recitative;
almost always (like the Handelian opera from which it is derived)
on a Greek or Roman subject, and, at whatever cost to dramatic
or historic propriety, with a happy ending. Gluck purposely
avoids the term in his mature works. The only great classic
in opera seria is Mozart's Idomeneo, and even that is dramatically
too unequal to be more than occasionally revived, though it_
contains much of Mozart's finest music.
6. The Singspicl is German opera with spoken dialogue. In
early stages it advanced from the farcical to the comic. With
Beethoven it came under French influence and adopted
" thrilling " stories with happy endings; and from this stage
it passed to specifically " Romantic " subjects. Its greatest
classics are Mozart's Entfiihriing and Zauberflote, Beethoven's
Fidelio, and Weber's Freischiitz.
7. Opera comique is the Singspiel of France, being French opera
with spoken dialogue. It did not originate in farce but in
the refusal of the Academie de Musique to allow rival companies
to infringe its monopoly of Grand Opera; and it is so far from
being essentially comic that one of its most famous classics,
Mehul's Joseph, is on a Biblical subject; whOe its highest
achievement, Cherubini's Lcs Deuxjournees, is on a story almost
as serious as that of Fidelio. All Cherubini's mature operas
(except the ballet Anacreon, which is uninterrupted music
from beginning to end) are operas comiques in the sense of having
spoken dialogue; though Medee, being, perhaps, the first
genuine tragedy in the history of music-drama,' is simply
called " opera " on the title-page. In the smaller French
works, especially those in one act, there is so much spoken
dialogue that they are almost like plays with incidental music.
But they never sink to the condition of the so-called operas of
the English composers since Handel. When Weber accepted
the commission to write Oberon for the English stage in 1825, he
found that he was compelled to set the musical numbers one by
one as they were sent to him, without the slightest information
as to the plot, the situation, or even the order of the pieces!
And, to crown his disgust, he found that this really did not
matter.
• Even Gluck never contemplated any alternative to the absurd
happy ending of Orfco; and all his other operatic subjects include a
deus ex machina.
OPERA
125
8. Grand op6ra is French opera in which every word is sung,
and generally all recitative accompanied by the orchestra.
It originated in the Academic de Musique, which, from its founda-
tion in 1669 to the proclamation of the liberie dcs theatres in
1791, claimed the monopoly of operas on the lines laid down
by LuUy, Rameau.and Gluck. Rossini's Guillaumc Tell, Spontini's
Vestala and the works of Meyerbeer crown this theoretically
promising art-form with what Sir Hubert Parry has justly
if severely called a crown of no very precious metal. Weber's
Euryanlhe, Spohr's Jessonda, and others of his operas, are German
parallel developments; and Wagner's first published work,
Rienzi, is like an attempt to beat Meyerbeer on his own ground.
9. Opera boujfc is not an equivalent of opera Inifa, but is
French light opera with a prominent strain of persiflage. Its
chief representative is Offenbach. It seems to be as native to
France as the austere opera comique which it eclipsed. Sullivan
assimilated its adroit orchestration as Gilbert purified its literary
wit, and the result became a peculiarly English possession.
10. The finale is that part of a classical opera where, some
way before the end of an act, the music gathers itself together and
flows in an unbroken chain of concerted movements. The
" invention " has been ascribed to this or that composer before
Mozart, and it certainly must have taken some time in the
growing; but Mozart is the first classic whose finales are famous.
The finales to the second act of Figaro, the first act of Don
Giovanni and the second of the Zanberflotc remained unequalled
in scale and in dramatic and symphonic continuity, until Wagner,
as it were, extended the finale backwards until it met the intro-
duction (see below) so that the whole act became musically con-
tinuous. This step was foreshadowed by Weber, in whose
Euryanthe the numbering of the later movements of each act is
quite arbitrary. Great finales are less frequent in Singspicl than
in opera bufa. They can hardly be said to exist in opera seria,
climax at the end of an act being there (even in Gluck) attained
only by a collection of ballet movements, whereas the essence
of Mozart's finale is its capacity to deal with real turning-points
of the action. A few finales of the first and second acts of
operas comiqucs (which are almost always in three acts) are on
the great classical lines, e.g. that to the first act of Les Deux
journees; but a French finale to a last act is, except in Cherubini's
works, hardly ever more than a short chorus, often so per-
functory that, for instance, when Mehul's Joseph was first
produced by Weber at Dresden in 181 7, a three-movement finale
by Franzl of Munich was added; and Weber publicly explained
the difference between French and German notions of finality,
in excuse for a course so repugnant to his principles in the
performance of other works.
11. The introduction is sometimes merely an instrumental
entr'acte in classical opera; but it is more especially an extension
of continuous dramatic music at the beginning of an act, like
the extension of the finale backwards towards the middle of the
act, but much smaller. Beethoven, in his last version of Fidelia,
used the term for the perfectly normal duet that begins the first
act, and for the instrumental entr'acte which leads to the rise of
the curtain on Florestan's great scene in the second act. The
classical instances of the special meaning of " introduction " are
the first number in Don Giovanni and, more typically, that in the
Zauberflote.
12. Leit-motif, or the association of musical themes with
dramatic ideas and persons, is not only a natural means of
progress in music drama, but is an absolute musical necessity as
soon as the lines dividing an opera into separate formal pieces
are broken down, unless the music is to become exclusively
" atmospheric " and inarticulate. Without recurrence of themes
a large piece of music could no more show coherent development
than a drama in which the characters were never twice addressed
by the same name nor twice allowed to appear in the same guise.
Now the classical operatic forms, being mainly limited by the
sonata style, were not such as could, when once worked out in
appropriate designs of aria and ensemble, be worked out again
in recognizable transformations without poverty and monotony
of effect. And hence a system of Leit-motif was not appropriate
to that ingenious compromise which classical opera made
between music that completed from 12 to 30 independent
designs and the drama that meanwhile completed one.
But when the music became as continuous as the drama
the case was different. There are plenty of classical instances of
a theme superficially marking some cardinal incident or personal
characteristic, without affecting the independence of the musical
forms; the commonest case being, of course, the allusion some-
where in the overture to salient points in the body of the opera;
as, for instance, the allusion to the words " cosi fan tutli " in the
overture to Mozart's opera of that name, and the Masonic three-
fold chord in that to the Zauberflote. Weber's overtures are
sonata-form fantasias on themes to come: and in later and
lighter operas such allusiveness, being childishly easy, is a
meaningless matter of course. Within the opera itself, songs,
such as would be sung in an ordinary non-musical play, will
probably recur, as in Les Deux journees; and so will all phrases
that have the character of a caU or a signal, a remarkable and
pathetic instance of which may be found in Mehul's Melidore et
Phrasine, where the orchestra makes a true Leit-motif of the
music of the heroine's name. But it is a long way from this to the
system already clearly marked by Weber in Der Freischiitz and
developed in Euryanthe to an extent which Wagner did not
surpass in any earlier work than Tristan, though in respect of the
obliteration of sections his earliest works are in advance of Weber.
Yet not only are there some thirteen recurrent musical incidents
in the Freischiitz and over twenty in Euryanthe, but in the latter
the serpentine theme associated with the treacherous Eglantine
actually stands the Wagnerian test of being recognizable when
its character is transformed. This can hardly be claimed even for
the organization of themes in Lohengrin.
Mature Wagnerian Leit-motif is a very different thing from the
crude system of musical labels to which some of Wagner's
disciples have reduced it, and Wagner himself had no patience
with the catalogue methods of modern operatic analysis. The
Leit-motif system of Tristan, the Meistcrsinger, the Ring and
Parsifal is a profoundly natural and subtle cross-current of musical
thought, often sharply contrasted with the externals of a
dramatic situation, since it is free to reflect not only these
externals, not only the things which the audience know and the
persons of the drama do not know, not only those workings of
the dramatic character's mind which he is trying to conceal from
the other characters, but even those which he conceals from
himself. There was nothing new in any one of these possibilities
taken singly (see, for example, Gluck's ironic treatment of " le
calmc rentre dans mon caur "), but polyphonic Leit-motif made
them all possible simultaneously. Wagner's mind was not con-
centrated on the merely literary and theatrical aspects of music-
drama; he fought his way to the topmost heights of the peculiar
musical mastery necessary to his ideals; and so he realized that
principle in which none but the very greatest musicians find
freedom; the principle that, however constantly necessary and
powerful homophonic music may be in passages of artificial
simplicity, all harmonic music is by nature and origin polyphonic;
and that in polyphony lies the normal and natural means of
expressing a dramatic blending of emotions.
Wagnerian Leit-motif has proved rather a giant's robe for later
composers ; and the most successful of recent operas have, while aim-
ing less at the sublime, cultivated Wagner's musical and dramatic
continuity more than his principles of musical texture. Certainly
Wagnerian continuity is a permanent postulate in modern opera;
but it shows itself to be a thing attainable quite independently
of any purely musical style or merit, so long as the dramatic
movement of the play is good. This condition was always
necessary, even where opera was most symphonic. Mozart was
incessantly disputing with his librettists; and all his criticisms
and changes, though apparently of purely musical purport, had a
brilliant effect on the movement of the play. In one desperate
case, where the librettist was obstinate, Mozart abandoned a
work (L'Oca del Cairo) to the first act of which he had already
sketched a great finale embodying a grandiose farcical figure that
promised to be unique in classical opera.
126
OPHICLEIDE
Mozart's lesson of dramatic movement has been better learnt
than anything peculiar to either music or literature; for, while
his libretti show how httle that quality has to do with poetic
merit, the whole history of Italian opera from Rossini to Mascagni
shows how httle it has to do with good music. On the other hand,
the musical coherence of the individual classical forms used in
opera has caused many critics to miss the real dramatic ground
of some of the most important operatic conventions. The chief
instance of this is the repetition of words in arias and at climaxes,
a convention which we are over-ready to explain as a device which
prolongs situations and delays action for the sake of musical
design. But in the best classical examples the case is almost the
reverse, for the aria does not, as we are apt to suppose, represent
a few words repeated so as to serve for a long piece of music.
Without the music the drama would have required a long speech
in its place; but the classical composer cannot fit intelligible
music to a long string of different sentences, and so the hbrettist
reduces the speech to mere headlines and the composer supplies
the eloquence. Herein lies the meaning of Mozart's rapid progress
from vocal concertos like " Fiior del mar " in Idomeneo and
" Marlern alter Arleii " in Die Entfilhrung to genuine musical
speeches like " Non pill andrai " in Figaro, in which the obvious
capacity to deal with a greater number of words is far less
important than the naturalness and freedom with which the
pace of the declamation is varied — a freedom imsurpassed even
in the Elektra of Richard Strauss.
With Wagnerian polyphony and continuity music became
capable of treating words as they occur in ordinary speech, and
repetitions have accordingly become out of place except where
they would be natural without music. But it is not here that the
real gain in freedom of movement hes. That gain has been won,
not by Wagner's negative reforms alone, but by his combination
of negative reform with new depths of musical thought; and
modern opera is not more exempt than classical opera from the
dangers of artistic methods that have become facile and secure.
If the libretto has the right dramatic movement, the modern
composer need have no care beyond what is wanted to avoid
interference with that movement. So long as the music arouses
no obviously incompatible emotion and has no breach of con-
tinuity, it may find perfect safety in being meaningless.
The necessary stagecraft is indeed not common, but neither
is it musical. Critics and public will cheerfully agree in
ascribing to the composer all the quahties of the dramatist;
and three allusions in the music of one scene to that of another
will sulfice to pass for a marvellous development of Wagnerian
Leit-motif.
Modern opera of genuine artistic significance ranges from the
Ught song-play type admirably represented by Bizet's Carmen
to the exclusively " atmospheric " impressionism of Debussy's
Pelleas et Metisande. Both these extremes are equally natural in
effect, though diametrically opposite in method; for both types
eliminate everything that would be inadmissible in ordinary
drama. If we examine the libretto of Carmen as an ordinary play
we shall find it to consist mainly of actual songs and dances, so
that more than half of the music would be necessary even if it
were not an opera at all. Debussy's opera differs from Maeter-
linck's play only in a few omissions such as would probably
be made in ordinary non-musical performances. His musical
method combines perfect Wagnerian continuity with so entire
an absence of Leit-motif that there are hardly three musical
phrases in the whole opera that could be recognized if they
recurred in fresh contexts. The highest conceivable development
of Wagnerian continuity has been attained by Strauss in Salome
and Elektra; these operas being actually more perfect in dra-
matic movement than the original plays of Wilde and Hof-
mannsthal. But their use of Leit-motif, though obvious and
impressive, is far less developed than in Wagner; and the poly-
phony, as distinguished from the brilliant instnunental technique,
is, like that technique, devoted mainly to realistic and physically
exciting effects that crown the impression in much the same way
as skilful lighting of the stage. Certainly Strauss does not in
his whole time-limit of an hour and three-quarters use as many
definite themes (even in the shortest of figures) as Wagner uses
in ten minutes.
It remains to be seen whether a further development of
Wagnerian opera, in the sense of addition to Wagner's resources
in musical architecture, is possible. The uncompromising realism
of Strauss does not at first sight seem encouraging in this direc-
tion; yet his treatment of Elektra's first invocation of Agamem-
non produces a powerful effect of musical form, dimly perceived,
but on a larger scale than even the huge sequences of Wagner. I
In any case, the best thing that can happen in a period of musical ^
transition is that the leading revolutionaries should make a mark
in opera. Musical revolutions are too easy to mean much by
themselves; there is no purely musical means of testing the
sanity of the revolutionaries or of the critics. But the stage,
whUe boundlessly tolerant of bad music, will stand no nonsense
in dramatic movement. (The case of Ilandelian opera is no excep-
tion, for in it the stage was a mere topographical term.) In every
period of musical fermentation the art of opera has instantly
sifted the men of real ideas from the aesthetes and doctrinaires;
Monteverde from the prince of Venosa, Gluck from Gossec, and
Wagner from Liszt. As the ferment subsides, opera tends to a
complacent decadence; but it will always revive to put to the
first and most crucial test every revolutionary principle that
enters into music to destroy and expand.
See also Aria; .Overture; Cherubini; Gluck; Mozart;
Verdi; Wagner; Weber. (D. F. T.)
OPHICLEIDE (Fr. ophieleide, basse d'harmonie; Ger. Ophik-
leld; Ital. oficleidc), a brass wind instrument having a cup-shaped
mouthpiece and keys, in fact a bass keyed-bugle. The name
(from Gr. 6<^ts, serpent, and /cXetSts, keys), applied to it by
Halary, the patentee of the instrument, is hardly a happy one,
for there is nothing of the serpent about the ophieleide, which
has the bore of the bugle and also owes the chromatic arrange-
ment of the keys to a principle evolved by HaUiday for the bugle,
to be explained later on.
The ophieleide is almost perfect theoretically, for it combines
the natural harmonic scale of the brass wind instruments having
cup-shaped mouthpieces, such as the trumpet, with a system
of keys, twelve in number, one for each chromatic semitone of
the scale; it is capable of absolutely accurate intonation. It
consists of a wooden, or oftener brass, tube with a conical bore
having the same proportions as that of the bugle but not wide
enough in proportion to its length to make the fundamental or
first note of the harmonic series of much practical use. The
tube, theoretically ' 8 ft. long, is doubled upon itself once, ter-
minating at the narrow end in a tight coil, from which protrudes
the straight piece known as the crook, which bears the cup-
shaped mouthpiece; the wide end of the tube terminates in a
funnel-shaped beU pointing upwards.
The production of sound is effected in the ophieleide as in other
instruments with cup- or funnel-shaped mouthpieces (see Horn).
The lips stretched across the mouthpiece act as vibrating reeds
or as the vocal chords in the larynx. The breath of the performer,
compressed by being forced through the narrow opening between
the lips, sets the latter in vibration. The stream of air, instead
of proceeding into the cup in an even flow — in which case there
would be no sound — is converted into a series of pulsations by
the trembling of the lips. On being thrown into communication
with the main stationary column of air at the bottom of the cup,
the pulsating stream generates " sound waves," each consisting
of a half wave of expansion and of a half wave of compression.
On the frequency per second of the sound waves as they strike
the drum of the ear depends the pitch of the note, the acuteness
of the sound varying in direct proportion to the frequency. To
ensure a higher frequency in the sound waves, their length must
be decreased. Two things are necessary to bring this about
without shortening the length of the tube: (i) the opening
between the lips, fixed at each end by contact with the edges of
' For an explanation of the difference between thcor^' and practice
in the length of the tubes of wind instruments, see Victor Mahillon,
" Le cor " (Les instruments de musiqiie au musee du conservatoire
royal de musique de Bruxelles, pt. ii. Brussels and London, 1907),
pp. 27-29.
OPHICLEIDE
127
the mouthpiece, must be made narrower by greater tension;
(2) the breath must be sent through the reduced aperture in a
more compressed form and with greater force, so that the exciting
current of air becomes more incisive. An exact proportion,
not yet scientifically determined, evidently exists between the
amount of pressure and the degree of tension, which is uncon-
sciously regulated by the performer, excess of pressure in pro-
portion to the tension of the lips producing a crescendo by causing
amplitude of vibration instead of increased speed.
When the fundamental note of a pipe is produced, the tension
of the lips and pressure of breath proportionally combined are
at their minimum for that instrument. If both be doubled,
a node is formed half way up the pipe, and the column of air
no longer vibrates as a whole, but as two separate parts, each
half the length of the tube, and the frequency of the sound
waves is doubled in consequence. The practical result is the
production of the second harmonic of the series an octave above
the fundamental. The formation of three nodes and therefore
of three separate sound waves produces a note a twelfth above
the fundamental, known as the third harmonic, and so on in
mathematical ratio. This harmonic series forms the natural
scale of the instrument, and is for the ophicleide the following:
^r^—- i-
^
^m
E3E
i^
It
-t=:
CT) ■■
Fundamental.
In some cases the fundamental is difficult to obtain, and the
harmonics above the eighth are not used.
The ophicleide has in addition to its natural scale eleven or
twelve lateral holes covered by keys, each of which, when succes-
sively opened, raises the pitch of the harmonic series a semitone,
with the exception of the first, an open key, which on being
closed lowers the pitch a semitone. There were ophicleides
in C and in Bb, the former being the more common; contrabass
ophicleides were also occasionally made in F and Eb. The
keys of the ophicleide, being placed in the lowest register, were
intended to bind together by chromatic degrees the first and
second harmonics. The compass is a little over three octaves.
from
with chromatic semitones throughout.
The unsatisfactory timbre of the ophicleide led to its being
superseded by the bass tuba; but it seems a pity that an
instrument so powerful, so easy to learn and understand, and
capable of such accurate intonation, should have to be discarded.
The lower register is rough, but so powerful that it can easily
sustain above it masses of brass harmonics; the medium is
coarse in tone, and the upper wild and unmusical.
Although a bass keyed-bugle, the ophicleide owes something of
its origin to the application of keys to the serpent (q.v.), a wind
instrument, the invention of which is generally attributed to Edme
Guillaume, canon of Auxerre, about 1590. The serpent remained
in its primitive form for nearly two centuries, and then only it was
attempted to improve it by adding keys. It was a musician named
Regibo,^ belonging to the orchestra of the church of St Pierre at
Lille, who, about 1780, first thought of giving it the shape of a
bassoon. The merit of this innovation was rapidly recognized in
England and Germany. Still, to follow Gerber,^ one Frichot, who
was established in London, published in 1800 a description of an
instrument, entirely of brass, manufactured by J. Astor, which he
claimed as his invention, calling it the basshorn, but which was no
other in principle than the new serpent of Regibo. It only made
its way to France and Belgium after the passage of the allied armies
in 1815. The English brass basshorn was designated on the Continent
the English or the Russian basshorn, the " serpent anglais " or the
" basson russe." Under this last name all instruments of the form,
whether of wood or brass, were later on confounded in France and
Belgium. The " basson russe " remained in great vogue until the
appearance of the ophicleide, to disappear with it in the complete
revolution brought about by the invention of pistons.
The invention of the ophicleide is generally but falsely attributed
to Alexandre Frichot, a professor of music at Lisieux, department of
Calvados, France. The instrument, which the inventor called
" basse-trompette," was approved of as early as 13th November
1806 bv a commission composed of professors of the Paris Con-
' Gerber, Lexicon der Tonkiinstler (Leipzig, 1790).
" Lexikon, edition of 1812.
servatoire, but the patent bears the date 31st December 1810. The
" basse-trompette," which Frichot in his specification had at first,
in imitation of the English basshorn, called " basse cor," was, like
the English instrument, entirely of brass, and had, like it, six holes;
it only differed in a more favourable disposition brought about by
the curvings of the tube, and by the application of four crooks
which permitted the instrument to be tuned " in C low pitch and
C high pitch for military bands, in C# for ehurches, and in D for
concert use." The close relationship between the two instruments
suggests the question whether this was the Frichot who worked with
Astor in London in 1800.
The first idea of adding keys to instruments with cupped mouth-
pieces, unprovided with lateral holes, with the aim of filling up some
of the gaps between the notes of the harmonic scale, goes back,
according to Gerber {Lexicon of 1790), to Kolbcl, a horniilayer in
the Russian imperial band, about 1760. Anton Weidinger,-' trumpeter
in the Austrian imperial band, improved upon this first attempt,
and applied it in 1800 to the trumpet. But the honour belongs to
Joseph Halliday, bandmaster of the Cavan militia, of being the first
to conceive, in 1 8 10, the disposition of a certain number of keys
along the tube, setting out from its lower extremity, with the idea
of producing by their successive or simultaneous opening a chromatic
scale throughout the extent of the instrument The tjugle-horn
was the object of his reform; the scale of which, he says, in the
preamble of his patent, " until my invention contained but five
— j. My improvements on that
tones, VIZ.
instrument are five keys, to be used by the performer according
to the annexed scale, which, with its five original notes, render it
capable of producing twenty-five separate tones in
regular progression." Fig. i represents the keyed
bugle of Joseph Halliday.
It was not until 1815 that the use of the new
instrument spread upon the Continent. We find
in the account-books of a Belgian maker, Tuer-
linckx of Mechlin, that his first supply of a bugle-
horn bears the date of 25th March 1815, and it was
made " aen den Hecr Muldener, lieutenant in
hct regiment due d'York."
The acoustic principle inaugurated by Halliday
consisted in binding together by chromatic degrees
the second and third harmonics,
Fig. I . — Keyed
He attained it, as we have just seen, Bugle.
by the help of five keys. The principle once discovered, it became
easy to extend it to instruments of the largest size, of which the
compass, as in the " basson russe," began with the fundamental
sound. It was simply necessary to bind this fundamental
s2^ to the next harmonic sound
^ ^ -^- by a larger number of keys. This
was done in 181 7 by Jean Hilaire Aste, known
as Halary, a professor of music and instru-
ment-maker at Paris. We find the description
of the instruments for which he sought a
patent in the Rapport de I' Academie Royale
des Beaux-Arts de I' Institut de France, meeting
of the i9thof July 1817. These instruments were
three in number: (l) the clavi-tube, a keyed
trumpet; (2) the quinti-tube, or quinti-clave;
(3) the ophicleide, a keyed serpent. The clavi-
tube was no other than the bugle-horn slightly
modified in some details of construction, and
reproduced in the different tonalities Ab, F, Eb,
D, C, Bb, A and Ab. The quinti-tube had
nearly the form of a bassoon, and was, in the
first instance, armed with eight keys and
constructed in two tonalities, F and Eb. This
was the instrument afterwards named " alto
ophicleide." The ophicleide (fig. 2) had the
same form as the quinti-tube. It was at first
adjusted with nine or ten keys, and the
number was carried on to twelve — each key
to give a semitone (additional patent of l6th
August 1822). The ophicleide or bass of the
harmony was made in C and in Bb, the contra-bass in F and in Eb.'
' The announcement of Weidinger's invention of a Klappen-
irompete, or trumpet with keys, appears in the Allg. musik. Ztg.
(Leipzig, November 1802), p. 158; and further accounts are given in
January 1803, p. 245, and 1815, p. 844.
* The report of the Academie des Beaux-Arts on the subject of this
invention shows a strange misconception of it, which it is interesting
to recall. " As to the two instruments which M. Halary designs
F1G.2. — Ophicleide
of Halarj'.
128
OPHIR— OPHTHALMOLOGY
It is certain that from the point of view of invention Halary's
labours had only secondary importance; but, if the principle of
keyed chromatic instruments with cupped mouthpiece' goes back
to Halliday, it was Halary's merit to know how to take advantage
of the principle in extending it to instruments of diverse tonalities,
in grouping them in one single family, that of the bugles, in so com-
plete a manner that the improvements of modern manufacture have
not widened its limits either in the grave or the acute direction.
Keyed chromatic wind instruments made their way rapidly ; to their
introduction into militar>- full or brass bands we can date the
regeneration of military music. After pistons had been invented
some forty years, instruments with keys could still reckon their
partisans. Now these have utterly disappeared, and pistons or
rotary cylinders remain absolute masters of the situation.
(V. M.; K. S.)
OPHIR, a region celebrated in antiquity for its gold, which
was proverbially fine (Job xxii. 24, xxviii. 16; Psalms xlv. 9;
Isa. xiii. 12). Thence Solomon's Phoenician sailors brought gold
for their master (i Kings ix. 28, x. 11; 2 Chron. viii. 18, ix. 10);
Ophir gold was stored up among the materials for the Temple (i
Chron. xxix. 4). Jehoshaphat, attempting to follow his ancestors'
example, was foiled by the shipwreck of his navy (i Kings xxii.
48). The situation of the place has been the subject of much
controversy.
The only indications whereby it can be identified are its
connexion, in the geographical table (Gen. x. 20), with Sheba
and Havilah, the latter also an auriferous country (Gen. ii. 11),
and the fact that ships saihng thither started from Ezion-Geber
at the head of the Red Sea. It must, therefore, have been
somewhere south or east of Suez; and must be known to be a
gold-bearing region. The suggested identification with the
Egyptian Punt is in itself disputable, and it would be more
helpful if we knew exactly where Punt was (see Egypt).
(i) East Africa. — This has, perhaps, been the favourite theory
in recent years, and it has been widely popularized by the
sensational works of Theodore Bent and others, to say nothing
of one of Rider Haggard's novels. The centre of speculation
is a group of extensive ruins at Zimbabwe, in Mashonaland,
about 200 m. inland from Sofala. Many and wild words have
been written on these imposing remains. But the results
of the saner researches of Randall Maclver, announced first
at the South Africa meeting of the British Association (1905)
and later communicated to the Royal Geographical Society,
have robbed these structures of much of their glamour; from
being the centres of Phoenician and Hebrew industry they have
sunk to be mere magnified kraals, not more than three or four
hundred years old.
(2) The Far East. — Various writers, following Josephus and
the Greek version, have placed Ophir in different parts of the
Far East. A chief argument in favour of this view is the length
of the voyages of Solomon's vessels (three years were occupied
in the double voyage, going and returning, i Kings x. 22) and
the nature of the other imports that they brought — " almug-
trees " {i.e. probably sandal- wood) , ivory, apes and peacocks.
This, however, proves nothing. It is nowhere said that these
various imports all came from one place; and the voyages must
have been somewhat analogous to those of modern " coasting
tramps," which would necessarily consume a considerable time
over comparatively short journeys. It has been sought at
under the names of ' quinti-clave ' and ' ophicleide, ' they bear a great
resemblance to those submitted to the Academy in the sitting of the
nth of March 181 1 by M. Dumas, which he designed under the
names of ' basse et contrebasse guerrieres.' . . . The opinion of our
commission on the quinti-clave and ophicleide is that M. Halary can
only claim the merit of an improvement and not that of an entire
invention; still, for an equitable judgment on this point, we should
compare the one with the other, and this our commission cannot do,
not having the instruments of M. Dumas at our disposal." This is
what the commission ought to have had, but it would have sufficed
had they referred to the report of the sittings of 6th and 8th April,
in which it is clearly explained that the instruments presented by
M. Dumas were bass clarinets (Moniteur Universel of 19th April
1811).
' We designedly omit the use of the word " brass " to qualify
these instruments. The substance which determines the form of a
column of air is demonstrably indifferent for the timbre or quality of
tone so long as the sides of the tubes are equally elastic and rigid.
Abhira, at the mouth of the Indus (where, however, there is no
gold); at Supara, in Goa; and at a certain Mount Ophir in
Johore.
(3) Arabia. — On the whole the most satisfactory theory is
that Ophir was in some part of Arabia — whether south or east
is disputed, and (with the indications at our disposal) probably
cannot be settled. Arabia was known as a gold-producing
countrj' to the Phoenicians (Ezek. xxvii. 22); Sheba certainly,
and Havilah probably, are regions of Arabia, and these are
coupled with Ophir in Genesis x.; and the account of the arrival
of the navy in i Kings x. 11, is strangely interpolated into the
story of the visit of the queen of Sheba, perhaps because there
is a closer connexion between the two events than appears at
first sight.
Historians have been at a loss to know what Solomon could
give in exchange for the gold of Ophir and the costly gifts of
the queen of Sheba. Mr K. T. Frost {Expos. Times, Jan. 1905)
shows that by his command of the trade routes Solomon was able
to balance Phoenicians and Sabaeans against each other, and
that his Ophir gold would be paid for by trade facihties and
protection of caravans. (R. A. S. M.)
OPHITES, or Ophians (Gr. 6<^is, Heb. Binj, " snake "), known
also as Naasenes, an early sect of Gnostics described by
Hippolytus {Philosoph. v.), Irenaeus {adv. Haer. i. 11), Origen
{Contra Celsum, vi. 25 seq. and Epiphanius {Haer. xxvi.). The
account given by Irenaeus may be taken as representative
of these descriptions which vary partly as referring to different
groups, partly to different dates. The honour paid by them
to the serpent is connected with the old mythologies of Babylon
and Egypt as well as with the popular cults of Greece and the
Orient. It was particularly offensive to Christians as tending
to dishonour the Creator who is set over against the serpent
as bad against good. The Ophite system had its Trinity: (i) the
Universal God, the First Man, (2) his conception {ivvoLo), the
Second Man, (3) a female Holy Spirit. From her the Third Man
(Christ) was begotten by the First and Second. Christ flew
upward with his mother, and in their ascent a spark of hght
fell on the waters as Sophia. From this contact came laldabaoth
the Demiurgos, who in turn produced six powers and with them
created the seven heavens and from the dregs of matter the
Nous of serpent form, from whom are spirit and soul, evil and
death. laldabaoth then announced himself as the Supreme,
and when man (created by the six powers) gave thanks for
life not to laldabaoth but to the First Man, laldabaoth created
a woman (Eve) to destroy him. Then Sophia or Prunikos sent
the serpent (as a benefactor) to persuade Adam and Eve to eat
the tree of knowledge and so break the commandment of lalda-
baoth, who banished them from paradise to earth. After a long
war between mankind aided by Prunikos against laldabaoth
(this is the inner story of the Old Testament), the Holy Spirit
sends Christ to the earth to enter (united with his sister Prunikos)
the pure vessel, the virgin-born Jesus. Jesus Christ worked
miracles and declared himself the Son of the First Man. lalda-
baoth instigated the Jews to kill him, but only Jesus died on
the cross, for Christ and Prunikos had departed from him.
Christ then raised the spiritual body of Jesus which remained
on earth for eighteen months, initiating a small circle of elect
disciples. Christ, received into heaven, sits at the right hand
of laldabaoth, whom he deprives of glory and receives the souls
that are his own. In some circles the serpent was identified
with Prunikos. There are some resemblances to the Valentinian
system, but whereas the great Archon sins in ignorance,
laldabaoth sins against knowledge; there is also less of Greek
philosophy in the Ophite system.
See King, The Gnostics and their Remains (London, 1887); G.
Salmon, art. " Ophites " mDict. Chr. Biog.
OPHTHALMOLOGY (Gr. o^eaX/iOS, eye), the science of the
anatomy, physiology and pathology of the eye (see Eve and
Vision). From the same Greek word come numerous other
derivatives: e.g. ophthalmia, the general name for conjunctival
inflammations (see Eye diseases, under Eye) ; and the instruments
ophthalmometer and ophthalmoscope (see Vision).
OPIE, A.— OPITZ VON BOBERFELD
129
OPIE, AMELIA (1760-1853), English author, daughter of
James Alderson, a physician in Norwich, and was born there-
on the 1 2th of November 1760. Miss Alderson had inherited
radical principles and was an ardent admirer of Home Tooke.
She was intimate with the Kembles and with Mrs Siddons,
with Godwin and Mary Wollstonecraft. In 1708 she married
John Opie, the painter. The nine years of her married life
were very happy, although her husband did not share her love
of society. He encouraged her to write, and in 1801 she produced
a novel entitled Father and Daughter, which showed genuine
fancy and pathos. She published a volume of graceful verse
in i3o2; Adeline Mowbray followed in 1804, Simple Tales in
1806, Temper in 181 2, Tales of Real Life in 1S13, Valentine's
Eiie in 1816, Tales of the Heart in 1818, and Madeline in 1822.
At length, in 1825, through the influence of Joseph John Gurncy,
she joined the Society of Friends, and beyond a volume entitled
Detraction Displayed, and contributions to periodicals, she
wrote nothing more. The rest of her life was spent in travelling
and in the exercise of charity. Mrs Opie retained her vivacity
to the last, dying at Norwich on the 2nd of December 1853.
A Life, by Miss C. L. Brightwell, was published in 1854.
OPIE, JOHN (1761-1807), English historical and portrait
painter, was born at St Agnes near Truro in May 1761. He
early showed a taste for drawing, besides having at the age
of twelve mastered Euclid and opened an evening school for
arithmetic and writing. Before long he won some local reputation
by portrait-painting; and in 1780 he started for London, under
the patronage of Dr Wolcot (Peter Pindar). Opie was introduced
to the town as " The Cornish Wonder," a self-taught genius.
The world of fashion, ever eager for a new sensation, was
attracted; the carriages of the wealthy blocked the street
in which the painter resided, and for a time he reaped a rich
harvest by his portraits. But soon the fickle tide of popularity
flowed past him, and the painter was left neglected. He now
applied himself with redoubled diligence to correcting the
defects which marred his art, meriting the praise of his rival
Northcote — " Other artists paint to live; Opie lives to paint."
At the same time he sought to supplement his early education
by the study of Latin and French and of the best English classics,
and to polish the rudeness of his provincial manners by mixing
in cultivated and learned circles. In 1786 he exhibited his first
important historical subject, the" Assassination of James I., "and
in the following year the " Murder of Rizzio," a work whose merit
was recognized by the artist's immediate election as associate
of the Academy, of which he became a full member in 1788. He
was employed on five subjects for Boydell's " Shakespeare
Gallery "; and until his death, on the gth of April 1807, his
practice alternated between portraiture and historical work.
His productions are distinguished by breadth of handling and
a certain rude vigour, individuality and freshness. They are
wanting in grace, elegance and poetic feeUng. Opie is also
favourably known as a writer on art by his Life of Reynolds in
Wolcot's edition of Pilkington, his Letter on the Cultivation
of the Fine Arts in England, in which he advocated the formation
of a national gallery, and his Lectures as professor of painting
to the Royal Academy, which were published in 1809, with a
memoir of the artist by his widow (see above).
OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think), a term used
loosely in ordinary speech for an idea or an explanation of
facts which is regarded as being based on evidence which is
good but not conclusive. In logic it is used as a translation
of Gr. 66^a, which plays a prominent part in Greek philosophy
as the opposite of knowledge {iwiarr^fxT] or aKrid(ia). The
distinction is drawn by Parmenides, who contrasts the sphere of
truth or knowledge with that of opinion, which deals with mere
appearance, error, not-being. So Plato places 56^a between
aicrdr)(ns and Siai'ota, as dealing with phenomena contrasted
with non-being and being respectively. Thus Plato confines
opinion to that which is subject to change. Aristotle, retaining
the same idea, assigns to opinion (especially in the Ethics) the
sphere of things contingent, i.e. the future: hence opinion
deals with that which is probable. More generally he uses
jjopulur opinion — that which is generally held to be true {8oKttv)
— as the starting-point of an inquiry. In modern philosophy
the term has been used for various conceptions all having
much the same connotation. The absence of any universally
acknowledged definition, especially such as would contrast
" opinion " with " belief," " faith " and the like, deprives it
of any status as a philosophic term.
OPITZ VON BOEERFELD. MARTIN (1597-1639), German
poet, was born at Bunzlau in Silesia on the 23rd of December
1507, the son of a prosperous citizen. He received his early
education at the Gymnasium of his native town, of which
his uncle was rector, and in 1617 attended the high school —
" Schonaichianum " — at Beuthen, where he made a special
study of French, Dutch and Italian poetry. In 1618 he entered
the university of Frankfort-on-Oder as a student of literac
humaniorcs, and in the same year published his first essay,
Aristarchus, sive De contcmptu linguae Teutonicac, a plea for
the purification of the German language from foreign adultera-
tion. In 1619 he went to Heidelberg, where he became the leader
of the school of young poets which at that time made that
university town remarkable. Visiting Leiden in the following
year he sat at the feet of the famous Dutch lyric poet Daniel
Heinsius (1580-1655), whose Lobgcsang Jesu Christi and
Lobgesang Bacchi he had already translated into alexandrines.
After being for a short year (1622) professor of philosophy at
the Gymnasium of Weissenburg (now Karlsburg) in Transylvania,
he led a wandering life in the service of various territorial
nobles. In 1624 he was appointed counciflor to Duke George
Rudolf of Liegnitz and Brieg in Silesia, and in 1625, as reward
for a requiem poem composed on the death of Archduke Charles
of Austria, was crowned laureate by the emperor Ferdinand
II. who a few years later ennobled him under the title " von
Boberfeld." He was elected a member of the Fricchtbringende
Gesellschaft in 1629, and in 1630 went to Paris, where he made
the acquaintance of Hugo Grotius. He settled in 1635 at
Danzig, where Ladislaus IV. of Poland made him his historio-
grapher and secretary. Here he died of the plague on the 20th
of August 1639.
Opitz was the head of the so-called First Silesian School
of poets(see G'ER'many -.Literature), and was during his life regarded
as the greatest German poet. Although he would not to-day
be considered a poetical genius, he may justly claim to have
been the " father of German poetry " in respect at least of its
form; his Buch von der dcutschen Poeterey (1624) put an end
to the hybridism that had until then prevailed, and established
rules for the " purity " of language, style, verse and rhyme.
Opitz's own poems are in accordance with the rigorous rules
which he laid down. They are mostly a formal and sober
elaboration of carefully considered themes, and contain little
beauty and less feeling. To this didactic and descriptive category
belong his best poems, Trosi-Gedichte in Widerwdrtigkeil des
Krieges (written 1621, but not published till 1633); Zlatna,
oder von Ruhe des Gemiits (1622); Lob des Feldlebens (1623);
Vielgut, oder vont wahren Gliick (1629), and Vesuvius (1633).
These contain some vivid poetical descriptions, but are in the
main treatises in poetical form. In 1624 Opitz pubHshed a
collected edition of his poetry under the title Acht Biicher
deutscher Poematum (though, owing to a mistake on the part
of the printer, there are only five books); his Dafne (1627),
to which Heinrich Schiitz composed the music, is the earliest
German opera. Besides numerous translations, Opitz edited
(1639) Das Annolied, a Middle High German poem of the end
of the nth century, and thus preserved it from obhvion.
Collected editions of Opitz's works appeared in 1625, 1629, 1637,
1641, 1690 and 1746. His Ausgewdhlte Dichtungen have been edited
by J. Tittmann (1869) and by H. Oesterley (Kurschner's Deutsche
Nationalliteratur, vol. xxvii. 1889). There are modern reprints of
the Buch von der deutschen Poeterey by W. Braune (2nd ed., 1882).
and, together with Aristarchus, by G. Witkowski (1888), and also of
the Teutsche Poemata. of 1624, by G. Witkowski (1902). See H.
Palm, Beitrdge zur Geschichle der deutschen Literatur des lOten und lyten
Jahrhunderts (1877); K. Borinski, Die Poetik der Renaissance (1886);
R. Reckherrn, Opitz, Ronsard und Heinsius (1888). Bibliography by
H. Oesterley in the Zentralblatl fiir Bibliothekswesen for 1885.
XX. 5
I30
OPIUM
OPIUM (Gr. oTriov, dim. from ottos, juice), a narcotic drug
prepared from the juice of the opium poppy, Papaver somniferum,
a plant probably indigenous in the south of Europe and western
Asia, but now so widely cultivated that its original habitat is
uncertain. The medicinal properties of the juice have been
recognized from a very early period. It was known to Theo-
phrastus by the name of fir)KU>vi.ov , and appears in his time to
have consisted of an extract of the whole plant, since Dioscorides,
about A.D. 77, draws a distinction between ixfjUicvtiov, which he
describes as an extract of the entire herb, and the more active
OTTOS, derived from the capsules alone. From the ist to the 12th
century the opium of Asia Minor appears to have been the only
kind known in commerce. In the 13th century opium thebaicum
is mentioned by Simon Januensis, physician to Pope Nicholas IV.,
while meconium was still in use. In the i6th century opium is
mentioned by Pyres (1516) as a production of the kingdom of
Cous (Kuch Behar, south-west of Bhutan) in Bengal, and of
Malwa.' Its introduction into India appears to have been
connected with the spread of Islam. The opium monopoly was
the property of the Great
Mogul and was regularly
sold. In the 17th century
Kaempfer describes the
various kinds of opium
prepared in Persia, and
states that the best sorts
were flavoured with spices
and called " theriaka."
These preparations were
held in great estimation
during the middle ages,
and probably suppHed to
a large extent the place
of the pure drug. Opium
is said to have been intro-
duced into China by the
Arabs probably in the
13th century, and it was
originally used there as a
medicine, the introduc-
tion of opium-smoking
being assigned to the
17th century. In a
Chinese Herbal compiled before 1700 both the plant and
its inspissated juice are described, together with the mode
of collecting it, and in the General History of the Southern
Provinces of Yunnan, revised and repubUshcd in 1736, opium
is noticed as a common product. The lirst edict prohibiting
opium-smoking was issued by the emperor Yung Cheng in 1729.
Up to that date the amount imported did not exceed 200 chests,
and was usually brought from India by junks as a return cargo.
In the year 1757 the monopoly of opium cultivation in India
passed into the hands of the East India Company through the
victory of Clive at Plassey. Up to 1773 the trade with China
had been in the hands of the Portuguese, but in that year the
East India Company took the trade under their own charge,
and in 1776 the annual export reached 1000 chests, and 5054
chests in 1790. Although the importation was forbidden by
the Chinese imperial authorities in 1796, and opium-smoking
punished with severe penalties (ultimately increased to trans-
portation and death), the trade continued and had increased
during 1820-1830 to 16,877 chests per annum. The trade was
contraband, and the opium, was bought by the Chinese from
depot ships at the ports. Up to 1839 no effort was made to stop
the trade, but in that year the emperor Tao-Kwang sent a com-
missioner, Lin Tsze-sti, to Canton to put down the traffic. Lin
issued a proclamation threatening hostile measures if the British
opium ships serving as depots were not sent away. The demand
for removal not being comphed with, 20,201 chests of opium
(of 149^ lb each), valued at £2,000,000, were destroyed by the
Chinese commissioner Lin; but still the British sought to
' Aromatum Historia (ed. Clusius, Ant., 1574).
Fig. I. — Opium Poppy (Papaver
somniferum).
smuggle cargoes on shore, and some outrages committed on both
sides led to an open war, which was ended by the treaty of
Nanking in 1842. The importation of opium continued and was
legalized in 1858. From that time, in spite of the remonstrances
of the Chinese government, the exportation of opium from India
to China continued, increasing from 52,925 piculs (of 133^ lb)
in 1850 to 96,839 piculs in 1880. While, however, the court
of Peking was honestly endeavouring to suppress the foreign
trade in opium from 1839 to 1858 several of the provincial viceroys
encouraged the trade, nor could the central government put a
stop to the home cultivation of the drug. The cultivation
increased so rapidly that at the beginning of the 20th century
opium was produced in every province of China. The western
provinces of Sze-ch'uen, Yun-nan and Kwei-chow yielded re-
spectively 200,000, 30,000 and 15,000 piculs (of 133^ lb);
Manchuria 15,000; Shen-si, Chih-li and Shan-tung 10,000 each;
and the other provinces from 5000 to 500 piculs each, the whole
amount produced in China in 1906 being estimated at 330,000
piculs, of which the province of Sze-ch'uen produced nearly two-
thirds. Of this amount China required for home consumption
325,270 piculs, the remainder being chiefly exported to Indo-
China, whilst 54,225 piculs of foreign opium were imported into
China. Of the whole amount of opium used in China, equal to
22,588 tons, only about one-seventh came from India.
The Chinese government regarding the use of opium as one of
the most acute moral and economic questions which as a nation
they have to face, representing an annual loss to the country of
856,250,000 taels, decided in 1906 to put an end to the use of the
drug within ten years, and issued an edict on the 20th of
September 1906, forbidding the consumption of opium and the
cultivation of the poppy. As an indication of their earnestness of
purpose the government allowed officials a period of six months
in which to break oft the use of opium, under heavy penalties
if they failed to do so. In October of the same year the American
government in the Philippines, having to deal with the opium
trade, raised the question of the taking of joint measures for its
suppression by the powers interested, and as a result a conference
met at Shanghai on the ist of February 1909 to which China,
the United States of America, Great Britain, Austria-Hungary,
France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, Persia, Portugal
and Russia sent delegates. At this meeting it was resolved that
it was the duty of the respective governments to prevent the
export of opium to any countries prohibiting its importation;
that drastic measures should be taken against the use of morphine ;
that anti-opium remedies should be investigated; and that all
countries having concessions in China should close the opium
divans in their possessions. The British government made an
offer in 1907 to reduce the export of Indian opium to countries
beyond the seas by 5100 chests, i.e. i^-th of the amount annually
taken by China, each year until the year igio, and that if during
these three years the Chinese government had carried out its
arrangements for proportionally diminishing the production and
consumption of opium in China, the British government were
prepared to continue the same rate of reduction, so that the
export of Indian opium to China would cease in ten years; the
restrictions of the imports of Turkish, Persian and other opiums
being separately arranged for by the Chinese government, and
carried out simultaneously. The above proposal was gratefully
received by the Chinese government. A non-official report by
Mr E. S. Little, after travelling through western China, which
appeared in the newspapers in May 1910, stated that all over the
province of Sze-ch'uen opium had almost ceased to be produced,
except only in a few remote districts on the frontier (see further
China: § History).
The average annual import of Persian and Turkish opium
into China is estimated at 11 25 piculs, and if this quantity were
to be reduced every year by one-ninth, beginning in 1909, in nine
years the import into China would entirely cease, and the
Indian, Persian and Turkish opiums no longer be articles of
commerce in that country. One result of these regulations was
that the price of foreign opium in China rose, a circumstance
which was calculated to reduce the loss to the Indian revenue.
OPIUM
131
Thus in 1909-1910, with only 350,000 acres under cultivation and
40,000 chests of opium in stock, the revenue was ^4, 420, 600 as
against £3,572,944 in 1905-1906 with 613,996 acres under
cultivation and a stock of 76,063 chests. No opium dens have
been allowed since 1907 in their possessions or leased territories
in China by Great Britain, France, Germany, Russia or Japan.
The difficulties of the task undertaken by the Chinese govern-
ment to eradicate a national and popular vice, in a country
whose population is generally estimated at 400,000,000, are
increased by the fact that the opium habit has been indulged
in by all classes of society, that opium has been practically the
principal if not the only national stimulant; that it must involve
a considerable loss of revenue, which will have to be made up
by other taxes, and by the fact that its cultivation is more
profitable than that of cereals, for an English acre will on the
average produce raw dry opium of the value of £5, i6s. 8d.
while it will yield grain valued only at £4, 5s. 6d.
Various remedies for the opium hal)it have been experimented
with in China, but with doubtful success. Under the name of
anti-opium cure various remedies containing morphine in the
form of powder, or of little pills, have been introduced, as well
as the subcutaneous injection of the alkaloid, so that the use
of morphine is increasing in China to an alarming extent, and
considerable difficulty is experienced in controlling the iUicit
traflk in it, especially that sent through the post. Its com-
parative cheapness, one dollar's worth being equal to three
dollars' worth of opium in the effect produced, its portability
and the facilities ofl'ered in obtaining it, are all in its favour.
A good deal of morphine is exported to Japan from Europe,
and generally passes into China by way of Manchuria, where
Japanese products have a virtual monopoly. The effects of
morphine are much more deleterious than those of opium-
smoking. The smoke of opium, as shown by H. Moissan, contains
only a trifling amount of morphia, and the effect produced by
it is apparently due, not to that alkaloid, but to such decom-
position products as pyrrol, acetone and pyridine and hydro-
pyridine bases. F. Browne finds that after smoking " chandoo,"
containing 8-98 % of morphine, 7-63 % was left in the dross,
so that only 1-35% of morphia was carried over in the smoke
or decomposed by the heat.
For many years two Scotch firms, Messrs J. D. Macfarlan
and T. and H. Smith of Edinburgh, and T. Whiffen of London
manufactured practically the world's supply of this alkaloid,
but it is now made in the United States and Germany, although
the largest amount is stiU probably made in Great Britain. A
small amount of morphine and codeine is also manufactured in
India for medicinal use. The prohibition of the general importa-
tion of morphia into China except on certain conditions was
agreed to by the British government in Act XI. of the Mackay
treaty, but only came into force on the ist of January 1909.
Unless the indirect importation of morphine into China from
Europe and the United States is stopped, a worse habit and
more difficult to cure than any other (except perhaps that of
cocaine) may replace that of opium-smoking in China. It is
worse even than opium-eating, in proportion as morphine is
more active than opium. The sale and use of morphine in India
and Burma is now restricted. The quantity of morphine that
any one may legally possess, and then only for medicinal purposes,
is in India 10 grams, and in Burma five. The possession of
morphine by medical practitioners is also safeguarded by
well-defined limitations.
Production and Commerce. — Although the collection of opium
is possible in all places where there is not an excessive rainfall
and the cHmate is temperate or subtropical, the yield is smaller
in temperate than in tropical regions and the industry can
only be profitably carried on where labour and land are sufficiently
cheap and abundant ; hence production on a large scale is
limited to comparatively few countries. The varieties of poppy
grown, the mode of cultivation adopted and the character
of the opium produced differ so greatly that it will be convenient
to consider the opiums of each country separately.
Turkey. — The poppy cultivated in Asia Minor is the variety
glabrum, distinguished by the sub-globular shape of the capsule
and by the stigmata or rays at the top of the fruit being ten or
twelve in number. The flowers are usually of a purplish colour,
but are sometimes white, and the seeds, like the petals, vary in tint
from dark viulet tu white. The cultivation is carried on, both on the
more elevated and lower lands, chiefly liy peasant proprietors. A
naturally light and ric h soil, further improved by manure, is neces-
sary, and moisture is indisijensable, although injurious in excess,
so I hat after a wet winter the best crops are obtained on hilly ground,
and in a dry season on the plains. The land is ploughed twice, the
second time crosswise, so that it may be thoroughly pulverized ;
and the seed, mixed with four times its quantity of sand, to prevent
its being sown too thickly, is scattered broadcast, about J to i lb
being used for e\ery toloom (1600 sq. yds.). The crop is very
uncertain owing to droughts, spring frosts and locusts, and, in
order to avoid a total failure and to allow time for collecting the
produce, there are three sowings at intervals from October to .March
— the crops thus coming to perfection in succession. But notwith-
standing these precautions quantities of the drug are wasted when
the crop is a full one, owing to the difficulty of gathering the whole
in the short time during which collection is possible. The first
sowing produces the hardiest plants, the yield of the other two
depending almost entirely on favi/urable weather. In localities
where there is hoar frost in autumn and spring the seed is sown in
SeiJtcinber or at latest in the beginning of October, and the yield
of opium and seed is then greater than if sown later. After sowing,
the land is harrowed, and the young plants are hoed and weeded,
chiefly by women and children, from early spring until the time of
fiowering. In the plains the flowers expand at the end of May, on
the uplands in July. At this period gentle showers are of great
value, as they cause an increase in the subsequent yield of opium.
The petals fall in a few hours, and the capsules grow so rapidly that
in a short time — generally from nine to fifteen days — the opium is
fit for collection. This period is known by the capsules yielding to
pressure with the fingers, assuming a lighter green tint and
exhibiting a kind of bloom called " cougak," easily rubbed off with the
fingers; they are then about \\ in. in diameter. The incisions are
made by holding the capsule in the left hand and drawing a knife
two-thirds round it, or spirally beyond the starting-point (see fig. 2, a),
great care being taken not to let the incisions penetrate to the
interior lest the juice should flow inside and be lost. (In this case
also it is said that the seeds will not ripen, and that no oil can be
obtained from them.) The operation is usually performed after
the heat of the day, commencing early in the afternoon and con-
tinuing to nightfall, and the exuded juice is collected the next
morning. This is done by scraping the capsule with a knife and
transferring the concreted juice to a poppy-leaf held in the left hand,
the edges of the leaf being turned in to avoid spilling the juice, and
the knife-blade moistened with saliva by drawing it through the
mouth after every alternate scraping to prevent the juice from
adhering to it. When as much opium has been collected as the size
of the leaf will allow, another leaf is wrapped over the top of the
lump, which is then placed in the shade to dry for several days.
The pieces vary in size from about 2 oz. to over 2 fb, being made
larger in some districts than in others. The capsules are generally
incised only once, but the fields are visited a second or third time
to collect the opium from the poppy-heads subsequently developed
by the branching of the stem. The yield of opium varies, even on
the same piece of land, from -J- to yj chequis (of 1-62 lb) per toloom
(1600 sq. yds.), the average being i-i chequis of opium and 4
bushels (of 50 lb) of seed. The seed, which yields 35 to 42 % of oil,
is worth about two-thirds of the value of the opium. The whole
of the operation must, of course, be completed in the few days —
five to ten — during which the capsules are capable of yielding the
drug. A cold wind or a chilly atmosphere at the time of collection
lessens the yield, and rain washes the opium off the capsules. Before
the crop is all gathered in a meeting of buyers and sellers takes
place in each district, at which the price to be asked is discussed
and settled, and the opium handed to the buyers, who in many
instances have advanced money on the standing crop. When
sufficiently solid the pieces of opium are packed in cotton bags, a
quantity of the fruits of a species of Rumex being thrown in to pre-
vent the cakes from adhering together. The bags are then .sealed
up, packed in oblong or circular baskets and sent to Smyrna or
other ports on mules. On the arrival of the opium at its destination,
in the end of July or beginning of August, it is placed in cool ware-
houses to avoid loss of weight until sold. The opium is then of a
mixed character and is known as talequale. When transferred to
the buyer's warehouses the bags are opened and each piece is
examined by a public inspector in the presence of both buyer and
seller, the quality of the opium being judged by appearance, odour,
colour and weight. It is then sorted into three qualities: (l)
finest quality; (2) current or second; (3) chicanti or rejected
pieces. A fourth sort consists of the very bad or wholly factitious
pieces. The substances used to adulterate opium are grape-juice
thickened with flour, fig-paste, liquorice, half-dried apricots, inferior
gum tragacanth and sometimes clay or pieces of lead or other
metals. The chicanti is returned to the seller, who disposes of it
at 20 to 30 "o discount to French and German merchants. After
inspection the opium is hermetically sealed in tin-lined boxes con-
taining about 150 11). Turkey opium is principally used in medicine
132
OPIUM
on account of its purity and the large percentage of morphia that
it contains, a comparatively small quantity being exported for
smoking purposes.
About three-quarters of the opium prepared in Turkey is pro-
duced in Anatolia, and is exported by way of Smyrna, and the
remainder is produced in the hilly districts of the provinces near
the southern coast of the Black Sea, and finds its way into Con-
stantinople, the commercial varieties bearing the name of the
district where they are produced. The Smyrna varieties include
the produce of Afium Karahissar, Uschak, Akhissar, Taoushanli,
Isbarta, Konia, Bulvadan, Hamid, Magnesia and Yerli, the last
name being applied to opium collected in the immediate neighbour-
hood of Smvrna. The opium exported by way of Constantinople
it^cludes that of Hadjikeuy and ^Ialatia; the Tokat kind, of good
quality, including that produced in Yosgad, Sile and Niksar, and
the current or second quality derived from Amasia and Oerek; the
Karahissar kind including the produce of Mykalitch, Carabazar,
Sivrahissar, Eskichehir and Nachlihan; the Balukesri sort, in-
cluding that of Balukhissar and Bogaditch; also the produce of
Beybazar and Angora. The average amount of Turkish opium
exported is 7000 chests, but in rare seasons amounts to 12,000
chests, but the yield depends upon fine weather in harvest time,
heavy rains washing the opium off the capsules, and lessening the
yield to a considerable extent.
These commercial varieties differ in appearance and quality, and
are roughly classified as Soft or Shipping opium, Druggists' and
Manufacturers' opium. Shipping opium is distinguished by its
soft character and clean paste, containing very little debris, or
chaff, as it is technically called. The Hadjikeuy variety is at
present the best in the market. The fflalatia, including that of
Kharput, second, and the Sile, third in quality. The chief markets
for the soft or shipping varieties of opium are, China, Korea, the
West Indian Islands, Cuba, British Guiana, Japan and Java;
the United States also purchase for re-exportation as well as for
home consumption. Druggists' opium includes the kinds purchased
for use in medicine, which for Great Britain should, when dried and
powdered, contain 9^-105% of morphine. That generally sold in
this country for the purpose includes the Karahissar and Adet,
Balukhissar, Amasia and Akhissar kinds, and for making the tincture
and extract, that of Tokat. But the produce of Gh^ve, Biledjik,
Mondourlan, Konia, Tauschanli, Kutahlia and Karaman is often
mixed with the kinds first mentioned. The softer varieties of opium
are preferred in the American market, as being richer in morphine.
In all Turkey opium the pieces vary much in size. On the
continent of Europe, especially in Belgium, Germany and Italy,
where pieces of small size are preferred, the Gheve,' and the Yog-
hourma, i.e. opium remade into cakes, at the port of shipment, to
contain 7, 8, 9, or 10 % of morphine, are chiefly sold. Manufacturers'
opium includes any grade yielding not less than 104% of morphine,
but the Yoghourma or " pudding " opium, on account of its paste
being more difficult to work, is not used for the extraction of the
active principles. For the extraction of codeine, the Persian opium
is preferred when Turkey opium is dear, as it contains on the average
2j% of that alkaloid, whilst Turkey opium yields only 3-}%.
But codeine can also be made from morphine.
The ordinary varieties of Turkish opium are recognized in com-
merce by the following characteristics: Hadjikeuy opium occurs
in pieces of about 5 lb- ij lb; it has an unusually pale-coloured paste
of soft consistence, and is very rich in morphia. Malatia opium is
in pieces of irregular size usually of a broadly conical shape, weighing
from 1-2 lb. It has a soft paste with irregular layers of light and
dark colour and is covered with unusually green poppy leaves.
Tokat opium resembles that of Malatia, but the cakes are flatter,
and the paste is similar in character, though the leaves covering it
are of a yellower tint of green. Bogaditz opium occurs in smaller
pieces, about 3 or 4 oz. in weight, but sometimes larger pieces of
i-ij lb in weight are met with, approaching more nearly to the
Kurgagatsch and Balukissar varieties. The surface is covered with
a yellowish green leaf and many Rumex fruits. Karahissar opium,
which usually includes the produce of Adet, Akhissar and Amasia,
occurs in rather large shortly conical or more or less irregular lumps.
Angora opium is met with in small smooth pieces, has generally a
pale paste and is rich in morphia. Yerli opium is of good quality,
variable in size and shape; the surface is usually rough with Rumex
capsules. Gheve opium formerly came over as a distinct kind, but
is now mixed with other varieties; the pieces form small rounded
cakes, smooth and shining like those of Angora, about 3-6 oz. in
weight, with the midrib of the leaf they are wrapped in forming a
median line on the surface. The interior often shows layers of
light and dark colour.
In Macedonia opium culture was begun in 1865 at Istip with
seed obtained from Karahissar in Asia Minor, and extended subse-
quently to the adjacent districts of Kotchava, Stroumnitza, Tikvish
and Kinprulu-veles, most of the produce being exported under
the name of Salonica opium. Macedonian opium, especially that
' Ghlve is the commercial name for opium from Geiveh on the
river Sakaria, running into the Black Sea. It appears to find its
way to Constantinople via the port of Ismid, and hence is known
also by the latter name.
produced at Istip, is very pure, and is considered equal to the
Malatia opium, containing about 1 1 °o of morphine. The pieces vary
from J lb to I ^ lb in weight. For some years past, however, it has
been occasionally mixed with pieces of inferior opium, like that of
Yoghourma, recognizable on cutting by their solidity and heavy
character. The Turkish government encourage the development of
the industry by remitting the tithes on opium and poppy-seed for
one year on lands sown for the first time, and by distributing printed
instructions for cultivating the poppy and preparing the opium.
In these directions it is pointed out that the opium crop is ten
times as profitable as that of wheat. Four varieties of poppy are
distinguished — two with white flowers, large oval capsules without
holes under their " combs " (stigmas) and bearing respectively
yellow and white seed, and the other two having red or purple
flowers and seeds of the same colour, one bearing small capsules
perforated at the top, and the other larger oval capsules not
perforated. The white varieties are recommended as yielding a
more abundant opium of superior quality. The yellow seed is said
to yield the best oil ; that obtained by hot pressure is used for
lamps and for paint, and the cold-pressed oil for culinary- purposes.
Opium is also grown in Bulgaria, but almost entirely for home
consumption; any surplus produce is, however, bought by Jews
and Turks at low prices and sent to Constantinople, where it is sold
as Turkish opium. It is produced in the districts of Kustendil,
Lowtscha and Halitz, and is made into lumps weighing about 4 oz.,
of a light-brown colour internally and containing a few seeds; it
is covered with leaves which have not been identified. Samples
have yielded from 7 to 19% of morphia, and only 2 to 3 % of ash,
and are therefore of excellent quality.
India. — The poppy grown in India is usually the white-flowered
variety, but in the Himalayas a red-flowered poppy with dark
seeds is cultivated. The opium industry in Bengal is a government
monopoly, under the control of oflScials residing respectively at
Patna and Ghazipore. Any one may undertake the industry,
but cultivators are obliged to sell the opium exclusively to the
government agent at a price fi.xed beforehand by the latter, which,
although small, is said to fully remunerate the grower. It is con-
sidered that with greater freedom the cultivator would produce too
great a quantity, and loss to the government would soon result.
Advances of money are often made by the government to enable
the ryots to grow the poppy. The chief centres of production are
Bihar in Bengal, and the district of the United Provinces of Agra
and Oudh lying along the Gangetic valley, and north of it, of which
the produce is known as Bengal opium. The opium manufactured
at Patna is of two classes, viz. Provision opium manufactured for
export, and Excise or Akbari opium intended for local consumption
in India. These differ in consistence: Excise opium is prepared to
contain 90% of non-volatile solid matter and made up into cubes
weighing one seer or 25°5lb, and wrapped in oiled paper, whilst
Provision opium is made up into balls, protected by a leafy covering,
made of poppy petals, opium and " pussewah," or liquid drainings
of the crude opium; that of Patna is made to contain 75% of solid
matter, and that of Ghazipore, which is known as Benares opium,
71 % only. Each ball consists of a little over 3 J lb of fine opium,
in addition to other poppy products. The Benares ball opium has
about I J oz. less of the external covering than the Patna sort.
Forty of these balls are packed in each chest. The Excise opium
not having a covering of poppy petals lacks the aroma of Provision
opium. Malwa opium is produced in a large number of states in
the Central India and Rajputana Agencies, chiefly Gwalior, Indore
and Bhopal, in the former, and Mewar in the latter. It is also
produced in the native state of Baroda, and in the small British
territory of Ajmer Merwara. The cultivation of Malwa opium is
free and extremely profitable, the crop realizing usually from three
to seven times the value of wheat or other cereals, and in excep-
tionally advantageous situations, from twelve to twenty times as
much. On its entering British territory a heavy duty is imposed
on Malwa opium, so as to raise its price to an equality with the
government article. It is shipped from Bombay to northern
China, where nearly the whole of the exported Malwa opium is
consumed. The poppy is grown for opium in the Punjab to a
limited extent, but it has been decided to entirely abolish the
cultivation there within a short time. In Nepal, Bashahr and
Rampur, and at Doda Kashtwar in the Jammu territory, opium is
produced and exported to Yarkand, Khotan and Aksu. The
cultivation of the poppy is also carried on in Afghanistan, Kashmir,
Nepal and the Shan states of Burma, but the areas and production
are not known.
A small amount of opium alkaloids only is manufactured in India.
The surplus above that issued to government medical institutions '
in India is sold in London. The amount manufactured in 1906- '
1907 was 346 lb of morphine hydrochlorate, 12 lb of the acetate
and 61 lb of codeia.
The land intended for poppy culture is usually selected near
villages, in order that it may be more easily manured and irrigated.
On a rich soil a crop of maize or vegetables is grown during the
rainy season, and after its removal in September the ground is
prepared for the poppy-culture. Under less favourable circum-
stances the land is prepared from July till October by ploughing,
weeding and manuring. The seed is sown between the 1st and
OPIUM
15th of November, and germinates in ten or fifteen days. The fields
are divided for purposes of irrigation into beds about 10 ft. square,
which usually are irrigated twiee between November and February,
but if the season be cold, with hardly any rain, the operation is
repeated five or six times. When the seedlings are 2 or 3 in. high
they are thinned out and weeded. The plants during growth arc
liable to injury by severe frost, excessive rain, insects, fungi and
the growth of a root-parasite {Orobanche indica). The poppy
blossoms about the middle of February, and the petals when about
to fall are collected for the purpose of making " leaves " for the
spherical coverings of the balls of opium. These are made by heat-
ing a circular-ridged earthen plate over a slow fire, and spreading
the petals, a few at a time, over its surface. As the juice exudes,
more petals are pressed on to them with a cloth until a layer of
sufficient thickness is obtained. The leaves are forwarded to the
opium-factories, where they are sorted into three classes, according
to size and colour, the smaller and dark-coloured being reserved
for the inside of the shells of the opium-balls, and the larger and
least coloured for the outside. These are valued respecti\'ely at
10 to 7 and 5 rupees per maund of 825 lb. The collection of opium
commences in Behar about 25th February, and continues to about
25th March, but in Malwa is performed in March and April. The
capsules are scarified vertically (fig. 2, b) in most districts (although
in some the incisions are made horizontally, as in Asia Minor), the
" nushtur " or cutting instrument being drawn twice upwards for
each incision, and repeated two to six times at intervals of two or
three days. The nushtur (fig. 2, c) consists of three to five flattened
Fig. 2. — Opiurn Poppy Capsules, &c., f natural size, a, capsule
showing mode of incision practised in Turkey ; b, capsule as incised
in India; c, nushtur, or instrument used in India for making the
incisions. Drawn from specimens in the Museum of the Pharma-
ceutical Society of Great Britain.
blades forked at the larger end, and separated about one-sixteenth
of an inch from each other by winding cotton thread between them,
the whole being also bound together by thread, and the protrusion
of the points being restricted to one-twelfth of an inch, by which the
depth of the incision is limited. The operation is usually performed
about three or four o'clock in the afternoon, and the opium collected
the next morning. In Bengal a small sheet-iron scoop or " seetoah "
is used for scraping off the dried juice, and, as it becomes filled, the
opium is emptied into an earthen pot carried for the purpose. In
Malwa a flat scraper is employed, a small piece of cotton soaked in
linseed oil being attached to the upper part of the blade, and used
for smearing the thumb and edge of the scraper to prevent adhesion
of the juice; sometimes water is used instead of oil, but both
practices injure the quality of the product. Sometimes the opium
is in a fluid state by reason of dew, and in some places it is rendered
still more so by the practice adopted by collectors of washing their
scrapers, and adding the washings to the morning's collection.
The juice, when brought home, is consequently a wet granular mass
of pinkish colour, from which a dark fluid drains to the bottom of the
vessel. In order to get rid of this fluid, called " pasewa " or " pusse-
wah," the opium is placed in a shallow earthen vessel tilted on one
side, and the pussewah drained off. The residual mass is then
exposed to the air in the shade, and regularly turned over every few
days, until it has reached the proper consistence, which takes place
m about three or four weeks. The drug is then taken to the govern-
ment factory to be sold. It is turned out of the pots into wide tin
vessels or ' tagars," in which it is weighed in quantities not ex-
ceedmg 21 lb. It is then examined by a native expert (purkhea)
as to impurities, colour, fracture, aroma and consistence. To
determine the amount of moisture, which should not exceed 30%,
a weighed sample is evaporated and dried in a plate on a metallic
surface heated by steam. Adulterations such as mud, sand, powdered
charcoal, soot, cow-dung, powdered poppy petals and powdered
seeds of various kinds are easily detected by breaking up the drug
in cold water. Flour, potato-flour, ghee and ghoor (crude date-
sugar) are revealed by their odour and the consistence they impart.
Various other adulterants are sometimes used, such as the inspissated
juice of the prickly pear, extracts from tofjacco, stramonium and
hemp, puliJ of the tamarind and bael fruit, mahwah flowers and
gums of difterent Icinds. The price paid to the cultivator is regulated
chiefly by the amount of water contained in the drug. When
received into the government stores the opium is kept in large
wooden boxes holding about 50 maunds and occasionally stirred
up, if only a little below the standard. If containing much water
it is placed in shallow wooden drawers and constantly turned over.
During the process it deepens in colour. From the store about 250
■naunds are taken daily to be manufactured into cakes.
Various portions, each weighing 10 seers (of 25=5 lb), are selected
by test assay so as to ensure the mass being of standard consist-
ence (70% of the pure dry drug and 30% of water), and are thrown
into shallow drawers and kneaded together. The mass is then
packed into boxes all of one size, and a specimen of each again
assayed, the mean of the whole being taken as the average. Before
evening these bo.xes are emptied into wooden vats 20 ft. long, 3^ ft.
wide and i\ ft. deep, and the opium further kneaded and mi.xed
by men wading through it from end to end until it appears to be of
a uniform consistence. Next morning the manufacture of the
opium into balls commences. The workman sits on a wooden stand,
with a brass cup before him, which he lines with the leaves of poppy
petals before-mentioned until the thickness of half an inch is reached,
a few being allowed to hang over the cup; the leaves are agglutin-
ated by means of " lewa," a pasty fluid which consists of a mixture
of inferior opium, 8% of " pussewah " and the " dhoe " or washings of
the vessels that have contained opium, and the whole is made of
such consistence that 100 grains evaporated to dryness over a
water-bath leave 53 grains of solid residue. All the ingredients for
the opium-ball are furnished to the workmen by measure. When
the inside of the brass cup is ready a ball of opium previously weighed
is placed on the leafy case in it, and the upper half of it covered with
leaves in the same way that the casing for the lower half was made,
the overhanging leaves of the lower half being pressed upwards
and the sphere completed by one large leaf which is placed over
the upper half. The ball, which resembles a Dutch cheese in size
and shape, is now rolled in " poppy trash " made from the coarsely-
powdered leaves, capsules and stalks of the poppy plant, and is
placed in an earthen cup of the same size as the brass one; the
cups are then placed in dishes and the opium exposed to the sun to
dry for three days, being constantly turned and examined. If it
becomes distended the ball is pierced to liberate the gas and again
lightly closed. On the third evening the cups are placed in open
frames which allow free circulation of the air. This operation is
usually completed by the end of July. The balls thus made consist
on the average of :—
Standard opium i seer 7-50 chittacks.
Lewa o „ 3-75
Leaves (poppy petals) . . . o ,, 5-43 ,,
Poppy trash o ,, 0-50 ,,
2 seers i-i8 chittacks.
The average number of cakes that can be made daily by one man
is about 70, although 90 to 100 are sometimes turned out by clever
workmen. The cakes are liable to become mildewed, and require
constant turning and occasional rubbing in dry " poppy trash " to
remove the mildew, and strengthening in weak places with fresh
poppy leaves. By October the cakes are dry and fairly solid, and
are then packed in chests, which are divided into two tiers of tw'enty
square compartments for the reception of as many cakes, which
are steadied by a packing of loose poppy trash.' Each case con-
tains about 120 catties (about 160 lb). The chests need to be kept
in a dry warehouse for a length of time, but ultimately the opium
ceases to lose moisture to the shell, and the latter becomes extremely
solid.
The care bestowed on the selection and preparation of the drug in
the Bengal opium-factories is such that the merchants who purchase
it rarely require to examine it, although permission is given to open
at each sale any number of chests or cakes that they may desire.
In Malwa the opium is manufactured by private enterprise, the
government levying an export duty of 600 rupees (£60) per chest.
It is not made into balls but into rectangular or rounded masses,
and is not cased in poppy petals. It contains as much as 95% of
dry opium, but is of much less unifonn quality than the Bengal
drug, and, having no guarantee as to purity, is not considered so
valuable. The cultivation in Malwa does not differ in any
important particular from that in Bengal. The opium is collected in
March and April, and the crude drug or " chick " is thrown into
an earthen vessel and covered with linseed oil to prevent exaporation.
In this state it is sold to itinerant dealers. It is afterwards tied up
in quantities of 25 lb and 50 lb in double bags of sheeting, which are
suspended to a ceiling out of the light and draught to allow the
excess of oil to drain off. This takes place in seven to ten days,
but the bags are left for four to six weeks until the oil remaining
on the opium has become oxidized and hardened. In June and
July, when the rains begin, the bags are taken down and emptied
' This is purchased from the ryots at 12 annas per maund.
134
OPIUM
into shallow vats lo to 15 ft. across, and 6 to 8 in. deep, in which
the opium is kneaded until uniform in colour and consistence and
tough enough to be formed into cakes of 8 or 10 oz. in weight.
These are thrown into a basket containing chaff made from the
capsules. They are then rolled in broken leaves and stalks of
the poppy and left, with occasional turning, for a week or so,
when they become hard enough to bear packing. In October and
November they are weighed and sent to market, packed in chests
containing as nearly as possible i picul = 13331b, the petals and
leaves of the poppy being used as packing materials. The production
is said to amount to about 20,000 chests annually.
The amount of opium revenue collected in India was ;f 10,480,051
in 1881, but in 1907-1908 was only £5,244,986. It is a remarkable
fact that the only Indian opium ever seen in England is an occasional
sample of the Malwa sort, whilst the government monopoly opium
is quite unknown; indeed, the whole of the opium used in medicine
in Europe and the United States is obtained from Turkey. This is
in some measure due to the fact that Indian opium contains less
morphia. It has recently been shown, however, that opium grown
in the hilly districts of the Himalayas yields 50% more morphia
than that of the plains, and that the deficiency of morphia in the
Indian drug is due, in some measure, to the long exposure to the air
in a semi-liquid state which it undergoes. In view, therefore, of
the probable decline i,n the Chinese demand, the cultivation of the
drug for the European market in the hilly districts of India, and its
preparation after the mode adopted in Turkey, viz., by drying the
concrete juice as quickly as possible, might be worthy of the con-
sideration of the British government.
Persia. — The variety of poppy grown in Persia appears to be P.
soinniferiitn, var. album, having roundish ovate capsules. It is most
largely produced in the districts of Ispahan, Shiraz, Yezd and
Khonsar, and to a less extent in those of Khorasan, Kermanshah
and Pars. The Yezd opium is considered better than that of
Ispahan, but the strongest or Theriak-e-Arabistani is produced in
the neighbourhood of Diziul and Shuster, east of the river Tigris.
Good opium is also produced about Sari and Balfarush in the pro-
vince of Mazanderan. The capsules are incised vertically, or in
some districts vertical cuts with diagonal branches are made. The
crop is collected in May and June and reaches the ports for ex-
portation between August and January. Although the cultivation
of opium in Persia was probably carried on at an earlier date than
in India, Persian opium was almost unknown in England until
about the year 1870, except in the form of the inferior quality
known as " Trebizond," which usually contains only 0-2 to 3 "i, of
morphia. This opium is in the form of cylindrical sticks about
6 in. long and half an inch in diameter, wrapped in white waxed
or red paper. Since 1870 Persian opium has been largely exported
from Bushire and Bandar-Abbas in the Persian Gulf to London,
the Straits Settlements and China. At that date the annual yield
is said not to have exceeded 2600 cases; but, the profits on opium
having about that time attracted attention, all available ground
was utilized for this to the exclusion of cereals, cotton and other
produce. The result was a severe famine in 1871-1872, which was
further aggravated by drought and other circumstances. Notwith-
standing the lesson thus taught, the cultivation is being extended
every year, especially in Ispahan, which abounds in streams and
rivers, an advantage in which Yezd is deficient. About Shiraz,
Behbehan and Kermanshah it now occupies much of the land,
and has consequently affected the price and growth of cereals.
The trade — only 300 chests in 1859 — gradually increased until
1877, when the Persian opium was much adulterated with glucose.
The heavy losses on this inferior opium and the higher prices
obtained for the genuine article led to a great improvement in its
preparation, and in 1907 the production had increased to 10,000
piculs. About half of the total produce finds its way to the Chinese
market, chiefly by sea to Hongkong and the Federated Malay States,
although some is carried overland through Bokhara, Khokand and
Kashgar; a small quantity is exported by way of Trebizond and
Samsun to Constantinople, and about 2000 piculs to Great Britain.
The produce of Ispahan and Ears is carried for exportation to
Bushire, and that of Khorasan and Kirman and Yezd partly to
Bushire and partly to Bandar-Abbas. The Shuster opium is sent
partly via Bushire to Muscat for transhipment to Zanzibar, and
part is believed to be smuggled into India by way of Baluchistan
and Mekran. Smaller quantities grown in Teheran, Tabriz and
Kermanshah find their way to Smyrna, where it is said to be mixed
with the local drug for the European market, the same practice
being carried on at Constantinople with the Persian opium that
arrives there from Samsun and Trebizond. For the Chinese market
the opium is usually packed in chests containing loj shahmans
(of 13! lb), so that on arrival it may weigh I Chinese picul ( = 133 s ft),
5 to 10% being allowed for loss by drying. At Ispahan, Shiraz
and Yezd the drug, after being dried in the sun, is mixed with oil
in the proportion of 6 or 7 ft to 141 ft of opium, with the object,
it is said, of suiting the taste of the Chinese — that intended for the
London market being now always free from oil.
Persian opium, as met with in the London market, occurs in
several forms, the most common being that of brick-shaped pieces.
These occur wrapped separately in paper, and weighing I ft each ;
of these 140-160 are packed in a case. Ispahan opium also occurs
in the form of parallelepipeds weighing about 16-20 oz. ; sometimes
flat circular pieces weighing about 2o-oz. are met with. The opium
is usually of much firmer and smoother consistence than that of
Turkey, of a chocolate-brown colour and cheesy appearance, the
pieces bearing evidence of having been beaten into a uniform mass
previously to being made into lumps, probably with the addition
of SarcocoU, as it is always harder when dry than Turkey opium.
The odour difters but slightly, except in oily specimens, from that
of Turkey opium. Great care is now taken to prevent adulteration,
and consequently Persian opium can be obtained nearly as rich
in morphia as the Turkish drug — on the average from 9-12%.
The greater proportion of the Persian opium imported into London
is again exported, a comparatively small quantity being used,
chiefly for the manufacture of codeine when Turkey opium is dear,
and a little in veterinary practice. According to Dr Reveil, Persian
opium usually contains 75 to 84% of matter soluble in water,
and some samples contain from 13 to 30°'o of glucose, probably
due to an extract or syrup of raisins added to the paste in the
pots in which it is collected, and to which the shining fracture of
hard Persian opium is attributed.
Europe. — Experiments made in England, France, Italy, Switzer-
land, Greece, Spain, Germany, and even in Sweden, prove that
opium as rich in morphia as that of Eastern countries can be pro-
duced in Europe. In 1830 Young, a surgeon at Edinburgh, suc-
ceeded in obtaining 56 ft of opium from an acre of poppies, and
sold it at 36s. per ft. In France the cultivation has been carried
on since 1844 at Clermont-Ferrand by Aubergier. The juice, of
which a workman is able to collect about 9-64 troy oz. in a day,
is evaporated by artificial heat immediately after collection. The
juice yields about one-fourth of its weight of opium, and the percent-
age of morphia varies according to the variety of poppy used, the
purple one giving the best results. By mixing assayed samples he
is able to produce an opium containing uniformly 10% of morphia.
It is made up in cakes of 50 grammes, but is not produced in sufficient
quantity to become an article of wholesale commerce. Some
specimens of French opium have been found by Guibourt to yield
22-8% of morphia, being the highest percentage observed as yet
in any opium. Experiments made in Germany by Karsten, Jobst
and Vulpius have shown that it is possible to obtain in that country
opium of excellent quality, containing from 8 to 13% of morphia.
It was found that the method yielding the best results was to make
incisions in the poppy-heads soon after sunrise, to collect the juice
with the finger immediately after incision and evaporate it as
speedily as possible, the colour of the opium being lighter and the
percentage of morphia greater than when the juice was allowed
to dry on the plant. Cutting through the poppy-head caused the
shrivelling up of the young fruit, but the heads which had been
carefully incised yielded more seed than those which had not been
cut at all. Newly-manured soil was found to act prejudicially on
the poppy. The giant variety of poppy yielded most morphia.
The difficulty of obtaining the requisite amount of cheap labour
at the exact time it is needed and the uncertainty of the weather
render the cultivation of opium too much a matter of speculation
for it ever to become a regular crop in most European countries.
North America. — In 1865 the cultivation of opium was attempted
in Virginia by A. Robertson, and a product was obtained which
yielded 4% of morphia. In 1867 H. Black grew opium in Tennessee
which contained 10% of morphia. Opium produced in California
by H. Flint in 1873 yielded 7}% of morphia, equal to 10% in
perfectly-dried opium. The expense of cultivation exceeded the
returns obtained by its sale. As in Europe, therefore, the high price
of labour militates against its production on a large scale.
(E. M. H.)
Chemistry of the Opium Alkaloids. — The chemical investigation
of opium dates from 1803 when C. Derosne isolated a crystalline
compound which he named " opium salt." In 1805 F. W.
SertUrner, a German apothecary, independently obtained
this same substance, naming it " morphium," and recognized
its basic nature; he also isolated an acid, meconic acid. A second
paper, published in 181 7, was followed in the same year by
the identification of a new base, narcotinc, by P. J. Robiquet.
Thebaine, another alkaloid, was discovered by Thiboumery
in 1835; whilst, in 1848, Merck isolated papaverine from com-
mercial narcotine. Subsequent investigations have revealed
some twenty or more alkaloids, the more important of which
are given in the following table (from A. Pictet, Vegetable
Alkaloids): —
Morphine
. 9-0%
Laudanine
. . 0-01%
Narcotine .
. 5-o%
Lanthopine
. o-oo6%
Papaverine .
. 0-8%
Protopine .
. . 0-003%
Thebaine
. 0-4%
Codamine
. 0-002%
Codeine
. 0-3%
Iritopine .
. . 0-0015%
Narceine
. 0-2%
Laudanosine .
. 0-0008 %
Cryptopine .
. o-o8%
Meconine .
- 0-3%
Pseudomorphine
. 0-02%
OPIUM
135
MeO
MeO
n
-CH2
OMe
■>OMe
CH,<>
I. Papaverine
Opium also contains a gum, pectin, a wax, sugar and similar
substances, in addition to meconic and lactic acids.
The allialoids fall into two chemical groups: (i) derivatives
of isoquinoUne, including papaverine, narcotine, gnoscopine
(racemic narcotine), narceine, laudanosinc, laudanine, cotarnine,
hydrocotarnine (the last two do not occur in opium), and (2)
derivatives of phenanthrene, including morphine, codeine,
thebaine. The constitutions of the first series have been deter-
mined; of the second they are still uncertain.
Papaverine, C20H21NO4, was investigated by G. Goldschmiedt
(Monats., 1883-1889), who determined its constitution (formula I.,
below) by a study of its oxidation products, showing that papaver-
aldine, which it gives with potassium permanganate, is a tetra-
methoxybenzoylisoquinoline. Its synthesis, and also that of
laudaiwsiiie, C21H27NO4. which is N-methyltetrahydropapaverinc,
was effected in 1909 by F. L. Pyman {Jour. Chent. Soc, 95, p. 1610)
and by A. Pictet and Mile M. Finkelstein {Coinpl. rend., 1909, 148,
p. 925). Laudanine, C2oH26N04, is very similar to laudanosinc,
differing in having three methoxy groups and one hydroxy instead
of four methoxy.
Narcotine, C22H23NO7, has been principally investigated by
A. Matthiessen and G. C. Foster, and by W. Roser (Ann., 1888, 249,
p. 156; 1889, 254, p. 334.) By hydrolysis it yields opianic acid,
CioHioOs, and hydrocotarnine, CuHuNOa; reduction gives meco-
nine, CioHioOj, and hydrocotarnine; whilst oxidation gives opianic
acid and cotarnine, C12H16NO4. Narcotine was shown to be methoxy-
hydrastine (II.) (hydrastine, the alkaloid of Golden seal, Hydrastis
canadensis, was solved by E. Schmidt, M. Freund, and P. Fritsch)
and cotarnine to be III.; the latter has been synthesized by A. H.
Salway (Jour. Chem. Soc, 1910, 97, p. 1208). Narceine, C23H27NO8,
obtained by the action of potash on the methyl iodide of narcotine,
is probably IV. (see Pyman, loc. cit. pp. 1266, 1738; M. Freund and
P. Oppenheim, Ber., 1909, 42, p. 1084).
The proprietary drug " stypticin " is cotarnine hydrochloride,
and " styptol " cotarnine phthalate; " antispasmin " is a sodium
narceine combined with sodium salicylate, and " narcyl " narceine
ethyl hydrochloride.
CH. OMe
0|^/VH2 MeO|^
0UjNMe02-cU
MeO CH CH '
ILNarcotine
CHj
MeO CHO
III. Cotarnine
The chemistry of morphine, codeine and thebaine is exceedingly
complicated, and the literature enormous. That these alkaloids
are closely related may be suspected from their empirical
formulae, viz.morphine^CnHisNOs, codeine = CisH2iN03, thebaine =
Ci9H2iN03. As a matter of fact, Grimaux, in 1881, showed codeine
to be a methylmorphine, and in 1903 Ach and L. Knorr (Ber., 36,
p. 3067) obtained identical substances, viz. thebenine and morpho-
thebaine, from both codeine and thebaine, thereby establishing
their connexion. Our knowledge of the constitution of these alkaloids
largely depends on the researches of M. Freund, E. Vongerichten,
L. Knorr and R. Pschorr. The presence of the phenanthrene
nucleus and the chain system CHsN-C-C- follows from the fact that
these alkaloids, by appropriate treatment, yield a substituted
phenanthrene and also dimethylaminoethanol (CH3)2N-CH2-CH20H.
Formulae have been proposed by Pschorr and Knorr explaining
this and other decompositions (in Pschorr's formula the morphine
ring system is a fusion of a phenanthrene and pyridine nucleus) ;
another formula, containing a fusion of a phenanthrene with a pyrrol
ring, was proposed by Bucherer in 1907. The problem is discussed
by Pschorr and Einbeck (Ber., 1907, 40, p. 1980), and by Knorr
and Hcirlein (ibid. p. 2042); see also Ann. Reps. Chem. Soc.
Morphine, or morphia, crystallizes in prisms with one molecule
of water; it is soluble in 1000 parts of cold water and in 160 of
boiling water, and may be crystallized from alcohol; it is almost
insoluble in ether and chloroform. It has an alkaline reaction and
behaves as a tertiary, monacid base; its salts are soluble in water
and alcohol. The official hydrochloride, Ci7H,9N03-HCl+3H20,
forms delicate needles. Distilled with zinc dust morphine yields
phenanthrene, pyridine and quinoline; dehydration gives, under
certain conditions, apomorphine, CnHnNO-, a white amorphous
substance, readily soluble in alcohol, either and chloroform. The
drug " heroin " is a diacetylmorphine hydrochloride. Codeine, or
codeia, crystallizes in orthorhombic prisms with one molecule of
water: it is readily soluble in alcohol, ether and chloroform.
Thebaine forms silvery plates, melting at 193°. (C. E.*)
Medicine. — Of the opium alkaloids only morphine and codeine
are used to any extent in medicine. Thebaine is not so used,
but is an important and sometimes very dangerous constituent
of the various opium preparations, which are stiU largely
CH,<o
CH2 OMe
/^CH2 MeOr^
MeO CH3— CO-^ — '
IV.Narceine
employed, despite the complexity and inconstant composition
of the drug. Of the other alkaloids narceine is hypnotic, like
morphine and codeine, whilst thebaine, papaverine and narco-
tine have an action which resembles that of strychnine, and is,
generally speaking, undesirable or dangerous if at all well
marked. A drug of so complex a composition as opium is
necessarily incompatible with a large number of substances.
Tannic acid, for instance, precipitates codeine as a tannate,
salts of many of the heavy metals form precipitates of meconates
and sulphates, whilst the various alkalis, alkaline carbonates
and ammonia precipitate the important alkaloids.
The pharmacology of opium differs from that of morphine (g.v.)
in a few particulars. The chief difference between the action of
opium and morphine is due to the presence in the former of the-
baine, which readily affects the more irritable spinal cord of very
young children. In infants especially opium acts markedly upon
the spinal cord, and, just as strychnine is dangerous when given to
young children, so opium, because of the strychnine-like alkaloid
it contains, should never be administered, under any circumstances
or in any dose, to children under one year of age.
When given by the mouth, opium has a somewhat different
action from that of morphine. It often relieves hunger, by arresting
the secretion of gastric juice and the movements of the stomach and
bowel, and it frequently upsets digestion from the same cause.
Often it relieves vomiting, though in a few persons it may cause
vomiting, but in far less degree than apomorphine, which is a
powerful emetic. Opium has a more marked diaphoretic action
than morphine, and is much less certain as a hypnotic and analgesic.
There are a few therapeutic indications for the use of opium rather
than morphine, but they are far less important than those which
make the opposite demand. In some abdominal conditions, for
instance, opium is still preferred by the majority of practitioners,
though certainly not in gastric cases, where morphine gives the
relief for which opium often increases the need, owing to the irritant
action of some of its constituents. Opium is often preferred to
morphine in cases of diabetes, where prolonged administration is
required. In such cases the soporific action is not that which is
sought, and so opium is preferable. A Dover's powder, also, is
hardly to be surpassed in the early stages of a bad cold in the head
or bronchitis. Ten grains taken at bedtime will often give sleep,
cause free diaphoresis and quieten the entire nervous system in such
cases. The tincture often known as " paregoric " is also largely
used in bronchial conditions, and morphine shows no sign of dis-
placing it in favour. Opium rather than morphine is also usually
employed to relieve the pain of haemorrhoids or fissure of the
rectum. This practice is, however, obsolescent.
The alkaloid thebaine may here be referred to, as it is not used
separately in medicine. Crum Brown and Eraser of Edinburgh
showed that, whilst thebaine acts like strychnine, methyl and ethyl
thebaine act like curara, paralysing the terminals of motor nerves.
At present we say of such a substance as thebaine, " it acts on the
anterior cornua of grey matter in the spinal cord," but why on them
and not elsewhere we do not know.
Toxicology. — Under this heading must be considered acute
poisoning by opium, and the chronic poisoning seen in those who
eat or smoke the drug. Chronic opium poisoning by the taking of
laudanum — as in the familiar case of E)e Quincey — need not be
considered here, as the hypodermic injection of morphine has almost
entirely supplanted it.
The acute poisoning presents a series of symptoms which are only
with difficulty to be distinguished from those produced by alcohol,
by cerebral haemorrhage and by several other morbid conditions.
The differential diagnosis is of the highest importance, but ver>'
frequently time alone will furnish a sufficient criterion. The patient
who has swallowed a toxic or lethal dose of laudanum, for instance,
usually passes at once into the narcotic state, without any prior
excitement. Intense drowsiness yields to sleep and coma which
ends in death from failure of the respiration. This last is the
cardinal fact in determining treatment. The comatose patient has
a cold and clammy skin, livid lips and ear-tips — a grave sign — and
" pin-point pupils." The heart's action is feeble, the pulse being
small, irregular and often abnormally slow. The action on the
circulation is largely secondary, however, to the all-important
action of opium on the respiratory centre in the medulla oblongata.
The centre is directly poisoned by the circulation through it of
opium-containing blood, and the patient's breathing becomes
progressively slower, shallower and more irregular until finally it
ceases altogether.
In treating acute opium poisoning the first proceeding is to empty
the stomach. For this purpose the best emetic is apomorphine,
which may be injected subcutaneously in a dose of about one-tenth
of a grain. But apomorphine is not always to be obtained, and even
if it be administered it may fail, since the gastric wall is often
paralysed in opium poisoning, so that no emetic can act. It is
therefore better to wash out the stomach, and this should be done,
if possible, with a solution conta-'ning about ten grains of salt to
each ounce of water. This must be repeated at intervals of about
136
OPIUM
half an hour, since some of the opium is excreted into the stomach
after its absorption into the blood. If apomorphine is obtainable,
both of these measures may be employed. Potassium permanganate
decomposes morphine by oxidation, the action being facilitated by
the addition of a small quantity of mineral acid to the solution.
The physiological as well as the chemical antidotes must be em-
ployed. The chief of these are coffee or caffeine and atropine. A
pint of hot strong coffee may be introduced into the rectum, and
caffeine in large doses — ten or twenty grains of the carbonate — •
may be given by the mouth. A twentieth, even a tenth of a grain of
atropine sulphate should be injected subcutaneously, the drug
being a direct stimulant of the respiratory centre. Every means
must be taken to keep the patient awake. He must be walked
about, have smelling salts constantly applied to the nose, or be
stimulated by the faradic battery. But the final resort in cases of
opium poisoning is artificial respiration, which should be persevered
with as long as the heart continues to beat. It has, indeed, been
asserted that, if relays of trained assistants are at hand, no one
need die of opium poisoning, even if artificial respiration has to be
continued for hours or days. (X.)
Opium-eating. — Opium, like many other poisons, produces
after a time a less effect if frequently administered as a medicine,
so that the dose has to be constantly increased to produce the
same result on those who take it habitually. When it is used
to relieve pain or diarrhoea, if the dose be not taken at the usual
time the symptoms of the disease recur with such violence that
the remedy is speedily resorted to as the only means of relief,
and thus the habit is r xceedingly difficult to break off. Opium-
eating is chiefly practised in Asia Minor, Persia and India.
Opinions differ widely as to the injurious eiiect of the habit;
the weight of evidence appears, however, to indicate that it is
much more deleterious than opium-smoking.
The following statistics collected by Vincent Richards regarding
Balasor in Orissa throw some light on the influence of this practice
on the health. He estimates that i in every 12 or 14 of the
population uses the drug, and that the habit is increasing. Of the
613 opium-eaters examined by him he found that the average age
at which the habit was commenced was 20 to 26 years for men and
24 to 30 years for women. Of this number 143 had taken the drug
for from 10 to 20 years, 62 for from 20 to 30 years and 38 for more
than 30 years. The majority took their opium twice daily, morning
and evening, the quantity taken varying from 2 to 46 grains daily,
large doses being the e.\ceptlon, and the average 5 to 7 grains daily.
The dose, when large, had been increased from the beginning; when
small, there had usually been no increase at all. The causes which
first led to the increase of the drug were disease, example and a
belief in its aphrodisiac powers. The diseases for which it was
chiefly taken were malarial fever, dysentery, diarrhoea, spitting of
blood, rheumatism and elephantiasis. A number began to take it in
the famine year, 1866, as it enabled them to exist on less food and
mitigated their sufferings; others used it to enable them to undergo
fatigue and to make long journeys. Richards concludes that the
excessive use of opium by the agricultural classes, who are the
chief consumers in Orissa, is very rare indeed. Its moderate use
may be and is indulged in for years without producing any decided
or appreciable ill effect except weakening the reproductive powers,
the average number of the children of opium-eaters being I- 11 after
II years of married life. It compares favourably as regards crime
and insanity with intoxicating drinks, the inhabitants of Balasor
being a particularly law-abiding race, and the insane forming only
0-0069% of the population. Dr W. Dymock of Bombay, speaking
of western India, concurs in Richards's opinion regarding the
moderate use of the drug. He believes that excessive indulgence
in it is confined to a comparatively small number of the wealthier
classes of the community. Dr Moore's experience of Rajputana
strongly supports the same views. It seems probable that violent
physical exercise may counteract in great measure the deleterious
effect of opium and prevent it from retarding the respiration, and
that in such cases the beneficial effects are obtained without the
noxious results which would accrue from its use to those engaged
in sedentary pursuits. There is no doubt that the spread of the
practice is connected with the ban imposed in Mohammedan countries
on the use of alcoholic beverages, and to some extent with the long
religious fasts of the Buddhists, Hindus and Moslems, in which
opium is used to allay hunger.
To break off the habit of opium-eating is exceedingly difficult, and
can be effected only by actual external restraint, or the strongest
effort of a powerful will, especially if the dose has been gradually
increased.
Opium-smoking. — This is chiefly practised by the inhabitants
of China and the islands of the Indian Archipelago, and in
countries where Chinese are largely employed. Opium-smoking
began in China in the 17th century. Foreign opium was first
imported by the Portuguese (early i8th century). In 1906 it was
estimated that 13,455,699 of Chinese smoked opium, or 27%
of adult males; but during 1908-1910 the consumption of opium
is beUeved to have diminished by about one-third.
For smoking the Chinese use an extract of opium known
as prepared opium or chandoo, and a cheaper preparation is
made from 60% used opium known as " opium dross " and 40%
native opium. This latter is chiefly used by the poorer classes.
The process of preparation is thus described by Hugh M 'Galium,
government analyst at Hong-Kong; —
" The opium is removed from its covering of leaves, &c., moistened
with a little water, and allowed to stand for about fourteen hours;
it is then divided into pans, 2| balls of opium and about 10 pints
of water going to each pan ; it is now boiled and stirred occasionally
until a uniform mixture having the consistence of a thin paste is
obtained. This operation takes from five to six hours. The paste
is at once transferred to a larger pan and cold water added to about
3 gallons, covered and allowed to stand for from fourteen to fifteen
hours. A bunch of_ ' tang sani ' (lamp-wick, the pith of Enocaiilon
or Scirpiis) is then inserted well into the mass, and the pan slightly
canted, when a rich, clear, brown fluid is thus drawn off, and filtered
through ' chi mui ' (paper made from bamboo fibre). The residue
is removed to a calico filter and thoroughly washed with boiling
water, the wash water being reboiled and used time after time.
The last washing is done with pure water; these washings are used
in the ne.xt day's boiling.
" The residues on the calico filters are transferred to a large one
of the same material and well pressed. This insoluble residue, called
' nai chai ' (opium dirt), is the perquisite of the head boiling coolie,
who finds a ready market for it in Canton, where it is used for
adulterating, or rather in manufacturing, the moist inferior kinds of
prepared opium. The filtrate or opium solution is concentrated
by evaporation at the boiling point, with occasional stirring until
of a proper consistence, the time required being from three to four
hours; it is then removed from the fire and stirred with great
vigour till cold, the cooling being accelerated by coolies with large
fans. When quite cold it is taken to the hong and kept there for
some months before it is considered in prime condition for smoking,
As thus prepared it has the consistence of a thin treacly extract,
and is called boiled or prepared opium. In this state it is largely
exported from China to America, Australia, &c., being carefully
sealed up in small pots having the name of the maker (i.e. hong)
on each.
"The Chinese recognize the following grades of opium: (l)
' raw opium,' as imported from India; (2) ' prepared opium,'
opium made as above; (3) ' opium dross,' the scrapings from the
opium' pipe; this is reboiled and manufactured as a second-class
prepared opium; a Chinese doctor stated lately at a coroner's
inquest on a case of poisoning that it was more poisonous than the
ordinary prepared opium; (4) ' nai chai ' (opium dirt), the insoluble
residue left on exhausting the raw opium thoroughly with water.
The opium is sent every day from the hong {i.e. shop or firm) to the
boiling-house, the previous day's boiling being then returned to the
hong. The average quantity boiled each day is from six to eight
chests of Patna opium, this being the only kind used."
By this process of preparation a considerable portion of the nar-
cotine, caoutchouc, resin, oil or fatty and insoluble matters are
removed, and the prolonged boiling, evaporating and baking over
a naked fire tend to lessen the amount of alkaloids present in the
extract. The only alkaloids likely to remain in the prepared opium,
and capable of producing well-marked physiological results, are
morphine, codeine and narceine. Morphine, in the pure state, can
be sublimed, but codeine and narceine are said not to give a sub-
limate. Even if sublimed in smoking opium, morphine would, in
M'Callum's opinion, probably be deposited in the pipe before it
reached the mouth of the smoker. The bitter taste of morphine is
not noticeable when smoking opium, and it is therefore possible
that the pleasure derived from smoking the drug is due to some
product formed during combustion. This supposition is rendered
probable by the fact that the opiums most prized by smokers are not
those containing most morphine, and that the quality is judged by
the amount of soluble matter in the opium, by its tenacity or
" touch," and by peculiarities of aroma — the Indian opium, especi-
ally the Patna kind, bearing much the same relation to the Chinese
and Persian drug that champagne does to vin ordinaire. Opium-
smoking is thus described by Theo. Sampson of Canton: —
" The smoker, lying on his side, with his face towards the tray
and his head resting on a high hard pillow (sometimes made of
earthenware, but more frequently of bamboo covered with leather),
takes the pipe in his hand; with the other hand he takes a dipper
and puts the sharp end of it into the opium, which is of a treacly
consistency. Twisting it round and round he gets a large drop of
the fluid to adhere to the dipper; still twisting it round to prevent
it falling he brings the drop over the flame of the lamp, and twirling
it round and round he roasts it; all this is done with acquired
dexterity. The opium must not be burnt or made too dn,', but
roasted gently till it looks like burnt worsted ; every now and then
he takes it away from the flame and rolls it (still on the end of the
OPLADEN— OPORTO
137
dipper) on the flat surface of the bowl. When it is roasted and
rolled to his satisfaction he gently heats the centre of the bowl,
where there is a small orifice; then he quickly thrusts the end of the
dipper into the orifice, twirls it round smartly and withdraws it ;
if this is properly done, the opium (now about the size of a grain of
hemp-seed or a little larger) is left adhering to the bowl immediately
over the orifice. It is now ready for smoking.
" The smoker assumes a comfortable attitude (lying down of
course) at a proper distance from the lamp. He now puts the stem
to his lips, and holds the bowl over the lamp. The heat causes the
opium to frizzle, and the smoker takes three or four long inhalations,
all the time using the dipper to bring every particle of the opium
to the orifice as it burns away, but not taking his lips from the end
of the stem, or the opium pellet from the lamp till all is finished.
Then he uses the flattened end of the dipper to scrape away any little
residue there may be left around the orifice, and proceeds to prepare
another pipe. The preparations occupy from five to ten minutes,
and the actual smoking about thirty seconds. The smoke is
swallowed, and is exhaled through both the mouth and the nose."
./fi
Fig. 3. — Opium-smoking Apparatus, a, pipe; b, dipper; c, lamp.
So far as can be gathered from the conflicting statements published
on the subject, opium-smoking may be regarded much in the same
light as the use of alcoholic stimulants. To the great majority of
smokers who use it moderately it appears to act as a stimulant,
and to enable them to undergo great fatigue and to go for a con-
siderable time with little or no food. According to the reports on
the subject, when the smoker has plenty of active work it appears
to be no more injurious than smoking tobacco. When carried to
excess it becomes an inveterate habit; but this happens chiefly in
individuals of weak will-power, who would just as easily become
the victims of intoxicating drinks, and who are practically moral
imbeciles, often addicted also to other forms of depravity. The
effect in bad cases is to cause loss of appetite, a leaden pallor of
the skin, and a degree of leanness so excessive as to make its victims
appear like living skeletons. All inclination for exertion becomes
gradually lost, business is neglected, and certain ruin to the smoker
follows. There can be no doubt that the use of the drug is opposed
by all thinking Chinese who are not pecuniarily interested in the
opium trade or cultivation, for several reasons, among which may
be mentioned the drain of bullion from the country, the decrease of
population, the liability to famine through the cultivation of opium
where cereals should be grown, and the corruption of state officials.
See Pharmaceutical Journ. [i] xi. p. 269, xiv. p. 395; [2] x. p. 434;
Impey, Report on Malwa Opium (Bombay, 1848); Report on Trade
of Hankow (1869); New Remedies (1876), p. 229; Pharmacographia
(1879), p. 42; Journal of the Society of Arts (1882); The Friend of
China (18S3), &c. Report of the Straits Settlements, Federated
Malay States Opium Commission (1908), App. xxiii. and xxiv. ;
Allen, Commercial Organic Analysis, vol. iii. pt. iv. p. 355; Frank
Browne, Report on Opium (Hong-I'Cong, 1908); G. Watt, Dictionary
of the Economic Products of India (1892); H. Moissan, Comptes
rendus, of the 5th of December 1892, iv. p. 33; Lalande, Archives
de medicine navale, t. 1. (1890); International Opium Commission
(1909), vol. ii. " Report of the Delegations"; Squire, Companion
to the British PImrmacopeia (1908) (l8th edition). (E. M. H.)
OPLADEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine Province,
10 m. N.E. from Cologne by the railway to Elberfeld and at the
junction of lines to Speldorf and Bonn. Pop. (1905) 6338. It
has an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church. It has dyeing
works, and manufactures of dynamite, indigo products and
railway plant. Before passing to Prussia, Opladcn belonged
to the duchy of Berg.
OPON, a town of the province of Cebu, Philippine Islands,
on the small island of Mactan (area about 45 sq. m.), which
is separated from the island of Cebu by a channel only about
I m. wide. Pop (1903), after the annexation of Cordova and
Santa Rosa, 20,166. There are forty-four barrios, or villages,
in the town, and three of these had in 1903 more than 1000
inhabitants each. The language is Visayan. Opon is a shipping
and commercial suburb of Cebu city, the harbour of which is
sheltered by Mactan Island. The town has large groves of
coco-nut trees, and its principal industries are the cultivation of
Indian corn and maguey and fishing. In the N.E. part of the
town is a monument to Magellan, who discovered the PhUippines
in March 1521, and was slain here by the natives late in the
following month.
OPORTO (i.e. porlo, "the port"), the second city of the
kingdom of Portugal, the capital of the district of Oporto and
formerly of Entrc-Douro-e-Minho; on both banks of the river
Douro, about 3 m. from its mouth, in 41° 8' N. and 8° 37' W.
Pop. (1900) 167,955. In Portuguese the definite article is
uncompounded in the name of the city, which in strict accuracy
should always be written Porto; the form Oporto has, however,
been stereotyped by long usage in English and in some other
European languages. The part of the city south of the Douro
is known as Villa Nova de Gaia. Oporto is the see of a bishop,
in the archiepiscopal province of Braga. It is the true ca[)ilal
of northern Portugal, and the commercial and political rival of
Lisbon, in much the same way as Barcelona U/.v.) is the rival
of Madrid. Three main railway lines meet here — from Lisbon,
from Valenga do Minho on the northern frontier, and from
Barca d'Alva on the north-western frontier. The Valenca
line has branches to Guimaraes and Braga, and affords access
to Corunna and other cities of north-western Spain; the Barca
d'Alva line has a branch to Mirandella and communicates with
Madrid via Salamanca. Oporto is built chielly on the north
or right bank of the Douro; its principal suburbs are Bomfim
on the E., Monte Pedral and Paranhos on the N., Villar Bicalho,
Lordello and Sao Joao da P"oz on the W., Ramaldc, Villarinha,
Matozinhos, Le<;a da Palmeira and the port of Leixoes on the
N.W. The mouth of the river is obstructed by a sandy spit
of land which has been enlarged by the deposits of silt constantly
washed down by the swift current; on the north side of this
bar is a narrow channel varying in depth from 16 ft. to 19 ft.
A fort in Sao Joao da Foz protects the entrance, and there is
a lighthouse on a rock outside the bar. As large vessels cannot
enter the river, a harbour of refuge has been constructed at
Leixoes (?.».).
The approach to Oporto up the winding and fjord-like estuary
is one of singular beauty. On the north the streets rise in
terraces up the steep bank, built in many cases of granite over-
laid with plaster, so that white is the prevailing colour of the
city; on the south are the hamlets of Gaia and Furada, and the
red-tiled wine lodges of Villa Nova de Gaia, in which vast
quantities of " port " are manufactured and stored. The archi-
tecture of the houses and public buildings is often rather Oriental
than European in appearance. There are numerous parks and
gardens, especially on the outskirts of the city, in which palms,
oranges and aloes grow side by side with the flowers and fruits
of northern Europe, for the climate is mild and very equable, the
mean temperatures for January and July — the coldest and the
hottest months — being respectively about 50° and 70°. The
Douro is at all seasons crowded with shipping, chiefly smaU
steamers and large sailing vessels. The design of some of the
native craft is pecuUar — among them may be mentioned the high-
prowed canoe-like fishing boats, the rascas with their three lateen
sails, and the barcos rabello, flat-bottomed barges with huge
rudders, used for the conveyance of wine down stream. Two
remarkable iron bridges, the Maria Pia and the Dom Luiz I.,
span the river. The first was built by Messrs Eift'el & Company
of Paris in 1876-1877; it rests on a granite substructure and
carries the Lisbon railway line across the Douro ravine at a
height of 200 ft. The second, constructed in 1881-1S85 by a
Belgian firm, has two decks or roadways, one 33 ft., the other
200 ft. above the usual water-level; its arch, one of the largest
in Europe, has a span of 560 ft. and is supported by two massive
granite towers. The Douro is liable in winter to sudden and
violent floods; in 1909-1910 the water rose 40 ft. at Oporto, where
it is confined in a deep and narrow bed.
Though parts of the city are modern or have been modernized,
the older quarters in the east are extremely picturesque, with
their steep and narrow lanes overshadowed by lofty balconied
houses. Overcrowding and dirt are common, for the density of
population is nearly 13.000 per sq. m., or greater than in any other
city of Portugal. UntU the early years of the 20th century, when
XX. 5 a
138
^f OPORTO
n
a proper system of sewerage was installed, the condition of
Oporto was most insanitary. Electric lighting and tramways
were introduced a little before this, but the completion of the
tramway system was long delayed, and in the hilly districts cars
drawn by ten mules were not an uncommon sight. Ox-carts are
used for the conveyance of heavy goods, and until late in the
igth century sedan-chairs were still occasionally used. A painful
feature of the street-hfe of Oporto is the great number of the
diseased and mutilated beggars who frequent the busiest
thoroughfares. As a rule, however, the natives of Oporto are
strong and of fine physique; they also show fewer signs of
negro descent than the people of Lisbon. Their numbers tend
to increase very rapidly; in 1864 the population of Oporto was
86,751, but in 1878 it rose to 105,838, in iSgo to 138,860, and in
1900 to 167,955. Many of the men emigrate to South America,
where their industry usually enables them to prosper, and
ultimately to return with considerable savings. The local
dialect is broader than the Portuguese of the educated classes,
from which it differs more in pronunciation than in idiom.
The poverty of the people is very great. Out of the 597,935
inhabitants of the district of Oporto (893 sq. m.), 422,320 vv-ere
returned at the census of 1900 as unable to read or write. Much
had been done, however, to remedy this defect, and besides
numerous primary schools there are in the city two schools for
teachers, a medical academy, polytechnic, art, trade and naval
schools, and industrial institute, a commercial athenaeum, a
lyceum for secondary education, an ecclesiastical seminary, and a
meteorological observatory.
The cathedral, which stands at the highest point of eastern
Oporto, on the site of the Visigothic citadel, was originaUy a
Romanesque building of the 12th century; its cloisters are
Gothic of the 14th century, but the greater part of the fabric
was modernized in the 17th and i8th centuries. The interior of
the cloisters is adorned with blue and white tiies, painted to
represent scenes from the Song of Solomon. The bishop's palace
is a large and lofty building conspicuously placed on a high rock ;
the interior contains a fine marble staircase. The Romanesque
and early Gothic church of Sao Martinho de Cedo Feita is the
most interesting ecclesiastical building in Oporto, especially
noteworthy being the curiously carved capitals of its pillars.
Though the present structure is not older, except in details, than
the 1 2th century, the church is said to have been " hastily built "
(cedo feita, cito facta) by Theodomir, king of the Visigoths, in 550,
to receive the relics of StMartinof Tours, which were then on their
way hither from France. The Torre dos Clerigos is a granite
tower 246 ft. high, built in the middle of the 18th century at the
expense of the local clergy {clerigos) ; it stands on a hill and forms
a conspicuous landmark for sailors. Nossa Senhora da Lapa is a
fine 18th-century church, Corinthian in style; Sao Francisco is
a Gothic basiUca dating from 1410; Nossa Senhora da Serra do
Pilar is a secularized Augustinian convent used as artUlery
barracks, and marks the spot at which Wellington forced the
passage of the Douro in 1809. The exchange (lonja) is another
secularized convent, decorated with coloured marbles. Parts of
the interior are lloored and panelled with pohshed native-coloured
woods from Brazil, which are inlaid in elaborate patterns; there
is a very handsome staircase, and the fittings of one large room
are an excellent modern copy of JMoorish ornamentation.
Other noteworthy public buildings are the museum, Ubrary,
opera-house, buU-ring, hospital and quarantine station. The
crystal palace is a large glass and iron structure built for the
industrial exhibition of 1S65; its garden commands a fine view
of the city and river, and contains a small menagerie. The
English factory, built in 1790, has been converted into a club
for the British residents — a large and important community
whose members are chiefly connected with the wine and shipping
trades. Lawn tennis, cricket, boat-racing on the Douro, and
other British sports have been successfully introduced, and there
is keen competition between the Oporto clubs and those of
Lisbon and Carcavellos. The EngUsh club gave its name to
the Rua Nova dos Inglezes, one of the busiest streets, which
contains many banks, warehouses and steamship olSces. The
Rua da Alfandega, skirting the right bank of the Douro and
passing the custom house {alfandega), is of similar character;
here may be seen characteristic types of the fishermen and
peasants of northern Portugal. The Rua das Flores contains,
on its eastern side, the shops of the cloth-dealers; on the west
are the jewellers' shops, with a remarkable display of gold and
silver fihgree-work and enamelled gold. Oporto is famous
for these ornaments, which are often very artistic, and are
largely worn on hoUdavs by women of the poorer classes,
whose savings or dowries are often kept in this readily
marketable form.
Oporto is chiefly famous for the export of the wine which bears
its name. An act passed on the 29th of January 1906 defined
" port " as a wine grown in the Douro district, exported from
Oporto, and containing more than 16-5% of alcoholic strength.
The vines from which it is made grow in the Paiz do Vinho, a
hilly region about 60 m. up the river, and having an area of 27 m.
in length by 5 or 6 in breadth, cut off from the sea, and shut in
from the north-east by mountains. The trade was established
in 167S, but the shipments for some years did not exceed 600
pipes (of 115 gallons each). In 1703 the British government
concluded the Methuen treaty with Portugal, under which
Portuguese wines were admitted on easier terms than French or
German, and henceforward " port " began to be drunk (see
Portugal: History). In 1747 the export reached 17,000 pipes.
In 1754 the great wine monopoly company of Oporto originated,
under which the shipments rose to 33,000 pipes. At the begin-
ning of the 19th century the pohcy of the government more and
more favoured port wine, besides which the vintages from 1802
to 1815 were splendid both in Portugal and in Madeira — that
of 1S15 has, in fact, never been excelled. F"or the next few years
the grape crop was not at all good, but the 1820 vintage was the
most remarkable of any. It was singularly sweet and black,
besides being equal in quality to that of 18 15. This was long
regarded as the standard in taste and colour for true port, and
to keep up the vintage of following years to this exceptional
standard adulteration by elder berries, &c., was resorted to.
This practice did not long continue, for it was cheaper to adul-
terate the best wines with inferior sorts of port wine itself. In
1852 the Oidiiim which spread over Europe destroyed many of
the Portuguese vineyards. In 1S65 Phylloxera did much damage,
and in 1867 the second monopoly company was aboUshed.
From this time the exports again increased. (See Wine.)
A third of the population is engaged in the manufacture of
cottons, woollens, leather, silk, gloves, hats, pottery, corks,
tobacco, spirits, beer, aerated waters, preserved foods, soap or
jewelry. Oporto gloves and hats are highly esteemed in Portugal,
Cotton piece goods are sent to the African colonies, and, in small
quantities, to Brazil; their value in 1905 was £120,360, but a
larger quantity was retained for the home market. The fisheries
— chiefly of hake, bream and sardines — are extensive. Steam-
trawling, though unsuccessful in the 19th century, was resumed
in 1904, and in 1906 there were 136 British, 10 Dutch and 3
Portuguese steamers thus engaged. The innovation was much
resented by the owners of more than 350 small sailing boats,
and protective legislation was demanded. In 1905 the combined
port of Oporto and Leixoes was entered by 1734 vessels of
1,562,724 tons, but in this total some vessels were counted twice
over — i.e. once at each port. Nearly three-fourths of the tonnage
was entered at Leixoes. About the close of the igth century
there was an important development of tourist traffic from
Liverpool and Southampton via Havre. Reduced railway
rates and improved hotel accommodation have facilitated the
growth of this traffic. Many tourists land at Oporto and visit
Braga {q.v.), Bussaco {q.11.) and other places of interest, on their
way to Lisbon. There is also a large tourist traffic from Ger-
many. The exports of Oporto include wine, cottons, wood,
pitwood, stone, cork, salt, sumach, onions, oranges, ohves and
beans. American competition has destroyed the export trade
in live cattle for which Great Britain was the principal market.
Dried codfish {bacalhdo) is imported in great quantities from
Newfoundland and Norway; other noteworthy imports are
OPOSSUM— OPPEL
139
coal, iron, steel, machinery and textiles. The total yearly value
of the foreign trade exceeds £5,000,000.
The history of Oporto dates from an early period. Before the
Roman invasion, under the name of Tortus Cale, Gaia or Cago,
it was a town on the south bank of the Douro with a good trade;
the Alani subsequently founded a city on the north bank, calling
it Caslrum Novum. About a.d. 540 the Visigoths under Lcovigild
obtained possession, but yielded place in 716 to the Moors. The
Christians, however, recaptured Oporto in 907, and it became the
capital of the counts of Portucalia for part of the period during
which the Moors ruled in the southern provinces of Portugal.
(See Portugal: History.) The Moors once more became its
masters for a short period, till in 1092 it was brought iinally
under Christian domination. The citizens rebelled in 162.8
against an unpopular tax, in 1661 for a similar reason, in 1757
against the wine monopoly, and in 1808 against the French.
The town is renowned in British military annals from the duke
of Wellington's passage of the Douro, by which he surprised and
put to flight the French army under Marshal Soult, capturing
the city on the 12th of May 1S09. Oporto sustained a severe
siege in 1S32-1833, being bravely defended against the Miguehtes
by Dom Pedro with 7000 soldiers; 16,000 of its inhabitants
perished. In the constitutional crises of 1820, 1826, 1836, 1842,
1846-1847, 1891 and 1907-1908 the action of Oporto, as the
capital of northern Portugal, was always of the utmost
importance.
OPOSSUM, an American Indian name properly belonging to
the American marsupials (other than Caenolcstcs) , but in Australia
applied to the phalangers (see Phalanger). True opossums
are found throughout the greater part of America from the
United States to Patagonia, the number of species being largest
in the more tropical parts (see Marsupialia). They form the
family Didclphyidac, distinguished from other marsupial families
by the equally developed hind-toes, the nailless but fully oppos-
able first hind-toe, and by the dentition, of which the formula
is i. I,
p. -|, m. I; total 50. The peculiarity in the mode
of succession of these teeth is explained in the article referred
to. Opossums are small animals, varying from the size of a
mouse to that of a large cat, with long noses, ears and tails, the
latter being as a rule naked and prehensile, and with the first
toe in the hind-foot so fully opposable to the other digits as
to constitute a functionally perfect posterior " hand." These
opposable first toes are without nail or claw, but their tips are
expanded into broad flat pads, which are of great use to these
climbing animals. On the anterior limbs all the five digits are
provided with long sharp claws, and the first toe is but little
opposable. The numerous cheek-teeth are crowned with minute
sharply-pointed cusps, with which to crush the insects on which
these creatures feed, for the opossums seem to take in South
America the place in the economy of nature filled in other
countries by hedgehogs, moles, shrews, &c. The true opossums
are typically represented by Didelphys marsupialis, a species,
with several local races, ranging over the greater part of North
America (except the extreme north). It is of large size, and
extremely common, being even found living in towns, where
it acts as a scavenger by night, retiring for shelter by day upon
the roofs or into the sewers. It produces in the spring from
six to sixteen young ones, which are placed by the mother in her
pouch immediately after birth, and remain there until able to
take care of themselves; the period of gestation being from
fourteen to seventeen days. A local race found in Central and
tropical South America is known as the crab-eating opossum
{D. marsupialis cancrivora). The second sub-genus, or genus,
Metachirus contains a considerable number of species found
all over the tropical parts of the New World. They are of
medium size, with short, close fur, very long, scaly and naked
tails, and have less developed ridges on their skulls. They ha.ve,
as a rule, no pouch in which to carry their young, and the latter
therefore commonly ride on their mother's back, holding on by
winding their prehensile tails round hers, as in the figure of the
woolly opossum. The latter belongs to the sub-genus Philander.
which is nearly allied to the last; its full title being Didelphy
(Philander) lanigera. The philander {D. [P.\ philander) is closely
related.
The fourth sub-genus (or genus) is Marmosa (Micourcus, or
Grymaeomys), differing from the two last by the smaller size
of its members and by certain slight differences in the shape
of their teeth. Its best-known species is the murine opossum
(D. niurina), no larger than a mouse, of a bright-red colour,
found as far north as central Mexico, and extending thence to
the south of Brazil. A second well-known species is D. cinerea,
which ranges from Central America to western Brazil, Peru and
Bolivia. Yet another group ( Pcramys) is represented by
numerous shrew-like S[)ecies, of very small size, with short,
hairy and non-prehensile tails, nol half the length of the trunk,
and unridged skulls. The most striking member of the group
.,, ^,
The Woolly Opossum {Didelphys lanigera) and young,
is the Three-striped Opossum (D. amcricana) from Brazil, which
is of a reddish grey colour, with three clearly-defined deep-black
bands down its back, as in some of the striped mice of Africa.
D. dimidiata, D. nudicaudala, D. domcslica, D. unistriata and
several other South American species belong to this group.
Lastly we have the Chiloe Island opossum {D. gliroidcs), alone
representing the sub-genus Dromiciops, which is most nearly
allied to Marmosa, but differs from aU other opossums by the
short furry ears, thick hairy tail, doubly swollen auditory bulla,
short canines and peculiarly formed and situated incisors.
Whatever difference of opinion there may be as to the right
of the above-mentioned groups to generic separation from the
typical Didelphys, there can be none as to the distinctness of the
water-opossum {Chironcctes minimus), which differs from all
the other members of the famOy by its fully webbed feet, and
the dark-brown transverse bands across the body (see Water-
Opossum).
See O. Thomas, Catalogue of Marsupialia and Monotremata
(British Museum, 1888); " On Micoureus griseus, with the Descrip-
tion of a New Genus and Species of Didclphyidae," Anti. Mag. Nat.
Hist. ser. 6, vol. xiv. p. 184, and later papers in the same and other
serials. (R. L.*)
OPPEL, CARL ALBERT (1831-1S65), German palaeontologist,
was born at Hohenheim in Wurttemberg, on the loth of December
1831. After studying mineralogy and geology at Stuttgart, he
entered the university of Tiibingen, where he graduated Ph.D.
in 1853. Here he came under the influence of Quenstedt and
devoted his special attention to the fossils of the Jurassic system.
With this object he examined in detail during 1854 and the
following year the succession of strata in England, France and
Germany and determined the various palaeontological stages
or zones characterized by special guide-fossils, in most cases
ammonites. The results of his researches were published in his
great work Die Juraformatioit Englands, Frankreichs und des
siidwestlichen Deutschlands (1S56-1858). In 1858 he became
an assistant in the Palaeontological Museum at Munich. In
i860 he became professor of palaeontology in the university at
Munich, and in 1861 director of the Palaeontological Collection.
There he continued his labours on the Jurassic fauna, describing
new species of Crustacea, ammonites, &c. To him also we owe
140
OPPELN— OPPIUS
the establishment of the Tithonian stage, for strata (mainly
equivalent to the English Portland and Purbeck Beds) that
occur on the borders of Jurassic and Cretaceous. Of his later
works the most important v/as Palaontologische MiUheiltingen
aiis dcm Museum des Konig!. Bayer. Slaats. (1862-1865). He
died at Munich on the 23rd of December 1S65.
OPPELN (Polish, Oppolic), a town of Germany, in the Prussian
province of Silesia, lies on the right bank of the Oder, 51 m.
S.E. of Breslau, on the railway to Kattowitz, and at the junction
of lines to Beuthent Neisse and Tarnowitz. Pop. (1905)30,769.
It is the seat of the provincial administration of Upper Silesia,
and contains the oldest Chri'=:n'an church in the district, that of
St Adalbert, founded at tho dose of the loth century. It has
two other churches and a ducal 15th-century palace on an island
in the Oder. The most prominent among the other buildings
are the offices of the district authorities, the town hall, the
normal seminary and the hospital of St Adalbert. The Roman
Catholic gymnasium is established in an old Jesuit college.
The industries of Oppeln include the manufacture of Portland
cement, machinery, beer, soap, cigars and lime; trade is carried
on by raU and river in cattle, grain and the vast mineral output
of the district, of which Oppeln is the chief centre. The upper
classes speak German, the lower Polish.
Oppeln was a flourishing place at the beginning of the nth
century, and became a town in 1228. It was the capital of the
duchy of Oppeln and the residence of the duke from 11 63 to
1532, when the tuling family became extinct. Then it passed
to Austria, and with the rest of Silesia was ceded to Prussia
in 1742.
See Idzikowski, Geschichle der Stadl Oppeln (Oppeln, 1863); and
Vogt, Oppeln beim Eintritt in das Jahr igoo (Oppeln, 1900J.
OPPENHEIM, a town of Germany, in the grand duchy of
Hesse, picturesquely situated on the slope of vine-clad hiUs, on
the left bank of the Rhine, 20 m. S. of Mainz, on the railway to
Worms. Pop. (1905) 3696. The only relic of its former import-
ance is the Evangelical church of St Catherine, one of the most
beautiful Gothic edifices of the 13th and 14th centuries in
Germany, and recently restored at the public expense. The
town has a Roman Cathohc church, several schools and a
memorial of the War of 1S70-71. Its industries and comjnerce
are principally concerned with the manufacture and export of
wine. Above the town are the ruins of the fortress of Landskron,
built in the nth century and destroyed in 1689.
Oppenheim, which occupies the site of the Roman Bauconica,
was formerly much larger than at present. In 1226 it appears as
a free town of the Empire and later as one of the most important
members of the Rhenish League. It lost its independence in
1375, when it was given in pledge to the elector palatine of the
Rhine. Duringthe Thirty Years' War it was alternately occupied
by the Swedes and the Imperialists, and in 1689 it was entirely
destroyed by the French.
See W. Franck, Geschichle der ehemaligen Reichsstadt Oppenheim
(Darmstadt, 1859).
OPPERT, JULIUS (1825-1905), German Assyriologist, was
born at Hamburg, of Jewish parents, on the 9th of July 1825.
."Mter studying at Heidelberg, Bonn and Berlin, he graduated at
Kiel in 1847, and in the following year went to France, where he
was teacher of German at Laval and at Reims. His leisure was
given to Oriental studies, in which he had made great progress
in Germany, and in 1852 he joined Fresnel's archaeological
expedition to Mesopotamia. On his return in 1S54 he occupied
himself in digesting the results of the expedition in so far as they
concerned cuneiform inscriptions, and pubhshed an important
work upon them (Dechriffrcment des inscriptions cuneiformcs,
i86i). In 1857 he was appointed professor of Sanscrit in the
school of languages connected with the National Library in
Paris, and in this capacity he produced a Sanscrit grammar;
but his attention was chiefly given to Assyrian and cognate
subjects, and he was especially prominent in establishing the
Turanian character of the language originally spoken in Assyria.
In 1869 Oppert was appointed professor of Assyrian philology
and archaeology a.lXht College de France. In 1865 he published
a. history of Assyria and Chaldaea in the light of the results of
the different exploring expeditions. At a later period he devoted
much attention to the language and antiquities of ancient Media,
writing Le Peuple ct la langue des Mcdes (1879). He died in Paris
on the 2ist of August 1905. Oppert was a voluminous writer
upon Assyrian mythology and jurisprudence, and other subjects
connected with the ancient civilizations of the East. Among
his other works may be mentioned: Elements de la grammaire
assyrienne (1S68); L'Immorlalite de I'dme chez les Chaldeens,
(1875); Salomon ei ses successeurs (1877); and, with J. Menant,
Doctrines juridiques de I'Assyrie el de la Chaldee (1877).
OPPIAN (Gr. 'OTrTTtai/os), the name of the authors of two (or
three) didactic poems in Greek hexameters, formerly identified,
but now generally regarded as two different persons, (i) Oppian
of Corycus (or Anabarzus) in Cilicia, who fiourished in the reign
of Marcus Aurehus (emperor a.d, 161-180). According to an
anonymous biographer, his father, having incurred the dis-
pleasure of Lucius Verus, the colleague of Aurehus, by neglecting
to pay his respects to him when he visited the town, was banished
to Malta. Oppian, who had accompanied his father into exile,
returned after the death of Verus (169) and went on a visit to
Rome. Here he presented his poems to Aurelius, who was so
pleased with them that he gave the author a piece of gold for each
hne, took him into favour and pardoned his father. Oppian
subsequently returned to his native country, but died of the
plague shortly afterwards, at the early age of thirty. His
contemporaries erected a statue in his honour, with an inscription
which is still extant, containing a lament for his premature death
and a eidogy of his precocious genius. His poem on fishing
{H alieulica) , of about 3500 lines, dedicated to Aurelius and his
son Commodus, is still extant. (2) Oppian of Apamea (or Pella)
in Syria. His extant poem on hunting iCynegetica) is dedicated
to the emperor Caracalla, so that it must have been written after
211. It consists of about 2150 lines, and is divided into four
books, the last of which seems incomplete. The author evidently
knew the Halientica, and perhaps intended his poem as a supple-
ment. Like his namesake, he shows considerable knowledge of
his subject and close observation of nature; but in style and
poetical merit he is inferior to him. His versification also is less
correct. The improbabOity of there having been two poets of
the same name, writing on subjects so closely akin and such near
contemporaries, may perhaps be explained by assuming that
the real name of the author of the Cyncgetica was not Oppian,
but that he has been confounded with his predecessor. In any
case, it seems clear that the two were not identical.
A third poem on bird-catching (Ixeutlca, from i^os, bird-lime),
also formerly attributed to an Oppian, is lost; a paraphrase in
Greek prose by a certain Eutecnius is extant. The author is
probably one Dionysius, who is mentioned by SuJdas as the
author of a treatise on stones (Litkiaca).
The chief modern editions are J. G. Schneider (1776); F. S.
Lehrs (1846); U. C. Busseraaker (Scholia, 1849); {Cytiegetica)
P. Boudreaux (1908). The anonymous biography referred to above
will be found in A. Westermann's Biographi Graeci (1845). On the
subject generally see \. Martin, Etudes sur la vie et les ceuvres
d'Oppien de Cilicie (1863); A. Ausfeld, De Oppiano ei scriptis sub
ejus nomine traditis (1876). There are translations of the Halientica,
in English by Diaper and Jones (1722), and in French by E. J.
Bourquin (1877).
OPPIUS, GAIUS, an intimate friend of Juhus Caesar. He
managed the dictator's private affairs during his absence from
Rome, and, together with L. Cornelius Balbus, exercised con-
siderable influence in the city. According to Suetonius {Caesar,
56), many authorities considered Oppius to have written the
histories of the Spanish, African and Alexandrian wars which are
printed among the works of Caesar. It is now generally held
that he may possibly be the author of the last (although the
claims of Hirtius are considered stronger), but certainly not of
the tv.'o first, although Niebuhr confidently assigned the Bcllum
Africanum to him; the writer of these took an actual part
in the wars they described, whereas Oppius was in Rome
at the time. He also wrote a life of Caesar and the elder
Scipi0..l\ ■.::.i ,,
OPTICS— ORACLE
141
For a discussion of the whole question, see M. Schanz, Geschichle
der romischen Literalur, pt. i. p. 210 (2nd ed., 1898}; Teuffel-
Schwabe, Hist, of Roman Literature (Eng. trans.), § 197; see also
Cicero, Letters, ed. Tyrrell and Purser, iv. introd. p. 69.
OPTICS, the science of light, regarded as the medium of sight
(Gr. oi/'is). Generally the noun is qualified by an adjective so
as to delimitate the principal groups of optical phenomena,
e.g. geometrical optics, physical optics, meteorological optics, &c.
Greek terminology included two adjectival forms — to. otttiko.,
for all optical phenomena, including vision and the nature of
light, and 17 otttlkyj (sc. deuipLa), for the objective study of light,
i.e. the nature of light itself and the theory of vision. See Light
and Vision.
OPTION (Lat. optio, choice, choosing, opiare, to choose), the
action of choosing or thing chosen, choice or power or opportunity
of making a choice. The word had a particular meaning in
ecclesiastical law, where it was used of a right claimed by an
archbishop to select one benefice from the diocese of a newly
appointed bishop, the next presentation to which would fall to
his, the archbishop's, patronage. This right was abolished by
various statutes in the early part of the igth century. As a term
in stock-exchange operations, " option " is used to express the
privilege given to conclude a bargain at some future time at
an agreed-upon price (see Call and Stock Exchange). The
phrase " local option " has been specifically used in politics of
the power given to the electorate of a particular district to choose
whether licences for the sale of intoxicating Uquor should be
granted or not. This form of "local option" has been also and
more rightly termed " local veto " (see Liquor Laws).
OPUS ('OttoDs), in ancient Greece, the chief city of the Opuntian
Locrians; the walls of the town may stiU be seen on a hill about
6 m. S.E. of the modern Atalante, and about i m. from the
channel which separates the mainland from Euboea. It is men-
tioned in the Homeric catalogue among the towns of the Locrians,
who were led by Ajax Oileus; and there were games called
Aiantea and an altar at Opus in honour of Ajax. Opus was also
the birthplace of Patroclus. Pindar's Ninth Olympian Ode is
mainly devoted to the glory and traditions of Opus. Its founder
was 0pu4 the son of Zeus and Protogeneia, the daughter of an
Elian Opus, or, according to another version, of Deucalion and
Pyrrha, and the wife of Locros. The Locrians deserted the
Greek side in the Persian Wars; they were among the aUies of
Sparta in the Peloponnesian War. In the struggle between
Philip V. of Macedon and the Romans the town went over to the
latter in 197 B.C., but the Acropohs held out for Philip until his
defeat at Cynoscephalae (Livy xxxii. 32). The town suffered
from earthquakes, such as that which destroyed the neighbouring
Atalante in 1894.
ORACH, or Mountain Spinach, known hota,rncaRy us, Atriplex
hortensis, a tall-growing hardy annual, whose leaves, though
coarsely flavoured, are used as a substitute for spinach, and
to correct the acidity of sorrel. The white and the green are
the most desirable varieties. The plant should be grown quickly
in rich soil. It may be sown in rows 2 ft. apart, and about the
same distance in the row, about March, and for succession again
in June. If needful, water must be freely given, so as to maintain
a rapid growth. A variety, A. hortensis var. rubra, commonly
called red mountain spinach, is a hardy annual 3 to 4 ft. high
with fine ornamental foliage.
ORACLE (Lat. oraculum, from orare, to pray; the correspond-
ing Greek word is jxavrtiov or xP'l'^Trfpi.ov), a special place where
a deity is supposed to give a response, by the mouth of an inspired
priest, to the inquiries of his votaries; or the actual response.
The whole question of oracles — whether in the sense of the
response or the sacred place — is bound up with that of magic,
divination and omens, to the articles on which the reader is
referred. They are commonly found in the earlier stages of
religious culture among different nations. But it is as an ancient
Greek institution that they are most interesting historically.
A characteristic feature of Greek religion which distinguishes
it from many other systems of advanced cult was the wide
prevalence of a ritual of divination and the prominence of certain
oracular centres which were supposed to give voice to the will
of Providence. An account of the oracles of Greece is concerned
with the historical question about their growth, influence and
career. But it is convenient to consider first the anthropologic
question, as to the methods of divination practised in ancient
Greece, their significance and the original ideas that inspired
them. Only the slightest theoretical construction is possible
here; and the true psychologic explanation of the mantic facts
is of very recent discovery. In the Greek world these were of
great variety, but nearly all the methods of divination found
there can be traced among other communities, primitive and
advanced, ancient and modern. The most obvious and useful
classification of them is that of which Plato' was the author,
who distinguishes between (a) the " sane " form of divination
and (b) the ecstatic, enthusiastic or "insane" form. The first
method appears to be cool and scientific, the diviner (yudvTis)
interpreting certain signs according to fixed principles of inter-
pretation. The second is worked by the prophet, shaman or
Pythoness, who is possessed and overpowered by the deity, and
in temporary frenzy utters mystic speech under divine suggestion.
To these we may add a third form (c), divination by communion
with the spiritual world in dreams or through intercourse with
the departed spirit: this resembles class (a) in that it does
not necessarily involve ecstasy, and class (b) in that it assumes
immediate rapport with some spiritual power.
It will be convenient first to give typical examples of these
various processes of discovering the divine will, and then to
sketch the history of Delphi, the leading centre of divination.
We may subdivide the methods that fall under class (a), those
that conform to the " omen "-system, according as they deal
with the phenomena of the animate or the inanimate world;
although this distinction would not be relevant in the period
of primitive animistic thought. The Homeric poems attest
that auguries from the flight and actions of birds were commonly
observed in the earliest Hellenic period as they occasionally
were in the later, but we have httle evidence that this method
was ever organized as it was at Rome into a regular system of
state-divination, stiU less of state-craft. We can only quote the
passage in the Antigone where Sophocles describes the method
of Teiresias, who keeps an aviary where he studies and interprets
the flight and the cries of the birds; it is probable that the
poet was aware of some such practice actually in vogue. But the
usual examples of Greek augury do not suggest deliberate and
systematic observation; for instance, the phenomenon in the
Iliad of the eagle seizing the snake and dropping it, or, in the
Agamemnon of Aeschylus, of the eagles swooping on the pregnant
hare. Other animals besides birds could furnish omens; we
have an interesting story of the omen derived from the contest
between a wolf and a bull which decided the question of the
sovereignty of Argos when Danaus arrived and claimed the
kingdom;^ and the private superstitious man might be en-
couraged or depressed by any ominous sign derived from any
part of the animal world. But it is very rare to find such omens
habituaOy consulted in any public system of di\'ination sanctioned
by the state. We hear of a shrine of Apollo at Sura in Lycia,'
where omens were taken from the movements of the sacred
fish that were kept there in a tank; and again of a grove conse-
crated to this god in Epirus, where tame serpents were kept and
fed by a priestess, who could predict a good or bad harvest
according as they ate heartUy or came willingly to her or not.*
But the method of animal divination that was most in vogue
was the inspection of the inward parts of the victim offered upon
the altar, and the inteipretation of certain marks found there
according to a conventional code. Sophocles in the passage
referred to above gives us a glimpse of the prophet's procedure.
A conspicuous example of an oracle organized on this principle
was that of Zeus at Olympia, where soothsayers of the family
of the lamidai prophesied partly by the inspection of entrails,
' Phaedrus, p. 244.
* Serv. Verg. Aen. iv. 377; Paus. ii. 19. 3.
' Steph. Byz. s.v. SoOpa. Plut. De sollert. anim. p. 976 c.
Ael. Nat. anim. xii. I. * Ael. Nat. anim. xi. 2.
142
ORACLE
partly by the observation of certain signs in the skin when it was
cut or burned.' Another less familiar procedure that belongs
to this subdivision is that which was known as divination 5ta
K\ri56v(av, which might sometimes have been the cries of birds,
but in an oracle of Hermes at the Achaean city of Pharae were
the casual utterances of men. Pausanias tells us- how this was
worked. The consultant came in the evening to the statue of
Hermes in the market-place that stood by the side of a hearth-
altar to which bronze lamps were attached; having kindled
the lamps and put a piece of money on the altar, he whispered
into the ear of the statue what he wished to know; he then
departed, closing his ears with his hands, and whatever human
speech he first heard after withdrawing his hands he took for a
sign. The same custom seems to have prevailed at Thebes in a
shrine of Apollo, and in the Olympian oracle of Zeus.^
Of omens taken from what we call the inanimate world
salient examples are those derived from trees and water, a
divination to be explained by an animistic feeling that may
be regarded as at one time universal. Both were in vogue at
Dodona, where the ecstatic method of prophecy was never
used; we hear of divination there from the bubbhng stream,
and still more often of the " talking oak "; under its branches
may once have slept the Selloi, who interpreted the sounds of
the boughs, and who may be regarded as the depositories of the
Aryan tradition of Zeus, the oak god who spoke in the tree.^
At Korope in Thessaly we hear vaguely of an Apolline divination
by means of a branch of the tamarisk tree,^ a method akin no
doubt to that of the divining rod which was used in Greece as
elsewhere; and there is a late record that at Daphne near
Antioch oracles were obtained by dipping a laurel leaf or branch
in a sacred stream.'^ Water divination must have been as
familiar at one time to the Greeks as it was to the ancient
Germans; for we hear of the fountain at Daphne revealing
things to come by the varying murmur of its flow;' and
marvellous reflections of a mantic import might be seen in a
spring on Taenaron in Laconia;* from another at Patrae omens
were drawn concerning the chances of recovery from disease.''
Thunder magic, which was practised in Arcadia, is usually
associated with thunder divination; but of this, which was
so much in vogue in Etruria and was adopted as a state-craft
by Rome, the evidence in Greece is singularly shght. Once
a year watchers took their stand on the wall at Athens and
waited till they saw the lightning flash from Harma, which
was accepted as an auspicious omen for the setting out of the
sacred procession to Apollo Pythius at Delphi; and the altar
of Zeus 27)/jaXeos, the sender of omens, on Mount Parnes, may
have been a religious observatory of meteorological phenomena.'"
No doubt such a rare and portentous event as the fall of a
meteor-stone would be regarded as ominous, and the state
would be inclined to consult Delphi or Dodona as to its divine
import.
We may conclude the examples of this main department of
liavTiKT) by mentioning a method that seems to have been much
in vogue in the earlier times, that which was called 17 8ia.\pr]4>ojv
IxavTiKT), or divination by the drawing or throwing of lots;
these must have been objects, such as small pieces of wood or
dice, with certain marks inscribed upon them, drawn casually or
thrown down and interpreted according to a certain code. This
simple process of immemorial antiquity, for other Aryan peoples
such as the Teutonic possessed it, was practised at Delphi and
Dodona by the side of the more solemn procedure; we hear of it
also in the oracle of Heracles at Bura in Achaea." It is this
method of " scraping " or " notching " (xpaei'') signs on wood
iSchol. Pind. 01.6. iii. ^ vii. 22. 2.
' FarncU, Cidis of the Greek States, iv., p. 221.
* Horn. //. xvi. 233, Od. xiv. 327; Hesiod, ap. Schol. Soph.
Track. 1 169; Aesch. Prom. Vine. 829.
' Nikander, Theriaka, 612; Schol. ibid.
"^See Robertson-Smith, Religion of the Semites, p. 128, quoting
Sozomen v. 19.
' Ammian. Marcell. xxii. 12; cf. Plut. Vita Caes. c. 19.
8 Paus. iii. 25. 8. » Paus. vii. 21. 11. '» Paus. i. 32. 2.
" Cic. De div. i. 76. Suid. s.v. iruJu. Paus. vii. 25. 10.
that explains probably the origin of the words xp^cp^^, XPn'^^o-i-,
avaiptiv for oracular consultation and deliverance.
The processes described above are part of a world-wide system
of popular divination. And most of them were taken up by
the oracular shrines in Greece, Apollo himself having no special
and characteristic mantic method, but generally adopting that
which was of local currency. But much that is adopted by the
higher personal religions descends from a more primitive and lower
stage of religious feeling. And all this divination was originally
independent of any personal divinity. The primitive diviner
appealed directly to that mysterious potency which was sup-
posed to inhere in the tree and spring, in the bird or beast, or
even in a notched piece of wood. At a later stage, it may be,
this power is interpreted in accordance with the animistic, and
finally with the theistic, belief; and now it is the god who sends
the sign, and the bird or animal is merely his organ. Hence the
omen-seeker comes to prefer the sacrificed animal, as likely to be
filled with the divine spirit through contact with the altar. And,
again, if we are to understand the most primitive thought, we
probably ought to conceive of it as regarding the omen not as a
mere sign, but in some confused sense as a cause of that which is
to happen. By sympathetic magic the flight of the bird, or the
appearance of the entrails, is mysteriously connected, as cause
with effect, with the event which is desired or dreaded. Thus in
the Aztec sacrifice of children to procure rain, the victims
were encouraged to shed tears copiously; and this was not a
mere sign of an abundant rainfall, but was sympathetically
connected with it. And in the same way, when of the three
beasts over which three kings swore an oath of alliance, one
died prematurely and was supposed thereby to portend the death
of one of the kings,'- or when in the Lacedaemonian sacrifice the
head of the victim mysteriously vanished, and this portended the
death of their naval commander,'^ these omens would be merely
signs of the future for the comparatively advanced Hellene; but
we may discern at the back of this belief one more primitive
still, that these things were somehow casually or sympathetically
connected with the kindred events that followed. We can observe
the logical nexus here, which in most instances escapes us. This
form of divination, then, we may regard as a special branch of
sympathetic magic, which nature herself performs for early man,
and which it concerns him to watch.
The other branch of the mantic art, the ecstatic or inspired,
has had the greater career among the peoples of the higher
religions; and morphologicaUy we may call it the more ad-
vanced, as Shamanism or demoniac or divine possession implies
the belief in spirits or divinities. But actually it is no doubt of
great antiquity, and it is found still existing at a rather low
grade of savagery. Therefore it is unsafe to infer from Homer's
silence about it that it only became prevalent in Greece in the
post-Homeric period. It did not altogether supersede the simpler
method of divination by omens; but being far more impressive
and awe-inspiring, it was adopted by some of the chief Apolline
oracles, though never by Dodona.
The most salient example of it is afforded by Delphi. In the
historic period, and perhaps from the earliest times, a woman
known as the Pythoness was the organ of inspiration, and it was
generally believed that she delivered her oracles under the direct
afflatus of the god. The divine possession worked like an
epileptic seizure, and was exhausting and might be dangerous;
nor is there any reason to suppose that it was simulated. This
communion with the divinity needed careful preparation.
Originally, as it seems, virginity was a condition of the tenure of
the office; for the virgin has been often supposed to be the purer
vehicle for divine communication ; but later the rule was established 1
that a married woman over fifty years of age should be chosen, I
with the proviso that she should be attired as a maiden. As a
preUminary to the divine possession, she appears to have chewed
leaves of the sacred laurel, and then to have drunk water from
the prophetic stream called Kassotis which flowed underground.
But the culminating point of the afflatus was reached when she
seated herself upon the tripod; and here, according to the belief
'= Plut. Vita Pyrrh. c. 6. " Died. Sic. xiii. 97.
ORACLE
143
of at least the later ages of paganism, she was supposed to be
inspired by a mystic vapour that arose from a fissure in the
ground. Against the ordinary explanation of this as a real
mephitic gas producing convulsions, there seem to be geological
and chemical objections;' nor have the recent French excava-
tions revealed any chasm or gap in the floor of the temple. But
the strong testimony of the later writers, especially Plutarch,^
cannot wholly be set aside; and we can sufficiently reconcile it
with the facts if we suppose a small crack in the floor through
which a draught of air was felt to ascend. This, combining with
the other manlic stimulants used, would be enough to throw a
believing medium into a condition of mental seizure; and the
difficulty felt by the older generation of scholars, who had to
resort to the hypothesis of charlatanism or diabolic agency, no
longer exists in the light of modern anthropology and the modern
science of psychic phenomena. The Pythoness was no ambitious
pretender, but ordinarily a virtuous woman of the lower class.
It is probable that what she uttered were only unintelligible
murmurs, and that these were interpreted into relevance and
set in metric or prose sentences by the " prophet " and the " Holy
Ones " or"0(Ttot as they were called, members of leading Delphic
famihes, who sat round the tripod, who received the questions of
the consultant beforehand, probably in writing, and usually had
considered the answers that should be given.
Examples of the same enthusiastic method can be found in
other oracles of Apollo. At Argos, the prophetess of the Apollo
Pythius attained to the divine afflatus by drinking the blood of
the lamb that was sacrificed in the night to him;^ this is obviously
a mantic communion, for the sacrificial victim is full of the spirit
of the divinity. And we find the same process at the prophetic
shrine of Ge at Aegae in Achaea, where the prophetess drank a
draught of bull's blood for the same purpose."* In the famous
oracle shrines of Apollo across the sea, at Klaros and Branchidae^
near Miletus, the divination was of the same ecstatic type, but
produced by a simple draught of holy water. The Clarian prophet
fasted several days and nights in retirement and stimulated his
ecstasy by drinking from a subterranean spring which is said
by Pliny to have shortened the lives of those who used it.^
Then, " on certain fixed nights after many sacrifices had been
offered, he delivered his oracles, shrouded from the eyes of the
consultants."'
The divination by " incubation " was allied to this type,
because though lacking the ecstatic character, the consultant
received direct communion with the god or departed spirit.
He attained it by laying himself down to sleep or to await a
vision, usually by night, in some holy place, having prepared
himself by a course of ritualistic purification. Such consultation
was naturally confined to the underworld divinities or to the
departed heroes. It appears to have prevailed at Delphi when
Ge gave oracles there before the coming of Apollo, and among
the heroes Amphiaraus, Calchas and Trophonius are recorded
to have communicated with their worshippers in this fashion.
And it was by incubation that the sick and diseased who repaired
to the temple of Epidaurus received their prescriptions from
Asclepius, originally a god of the lower world.
After this brief account of the prevalent forms of prophetic
consultation, it remains to consider the part played by the Greek
oracles in the history of Greek civilization. It will be sufficient
to confine our attention to Delphi, about which our information
is immeasurably fuller than it is about the other shrines. In the
earliest period Dodona may have had the higher prestige, but
after the Homeric age it was eclipsed by Delphi, being consulted
chiefly by the western Greeks, and occasionally in the 4th century
by Athens.
The gorge of Delphi was a seat of prophecy from the earliest
' See Oppe on " The Chasm at Delphi," Journ. of Hellenic Studies
(1904).
^ De defect. Orac. c. 43. s paus. ii, 24, i.
' Farnell, op. cil. iii. 11.
' The prophetic fountain at Branchidae is attested by Strabo,
p. 814, and in a confused mystic passage of lamblichus, De Mvst.
3. "■
' Nat. Hist. ii. 232. ' Iambi, loc. cit.
days of Greek tradition. Ge, TTiemis and perhaps Poseidon had
given oracles here before Apollo. Hut it is clear that he had won
it in the days before Homer, who attests the prestige and wealth
of his I'ythian shrine; and it seems clear that before the Dorian
conquest of the Peloponnese a Dryopian migration had already
carried the cult of Apollo Pythius to Asine in y\rgo!is. Also the
constitution of the Amphictyones, " the dwellers around the
temple," reflects the early age when the tribe rather than the city
was the political unit, and the Dorians were a small tribe of north
Greece. The original function of these Amphictyones was to
preserve the sanctity and property of the temple; but this
common interest early developed a certain rule of intertribal
morality. By the formula of the Amphictyonic oath preserved
by Aeschines, which may be of great antiquity, the members
bound themselves " not to destroy any city of the league, not
to cut any one of them off from spring-water, either in war or
peace, and to war against any who violated these rules." We
discern here that Greek religion offered the ideal of a federal
national union that Greek poHtics refused to realize.
The next stage in the history of the oracle is presented by the
legend of the Dorian migration. For we have no right to reject
the strong tradition of the Delphic encouragement of this move-
ment, which well accounts for the devotion shown by Sparta
to the Pythian god from the earliest days; and accounts also
for the higher position that Delphi occupied at the time when
Greek history is supposed to begin.
We have next to consider a valuable record that belongs to
the end of the 8th century or beginning of the 7th, the Homeric
hymn to Apollo, which describes the coming of the Dolphin-tJod
— AeX^iwos — to Pytho, and the organization of the oracle by
Cretan ministers. Of this Cretan settlement at Delphi there
is no other literary evidence, and the "Ocrtot who administered
the oracle in the historic period claimed to be of aboriginal
descent. Yet recent excavation has proved a connexion between
Crete and Delphi in the Minoan period; and there is reason to
believe that in the 8th century some ritual of purification,
momentous for the religious career of the oracle, was brought
from Crete to Delphi, and that the adoption of this latter name
for the place which had formerly been called WvOoi synchronized
with the coming of Apollo Delphinius.
The influence of Delphi was great in various ways, though no
scholar would now maintain the exaggerated dogma of Curtius,
who imputed to the oracle a lofty religious enthusiasm and the
consciousness of a religious political mission.
We may first consider its political influence upon the other
states. The practice of a community consulting an oracle on
important occasions undoubtedly puts a powerful weapon into
the hands of the priesthood, and might lead to something like
a^ theocracy. And there are one or two ominous hints in the
Odyssey that the ruler of the oracle might overthrow the ruler
of the land. Yet owing to the healthy temperament of the early
Greek, the civic character of the priesthood, the strength of the
autonomous feeling, Greece might flock to Delphi without
exposing itself to the perils of sacerdotal control. The Delphic
priesthood, content with their rich revenues, were probably never
tempted to enter upon schemes of far-reaching political ambition,
nor were they in any way fitted to be the leaders of a national
policy. Once only, when the Spartan state applied to Delphi
to sanction their attack on Arcadia, did the oracle speak as if,
like the older papacy, it claimed to dispose of territory* — "Thou
askest of me Arcadia; I will not give it thee." But here the
oracle is on the side of righteousness, and it is the Spartan that
is the aggressor. In the various oracles that have come down to
us, many of which must have been genuine and preserved in the
archives of the state that received them, we cannot discover any
marked political policy consistently pursued by the " Holy Ones "
of Delphi. As conservative aristocrats they would probably
dislike t\Tanny; their action against the Peisistratidae was
interested, but one oracle contains a spirited rebuke to
Cleisthenes, while one or two others, perhaps not genuine, express
the spirit of temperate constitutionalism. As exponents of an
* Herod, i. 56.
144
ORAKZAI
Amphictyonic system they would be sufficiently sensitive of the
moral conscience of Greece to utter nothing in i3agrant violation
of the " jus gentium." In one department of pohtics, the
legislative sphere, it has been supposed that the influence of
Delphi was direct and inspiring. Plato and later writers imagined
that the Pythoness had dictated the Lycurgean system, and
even modern scholars like Bergk have regarded the piJTpai of
Sparta as of Delphic origin. But a severer criticism dispels
these suppositions. The Delphic priesthood had neither the
capacity nor probably the desire to undertake so delicate a task
as the drafting of a code. They might make now and again a
general suggestion when consulted, and, availing themselves of
their unique opportunities of collecting foreign intelligence, they
might often recommend a skilful legislator or arljitrator to
a state that consulted them at a time of intestine trouble.
Finally, a legislator with a code would be well advised, especially
at Sparta, in endeavouring to obtain the sanction and the
blessing of the Delphic god, that he might appear before his own
people as one possessed of a rehgious mandate. In this sense we
can understand the stories about Lycurgus.
There is only one department of the secular history of Greece
where Delphi played a predominant and most effective part,
the colonial department. The great colonial expansion of Greece,
which has left so deep an imprint on the culture of Europe,
was in part inspired and directed by the oracle. For the proof
of this we have not only the evidence of the xprqanol preserved
by Herodotus and others, such as those concerning the foundation
of Cyrene, but also the worship of Apollo 'Apx'm'"';?, " the
Founder," prevalent in Sicily and Magna Graecia, and the
early custom of the sending of tithes or thanksgiving offerings
by the flourishing western states to the oracle that had encouraged
their settlements.
Apollo was already a god of ways — 'kyvitw — who led the
migration of tribes before he came to Delphi. And those legends
are of some value that explain the prehistoric origin of cities
such as Magnesia on the Maeander, the Dryopian Asine in the
Peloponnese, as due to the colonization of temple-slaves, acquired
by the Pythian god as the tithe of conquests, and planted out
by him in distant settlements. The success of the oracle in this
activity led at last to the establishment of the rule that Herodotus
declares to be almost universal in Greece, namely, that no
leader of a colony would start without consulting Delphi. Doubt-
less in many cases the priesthood only gave encouragement
to a pre-conceived project. But they were in a unique position
for giving direct advice also, and they appear to have used their
opportunities with great intelligence.
Their influence on the state cults can be briefly indicated,
for it was not by any means far-reaching. They could have
felt conscious of no mission to preach Apollo, for his cult was
an ancient heritage of the Hellenic stocks. Only the narrower
duty devolved upon them of impressing upon the consultants
the religious obligation of sending tithes or other offerings.
Nevertheless their opportunity of directing the rehgious ritual
and organization of the public worships was great; for Plato's
view' that all questions of detail in religion should be left to
the decision of the god " who sits on the omphalos " was on the
whole in accord with the usual practice of Greece. Such con-
sultations would occur when the state was in some trouble,
which would be likely to be imputed to some neglect of religion,
and the question to the oracle would commonly be put in this
way — " to what god or goddess or hero shall we sacrifice ? "
The oracle would then be inclined to suggest the name of some
divine personage hitherto neglected, or of one whose rites had
fallen into decay. Again, Apollo would know the wishes of the
other divinities, who were not in the habit of directly communicat-
ing with their worshippers; therefore questions about the sacred
land of the goddesses at Eleusis would be naturally referred to
him. From both these points of view we can understand why
Delphi appears to have encouraged the tendency towards
hero-worship which was becoming rife in Greece from the 7th
century onwards. But the only high cult for which we can
1 Republ. 427 A.
discover a definite enthusiasm in the Delphic priesthood was that
of Dionysus. And his position at Delphi, where he became
the brother-deity of Apollo, sufficiently explains this.
As regards the development of religious morality in Greece,
we must reckon seriously with the part played by the oracle.
The larger number of deliverances that have come down to us
bearing on this point are probably spurious, in the sense that
the Pythia did not actually utter them, but they have a certain
value as showing the ideas entertained by the cultivated Hellene
concerning the oracular god. On the whole, we discern that the
moral influence of Delphi was beneficent and on the side of
righteousness. It did nothing, indeed, to abolish, it may even
have encouraged at times, the barbarous practice of human
sacrifice, which was becoming abhorrent to the Greek of the
6th and 5th centuries; but a conservative priesthood is always
liable to lag behind the moral progress of an age in respect of
certain rites, and in other respects it appears that the " Holy
Ones" of Delphi kept well abreast of the Hellenic advance in
ethical thought. An oracle attributed to the Pythoness by
Theopompus (Porph. De absiinentia, 2, 16 and 17) expresses
the idea contained in the story of " the widow's mite," that the
deity prefers the humble offering of the righteous poor to the
costly and pompous sacrifice of the rich. Another, of which
the authenticity is vouched for by Herodotus (vi. 86), denounces
the contemplated perjury and fraud of a certain Glaucus, and
declares to the terrified sinner that to tempt God was no less a
sin than to commit the actual crime. A later xPT^I^s, for
which Plutarch {de Pytli. Or. p. 404 B) is the authority, embodies
the charitable conception of forgivenness for venial faults
committed under excessive stress of temptation: " God pardons
what man's nature is too weak to resist." And in one most
important branch of morahty, with which progressive ancient
law was intimately concerned, namely, the concept of the sin
of homicide, we have reason for believing that the Apolhne
oracle played a leading part. Perhaps so early as the 8th century,
it came to lay stress on the impurity of bloodshed and to organize
and impose a ritual of purification; and thus to assist the
development and the clearer definition of the concept of murder
as a sin and the growth of a theory of equity which recognizes
extenuating or justifying circumstances.^ Gradually, as Greek
ethics escaped the bondage of ritual and evolved the idea of
spiritual purity of conscience, this found eloquent expression
in the utterances imputed to the Pythoness.' Many of these
are no doubt literary fictions; but even these are of value
as showing the popular view about the oracular god, whose
temple and tripod were regarded as the shrine and organ
of the best wisdom and morality of Greece. The downfall of
Greek liberty before Macedon destroyed the political influence of
the Delphic oracle; but for some centuries after it still retained
a certain value for the individual as a counsellor and director
of private conscience. But in the latter days of paganism it
was eclipsed by the oracles of Claros and Branchidae.
Authorities. — A. Bouche-Leclercq, Histoire de la divination dans i
r antiquite, in 4 vols., is still the chief work: cf. L. R. Farnell, Cults ^
of the Greek States, vol. iv. pp. 179-233; Buresch, Apollo Klarios;
Bernard HaussouUier, Eludes sur I'histoire de Milet et du Didymeion ;
Legrand, " Questions oraculaires " in Revue des etudes grecques,
vol. xiv. ; Pomtow's article on " Delphoi " in Pauly-Wissowa
Realencyclopddie.
Ancient Authorities, — Plutarch, De Pythio Oraculo and De
defectu oractdorum; Cicero, De divinatione; Euseb. Praep. Ev.
4, 2, 14. (L- R -F.)
ORAKZAI, a Pathan tribe on the Kohat border of the North-
West Frontier Province of India. The Orakzais inhabit the
mountains to the north-west of Kohat district, bounded on the
N. and E. by the Afridis, on the S. by the Miranzai valley and on
the W. by the Zaimukht country and the Safed Koh mountains.
Their name means " lost tribes," and their origin is buried in
obscurity; though they resemble the Afghans in language,
features and many of their customs, they are rejected by them
as brethren. One branch, the Ali Khel, has been traced to 1
Swat, whence they were expelled by the other inhabitants,
2 Farnell, Cults, vol. iv. p. 300, Hihbert Lectures, pp. 139-152.
' Aelian, Var. Hist. iii. 44: Anth. Pal. xiv. 71 and 74.
ORAN
145
and it is not improbable that the whole tribe consists of refugee
dans of the surrounding races. They are very wiry-looking
mountaineers, but they arc not as fine men or as brave fighters
as their neighbours the Afridis. They cultivate a good deal of
the Khanki and Kurmana valleys in the winter, but in the hot
months retire to the heights of Tirah, of which they occujjy
the southern half called the Mastura valley. They have been
estimated at 28,000 fighting men, but this estimate must be
largely exaggerated, as the country could not possibly support
the consequent population of over 100,000. They have been
the object of various British military expeditions, notably in
1855, 1868, 1869, 1891, and the Tirah campaign of 1897.
ORAN (Arabic Wahran, i.e. ravine), a city of Algeria, capital
of the department and military division of the same name. It
stands at the head of the Gulf of Oran, on the Mediterranean in
35° 44' N., 0° 41' W. The city is 261 m. by rail W.S.W. of
Algiers, 220 m. E. of Gibraltar and 130 m. S. of Cartagena,
Spain. It is built on the steep slopes of the Jebel Murjajo,
which rises to a height of 1900 ft. The city was originally cut
in two by the ravine of Wad Rekhi, now for the most part
covered by boulevards and buildings. West of the ravine lies
the old port, and above this rises what was the Spanish town
with the ancient citadel looking down on it; but few traces of
Spanish occupation remain. The modern quarter rises, like an
amphitheatre, to the east of the ravine. The place d'Armes,
built on the plateau above the ravine, is the centre of the modern
quarter. It contains a fine column commemorative of the
battle of Sidi Brahim (1845), between the French and Abd-el-
Kader. The Chateau Neuf, built in 1563 by the Spaniards,
overlooks the old port. Formerly the seat of the beys of Oran,
it is occupied by the general in command of the military division
and also serves as barracks. The kasbah (citadel) or Chateau
Vieux, used for military purposes, lies S.W. of the Chateau Neuf.
It was partly destroyed by the earthquake of the 8th and 9th
of October 1790. On the hills behind the kasbah are Fort St
Gregoire, a votive chapel commemorative of the cholera of 1849,
and Fort Santa Cruz, crowning at a height of 13 12 ft. the summit
of the Aidur. Fort de la Moune (so called from the monkeys
said to have haunted the neighbourhood) is at the western end
of the harbour, and commands the road from Oran to Mers-el-
Kebir (see below). Fort St Philippe, south of the kasbah,
replaces the old Castle of the Saints of the Spaniards. There
is subterranean communication between all the ancient forts.
The cathedral, dedicated to St Louis, and built in 1839, occupies
the site of a chapel belonging in the days of Spanish dominion
to a convent of monks of St Bernard. The Grand Mosque (in
rue Philippe) was erected at the end of the i8th century to
commemorate the expulsion of the Spaniards, and with money
paid as ransom for Christian slaves. Other mosques have been
turned into churches or utilized for military purposes. The
military hospital, a large building adjoining the cathedral,
contains 1400 beds. A house in the place de I'hopital, now used
by the military, was once the home of the Inquisition; it was
built at the expense of Spain in 1772. The museum formed by
the Oran Society of Geography and Archaeology (founded in
1878) has a fine collection of antiquities.
Oran is the seat of a large trade. There is regular communica-
tion with Marseilles, Cette, Barcelona, Valencia, Cartagena,
Malaga, Gibraltar, and the various ports on the Barbary coast.
The railway to Algiers is joined at Perregaux (47 m. E. of Oran)
by the line from Arzeu to Saida and Ain Sefra which serves
the high plateau whence esparto is obtained. There is also a
railway to Sidi-Bel-Abbes and Tlemfen. The export trade is
chiefly in esparto grass, cereals, wines, olive oil, marbles, cattle
and hides. The imports include manufactured goods, coal and
other commodities. The inner harbour, or old port, contains
two basins, one of lo acres and another of 60 acres, formed by
the construction of a pier eastward from Fort de la Moune, with
two cross piers. In consequence of the growing importance of
the port and the decision of the French government to make
Oran the chief naval station in Algeria, it was decided to build
an eastern harbour. This outer harbour, on which work was
begun in 1905, lies east of the old port and is about double its
size. The least depth of water in the old harbour is 18 ft., the
average depth in the new harbour is 30 ft., the depth at the
entrance being 40 ft.
The population of the city in 1906 was 100,499, of whom 21,906
were PVench, and 23,071 Spanish. There were also 27,570
naturalized Frenchmen, mostly of Spanish origin. There is a
negro colony in the city, numbering about 3000, included in the
census in the native population of 16,296. Including the garrison
and naval forces the total population of the commune was 106,517.
Four miles west of Oran a small promontory forms the harbour
of Mers-el-Kebir, formerly a stronghold of the Barbary pirates.
The promontory is strongly fortified and crosses fire with a
battery erected to the east of Oran. A road along the east coast,
cut for the most part out of the solid rock, connects Oran and
Mers-el-Kebir.
Attempts have been made to identify Oran with the Quiza,
and Mers-el-Kebir with the Portus Magnus, of the Romans.
There are, however, no Roman ruins at Oran or at Mers-el-Kebir.
The foundation of Oran is more properly ascribed to Andalusian
Arabs, who settled there in the beginning of the loth century,
and gave it its name. Rapidly rising into importance as a sea-
port, Oran was taken and retaken, pillaged and rebuilt, by the
various conquerors of northern Africa. Almoravides, Almohades
and Marinides succeeded each other, and in the space of half a
century the city changed hands nine times. In the latter half
of the 15th century it became subject to the sultans of Tlem.fen,
and reached the height of its prosperity. Active commerce was
maintained with the Venetians, the Pisans, the Genoese, the
Marseillais and the Catalans, who imported the produce of their
looms, glass-wares, tin-wares, and iron, and received in return
ivory, ostrich feathers, gold-dust, tanned hides, grain and negro
slaves. Admirable woollen cloth and splendid arms were
manufactured. The magnificence of its mosques and other
public buildings, the number of its schools, and the extent of its
warehouses shed lustre on the city; but wealth and luxury began
to undermine its prosperity, and its ruin was hastened by the
conduct of the Moslem refugees from Spain. Under the influence
of these refugees the legitimate trade of the town gave place to
piracy, Mers-el-Kebir becoming the stronghold of the pirates.
Animated by the patriotic enthusiasm of Cardinal Ximenes,
the Spaniards determined to put a stop to these expeditions
which were carrying off their countrymen, destroying their
commerce, and even ravaging their country. Mers-el-Kebir
fell into their hands on the 23rd of October 1505, and Oran in
May 1509. The latter victory, obtained with but trifling loss,
was stained by the massacre of a third of the Mahommedan
population. From 6000 to 8000 prisoners, 60 cannon, engines
of war and a considerable booty from the wealth accumulated
by piracy fell into the hands of the conquerors. Cardinal
Ximenes introduced the Inquisition, &c., and also restored and
extended the fortifications. Oran became the penal settlement
of Spain, but neither the convicts nor the noblemen in disgrace
who were also banished thither seem to have been under rigorous
surveillance; contemporary accounts speak of constant fetes,
games and bull-fights. MeanwhUe the Turks had become masters
of Algeria, and expelled the Spaniards from all their possessions
except Oran. The bey of Mascara watched his opportunity,
and at length, in 1708, the weakness of Spain and the treason of
the count of Vera Cruz obliged the city to capitulate. The
Spaniards recovered possession in 1732, but found the main-
tenance of the place a burden rather than a benefit , the neighbour-
ing tribes having ceased to deal with the Christians. The
earthquake of 1790 furnished an excuse for withdrawing their
forces. Commencing by twenty-two separate shocks at brief
intervals, the oscillations continued from the 8th of October to
the 22nd of November. Houses and fortifications were over-
thrown and a third of the garrison and a great number of the
inhabitants perished. Famine and sickness had begun to
aggravate the situation when the bey of Mascara appeared
before the town with 30,000 men. By prodigies of energy the
Spanish commander held out till August 1791, when the Spanish
146
ORANGE, HOUSE OF— ORANGE
government having made terms with the bey of Algiers, he was
allowed to set sail for Spain with his guns and ammunition. The
bey Mahommed took possession of Oran in March 1792, and
made it his residence instead of Mascara. On the fall of Algiers
the bey (Hassan) placed himself under the protection of the
conquerors, and shortly afterwards removed to the Levant.
The French army entered the city on the 4th of January 183 1,
and took formal possession on the 17th of August. In 1832 a
census of the town showed that it had but 3800 inhabitants, of
whom more than two-thirds were Jews. Under French rule
Oran has regained its ancient commercial activity and has
become the second city in Algeria.
ORANGE, HOUSE OF. The small principality of Orange,
a district now included in the French department of Vaucluse,
traces back its history as an independent sovereignty to the time
of Charlemagne. William, surnamed le Comet, who Uved
towards the end of the 8th century, is said to have been the first
prince of Orange, but the succession is only certainly known
after the time of Gerald Adhemar (fl. 1086). In 11 74 the
principality passed by marriage to Bertrand de Baux, and there
were nine princes of this line. By the marriage of John of
Chalons with Marie de Baux, the house of Chalons succeeded to
the sovereignty in 1393. The princes of Orange-Chalons were
(i) John I., 1393-141S, (2) Louis I., 1418-1463, (3) WiUiam VIIL,
1463-1475- (4) John II., (1475-1502, (s) Phihbert, 1502-1530.
PhiUbert was a great warrior and statesman, who was held in
great esteem by the emperor Charles V. For his services in his
campaigns the emperor gave him considerable possessions in the
Netherlands in 1522, and Francis I. of France, who had occupied
Orange, was compelled, when a prisoner in Madrid, to restore
it to him. Philibert had no children, and he was succeeded by
his nephew Rene of Nassau-Chalons, son of PhiUbert's sister
Claudia and Henry, count of Nassau, the confidential friend
and counsellor of Charles V. He too died without an heir
in 1544 at the siege of St Dizier, having devised all his titles
and possessions to his first cousin William, the eldest son of
William, count of Nassau-Dillenburg, who was the younger
brother of Rene's father, and had inherited the German
possessions of the family.
WiUiam of Orange-Nassau was but eleven years old when he
succeeded to the principahty. He was brought up at the court of
Charles V. and became famous in history as WiUiam the SUent, the
founder of the Dutch Republic. On his assassination in 1584
he was succeeded by his eldest son PhiUp WiUiam, who had been
kidnapped by PhlUp II. of Spain in his boyhood and brought up
at Madrid. This prince never married, and on his death in 1618
his next brother, Maurice, stadtholder in the United Netherlands
and one of the greatest generals of his time, became prince
of Orange. Maurice died in 1625, also unmarried. Frederick
Henry, the son of Louise de Cohgny, WilUam's fourth wife, born
just before his father's murder, now succeeded to the princedom
of Orange and to aU his brothers' dignities, posts and property
in the Netherlands. Frederick Henry was both a great general
and statesman. His only son, WilUam, was married in 1641 to
Mary, princess royal of England, he being fifteen and the princess
nine years old at that date, and he succeeded to the title of prince
of Orange on his father's death in 1647. At the very outset of
a promising career he suddenly succumbed to an attack of
sm.allpox on the 6th of November 1650, his son WilUam III.
being born a week after his father's death.
A revolution now took place in the system of government in the
United Provinces, and the offices of stadtholder and captain-and
admiral-general, held by four successsive princes of Orange, were
aboUshed. However, the counter revolution of 1672 called
William III. to the head of affairs. At this time Louis XIV.
conquered the principahty of Orange and the territory was in-
corporated in France, the title alone being recognized by the
treaty of Ryswick. William married his cousin Mary, the eldest
daughter of James, duke of York, in 1677. In 16S8 he landed in
England, expelled his father-in-law, James II., from his throne,
and reigned as king of Great Britain and Ireland until his death
in 1702. He left no children, and a dispute arose among various
claimants to the title of prince of Orange. The king of Prussia
claimed it as the descendant of the eldest daughter of Frederick
Henry; John William Friso of Nassau-Dietz claimed it as the
descendant of John, the brother of William the Silent, and also
of the second daughter of Frederick Henry. The result was that
at the peace of Utrecht in 1713, the king of Prussia abandoned the
principaUty to the king of France in exchange for compensation
elsewhere, and John WiUiam Friso gained the barren title and
became WiUiam IV. prince of Orange. His sons WilUam V. and
William VI. succeeded him. William VI. in 1815 became
William I. king of the Netherlands.
See Bastet, Hisloire de la ville et de la principaute d'Orange (Orange
1856). (G. E.)
ORANGE, a town of WelUngton and Bathurst counties. New
South Wales, Australia, 192 m. by rail W.N.W. of Sydney.
It lies in a fruit and wheat-growing district, in which gold,coppec
and silver also abound. It is the centre of trade with the western
interior and has a number of flourishing industries. Orange also
has a great reputation as a health resort. Its suburb. East
Orange, in the county of Bathurst, is a separate municipaUty.
Pop., including East Orange (1901), 6331.
ORANGE, a town of south-eastern France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Vaucluse, 18 m. N. of
Avignon on the railway from Lyons to MarseiUes. Pop. (1906)
of the town, 6412; of the commune, 10,303. Orange is situated
at some distance from the left bank of the Rhone, in the midst of
meadows, orchards and mulberry plantations, watered by a
stream called the Meyne, and overlooked by the majestic summit
of Mount Ventoux, which lies 22 m. to the east. The district is
highly fertile, and the town deals largely in fruit, and mUlet-
stalks for brooms, as weU as in wool, silk, honey and truffles.
Orange is interesting mainly from its Roman remains. The
triumphal arch is not only far finer than any other in France, but
ranks third in size and importance among those still extant in
Europe. Measuring 72 ft. in height, 69 ft. in width, and 26 ft.
in depth, it is composed of three arches supported by Corinthian
columns. On three sides it is weU preserved, and displays
remarkable variety and elegance in its sculptured decorations.
To judge from the traces of an inscription, the arch seems to have
been erected in honour of Tiberius, perhaps to commem.orate
his victory over the GalUc chieftain Sacrovir in a.d. 21. It
suffered from being used as a donjon in the middle ages.
Another most imposing structure is the theatre, dating from
the time of the emperor Hadrian and built against a hiU from
the summit of which a colossal figure of the Virgin commands
the town. The facade, which is 121 ft. high, 340 ft. long and
13 ft. thick, is pierced by three square gates surmounted by a
range of bUnd arches and a double row of projecting corbels,
with holes in which the poles of the awning were placed. Of the
seats occupied by the spectators, only the lower tiers remain.
It was used as an out-work to the fortress built on the hiU by
Maurice of Nassau in 1622, and destroyed fifty years later by order
of Louis XIV., whose troops in 1660 captured the town. Up to
the beginning of the 19th century it was fiUed with hovels and
stables; these were subsequently cleared out, and at the end of
the century the building was restored, and now serves as a
national theatre. In the neighbourhood of the theatre traces
have been found of a hippodrome; and statues, bas-reUefs and
ruins of an amphitheatre also serve to show the importance of
the Roman town. Notre Dame, the old cathedral, originally
erected by the prefect of Gaul, was ruined by the Barbarians,
rebuilt in the nth and 12th centuries, and damaged by the
Protestants.
The town has a sub-prefecture, a tribunal of first instance,
and a communal college among its institutions; and it has
tile and mosaic works and flour-miUs, and manufactories of
boots and shoes and brooms. There is trade in truffles, fruit,
wine, &c.
Orange {Arausio), capital of the Cavari, was in 105 B.C. the
scene of the defeat of a Roman army by the Cimbri and Teutones.
It became after Caesar an important Roman colony. Its
ramparts and fine buildings were partly destroyed by the
ORANGE
H7
I
Alamanni and Visigoths, and partly ruined by the erections
of the middle ages. Orange was included in the kingdom of
Austrasia,fell into the hands of the Saracens and was recovered
by Charlemagne. It became the seat of an independent count-
ship in the nth century. From the 14th century till the Revolu-
tion the town had a university. At the latter period the town
sufferedseverely from the excesses of a popular commission.
See R. Pcyre, Nimes, Aries el Orange (Paris, 1903); A. do Pont-
briant, Ilistoire de la principaute d'Orange (Avignon and Paris, 1891 J.
Councils of Orange. — In 441 a synod of sixteen bishops was
held at Orange under the presidency of St Hilary of Aries, which
adopted thirty canons touching the reconciliation of penitents
and heretics; the ecclesiastical right of asylum, diocesan pre-
rogatives of bishops, spiritual privileges of the defective or
demoniac, the deportment of catechumens at worship, and
clerical celibacy (forbidding married men to be ordained as
deacons, and digamists to be advanced beyond the sub-diaconate).
In 529 a synod of fifteen bishops, under the presidency of
Caesarius of Aries, assembled primarily to dedicate a church,
the gift of Liberius, the lieutenant of Theodoric, in Gaul, but
proved to be one of the most important councils of the 6th
century. Caesarius had sought the aid of Rome against semi-
Pelagianism, and in response Pope Felix IV. had sent certain
capilula concerning grace and free-will, drawn chiefly from the
writings of Augustine and Prosper. These to the number of
twenty-five the synod subscribed, and adopted a supplementary
statement, reaffirming the Augustinian doctrines of corruption,
human inability, prevenient grace and baptismal regeneration.
Its acts were confirmed by Boniface II. on the " 25th of January
530," a date which is open to question.
See F. H. Woods, Canons of the Second Council of Orange (Oxford,
1882). (T. F. C.)
ORANGE, a city of Essex county. New Jersey, U.S.A., in
the N.E. part of the state, about 14 m. W. of New York City.
Pop. (i8go) 18,844, (1900) 241I41, of whom 6598 were foreign-
born and 1903 were negroes, (1910 census) 29,630. It is
served by the Morris & Essex Division of the Delaware, Lacka-
wanna & Western railroad and by the Orange branch (of which
it is a terminus) of the Erie railroad, and is connected with
Newark, South Orange and Bloomfield by electric lines. The
city lies at the base of the eastern slope of the first Watchung,
or Orange, Mountain, and is primarily a residential suburb of
New York and Newark; with East Orange, West Orange
and South Orange it constitutes virtually a single community,
popularly known as " the Oranges." The city has a good public
school system and various private schools, including the Dearborn-
Morgan School (for girls) and the Carteret Academy (for boys).
Of historical interest is the First Presbyterian Church, erected
in 1813, the third structure used by this church organization,
whose history dates back to 17 18. The value of the factory
products of Orange increased from $2,995,688 in 1900 to
$6,150,635 in 1905, or 105-3%, and the capital invested in
manufacturing from $1,359,523 in 1900 to $3,441,183 in 1905,
or i53-i°o. Of the total product-value in 1905, $2,311,614
was the value of felt hats manufactured. Among other manu-
factures are beer, pharmaceutical supplies and lawn mowers.
The city owns and operates its water-works andelectriclighting
plant. Settlements were made in or near the limits of the
present city soon after the founding of Newark, in 1666, and,
on account of the mountainous ridge in this region, they were
generally referred to collectively as " Newark Mountain." As a
disagreement soon arose between the people of Newark and
those of " the mountain " on questions of church administration,
the latter in 1718 severed their connexion with the church at
Newark and formed an independent congregation, the " Mountain
Society." The church, which was known also as " The Church
of the New Ark Mountains," was at first Congregational, but in
1748 became Presbyterian. In 1782 occurs the earliest reference
to the neighbourhood as " Orange Dale," and two years later it
is sometimes referred to as " Orange." In 1806 the legislature
incorporated the township of Orange. Parts of its territory w-ere
included in South Orange and Fairmount (now West Orange)
in 1861 and 1862 respectively, and in 1863 East Orange was
created out of part of Orange. Orange was incorporated as a
town in i860 and was chartered as a city in 1872.
See H. Whiltemore, The Founders and builders of the Oranges
(Newark, 1896); j. H. Condit, Early Records of the Township of
Orange (1807-1845) (Orange, 1897); and S. Wickes, History of the
Oranges (1666-1806), (Newark, 1892).
ORANGE, the longest river of South Africa, almost traversing
the continent from ocean to ocean. It rises in Basutoland, less
than 200 m. from the Indian Ocean, and flows west, with wide
sweeps south and north, to the Atlantic. It drains, with its
tributaries, an area estimated at over 400,000 sq. m., passing
through more than twelve degrees of longitude or 750 m. in a
straight line from source to mouth. The valley of the river
exceeds 1000 m., and the stream has a length of not less than
1300 m. Its headstreams are in the highest part of the Drakens-
berg range, the principal source, the Senku, rising, at an elevation
of more than 10,000 ft., on the south face of the Mont aux
Sources in 28° 48' E., 28° 50' S. The other headstreams are S.E.
of the Senku source, in Champagne Castle, Giant's Castle and
other heights of the Drakensberg. The Giant's Castle source
is not more than 130 m. west of the Indian ocean in a direct line.
Rising on the inner slopes of the hills these rivulets all join the
Senku, which receives from the north several streams which rise in
the Maluti Mountains. Of these the largest are the Semene and
Scnkunyanc (little Senku) and the best known the Maletsunyane,
by reason of its magnificent waterfall — an unbroken leap of 630 ft.
Increased by the perennial waters of these numerous torrents the
Senku makes its way S.W. across the upland valleys between the
Maluti and Drakensberg ranges. After a course of some 200 m.,
passing the S.W. corner of the Maluti Mountains, the Senku, already
known as the Orange, receives the Makhaleng or Kornet Spruit
(90 m.), which rises in Machacha Mountain. The Orange here enters
the great inner plateau of South Africa, which at Aliwal North, the
first town of any size on the banks of the river, 80 m. below the
Kornet Spruit confluence, has an elevation of 4300 ft. Forty miles
lower down the Orange is joined by the first of its large tributaries,
the Caledon (230 m.), which, rising on the western side of the Mont
aux Sources, flows, first west and then south, through a broad and
fertile valley north of the Maluti Mountains. At the confluence
the united stream has a width of 350 yards. Thirty miles lower
down the Orange reaches, in 25° 40' E., its southernmost point —
30° 40' S., approaching within 20 m. of the Zuurberg range. In
this part of its course the river receives from the south the streams,
often intermittent, which rise on the northern slopes of the Storm-
berg, Zuurberg and Sneeuwberg ranges — the mountain chain which
forms the water-parting between the coast and inland drainage
systems of South Africa. Of these southern rivers the chief are the
Kraai, which joins the Orange near Aliwal North, the Stormberg
and the Zeekoe (Sea Cow), the last named having a length of 120 m.
From its most southern point the Orange turns sharply N.W. for
200 m., when having reached 29° 3' S., 23° 36' E. it is joined by its
second great affluent, the Vaal (q.v.). Here it bends south again, and
with many a zigzag continues its general westerly direction, crossing
the arid plains of Bechuana, Bushman and Namaqualands. Flowing
between steep banks, considerably below the general level of the
country, here about 3000 ft., it receives, between the Vaal con-
fluence and the Atlantic, a distance of more than 400 m. in a direct
line, no perennial tributary but on the contrary loses a great deal
of its water by evaporation. In this region, nevertheless, skeleton
river systems cover the country north and south. These usually
dry sandy beds, which on many maps appear rivers of imposing
length, for a few hours or days following rare but violent thunder-
storms, are deep and turbulent streams. The northern system
consists of the Nosob and its tributaries, the Molopo and the
Kuruman. These unite their waters in about 20° 40' E. apd 27° S.,
whence a channel known as the Molopo or Hygap runs south to the
Orange. The southern system, which at one time rendered fertile
the great plains of western Cape Colony, is represented by the
Brak and Ongers rivers, and, farther west, by the Zak and Olifants
rivers, which, united as the Hartebeest, reach the Orange about
25 m. above the mouth of the Molopo. These rivers, in the wet
season and in places, have plenty of water, generally dissipated in
vleis. pans and vloers (marshy and lake land).
Between the mouths of the Hartebeest and Molopo, in 28° 35' S.,
20° 20' E., are the great waterfalls of the Orange, where in a series
of cataracts and cascades the river drops 400 ft. in 16 m. The
Aughrabics or Hundred Falls, as they are called, are divided by
ledges, reefs and islets, the last named often assuming fantastic
shapes. Below the falls the river rushes through a rocky gorge, and
openings in the cliffs to the water are rare. These openings are
usually the sandy beds of dried-up or intermittent affluents, such as
the Bak, Ham. Houm, Aub for Great Fish) rivers of Great Nama-
qualand. As it approaches the Atlantic, the Orange, in its efforts
to pierce the mountain barrier which guards the coast, is deflected
148
ORANGE
north and then south, making a loop of fully 90 ra., of which the two
ends are but 38 m. apart. Crossing the narrow coast plain the
river, with a south-westerly sweep, enters the ocean by a single
mouth, studded with small islands, in 28° 37' S., 16° 30' E. A large
sand bar obstructs the entrance to the river, which is not quite
I m. wide. The river when in flood, at which time it has a depth
of 40 ft., scours a channel through the bar, but the Orange is at all
times inaccessible to sea-going vessels. Above the bar it is navigable
by small vessels for 30 or 40 m. In the neighbourhood of the Vaal
confluence, where the river passes through alluvial land, and at some
other places, the waters of the Orange are used, and are capable
of being much more largely used, for irrigation purposes.
The Hottentots call the Orange the Garib (great water),
corrupted by the Dutch into Gariep. The early Dutch settlers
called it simply Groote-Rivier. It was first visited by Europeans
about the beginning of the i8th century. In 1685 Simon van
der SteU, then governor of the Cape, led an expedition into
Little Namaqualand and discovered the Koper Berg. In 1704
and 1705 other expeditions to Namaqualand were made.
Attempts to mine the copper followed, and the prospectors and
hunters who penetrated northward sent to the Cape reports of
the existence of a great river whose waters always flowed. The
first scientific expedition to reach the Orange was that under
Captain Henry Hop sent by Governor Tulbagh in 1761, partly
to investigate the reports concerning a semi-civilized yellow
race living north of the great river. Hop crossed the Orange
in September 1761, but shortly afterwards returned. Andrew
Sparrman, the Swedish naturalist, when exploring in the Sneeuw-
berg in 1776, learned from the Hottentots that eight or ten
days' journey north there was a large perennial stream, which
he rightly concluded was the groote-rivier of Hop. The next
year Captain (afterwards Colonel) R. J. Gordon, a Dutch officer
of Scottish extraction, who commanded the garrison at Cape
Town, reached the river in its middle course at the spot indicated
by Sparrman and named it the Orange in honour of the prince
of Orange. In 1778 Lieut. W. Paterson, an English traveller,
reached the river in its lower course, and in 1779 Paterson and
Gordon journeyed along the west coast of the colony and ex-
plored the mouth of the river. F. Le Vaillant also visited the
Orange near its mouth in 1784. Mission stations north of the
Orange were established a few years later, and in 1813 the Rev.
John Campbell, after visiting Griqualand West for the London
Missionary Society, traced the Harts river, and from its junction
with the Vaal followed the latter stream to its confluence with
the Orange, journeying thence by the banks of the Orange as
far as Pella, in Little Namaqualand, discovering the great
falls. These falls were in 1S85 visited and described by
G. A. Farini, from whom they received the name of the
Hundred Falls. The source of the Orange was first reached
by the French Protestant missionaries T. Arbousset and
F. Daumas in 1S36.
The story of Hop's expedition is told in the NouveUe description
du Cap de Bonne Esperance (Amsterdam, 1778). Lieut. Paterson
gave his experiences in A Narrative of Four Journeys into the
Country of the Hottentots and Caffraria in the Years ijyj-iyyS-iyjg
(London, 1789). See also Campbell's Travels in South Africa
(London, 1815), Arbousset and Daumas ' Relation d'un voyage
d'exploration au nord-est de la colonic du Cap de Bonne Esperance en
iSjS (Paris, 1842), and Farini's Through the Kalaliari Desert (London,
1886).
ORANGE {Citrus Aurantium). The plant that produces the
familiar fruit of commerce is closely allied to the citron, lemon
and lime, all the cultivated forms of the genus Citrus being so
nearly related that their specific demarcation must be regarded
as somewhat doubtful and indefinite. The numerous kinds of
orange chiefly differing in the external shape, size and flavour of
the fruit may all probably be traced to two weU-marked varieties
or sub-species — the sweet or China orange, var. sinensis, and the
bitter orange or bigarade, var. amara.
The Bitter Seville or Bigarade Orange, C. Aurantium,
var. amara (C. vulgaris of Risso), is a rather small tree, rarely
exceeding 30 ft. in height. The green shoots bear sharp axillary
spines, and alternate evergreen oblong leaves, pointed at the
extremity, and with the margins entire or very slightly serrated;
they are of a bright glossy green, tint, the stalks distinctly winged
and) asin the other species, articulated with the leaf. The fragrant
white or pale pinkish flowers appear in the summer months, and
the fruit, usually round or spheroidal, does not perfectly ripen
until the following spring, so that flowers and both green and
mature fruit are often found on the plant at the same time.
The bitter aromatic rind of the bigarade is rough, and dotted
closely over with concave oil-ceUs; the pulp is acid and more
or less bitter in flavour.
The Sweet or China Orange, including the Malta or Portugal
orange, has the petioles less distinctly winged, and the leaves
more ovate in shape, but chiefly differs in the fruit, the pulp of
which is agreeably acidulous and sweet, the rind comparatively
smooth, and the oil-cells convex. The ordinary round shape of
the sweet orange fruit is varied greatly in certain varieties, in
some being greatly elongated, in others much flattened; while
several kinds have a conical protuberance at the apex, others are
deeply ribbed or furrowed, and a few are distinctly " horned "
or lobed, by the partial separation of the carpels. The two sub-
species of orange are said to reproduce themselves infallibly by
seed; and, where hybridizing is prevented, the seedlings of the
sweet and bitter orange appear to retain respectively the more
distinctive features of the parent plant.
Though now cultivated widely in most of the warmer parts of
the world, and apparently in many completely naturalized, the
Orange (Citrus Aurantium, var. amara), from nature, about one-
third natural size, a, diagram of flower.
diffusion of the orange has taken place in comparatively recent
historical periods. To ancient Mediterranean agriculture it was
unknown; and, though the later Greeks and Romans were
familiar with the citron as an exotic fruit, their " median apple "
appears to have been the only form of the citrine genus with
which they were acquainted. The careful researches of Gallesio
have proved that India was the country from which the orange
spread to western Asia and eventuaUy to Europe. Oranges are
at present found wild in the jungles along the lower mountain
slopes of Sylhet, Kumaon, Sikkim and other parts of northern
India, and, according to Royle, even in the Nilgiri Hills; the
plants are generally thorny, and present the other characters
of the bitter variety, but occasionally wOd oranges occur with
sweet fruit; it is, however, doubtful whether either sub-species
is really indigenous to Hindustan, and De CandoUe is probably
correct in regarding the Burmese peninsula and southern China
as the original home of the orange. Cultivated from a remote
period in Hindustan, it was carried to south-western Asia by the
Arabs, probably before the 9th century, towards the close of
which the bitter orange seems to have been well known to that
people; though, according to Mas'udI, it was not cultivated lq
Arabia itself until the beginning of the loth century, when it was
first planted in 'Oman, and afterwards carried to Mesopotamia and
Syria. It spread ultimately, through the agency of the same
race, to Africa and Spain, and perhaps to Sicily, following
ORANGE
149
everywhere the tide of Mohammedan conquest and civilization.
In the 1 2th century the bigarade was abundantly cultivated in
all the Levant countries, and the returning soldiers of the Cross
brought it from Palestine to Italy and Provence. An orange
tree of this variety is said to have been planted by St Dominic
in the year 1200, though the identity of the one still standing in
the garden of the monastery of St Sabina at Rome, and now
attributed to the energetic friar, may be somewhat doubtful.
No allusion to the sweet orange occurs in contemporary Uterature
at this early date, and its introduction to Europe took place at a
considerably later period, though the exact time is unknown.
It was commonly cultivated in Italy early in the i5th century,
and seems to have been known there previously to the expedition
of Da Gama (1497), as a Florentine narrator of that voyage
appears to have been famiUar with the fruit. The importation
of this tree into Europe, though often attributed to the Portu-
guese, is with more probability referred to the enterprise of the
Genoese merchants of the isth century, who must have found
it growing abundantly then in the Levant. The prevailing
European name of the orange is suflicient evidence of its origin
and of the Une taken in its migration westward. The Sanskrit
designation nagrungo, becoming narungec in Hindustani, and
corrupted by the Arabs into ndranj (Spanish naranja), passed by
easy transitions into the Italian araiicia (Latinized aurantium),
the Romance arangi, and the later Provengal orange. The true
Chinese variety, however, was undoubtedly brought by the
Portuguese navigators direct from the East both to their own
country and to the Azores, where now lu.xuriant groves of the
golden-fruited tree give a modern realization to the old myth
of the gardens of the Hesperides.^ Throughout China and in
Japan the orange has been grown from very ancient times, and it
was found diffused widely when the Indian Archipelago was first
visited by Europeans. In more recent days its cultivation has
extended over most of the warmer regions of the globe, the tree
growing freely and producing fruit abundantly wherever heat
is sufficient and enough moisture can be supplied to the roots;
where night-frosts occur in winter or spring the culture becomes
more difficult and the crop precarious.
The orange flourishes in any moderately fertile soil, if it is well
drained and sufficiently moist; but a rather stiff loam or cal-
careous marl, intermingled with some vegetable humus, is most
favourable to its growth. Grafting or budding on stocks raised
from the seed of some vigorous variety is the plan usually adopted
by the cultivator. The seeds, carefuUy selected, are sown in
well-prepared ground, and the seedUngs removed to a nursery-bed
in the fourth or fifth year, and, sometimes after a second trans-
plantation, grafted in the seventh or eighth year with the desired
variety. When the grafts have acquired sufficient vigour,
the trees are placed in rows in the permanent orangery. Pro-
pagation by layers is occasionally adopted; cuttings do not
readily root, and multipKcation directly by seed is always
doubtful in result, though recommended by some authorities.
The distance left between the trees in the permanent plantation
or grove varies according to the size of the plants and subsequent
culture adopted. In France, when the trunks are from 5 to 65 ft.
in height, a space of from 16 to 26 ft. is left between; but the
dwarfer trees admit of much closer planting. In the West Indies
and Azores an interval of 24 or even of 30 ft. is often allowed.
The ground is kept well stirred between the trunks, and the
roots manured with well-rotted dung, guano or other highly
nitrogenous matter; shallow pits are sometimes formed above
the roots for the reception of Uquid or other manures; in dry
climates water must be abundantly and frequently supphed.
The trees require regular and careful pruning, the heads being
trained as nearly as possible to a spherical form. Between
the rows melons, pumpkins and other annual vegetables are
frequently raised. In garden culture the orange is often trained
as an espalier, and with careful attention yields fruit in great
profusion when thus grown. In favourable seasons the oranges
are produced in great abundance, from 400 to 1000 being
1 The modern Arabic name, Bortuljan (that is, Portuguese),
shows that the China apple reached the Levant from the West.
commonly borne on a single plant in full bearing, while on large
trees the latter number is often vastly exceeded. The trees will
continue to bear abundantly from fifty to eighty years, or even
more; and some old orange trees, whose age must be reckoned
by centuries, still produce their golden crop; these very ancient
trees are, however, generally of the bitter variety. Oranges
intended for export to colder climates are gathered long before
the deep tint that indicates maturity is attained, the fruit
ripening rapidly after picking; but the delicious taste of the
mature China orange is never thus acquired, and those who
have not eaten the fruit in a perfectly ripe state have little idea
of its flavour when in that condition. Carefully gathered, the
oranges are packed in boxes, each orange being wrapped in
paper, or with dry maize husks or leaves placed between them.
The immense quantities of this valuable fruit imported into
Britain are derived from various sources, the Azores (" St
Michael's" oranges), Sicily, Portugal, Spain and other Mediter-
ranean countries, Jamaica, the Bahamas and Florida, California,
&c. In Florida the bitter orange has grown, from an unknown
period, in a wild condition, and some of the earUer botanical
explorers regarded it as an indigenous tree; but it was un-
doubtedly brought by the Spanish colonists to the West India
Islands, and was probably soon afterwards transplanted to
Florida by them or their buccaneering enemies; its chief use in
America is for stocks on which to graft sweet orange and other
species of Citrus.
Orange cultivation has been attempted with success in several
parts of Austraha, especially in New South Wales, where the
orange groves near Paramatta yield an abundant colonial supply.
The orangeries of Queensland and South Australia hkewise
produce well. In many of the Pacific Islands the plant has been
long estabUshed. There are numerous varieties of the sweet
orange, a few of which deserve mention on account of some
striking peculiarity. Maltese or Blood oranges are characterized
by the deep-red tint of the pulp, and comprise some of the best
varieties. Gallesio refers to the blood orange as cultivated
extensively in Malta and Provence; they are largely grown
in the Mediterranean region in the present day, and have been
introduced into America. So-called navel oranges have an
umbilical mark on the apex of the fruit due to the production
of an incipient second whorl of carpels. Baptiste Ferrari,
a Jesuit monk, in his work H esperidcs , siveDe malorum aureorum
cuHiira et Jisiis Libri Quatuor, pubhshed at Rome in 1646, figures
and describes (pp. 403, 405) such an orange. The mandarin
orange of China, sometimes regarded as a distinct species, C.
nobilis, is remarkable for its very flat spheroidal fruit, the rind
of which readily separates with the shghtest pressure; the
pulp has a pecuharly luscious flavour when ripe. The small
Tangerine oranges, valued for their fine fragrance, are derived
from the mandarin.
Diseases. — Several are caused by fungi, others by insects.
Of the fungus diseases that known as foot-rot in Florida and
mal-di-gomma in Italy is very widely distributed. It occurs
on the lower part of the trunk and the main roots of the tree,
and is indicated by exudation of gum on the bark covering the
diseased spot. The diseased patches spread into the wood,
killing the tissues, which emit a foetid odour; the general
appearance of the tree is unhealthy, the leaves become yellow
and the twigs and young branches die. A fungus, Fusarium
limonis is found associated with the disease, which is also fostered
by faulty drainage, a shaded condition of the soil, the use of
rank manures and other conditions. For treatment the soil
should be removed from the base of the trunk, the diseased
patches cut away and the wound treated with a fungicide.
Decay of oranges in transit often causes serious losses; this
has been shown to be due to a species of PeniciUium, of which
the germinating spores penetrate the skin of damaged fruits.
Careful picking, handling and packing have much reduced the
amount of loss from this cause. Another fungus disease, scab,
has been very injurious to the lemon and bitter orange in Florida.
It is caused lay a species of Clados pari urn, which forms numerous
small warts on the leaves and fruits; spraying with a weak
I50
ORANGE
solution of Bordeaux mixture or with ammoniacal solution
of carbonate of copper is recommended. The sooty mould of
orange, which forms a black incrustation on the leaves and also
the fruit, probably occurs wherever the orange is cultivated.
It is caused by species of Meliola; in Europe and the United
States, by M. Pcnzigii and M. CameUiae. The fruit is often
rendered unsaleable and the plant is also injured as the leaves
are unable properly to perform their functions. The fungus is not
a parasite, but Uves apparently upon the honey-dew secreted
by aphides, &c., and is therefore dependent on the presence
of these insects. Spraying with resin-wash is an effective
preventive, as it destroys the insects. Several insect enemies
attack the plant, of which the scale insect Aspidiotiis is the most
injurious in Europe and the Azores. In Florida another species,
Mylilaspis cilricola (purple scale), sometimes disfigures the
fruit to such an extent as to make it unfit for market. Several
species of Aleyrodes are insect pests on leaves of the orange;
A. citri, the white fly of Florida, is described as the most im-
portant of aU the insect pests of the crop in Florida at the
present time, and another species, A. Howardi, is a very serious
pest in Cuba. Cold weather in winter has sometimes proved
destructive in Provence, and many plantations were destroyed
by the hard frosts of 1789 and 1820.
Besides the widespread use of the fruit as an agreeable and
wholesome article of diet, that of the sweet orange, abounding
in citric acid, possesses in a high degree the antiscorbutic pro-
perties that render the lemon and Ume so valuable in medicine;
and the free consumption of this fruit in the large towns of
England during the winter months has doubtless a very beneficial
effect on the health of the people. The juice is sometimes em-
ployed as a coohng drink in fevers, as well as for making a pleasant
beverage in hot weather.
The bitter orange is chiefly cultivated for the aromatic and
tonic quahties of the rind, which render it a valuable stomachic.
Planted long ago in Andalusia by the Moorish conquerors, it is
still extensively grown in southern Spain — deriving its common
English name of " Seville " orange from the abundant groves
that still exist around that city, though the plant is now largely
cultivated elsewhere. The fruit is imported into Great Britain
and the United States in considerable quantities for the manu-
facture of orange marmalade, which is prepared from the pulp
and rind, usually more or less mingled with the pulp of the
China orange. In medicine the fresh peel is largely employed
as an aromatic tonic, and often, in tincture and syrup and
" orange wine," as a mere vehicle to disguise the flavour of
more nauseous remedies. The chief constituents are three
glucosides, hesperidin, isohesperidin and aurantianiarin, the
latter being the bitter principle; and an oil which mainly
consists of a terpene known as limonene. The essential oil of
the rind is collected for the use of the perfumer, being obtained
either by the pressure of the fresh peel against a piece of sponge,
or by the process known as ecuelle, in which the skin of the ripe
fruit is scraped against a series of points or ridges arranged
upon the surface of a peculiarly-shaped dish or broad funnel,
when the oil flows freely from the broken cells. Another fragrant
oil, called in France essence de petit grain, is procured by the
distillation of the leaves, from which also an aromatic water is
prepared. The flowers of both sweet and bitter orange yield,
when distilled with water, the "oil of Neroh" of the druggist
and perfumer, and Ukewise the fragrant Hquid known as " orange-
flower water," which is a saturated solution of the volatile oil
of the fresh flowers. The candied peel is much in request by
cook and confectioner; the favourite liqueur sold as "curafoa "
derives its aromatic flavour from the rind of the bigarade. The
minute immature oranges that drop from the trees are manu-
factured into "issue-peas"; from those of the sweet orange
in a fresh state a sweetmeat is sometimes prepared in France.
Orange trees occasionally acquire a considerable diameter;
the trunk of one near Nice, still standing in 1780, was so large
that two men could scarcely embrace it; the tree was kiUed
by the intense cold of the winter of that year. The wood of the
orange is of a fine yellow tint, and, being hard and close-grained.
is valued by the turner and cabinetmaker for the manufacture
of small articles; it takes a good polish.
Although the bitter " Poma de Orenge " were brought in
small quantities from Spain to England as early as the year
1290, no attempt appears to have been made to cultivate the tree
in Britain untd about 1595, when some plants were introduced
by the Carews of Beddington in Surrey, and placed in their
garden, where, trained against a wall, and sheltered in winter,
they remained until destroyed by the great frost of 1 739-1 740.
In the i8th century the tree became a favourite object of con-
servatory growth; in the open air, planted against a wall,
and covered with mats in winter, it has often stood the cold
of many seasons in the southern counties, in such situations
the trees occasionally bearing abundant fruit. The trees are
usually imported from Italy, where, especially near Nervi, such
plants are raised in great numbers for exportation; they are
generally budded on the stocks of some free-growing variety, often
on the lemon or citron.
The orange has been usually cultivated in England for the
beauty of the plant and the fragrance of its blossoms, rather
than for the purpose of affording a supply of edible fruit. The
latter can, however, be easily grown in a hot-house, some of the
fruits thus grown, especially those of the pretty Httle Tangerine
variety, being superior in quaUty to the imported fruit. The best
form of orange house is the span-roofed, with glass on both sides,
the height and other conditions being similar to those recom-
mended for stove plants. The trees may be planted out, a row on
each side a central path, in a house of moderate width. They
will flourish in a compost of good, light, turfy loam and well-
decayed leaf-mould in equal proportions, to which a little
broken charcoal may be added. Each year the trees should be
top-dressed with a similar compost, removing some of the old soil
beforehand. The trees, if intended to be permanent, should be
placed 10 to 12 ft. apart. It wifl often be found more convenient
to grow the plants in pots or tubs, and then bottom heat can be
secured by placing them on or over a series of hot-water pipes
kept near to or above the ground level. The pots or tubs should
be thoroughly well drained, and should not be too large for the
plants; and repotting should take place about every third year,
the soil being top-dressed in intervening years. The temperature
may be kept at about 50° or 55° in winter, under which treatment
the trees wiU come into bloom in February; the heat must then
be increased to 60° or 65° in the day time, and later on to 80°
or 85°. Throughout the growing season the trees should be
liberaUy watered, and thoroughly syringed everyday; this wiU
materially assist in keeping down insects. When the trees are
in bloom, however, they must not be syringed, but the house
must be kept moist by throwing water on the pathways a few
times during the day. When the flowers have fallen the syringe
may be used again daily in the early morning and late afternoon.
The fruit may be expected to ripen from about the middle of
October to January, and if the sorts are good wiU be of excellent
quality. When the trees are at rest the soil must not be kept
too wet, since this will produce a sickly condition, through the
loss of the small feeding roots. The trees require httle pruning
or training. The tips of the stronger shoots are just pinched
out when they have made about 6 in. of growth, but when a
branch appears to be robbing the rest, or growing ahead of them,
it should be shortened back or tied down.
When grown for the production of flowers, which are always in
great request, the plants must be treated in a similar manner to
that already described, but may do without bottom heat.
For details of orange varieties, cultivation, &c., see Risso and
Poiteau, Histoire et culture des oratigers (edited by A. Du Breuil,
Paris, 1872); for early history and diffusion, G. Gallesio, Traite du
citrus (Paris, 1811). A useful modern handbook is Citrus Fruits
and their CuUure,hy Harold Hume (New York, 1907).
There are many varieties of the sweet orange that maj "be
grown under glass in the British Isles. Amongst the best for
dessert is the St Michaels, a heavy cropper with large juicy
fruits; and closely related are Bittencourt, Egg, Dom Louise,
Sustain, Excelsior and Brown's Orange. The White Orange,
ORANGEBURG— ORANGE FREE STATE
151
so called from its pale skin, is excellent. Silver or Flata is a
sweet, pale-coloured variety with a curious weal-like orange
stripe, the fruit being rather small but heavy. Embiguu, or the
Washinj^lon Navel Orange, produces splendid fruit under glass.
The Jafa, with large oblong fruits and large wavy crinkled
leaves, although a sliy bearer, makes up for this in the size of its
fruits. The Maltese Blood Orange is remarkable for the blood-like
stains in the pulp, although these are not present in every fruit
even on the same tree.
Other kinds of oranges are the Tangerine with small aromatic
fruits and wUlow-like leaves. The Seville orange is a handsome
free-flowering tree, but its fruits are bitter and used only for
preserving and marmalade.
ORANGEBURG, a city and the county-seat of Orangeburg
county. South Carohna, U.S.A., on the North Edisto river,
50 m. S. by E. of Columbia. Pop. (i8qo) 2064; (igoo) 4455.
of whom 2518 were negroes. Orangeburg is served by the .'\tlantic
Coast Line and the Southern raihvays. It is the seat of Clatlin
University for negroes, and of the State Colored Normal, In-
dustrial, Agricultural and Mechanical College. Claflin University,
incorporated in 1869, was named in honour of Lee Claflin (lygi-
1871) of Massachusetts, and is under the control of the Freed-
men's Aid and Education Society of the Methodist Episcopal
Church. In 1908 it had 25 instructors and 538 students (241 men
and 297 women). The State Colored Normal, Industrial, Agri-
cultural and Mechanical CoUege was established here by the state
in 1872 as the College of Agriculture and Mechanics' Institute
(for negroes), on property immediately adjoining the campus of
Claflin University, and the two schools were under one manage-
ment (although otherwise distinct and separate) until i8g6,
when the present name of the state college was adopted. Among
the city's manufactures are cotton-seed oil, cotton (yarn and
cloth), lumber, bricks, concrete and turpentine. The munici-
pahty owns the water-works and the electric-lighting plant. A
trader and trapper settled on the site of what is now Orangeburg
in 1704. In 1735 a company of Germans and Swiss established
the first real settlement and named it Orangeburg, in honour of
the prince of Orange. Orangeburg was incorporated as a town
in 1851, and was first chartered as a city in 1883.
ORANGE FREE STATE, an inland province of British South
Africa; formerly — from 1854 to 1900 — an independent republic.
From May igoo to June 1910 it was known as the Orange River
Colony, since when under the style of Orange Free State it has
formed a province of the Union of South Africa. It lies north of
the Orange and south of the Vaal rivers, between 26° 30' and
30° 40' S. and 24° 20' and 29° 40' E., and has an area of 50,392
sq. .m., being nearly the size of England. It is surrounded by
other British possessions, being bounded N. by the Transvaal,
E. by Natal, S.E. by Basutoland, S. and W. by the Cape province.
Its greatest length is 356 m., its greatest breadth 304 m.
Physical Features. — The country forms part of the inner
tableland of South Africa and has an elevation of between 4000
and 5000 ft. On the N.E. or Natal border the crest of the
Drakensberg forms the frontier. The northern slopes of Mont
aux Sources (11,000 ft.), the highest land in South Africa, are
within the province, as are also the Draken's Berg (5682 ft.),
the mountain from which the range takes its name, Melanies
Kop (7500 ft.) and Platberg (about 8000 ft.), near Harrismith.
Though rugged in places, with outlying spurs and secondary
chains, the westward slopes of the Drakensberg are much
gentler than the eastern or Natal versant of the chain. Several
passes exist through the mountains, that of Van Reenen, 5500 ft.,
being traversed by a railway. From the mountainous eastern
district the country dips gradually westward. No natural
boundary marks the western frontier, a line across the veld
(separating it from the Griqualand West district of the Cape)
from the Orange to the Vaal rivers.
The aspect of the greater part of the country is that of vast
undulating treeless plains, diversified by low rands and isolated
tafelbergs and spitzkops, indicating the former level of the country.
These hills are either of sandstone or ironstone and in altitude vary
from about 4800 ft. to 5300 ft. Ironstone hills are numerous in
the south-west districts. The whole country forms part of tlie
drainage basin of the Orange river, it.s streams, with insignificant
exceptions, being tribularie.'i of tlie Vaal or Caiedon aftiuenls of that
river. The watershed between the Vaal and Caiedon is formed by
chains of hills, which, leaving the main range of the Drakensberg at
Mont aux Sources, sweep in semi<ircles west and .south. 7 hese
bills are known as the Rootlebergen, Wittebergen, Korannaberg,
Viervoet, cvc., and rise to nearly 7000 ft. The well-known Thaba
Nehu (Black Mountain) is an isolalcd peak Ijetween this range and
Bloemfontein. Three-fourths of the country lies north of these
hills and is typical veld; the valley of the Caiedon, sheltered east-
ward by the Maluti Mountains in Basutoland, is well watered and
extremely fertile. The Caiedon, from its source in Mont aux Sources
to Jammerberg Drift near VVepener, forms the boundary of the
province, the southern bank being in Basutoland ; below VVepener
the land on both sides of the Caiedon is in the province. Here,
between the Caiedon and the (Jrange, is the fertile district of Roux-
ville. The north bank of the Orange, from the Kornet Spruit con-
fluence to a point a little ea.st of the spot where the railway from
Cape Town to Kimberley crosses the river, forms the southern
frontier of the province. The chief tributaries of the Vaal (g.v.)
wholly or partly within the province are, going from east to west,
the Klip (this stream from near its source to its confluence with the
Vaal divides the Free State from the Transvaal;, the VVilge, Rhe-
noster, Vet, Modder and Reit. The Sand river, on whose banks
the convention recognizing the independence of the Transvaal Boers
was signed in 1852, is a tributary of the Vet and passes through the
centre of the country. All the affluents of the Vaal mentioned flow
north or west. The Vaal itself for the greater part of its course
forms the boundary between the province and the Transvaal.
From the Klip river confluence it Mows west and south-west, entering
Griqualand West above Kimberley. The river beds are generally
40 to 80 ft. below the level of the surrounding land. Most of the
rivers have a considerable slope and none is navigable. E.xccpt
the Caiedon, Vaal and Orange, they are dry or nearly dry for three
or four months in the year, but in the rainy season they are often
raging torrents. The valleys of the Modder, Reit and the lower
Caiedon contain rich alluvial deposits. Besides the rivers water is
obtained from numerous springs. A remarkable feature of the
western plains is the large number of salt pans and salt springs
grouped together in extensive areas, especially in the Boshof
district.
Geology. — Except a small area around Vredefort in the north, the
whole of the province is occupied by rocks of Karroo age. At
Vredefort there is a granitic boss, belonging to the Swaziland series,
regarded as being an intrusive in the overlying Witwatersrand series
by G. A. F. Molengraaff, but to be of older date by F. A. Hatch.
This boss is bounded, except on the south, by the Witwatersrand
series, the lower portion of which consists of quartzites and slates
and the upper portion of quartzites and conglomerates, j At Hoopstad
and at Stinkhoutboom the Witwatersrand series is unconformably
overlain by 500 ft. of boulder beds and amygdaloidal lavas belonging
to the Vaal River System. The Black Reef series of quartzites and
conglomerates and dolomite form a narrow outcrop resting uncon-
formably upon the last-mentioned system. Of the Karroo System
all the groups from the basal Dwyka Conglomerate to the Cave
Sandstone of the Stormberg series (see Cape Colony) are repre-
sented; but these rocks have not been so minutely subdivided as
in the Cape. The Dwyka Conglomerate forms a narrow outcrop in
the north-west, and is known from boreholes to extend over large
areas beneath the Ecca Shales and to rest directly on rocks of older
age. At Vierfontein a seam of coal is worked above it. The Ecca
series extends over the major portion of the province. It consists
mainly of sandstones, but these are often thin-bedded and pass into
shales. Impressions of plants and silicified stems are frequently
found. The Beaufort series occupies a portion of the area formerly
regarded as being composed of the Stormberg beds. The pre-
vailing rocks are sandstones, mudstones and shales. Reptilian
remains abound; plants arc also plentiful. The Stormberg series is
confined to the north-cast.'
Climate. — Cut off from the warm, rain-bearing winds of the
Indian Ocean by the Drakensberg, the country is swept by the
winds from the dry desert regions to the west. It is also occasionally
subject to hot, dry winds from the north. The westerly wind is
almost constant and, in conjunction with the elevation of the land,
greatly modifies the climatic conditions. The heat usual in sub-
tropical countries is tempered by the cool breezes, and the atmosphere
is dry and bracing. The climate indeed is noted for its healthiness,
the chief drawback being dust-storms. The average temperature
for the four winter months — May-August — is 49° F. ; hard frosts
at night are then common. For the other eight months the average
temperature is 66°, December-February being the hottest months.
The average daily range of the thermometer is from 25° to 30°,
' See for geology, A. H. Green, " A Contribution to the Geologv
and Physical Geography of the Cape Colony," Quart. Journ. Geol.
Soc. vol. xliv., 1888; E. J. Dunn, Geological Sketch Map of S.
Africa (Melbourne, 1S87); D. Draper, " Notes on the Geolog>' of
South-Eastern Africa," Quart. Jonrn. Geol. Soc. vol. 1., 1894;
F. H. Hatch and C. S. Corstorphine, The Geology of Soutli Africa
(2nd ed. London, 1909). . .;i/i.. ,,; 1 ■ .. : ., ., ■.:, , ■■ ,,.
152
ORANGE FREE STATE
^O
the highest recorded range in one day being 74° (from 20° to 94°).
Rain falls on from sixty to seventy days during the year, chiefly
in the summer (December-April). Rain is generally preceded by
thunder and lightning and falls heavily for a short period. Most
of the water runs off the surface into the spruits and in a little while
the veld is again dry. The western part of the province is driest, as
the rain clouds often pass over the lower levels but are caught by
the eastern hills. The average annual rainfall varies from 18 in.
or less in the west to 24 in. in the central regions and 30 in the eastern
highlands.
Flora and Fauna. — The flora is typical of a region of scanty rain-
fall. Over the greater part of the plains little now grows save veld,
the coarse long grass of South Africa. Formerly, much of the
country was covered with mimosa bush, but the trees were to a
large extent cut down by the early white immigrants. Thorny
acacias, euphorbias and aloes are still, however, found in patches
on the plains. Timber trees are almost confined to the river valleys,
where willows, yellow wood, iron wood, red wood, mimosas and, in
deep gorges, the wild fig are found. The tobacco plant also grows
wild. In moist regions ferns and mosses, the arum and other broad
flat-leaved plants are found. The characteristic plants are thorny
and small leaved, or else bulbous. Among veld plants the elands-
boontje provides tanning material equal to oak bark. European
fruit trees and vines flourish in certain localities, while in the
drier regions the Australian wattle, gum trees and pepper trees
have been introduced with success.
The fauna has undergone a great alteration since the first white
settlers entered the country. Big game was then abundant. The
elephant, giraffe, lion, leopard, hyena, zebra, buffalo, gnu, quagga,
kudu, eland and many other kinds of antelope roamed the plains;
the rhinoceros, hippopotamus and crocodile lived in or frequented
the rivers, and ostriches and baboons were numerous. The immigrant
farmers ruthlessly shot down game of all kinds and most of the
animals named were exterminated, so far as the province was
concerned. Of animals still found may be mentioned baboons and
monkeys, the leopard, red lynx {Felis caracal), spotted hyena, aard
wolf, wild cat, long-eared fox, jackals of various kinds, the dassie
or rock rabbit, the scaly anteater, the ant bear (aardvaark), the
mongoose and the spring haas, a rodent of the jerboa family.
Antelope of any kind are now scarce; a few white-tailed gnu are
preserved. None of the dangerous wild beasts is common, but
there are several varieties of poisonous snakes. Scorpions and
tarantulas are numerous, and lizards, frogs, beetles, ants, butterflies,
moths and flies are abundant. Locusts are an intermittent plague.
There are few earthworms or snails. The birds include eagles —
some are called lammervangers from their occasional attacks on
young lambs — vultures, hawks, kites, owls, crows, ravens, the
secretary bird, cranes, a small white heron, quails, partridges,
korhaans, wild geese, duck, and guineafowl, swallows, finches,
starlings, the mossie or Cape sparrow, and the widow bird, noted for
the length of its tail in summer. Barbel and yellow mudfish are
found in the rivers.
Inhabitants. — The Bushmen {q.v.) are, presumably, the oldest
inhabitants of this, as of many other parts of South Africa.
Next came the Hottenots (q.v.), and in the i6th century Bantu
negroes of the Bechuana tribes appear to have established
themselves in the country. The Barolong, one of the oldest
Bechuana tribes, are believed to have entered the country sub-
sequently to the Bakuena, the particular tribe from which the
general name of the race is derived (seeBECHU ana; andTRANSVAAL:
Inhabitants). Clans representing the southern Bakuena were
welded together into one tribe in the iQth century, and are now
known as Basuto (see Basutoland). The Basuto were already
a strong force when the first white settlers, Dutch farmers from
the Cape, entered the country in 1824; the white element has
since been reinforced by a considerable strain of British, particu-
larly Scottish, blood. Since the advent of the whites there has
also been a considerable immigration of Zulus. The majority of
the inhabitants live in the eastern part of the country; the arid
regions west of the main railway line containing a scanty pastoral
population and no towns of any size. The first census, taken
in 1880, showed a total population of 133,518; in 1800 there
were 207,503 inhabitants — an increase in ten years of S5'4i% —
and at the census of 1904 there were 387,315 inhabitants, a
further increase of 85-56%. The density in 1904 was under 8
persons per sq. m. The inhabitants are officially divided into
" Europeans or white," " aboriginal natives" and " mixed and
other coloured races." Between 1880 and 1904 the proportion
of whites dropped from 45-70% to 36-84%- Of the 142,679
white inhabitants in 1904, 85,036 were born in the province;
29,727 in the Cape; 3116 in the Transvaal; 1835 in Natal;
and 18,487 in the United Kingdom. Of the 2726 European
immigrants born in non-British states 1025 came from Russian
Poland.
According to the 1904 census classification the " aboriginal
inhabitants" numbered in that year 229,149. In this term
are included, however, Zidu-Kaffir immigrants. The tribe
most largely represented was the Basuto (130,213 persons),
former owners of considerable tracts in the eastern part of the
country, now known as " The Conquered Territory." In the
eastern districts of Harrismith, Bethlehem, Ficksburg and
Ladybrand the Basutos are largely concentrated. Barolong
numbered 37,998 and other Bechuana 5115. Of the Zulu-
Kaffir tribes Zulus proper numbered 35,275, Fingoes 6275, and
Ama Xosa 5376 (see Kaffirs; and Zululand: Inhabitants).
The Bushmen numbered 4048 persons. Of these 113 1 were in the
Bloemfontein district. The Bushmen have left in drawings on
caves and in rocks traces of their habitation in regions where
they are no longer to be found. In Thaba'nchu a petty Barolong
state enjoyed autonomy up to 1884, and the majority of the
Barolong are found in that district and the adjoining district
of Bloemfontein. The Zulus are mostly found in that part of
the country nearest Zululand. In 1904 the number of persons
belonging to " mixed and other coloured races" was 15,487.
The proportion between the sexes was, for all races, 84-35
females to 100 males; for white inhabitants only 74-91 females to
100 males; for aboriginal inhabitants only 90-86 females to 100
males. Of the population above fifteen years old 55-87%
of the men and 33-69% of the women were unmarried. Among
whites for every 100 unmarried men there were 65-33 unmarried
women; there were 93-04 married women for every 100 married
men, and 173-81 widows for every 100 widowers.
Classified by occupations the census of 1904 gave the following
results: dependants, mainly young children, 28-53%; agri-
culture, 39-51 %; commercial and industrial pursuits, 7-62%;
professional, 3-18%,; domestic (including women living at home
other than those helping in farm work), 15-75%). Divided by
races 8-19% of the whites were engaged in professional work
and only 0-26% of the coloured classes.
Chief Towns. — The capital, Bloemfontein (pop. in 1904, 33,883),
is fairly centrally situated on the trunk railway to Johannesburg.
Kroonstad (pop. 7191) lies 127 m. N.N.E. of Bloemfontein on the
same railway line. Harrismith, 8300, is in the N.E. of the colony,
60 m. by rail from Ladysmith, Natal. Jagersfontein, 5657, is in
the S.W. of the province and owes its importance to the existence
there of a diamond mine. Ladybrand, 3862, Ficksburg, 1954, and
VVepener, 1366, lie in the valley of the Caledon near the Basutoland
frontier. Wint)urg, 2762, lies between Bloemfontein and Kroonstad.
All these towns are separately noticed. Other towns on the trunk
railway, going from south to north, are Springfontein, 1000, an
important railway junction; Trompsburg, 1378; Edenburg, 1562,
and Brandfort, 1977. In the S.E. Thaba'nchu, 1 134, Zastron, 1157,
Dewetsdorp, 971 (named after the father of Christian De Wet),
Reddersburg, 750, Smithfield, 999, and Rouxville, 990. These
are all centres of fine agricultural regions. Bethulie, 1686, on the
Orange river, in the " Conquered Territory-," has been the scene of
the labours of French Protestant missionaries since 1832, and
possesses a fine park. Through it passes the main line from East
London. In the N.E. are: Bethlehem, 1777, on the railway, 57 m.
W. of Harrismith, an agricultural and coal-mining centre; Senekal,
1039; Heilbron, 1544; Vrede, 1543; Frankfort, 747; Lindley,
646; and Rcitz, 526. In the north-west of the trunk railway are;
Parijs, 1732, finely situated on the Vaal, and Vredefort, 759. Farther
west and south are: Hoopstad, 452, on the Vet river; Boshof, 1308,
a fruit and vegetable centre, 30 m. N.E. of Kimberley; and Jacobs-
dal, 764. In the S.W. are: Philippolis, 809, at one time capital of
the Griqua chief Adam Kok and named after the Rev. John Philip
(q.v.). Fauresmith, 1363, a mining centre, 6 m. W. of Jagers-
fontein, and Kofi'yfontcin, 1657, where is a diamond mine. Many
of the towns were the scenes of encounters between the Boers and
British, March 1900-May 1902. At Boshof fell the leader of the
Boers' European Legion, Colonel de Villebois Mareuil, on the 5th of
April 1900. At the census of 1904 Harrismith and Kroonstad were
the only towns where the white inhabitants outnumbered the
coloured populp^ion. Nine towns contained more than 1000 white
inhabitants, the total white population of these towns being 31,505,
of whom 15,501 lived in Bloemfontein.
Communications. — Largely owing to its situation — being on the
direct route between the Cape ports and the Transvaal, and betw-een
Durban and Kimberley — the province possesses an e.\tensive net-
work of railways. The railways are state owned and of the standard
South African gauge — 3 ft. 6 in. They may be divided into two
ORANGE FREE STATE
153
systems, (i) those connecting the province with the Cape and the
Transvaal, and (2) those linking it with Natal.
The first system consists of a trunk line, formed by the junction
of lines from Cape Town and Port Elizabeth, which crosses the
Orange at Nervals Pont, traverses the province from south to north,
passing through Bloemfontein and Kroonstad, and enters tha
Transvaal at Viljocns Drift (331 m. from Nervals Pont), being con-
tinued thence to Johannesburg. This line is joined at Springfontein
by a railway from East London which crosses the Orange near
Bethulie. From Bloemfontein a line (102 m. long) runs west to
Kimberley, on the main line from Cape Town to Rhodesia, and from
Springfontein a branch (56 m. long goes past Jagersfontein to
Faurcsmith.
The second system is formed by a line leaving; the Natal trunk
railway at Ladysmith which crosses the Drakensbe'rg at Van Reenen's
Pass and is continued thence through Harrisraith to Bethlehem.
At Bethlehem it divides, one branch gomg N.W. to Kroonstad (178 m.
from the Natal border and 393 m. from Durban), the other S.W.
along the Caledon valley to Modderpoort near Ladybrand, and
thence directly west to Bloemfontein. The distance from Van
Reenen's Pass to Bloemfontein by this route is 278 m. The two
systems, it will be seen, are doubly connected, namely at Bloem-
fontein and at Kroonstad, and the lines running east from those
towns afford the quickest connexion between Cape Town and
Durban. Besides the lines enumerated there are various local lines,
one branching at Sannah's Post station from the Bloemfontein-
Bethlchem line running south-east to Wepcner. Another branch
from the same line crosses the Caledon to Maseru, Basutoland. In
1910 there were in all 1060 m. of railway open in the province.
There are well-kept high-roads connecting all the towns,and a govern-
ment service of mail carts to places not on the railway. The light
Cape cart is largely used, and the wagon, drawn by a team of oxen,
is still employed by farmers to bring their produce to market.
There is an extensive telegraphic system and a well-organized postal
service.
Agriculture. — The chief industry is agriculture, including sheep
farming and stock raising. The dry western plains are best adapted
for sheep rearing, while the well-watered eastern regions are specially
suitable for the growing of cereals and'also for horse breeding. The
land under cultivation in 1904 was 371,515 morgen (a morgen is
2- 1 1 acres) or about 1230 sq. m. The chief crop is mealies, the staple
food of the natives; wheat, oathay, Kaffir corn and oats coming
next. Little barley is cultivated. The " Conquered Territory,"
that is the valley of the Caledon, is the most fertile region and is
styled the granary of South Africa. Here, in the districts of Lady-
brand, Ficksburg, Bethlehem and Rouxville, most wheat is grown.
The same regions, together with the adjacent regions of Harrismith
and Thaba'nchu, produce the most oats and oathay. Besides
grains the chief crops are those of pumpkins, potatoes and other
table vegetables, and tobacco. The cultivation of potatoes and
tobacco largely increased between the census years 1890 and 1904.
The principal tobacco-growing regions are Vredefort, which produced
258,645 lb in 1904, and Kroonstad (80,385 lb), the districts of
Bethlehem, Ladybrand and Winburg also producing considerable
quantities. Fruit farming engages attention, about 8000 morgen
being devoted to orchards in 1904. The fruit trees commonly
cultivated are the peach, apricot, apple, orange, lemon, pear, fig
and plum.
The rearing of live stock, the chief pursuit of the first Dutch
settlers, is an important industry. Rinderpest and other epidemic
diseases swept over the country in 1895-1896, and during the war
of 1899— 1902 the province was practically denuded of live stock.
There was a rapid increase of stock after the close of hostilities.
Sheep numbered over 5,000,000 in 1910, cattle over 600,000, horses
over 100,000, goats (chiefly owned by natives) over 1,000,000.
Large numbers of pigs are reared. Ostrich farming is growing in
favour. The eastern and south-eastern districts have the greatest
amount of stock per square mile, Ficksburg leading in cattle, horses
and mules. Sheep are most abundant in the Rouxville, Wepener
and Smithfield districts, goats in Philippolis. The dairying industry
is increasing. The Afrikander cattle, powerful draught animals,
large horned, bony and giving little milk, are being crossed with
other stock. A government Department of Agriculture, created in
1904, affords help to the farmers in various ways, notably in com-
batting insect plagues, in experimental farms, and in improving the
breed of horses, sheep and cattle.
Land Settlement. — Under the provisions of a Land Settlements
Ordinance of 1902 over 1,500,000 acres of crown land had been by
1907 allotted, and in September 1909 there were 642 families, of whom
over 570 were British, settled on the land. In 1907 a Land Settle-
ment Board was created to deal with the affairs of these settlers.
At the end of five years the Board was to hand over its duties to
the government.
Diamond Mining and other Industries. — Next to agriculture the
most important industry is that of diamond mining. The chief
diamond mines are at Jagersfontein {q.v.) and Koffyfontein. There
are also diamond mines in the Winburg and Kroonstad districts,
and near Ficksburg, where old workings have been found 40 ft. deep.
The alluvial deposits on the banks of the Vaal, N.E. of Kimberley,
yield occasional diamonds of great purity. The value of the output
from the diamond mines rose from £224,000 in 1890 to £1,508,000
in 1898. The war hindered operations, but the output was valued
at £648,000 in 1904 and at £1,048,000 in 1909.
Coal-mines are worked in various districts in the north near the
Vaal, notably at Vicrfontein, and at Clydesdale, which lies a few
miles .south of Vereeniging. Before 1905 the mines were little
worked; in that year the output was 1 18,000 tons, while in 1907 over
500,000 tons were raised, it dropped to 470,000 in 1909 owing to
loss of railway contracts.
Of other minerals gold has been found, but up to 1909 was not
worked; iron ore exists near Kroonstad and Vredefort, but it
also is not worked. Petroleum has been found in the Ficksburg,
Ladybrand and Harrismith districts, and is pumped to a limited
extent. Good building stone is obtained near Bloemfontein, Lady-
brand and other places, and excellent pottery clay near Bloemfontein.
Besides the industries mentioned flour-milling, soap-making, and
the manufacture of jam and salt are carried on. During 1905 over
12,300,000 lb of salt were obtained from the salt springs at Zoutpan,
near Jacobsdal, and Haagenstad, to the west of Brandfort. In
1907 the output had increased to nearly 23,000,000 lb.
Trade. — The bulk of the direct trade of the country is with the
Cape and theJTransvaal, Natal, however, taking an increasing share.
Basutoland comes fourth. Its chief exports are diamonds, live
stock (cattle, horses and mules, sheep and goats), wool, mohair,
coal, wheat and eggs. Except the diamonds, which go to London
via Cape Town, all the exports are taken by the neighbouring
territories. The principal imports, over 90% being of British
origin, are cotton goods, clothing and haberdashery, leather, boots,
&c., hardware, sugar, coffee, tea and furniture.
The volume of trade in 1898, as represented by imports and
exports, was £3,114,000 (imports £1,190,000; exports £1,923,000).
For the four years beginning on June 30, 1902, that is immediately
after the close of hostilities, the imports increased from £2,460,000
to £4,053,000, the exports from £285,000 to £3,045,000. For the
fiscal year 1908-1909 the imports were valued at £2,945,000, the
exports at £3,558,000. About a third of the imports are the produce
or manufactures of other South African countries. Imported goods
re-exported are of comparatively slight value — some £381,000 in
1908-1909.
Constitution. — From July 1907 to June 1910 the province was
a self-governing colony. It is now represented in the Union
parliament by sixteen senators and seventeen members of the
house of assembly. For parliamentary purposes the province
is divided into single-member constituencies. The franchise is
given to aU adult white male British subjects. There is no
property qualification, but six months' residence in the
province is essential. There is a biennial registration of voters,
and every five years the electoral areas are to be redivided, with
the object of giving to each constituency an approximately
equal number of voters. The qualifications for membership of
the assembly are the same as those for voters.
At the head of the provincial government is an administrator
(who holds office for five years) appointed by the Union ministry.
This official is assisted by an executive committee of four members
elected by the provincial council. The provincial council con-
sists of 25 members (each representing a separate constituency)
elected by the parliamentary voters and has a statutory
existence of three years. Its powers are strictly local and
delegated. The control of elementary education was guaranteed
to the council for a period of five years following the establish-
ment of the Union.
Justice. — The law of the province is the Roman-Dutch law, in so
far as it has been introduced into and is applicable to South Africa,
and as amended by local acts. Bloemfontein is the seat of the
Supreme Court of the Union of South Africa and also of a provincial
division of the same court. For judicial purposes the province is
divided into twenty-four divisions, in each of which is a resident
magistrate, who has limited civil and criminal jurisdiction. There
are also special justices of the peace, having criminal jurisdiction in
minor cases. The provincial court has jurisdiction in all civil and
criminal matters, and is a court of appeal from all inferior courts.
From it appeals can be made to the Appellate Division of the Supreme
Court. Criminal cases are tried before one judge and a jury of nine,
who must give a unanimous opinion. Circuit courts are also held
by judges of the provincial court.
Finance. — The bulk of the revenue, e.g. that derived from customs
and railways, is now paid to the Union government, but the pro-
vincial council has power to levy taxes and (with the consent of the
Union ministry') to raise loans for strictly provincial purposes.
In 1S70— 1871, when the province was an independent state and
possessed neither railways nor diamond mines, the revenue was
£78,000 and the expenditure £71,000; in 1884-1885 the revenue
had risen to £228,000 and the expenditure to £229,000; in 1898,
the last full year of the republican administration, the fig^ures
154
ORANGE FREE STATE
were: revenue, including railway profits, £799,000; expenditure,
including outlay on new railways, £956,000. Omitting the figures
during the war period, the figures for the year ending June 1903
were; revenue, £956,000; expenditure, £839,000. The depression
in trade which followed caused a reduction in revenue, the average
for the years 1904-1909 being: revenue, £820,000; expenditure,
£819,000. These figures are exclusive of railway receipts and ex-
penditure (see Transvaal: Finance).
Religion. — The vast majority (over 95 %) of the white inhabitants
are Protestants, and over 70 % belong to the Dutch Reformed
Church, while another 3 % are adherents of the ver>' similar organi-
zation, the Gereformeerde Kerk. Anglicans are the next numerous
body, forming I2'53% of the white population. The Wesleyans
number nearly 4% of the inhabitants. The Roman Catholics
number2-30%of the whites, the head of their church in the province
being a vicar apostolic. At the head of the Anglican community,
which is in full communion with the Church of England, is the
bishop of Bloemfontein, whose diocese, founded in 1863, includes
not only the Orange Free State, but Basutoland, Griqualand West
and British Bechuanaland. All the churches named have missions
to the natives, and in 1904, 104,389 aboriginals and 10,909 persons
of mixed race were returned as Protestants, and 1093 aboriginals
and 117 of mixed race as Roman Catholics. The total number of
persons in the country professing Christianity was 251,904 or 65%.
The Dutch Reformed Church had the largest number (21,272) of
converts among the natives, the Wesleyans coming next. The
African Methodist Episcopal (Ethiopian) Church had 41 10 members,
of whom only two were whites. The Jewish comm.unity numbered
1616. Nearly 33 °/„ of the population, 127,637 persons, were re-
turned officially at the census of 1904 as of " no religion," under
which head are classed the natives who retain their primitive forms
of belief, for which see Kaffirs, Bechuanas, &c.
Education. — At the census of 1904, 32-57 "„ of the total population
could read and write; of the whites over fifteen years old 82-63 "i
could read and write. Of the aboriginals, 8-15 "i could read and
write; of the mixed and other races, 12-28%. In the urban
areas the proportion of persons, of all races, able to read and
write was 50-67%; in the rural areas the proportion was
26-43%. By sexes, 35% of males and 29-63 % of females could
read and write.
Elementary education is administered by the provincial council,
assisted by a permanent director of education. From 1900 to 1905
the schools were managed, teachers selected and appointed and all ex-
penses borne by the government. They were of an undenominational
character and English was the medium of instruction. The teaching
of Dutch was optional. In 1904 the Dutch Reformed Church started
Christian National {i.e. Denominational) Schools, but in March 1905
an agreement was come to whereby these schools were amalgamated
with the government schools, and in June 1905 a fuither agreement
was arrived at between the government and the leading religious
denominations. By this arrangement " religious instruction of a
purely historical character " was given in all government schools
for two hours every week, and might be given m Dutch. Further,
ministers of the various denominations might give, on the special
request of the parents, instruction to the children of their own
congregations for one hour on one day in each week. The attendance
at government schools reached in 1908 a total of nearly 20,000, as
against 8000 in 1898, the highest attendance recorded under re-
publican government. On the attainment of self-government the
colonial legislature passed an act (1908) which in respect to primary
and secondary education made attendance compulsory on all white
children, the fee system being maintained. English and Dutch
were, nominally, placed on an equal footing as media of instruction.
Ever>- school was under the supervision of a committee elected by
the parents of the children. Schools were grouped in districts, and
for each district there was a controlling board of nine members, of
whom five were elected by the committees of the separate schools
and four appointed by the government. Religious instruction
could only be given by members of the school staff. Dogmatic
teaching was prohibited during school hours, except in rural schools
when parents_ required such teaching to be given. The application
of the provision as to the media of instruction gave rise to much
friction, the English-speaking community complaining that in-
struction in Dutch was forced upon their children (see further,
§ History). Primary- education for natives is provided in private
schools, many of which receive government grants. In 1908 over
10,000 natives were in attendance at schools.
Provision is made for secondary education in all the leading
town_ schools, which prepare pupils for matriculation. At Bloem-
fontein is a high school for girls, the Grey College school for bovs,
and a normal school for the training of teachers. The Grey Uni-
versity College is a state institution providing university education
for the whole province. It is affiliated to the university of the Cape
of Good Hope.
History.
The country north of the Orange river was first visited by
Europeans towards the close of the iSth century. At that time
it was somewhat thinly peopled. The majority of the in-
habitants appear to have been members of the Bechuana
division of the Bantus, but in the valleys of the Establish-
Orange and Vaal were Korannas and other Hottentots, meat of
and in the Drakensberg and on the western border lived ^ Boer
numbers of Bushmen. Early in the 19th century "P"*'*^*
Griquas established themselves north of the Orange. Between
1 8 1 7 and 1 83 1 the country was devastated by the chief Mosilikatze
and his Zulus, and large areas were depopulated. Up to this
time the few white men who had crossed the Orange had been
chiefly hunters or missionaries. In 1824 Dutch farmers from
Cape Colony seeking pasture for their flocks settled in the country.
They were followed in 1836 by the first parties of the Great Trek.
These emigrants left Cape Colony from various motives, but
all were animated by the desire to escape from British sovereignty.
(See South Africa, History; and Cape Colony, History.)
The leader of the first large party of emigrants was A. H. Potgieter,
who concluded an agreement with Makwana, the chief of the
Bataung tribe of Bechuanas, ceding to the farmers the country
between the Vet and Vaal rivers. The emigrants soon came
into collision with Mosilikatze, raiding parties of Zulus attack-
ing Boer hunters who had crossed the Vaal without seeking
permission from that chieftain. Reprisals followed, and in
November 1837 Mosilikatze was decisively defeated by the Boers
and thereupon fled northward. In the meantime another
party of emigrants had settled at Thaba'nchu, where the
Wesleyans had a mission station for the Barolong. The emigrants
were treated with great kindness by Moroko, the chief of that
tribe, and with the Barolong the Boers maintained uniformly
friendly relations. In December 1836 the emigrants beyond
the Orange drew up in general assembly an elementary republican
form of government. After the defeat of Mosilikatze the town
of Winburg (so named by the Boers in commemoration of their
victory) was founded, a volksraad elected, and Piet Relief,
one of the ablest of the voortrckkers, chosen " governor and
commandant-general." The emigrants already numbered some
500 men, besides women and children and many coloured servants.
Dissensions speedily arose among the emigrants, whose numbers
were constantly added to, and Retief, Potgieter and other
leaders crossed the Drakensberg and entered Natal. Those that
remained were divided into several parties intensely jealous
of one another.
Meantime a new power had arisen along the upper Orange
and in the valley of the Caledon. Moshesh, a Bechuana chief of
high descent , had welded together a number of scattered
and broken clans which had sought refuge in that
mountainous region, and had formed of them the
Basuto nation. In 1833 he had welcomed as workers
among his people a band of French Protestant mission-
aries, and as the Boer immigrants began to settle
in his neighbourhood he decided to seek support
from the British at the Cape. At that time the British govern-
ment was not prepared to exercise effective control over the
emigrants. Acting upon the ad\-ice of Dr John Phihp, the
superintendent of the London Missionary Society's stations
in South Africa, a treaty was concluded in 1843 with Moshesh,
placing him under British protection. A similar treaty was
made with the Griqua chief, Adam Kok III. (See Basutoland
and Griqualand.) By these treaties, which recognized native
sovereignty over large areas on which Boer farmers were settled,
it was sought to keep a check on the emigrants and to protect
both the natives and Cape Colony. Their effect was to precipitate
collisions between all three parties. The year in which the
treaty with INIoshesh was made several large parties of Boers
recrossed the Drakensberg into the country north of the Orange,
refusing to remain in Natal when it became a British colony.
During their stay there they had inflicted a severe defeat on the
Zulus under Dingaan (December 183S), an event which, following
on the flight of MosiUkatze, greatly strengthened the position
of Moshesh, whose power became a menace to that of the emigrant
farmers. Trouble first arose, however, between the Boers and
the Griquas in the Philippohs district. Many of the white
Early
relations
with
British,
Basutos
and
Griquas,
ORANGE FREE STATE
155
farmers in this district, unlike their fellov^s dwelling farther
north, were willing to accept British rule, and this fact induced
Mr Justice Menzies, one of the judges of Cape Colony then on
circuit at Colesberg, to cross the Orange and proclaim (October
1842) the country British territory, a proclamation disallowed
by the governor, Sir George Napier, who, nevertheless, maintained
that the emigrant farmers were still British subjects. It was
after this episode that the treaties with Adam Kok and Moshesh
were negotiated. The treaties gave great offence to the Boers,
who refused to acknowledge the sovereignty of the native chiefs.
The majority of the white farmers in Kok's territory sent a
deputation to the British commissioner in Natal, Henry Cloete,
asking for equal treatment with the Griquas, and expressing the
desire to come on such terms, under British protection. Shortly
afterwards hostilities between the farmers and the Griquas
broke out. British troops were moved up to support the Griquas,
and after a skirmish at Zwartkopjes (May 2, 1845) a new arrange-
ment was made between Kok and Sir Peregrine Maitland, then
governor of Cape Colony, virtually placing the administration
of his territory in the hands of a British resident, a post filled
in 1846 by Captain H. D. Warden. The place chosen by Captain
(afterwards Major) Warden as the seat of his court was known
as Bloemfontein, and it subsequently became the capital of the
whole country.
The volksraad at Winburg during this period continued to
claim jurisdiction over the Boers living between the Orange
Anaexa- ^""^ ^^^ VslilI and was in federation with the volksraad
tloa by at Potchefstroom, which made a similar claim upon the
Oreai Boers living north of the Vaal. In 1846 Major Warden
'"'"'■ occupied Winburg for a short time, and the relations
between the Boers and the British were in a continual state of
tension. Many of the farmers deserted Winburg for the Transvaal.
Sir Harry Smith became governor of the Cape at the end of 1847.
He recognized the failure of the attempt to govern on the lines
of the treaties with the Griquas and Basutos, and on the 3rd
of February 1848 he issued a proclamation declaring British
sovereignty over the country between the Orange and the
Vaal eastward to the Drakensberg. The justness of Sir Harr}'
Smith's measures and his popularity among the Boers gained
for his policy considerable support, but the republican party,
at whose head was Andries Pretorius (q.v.), did not submit
without a struggle. They were, however, defeated by Sir Harry
Smith in an engagement at Boomplaats (August 29, 1848).
Thereupon Pretorius, with those most bitterly opposed to British
rule, retreated across the Vaal. In March 1840 Major Warden
was succeeded at Bloemfontein as civU commissioner by Mr
C. U. Stuart, but he remained British resident until July 1852.
A nominated legislative council was created, a high court estab-
lished and other steps taken for the orderly government of the
country, which wasotlficially styled the Orange River Sovereignty.
In October 1849 Moshesh was induced to sign a new arrangement
considerably curtailing the boundaries of the Basuto reserve.
The frontier towards the Sovereignty was thereafter known as the
Warden hne. A little later the reserves of other chieftains were
precisely defined. The British Resident had, however, no force
sufficient to maintain his authority, and Moshesh and all the
neighbouring clans became involved in hostilities with one
another and with the whites. In 1851 Moshesh joined the
republican party in the Sovereignty in an invitation to Pretorius
to recross the Vaal. The intervention of Pretorius resulted
in the Sand River Convention of 1832, which acknowledged
the independence of the Transvaal but left the status of the
Sovereignty untouched. The British government (the first
Russell administration), which had reluctantly agreed to the
annexation of the country, had, however, already repented its
decision and had resolved to abandon the Sovereignty. Lord
Grey (the 3rd earl), secretary of state for the colonies, in a
despatch to Sir Harry Smith dated the 2rst of October 1851,
declared, "The ultimate abandonment of the Orange Sovereignty
should be a settled point in our policy." A meeting of representa-
tives of all European inhabitants of the Sovereignty, elected
on manhood suffrage, held at Bloemfontein in June 1852, never-
theless declared in favour of the retention of British rule. At
the close of that year a settlement was at length concluded
with Moshesh, which left, perhaps, thatchicfina stronger posit ion
than he had hitherto been. (See Basutoland: History.) There
had been ministerial changes in England and the ministry then
in power — that of Lord Aberdeen — adhered to the determina-
tion to withdraw from the Sovereignty. Sir George Russell
Clerk was sent out in 1853 as special commissioner "for the
settling and adjusting of the affairs" of the Sovereignty, and in
August of that year he summoned a meeting of delegates to
determine upon a form of self-government. .'\t that lime there
were some 15,000 whiles in the country, many of them recent
emigrants from Cape Colony. There were among them numbers
of farmers and tradesmen of British blood. The majority of
the whites still wished for the continuance of British rule provided
that it was effective and the country guarded against its enemies.
The representations of their delegates, who drew up a proposed
constitution retaining British control, were unavailing. Sir
George Clerk announced that, as the elected delegates were
unwilling to take steps to form an independent govern- , ^ j_
ment, he would enter into negotiations with other eace
persons. "And then, " writes Dr Theal, "was seen torcedoa
the strange spectacle of an English commissioner "'"Boers.
addressing men who wished to be free of British control
as the friendly and well-disposed inhabitants, while for
those who desired to remain British subjects and who claimed
that protection to which they beheved themselves entitled
he had no sympathizing word." While the elected delegates
sent two members to England to try and induce the government
to alter their decision Sir George Clerk speedily came to terms
with a committee formed by the republican party and presided
over by Mr J. H. Hoffman. Even before this committee met
a royal proclamation had been signed (January 30, 1854)
"abandoning and renouncing all dominion" in the Sovereignty.
A convention recognizing the independence of the country
was signed at Bloemfontein on the 23rd of February by Sir
George Clerk and the republican committee, and on the nth
of March the Boer government assumed office and the republican
flag was hoisted. Five days later the representatives of the
elected delegates had an interview in London with the colonial
secretary, the duke of Newcastle, who informed them that it
was now too late to discuss the question of the retention of
British rule. The colonial secretary added that it was impossible
for England to supply troops to constantly advancing outposts,
"especially as Cape Town and the port of Table Bay were all
she really required in South Africa." In withdrawing from the
Sovereignty the British government declared that it had "no
alhance with any native chief or tribes to the northward of the
Orange River with the exception of the Griqua chief Captain
Adam Kok." Kok was not formidable in a military sense,
nor could he prevent individual Griquas from alienating their
lands. Eventually, in 1861, he sold his sovereign rights to the
Free State for £4000 and removed with his followers to the
district now known as Griqualand East. (F. R. C.)
On the abandonment of British rule representatives of the
people were elected and met at Bloemfontein on the 28th of
March 1854, and between that date and the i8th
of April were engaged in framing a constitution. The caa"nile.
country was declared a republic and named the Orange
Free State. All persons of European blood possessing a six
months' residential qualification were to be granted full burgher
rights. The sole legislative authority was vested in a single
popularly elected chamber styled the volksraad. E.xecutivc
authority was entrusted to a president elected by the burghers
from a list submitted by the volksraad. The president was to
be assisted by an executive council, was to hold office for five
years and was eligible for re-election. The constitution was
subsequently modified but remained of a liberal character. A
residence of five years in the country was required before aliens
could become naturalized. The first president was Mr Hoffman,
but he was accused of being too complaisant towards Moshesh and
resigned, being succeeded in 1855 by ]Mr J. N. Boshof, one of
156
ORANGE FREE STATE
the voortrekkers, who had previously taken an active part
in the affairs of Natal.
Distracted among themselves, with the formidable Basuto
power on their southern and eastern flank, the troubles of the
A Trans- infant state were speedily added to by the action of
vaalraU the Transvaal Boers. Marthinus Pretorius, who had
Into the succeeded to his father's position as commandant-
Free State, gg^g^^^j ^f Potchefstroom, wished to bring about a
confederation between the two Boer states. Peaceful overtures
from Pretorius were declined, and some of his partisans in the
Free State were accused of treason (February 1857). Thereupon
Pretorius, aided by Paul Kruger, conducted a raid into the Free
State territory. On learning of the invasion President Boshof
proclaimed martial law throughout the country. The majority
of the burghers rallied to his support, and on the 2Sth of May
the two opposing forces faced one another on the banks of the
Rhenoster. President Boshof not only got together some
eight hundred men within the Free State, but he received offers
of support from Commandant Schoeman, the Transvaal leader
in the Zoutpansberg district and from Commandant Joubert of
Lydenburg. Pretorius and Kruger, realizing that they would have
to sustain attack from both north and south, abandoned their
enterprise. Their force, too, only amounted to some three
hundred. Kruger came to Boshof's camp with a flag of truce,
the " army " of Pretorius returned north and on the 2nd of June
a treaty of peace was signed, each state acknowledging the
absolute independence of the other. The conduct of Pretorius
was stigmatized as " blameworthy. " Several of the malcontents
in the Free State who had joined Pretorius permanently settled
in the Transvaal, and other Free Staters who had been guilty
of high treason were arrested and punished. This experience
did not, however, heal the party strife within the Free State.
In consequence of the dissensions among the burghers President
Boshof tendered his resignation in February 1858, but was for
a time induced to remain in office. The difficulties of the state
were at that time (1858) so great that the voLksraad in December
of that year passed a resolution in favour of confederation with
the Cape Colony. This proposition received the strong support
of Sir George Grey, then governor of Cape Colony, but his view
did not commend itself to the British government, and was not
adopted (see South Africa: History). In the same year the
disputes between the Basutos and the Boers culminated in open
war. Both parties laid claims to land beyond the Warden line,
and each party had taken possession of what it could, the
Basutos being also expert cattle-lifters. In the war the advantage
rested with the Basutos; thereupon the Free State appealed to
Sir George Grey, who induced Moshesh to come to terms. On
the 15th of October 1858 a treaty was signed defining anew the
boundary. The peace was nominal only, while the burghers
were also involved in disputes with other tribes. Mr. Boshof
again tendered his resignation (February 1859) and retired to
Natal. Many of the burghers would have at this time welcomed
union with the Transvaal, but learning from Sir George Grey
that such a union would nullify the conventions of 1852 and 1854
and necessitate the reconsideration of Great Britain's policy
towards the native tribes north of the Orange and Vaal rivers,
the project dropped. Commandant Pretorius was, however,
elected president in place of Mr Boshof. Though unable to
effect a durable peace with the Basutos, or to realize his ambition
for the creation of one powerful Boer republic, Pretorius saw
the Free State begin to grow in strength. The fertile district of
Bethulie as well as Adam Kok's territory was acquired, and there
was a considerable increase in the white population. The
burghers generally, however, had not learned the need of dis-
cipline, of confidence in their elected rulers, or that to carry on
a government taxes must be levied. Wearied like Mr Boshof of
a thankless task, and more interested in affairs in the Transvaal
than in those of the Free State, Pretorius resigned the presidency
in 1863, and after an interval of seven months Mr (afterwards Sir)
John Henry Brand iq.v.), an advocate at the Cape bar, was
elected president. He assumed office in February 1864. His
election proved a turning-point in the history of the country.
which, under his beneficent and tactful guidance, became peaceful
and prosperous and, in some respects, a model state. But
before peace could be established an end had to be made
of the difficulties with the Basutos. Moshesh continued ,"~,
, elected
to menace the Free State border. Attempts at accom- President.
modation made by the governor of Cape Colony (Sir
Philip Wodehouse) failed, and war between the Free State and
Moshesh v/as renewed in 1865. The Boers gained considerable
successes, and this induced Moshesh to sue for peace. The terms
exacted were, however, too harsh for a nation yet unbroken
to accept permanently. A treaty was signed at Thaba Bosigo in
April 1866, but war again broke out in 1867, and the Free State
attracted to its side a large number of adventurers from all parts
of South Africa. The burghers thus reinforced gained at length
a decisive victory over their great antagonist, every stronghold
in Basutoland save Thaba Bosigo being stormed. Moshesh now
turned in earnest to Sir PhUip Wodehouse for preservation. His
prayer was heeded, and in 1S68 he and his country were taken
under British protection. Thus the thirty years' strife between
the Basutos and the Boers came to an end. The settlement
intervention of the governor of Cape Colony led to the of the
conclusion of the treatyof AliwalNorth(Feb. 12, 1869), Basuto
which defined the borders between the Orange Free '^o"*'^*-
State and Basutoland. The country lying to the north of the
Orange river and west of the Caledon, formerly apart of Basuto-
land, vv-as ceded to the Free State (see Basutoland). This
country, some hundred miles long and nearly thirty wide, is a
fertile stretch of agricultural land on the lower slopes of the
Maluti mountains. It lies at an altitude of nearly 6000 ft., and
is well watered by the Caledon and its tributaries. It has ever
since been known as the Conquered Territory, and it forms to-day
one of the richest corn-growing districts in South Africa. A year
after the addition of the Conquered Territory to the state another
boundary dispute was settled by the arbitration of Mr Keatc,
lieutenant-governor of Natal. By the Sand River Convention
independence had been granted to the Boers living " north of the
Vaal," and the dispute turned on the question as to what stream
constituted the true upper course of that river. Mr Keate
decided (Feb. 19, 1870) against the Free State view and fixed the
Klip river as the dividing line, the Transvaal thus securing the
Wakkerstroom and adjacent districts.
The Basutoland difficulties were no sooner arranged than the
Free Staters found themselves confronted with a serious difficulty
on their western border. In the years 1870-1871 a o/scovery
large number of diggers had settled on the diamond of the
fields near the junction of the Vaal and Orange rivers, Kimberley
which were situated in part on land claimed by the pf^f'J"'"'
Griqua chief Nicholas Waterboer and by the Free State.
The Free State established a temporary government over the
diamond fields, but the administration of this body was satis-
factory neither to the Free State nor to the diggers. At this
juncture Waterboer offered to place the territory under the
administration of Queen Victoria. The offer was accepted, and
on the 27th of October 1871 the district, together with some
adjacent territory to which the Transvaal had laid claim, was
proclaimed, under the name of Griqualand West, British territory.
Waterboer's claims were based on the treaty concluded by his
father with the British in 1834, and on various arrangements with
the Kok chiefs; the Free State based its claim on its purchase
of Adam Kok's sovereign rights and on long occupation. The
difference between proprietorship and sovereignty was confused
or ignored. That Waterboer exercised no authority in the dis-
puted district was admitted. When the British annexation took
place a party in the volksraad wished to go to war with Britain,
but the wiser counsels of President Brand prevailed. The Free
State, however, did not abandon its claims. The matter involved
no little irritation between the parties concerned until July 1876.
It was then disposed of by the 4th earl of Carnarvon, at that time
secretary of state for the colonies, who granted to the Free State
£qo,ooo " in full satisfaction of all claims which it considers it
may possess to Griqualand West." Lord Carnarvon declined
to entertain the proposal made by Mr Brand that the territory
ORANGE FREE STATE
157
should be given up by Great Britain. One thing at least is
certain with regard to the diamond fields — they were the means
of restoring the credit and prosperity of the Free State. In the
opinion, moreover, of Dr Theal, who has written the history of the
Boer Republics and has been a consistent supporter of the Boers,
the annexation of Griqualand West was probably in the best
interests of the Free State. " There was," he states, " no
alternative from British sovereignty other than an independent
diamond field republic."
At this time, largely owing to the exhausting struggle with the
Basutos, the Free State Boers, like their Transvaal neighbours,
had drifted into financial straits. A paper currency had been
instituted, and the notes — currently known as " bluebacks " —
soon dropped to less than half their nominal value. Commerce
was largely carried on by barter, and many cases of bankruptcy
occurred in the state. But as British annexation in 1877 saved
the Transvaal from bankruptcy, so did the influx of British and
other immigrants to the diamond fields, in the early 'seventies,
restore public credit and individual prosperity to the Boers of
the Free State. The diamond fields offered a ready market for
stock and other agricultural produce. Money flowed into the
pockets of the farmers. Public credit was restored. " Blue-
backs " recovered par value, and were called in and redeemed by
the government. Valuable diamond mines were also discovered
within the Free State, of which the one at Jagersfontein is the
richest. Capital from Kimberley and London was soon provided
with which to work them.
The relations between the British and the Free State, after
the question of the boundary was once settled, remained perfectly
Cordial amicable down to the outbreak of the Boer War in
relations 1899. From 1S70 onward the history of the state
with Great -^^.^s onc of quiet, steady progress. At the time of the
Britain. ^^^^^ annexation of the Transvaal the Free State
declined Lord Carnarvon's invitation to federate with the other
South African communities. In 1S80, when a rising of the
Boers in the Transvaal was threatening. President Brand showed
every desire to avert the conflict. He suggested that Sir Henry
deVilliers, Chief Justice of Cape Colony, should be sent into the
Transvaal to endeavour to gauge the true state of affairs in that
country. This suggestion was not acted upon, but when war
broke out in the Transvaal Brand declined to take any part in
the struggle. In spite of the neutral attitude taken by their
government a number of the Free State Boers, living in the
northern part of the country, went to the Transvaal and joined
their brethren then in arms against the British. This fact was
not allowed to influence the friendly relations between the Free
State and Great Britain. In 188S Sir John Brand died. In him
the Boers, not only in the Free State but in the whole of South
Africa, lost one of the most enlightened and most upright rulers
and leaders they have ever had. He realized the disinterested
aims pursued by the British government, without always
approving its methods. Though he had thrown the weight of his
influence against Lord Carnarvon's federation scheme Brand
disapproved racial rivalries.
During the period of Brand's presidency a great change, both
political and economic, had come over South Africa. The re-
newal of the policy of British expansion had been answered by
the formation of the Afrikander Bond, which represented the
racial aspirations of the Dutch-speaking people, and had active
branches in the Free State. This alteration in the political
outlook was accompanied, and in part occasioned, by economic
changes of great significance. The development of the diamond
mines and of the gold and coal industries — of which Brand saw
the beginning — had far-reaching consequences, bringing the Boer
republics into vital contact with the new industrial era. The
Free Staters, under Brand's rule, had shown considerable ability
to adapt their policy to meet the altered situation. In 1889 an
agreement was come to between the Free State and the Cape
Colony government, whereby the latter were empowered to
extend, at their own cost, their railway system to Bloemfontein.
The Free State retained the right to purchase this extension
at cost price, a right they exercised after the Jameson Raid.
Having accepted the assistance of the Cape government in con-
structing its railway, the state also in 1889 entered into a Customs
Union Convention with them. The convention was the outcome
of a conference held at Cape Town in 1888, at which delegates
from Natal, the Free State and the Colony attended. Natal at
this time had not seen its way to entering the Customs Union,
but did so at a later date.
In January i88g Mr F. W. Reitz was elected president of the
Free Slate. His accession to the presidency marked the begin-
ning of a new and disastrous Line of poUcy in the
external affairs of the country. Mr Reitz had no -^'Wance
sooner got into office than a meet ing was arranged with Transvaal.
MrKruger,presidentof the Transvaal, at which various
terms of an agreement dealing with the railways, terms of a
treaty of amity and commerce and what was called a political
treaty, were discussed and decided upon. The political treaty
referred in general terms to a federal union between the Transvaal
and the Free State, and bound each of them to help the other,
whenever the independence of either should be assailed or
threatened from without, unless the state so called upon for
assistance should be able to show the injustice of the cause of
quarrel in which the other state had engaged. While thus
committed to a dangerous alliance with its northern neighbour
no change was made in internal administration. The Free State,
in fact, from its geographical position reaped the benefits without
incurring the anxieties consequent on the settlement of a large
uitlander population on the Rand. The state, however, became
increasingly identified with the reactionary party in the Trans-
vaal. In 1895 the volksraad passed a resolution, in which they
declared their readiness to entertain a proposition from the
Transvaal in favour of some form of federal union. In the same
year Mr Reitz retired from the presidency of the Free State, and
was succeeded in February 1896 by M. T. Steyn iq.v.), a judge
of the High Court. In 1896 President Steyn visited Pretoria,
where he received an ovation as the probable future president
of the two Republics. A further offensive and defensive aUiance
between the two Republics was then entered into, under which
the Free State took up arms on the outbreak of hostilities with
the Transvaal in 1899.
In 1897 President Kruger, bent on still further cementing the
union with the Free State, visited Bloemfontein. It was on this
occasion that President Kruger, referring to the London Conven-
tion, spoke of Queen Victoria as a kwaaje Vroitw, an expression
which caused a good deal of offence in England at the time, but
which, to any one familiar with the homely phraseology of the
Boers, obviously was not meant by President Kruger as insulting.
In order to understand the attitude which the Free State took
at this time in relation to the Transvaal, it is necessary to review
the history of Mr Reitz from an earlier date. Pre-
viously to his becoming president of the Free State ^J^..
he had acted as its Chief Justice, and still earlier in /^^a/,
life had practised as an advocate in Cape Colony. In
1 88 1 Mr Reitz had, in conjunction with Mr Steyn, come under
the influence of a clever German named Borckenhagen, the
editor of the Bloemfontein Express. These three men were
principally responsible for the formation of the Afrikander Bond
(see Cape Colony: History). From i88i onwards they cherished
the idea of an independent South Africa. Brand had been far
too sagacious to be led away by this pseudo-nationalist dream,
and did his utmost to discountenance the Bond. At the same
time his policy was guided by a sincere patriotism, which looked
to the true prosperity of the Free State as weU as to that of the
whole of South Africa. From his death may be dated the dis-
astrous line of policy which led to the extinction of the state as
a republic. The one prominent member of the volksraad who
inherited the traditions and enlightened views of President
Brand was Mr (Afterwards Sir) John G. Fraser. Mr Fraser,
who was an unsuccessful candidate for the presidency in 1896,
was the son of a Presbyterian minister, who had acted as a
minister in the Dutch Reformed Church since the middle of the
century. He grew up in the country of his father's adoption,
and he consistently warned the Free State of the inevitable
158
ORANGE FREE STATE
result — the loss of independence — ^which must follow their
mischievous policy in being led by the Transvaal. The mass of
Boers in the Free State, deluded by a belief in Great Britain's
weakness, paid no heed to his remonstrances. Mr Fraser lived
to see the fulfilment of these prophecies. After the British
occupation of Bloemfontein he cast in his lot with the Imperial
Government, realizing that it had fought for those very principles
which President Brand and he had laboured for in bygone years.
On entering Bloemfontein in iqoo the British obtained posses-
sion of certain state papers which contained records of negotiations
between the Transvaal and the Orange Free State. The evidence
contained in these state records so clearly marks the difference
between the pohcy of Mr Kruger and the pacific, commercial
policy of President Brand and his followers, that the documents
call for careful consideration. From these papers it was found
that, in 1887, two secret conferences had taken place between
representatives of the Republics, dealing with various political
and economical questions. At the first of these conferences,
held in Pretoria, the object of the Free State deputies were to
arrange a general treaty of amity and commerce which would
knit the states more closely together, and to come to some agree-
ment with reference to the scheme for building a railway across
the Free State from the Cape, to connect with a farther extension
in the Transvaal to Pretoria. The deputation also urged the
Transvaal to join the South African Customs Union. Both of
these suggestions were strongly disapproved by Mr Kruger,
inasmuch as they meant knitting together the Boer republics and
the British possessions, instead of merely bringing the Free
State into completer dependence on the Transvaal. From the
minutes of this conference it is clear that the two deputations
were practically at cross purposes. In the minds of President
Kruger and his immediate followers one idea was dominant,
that of ousting and keeping out at all costs British influence and
interests. On the part of the Free State there was obviously
a genuine desire to further the best interests of the state, to-
gether with the general prosperity of the whole of South Africa.
In President Kruger's eyes British trade meant ruin; he desired
to keep it out of the Republic at aU costs, and he begged the
Free State to delay the construction of their railway until the
Delagoa Bay line was completed. He said, " Delagoa is a life
or death question for us. Help us: if you hook on to the Colony
you cut our throat. . . . How can our state exist without the
Delagoa railway? Keep free." With regard to the Customs
Union, President Kruger was equally emphatic; he begged the
Free State to steer clear of it. " Customs Unions," he said, " are
made between equal states with equal access to harbours. We
are striving to settle the question of our own harbour peacefully.
The English will only use their position to swindle the Transvaal
of its proper receipts." In response, Mr Fraser, one of the
Free State delegates, remarked that a harbour requires forts,
soldiers, ships and sailors to man them, or else it would be at the
mercy of the first gunboat that happened to assail it. President
Kruger replied that once the Transvaal had a harbour foreign
powers would intervene. Mr Wolmarans was as emphatic as
President Kruger. ' " Wait a few years. . . . You know our
secret pohcy. We cannot treat the [Cape] Colony as we would
treat you. The Colony would destroy us. It is not the Dutch
there we are fighting against. Time shall show what we mean to
do with them; for the present we must keep them off."
The result of this conference was a secret session of the
Transvaal volksraad and the proposition of a secret treaty
with the Free State, by which each state should bind
itself not to build railways to its frontier without the
consent of the other, the eastern and northern frontiers
of the Transvaal being excepted. The railway from
Pretoria to Bloemfontein was to be proceeded with; neither
party was to enter the Customs Union without the consent
of the other. The Transvaal was to pay £20,000 annually
to the Free State for loss incurred for not having the railway
to Cape Colony. Such a treaty as the one proposed would
simply have enslaved the Free State to the Transvaal, and it
was rejected by the Free State volksraad. President Kruger
Aatl-
British
designs.
determined on a still more active measure, and proceeded with
Dr Leyds to interview President Brand at Bloemfontein. A
series of meetings took place in October of the same year
(1887). President Brand opened the proceedings by proposing
a treaty of friendship and free trade between the two
Repubhcs, in which a number of useful and thoroughly prac-
tical provisions were set forth. President Kruger, however, soon
brushed these propositions aside, and responded by stating that,
in consideration of the common enemy and the dangers which
threatened the Repubhc, an offensive and defensive alliance
must be preliminary to any closer union. To this Brand rejoined
that, as far as the offensive was concerned, he did not desire to
be a party to attacking any one, and as for the defensive, where
was the pressing danger of the enemy which Kruger feared ?
The Free State was on terms of friendship with its neighbours,
nor (added Brand) would the Transvaal have need for such an
alliance as the one proposed if its policy would only remain peace-
ful and conciliatory. At a later date in the conference (see
Transvaal) President Brand apparently changed his policy,
and himself drafted a constitution resembling that of the United
States. This constitution appears to have been modelled on
terms a great deal too hberal and enhghtened to please Mr Kruger,
whose one idea was to have at his command the armed forces
of the Free State when he should require them, and who pressed
for an offensive and defensive aUiance. Brand refused to allow
the Free State to be committed to a suicidal treaty, or dragged
into any wild poUc}' which the Transvaal might deem it ex-
pedient to adopt. The result of the whole conference was that
Kruger returned to Pretoria completely baffled, and for a time
the Free State was saved from being a party to the fatal policy
into which others subsequently drew it. Independent power
of action was retained by Brand for the Free State in both
the railway and Customs Union questions.
After Sir John Brand's death, as already stated, a series of
agreements and measures gradually subordinated Free State
interests to the mistaken ambition and narrow views of the
Transvaal. The influence which the Kruger party had obtained
in the Free State was evidenced by the presidential election in
i8p6, when Mr Steyn received forty-one votes against nineteen
cast for Mr Fraser. That this election should have taken place
immediately after the Jameson Raid probably increased Mr
Steyn 's majority. Underlying the new policy adopted by the Free
State was the belief held, if not by President Steyn himself, at
least by his followers, that the two republics combined would
be more than a match for the power of Great Britain should
hostihties occur.
In December 1897 the Free State revised its constitution in
reference to the franchise law, and the period of residence
necessary to obtain naturalization was reduced from five to three
years. The oath of allegiance to the state was alone required, and
no renunciation of nationality was insisted upon. In 1898 the
Free State also acquiesced in the new convention arranged with
regard to the Customs Union between the Cape Colony, Natal,
Basutoland and the Bechuanaland Protectorate. These measures
suggest that a sUght reaction against the extreme policy of
President Kruger had set in. But events were moving rapidly
in the Transvaal, and matters had proceeded too far for the
Free State to turn back. In May 1899 President Steyn suggested
the conference at Bloemfontein between President Kruger and
Sir Alfred Milner, but this act, if it expressed a genuine desire
for reconciliation, was too late. President Kruger had got the
Free State ensnared in his meshes. The Free Staters were
practically bound, under the offensive and defensive alliance, in
case hostilities arose with Great Britain, either to denounce the
policy to which they had so unwisely been secretly party, or to
throw in their lot with the Transvaal. War occurred, and they
accepted the inevitable consequence. For President
Steyn and the Free State of 1899, in the Hght of the
negotiations we have recorded, neutrality was impossible. A
resolution was passed by the volksraad on the 27th of September
declaring that the state would observe its obhgations to the
Transvaal whatever might happen. Before war had actually
ORANGE FREE STATE
159
broken out the Free State began to expel British subjects, and
the very first act of war was committed by Free State Boers,
who, on the nth of October, seized a train upon the border
belonging to Natal. The events of the war are given elsewhere
(see Transvaal: History).
After the surrender of Cronje at Paardeberg on the 2 7lh of
February 1900 Bloemfontein was occupied by the British troops
under Lord Roberts (March 13,) and on the
d I I . ^^''^ °^ May a proclamation was issued annexing the
tratioa. Free State to the British dominions under the title
of Orange River Colony. For nearly two years longer
the burghers kept the field under Christian de Wet (q.v.), and
other leaders, but by the articles of peace signed on the 31st
of May IQ02 British sovereignty was acknowledged. A civil
administration of the colony was established early in 1901 with
Sir Alfred Milner as governor. Major (afterwards Sir) H. J.
Goold-Adams was appointed lieutenant-governor, Milner being
governor also of the Transvaal, which country claimed most
of his attention. A nominated legislative council was established
in June 1902 of which Sir John Fraser and a number of other
prominent ex-burghers became unofficial members. The railways
and constabular)' of the two colonies were (1903) placed under
an inter-colonial councU; active measures were taken for the
repatriation of the prisoners of war and the residents in the
concentration camps, and in every direction vigorous and
successful efforts were made to repair the ravages of the war.
Over £4,000,000 was spent by the British government in Orange
Colony alone on these objects. At the same time efforts were
made, with a fair measure of success, to strengthen the British
element in the country by means of land settlements. Special
attention was also devoted to the development of the resources
of the country by building new lines of railway traversing the
fertile south-eastern districts and connecting Bloemfontein
with Natal and with Kimberley. The educational system was
reorganized and greatly improved.
To a certain extent the leading ex-burghers co-operated with
the administration in the work of reconstruction. The loss
of their independence was, however, felt bitterly by the
yi^ Boers, and the attitude assumed by the majority was
formed. highly critical of the work of the government. Having
recovered from the worst effects of the war the Boers,
both in the Transvaal and Orange Colony, began in 1904 to make
organized efforts to regain their political ascendancy, and to
bring pressure on the government in respect to compensation,
repatriation, the position of the Dutch language, education and
other subjects on which they alleged unfair treatment. This
agitation, as far as the Orange River Colony was concerned,
coincided with the return to South Africa of ex-President Steyn.
Mr Steyn had gone to Europe at the close of the war and did
not take the oath of allegiance to the British Crown until the
autumn of 1904. A congress of ex-burghers was held at Brand-
fort in December 1904, when among other resolutions passed
was one demanding the grant of self-government to the colony.
This was followed in July 1905 by a conference at Bloemfontein,
when it was resolved to form a national union. This organization,
known as the Oranjie Unie, was formally constituted in May
1006, but had been in existence for some months previously.
A similar organization, called Hd Volk, had been formed by the
Transvaal Boers in January 1905. Both unions had constitutions
almost identical with that of the Afrikander Bond, and their
aims were similar — to secure the triumph of Boer ideals in state
and society. Of the Oranjie Unie Mr Abraham Fischer became
chairman, other prominent members being Messrs Hertzog,
C. de Wet and Steyn. Mr Fischer, the leader of the part)-, was
one of the ablest statesmen on the Boer side in the pre-war
period. He was originally an attorney in Cape Colony and had
joined the Free State bar in 1875. He became vice-president
of the volksraad in 1893 and a member of the executive council
of the state in 1896. He was one of the most trusted counsellors
of Presidents Steyn and Kruger, and the ultimatum sent to the
British on the eve of hostilities was recast by him. While the
war was in progress he went to Europe to seek support for
the Boer cause. He returned to South Africa early in 1903
and was admitted to the bar of the Orange Colony.
A counter-organization was formed by the ex-burghers who
had whole-heartedly accepted the new order of things. They
took the title of the Constitutional parly, and Sir John Fraser
was chosen as chairman. In Bloemfontein the Constitutionalists
had a strong following; elsewhere their supporters were numeri-
cally weak. It was noteworthy that the programmes of the two
parties were very similar, the real difference between them being
the attitude with which they regarded the British connexion.
While the ideal of the Unie was an Afrikander state, the Con-
stitutionalists desired the perfect equality of both white races.
The advent of a Liberal administration under Sir Henry
Campbell-Bannerman in Great Britain in December 1905
completely altered the pohtical situation in the late «g.
Boer states. The previous (Conservative) government sponsible
had in March 1905 made public a form of representative govern-
government, intended to lead up to self-government ""*"'•
for the Transvaal, and had intimated that a similar constitution
would be subsequently conferred on the Orange Colony. The
Campbell-Bannerman administration decided to do without
this intermediary step in both colonies. In April 1906 a com-
mittee, under the chairmanship of Sir J. West-Ridgeway, was
sent to South Africa to inquire into and report upon various
questions regarding the basis of the franchise, single-member
constituencies and kindred matters. There was in the Orange
Colony a considerable body of opinion that the party system of
government should be avoided, and that the executive should
consist of three members elected by the single representative
chamber it was desired to obtain, and three members nominated
by the governor — in short, what was desired was a restoration
as far as possible of the old Free State constitution. These views
were laid before the committee on their visit to Bloemfontein
in June 1906. When, however, the outline of the new constitu-
tion was made public in December 1906 it was found that the
British government had decided on a party government plan
which would have the inevitable and fully foreseen effect of
placing the country in the power of the Boer majority. It was
not until the ist of July 1907 that the letters-patent conferring
self-government on the colony were promulgated, the election
for the legislative assembly taking place in November following.
They resulted in the return of 29 members of the Oranjie Unie,
5 Constitutionalists and 4 Independents. The Constitutionalists
won four of the five seats allotted to Bloemfontein, Sir John
Fraser being among those returned. Following the elections
the governor. Sir Hamilton Goold-Adams, sent for Mr Fischer,
who formed a ministry, his colleagues being ex-General J.B.M.
Hertzog, attorney-general and director of education; Dr A. E. W.
Ramsbottom, treasurer; Christian de Wet, minister of agri-
culture, and Mr C. H. Wessels, minister of pubHc works, &c.
Mr Fischer, besides the premiership, held the portfolio of colonial
secretary. The new ministry tookoflice on the 27th of November.
Of the members of the first legislative councd five were supporters
of the Oranjie Unie and five were regarded as Constitutionalists,
the eleventh member holding the balance.
The responsible government entered upon its task in favourable
conditions. Despite the many obstacles it had to meet, including
drought, commercial depression and the hostility of many of
the ex-burghers, the crown colony administration had achieved
remarkable results. During each of its seven years of existence
there had been a surplus of revenue over expenditure, despite
the fact that taxation had not materially increased, save in
respect to mining, which did not affect the general population.
Custom duties were about the same as in 1898, but railway
rates were materially lower and many new lines had been opened.
The educational system had been placed on a sound basis.
Departments of agriculture, mining, health and native affairs
had been organized, and the civil service rendered thoroughly
efficient. A substantial cash balance was left in the treasury
for the use of the new government. Over 700 families had been
settled on the land and thus an additional source of strength
provided for the state. The first parliament under the new
i6o
ORANGEMEN— ORANIENBAUM
constitution met on the iSth of December 1907, when it was
announced that the Transvaal and Orange Colony had each
^iven notice of the termination of the intercolonial council
with the intention of each colony to gain individual control
of its railways and constabulary.
After a two days' session the legislature was prorogued until
May 1908, when the chief measure submitted by the government
was an education bill designed to foster the knowledge
aalflca- of the Dutch language. This measure became law
tioa (see above § Education). Parliament also passed a
move- measure granting ex-President Steyn a pension of
*"*" " £1000 a year and ex-President Reitz a pension of
£500. In view of the dissolution of the intercolonial council
a convention was signed at Pretoria on the 29th of May which
made provision for the division of the common property, rights
and liabilities of the Orange Colony and the Transvaal in respect
to the railways and constabulary, and estabhshed for four
years a joint board to continue the administration of the railway
systems of the two colonies. The Orange Colony assumed
responsibiUty for £7,700,000 of the guaranteed loan of £35,000,000
of 1903 (see Transvaal: Finance). The colony took part
during this month in an inter-state conference which met at
Pretoria and Cape Town, and determined to renew the existing
customs convention and to make no alteration in railway rates.
These decisions were the result of an agreement to bring before
the parUaments of the various colonies a resolution advocating
the closer union of the South African states and the appointment
of delegates to a national convention to frame a draft constitution.
In this convention Mr Steyn took a leading and conciliatory
part, and subsequently the Orange River legislature agreed to
the terms drawn up by the convention for the unification of the
four self-governing colonies. Under the imperial act by which
unification was estabhshed (May 31, 1910) the colony entered
the union under the style of the Free State Province. (For the
union movement see South Africa: History.) Mr Fischer and
General Hertzog became members of the first union ministry
while Dr A. E. W. Ramsbottom, formerly colonial treasurer,
became the first administrator of the Free State as a province
of the union.
The period during which the province had been a self-governing
colony had been one of steady progress in most directions,
but was greatly embittered by the educational policy
Bducailoo pyrgued by General Hertzog. From the date of the
passing of the education act in the middle of 1908
until the absorption of the colony into the union.
General Hertzog so administered the provisions of the act
regarding the media of instruction as to compel every Euro-
pean child to receive instruction in every subject partly in the
medium of Dutch. This policy of compulsory bihngualism was
persisted in despite the vehement protests of the English-speaking
community, and of the desire of many Dutch burghers that the
medium of instruction for their children should be English.
Attempts to adjust the difiiculty were made and a conference
on the subject was held at Bloemfontein in November 1909.
It was fruitless, and in March 1910 Mr Hugh Gunn (director of
education since 1904) resigned.^ The action of General Hertzog
had the support of his colleagues and of Mr Steyn and kept
alive the racial spirit. Faihng to obtain redress the Enghsh-
speaking section of the community proceeded to open separate
schools, the terms of the act of union leaving the manage-
ment of elementary education to the provincial council.
Authorities. — A. H. Keane, The Boer States: Land and People
(1900); The Report on the 1904 census (Bloemfontein, 1906); The
Statistical Year Book (Bloemfontein) and other official publications ;
W. S. Johnson, Orangia (1906), a good elementary geography;
Precis of Information. Orange Free State and Griqualand West
(War Office, 1878); D. Aitton, " De Oranje Vrijstaat," Tijds. K.
Ned. Aard. Genoots. .Amsterdam, vol. xvii. (1900); H. Kloessel, Die
Siidafrikanischen Republiken (Leipzig, 1888). For a good early
account of the country see Sir \V. Cornwallis Harris, Narrative of
an Expedition into Southern Africa during 1836-37 (Bombay,
1838). For history see, in addition to the British, Cape and Orange
1 See Mr Gunn's pamphlet, The Language Question in the Orange
River Colony, igo2~igio.
contro-
versy.
Free State parliamentary papers, H. Deherain, L'Expansion des
Boers au xix' siecle (Paris, 1905) ; G. McCall Theal, History of
South Africa since ijgs (up to 1872], vols, ii., iii. and iv. (1908 ed;),
and A. Wilmot's Life and Times of Sir R. Southey (1904). G. B.
Beak's The Aftermath of War (1906) is an account of the repatriation
work in the Orange River Colony. A. C. Murray and R. Cannon,
Map of the Orange River Colony (6 sheets: 4 m. to I in., 1908). The
place of publication, unless otherwise stated, is London. Consult also
the bibliographies under Griqualand, Transvaal and South
Africa. (A. P. H.; F. R. C.)
ORANGEMEN, members of the Orange Society, an association
of Irish Protestants, originating and chiefly flourishing in
Ulster, but with ramifications in other parts of the United
Kingdom, and in the British colonies. Orangemen derive their
name from King William III. (Prince of Orange). They are
enrolled in lodges in the ordinary form of a secret society. Their
toasts, about which there is no concealment, indicate the
spirit of the Orangemen. The commonest form is " the glorious,
pious and immortal memory of the great and good King WiUiam,
who saved us from popery, slavery, knavery, brass money
and wooden shoes," with grotesque or truculent additions
according to the orator's taste. The brass money refers to James
II. 's finance, and the wooden shoes to his French aUies. The
final words are often " a fig for the bishop of Cork," in allusion
to Dr Peter Browne, who, in 1715, wrote cogently against
the practice of toasting the dead. Orangemen are fond of
beating drums and flaunting flags with the legend " no surrender,"
in allusion to Londonderry. Orangeism is essentiaUy political.
Its original object was the maintenance of Protestant ascendancy,
and that spirit still survives. The first regular lodges were
founded in 1795, but the system existed earlier. The Brunswick
clubs, founded to oppose Cathohc emancipation, were sprigs
from the original Orange tree. The orange flowers of the Liliwn
bulbiferum are worn in Ulster on the ist and 12th July, the
anniversaries of the Boyne and Aughrim. Another great day
is the 5th of November, when William III. landed in Torbay.
ORANG-UTAN (" man of the woods "), the Malay name of
the giant red man-like ape of Borneo and Sumatra, known to
the Dyaks as the mias, and to most naturalists as Simla satyrus.
The red, or brownish-red, colour of the long and coarse hair
at once distinguishes the orang-utan from the African apes;
a further point of distinction being the excessive length of the
arms, which are of such proportions that the animal when in
the upright posture (which it seldom voluntarily asstimes) can
rest on its bent knuckles. Very characteristic of the old males,
which may stand as much as 5I ft. in height, is the lateral
expansion of the cheeks, owing to a kind of warty growth, thus
producing an extraordinarily broad and flattened type of face.
Such an expansion is however by no means characteristic
of all the males of the species, and is apparently a feature of
racial value. Another peculiarity of the males is the presence
of a huge throat-sac or pouch on the front of the throat and
chest, which may extend even to the arm-pits; although
present in females, it does not reach nearly the same dimensions
in that sex. More than half-a-dozen separate races of orang-
utan are recognized in Borneo, where, however, they do not
appear to be restricted to separate localities. In Sumatra the
Deh and Langkat district is inhabited by S. satyrus deliensis
and Abong by S. s. abongensis.
In Borneo the red ape inhabits the swampy forest-tract at
the foot of the mountains. In confinement these apes (of
which adult specimens have been exhibited in Calcutta) appear
very slow and deUberate in their movements; but in their
native forests they swing themselves from bough to bough and
from tree to tree as fast as a man can walk on the ground beneath.
They construct platforms of boughs in the trees, which are used
as sleeping-places, and apparently occupied for several nights
in succession. Jack-fruit or durian, the tough spiny hide of
which is torn open with their strong fingers, forms the chief
food of orang-utans, which also consume the luscious mangustin
and other fruits. (See Primates.)
ORANIENBAUM, a town of European Russia, in the govern-
ment of St Petersburg, lying 100 ft. above the sea on the south
ORAONS— ORATORIO
i6i
coast of the Gulf of Finland, opposite Kronstadt. Pop. (1897)
5333- It is well known for its imperial palace and as a summer
resort for the inhabitants of St Petersburg, from which it is
25 m. W. by rail. In 1714 Menshikov, to whom the site was
presented by Peter the Great, erected for himself the country-seat
of Oranienbaum; but confiscated, like the rest of his estates,
in 1727, it became an imperial residence. In 1743 the empress
Elizabeth assigned the place to Peter III., who built there a
castle, Peterstadt (now destroyed), for his Holstein soldiers.
ORAONS, an aboriginal people of Bengal. They call themselves
Kurukh, and are sometimes also known as Dhangars. Their
home is in Ranchi district and there are communities in the
Chota Nagpur states and Palamau, while elsewhere they have
scattered settlements, e.g. in Jalpaiguri and the Darjeeling Terai,
whither they have gone to work in the tea-gardens. They number
upwards of three quarters of a million. According to their
traditions the tribe migrated from the west coast of India. The
Oraons are a small race (average 5 ft. 2 in.); the usual colour
is dark brown, but some are as light as Hindus. They are
heavy-jawed, with large mouths, thick lips and projecting teeth.
They reverence the sun, and acknowledge a supreme god,
Dharmi or Dharmest, the holy one, who is perfectly pure, but
whose beneficent designs are thwarted by evil spirits. They
burn their dead, and the urn with the ashes is suspended outside
the deceased's hut to await the period of the year especially set
apart for burials. The language is harsh and guttural, having
much connexion with Tamil. In 1901 the total number of
speakers of Kurukh or Oraon in all India was nearly 600,000.
See E. T. Dalton, Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal (Calcutta, 1872),
and his article " The Kols of Chota-Nagpore," in Supplement to
Journ. of Asiatic Soc. of Bengal, vol. .xxxv. (1887), part ii. p. 154;
Batsch, " Notes on the Oraon Language " in Journ. Roy. Asiatic
Soc. of Bengal for 1866; F. B. Bradley Birt, The Story of an Indian
Upland (1905).
ORATORIO, the name given to a form of religious music with
chorus, solo voices and instruments, independent or at least
separable from the liturgy, and on a larger scale than the cantata
iq.v.). Its early history is involved in that of opera (see Aria and
Opera), though there is a more definite interest in its antecedents.
The term is supposed, with good reason, to be derived from the
fact that St Filippo Neri's Oratory was the place for which
Animuccia's setting of the Laudi Spirituali were written; and
the custom of interspersing these hymns among liturgical or
other forms of the recitation of a Biblical story is certainly one
of several sources to which the idea of modern oratorio may be
traced. Further claim to the " invention " of the oratorio cannot
be given to Animuccia. A more ancient source is the use of
incidental music in miracle-plays and in such medieval dramatic
processions as the 12th-century Prose dc L'Aiie, which on the
ist of January celebrated at Beauvais the Flight into Egypt.
But the most ancient origin of all has hardly been duly brought
into line, although it is the only form that led to classically
artistic results before the time of Bach. This is the Roman
Catholic rite of reciting, during Holy Week, the story of the
Passion according to the Four Gospels, in such a manner that the
words of the Evangelist are sung in Gregorian tones by a tenor,
all directly quoted utterances are sung by voices appropriate
to the speakers, and the rcsponsa turbac or utterances of the
whole body of disciples {e.g. " Lord, is it I ?") and of crowds,
are sung by a chorus. The only portion of this scheme that
concerned composers was the rcsponsa turbae, to which it was
optional to add polyphonic settings of the Seven Last Words or
other special utterances of the Saviour. The narrative and the
parts of single speakers were sung in the Gregorian tones
appointed in the hturgy. Thus the settings of the Passion by
Victoria and Soriano represent, in a very simple form, a perfect
solution of the art-problem of oratorio, as that problem presented
itself to an age in which " dramatic music," or even " epic music,"
would have been a contradiction in terms. It has been aptly
said that the object of the composer in setting such words as
" Crucify Him " was not to express the feelings of an infuriated
crowd, but rather to express the contrition of devout Christians
telling the story; though this view must be admitted to be.
like the 16th-century music itself, decidedly more modern than
the quaintly dramatic traditional methods of performance. Asi
an art-form this early Passion-music owes its perfection primarily!
to the church. The liturgy gives body to all the art-forms of
16th-century church music, and it is for the composer to spirit-
ualize or debase them by his style.
With the monodic revolution at the beginning of the 17th
century the history of oratorio as an art-form controlled by
composers has its real beginning. There is nothing but its
religious subject to distinguish the first oratorio from the first
opera; and so Emilio del Cavalierc's Rappresentazione di
aninia e di corpo (1600) is in no respect outside the line of
early attempts at dramatic music. In the course of the 17th
century the differentiation between opera and oratorio increased,
but not systematically. The gradual revival of choral art found
its best opportunity in the treatment of sacred subjects; not
only because it was with such subjects that the greatest 16th-
century choral art was associated, but also because these subjects
tended to discourage such vestiges of dramatic realism as had
not been already suppressed by the aria form. This form arose
as a concession to dire musical necessity and to the growing
vanity of singers, and it speedily became almost the only
possibility of keeping music alive, or at least embalmed, until the
advent of Bach and Handel. The efforts of Carissimi (d. 1674)
in oratorio clearly show the limited rise from the musical
standards of opera that was then possible where music was
emancipated from the stage. Yet in his art the corruption of
church music by secular ideas is far more evident than any
tendency to elevate Bibhcal music-drama to the dignity of church
music. Normal Italian oratorio remains indistinguishable from
serious Italian opera until as late as the boyhood of Mozart.
Handel's La Rcsurrczzione and I! Trionfo del Tempo conta.in many
pieces almost simultaneously used in his operas, and they show
not the slightest tendency to indulge in choral writing. Nor did
// Trionfo del Tempo' become radically different from the musical
masques of Acis and Galatea and Senicle, when Handel at the
close of his life dictated an adaptation of it to an English transla-
tion with several choral and other numbers interpolated from
other works. Yet between these two versions of the same work
lies more than half the history of classical oratorio. The rest lies
in that specialized German art of which the text centres round
the Passion and the music culminates in Bach; after which there
is no very dignified connected history of the form, until the two
streams, sadly silted up, and never afterwards quite pure, united
in Mendelssohn.
One feature of the Reformation in Germany was that Luther
was very musical. This had the curious result that, though the
German Reformation was far from conservative in its attitude
towards ancient liturgy, it retained almost everything which
makes for musical coherence in a church service; while the
English church, with aU its insistence on historic continuity,
so rearranged the liturgy that no possible music for an English
church service can ever form a coherent whole. We are
accustomed to think of German Passion-music as typically Pro-
testant; yet the four Passions and the Hisloria der Aufcrstehwig
Christi of H. Schiitz (who was born in 1585, exactly a century
before Bach) are as truly the descendants of Victoria's Passions
as they are the ancestors of Bach's. The difference between
them and the Roman Catholic Passions is, of course, eminently
characteristic of the Reformation: the language is German
(so that it may be " understanded of the people"), and the
narrative and dialogue is set to free composition instead of to
forms of Gregorian chant, though it is written in a sort of
Gregorian notation. Schtitz's preface to the Historia der
Auferstchung Christi shows that he writes his recitative for solo
voices, though he calls it Clwr dcs Evangelistcn and Chor der
Pcrsonen CoUoquentcn. The Marcus Passion is, on internal
evidence, of doubtful authenticity, being later in style and
quite stereotyped in its recitative. But in the other Passions,
and most of all in the Aufcrstehung, the recitative is wonderfully
expressive. It was probably accompanied by the organ, though
the Passions contain no hint of accompaniment at aU. In the
XX. 6
l62
ORATORIO
Aujerstehung the Evangelist is accompanied by four viole da
gamba in preference to the organ. In any case, Schiitz tells
us, the players are to " execute appropriate runs or passages "
during the sustained chords. Apart from their remarkable
dramatic force, Schiitz's oratorios show another approximation
to the Passion oratorio of Bach's time in ending with a non-
scriptural hymn-chorus, more or less clearly based on a chorale-
tune. But in the course of the work the Scriptural narrative
is as uninterrupted as it is in the Roman Catholic Passions.
And there is one respect in which the Anferstckung, although
perhaps the richest and most advanced of all Schiitz's works,
is less realistic than either the Roman Passions or those of later
times; namely, that single persons, other than the Evangelist,
are frequently represented by more than one voice. In the case
of the part of the Saviour, this might, to modern minds, seem
natural as showing a reverent avoidance of impersonation; and
it was not without an occasional analogy in Roman Catholic
Passion-music (in the polyphonic settings of special words).
But Schiitz's Passions show no such convention; this feature
is peculiar to the Aujerstehung; and, while the three holy women
and the two angels in the scene at the tomb are represented
realistically by three and two imitative voices, it is curious to
see Mary Magdalene elsewhere always represented by two
sopranos, even though Schiitz remarks in his preface that " one
of the two voices may be sung and the other done instrumenialiter ,
or, si placet, simply left out."
Shortly before Bach, Passion oratorios, not always so entitled,
were represented by several remarkable and mature works of art,
most notably by R. Reiser (1673-1739). Chorale-tunes, mostly
in plain harmony, were freely interspersed in order that the
congregation might take part in what was, after all, a musical
church service for Holy Week. The feelings of devout contem-
plative Christians on each incident of the story were expressed
in accompanied recitatives (arioso) leading to arias; and the
Scriptural narrative was sung to dramatic recitative and ejacu-
latory chorus on the ancient Roman plan, exactly followed,
even in the detail that the Evangelist was a tenor.
The difference between Bach's Passions and those of his
predecessors and contemporaries is simply the difference between
his music and theirs. Where his chorus represents the whole
body of Christendom it has as peculiar an epic power as it is
dramatic where it represents with brevity and rapid climax
the responsa turbae of the Scriptural narrative. Take, for
example, the double chorus at the beginning of the Passion
according to St Matthew, where one chorus calls to the other to
" come and behold " what has come to pass, and the other
chorus asks "whom?" "what?" "whither?" to each exhor-
tation, until at last the two choruses join, while above all
is heard, phrase by phrase, the hymn " O Lamm Gottes
unschuldig." Still more powerful, indeed unapproached even
in external effect by anything else in classical or modern oratorio,
is the duet with chorus that follows the narrative of the betrayal.
Its tremendous final outbreak in the brief indignant appeal to
heaven for the vengeance of damnation on the traitor is met by
the calm conclusion of the Evangehst's interrupted narrative
and the overpowering tenderness of the great figured chorale
(" O Mensch bewein' dein' Siinde gross "), which ends the first
part with a call to repentance. Such contrasts might seem to
be but the natural use of fine opportunities furnished by the
librettist; but the composer appears to owe less to the librettist
when we find that this chorale originally belonged to the Passion
according to St John, where it was to follow Peter's denial of
Christ. To modern ears the most striking device in the Matthew
Passion is that by which the part of Christ is separated from
all the rest by being accompanied with the string band, generally
at a high pitch, though deepening at the most solemn moments
with an effect of sublime euphony and tenderness. And a
peculiarly profound and startling thought, which has not always
met with the attention it deserves, is the omission of this musical
halo at the words " Eli, Eli, lama sabacthani." These points
are aesthetically parallel with Wagnerian Leit-motif, though
entirely different in method. (See Opera.)
In his amazing power of declamation Bach was not altogether
unanticipated by Reiser; but no one before or since approached
him in sustained elevation and variety of oratorio style. Analogies
to the forms of Passion music may be found in many of Bach's
church-cantatas; a very favourite form being the Dialogus;
as, for instance, a dispute between a fearing and a trusting
soul, with, perhaps, the voice of the Saviour heard from a distance;
or a dialogue between Christ and the Church, on the lines of
the Song of Solomon. The Christmas Oratorio, sl set of six
closely connected church-cantatas for performance on separate
days, is treated in exactly the same way as the Passions, with a
larger proportion of non-dramatic choruses expressive of the
triumphant gratitude of Christendom. Many of the single church-
cantatas are called oratorios. If it were not that Bach's idea
of oratorio seems to be definitely connected with that of dialogue,*
there is really no reason in musical terminology why the B minor
Mass should not be so called, for it can never have been liturgical
either in a Roman Catholic or in a Protestant church. But
in all respects it stands alone ; and we must now return to Handel's i
far more heterogeneous work, which forms the staple of almost "
everything else that has been understood by oratorio until the
most recent times.
Handel discovered and matured every possibility of oratorio
as an art-form, except such as ma^' now be brought to light by
those composers with whom the influence of Wagner is not too
overwhelming for them to consider how far his principles are
applicable to an art unconnected with the stage. Handel shows
us that a definite oratorio style may exist in many different
degrees. He was evidently impressed by the German forms
of Passion-music as combining the utmost dramatic interest
with the most intense contemplative devotion; and it is signifi-
cant that it was after he came to England, and before his first
English oratorio, that he set to music the famous poetic version
of the Passion by Brockes, a version which had been adopted by
all the German composers of the time, and which, with very
necessary and interesting improvements of taste, was largely
drawn upon by Bach for the text of his Johannes-Passion.
Handel's Brockes- Passion does not appear ever to have been
performed, though Bach found access to it and made a careful
copy; and it is difficult to see what motive, except interest in the
form, Handel had for composing it. At all events it furnishes an
important connecting-link between Bach's solution of the problem
of oratorio and the various other solutions which Handel after-
wards produced so successfully. He soon discovered how many
kinds of oratorio were possible. The freedom from stage
restrictions admitted of subjects ranging from semi-dramatic
histories, Hke those of Saul, Esther and Belshazzar, to cosmic
schemes based exclusively on the words of the Bible, such as
Israel in Egypt and the Messiah. Between these types there is
every gradation of organization; and it may be added, every
gradation between sacred and secular subjects and treatment.
The very name of Handel's first Enghsh oratorio, Esther, with
the facts of its production as a masque and the origin of its
libretto in Racine, show the transition from the stage to the
church; and a really scandalous example of the converse transi-
tion may be found by any one rash enough to look for the source
of some of Haman's music in the Brockes-Passion. Roughly
speaking we may reduce the types of Handelian oratorio to a
convenient three; not divisible among works as wholes, but
always evident here and there. Firstly, there is the semi-
operatic method, in which the arias are the utterances of char-
acters in the story, while the conception of the chorus rarely
diverges from that of multitudes of actors [e.g. Athalia, Bel-
shazzar, Saul, &c.). The second method is a more or less recogniz-
able application of the forms of the Passion-music to other
subjects, without, however, the conception of a special r61e of
narrator, but (as, for instance, in " Envy, eldest born of Hell "
in Saul) with the definite conception of the choruses as descriptive
of the feelings of spectators rather than of actors. Handel's
• It is possible that a false etymology may by Bach's time have
given this colour to the word oratorio. Schiitz inscribes a monodic
sacred piece " in stilo Oratorio," meaning " in the stjle o'f recitative."
ORATORIO
163
audience demanded an inconvenient number of arias, most of
wiiich are clumsily accounted for by a conventional assignment
to dramatic roles with a futile attempt at love-interest; which
makes many of the best solos in Saul and Joshua rather absurd.
The third Handelian method is that which has since become
embodied in the modern type of sacred or secular cantata; a
series of choruses and numbers on a subject altogether beyond
the scope of dramatic narrative (as, for instance, the greater part
of Solomon), and, in the case of the Messiah and Israelin Egypt,
treated entirely in the words of Scripture.
After Bach and Handel the history of oratorio becomes dis-
jointed. The rise of the sonata style, which brought life to the
opera, was almost wholly bad for the oratorio; since not only
did it cause a serious decline in choral art by distracting attention
from that organization of texture which is essential even to mere
euphony in choral writing (see Counterpoint and Contra-
puntal Forms), but its dramatic power became more and more
disturbing to the essentially epic treatment demanded by the
conditions of oratorio. Bach and Handel (especially Handel)
were as dramatic in characterization as the greatest epic poets,
and were just as far removed from the theatre. Any doubt on
this point is removed by the history of Handelian opera and the
reforms of Gluck. But the power of later composers to rise
above the growing swarms of 18th-century and igth-century
oratorio-mongers depended largely on the balance between their
theatrical and contemplative sensibilities. Academicism natur-
ally mistrusted the theatre, but, in the absence of any con-
templative depth beyond that of a tactful asceticism, it has
then and ever since made spasmodic concessions to theatrical
effect, with the intention of avoiding pedantry, and with the effect
of encouraging vulgarity. Philipp Emanuel Bach's oratorios,
though not permanently convincing works of art, achieved a
remarkably true balance of style in the earlier days of the conflict;
indeed, with judicious reduction to the size of a large cantata.
Die Israelilen in der Wiiste (1769) would perhaps bear revival
almost better than Haydn's Tobias (1774), in spite of the supe-
rior musical value of that ambitious forerunner of The Creation
and The Seasons. These two great products of Haydn's old age
owe their vitality not only to Haydn's combination of contra-
puntal and choral mastery with his unsurpassable freedom of
movement in the sonata style, but also to his priceless redis-
covery of the fact (well known to Bach, the composer of " Mein
glaiibiges Herze," but since forgotten) that, in Haydn's own
words, " God will not be angry with me for worshipping him in a
cheerful manner." This is the very spirit of St Francis of Assisi,
and it brings the naively realistic birds and beasts of The
Creation into line with even the Bacchanalian parts of the mainly
secular Seasons, and so removes Haydn from the dangers of a
definitely bad taste, which began to beset Roman Catholic
oratorio on the one hand, and those of no taste at all, which
engulfed Protestant oratorio on the other.
From the moment when music became independent of the
church, Roman Catholic religious music, liturgical or other, lost
its high artistic position. Some of the technical hindrances to
greatness in liturgical music after the Golden Age are mentioned
in the article Mass; but the status of Roman Catholic non-
liturgical religious music was from the outset lowered by the use
of the vulgar tongue, since that implied a condescension to the
laity, and composers could not but be affected by the assumption
that oratorio belonged to a lower sphere than Latin church
music. With this element of condescension came a reluctance
to foster the fault of intellectual pride by criticizing pious verse
on grounds of taste. Even in Protestant England this reluctance
still causes educated people to strain tolerance of bad hymns
to an extent which apostles of culture denounce as positively
immoral: but the initial impossibility of basing a non-Latin
Roman Catholic oratorio directly on the Bible would already
have been detrimental to good taste in religious musical texts
even if criticism were not disarmed. It must be confessed that
Protestant taste (as shown in the texts of many of Bach's
cantatas) was often unsurpassably bad; but in its most morbid
phases its badness was mainly barbarian, and could either be
ignored by composers and listeners, or easily improved away, as
Bach showed in his alterations of Brockes's vile verses in the
Passion according to St John. But the bad taste of the text of
Beethoven's Christus am Oelbcrge {The Mount of Olives, c. 1800)
is ineradicable, for it represents the standpoint of writers who
may be very devout and innocent, but whose purest source of
sacred art has been the pictures of Guido Reni. It was one thing
for Sir Joshua Reynolds to admire the wrong period of Italian
art: he had his own access to great ideas; but for Beethoven's
librettist, who had no such access, it was very different. The real
sacred subject has no chance of penetrating through a tradition
which is neither naive nor ecclesiastical, but is simply that of a
long-tolerated comfortable vulgarity. An operatic tenor repre-
sents the Saviour; an operatic soprano represents the ministering
angel; and in the garden of Gethsemane the two sing an operatic
duet. The music is brilliant and well worthy of Beethoven's
early powers, but he afterwards greatly regretted it; and indeed
its circumstances are intolerable, and the English attempt at
a new libretto {Engedi, or David in the Wilderness) only sub-
stituted ineptitude for irreverence.
Schubert's wonderful fragment Lazarus (1820) suffers less
from the sickhness of its text; for the music seizes on a certain
genuine quality aimed at by all typical Roman Catholic religious
verse-writers, and embodies it in a kind of romantic mysticism
unexampled in Protestant oratorio. Modern literature shows
this peculiar strain in Cardinal Newman's Dream of Gcronlius,
just as Sir Edward Elgar's setting of that poem to music of
Wagnerian continuity and texture presents the only parallel
discoverable later or earlier to the slightly oppressive aroma of
Schubert's unique experiment.' Lazarus also surprises us by
a rather invertebrate continuity of flow, anticipating early
Wagnerian opera; indeed, in almost every respect it is two
generations ahead of its time; and, if only Schubert had finished
it and allowed it to see publicity, the history of 19th-century
oratorio might have become a more interesting subject than it is.
The ascendancy of Mendelssohn, as things happened, is really
its main redeeming feature. Mendelssohn applied an unpre-
cedented care and a wide general culture to the structure and
criticism of his libretto (see his correspondence with Schubring,
his principal helper with the texts of St Paul and Elijah), and
was able to bear witness of his new-found gospel according to
Bach by introducing chorales into St Paul as well as by dis-
interring and performing Bach's works. But he had not the
strength to rescue oratorio from the slough into which it had
now fallen, no less in Protestant than in Roman Catholic forms.
As the interest in Biblical themes becomes more independent
of church and dogma, oratorio once more tends to become con-
fused with Biblical opera. The singular fragrance and tenderness
of the best parts of Berlioz's little masterpiece L'Enfance du
Christ (put together from sections composed between 1847 and
1854) give it high artistic value; but if " oratorio " means
" sacred music " Berlioz was incapable of anything of the sort;
for the Christianity of his Grande Mcsse des marts and his Te
Deum is the Christianity of Napoleon; and, if oratorio means a
consistent treatment of a legend or subject in terms of musical
epic, Berlioz can never fix his attention long enough to remember
how he began by the time he has got half way through. Though
Berlioz's essay in oratorio is not quite so irresponsible a vocal-
symphonic-dramatic medley as his Romeo et Juliette and Damna-
tion de Faust, it unmistakably marks a transition towards the
complete secularizing of the Bible for musical purposes. But
the long-continued prejudice in England against the representa-
tion of religious subjects on the stage has wrought peculiar
confusion in the theory of their romantic treatment in music.
It may be noted as a curiosity that Saint-Saens's Biblical opera,
Samson et Dalila (written in 1S77), after being known in England
for many quiet years as an oratorio, suddenly, in loio, was
permitted by the censor of plays, under royal command, to be
produced at Covent Garden for what it was intended. It may
' Schubert's well-known cantata, Miriam's Siegesgesang, has
been discussed as a small oratorio; but it is of slight artistic and
no historic importance.
164
ORATORY— ORBIT
even be suggested that this occurred just early enough to
prevent Strauss's Salome from being regarded by the British
public as an oratorio.
The earnest efiforts of Cesar Franck prevented French oratorio
from drifting entirely towards the stage; and meanwhile year by
year Brahms's Deutsches Requiem (completed, except for one
movement, in 1868) towers ever higher above all choral music
since Beethoven's Mass in D, and draws us away from the
semi-dramatic oratorio towards the musically perfectible form
of an enlarged cantata in which a group of choral movements
is concentrated on a set of religious ideas differing from Hturgical
forms only in free choice of text. Within the essentially
non-theatrical limitations of dramatic or epic oratorio, we may
note the spirited new departures of Sir Charles Stanford in Eden
(1891), and of Sir Hubert Parry in Judith (1888), Job (1892)
and King Saul (1894), which showed that Wagnerian Leitmotif
and continuity might well avail to produce an oratorio style
standing to Mendelssohn as Wagner stands to Mozart, if
musical interest be retained in the foreground. Freedom
from the restrictions of the stage also means absence of the
resources of the stage, so that Wagnerian Leitmotif is no
sufficient substitute for formal musical coherence when the
audience has no action before its eyes. Accordingly these leaders
of the Enghsh musical renascence are by no means exclusively
Wagnerian in their oratorios. A fine and typical example
of their pecuhar non-theatrical resources may be seen in the
end of King Saul, where Parry (who, Uke Wagner, is his own
hbrettist) makes the Witch of Endor foresee the battle of Gilboa,
and allows her tale to become real in the telling: so that it is
followed immediately by the final dirge. (D. F. T.)
ORATORY (Lat. oratoria, sc. ars; from orare, to speak or
pray), the art of speaking eloquently or in accordance with the
rules of rhetoric (q.v.). From Lat. orator ium, sc. templum, a
place of prayer, comes the use of the word for a small chapel or
place of prayer for the use of private individuals, generally
attached to a mansion and sometimes to a church. The name
is also given to small chapels built to commemorate some special
deliverance.
ORATORY OF ST PHILIP NERI, CONGREGATION OF THE,
or Oratorians, a religious order consisting of a number of
independent houses. The first congregation was formally
organized in 1575 by the Florentine priest, Phihp Neri. (See
Neri, Philip.)
ORB, a circle or ring (Lat. orhis), hence a globe or disk or other
spherical object. It is thus used, chiefly poetically, of any of
the heavenly bodies, including the earth itself (Lat. orbis ter-
rarum), or of the eye-baU or eye. The " orb," also known as the
"mound" (Lat. mundus, "world"), consisting of a globe
surmounted by a cross, forms part of many regalia, being a
symbol of sovereignty (see Regalia). In architecture the
meaning to be attached to the word " orb " is doubtful. It is
usually now taken to mean properly a blank or bUnd window,
and thence a blank panel. If so the word represents Lat. orbus,
" bereft of," " orphaned," fenestra orba luminis. It is also
identified with a circular boss conceahng the intersection of
arches in a vault.
ORBETELLO, a town of Tuscany, Italy, in the province of
Grosseto, 24 m. S. by E. of Grosseto by rail, 13 ft. above sea-
level. Pop. (1901) 4188 (town), 5335 (commune). It is situated
on a tongue of land projecting westward into a lagoon which is
enclosed on the W. and S. by two long narrow sandy spits, and
on the seaward (S.W.) side by the peninsula of Monte Argentario.
A causeway connecting the town with this peninsula was built
across the lagoon in 1842. On every side except the landward
(E.) side the town is enclosed by an ancient terrace wall of poly-
gonal work, and tombs have been discovered in the vicinity
and even within the town itself. On the N. side of the promon-
tory are the remains of a Roman -villa partly below sea-level.
The town must thus occupy an ancient site, the name of which
is unknown. The town still has the bastions which the Spaniards
built during the period (1557-1713) when they were masters of
this corner of Italy. There is a large convict prison with which
is connected another at Porto Ercole, on the east side of the
peninsula. The mother house of the Passionist order crowns
an eminence of Monte Argentario, now strongly fortified. The
salt-water lagoon (11 sq. m. in extent), in the middle of which
the town stands, abounds in white fish, soles and eels. On the
eastern edge of the Monte Argentario is an active manganese
iron ore mine, yielding some 30,000 tons per annum.
After the fall of the Republic of Siena, when the territory of
Siena passed to Tuscany, Philip II. of Spain retained Orbetello,
Talamone, Monte Argentario and the island of Giannutri until
1 7 13, under the name of the ReaH Stati dei Presidii. There are
still many Spanish names among the inhabitants of Orbetello.
In 1 713 this district passed by treaty to the emperor, in 1736 to
the king of the two Sicihes, in i8oi to the kingdom of Etruria,
and in 1814 to the grand-duchy of Tuscany.
See G. Dennis, Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria (London, 1883),
ii. 240; M. Carmichael, In Tuscany (London, 1901), 283, sqq.
(T. As.)
ORBIGNY, ALCIDE DESSALINES D' (1802-1857), French
palaeontologist, was born at Couerzon, Loire Inferieure, on the
6th of September 1802. He was educated at La Rochelle,
where he became interested in the study of natural history,
and in particular of zoology and palaeontology. His first
appointment was that of travelling naturalist for the Museum
of Natural History at Paris. In the course of his duties he
proceeded in 1826 to South America, and gathered much
information on the natural history and ethnology, the results
being embodied in his great work Voyage dans I'Amerique
Mcridionale (1839-1S42). Meanwhile he had decided to devote
his time and energies to palaeontology, and he dealt in course of
time with various invertebrata from foraminifera to crinoids and
mollusca. In 1840 he commenced the publication of Paleonlo-
logie Franqaise, ou description des fossiles de la France, a monu-
mental work, accompanied by figures of the species. Eight
volumes were published by him deahng with Jurassic and
Cretaceous invertebrata, and since his death many later volumes
have been issued. (See notes by C. D. Sherbom, " On the Dates
of the Paleontologie Franqaise of D'Orbigny," Geol. Mag., 1899,
p. 223.) Among his other works were Coiirs elementaire de
paleontologie et de geologie stratigrapJiiques (3 vols., 1849-1852),
and Prodrome de paleontologie stratigraphique (3 vols., 1850-1852).
D'Orbigny introduced (1852) a methodical system of nomen-
clature for geological formations based partly on the English
terms — thus Bathonian for the Great or Bath Oolite, Bajocian
from Bajocea or Bayeux in Calvados for the Inferior Oolite.
Many of these names have been widely adopted, but some are of
too local application to be generally used. In 1853 he was
appointed professor of palaeontology at the Museum of Natural
History in Paris, but died four years later, on the 30th of June
1857, at Pierresitte, near St Denis.
ORBILIUS, PUPILLUS, a Latin grammarian of the ist century
A.D., who had a school at Rome, where the poet Horace was
one of his pupDs. Horace (Epistles, ii.) criticizes his old school-
master and describes him as plagosus (a flogger), and OrbUius
has become proverbial as a disciphnarian pedagogue.
ORBIT (from Lat. orbita, a track, orbis, a wheel), in astronomy,
the path of any body, and especially of a heavenly body, revolving
round an attracting centre. If the law of attraction is that of
gravitation, the orbit is a conic section — ellipse, parabola or
hyperbola — having the centre of attraction in one of its foci;
and the motion takes place in accordance with Kepler's laws
(see Astronomy). But unless the orbit is an eUipse the body
will never complete a revolution, but wlU recede indefinitely
from the centre of motion. Elliptic orbits, and a parabolic
orbit considered as the special case when the eccentricity of the
ellipse is i, are almost the only ones the astronomer has to
consider, and our attention will therefore be confined to them in
the present article. If the attraction of a central body is not
the only force acting on the moving body, the orbit will deviate
from the form of a conic section in a degree depending on the
amount of the extraneous force; and the curve described may
not be a re-entering curve at all, but one winding around so as
ORCAGNA
to form an indefinite succession of spires. In all the cases which
have yet arisen in astronomy the extraneous forces are so small
compared with the gravitation of the central body that the orbit
is approximately an ellipse, and the prehminary computations,
as well as all determinations in which a high degree of precision
is not necessary, are made on the hypothesis of elUptic orbits.
Below are set forth the methods of determining and dealing with
such orbits.
We begin by considering the laws of motion in the orbit itself,
regardless of the position of the latter.
Let the curve represent an elliptic orbit_, AB being the major
axis, DE the minor axis, and F the focus in which the centre of
attraction is situated, which centre we shall call the sun. From the
properties of the
ellipse, A is the
pericentre or
nearest point of
the orbit to the
centre of attrac-
tion and B the
apocentre or most
distant point. The
semi-major axis,
CA or CB, is called
the mean distance,
and is represented
by the symbol a.
We put e for the
eccentricity of the
ellipse, represented
by the ratio
CF : CA. P is the
position of the
,, , ,. planetatany
time, and we call r the radius vector FP. The angle AFP between
the pericentre and the position P of the planet is the anomaly
called V. By Kepler's second law the radius vector, FP, sweeps
over equal areas in equal times. To do this the actual speed
in the orbit, and in a yet higher degree the angular speed
around F, must be greatest at pericentre, and continually diminish
till the apocentre is reached. Let P, P' be two consecutive positions
of the radius vector. Since the area of the triangle FPP' is one
half the product of FP into the perpendicular p from P on FP',
it follows that if these perpendiculars were equal all round the
orbit, the areas described during the infinitesimal time would be
smallest at the pericentre and continually increase during the
passage of the body to B. It follows that p must be greatest at
pericentre, where its distance from F is least. By geometrical
consideration it can be shown that the angle subtended by p, as
seen from F, must be inversely as the square of its distance r. We
therefore have the fundamental theorem that the angular velocity
of the body around the centre of attraction varies inversely as the
square of its distance, and is therefore at every point proportional
to the gravitation of the sun. Another curious theorem proposed
by BouiUand in 1625 as a substitute for Kepler's second law is that
the angular motion of the body as measured around the empty focus
F' is (approximately) uniform. That is to an eye at F', the planet
would seem to move around the sky with a nearly uniform speed.
The true anomaly, AFP, is commonly determined through the
mean anomaly conceived thus: Describe a circle of radius a = CA
around F, and let a fictitious planet start from K at the same
moment that the actual planet passes A, and let it move with a
uniform speed such that it shall complete its revolution in the
same time T as the actual planet. From the law of angular motion
of the latter its radius vector will run ahead of PQ near A, PQ will
overtake and pass it at apocentre, and the two will again coincide
at pericentre when the revolution is completed. The anomaly
AFQ of Q at any moment is called the mean anomaly, and the angle
QFP by which the true anomaly exceeds it at that moment is the
equation of the centre.
Two elements define the position of the plane passing through
the attracting centre in which the orbit lies. One of these is the
position of the line MN through the sun at F in which the plane
of the orbit cuts some fundamental plane of reference, commonly
the ecliptic. This is called the line of nodes, and its position is
specified by the angle which it makes with some fixed line FX in
the fundamental plane. At one of the nodes, say N, the body
passes from the south to the north side of the fundamental plane;
this IS called the ascending node. The other element is the inclina-
tion of the plane of the orbit to the fundamental plane, called the
tndinatton simply. A fifth element is the position of the pericentre
which may be expressed by its angular distance XFN from the
ascending node. A sixth is the position of the planet in the orbit
at a given moment, for which may be substituted the moment at
which It passed the pericentre. Another element is the time of
revolution of the body in its orbit, called its period. Instead of the
period it is common in astronomical practice to use the mean angular
165
speed, called the mean motion of the body. This is defined as the
speed of revolution of the fictitious body already described, revolv-
ing with a uniform angular motion and the same periodic time as
the planet. It follows that putting n for the mean motion and T
lor the period of revolution we shall have in degrees hT = 36o''
It is shown in the article Astronomy (Celestial Mechanics) that
the mean distance and mean motion or time of revolution of a
planet are so related by Kepler's third law that, when one of these
elements is given, the other can be found. Hence the number of
independent elements assigned to a planet or other body moving
around the sun is commonly six. But the same relation does not
h(jld of a satellite the mass of whose primary is not regarded as an
absolutely known quantity, or of a binary star. In these cases
therefore the mean distance and mean motion are regarded as
different elements, and the whole number of the latter is seven.
The process by which the position of a planet at any time is
determined from its elements may now be conceived as follows: —
The epoch of passage through pericentre being given, let / be the
interval of time between this epoch and that for which the position
of the body is required. Representing by P this position, it follows
that the area of that portion of the ellipse contained between the
radu vectores FB and FP will bear the same ratio to the whole area
of the ellipse that t does to T, the time of revolution. The problem
of finding a radius vector satisfying this condition is one which can
be solved only by successive approximations, or tentatively. Its
discussion^ may be found in any work on theoretical astronomy.
The solution may be worked out directly or through the deter-
mination of the equation of the centre which, being added to the
mean anomaly, gives the true anomaly. The angle from the peri-
centre to the actual radius vector, and the length of the latter being
found, the angular distance of the planet from the node in the plane
of the orbit is found by adding to the true anomaly the distance
from the node to the pericentre. This, and the inclination of the
orbit being given, we have all the geometrical data necessary to
compute the coordinates of the planet itself. The coordinates thus
found will in the case of a body moving around the sun be helio-
centric. The reduction to the earth's centre is a problem of pure
geometry.
When a new celestial body, say a planet or a comet is discovered,
the astronomer meets with the problem of determining the orbit
from several observed positions of the body. To form a conception
of this problem it is to be noted that since the position of the body
in space can be computed from the six elements of the orbit at any
time we may ideally conceive the coordinates of the body to be
algebraically expressed as functions of the six elements and of the
time. Since the distance of a body from the observer cannot be
observed directly, but only the right ascension and declination,
calling these a and 6 we conceive ideal equations of the form
a=f{a, b, c, e,f, g, I) and 5 = (a, b, c, e,j, g, t),
the symbols a, b, . . . t, representing the six elements and the
time. If the values of"a and 5, defining the position of the body on
the celestial sphere, are observed at three different times, we may
conceive six equations like the above, one for each of the three
observed values of a and S. Then by solving these equations,
regarding the six elements as unknown quantities, the values of the
latter may be computed. The actual process of solution is vastly
more complex than is indicated by this description of it. Instead
of the six ideal equations just described we have to combine a
number of equations of various forms containing other quantities
than the elements. But the logical framework of the process is
that which we have set forth.
The problem of determining an orbit may be regarded as coeval
with Hipparchus, who, it is supposed, found the moving positions
of the apogee and perigee of the moon's orbit. The problem of
determining a heliocentric orbit first presented itself to Kepler, who
actually determined that of Mars. The modern method of deter-
mining orbits from three or four observations was first developed
by C. F. Gauss in his celebrated work Theoria Motus Corponim
Coelestinm. This classical work is still a favourite among students,
the improvements on its methods made since its publication being
rather in details than in general principles.
Authorities. — Among recent works on the determination of
orbits, J. C. Watson's Theoretical Astronomy is the most complete
in the English language. The most complete existing work, an
encyclopaedia of the subject in fact, is T. von Oppolzer's Lehrbtich
zur Bahnbestimmung der Kometen mid Planeten (2 vols.), which
contains voluminous tables, formulae, and instructions for the
computation of orbits in the many special cases that arise. More
recent and better adapted to study is Bauschinger's Bahnbestimmung
der Himmelskorper (i vol., Leipzig, 1906), which, alone of the three,
treats orbits of satellites and double stars. (S. N.)
ORCAGNA (c. 1308-C. 1368^'), Italian painter, sculptor and
architect, whose full name was Andrea di Cione, called
' The dates of Orcagna's birth and death are not exactly known.
According to Vasari, he died in 1389 at the age of si.xty; but a docu-
ment dated 1376 provides a guardian for Tessa and Romola, daughters
of Orcagna's widow Francesca (see Bonaini, Mem. Ined. pp. 105-
106). In that case 1376 was perhaps the year of his death; and if
i66
ORCAGNA
Arcagnuolo,' was the son of a very able Florentine goldsmith,
Maestro Cione, said to have been one of the principal artists who
worked on the magnificent sUver frontal of the high altar of San
Giovanni, the Florentine Baptistery. Theresult of Orcagna's early
training in the use of the precious metals may be traced in the
extreme delicacy and refined detail of his principal works in
sculpture. He had at least three brothers who all practised some
branch of the fine arts: Lionardo or Nardo, the eldest, a painter;
Matteo, a sculptor and mosaicist ; and Jacopo, also a painter. They
were frequently associated with Orcagna in his varied labours.
From the time of Giotto to the end of the 14th century Orcagna
stands quite pre-eminent even among the many excellent artists
of that time. In sculpture he was a pupil of Andrea Pisano;
in painting, though indirectly, he was a disciple of Giotto. Few
artists have practised with such success so many branches of the
arts. Orcagna was not only a painter and sculptor, but also a
worker in mosaic, an architect and a poet. His importance
in the history of Itahan art rests not merely on his numerous
and beautiful productions, but also on his widespread influence,
transmitted to his successors through a large and carefully-trained
school of pupils. In style as a painter Orcagna comes midway
between Giotto and Fra Angelico: he combined the dramatic
force and realistic vigour of the earlier painter with the pure
brilliant colour and refined imearthly beauty of Fra Angelico.
His large fresco paintings are works of extreme decorative
beauty and splendour — composed with careful reference to their
architectural surroundings, arranged for the most part on one
plane, without the strong foreshortening or effects of perspective
with which the mural paintings of later masters are so often
marred.
I. Orcagna as a Painter. — His chief works in fresco were
at Florence, in the church of S Maria Novella. He first covered
the walls of the retro-choir with scenes from the life of the Virgin.
These, unfortunately, were much injured by damp very soon after
their completion, and towards the end of the following century
were replaced by other frescoes of the same subjects by Ghir-
landaio, who, according to Vasari, made much use of Orcagna's
motives and invention. Orcagna also painted three walls of
the Strozzi chapel, at the north-east of the same church, with
a grand series of frescoes, which still exist, though in a much
injured and " restored " state. On the northern end wall is the
Last Judgment, painted above and round the window, the
light from which makes it difficult to see the picture. In the
centre is Christ floating among clouds, surrounded by angels;
below are kneeling figures of the Virgin and St John the Baptist,
with the twelve apostles. Lower stiU are patriarchs, prophets
and saints, with the resurrection of the blessed and the lost.
The finest composition is that on the west wall, unbroken by any
window. It represents paradise, with Christ and the Virgin
enthroned in majesty among rows of brilliantly-coloured cherubim
and seraphim tinged with rainbow-hke rays of light. Below
are long hnes of the heavenly hierarchy mingled with angel
musicians; and lower still a crowd of saints floating on clouds.
Many of these figures are of exquisite beauty especially the
few that have escaped restoration. Faces of the most divine
tenderness and delicacy occur among the female saints; the
two central angels below the throne are figures of wonderful
grace in pose and movement; and the whole picture, lighted
by a soft luminous atmosphere, seems to glow with an unearthly
gladness and peace. Opposite to this is the fresco attributed
by Vasari to Orcagna's brother Bernardo, or rather Nardo
{i.e. Lionardo); it was completely repainted in 1530, so that
nothing but the design remains, full of horror and weird imagina-
tion. To some extent the painter has followed Dante's scheme
of successive circles.
These paintings were probably executed soon after 1350,
and in 1357 Orcagna painted one of his finest panel pictures,
as a retable for the altar of the same chapel, where it still remains.
Vasari is right about his age his birth would have been in 1316.
Milanesi, the editor of Vasari, is, however, inclined to think that
Orcagna died in 1368, when he is known to have been seriously ill.
' Of this form, sometimes spelt Orcagnuolo, Orcagna is a corruption.
In the centre is Christ in majesty between kneeling figures of
St Peter and St Thomas Aquinas, attended by angel musicians;
on each side are standing figures of three other saints. It is a
work of the greatest beauty both in colour and composition;
it is painted with extreme miniature-like delicacy, and is
on the whole very well preserved. This retable is signed,
" Aii. diii. mccclvii Andreas Cionis de Florentia me pinxit."
Another fine altar-piece on panel by Orcagna, dated 1363, is
preserved in the Cappella de' Medici, near the sacristy
Sta Croce; it represents the four doctors of the Latin church.
According to Vasari, Orcagna also painted some very fine
frescoes in Sta Croce, similar in subjects to those attributed to
him in the Campo Santo of Pisa, and full of fine portraits. These
do not now exist. In the cathedral of Florence, on one of the
northern piers, there hangs a nobly designed and highly finished
picture on panel by Orcagna, representing S Zanobio enthroned,
trampling under his feet Cruelty and Pride; at the sides are
kneeling figures of SS Eugenius and Crescentius — the whole
very rich in colour. The retable mentioned by Vasari as
having been painted for the Florentine church of S Pietro
Maggiore is now in the National Gallery of London. It is a
richly decorative composition of the Coronation of the Virgin,
between rows of saints, together with nine other subjects
painted in miniature. Other paintings on panel by Orcagna
were sent by the Pope to Avignon, but cannot now be traced.
The frescoes also have been destroyed with which, according
to Vasari, Orcagna decorated the fafade of S ApoUinare and the
Cappella de' Cresci in the church of the Servi in Florence.^
2. Orcagna as a Sculptor and Architect.^ — In 1355 Orcagna
was appointed architect to the chapel of Or San Michele in
Florence. This curiously-planned building, with a large upper
room over the vaulting of the lower part, has been begun by
Taddeo Gaddi as a thank-offering for the cessation of the plague
of 1348. It took the place of an earlier oratory designed by
Arnolfo del Cambio, and was the gift of the united trade-gilds
of Florence. As to the building itself, it is impossible to say
how much is due to Taddeo Gaddi and how much to Orcagna,
but the great marble tabernacle was wholly by Orcagna. This,
in its combined splendour of architectural design, sculptured
reliefs and statuettes, and mosaic enrichments, is one of the
most important and beautiful works of art which even rich
Italy possesses. It combines an altar, a shrine, a reredos and a
baldacchino. In general form it is perhaps the purest and most
gracefully designed of all specimens of Italian Gothic. It is a
tall structure of white marble, with vaulted canopy and richly
decorated gables and pinnacles, reaching almost to the vaulted
roof of the chapel. The detail is extremely dehcate, and brilliant
gem-like colour is given by lavish enrichments of minute patterns
in glass mosaic, inlaid in the white marble of the structure. It
is put together with the greatest care and precision; Vasari
especially notes the fact that the whole was put together without
any cement, which might have stained the purity of the marble,
all the parts being closely fitted together with bronze dowels.
The spire-like summit of the tabernacle is surmounted by a
figure of St Michael, and at a lower stage on the roof are statuettes
of the apostles. The altar has a relief of Hope between panels
with the Marriage of the Virgin and the Annunciation. On
the right side, looking east, of the base of the tabernacle are
reliefs of the Birth of the Virgin and her Presentation in the
Temple; on the left, the Nativity and the Adoration of the Magi;
and behind, the Presentation of Christ in the Temple, and the
' The magnificenc but much injured frescoes of the Last Judgment,
Hell, and the Triumph of Death in the Pisan Carapo Santo, described
with great minuteness and enthusiasm by Vasari, are attributed by
him to Orcagna, but internal evidence seems to show that they are
productions of the Sienese school. Crowe and Cavalcaselle attribute
them to the two brothers Lorenzetti of Siena, but they have been so
injured by wet, the settlement of the wall, and repeated retouchings
that it is difficult to come to any clear decision as to their authorship.
It appears, however, much more probable that they are the work of
Bernardo Daddi.
' Orcagna was admitted as a member of the Sculptors' Gild in
1352. His name occurs in the roll as " Andreas Cionis vocatus
Arcagnolus, pictor."
ORCHARD— ORCHARDSON
167
Angel warning the Virgin to escape into Egypt. Above the last
two subjects are large reliefs of the Death of the Virgin, sur-
rounded by the apostles, and higher still her Assumption;
she stands in a vesica, and is borne by angels to heaven. On
the base of the Virgin's tomb is inscribed " Andreas Cionis
pictor Florentinvs oratorii archimagister extitit hvjvs mccclix."
Orcagna's own portrait is given as one of the apostles. In
addition to these richly-composed subject-reliefs the whole
work is adorned with many other single figures and heads of
prophets, angels, and the Virtues, all executed with wonderful
finish and refinement. The shrine, which forms an aumbry in
the reredos, contains a miraculous picture of the Madonna. A
fine bronze screen, with open geometrical tracery, encloses the
whole. No work of sculpture in Italy is more magnificent
than this wonderful tabernacle, both in general effect and in the
delicate beauty of the reliefs and statuettes with which it is
so lavishly enriched. It cost the enormous sum of 96,000 gold
florins. Unfortunately it is very badly placed and insufficiently
lighted, so that a minute examination of its beauties is a work
of difficulty.
No mention is made by Vasari of Orcagna's residence in
Orvieto, where he occupied for some time the post of " capo-
maestro " to the duomo. He accepted this appointment on
the 14th of June 1358 at the large salary (for that time) of 300
gold iiorins a year. His brother Matteo was engaged to work
under him, receiving 8 florins a month. When Orcagna accepted
this appointment at Orvieto he had not yet finished his work
at Or San Michele, and so was obhged to make long visits to
Florence, which naturally interfered with the satisfactory
performance of his work for the Orvietans. The result was that
on the 12th of September 1360 Orcagna, havmg been paid
for his work up to that time, resigned the post of " capo-maestro "
of the duomo, though he still remained a httle longer in Orvieto
to finish a large mosaic picture on the west front. When this
mosaic (made of glass tesserae from Venice) was finished in 1362,
it was found to be uneven in surface, and not fixed securely into
its cement bed. An arbitration was therefore held as to the
price Orcagna was to receive for it, and he was awarded 60
gold florins.
Vasari mentions as other architectural works by Orcagna
the design for the piers in the nave of the Florentine duomo,
a zecca or mint, which appears not to have been carried out,
and the Loggia dei Lanzi in the Piazza della Signoria. It is,
however, more than doubtful whether Orcagna had any hand
in this last building, a very graceful vaulted structure, with
three semicircular open arches on the side and one at each end,
intended to form a sheltered meeting-place for the Priori during
elections and other public transactions. This loggia was ordered
by the General Council of Florence in 1356, but was not actually
begun till the year 1376, after Orcagna's death. The architects
were Benci di Clone (possibly a brother of Orcagna) and Simone
di Francesco Talenti, both men of considerable reputation in
Florence. The sculptured rehefs of the seven Virtues in the
spandrels of the arches of the loggia, also attributed to Orcagna
by Vasari, were later still. They were designed by Angelo
Gaddi (1383-1386), and were carried out by three or four different
sculptors.
Pupils of Orcagna named by Vasari are Bernardo Nello, a Pisan,
Tommaso di Marco, a Florentine, and, chief of all, Francesco Traini,
whose grand painting on panel of St Thomas Aquinas enthroned
with the arch-heretics at his feet still hangs in the church for which
it was painted — Sta Caterina at Pisa. Orcagna had, in addition
to the two daughters mentioned above, a son named Cione, who
was a painter of but little eminence. Some sonnets attributed to
Orcagna exist in MS. in the Strozzi and Magliabccchian libraries
in Florence. They have been published by Trucchi (Poesie inedite,
ii. p. 25, Prato, 1846). They are graceful in language, but rather
artificial and over-elaborated.
Authorities. — Vasari, ed. Milanesi, i. p. 593 (Florence, 1878);
Giornale degli Archivi Toscani, iii. p. 282, &c.; Passerini, Curiosiid,
storico-arlistiche; Gave, Carteggio inedito, i. pp. 500-513, ii. p. 5;
Rosini, Storia della piltura, vol. ii. ; Baldinucci, Professori del disegno,
vol. i.; Rumohr, Ricerche Ilaliane, ii., and Antologia di Firen::e, iii.;
Crowe and CavalcascUe, Painting in Italy, i. p. 425 (London, 1864);
Perkins, Tuscan Sculptors, p. 77 (London, 1865). (J. H. M.)
ORCHARD (O. Eng. orl-gcard, later orccard; a combination
apparently of Lat. /tortus, garden, and " yard " or " garth "), a
piece of ground enclosed for the purposes of horticulture. The
term was formerly used in a general way for a garden where
herbs and fruit-trees were cultivated, but is now used exclusively
for a piece of enclosed ground for fruit-trees only, and particularly
for apples, pears, plums and cherries.
ORCHARDSON. SIR WILLIAM QUILLER (1835-1910),
British painter, was born in Edinburgh, where his father was
engaged in business, in 1835. " Orchardson " is a variation
of " Urquhartson," the name of a Highland sept settled on Loch
Ness, from which the painter is descended. At the age of fifteen
he was sent to the Trustees' Academy, then under the mastership
of Robert Scott Lauder, where he had as fellow-students most
of those who afterwards shed lustre on the Scottish school of the
second half of the 19th century. As a student he was not especi-
ally precocious or industrious, but his work was distinguished
by a peculiar reserve, by an unusual determination that his
hand should be subdued to his eye, with the result that his early
things reach their own ideal as surely as those of his maturity.
By the time he was twenty, Orchardson had mastered the
essentials of his art, and had produced at least one picture which
might be accepted as representative, a portrait of Mr John
Hutchison, the sculptor. For seven years after this he worked
in Edinburgh, some of his attention being given to " black and
white," his practice in which had been partly acquired at a sketch
club, which included among its members Mr Hugh Cameron,
Mr Peter Graham, Mr George Hay, Mr M'Taggart, Mr John
Hutchison and others. In 1862 he came to London, and estab-
lished himself in 37 Fitzroy Square, where he was joined twelve
months later by his friend John Pettie. The same house was
afterwards inhabited by Ford Madox Brown.
The English public was not immediately attracted by Orchard-
son's work. It was too quiet to compel attention at the Royal
Academy, and Pettie, Orchardson's junior by four years, stepped
before him for a time, and became the most readily accepted
member of the school. Orchardson confined himself to the
simplest themes and designs, to the most reticent schemes of
colour. Among his best pictures during the first eighteen years
after his migration to London were " The Challenge,"
" Christopher Sly," " Queen of the Swords," " Conditional
Neutrality," " Hard Hit " — perhaps the best of all — and
protraits of Mr Charles Moxon, his father-in-law, and of his own
wife. In all these good judgment and a refined imagination
were united to a restrained but consummate technical dexterity.
During these same years he made a few drawings on wood,
turning to account his early facility in this mode. The period
between 1862 and 1880 was one of quiet ambitions, of a character-
istic insouciance, of life accepted as a thing of many-balanced
interests rather than as a matter of sturm itnd drang. In 1865
Pettie married, and the Fitzroy Square tnenage was broken up.
In 1868 Orchardson was elected A.R.A. In 1870 he spent the
summer in Venice, travelling home in the early autumn through
a France overrun by the German armies. In 1873 he married
Miss Helen Moxon, and in 1S77 he was elected to the full member-
ship of the Royal Academy. In this same year he finished
building a house at Westgate-on-Sea, with an open tennis-court
and a studio in the garden. He was knighted in June 1907,
and died in London on the 13th of April 1910.
Orchardson's wider popularity dates from 1881. To that
year's Academy he sent the large " On Board the BcUcrophon."
which now hangs in the Tate Gallery. Its success with the public
was great and instantaneous, and for ten or twelve years Orchard-
son's work was more eagerly looked for at the Academy than
that of any one else. He followed up the " Bellerophon " with
the still finer " Voltaire," now in the Kunsthalle at Hamburg.
Technically, the " Voltaire " is, perhaps, his high-water mark.
Fine both in design and colour, it is carried out with a supple
dexterity of hand which has scarcely been equalled in the
British school since the death of Gainsborough. The subject
is not entirely happy, for it does not explain itself, but requires
a previous knowledge on the part of the spectator of how Voltaire
i68
ORCHESTRA
■was beaten by the servants of the Chevalier de Rohan-Cabot,
and how the due de Sully failed to avenge his guest. The painter
was attracted by the opportunity it gave for effective opposition
of character, line, colour and movement. The " Voltaire "
was at the Academy of 1883; it was followed, in 1884, by the
" Mariage de convenance," perhaps the most popular of all
Orchardson's pictures; in 1885, by " The Salon of Madame
Recamier "; in 1886, by " After," the sequel to the " Mariage de
convenance," and " A Tender Chord," one of his most exquisite
productions; in 1887, by "The First Cloud"; in 1888, by
" Her Mother's Voice "; and in 1889, by " The Young Duke,"
a canvas on which he returned to much the same pictorial
scheme as that of the " Voltaire." Subsequently he exhibited
a series of pictures in which fine pictorial use was made of the
furniture and costumes of the early years of the 19th century,
the subjects, as a rule, being only just enough to suggest a title:
" An Enigma," " A Social Eddy," " Reflections," " If music be
the food of love, play on!" "Music, when sweet voices die,
vibrates on the memory," " Her First Dance," — in these, oppor-
tunities are made to introduce old harpsichords, spinets, early
pianofortes. Empire chairs, sofas and tables, Aubusson carpets,
short-waisted gowns, delicate in material and primitive in
ornament. Between such things and Orchardson's methods
as a painter the sympathy is close, so that the best among them,
" A Tender Chord," for instance, or " Music, when sweet voices
die," have a rare distinction.
As a portrait-painter Orchardson must be placed in the first
class. His portraits are not numerous, but among them are
a few which rise to the highest level reached by modern art.
" Master Baby," a picture, connecting subject-painting with
portraiture, is a masterpiece of design, colour and broad execution.
" Mrs Joseph," " Mrs Ralli," " Sir Andrew Walker, Bart.,"
" Charles Moxon, Esq.," " Mrs Orchardson," " Conditional
Neutrality " (a portrait of Orchardson's eldest son as a boy of
six), " Lord Rookwood," " The Provost of Aberdeen," and,
above all, " Sir Walter Gilbey, Bart.," would all deserve a place
in any list of the best portraits of the 19th century. In this
branch of art the " Sir Walter Gilbey " may fairly be called
the painter's masterpiece, although the sumptuous full-length
of the Scottish provost, in his robes, runs it closely. The scheme
of colour is reticent; had the picture been exhibited at the time
of the Boer War of 1900 the colour would have been called khaki;
the design is simple, uniting nature to art with a rare felicity;
and the likeness has been found satisfactory by the sitter's
friends. The most important commission ever received by
Orchardson as a portrait-painter was that for a group of Queen
Victoria, with her son (afterwards King Edward VII.), grandson,
and great-grandson, to be painted on one canvas for the Royal
Agricultural Society. The painter hit upon a happy notion for
the bringing of the four figures together, and as time goes on and
the picture slowly turns into history, its merit is likely to be
better appreciated. He continued painting to the end of his
life, and had three portraits ready for the Royal Academy
in 1910.
Orchardson's method was that of one who worked under a
creative, decorative and subjective impulse, rather than under
one derived from a wish to observe and record. His affiliation
is with Watteau and Gainsborough, rather than with those who
would base all pictorial art on a keen eye for actuality and
" value." Among French painters his pictures have excited
particular admiration. (W. Ar.)
ORCHESTRA (Fr. Orchestre; Ger. Kapclle, Orchestcr; Ital.
Orchestra), in its modern acceptation (i) the place in a theatre
or concert hall set apart for the musicians; (2) a carefully-
balanced group of performers on stringed, wind and percussion
instruments adapted for playing in concert and directed by a
conductor. In ancientGreece the bpx^OTpa was the space between
the auditorium and the proscenium or stage, in which were
stationed the chorus and the instrumentahsts. The second
sense is that which is dealt with here.
A modern orchestra is composed of (i) a basis of strings — first
and second violins, violas, violoncellos and double basses;
(2) flutes, sometimes including a piccolo; (3) the reed contingent,
consisting of two complete families, the oboes with their tenors
and basses (the cor Anglais, the fagotto or bassoon and the
contrafagotto or double bassoon), the clarinets with their
tenor and basses (the basset horn and the bass and pedal clarinets)
with the addition sometimes of saxophones; (4) the brass wind,
consisting of the horns, a group sometimes completed by the
tenor and tenor-bass Wagner tubas, the trumpet or cornet,
the trombones (tenor, bass and contrabass), the tubas (tenor,
bass and contrabass); (5) the percussion instruments, including
the kettledrums, bells. Glockenspiel, cymbals, triangle, &c.
Harps are added when required for special effects.
Although most of the instruments from the older civilizations
of Egypt, Chaldea, Persia, Phoenicia and of the Semitic races
were known to the ancient Greeks, their conception of music
led them to discourage all imitation of their neighbours' love
of orchestral effects, obtained by combining harps, lyres, guitars,
tanburs, double pipes and long flutes, trumpets, bagpipes,
cymbals, drums, &c., playing in unison or in octaves. The
Greeks only cultivated to any extent the various kinds of
citharas, lyres and auloi, seldom used in concert. To the pre-
dilection of the Romans for wind instruments of all kinds,
we owe nearly all the wind instruments of the modern orchestra,
each of which had its prototype among the instruments of the
Roman Empire: the flute, oboe and clarinet, in the tibia;
the trombone and trumpet in the buccina; the tubas in the
tuba; and the French horn in cornu and buccina. The 4th
century a.d. witnessed the downfall of the Roman drama and
the debasement of instrumental music, which was placed
under a ban by the Church. During the convulsions which the
migrations of Goths, Vandals and Huns caused in Europe after
the fall of Rome, instrumental music was preserved from absolute
extinction by wandering actors and musicians turned adrift
after the closing of the theatres by command of the Church.
Later, as demand arose, reinforcements of instruments, instru-
mentalists and instrument makers filtered through the Byzantine
Empire and the Christian East generally on the one side and
from the Moors on the West. It is towards the dawn of the
nth century that we find the first definite indications of the
status of instrumental music in Western and Central Europe.
Everywhere are the evidences, so conspicuously absent from
the catacombs and from Romano-Christian monuments, of the
growing favour in which instrumental music was held, to instance
only such sculptures as those of the Abbey of Boscherville in
Normandy, of the portico of the Cathedral of Santiago da
Compostella (12th century) with its orchestra of 24 musicians,
and the full-page illuminations of Psalters representing David
and his musicians and of the 24 elders in the Apocalypses.
The earliest instrumental compositions extant are certain
15th-century dances and pieces in contrapuntal style preserved
in the libraries of Berlin and Munich. The late development
of notation, which long remained exclusively in the hands of
monks and troubadours, personally more concerned with vocal
than with instrumental music, ensured the preservation of the
former, while the latter was left unrecorded. Instrumental
music was for centuries dependent on outcasts and outlaws,
tolerated by Church and State but beyond the pale. Little 1
was known of the construction and technique of the instruments,
and their possibilities were undreamed. Nevertheless, the innate
love and yearning of the people for tone-colour asserted itself
with sufficient strength to overcome aU obstacles. It is true
that the development of the early forms of harmony, the organum,
diaphony, the discant and the richer forms of polyphony grew
up round the voice, but indications are not wanting of an
independent energy and vitality which must surely have existed
in unrecorded medieval instrumental music, since they can be
so clearly traced in the instruments themselves. It is, for
example, significant of the attitude of 10th-century instru- ,
mentalists towards musical progress that they at once assimi-
lated Hucbald's innovation of the organum, a parallel succession
of fourths and fifths, accompanied sometimes by the octave,
for two or three voices respectively, and they produced in the
ORCHESTRA
169
same century the organistrum, named after Hucbald's organum,
and specially constructed to reproduce it.
Shortly after the introduction of polyphony, instruments such
as flutes-a-bec, or flaiols, cornets, cromornes, shawms, hunting
horns, bagpipes, as well as lutes and bowed instruments began
to be made in sizes approximately corresponding in pitch with
the voice parts. It is probably to the same yearning of instru-
mentalists after a polyphonic ensemble, possible until the 14th
century only on organs, hurdy-gurdies and bagpipes, that we
owe the clavichord and clavicembalo, embodying the application
of keys, respectively, to the dulcimer and the psaltery.
There are two reasons which account for the development
of the brass wind proceeding more slowly, (i) These instru-
ments, trumpets or busines, tubas and horns, were for many
centuries mainly used in medieval Europe as military or hunt-
ing signal instruments, and as such the utmost required of
them was a fanfare. Specimens of 14th-century tablature and
16th-century notation for the horn, for instance, show that
for that instrument rhythm alone was taken into account.
(2) Whereas in most of the instruments named above the
notes of the diatonic scale were either fixed or easily obtained,
the acoustic principles of tubes without lateral holes and blown
by means of a cup mouthpiece do not allow of a diatonic scale,
except for the fourth octave from the fundamental, and that
only in trumpets and horns, the notes of the common chord with
the addition of the flattened seventh being the utmost that can
be produced without the help of valves, keys or slides. These
instruments were, therefore, the last to be added to the orchestra,
although they were extensively used for special military, civil
and religious functions and were the most highly favoured of all.
The earliest improvement in the status of the roving instru-
mentalists came with the rise of minstrelsy. The courts of the
counts of Toulouse, Provence and Barcelona were the first to
foster the art of improvising or composing songs known as Irobar
(or trouvcr in the north of France), and Count Guillaume of
Poitiers (108 7-1 12 7) is said to have been the first troubadour.
The noble troubadour seldom sang the songs he composed him-
self, this duty devolving upon his professional minstrel skilled in
singing and in playing upon divers instruments who interpreted
and disseminated his master's verses. In this respect the trouba-
dour differed from his German contemporary the Minnesinger,
who frequently sang himself. The professional musicians were
included under the general term of jongleurs or juglcors, glccmcn
or minstrels, whose function was to entertain and amuse, but there
were among them many subtle distinctions and ranks, such as
chanteors and cstrmnantcors. Love was the prevailing theme in
the south, while in the north war and heroic deeds inspired the
bards. To the former was due the rapid development of bowed
instruments, which by reason of their singing quality were more
suitable for accompanying passionate love songs, while instru-
ments of which the strings were plucked accorded better with the
declamatory and dramatic style of the north.
The first assertive move towards independence was made
by the wandering musicians in the 13th century, when some of
these, tired of a roving life, settled down in cities, forming gilds
or brotherhoods for the protection of their mutual mterests and
privileges. In time they came to be recognized by the burgo-
masters and municipalities, by whom they were engaged to pro-
vide music at all civic and private festivities, wandering musicians
being prohibited from playing within the precincts of the cities.
The oldest of these gilds was the Brotherhood of Nicolai founded
in Vienna in 1288. In the next century these pioneers chose as
patron of their brotherhood Peter von Eberstorff, from 1354
to 1376 known as Vogt der Miisikankn, who obtained for the
members an imperial charter. This example was gradually
followed in other parts of Germany and elsewhere in Europe.
In England, John of Gaunt was in 1381 chosen King of the
Minstrels. In France there was the Confrerie of St Julien des
Menestriers, incorporated in 1321. E.xalted patrons of instru-
mental music multiplied in the isth century, to instance only the
dukes of Burgundy, the emperors of the House of Austria, the
dukes of Lorraine, of Este, Ferrara and Tuscany, the electors
of Saxony and the kings of France with their renowned institu-
tions La Chapellc-Mnsique dii Roi (c. 1440), la Musique de la
Cbambre, la Musique. de la Grande Eeurie duRoi.
At the time of the revival of the drama with music, afterwards
modified and known as opera, at the end of the i6th century,
there was as yet no orchestra in our sense of the word, but merely
an abundance of instruments used in concert for special effects,
without balance or grouping; small positive organs, regals,
harpsichords, lutes, theorboes, archlutes and chiltarone (bass
and contrabass lutes), guitars, viols, lyras da braceio and da
gamba, psalteries, citterns, harps, flutes, recorders, cornets,
trumpets and trombones, drums and cymbals.
Monteverde was the first to see that a preponderance of strings
is necessary to ensure a proper balance of tone. With the per-
fected models of the Cremona violins at his disposal, a quartett
of strings was established, and all other stringed instruments
not played with the bow were ejected from the orchestra with the
exception of the harp. Under the influence of Monteverde and
his successors, Cavalli and Cesti, the orchestra won for itself a
separate existence with music and laws of its own. As instru-
ments were improved, new ones introduced, and old ones
abandoned, instrumentation became a new and favourite study
in Italy and in Germany. Musicians began to find out the
capabilities of various families of instruments and their individual
value.
The proper understanding of the compass and capabilities of
wind instruments, and more especially of the brass wind, was of
later date (i8th century). At first the scores contained but few
indications for instruments other than strings; the others played
as much as they could according to the compass of their instru-
ments at the direction of the leader. The possibility of using
instruments for solos, by encouraging virtuosi to acquire great
skill, raised the standard of excellence of the whole orchestra.
At first the orchestra was an aristocratic luxury, performing
privately at the courts of the princes and nobles of Italy; but
in the 17th century performances were given in theatres, and
Germany eagerly followed. Dresden, Munich and Hamburg
successively built opera houses, while in England opera flourished
under Purcell, and in France under LuUy, who with the coUabora-
tion of Moliere also greatly raised the status of the entertainments
known as ballets, interspersed with instrumental and vocal music.
The revival of the drama seems to have exhausted the enthusi-
asm of Italy for instrumental music, and the field of action was
shifted to Germany, where the perfecting of the orchestra was
continued. Most German princes had at the beginning of the
1 8th century good private orchestras or Kapelle, and they
always endeavoured to secure the services of the best available
instrumentalists. Kaiser, Telemann, Graun, Mattheson and
Handel contributed greatly to the development of German
opera and of the orchestra in Hamburg during the first quarter
of the century. Bach, Gluck and Mozart, the reformers of
opera; Haydn, the father of the modern orchestra and the
first to treat it independently as a power opposed to the solo
and chorus, by scoring for the instruments in well-defined
groups; Beethoven, who individualized the instruments,
writing solo passages for them; Weber, who brought the horn
and clarinet into prominence; Schubert, who inaugurated the
conversations between members of the wood wind — all left their
mark on the orchestra, leading the way up to Wagner and
Strauss.
A sketch of the rise of the modern orchestra would not be
complete without reference to the invention of the piston or
valve by Stolzel and Bliimel, both Silesians, in 181 5. A satis-
factory bass for the wind, and more especially for the brass, had
long been a desideratum. The effect of this invention was felt
at once: instrument-makers in all countries vied w'ith each other
in making use of the contrivance and in bringing it to perfection;
and the orchestra was before long enriched by a new family of
valved instruments, variously known as tubas, or euphoniums
and bombardons, having a chromatic scale and a full sonorous
tone of great beauty and immense volume, forming a magnificent
bass. (K. S.)
XX. 6a
lyo
ORCHESTRION— ORCHIDS
ORCHESTRION, a name applied to three different kinds of
instruments, (i) A chamber organ, designed by Abt. Vogler
at the end oi the i8th century, which in a space of 9 cub. ft.
contained no less than 900 pipes, 3 manuals of 63 keys each and
39 pedals (see Harmonium). (2) A pianoforte with organ pipes
attached, invented by Thomas Anton Kunz of Prague in 1791.
This orchestrion comprised two manuals of 65 keys and 25
pedals, all of which could be used either independently or coupled.
There were 21 stops, 230 strings and 360 pipes which produced
105 different combinations. The bellows were worked either by
hand or by machinery. (3) A mechanical instrument, auto-
matically played by means of revolving cylinders, invented in
1851 by F. T. Kaufmann of Dresden. It comprises a complete
wind orchestra, with the addition of kettle-drums, side-drums,
cymbals and triangle. (K. S.)
ORCKHA, or Urchha (also called Teliri or Tikamgarh), a
native state of Central India, in the Bundelkhand agency.
Orchha is the oldest and highest in rank of all the Bundela
principalities, and was the only one not held in subjection by
the peshwa. Area, 2080 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 321,634; estimated
revenue, £47,000; no tribute. The maharaja, Sir Pratap Singh,
G. S.C.I, (born in 1854, succeeded in 1874), took a great personal
interest in the development of his state, and himself designed
most of the engineering and irrigation works that have been
executed here within recent years. He bears the hereditary
title of " First of the Princes of Bundelkhand." The state exports
grain, ghi, and cotton cloth, but trade suffers from imperfect
communications. The town of Orchha, the former capital, is on
the river Betwa, not far from Jhansi. It possesses an imposing
fort, dating mainly from the early 17th century. This contains
a number of palaces and other buildings connected one with
another. The most noteworthy are the Rajmandir, a massive
square erection of which the exterior is almost absolutely plain;
and the Jahangirmahal, of the same form but far more ornate,
a singularly beautiful specimen of Hindu domestic architecture.
Elsewhere about the town are line temples and tombs, among
which may be noticed the Chaturbhuj temple on its vast platform
of stone. The town of Tehri or Tikamgarh, where the chief now
resides, is about 40 m. S. of Orchha; pop. (1901) 14,050- It
contains the fort of Tikamgarh, by which name the town is
generally called, to distinguish it from Tehri in the Himalayas.
ORCHIDS. The word Orchis is used in a special sense to denote
a particular genus of the Orchid family (Orchidaceae); very
frequently, also, it is employed in a more general way to indicate
any member of that large and very interesting group. It will be
convenient here to use the word Orchis as applying to that
particular genus which gives its name to the order or family, and
to employ the term " orchid " in the less precise sense.
The flowers of all orchids, though extremely diverse within
certain limits, and although superficially very different from those
of other monocotyledons, are
all formed upon one common
plan, which is only a modifica-
tion of that observable in such
flowers as those of the narcissus
orsnowdrop {Galanlhiis). The
conformation of those flowers
consists essentially in the pres-
ence of a six-parted perianth,
the three outer segments of
which correspond to a calyx,
the three inner ones to a
corolla. These segments spring
apparently from the top of the
ovary — the real explanation,
however, being that the end
of the flower-stalk or "thala-
mus," as it grows, becomes dilated into a sort of cup or
tube enclosing and indeed closely adhering to the ovary, so
that the latter organ appears to be beneath the perianth instead
of above it as in a lily, an appearance which has given origin to
the term " inferior ovary." Within the perianth, and springing
A. Floral diagram of typical
orchid flower; /, labeflum; a,
anther; s, rudiments of barren
stamens (staminodes).
B. Diagram of the symmetrical
trimerous flower of Fritillary
(Fritillaria).
from its sides, or apparently from the top of the ovary, are
six stamens whose anthers contain pulverulent pollen-grains.
These stamens encircle a style which is the upward continuation
of the ovary, and which shows at its free end traces of the three
originally separate but now blended carpels of which the ovary
consists. An orchid flower has an inferior ovary like that just
Fig. 2. — Diagram of the flower
of Orchis.
s, si, si, The three divisions of
the outer perianth.
pi, pi, The two lateral divisions
of the inner perianth.
ps, The superior division or
the labellum, which may
become inferior by the
twisting of the ovary.
e. The fertile stamen, with
its two pollen-masses in
the anther-lobes.
r, The one-celled ovary cut
transversely, having three
parietal placentas.
Fig. 3. — Flower of Orchis.
s, s, s, The three outer
divisions of the
perianth.
p,p,l, The three inner,
/ being the label-
lum, here inferior
by the twisting
of the ovary.
e. Spur of the label-
lum.
0, The twisted ovary.
St, The stigma.
a. The anther, con-
taining pollen-
masses.
described, but with the ovules on the walls of the cavity ( not in its
axis or centre), a six-parted perianth, a stamen or stamens and
stigmas. The main distinguishing features consist in the fact
that one of the inner pieces of the perianth becomes in course of
its growth much larger than the rest, and usually different in
colour, texture and form. So different is it that it receives a dis-
tinct name, that of the " lip " or " labellum." In place of the
six stamens we commonly find but one (two in Cypripedium), and
that one is raised together with the stigmatic surfaces on an
elongationof the floral axis known as the "column." Moreover,
the pollen, instead of consisting of separate cells or grains,
consists of cells aggregated into "pollen-masses," the number
varying in different genera, but very generally two, four, or eight,
and in many of the genera provided at
the base with a strap-shaped stalk or
" caudicle " ending in a flattish gland or
"viscid disk" like a boy's sucker.
In Cypripedium all three stigmas arc
functional, but in the great majority of
orchids only the lateral pair form recep-
tive surfaces {st, fig. 3), the third being
sterile and forming the rostellum which
plays an important part in the process
of pollination, often forming a peculiar
pouch-like process (fig. 4, r) in which
the viscid disk of the pollen-masses is
concealed till released in the manner
presently to be mentioned. It would
appear, then, that the orchid flower
differs from the more general mono-
cotyledonous type in the irregularity of
the perianth, in the suppression of five
out of six stamens, and in the union of
the one stamen and the stigmas. In addition to these modifica-
tions, which are common to nearly all orchids, there are others
generally but not so universally met with; among them is the
displacement of the flower arising from the twisting of the inferior
ovary, in consequence of which the flower is so completely turned
round that the " lip," which originates in that part of the flower,
I conventionally called the posterior or superior part, or that
Fig. 4. — Diagram illus-
trating arrangement of
parts in flower of Orchis.
s. Sepals.
p. Petals.
a. Anther.
st, Two united stigmas.
r, Rostellum (barren
stigma).
ORCHIDS
171
Fig. 5. — Pollen-
masses of an Orchid,
with their caudicles
c and
gland g.
nearest to the supporting stem, becomes in course of growth
turned to the anterior or lower part of the flower nearest to the
bract, from whose axil it arises. Other common modifications
arise from the union of certain parts of the
perianth to each other, and from the varied
and often very remarkable outgrowths from
the lip. These modifications are associated
with the structure and habits of insects and
their visits to the flowers.
Cross fertilization, or the impregnation of
any given flower by pollen from another
flower of the same species on the same or on
another plant, has been proved to be of great
advantage to the plant by securing a more
numerous or a more robust off.spring, or one
better able to adapt itself to the varying
conditions under which it has to live. This
common cross fertilization is often effected by the
agency of insects. They are attracted to the
flower by its colour or its perfume; they seek, collect or feed on its
honey, and while so doing they remove the pollen from the anther
and convey it to another flower, there to germinate on the stigma
when its tubes travel down the style to the ovary where their
contents ultimately fuse with the " oosphere " or immature egg,
which becomes in consequence fertilized, and forms a seed which
afterwards develops into a new plant (see article Angiosperms).
To facilitate the operations of such insects, by compelling them
to move in certain lines so as to secure the due removal of the
pollen and its subsequent deposit on the right place, the form of
the flower and the conformation of its several parts are modified in
ways as varied as they are wonderful. Other insects visit the
flower with more questionable result. For them the pollen is
an attraction as food, or some other part of the flower offers an
inducement to them for a like object. Such visitors are clearly
prejudicial to the flower, and so we meet with arrangements
which are calculated to repel the intruders, or at least to force
them to enter the flower in such a way as not to effect mischief.
See Darwin's Fertilization of Orchids and similar works.
In the common orchids of British meadows. Orchis Morio,
mascula (Shakespeare's long purples), &c., the general structure
of the flower is as we have described it (figs. 2, 3). In addition
there is in this particular genus, as indeed in many others, a long
tubular spur or horn projecting downwards from the back of the
lip, whose office it is to secrete and store a honeyed juice; the
forepart of the lip forms an expanded plate, usuaUy larger and
more brightly coloured than the other parts of the flower, and
with hairs or ridges and spots of various kinds according to the
species. The remaining parts of the perianth are very much
smaller, and commonly are so arranged as to form a hood over-
arching the " column. " This column stands up from the base
of the flower, almost at right angles to the lip, and it bears at the
top an anther, in the two hollowlobesof which are concealed the
two pollen-masses, each with its caudicle terminating below in a
roundish gland, concealed at first in the pouch-like rostellum at
the front of the column. Below the anther the surface of the
column in front is hollowed out into a greenish depression
covered with viscid fluid — this is the two united stigmas. The
other parts of the flower need not detain us. Such being in
general terms the mechanism of the flower of a common orchis,
let us now see how it acts. A bee, we will assume, attracted by the
colour and perfume of the flower, alights on that part of it which
is the first to attract its attention — the lip. There, guided by the
hairs or ridges before-mentioned, it is led to the orifice of the
spur with its store of honeyed juice. The position of this orifice,
as we have seen, is at the base of the hp and of the column, so
that the insect, if of sufficient size, whOe bending its head to
insert the proboscis into the spur, almost of necessity displaces
the pollen-masses. Liberated from the anthers, these adhere to
the head or back of the insect by means of the sticky gland at
the bottom of the caudicle (fig. 4). Having attained its object
the insect withdraws, taking the pollen-masses, and visits
another flower. And now occurs another device or adaptation no
less marvellous than those of which mention has been made.
The two anther-cases in an orchis are erect and nearly parallel
the one to the other; the poUcn-masses within them are of course
in like case, as may be thus represented II, but immediately
the pollen-masses are removed movements take place at the
base of the caudicle so as to effect the bending of this stalk and
the placing the pollen-mass in a more or less horizontal
position, thus =, or, as in the ca.se of O. pyramidalis, the two
pollen-masses originally placed paraUel || diverge from the base
like the letter V. The movements of the pollen-masses may
readily be seen with the naked eye by thrusting the point of a
needle into the base of the anther, when the disks adhere to the
needle as they would do to the antenna of an insect, and may be
withdrawn. Sometimes the lip is mobile and even sensitive to
impressions, as are also certain processes of the column. In such
cases the contact of an insect or other body with those processes
is sufficient to liberate the pollen often with elastic force, even
when the anther itself is not touched. In other orchids move-
ments take place in different ways and in other directions. The
object of these movements will be appreciated when it is re-
membered that, if the pollen-masses retained the original
direction they had in the anther in which they were formed, they
would, when transported by the insect to another flower, merely
come in contact with the anther of that flower, where of course
they would be of no use; but, owing to the divergences and
flexions above alluded to, the pollen-masses come to be so placed
that, when transplanted to another flower of the same species,
they come in contact with the stigma and so effect the fertiliza-
tion of that flower. These iUustrations are comparatively
simple; it would have been easy to select others of a more com-
plicated nature, but all evidently connected with the visits of
insects and the cross fertilization of the flower. In some
cases, as in Catasctum, male flowers are produced so different
from the female that before the different flowers had been
found on the same pike, and before the facts of the case were
fully known, they were taken to be representatives of distinct
genera.
The fruit is a capsule splitting generally by three longitudinal
slits forming valves which remain united above and below. The
seeds are minute and innumerable; they contain a small rudi-
mentary embryo surrounded by a thin loose membraneous coat,
and are scattered by means of hygroscopic hairs on the inside
of the valves which by their movements jerk out the seeds. The
floral structure is so curious that perhaps less attention has
been paid to the vegetative organs than the peculiarities of
their organisation demand. We can only allude to some of
these points. The orchids of British fields
are all of terrestrial habit, and their roots
are mostly tuberous (fig. 6), the tubers
being partly radical partly budlike in their
character. There is often a marked alter-
nation in the production of vegetative and
flowering shoots respectively; and, some-
times, from various circumstances, the
flowering shoots are not produced for
several years in succession. This fact will
account for the profusion with which some
orchids, like the common bee orchis for
instance, are found in some seasons and
their scarcity in others. Tropical orchids
are mostly epiphytal — that is, they grow
upon trees without deriving nourishment
from them. They are frequently provided
with " pseudo-bulbs, " large solid swellings
of the stem, in the tissues of which water
and nutritive materials are stored. They
derive this moisture from the air by means of aerial roots,
developed from the stem and bearing an outer spongy structure,
or velamcn, consisting of empty cells kept open by spiral thicken-
ings in the wall; this sponge-like tissue absorbs dew and rain
and condenses the moisture of the air and passes it on to the
internal tissues.
Fig. 6. — Tuber-
cular roots of Orchis
mascula, a terrestrial
Orchid.
172
ORCHOMENUS
The number of species of orchids is greater than that of any
other monocotyledonous order — not even excepting grasses —
amounting to 6000, contained in 400 genera. This large number
is partly accounted for by the diligent search in all countries
that has been made for these plants for purposes of cultivation —
they being held at present in the greatest esteem by plant-
lovers, and prices being paid for new or rare varieties which
recall the days of the tulipomania.
The economic uses of orchids are not remarkable. When we
have mentioned vanilla (g.».), which consists of the fleshy pods
of an orchid, we have mentioned about the only economic
product that now comes into market. Salep (q.v.), still used in
the Levant, consists of the dried tubers of a terrestrial orchid,
and contains a relatively large amount of nutritious matter.
The cultivation of orchids is treated under Horticulture.
The order is divided into two main groups based on the number
of the stamens and stigmas. The first Diandreae, has two or rarely
three fertile stamens and three functional stigmas. It contains
two small genera of tropical Asia and Africa with almost regular
flowers, and the large genus Cypripedium containing about 80 species
in the north-temperate zone and tropical Asia and Arnerica. In
Cypripedium two stamens are present, one on each side of the
column instead of one only at the top, as in the group Monandreae,
to which belong the remaining genera in which also only two stigmas
are fertile. What may be considered the normal number of stamens
is, as has been said, six, arranged in two rows. In most orchids the
only stamen developed to maturity is the posterior one of the three
opposite to the lip (anterior before the twisting of the ovary), the
other two, as well as all three inner ones, being entirely absent,
or present only in the form of rudiments. In Cypripedium two of
the outer stamens are wanting; the third — the one, that is, which
corresponds to the single fertile stamen in the Monandreae — forms
a large sterile structure or staminode; the two lateral ones of the
inner series are present, the third being undeveloped. This arrange-
ment may be understood by reference to the following diagram,
representing the relative position of the stamens in orchids generally
and in Cypripeditim. The letter L indicates the position of the
labellum; the large figures indicate the developed stamens; the
italic figures show the position of the suppressed stamens.
6 ■
L
4 5
6
L
Arrangement of stamens Arrangement of stamens
in Orchis. in Cypripedium.
The Monandreae have been subdivided into twenty-eight tribes,
the characters of which are based on the structure of the anther and
pollinia, the nature of the inflorescence, whether terminal or lateral,
the vernation of the leaf and the presence or absence of a joint
between blade and sheath, and the nature of the stem. The most
important are the following:
Ophrydineae, with about 45 genera, of terrestrial orchids, mainly
north temperate, including the British genera Orchis, Aceras, OpJirys,
Herminium, Gymnadenia and Habenaria. Also some genera mainly
represented in South and tropical Africa, such as Satyrium, Visa and
others.
NeoUiineae, including 90 genera, also terrestrial, contains thirteen
more or less widely distributed tropical or subtropical subtribes,
some of which extend into temperate zones; one, Cephalanthereae,
which includes our British genera Cephalanlhera and Epipactis is
chiefly north temperate. The British genera Spiranihes, Lislera and
Neoilia are also included in this tribe, as is also Vanilla, the elongated
stem of which climbs by means of tendril-like aerial roots — the long
fleshy pod is the vanilla used for flavouring.
Coelogyninae, 7 genera, mostly epiphytes, and inhabitants of
tropical Asia. A single internode of each shoot is swollen to form a
pseudobulb.
Liparidinae, 9 genera, terrestrial, two, Malaxis and CorallorMza,
are British. Liparis is a large genus widely distributed in the
tropics.
Pleurothallidinae, characterized by a thin stem bearing one leaf
which separates at a distinct joint; the sepals are usually much
larger than the petals and lip. Includes 10 genera, natives of
tropical America, one of which, Pleurothallis, contains about 400
species. Masderallia is common in cultivation and has often
brilliant scarlet, crimson or orange flowers.
Laeliinae, with 22 genera, natives of the warmer parts of America,
including three of those best known in cultivation, Epidendrum,
Catlleya and Laelia. The jointed leaves are fleshy or leathery ;
the flowers are generally large with a well-developed lip.
Phajinae, includes 15 genera chiefly tropical Asiatic, some —
Phajus and Calanthe — spreading northwards into China and
Japan.
Cystopodiinae, includes 9 genera tropical, but extending into north
temperate Asia and South Africa; Eulophia and Lissochilus are
important African genera.
Caiaselinae, with three tropical American genera, two of which,
Calaselum and Cycnoches, have di- or tri-morphic flowers. They are
cultivated for their strange-looking flowers.
Dendrobiinae, with six genera in the warmer parts of the Old
World; the chief is Dendrobium, with 300 species, often with showy
flowers.
Cymbidiinae, with 8 genera in the tropics of the Old World. The
leaves are generally long and narrow. Cymbidium is well known in
cultivation.
Oncidiinae, with 44 genera in the warmer parts of America.
Odontoglossum and Oncidium include some of the best-known culti-
vated orchids.
Sarcanthinae, with 42 genera in the tropics. Vanda (Asia) and
Angraeciim (Africa and Madagascar) are known in cultivation. The
flower of Angraecum sesqiiipedale has a spur 18 in. in length.
The order is well represented in Britain by 18 genera, which
include several species of Orchis: — Gymnadenia (fragrant orchis),
Habenaria (butterfly and frog orchis), Aceras (man orchis), Hermin-
ium (musk orchis), Ophrys (bee, spider and fly orchis), Epipactis
(Helleborine), Cephalanlhera, Neottia (bird's-nest orchis), one of the
few saprophytic genera, which have no green leaves, but derive their
nourishment from decaying organic matter in the soil, Listera
(Tway blade), Spiranthes (lady's tresses), Malaxis (bog-orchis),
Liparis (fen-orchis), Corallorhiza (coral root), also a saprophyte, and
Cypripedium (lady's slipper), represented by a single species now
very rare in limestone districts in the north of England.
ORCHOMENUS (local form on coins and inscriptions, Ercho-
mcnos), the name borne by two cities of ancient Greece.
I. A Boeotian city, situated in an angle between the Cephissus
and its tributary the Melas, on a long narrow hill which projects
south from Mount Acontium. Its position is exceedingly strong,
being defended on every side by precipice or marsh or river,
and it was admirably situated to be the stronghold of an early
kingdom. The acropolis is at the north end of the hill, on a peak
which is overhung by Acontium, but at a distance sufficient to
be safe from an enemy with the weapons of early warfare posted
on the mountain. At the foot of the acropolis are the springs of
the Melas.
In prehistoric times Orchomenus, as is proved alike by archaeo-
logical finds and by an extensive cycle of legends, was one of
the most prosperous towns of Greece. It was at once a conti-
nental and a maritime power. On the mainland it controlled the
greater part of Boeotia and drew its riches from the fertile low-
lands of Lake Copais, upon the drainage of which the early kings
of Orchomenus bestowed great care. Its maritime connexions
have not been as yet determined, but it is clear that its original
inhabitants, the Minyae, were a seafaring nation, and in historical
times Orchomenus remained a member of the Calaurian League
of naval states. At the end of the second millennium the
Minyae were more or less supplanted by the incoming stock
of Boeotians. Henceforth Orchomenus no longer figures as a
great commercial state, and its political supremacy in Boeotia
passed now, if not previously, to the people of Thebes. Never-
theless, owing perhaps to its strong military position, it long
continued to exercise some sort of overlordship over other
towns of northern Boeotia, and maintained an independent
attitude within the Boeotian League. In 447 it served as the
headquarters of the oligarchic exiles who freed Boeotia from
Athenian control. In the 4th century Orchomenus was actuated
throughout by an anti-Theban policy, which may have been
nothing more than a recrudescence of old-time rivalry, but
seems chiefly inspired by aversion to the newly established
democracy at Thebes. In the Corinthian War the city supported
Lysander and Agesilaus in their attacks upon Thebes, and when
war was renewed between the Thebans and Spartans in 379
Orchomenus again sided with the latter. After the battle of
Leuctra it was left at the mercy of the Thebans, who first, on
Epaminondas's advice, readmitted it into the Boeotian League,
but in 368 destroyed the town and exterminated or enslaved
its people. By 353 Orchomenus had been rebuilt, probably
by the Phocians, who used it as a bulwark against Thebes.
After the subjection of the Phocians in 346 it was again razed by
the Thebans, but was restored by Philip of Macedon as a check
upon the latter (338). Orchomenus springs into prominence
once again in 85 B.C., when it provided the battle-field on which
ORCIN— ORDEAL
173
the Roman general Sulla destroyed an army of Mithradates VI.
of Pontus. Apart from this event its later history is obscure,
and its decadence is further attested by the neglectful drainage
of the plain and the consequent encroachments of Lake Copais.
Since medieval times the site has been occupied by a village
named Skripou. Since 1867 drainage operations have been
resumed, and the land thus reclaimed has been divided into
small holdings. The most remarkable relic of the early power
of Orchomenus is the so-called "treasury" (of " Minyas ")
which resembles the buildings of similar style at Mycenae (see
Mycenae), and is almost exactly the same size as the treasury
of Atreus. The admiration which Pausanias expresses for it is
justified by the beautiful ornamentation, especially of the roof,
which has been brought to light by Schliemann's excavations
in the inner chamber opening out of the circular vaulted tomb.
The monument, undoubtedly the tomb of some ancient ruler,
or of a dynasty, lies outside the city walls. Other remains
of early date have been found upon this site.
The worship of the Charites (see Graces) was the great
cultus of Orchomenus, and the site of the temple is now occupied
by a chapel, the Kot/iijcris rijs Havaylas. The Charites were
worshipped under the form of rude stones, which had fallen
from heaven during the reign of Eteocles; and it was not till
the time of Pausanias that statues of the goddesses were placed
in the temple. Near this was another temple dedicated to
Dionysus, in whose festival, the 'Aypiuvia, are apparent the
traces of human sacrifice in early times (see Agrionia).
See Strabo viii. p. 374, ix. pp. 407, 414-416; Pausanias ix. 34-38;
Thucydides i. 12, iv. 76; Xenophon, Hellenica, iii. 5, iv. 3, vi. 4;
Diodorus XV., xvi.; Plutarch, Sulla, chs. 30-31; K. O. Mtiller,
Orchomenos iind die Minyer (Breslau, 1844); B. V. Head, Historia
numorum (Oxford, 1877), pp. 293-294; Journal of Hellenic Studies,
vol. ii. pis. xii., xiii.
2. An Arcadian city, situated in a district of the same name,
north of Mantineia and west of Stymphalus. The district was
mountainous, but embraced two valleys — the northern con-
taining a lake which is drained, like all Arcadian lakes, by a
katavotliron; the southern lying under the city, separated
from Mantineia by a mountain ridge called Anchisia. The old
city occupied a strong and lofty situation; in the time of Strabo
it was a ruin, but Pausanias mentions that a new town was
built below the old. A primitive wooden image of Artemis
Cedreatis stood in a large cedar tree outside the city. Orcho-
menus is mentioned in the Homeric catalogue with the epithet
ToXu/irjXos.
In early history Orchomenus figures as a town of some im-
portance, for its kings until the late 7th century B.C. held some
sort of sovereignty over all Arcadia. In the 5th century it was
overshadowed by its southern neighbour Mantineia, with
whom it is henceforth generally found to be at variance. In
418 B.C. Orchomenus fell for a time into the hands of the
Mantineians; in 370 it held aloof from the new Arcadian League
which the Mantineians were organizing. About this time it
further declined in importance through the loss of some posses-
sions on the east Arcadian watershed to the new Arcadian capital
Megalopolis. In the 3rd century Orchomenus belonged in
turn to the Aetolian League, to the Lacedaemonians, and,
since 222, to the Achaean League. Though a fairly extensive
settlement still existed on the site in the 2nd century a.d., its
history under the Roman rule is quite obscure.
See Pausanias, viii. chs. 5, 11-13, 27; B. V. Head, Historia
numorum (Oxford, 1887), pp. 377-378.
ORCIN, a dioxytoluene, C6H3(CH3)(OH)2 (1:3: 5), found
in many lichens, e.g. Rocdla tinctoria, Lecanora, and formed
by fusing extract of aloes with potash. It may be synthesized
from toluene; more interesting is its production when acetone
dicarboxylic ester is condensed with the aid of sodium. It
crystallizes in colourless prisms with one molecule of water,
which redden on exposure. Ferric chloride gives a bluish-
violet coloration with the aqueous solution. Unlike resorcin
it does not give a fluorescein with phthalic anhydride. Oxidation
of the ammoniacal solution gives orcein, C2sH24N207, the chief
constituent of the natural dye archil (?.».). Homo-pyrocatechin
is an isomer (CH3:0H:0H=i :3 :4), found as its methyl
ether (creosol) in beech-wood tar.
ORDEAL (O.Eng. ordal, ordacl, judgment), a term correspond-
ing to modern Ger. Urtcil, but bearing the special sense of the
medieval Lat. Dei judicium, a miraculous decision as to the
truth of an accusation or claim. The word is adopted in the late
Lat. ordalium, P'r. ordalic. The ordeal had existed for many
ages before it was thus named in Europe. In principle, and
often in the very forms used, it belongs to ancient culture,
thence flourishing up to the medieval European and modern
Asiatic levels, but dying out before modern civilization. Some
ordeals, which possibly represent early stages of the practice,
are simply magical, being processes of divination turned to
legal purpose. Thus in Burma suits are still determined by
plaintiff and defendant being each furnished with a candle,
equal in size and both lighted at once — he whose candle outlasts
the other being adjudged, amid the acclamations of his friends,
to have won his cause (Shway Yoe, The Burman, ii. 254).
Even quainter is a Dyak ordeal in Borneo, where the two
parties are represented by two shell-fish on a plate, which are
irritated by pouring on some lime-juice, and the one first moving
settles the guflt or innocence (as has been before arranged) of
its owner (St John, Forests of the Far East, i.8g). The adminis-
tration of ordeals has been much in the hands of priests, and
they are more often than not worked on a theological basis, the
intervention of a deity being invoked and assumed to take place
even when the process is in its nature one of symbohc magic.
For instance, an ancient divining instrument consisted of a sieve
held suspended by a thread or by a pair of shears with the points
stuck into its rim, and considered to move at the mention of the
name to be discovered, &c. Thus girls consulted the " sieve-
witch " (KOdKLvbixavTis) about lovers (Theocr., Idyll, iii. 31).
This coscinomancy served in the same way to discover a thief,
when, with prayer to the gods for direction, the names of the
suspected persons were called over to it (Potter, Greek Antiquities,
i. 352). When a suspended hatchet was used in the same way
to turn to the guilty, the process was called axinomancy. The
sieve-ordeal remained popular in the middle ages (see the de-
scription and picture in Cornelius Agrippa, Dc Occ. Phil.) ; it is
mentioned in Hudibras (ii. 3):
"... th' oracle of sieve and shears
That turns as certain as the spheres."
From this ancient ordeal is evidently derived the modern
Christian form of the key and Bible, where a Psalter or Bible is
suspended by a key tied in at Psalm 1. 18: " When thou sawest
a thief, then thou consent edst with him "; the bow of the key
being balanced on the fingers, and the names of those suspected
being called over, he or she at whose name the book turns or
faUs is the culprit (see Brand, Popular Antiquities, ed. Bohn,
iii- 351)-
One of the most remarkable groups of divinations passing
into ordeals are those which appeal to the corpse itself for
discovery of its murderer. The idea is rooted in that primitive
state of mind which has not yet realized the fuU effect of death,
but regards the body as stiU able to hear and act. Thus the
natives of Austraha will ask the dead man carried on his bier of
boughs, who bewitched him; if he has died by witchcraft he will
make the bier move round, and if the sorcerer who kiUed him be
present a bough will touch him (Eyre, Australia, ii. 344). That
this is no isolated fancy is shown by its recurrence among the
negroes of Africa, where, for instance, the corpse causes its bearers
to dash against some one's house, which accuses the owner of
the murder (J. L. Wilson, Western Africa, p. 231; Waitz, ii.
193). This somewhat resembles the weU-known ordeal of the
bier in Europe in the middle ages, which, how'ever, seems founded
on a different principle, the imagination that a sympathetic
action of the blood causes it to flow at the touch or neighbourhood
of the murderer. Apparently the liquefaction of the blood which
in certain cases takes place after death may have furnished the
ground for this belief. On Teutonic ground, this ordeal appears
in the Nihclungenlicd, where the murdered Siegfried is laid on his
bier, and Hagen is called on to prove his innocence by going to the
174
ORDEAL
corpse, but at his approach the dead chief's wounds bleed afresh.
The typical instance in English history is the passage of Matthew
Paris, that after Henry II. 's death at Chinon his son Richard
came to view the body, " Quo superveniente, confestim erupit
sanguis ex naribus regis mortui; ac si indignaretur spiritus in
adventu ejus, qui ejusdem mortis causa esse credebatur, ut
videretur sanguis clamare ad Deum." In Shakespeare {Rich.
III., act I, sc. 2):
" O gentlemen, see, see! dead Henry's wounds
Open their congeal'd mouths, and bleed afresh! "
At Hertford assizes (1628) the deposition was taken as to
certain suspected murderers being required to touch the corpse,
when the murdered woman thrust out the ring finger three times
and it dropped blood on the grass (Brand, iii. 231); and there
was a case in the Scottish High Court of Justiciary as late as
1668 (T. F. Thiselton Dyer, Folklore of Shakespeare, p. 487).
Durham peasants, apparently remembering the old belief, still
expect those who come to look at a corpse to touch it, in token
that they bear no ill-will to the departed (W. Henderson,
Folklore of Northern Counties, p. 57).
Certain ordeals are closely related to oaths, so that the two
shade into one another. Let the curse which is to fall on the
oath-breaker take effect at once, it then becomes a sign con-
demning the swearer — in fact, an ordeal. Thus the drinking of
water on which a curse or magical penalty has been laid is a mere
oath so long as the time of fulfilment is unfixed (see Oath).
But it becomes an ordeal when, as in Brahmanic India, the
accused drinks three handfuls of water in which a sacred image
has been dipped; if he is innocent nothing happens, but if he is
guilty sickness or misfortune will fall on him within one to three
weeks (for accounts of these and other Hindu ordeals see Ali
Ibrahim Khan in Asiatic Researches, i. 389, and Stenzler's sum-
mary in Z. D. M. C, vol. ix.). The earliest account of such an
ordeal is in Numbers v., which describes the modeof administering
to a woman charged with unfaithfulness the bitter water mixed
with the dust of the tabernacle floor, with the curse laid on it to
cause her belly to swell and her thigh to faU if guilty. Ewald
{Antiquities of Israel, 236) regards the draught as in itself harm-
less, and the operation of this curse on the guilty as due to the
influence of the mind on the body. But the term " bitter "
is apphed to the water before it has been cursed, which suggests
that it already contained some drug, as in the poison-water
ordeal still in constant use over a great part of Africa. Thus the
red water of Guinea is a decoction made by pounding in a wooden
mortar and steeping in water the inner bark of one of the mimosas,
producing a liquor like that of a tan-vat, astringent, narcotic,
and when taken in sufiicient quantity emetic. The accused,
with solemn ceremony and invocation, drinks freely of it; if it
nauseates him and he throws it up he is triumphantly acquitted,
but if he becomes dizzy he is guilty, and the assembly fall on
him, pelt him with stones and even drag him over the rocks till he
is dead. Here the result of the ordeal depends partly on the
patient's constitution, but more on the sorcerer who can prepare
the proper dose to prove either guilt or innocence. Among the
various drugs used in different parts of Africa are the nibundu
root, the Calabar bean, the tangena nut {Tanghinia veiieniflua,
a strong poison and emetic). The sorcerers who administer this
ordeal have in their hands a power of inflicting or remitting
judicial murder, giving them boundless influence (details in J. L.
Wilson, Western Africa, pp. 225, 398; Burton, Lake Regions
of Central Africa, ii. 357; Bosman, " Guinea," in Pinkerton's
Voyages, xvi. 398, &c.). The poison-ordeal is also known to
Brahmanic law, decoction of aconite root being one of the
poisons given, and the accused if not sickening being declared
free (Stenzler, I.e.). Theoretically connected with the ordeal by
cursed drink is that by cursed food, which is, however, distin-
guished among this black catalogue by being sometimes an
effectual means of discovering the truth. The ordeal by bread
and cheese, practised in Alexandria about the 2nd century,
was practically the same as that known to English law five to
ten centuries later as the corsnaed or " trial sUce " of consecrated
bread and cheese which was administered from the altar, with
the curse that if the accused were guilty God would send the
angel Gabriel to stop his throat, that he might not be able to
swallow that bread and cheese. In fact, if guilty and not a
hardened offender he was apt to fail, dry-mouthed and choking
through terror, to get it down. The remembrance of this ancient
ordeal still lingers in the popular phrase, " May this bit choke me
if I lie! " In India the corresponding trial by rice is prescribed
in the old laws to be done by suspected persons chewing the
consecrated grains of rice and spitting them out, moist and
untinged with blood, on a banyan leaf; this or the mere chewing
and swaUowing of a mouthful of rice-grains is often used even by
the English as a means of detecting a thief. A classical mention
of the ordeals by carrying hot iron in the hands and by passing
through the fire is made more interesting by the guards who offer
to prove their innocence in this way offering further to take oath
by the gods, which shows the intimate connexion between oaths
and ordeals (Soph., Ant. 264, see also Aeschyl., fr. 284).
rj^iv 5* iToLfjLOi Kai ^liibpov; aipctv x^potu
Kai wvp diepn-eif, Kat ^eoi's opKojfioTeZv
TO firjTe dpdffat /d7]Te tw ^vvitbevaL
TO Kpayida ^ovKibaavTL jitit' elpyaautfui.
The passing through the fire is described in the Hindu
codes of Yajnavalkya and others, and is an incident in Hindu
poetry, where in the Rdmdyana the virtuous Sita thus proves
her innocence to her jealous husband Rama (Stenzler, p. 669;
Pictet, Origines Indo-Europeennes, part ii. p. 457). It was not
less known to European law and chronicle, as where Richardis,
wife of Charles the Fat, prows her innocence by going into a
fire clothed in a waxed shift, and is unhurt by the fire (Grimm,
Deutsche Rechtsalterthiimer, p. 912). Yet more minutely
prescribed in the Hindu ordeal-books is the rite of carrying the
glowing hot iron seven steps, into the seven or nine circles
traced on the ground, the examination of the hands to see if they
show traces of burning, and the binding them up in leaves. The
close historical connexion of the Hindu ordeal laws with the old
European is shown by the correspondence of minute details,
as where in a Scandinavian law it is prescribed that the red-hot
iron shall be carried nine steps {Grimtn, op. cil., p. 918). In Anglo-
Saxon laws the iron to be carried was at first only one pound
weight, but Athelstan's law (in Ancient Laws and Institutes of
England, iv. 6) enacts that it be increased to weigh three pounds.
Another form well known in old Germany and England was the
walking barefoot over glowing ploughshares, generally nine.
The law-codes of the early middle ages show this as an ordinary
criminal procedure (see the two works last referred to), but it
is perhaps best remembered in two non-historical legends. The
German queen Kunigunde, " haec dicens stupentibus et flentibus
universis qui aderant, vomeres candentes nudo vestigio calcavit
et sineadustionis molestiatranstit " {Vista Henrici, ap. Canisium,
vi. 387). Queen Emma, mother of Edward the Confessor, accused
of familiarity with Alwyn bishop of Winchester, triumphantly
purges herself and him by the help of St Swithin — each of the
two thus acquitted giving nine manors to the church of
Winchester, in memory of the nine ploughshares, and the king
being corrected with stripes (John Bromton, see Freeman's
Norm. Conq., vol. ii. App.). To dip the hand in boiling water
or oil or melted lead and take out a stone or ring is another
ordeal of this class. The traveller may find some of these
fiery trials still in use, or at least in recent memory, in barbaric
regions of Africa or further Asia — the negro plunging his arm
into the caldron of boiling oU, the Burman doing feats with
melted lead, while the Bedouin will settle a conflict of evidence
by the opposing witnesses hcking a glowing hot-iron spoon
(Burckhardt, Arabien, pp. 98, 233). This latter feat may be
done with safety by any one, provided the iron be clean and
thoroughly white hot, while if only red-hot it would touch and
burn the tongue. Probably the administerers of the ordeal
are aware of this, and of the possibility of dipping the hand
in melted metal; and there are stories of arts of protecting the
skin (see the recipe in Albertus Magnus, ZJc il/;>ij6;7/i!(i), though
it is not known what can be really done beyond making it horny
like a smith's, which would serve as a defence in stepping on
ORDER
175
hot coals, but not in serious trials like that of carrying a heavy
red-hot iron. The fire-ordeals are still performed by mounte-
banks, who very likely keep up the same means of trickery
which were in official use when the accused was to be acquitted.
The actual practice of the fire-ordeal contrasts shamefully with
its theory, that the fire rather than harm the innocent restrained
its natural action. Thus it stands in the Hindu code of Manu
(viii. 115): " He whom the flame does not burn, whom the water
does not cast up, or whom no harm soon befals, is to be taken
as truthful in his oath." The water-ordeal here referred to is
that well known in Europe, where the accused is thrown bound
into the water, which receives him if innocent, but rejects
him if guilty. The manner of carrying out this test is well
explained in the directions given by Archbishop Hincmar in the
gth century: he who is let down into the water for trial is to be
fastened by a rope, that he may not be in danger if the water
receives him as innocent, but may be pulled out. In the later
middle ages this ordeal by " swimming " or " fleeting " became
the most approved means of trying a suspected witch: she was
stripped naked and cross bound, the right thumb to the left
toe, and the left thumb to the right toe. In this state she was
cast into a pond or river, in which it was thought impossible
for her to sink (Brand iii. 21). The cases of " ducking " witches
which have occurred in England within the last few years are
remains of the ancient ordeal.
If there is one thing that may be predicated of man in a state
of nature it is that two disputants tend to fight out their quarrel.
When in the warfare of Greeks and Trojans, of Jews and
Philistines, of Vandals and Alamans, heroes come out from the
two sides and their combat is taken to mark the powers of the
opposing war-gods and decide the victory, then the principle
of the ordeal by battle has been practically called in. Among
striking instances of the Teutonic custom which influenced
the whole of medieval Europe may be cited the custom of the
Franks that the princes, if they could not quell the strife, had
to fight it out between themselves, and Wipo's account of the
quarrel between the Christian Saxons and the Pagan Slavs
as to which broke the peace, when both sides demanded of the
emperor that it should be settled by duel, which was done by
choosing a champion on each side, and the Christian fell. The
Scandinavian term " holmgang " refers to the habit of fighting
duels on an island. A passage from old German law shows the
single combat accepted as a regular legal procedure: " If there be
dispute concerning fields, vineyards, or money, that they avoid
perjury let two be chosen to fight, and decide the cause by duel "
(Grimm, Rechlsalterl., p. 928). In England, after the Conquest,
trial by combat superseded other legal ordeals, which were
abolished in the time of Henry III. Among famous instances
is that of Henry de Essex, hereditary standard-bearer of England,
who fled from a battle in Wales, in 1158, threw from him the
royal standard, and cried out that the king was slain. Robert
de Montfort afterwards, accusing him of having done this with
treasonable intent, offered to prove his accusation by combat,
and they fought in presence of Henry II. and his court, when
Essex was defeated, but the king spared his life, and, his estate
being confiscated, he became a monk in Reading Abbey. A
lord often sent his man in his stead to such combats, and priests
and women were ordinarily represented by champions. The
wager of battle died out so quietly in England without being
legally abolished that in the court of king's bench in 181S it
was claimed by a person charged with murder, which led to its
formal abolition {Ashford v. llwrnton in Barnewall and Alderson
457; see details in H. C. Lea, Superstition and Force, ii.). A
distinct connexion may, however, be traced between the legal
duel and the illegal private duel, which has disappeared from
England, but still flourishes in France and Germany (see
Duel). (E. B. T.)
ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo,
ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is
generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise,
begin; cf. " origin "), a row or series, hence grade, class or rank,
succession, sequence or orderly arrangement; from these, the
original meanings of ordo, have developed the numerous applica-
tions attached to the word, many, if not most, of which appear
in classical and medieval Latin. In the sense of a class or body
of persons or things united by some common status, rank or
distinguishing characteristics, or as organized and living under
some common rules and regulations, we find the term applied,
in such expressions as " lower " or " higher orders," to the class
divisions of society; to the various grades of persons exercising
spiritual functions in the Christian church (see Order, Holy,
below); to the bodies of persons bound by vows to a religious
life (see Monasticism, and separate articles on the chief religious
orders); to the military and monastic fraternities of the middle
ages, such as the Templars, Hospitallers, &c., and to those
institutions, founded by sovereigns or states, in part imitation
of these fraternities, which are conveniently divided into orders
of knighthood, or orders of merit (see Knighthood). The term
" order " is thus used, in an easily transferred sense, for the
various insignia, badge, star, collar, worn by the members of
the institution. As applied to a group of objects, an " order "
in zoological, botanical and mineral classification ranks next
below a " class," and above a " family." The use of the word
in architecture is treated in a separate article below.
The word has several technical mathematical usages. In
number-theory it denotes a relative rank between the elements of
an aggregate so that the collection becomes an ordered aggregate
(see Number). The order of a plane curve is the number of points
(real or imaginary) in which the curve is intersected by a straight
line; it is equal to the degree (or coefficient of the highest
power) of the Cartesian equation expressing the curve. The
order of a non-plane curve is the number of points (real or
imaginary) in which the curve intersects a plane (see Curve).
The order of a surface is the number of points in which the
surface intersects a straight line. For the order of a congruence
and complex see Surface. The order of a difercntial equation is
the degree of its highest differential coefficient (see Differential
Equation).
Another branch of the sense-development of the word starts
from the meaning of orderly, systematic or proper arrangement,
which appears in the simplest form in such adverbial expressions
as " in order," " out of order " and the like. More particular
instances are the use of the word for the customary procedure
observed in the conduct of the business of a public meeting, or
of parliamentary debates, and for the general maintenance and
due observance of law and authority, " public order."
In liturgical use " order " is a special form of divine service
prescribed by authority, e.g. the " Order of Confirmation," in
the English Prayer Book.
The common use of " order " in the sense of a command, in-
struction or direction is a transference from that of arrangement
in accordance with intention to the means for attaining it. It
is a comparatively late sense-development; it does not appear
in Latin, and the earliest quotations in the New English
Dictionary are from the i6th century. Particular applications
of the term are, in commercial usage, to a direction in writing
to a banker or holder of money or goods, by the person in whom
the legal right to them lies, to pay or hand over the same to a
I bird person named or to his order. A bill or negotiable instrument
made " payable to order " is one which can be negotiated by the
payee by endorsement. At common law a negotiable instrument
must contain words expressly authorizing transfer. By the
Bills of Exchange Act 1882, § 8, "a bill is payable to order
which is expressed to be so payable, or which is expressed to be
payable to a particular person, and does not contain words
prohibiting transfer or indicating an intention that it should
not be transferable." Other applications are to a direction for
the supply of goods and to a pass for free admission to a place
of amusement, a building, &c.
In law an " order of the court " is a judicial direction on
matters outside the record; as laid down by Esher, M.R., in
Onslow v. Inland Revenue, 59, L.J.Q.B. 556, a "judgment" is a
decision obtained in an action and every other decision is an
" order." For " Order in Council " see below.
176
ORDER
ORDER, in classic architecture the term employed (Lat.
genus, Ital. ordine, Sp. order, Ger. Ordnung) to distinguish the
varieties of column and entablature which were employed by
the Greeks and Romans in their temples and pubhc buildings.
The first attempt to classify the architectural orders was made
by Vitruvius, who, to those found in Greek buildings, viz. the
Doric, Ionic and Corinthian, added a fourth, the Tuscan. On
the revival of classic art in Italy, the revivalists translated
Vitruvius's work De ArchUectura, and added a fifth example, the
Composite, so that nominally there are five orders. The Tuscan,
however, is only an undeveloped and crude modification of the
Doric order, and the Composite is the same as the Corinthian with
the exception of the capital, in which the volutes of the Ionic
order were placed above the acanthus leaves of the Corinthian.
An order in architecture consists of several parts, constructive
in their origin, but, as employed afterwards, partly constructive
and partly decorative; its principal features are the column,
consisting of base (except in the Greek Doric order), shaft and
capital, and the entablature, subdivided into the architrave (the
supporting member), the frieze (the decorative member) and the
cornice (the crowning and protecting member). Two only of
the orders were independently evolved, viz. the Doric in Greece
and Magna Grecia, and the Ionic in Ionia. For the Corinthian
order, the Greeks borrowed with slight variations the entabla-
ture for their Ionic order, and the Romans employed this modified
entablature for their Composite order. Owing to a certain re-
semblance in form, it was at one time thought that the Greeks owed
the origin of the Doric order to Egypt , but the Egyptian column has
no echinus under its abacus, which in the earhest Doric examples is
an extremely important element in its design, owing to its great
size and projection; moreover, the Doric column ceased to be
employed in Egypt after the XlXth Dynasty, some seven or
eight centuries before the first Greek colony was established
there. Dr Arthur Evans's discoveries in the palace of Cnossus in
Crete have shown that the earhest type of the Doric column
(c. 1500 B.C.) is that painted in a fresco which represents the
facades of three temples or shrines, the truth of this representation
being borne out by actual remains in the palace; the columns
were in timber, tapered from the top downwards, and were
crowned by a projecting abacus supported by a large torus
moulding, probably moulded in stucco. The next examples of
the order are those in stone, which flank the entrance doorway
of the tomb of Agamemnon at Mycenae (c 1200 B.C.), the greater
portions of which are now set up in the British Museum; and
here both capital and shaft are richly decorated with the chevron
pattern, probably derived from the metal plates which in Homeric
times sheathed the wood columns. The columns of the Mycenae
tombs are semi-detached only, and of very slender proportions,
averaging 10 to 11 diameters in height; as isolated columns,
therefore, they would have been incapable of carrying any weight,
so that in the next examples known, those of the temple at
Corinth, where the columns had to carry an entablature in stone
supporting a stone ceiling over the peristyle, the relation of
diameter to height is nearly one to four, so diffident were the
Greek architects as to the bearing power of the stone. In the
temple of Apollo at Syracuse, also a very archaic example, the
projection of the capital was so great that the abaci nearly touched
one another, and the columns are less than one diameter apart.
The subsequent development which took place was in the
lightening of the column and the introduction of many refine-
ments, so that in the most perfected example known, the
Parthenon, the columns are ij diameters apart and nearly 55
diameters high. In a somewhat later example, the temple of the
Nemaean Zeus (Argos) the columns are 65 diameters high. A
similar hghtening of the structure took place in the entablature,
which in the earhest temple in Sicily is about half the height of
the columns, in the Parthenon less than a third, and in the
Temple of the Nemaean Zeus a little over a fourth.
The origin of the Ionic order is not so clear, and it cannot be
traced beyond the remains of the archaic temple of Diana at
Ephesus (c. 560 B.C.), now in the British Museum, in which the
capitals and the lower drum of the shaft enriched with sculpture
in their design and execution suggest many centuries of develop-
ment. Here again attempts have been made to trace the source
to Egypt, but the volute capital of the archaic temple of Diana
at Ephesus and the decorative lotus bud of Egypt are entirely
different in their form and object. The latter is purely decorative
and vertical in its tendency, the former is a feature intended to
carry a superincumbent weight, and is extended horizontally so
as to perform the function of a bracket-capital, viz. to lessen the
bearing of the architrave or beam which it carries. A similar
constructive expedient is found in Persian work at Persepolis,
which, however, dates about forty years later than the Ephesian
work. The volutes of the capitals of the Lycian tombs are none
of them older than the 4th century, being copies of Greek stone
examples. As with the Doric order, the columns became more
slender than at first, those of the archaic temple being probably
between 6 and 7 diameters high, of the temple on the IHssus
(c. 450 B.C.) 8^, and of the temple of Athena Polias at Priene
(c 345 B.C.) over 10 diameters high.
The employment of the two orders in Athens simultaneously,
and sometimes in the same building, led to a reciprocal influence
one on the other; in the Doric order to an increased refinement
in the contour of its mouldings, in the Ionic order to greater
severity in treatment, more particularly in the bedmould, the
members of which were reduced in number and simplified, the
dentil course (which in Ionia was a very important feature)
being dispensed with in the temple on the Ilissus and in that of
Nike Apteros, and employed only in the caryatide portico of
the Erechtheum. The capital of the Corinthian order, its only
original feature, may have been derived from the Egyptian
beU-capital, which was constantly employed there, even in
Roman times; its decoration was, however, purely Greek, and
would seem to have been based on the application to the bell
of foliage and ornament derived from metalhc forms. The
inventor of the capital is said to have been Callimachus of Corinth,
who was a craftsman in metal and designed the bronze lamp
and its cover for the Erechtheum in Corinthian bronze, which
may account for the origin and title of the capital. The earhest
example of the Corinthian capital is that found at Bassae by
CockereU, dating from about 430 B.C., and the more perfected
type is that of the Tholos of Epidaurus (400 B.C.).
Whilst the entablatures of the Doric and Ionic orders suggest
their origin from timber construction, that of the Corinthian
was simply borrowed from the Ionic order, and its subsequent
development by the Romans affords the only instance of their
improvement of a Greek order (so far as the independent treat-
ment of it was concerned) by the further enrichment of the
bedmould of the cornice, where the introduction of the modillion
gave an increased support to the corona and was a finer crowning
feature.
The Greek Doric order was not understood by the Romans,
and was, with one or two exceptions, utilized by them only
as a decorative feature in their theatres and amphitheatres,
where in the form of semi-detached columns they formed
divisions between the arches; the same course was taken
with the Ionic order, which, however, would seem to have been
employed largely in porticoes. On the other hand, the Cor-
inthian order, in consequence of its rich decoration, appealed
more to the Roman taste; moreover, all its faces were the same,
and it could be employed in rectangular or in circular buildings
without any difficulty. The earhest examples are found in the
temple of Castor and Pollux at Cora, near Rome, which is Greek
in the style of its carving, and in the portico of the Pantheon
at Rome erected by Agrippa (27 B.C.), where the Roman order
is fully developed. The next developments of the orders are
those which followed the revival of classic architecture in the
i6th century, and these were largely influenced by the discovery
in 1456 of the manuscript of Vitruvius, an architect who
flourished in the latter half of the ist century B.C. In his work
Dc A rchitectura he refers constantly to drawings which he had pre-
pared to illustrate his descriptions; these, however, have never
been found, so that the translators of his work put their own
interpretation on his text and published woodcuts representing
ORDER
177
the Roman orders as defined by him. They did not, however,
confine themselves to the actual remains, which in their day
were in much better preservation than at present, but attempted
to complete the orders by the addition of pedestals to the
columns, which were not employed by the Greeks, and only
under special conditions by the Romans; as, however, they are
included in the two chief authorities on the subject, Palladio
and Vignola, the text-book of the former being the standard
in England, and that of the latter in France, the rules and
proportions set forth in them for pedestals, as also for the em-
ployment of the superposing of the orders with arches between,
will follow the analysis of the Greek and Roman orders.
The Greek Doric Order. — The Doric was the favourite order
of the Greeks, and the one in which they introduced all their
principal refinements; these were of so subtle a nature that
until the site was cleared in 1837 their existence was not known,
and the earher explorers, though recognizing the extreme
beauty of the proportions and some of the refinements, were
unable to grasp the extent to which they were carried, and it was
reserved for Penrose in 1S46 to verify by micrometrical studies
the theories put forward by Pennethorne and other authors.
The whole structure of the Doric temple (which consisted of the
columns, subdivided into shaft and capital, and the entablature,
subdivided into architrave, frieze and cornice) rested on a
platform of three steps, of which the upper step wasthestylobate
or column base (fig. i). The tread and rise of the steps varied
in accordance with the diameter
of the column; in temples of
great dimensions, therefore, supple-
mentary steps were provided for
access to the stylobate, or, as found
in many temples, slight inclined
planes. Resting on the stylobate
was the shaft of the column, which
was either monolithic or composed
of frusta or drums. The shaft
tapered as it rose, the diminution
of the upper diameter being more
pronounced in early examples, as
in one of the temples at SeUnus
and in the great temple at Paestum.
In the Parthenon at Athens the
lower diameter is 6 ft. 3 in. and the
upper 4 ft. 9 in., which gives a dimi-
nution slightly over one-quarter
of the lower diameter. The shaft
was always fluted, with two or
three exceptions, where the temples
were not completed, and there
were usually twenty flutes. In two
temples at Syracuse, the most
ancient temple at Selinus, the
temple at Assos, and the temple
at Sunium there are only sixteen
flutes; the flutes were elhptic in
section and intersected with an
arris. In order to correct an optical
illusion, which arises in a diminish-
ing shaft, a slight entasis or swell-
ing in the centre was given, the
greatest departure from the straight line being about one-
third up the shaft. The shaft was crowned by the capital,
the juncture of the two being marked by a groove (one in
the Parthenon, but up to three in more ancient examples)
known as the hypotrachelion. Above this the trachelion or
necking curves over, constructing what is known as the apophyge
up to the fillets, round the base of the echinus, which forms the
transition to the square abacus. The varying curve of the
echinus, from the earhest times down to the later examples,
is shown in the article on mouldings. The relative proportions
of the lower diameter and the height of the columns vary accord-
ing to the date of the example, in the early examples the column
t-
Si
Fig. I. — The Greek Doric
Order. The Parthenon,
Athens; section through
front.
being just on 4 diameters high, in the Parthenon nearly 5*
diameters, and in the Temple of Jupiter Nemaeus 6| diameters
high. The distance between the columns or intercolumniation
varied also according to the date, that of the earliest examples
in .Sicily being about i diameter (that between the angle columns
being always less), in the Parthenon in the proportion of i to
1-24, and in the temple at Argos as i to 1-53.
Above the columns rested the entablature (fig. 2), of which
the lower member, the architrave, was plain and crowned by
a projecting fillet,
known as the
regula; under
which, and below
the triglyph, was a
fillet (taenia), with
six guttae under-
neath. The propor-
tional height of the
architrave, which
was the chief sup-
porting member,
varied according to
date, in one of the
earliest examples
at Syracuse being
of greater depth
than the diameter
of the column, and
in the Parthenon
abouttwo-thirds
of the diameter.
Above the archi-
trave was the frieze,
divided into tri-
glyphs, so called
because they are
divided into three
bands by two
vertical grooves,
and metopes or
spaces between the
triglyphs. It is
supposed that the
triglyphs repre-
sented the beams
in the primitive pjQ. 2.-
cella before the
peristyle was
added, the spaces between being filled with shutters or boards to
prevent the temple being entered by birds. The face of the
metopes, which are nearly square, is set back behind that of
the triglyphs, and is sometimes decorated with sculpture in
high rehef. There is generally one triglyph over each column
and one between, but at each end of the temple there is a triglyph
at the angle, so that the intercolumniation of the angle columns
is less than that of the others, which gives a sense of increased
strength. Above the frieze is the cornice, which projects forward
about one-third of the diameter of the column and slopes down-
wards at an angle generally the same as the slope of the roof.
On its under surface are mutules, one over each triglyph and
one between, which are studded with guttae, probably repre-
senting the wood pins which secured the rafters in their position.
Generally speaking, in the Doric temples there is no cymatium
or gutter, and the rain fell directly off the roof; in order to
prevent it trickhng down there was an upper moulding, throated,
with a bird's beak moulding behind and a second throating near
the bottom, so that the corona had an upper fillet projecting,
and a lower fillet receding, from its fascia plane. The roof itself
was covered with tiles in terra-cotta or marble, which consisted
of flat slabs with raised edges and covering tiles over the joints;
the lower ends of the covering tiles were decorated with antefixae,
and the top of the roof was protected by ridge tiles, on the top of
-Greek Doric Order.
Athens.
The Parthenon,
178
ORDER
which were sometimes additional antefixae placed parallel
with the ridge tile. As the mouldings of the pediment were
returned foi a short distance along the side, there was a small
cymatium or gutter with lions' heads, through the mouth of
which the water ran. In the principal and rear front of the
temple the lines of the cornice were repeated up the slope of the
pediment, which coincided with that of the roof, and the tym-
panum, which they enclosed, was enriched with sculpture. On
the centre of the pediment and at each end were pedestals
(acroteria), on which figures, or conventional ornaments, were
placed. Supplementary to the order at the back of the peristyle
were antae, slightly projecting pilasters which terminated the
walls of the pronaos; these had a small base, were of the same
diameter from the top to the bottom, and had a simple moulded
capital.
The Greek Ionic Order. — The Ionic order, like the Doric,
owes its origin to timber prototypes, but varies in its features;
the columns are more slender, being from 8 to 9 diameters high,
with an intercolumniation of sometimes as much as 2 diameters;
the architrave also is subdivided into three fascia, which suggests
that in its origin it consisted of three beams superposed, in
contradistinction to that of the Doric architrave, which con-
sisted of a single beam. As in the Doric order, the Ionic temple
rested on a stylobate of three steps (fig. 3). The columns con-
sisted of base, shaft and capital. In the Ionic examples the base
consisted of a torus moulding, fluted horizontally, beneath
which were three double astragals divided by the scotia, some-
times, as in the temple at Priene, resting on a square phnth.
In the Attic base employed in Athens, under the upper torus,
which is either plain, fluted or carved with the guilloche, is a
fillet and deep scotia, with a second torus underneath. The
shaft tapers much less than in the Doric order; it has a slighter
entasis, and is fluted, the flutes
being eUiptical in section
but subdivided by fillets. The
number of flutes is generally
24. The lower and upper
parts of the shaft have an
apophyge and a fillet, resting
on the base in the former case
and supporting the capital in
the latter. The capital consists
of an astragal, sometimes
carved with the bead and reel,
and an echinus moulding above
enriched with the egg-and-dart,
on which rests the capital with
spiral volutes at each end,
and from front to back with
cushions which vary in design
and enrichment. In the capitals
of the angle columns the end
volute is turned round on the
diagonal, so as to present the
same appearance on the front
and the side; this results in an
awkward arrangement at the
back, where two half-volutes
intersect one another at right
angles. A small abacus, gener-
ally carved with ornament,
crowns the capital. In early
examples the channels be-
tween the fillets of the spiral
are convex, in later examples
concave. In the capitals of
the Erechtheum (fig. 4), a greater richness is given by inter-
mediary fillets. In all great examples the second fillet dips
down in the centre of the front and a small anthemion ornament
marks the receding of the echinus moulding, which is circular
and sometimes nearly merged into the cushion. In the Erech-
theum the enrichment of the capital is carried further in the
E
^
Fig. 3. — T he Greek Ionic
Order. Temple of Nike Apteros,
Athens.
necking, which is decorated with the anthemion and divided off
from the upper part of the shaft by a bead and reel. The en-
tablature is divided, like that of the Doric order, into architrave,
frieze and cornice. The architrave is subdivided into three
fasciae, the upper one pro- (^
jecting shghtly beyond the
lower, and crowned by
small mouldings, the lower
one sometimes carved
with the Lesbian leaf.
Above this is the frieze,
sometimes plain and at
other times enriched with
figure sculpture in low
reUef. In the Ionian ex-
amples there was no frieze,
its place being taken by
dentils of great size and
projection. The cornice
consists of bedmould,
corona and cymatium; in
the Ionian examples the
bedmould is of great rich-
ness, consisting of a lower
moulding of egg-and-dart
with bead and reel, a
dentn course above, and
another egg-and-dart with
bead and reel above, sink-
ing into the soffit of the
corona, which projects in
the Ionian examples more
than half a diameter. The
corona consists of a plain
fascia with moulding and
cymatium above, and as
the cymatium or gutter is
carried through from end
to end of the temple it is
provided with lions' heads
to throw off the water, and
sometimes enriched with
the anthemion ornament. In the Attic examples much greater
simpUcity, ascribed to Dorian influence, is given to the bedmould,
in which only the cyma-reversa with the Lesbian leaf carved on
it and the bead and reel are retained. The mouldings of the
cornice, including the cymatium, are carried up as a pediment,
as in the Doric temple, and the roofs are similar. The base and
capital of the antae are more elaborate than in those of the Doric
order, and are sometimes, both in Ionic and Attic examples,
richly carved with the Lesbian leaf and egg-and-dart, in both
cases with the bead and reel underneath. The chief variation
from the usual entablature is found in that of the caryatide
portico of the Erechtheum, where the frieze is omitted, dentils
are introduced in the bedmould, paterae are carved on the
upper fascia of the architrave, and the covering was a flat marble
roof. The caryatide figures, the drapery of which recalls the
fluting of the columns, stood on a podium which enriched cornice
and base.
The Greek Corinthian Order (fig. 5). — As the entablature of this
order was adapted by the Greeks from that of the Ionic order,
the capital only need be described, and its evolution from the
earliest examples known, that in the temple at Bassae, to the
fully developed type in the temple of Zeus Olympius at Athens,
can be easily traced. It consisted of either a small range of
leaves at the bottom, or of a bead-and-reel moulding, a bell
decorated in various ways and a moulded abacus, the latter as a
rule being concave in plan on each face and generally terminating
in an arris or point. In the Bassae capital we find the first
example of the spiral tendrils which rise up to and support the
abacus with other spirals crossing to the centre and the acanthus
leaf and flower. In the more perfected example of the Choragic
Fig.
4. — Greek Ionic Order.
Erechtheum, Athens.
The
ORDER
179
monument of Lysicrates (fig. 6), there is a lower range of small
leaves of some river plant, between which and the tops of the
flutes (which here are turned over as leaves) is a sinking which
was probably filled with a metal band. r>om the lower range of
leaves spring eight acanthus leaves, bending forward at the top,
with small flowers between, representing the heads of nails
which in the metal prototype fastened these leaves to the bell;
from the caulicolae, on the right and left, spring spiral tendrils
rising to the angles under the abacus, and from the same caulicolae
double spirals which cross to the centre of the bell, the upper ones
carrying the anthemion flower, which rises across the abacus.
The abacus in this capital has a deep scotia with fillet, and an
echinus above, and is one of the few great examples in which
the angles are canted. The architrave, frieze and cornice are
adaptations from the Ionic order. The corona has in the place
of the cymatium a cresting of antefixae, which is purely decora-
tive, as there are no covering tiles, the roof of the monument being
Fig. 5. — Greek
Corinthian Order
Choragic monu-
ment of
Lysicrates.
Fig. 6.
in one block of marble carved with leaves. Set back and on the
same plane as the architrave and frieze is a second cresting with
the Greek wave scroll. There are other types of Greek Corinthian
capital, of which the finest example is in the interior of the
Tholos at Epidaurus (c. 400 B.C.), with two rows of leaves round
the lower part, angle and central spirals, and a flower in the centre
of the abacus. Of other examples the capitals of the interior
of the temple of Apollo Branchidae in Asia Minor, and of the
vestibule at Eleusis, and of the two porches of the temple of the
Winds at Athens, are the best known. E.xcept for the pointed
ends of the abacus, which are Greek, the capital of the temple of
Zeus Olympius might almost be classed among the Roman
examples, and it is thought to have been the model copied by the
Romans from those which Sulla took to Rome for the temple
of Jupiter Capitolinus.
The Roman Dork Order. — The earliest example of this order
is probably that of the temple at Cora, about 20 m. from Rome,
attributed to Sulla (80 B.C.), in which the leading features of the
Greek Doric order are employed, but extremely degraded in
style. The temple was raised on a podium with a flight of steps
in front; the shaft has 20 flutes and is carried on a small torus
base, and the
echinus of the
capi t al is very
poor. The archi-
trave and triglyph-
frieze are cut out
of the same stone,
the former being
much too shallow
to allow of its
carrying the frieze
and cornice. Two
other early ex-
amples are those
employed in the
decoration of the
arcades of the
Tabularium and of
the theatre of
Marcellus (fig. 7);
they are only semi-
detached. The
Doric order was
not a favourite
with the Romans,
and did not appeal
to their tastes for
rich decoration;
the only other ex-
amples known are
those at Praeneste,
at Albano, and in
the thermae of Dio-
cletian. At Albano
the echinus of the
capital is carved
with the egg and
anchor, and in the
thermae a cyma-recta carved with a leaf ornament takes the
place of the echinus. There is no base to any of these examples,
the Albano base consisting only of an apophyge and fillet, and
only the Diocletian example is fluted.
The Roman Ionic Order. — The complete degradation of the
Ionic order is clearly shown in the so-called temple of Fortuna
Virilis (ascribed to about 100 B.C.), in the profuse decoration
of architrave, frieze and cornice with coarse ornament, and, in
the capital, the raising of the echinus to the same level as the top
of the second fillet of the volute, so that it is no longer visible
under the cushion. The shaft has twenty flutes, the fillet being
much wider than in the Greek examples, and the flute is semi-
circular. Much more refinement is shown in the order as em-
ployed on the upper storey of the theatre of MarceUus (fig. 8),
where the only part enriched with ornament is in the egg and
tongue of the bedmould. In the capital the fiUet of the volute
runs across above the echinus, and the canalis is stopped at each
end over the volute, an original treatment. The most corrupt
example of the Roman Ionic capital is that of the temple of
Saturn on the Forum Romanum. which fortunately does not
seem to have been copied later. The base of all the Roman Ionic
columns is that known as the .Attic base, viz. a lower and upper
torus with scotia and fillets between, always raised on a square
plinth.
The Roman Corinthian Order. — The great varieties of design
in the Greek Corinthian capital (fig. 9), and the fact that its
entablature was copied from Ionic examples, suggests that no
definite type sufficient to constitute an order had been evolved
by the Greeks; it remained therefore a problem to be worked
out by the Romans, who, with the assistance of Greek artists.
Fig. 7.
i8o
ORDER
employed generally by the Romans, not only in Rome but
throughout Greece, Asia Minor and Syria, developed an order
which, though
wanting in the
refinement and
subtlety found in
Greek work, is one
of the most monu-
mental kind, and
has in its adoption
by the Italian re-
vivalists had more
influence than any
other in the raising
of palatial struc-
tures. Even in
Rome itself the
portico of the Pan-
theon, erected by
Agrippa (27 B.C.),
and the temple of
Castor (rebuilt by
Domitian a.d. 86)
in the Forum, are
remarkable in-
stances of early
work, which hold
their own with
some of the later
examples even of
Greek art.
The develop-
ment of the
Roman Corinthian
order wUl be best
understood by a
description in
detaU similar to
that given of the
great Doric and Ionic orders. Tak-
ing the Pantheon portico as the
earlier example, the base consists of
an upper and lower torus separated
by a double astragal with scotia and
fillet above and below, and resting
on a square plinth. The shaft, a
monolith, is unfluted, tapering up-
wards, 9 J diameters in height, with
apophyge and fillet at the bottom,
and an apophyge, fiUet and astragal
at the top. The capital consisted of
a square abacus with concave sides
carried on a circular inverted bell,
two rows of acanthus leaves, rising
three-fifths of the bell, being carved
round it (fig. 10), the stems of the
upper range of eight leaves lying in
the axis of each face and of the dia-
gonals, and those of the lower range
between them; the stems of the
caulicolae from which spring the
spirals, which rise to support the
angles of the abacus, and to the
centre of the capital, carrying the
central flower, start from between the
upper range of leaves. The abacus
has concave sides, canted angles.
Fig. 9.— Roman Corinthian ^"'^ '^ moulded, with a quarter
Order; Pantheon. round, fillet and cavetto. The archi-
trave, like that of the Greek Ionic
order, has three fasciae, but they are further elaborated by
a small cyma-reversa under the upper fascia and a bead
mjMm^MM^
under the second fascia. The architrave is crowned with a
moulding, consisting of a fillet with cyma-reversa and bead
underneath. The frieze is plain, its only decoration being the
well-known inscription of Agrippa. The bedmould consists of
a bead, cyma-reversa and fillet, under a plain dentil course, in
which the dentils are not carved; bead-and-reel and egg-and-
dart above these carried a plain face on which is found the
new feature introduced by the Romans, viz. the modillion. This,
though carved out of one solid block with the whole bedmould,
suggested an appropriate support to the projecting cornice. The
modiUion was a bracket, a horizontal version of the ancones which
supported the cornice of the Greek doorway cornice, and was
here crowned by a small cyma-reversa carved with leaves which
profiled round the modilUon and along the upper part of the
plain face. The cornice
is simple, consisting
of a corona, fiUet and
cymatium, the latter
omitted across the
front of the temple,
but carried up over
the cornice of the
pediment. AU the
columns are equi-
distant with an in-
tercolumniation of 25
diameters. The order
of the interior of the
rotunda built by
Hadrian (a.d. 121) is
similar to that of the
portico, the lower
moulding of the bed-
mould and the bead
being carved, and the
tongue or anchor
taking the place of the
dart between the eggs.
The order of the
temple of Castor (fig.
11) was enriched to a
far greater extent, and
parts were carved with
ornament, which in
Greek examples was
probably only painted.
The base was similar,
but the columns (10
diameters high) had
t w e n t y-four flutes,
with fillets between.
The capital was
further enriched with
foliage, which rising from the caulicolae was carried along
the cavetto of the abacus, whose upper moulding was carved
with the egg-and-dart. The middle fascia of the architrave
was carved with a version of the Greek anthemion, the cyma-
reversa under the upper fascia being carved with leaves and
bead-and-reel under. The lower moulding of the bedmould
was carved with the egg-and-tongue; the dentil course was
carved with finely proportioned dentils, the cyma-reversa and
mouldings above being similar to those of the Pantheon portico.
In the latter, on the soffit of the corona, square panels are sunk
with a flower in the centre. In the temple of Castor the panel is
square, but there is a border in front and back, which shows
that the cornice had a greater projection. The corona was
carved with fluting, departing from the simplicity of the Pantheon
example, but evidently more to the taste of the Romans, as
it is found in many subsequent examples. The intercolumniation
is only two and one-third of the diameter. Though not quite
equal to Greek foliage, that of the capitals of the temple of Castor
is of great beauty, and there is one other feature in the capital
Fig. 10.-
-The Roman Corinthian Order ;
Pantheon.
ORDER
i8i
which is unique; the spirals of the centre are larger than usual
and interlace one another. A variety of the bedmould of the
cornice is found in the so-called Temple of the Sun on the Quirinal
Hill; although of late date, the entablature has the character
of the Renaissance of the Augustan era, so fine and simple are
CymaUtnn
.PUnth
Fig. II. — The Roman Corinthian Order; Temple of Castor.
its proportions and details; there are only two fasciae to the
architrave, and the upper feature of the bedmould consisted of
large projecting blocks with two fascia and an upper egg-and-
tongue moulding, lilce the Ionic dentil, these blocks projecting
half-way between the fascia of the frieze and the edge of the
corona.
The Roman Composite Order. — As already noted, the Com-
posite order differs from the Corinthian only in the design of its
capital, which is a compound of the foliage of the Corinthian and
the volutes of the Ionic capital. Already, in the Ionic capital
of the Erechtheum, a further enrichment with the anthemion
was provided round the necking; this was copied in the capitals
of the interior of Trajan's basilica; in Asia Minor at Aizani (ist
century a.d.) a single row of leaves was employed round the
capitals of the pronaos under the volutes of an Ionic capital;
the architect of the Arch of Titus (a.d. 8i) went one step farther
and introduced the double row of leaves; both examples exist
in the Arch of Septimus Severus (fig. 12), in the tepidarium of
the thermae of Diocletian; and, to judge by the numerous
examples still existing in the churches at Rome, it would seem
to have been the favourite capital. The Byzantine architects
also based most of their capitals on the Roman Composite
examples. There are other hybrid Roman capitals, in which
figures of a winged Victory, rams' heads or cornucopia, take the
place of the angle spirals of the Corinthian capital.
The Arcade Order. — This, which was defined by Fergusson
as the true Roman order, is a compound of two distinct types
of construction, the arcuated and the trabeated, the former
derived from the Etruscans, the latter from the Greeks. Whilst,
however, the arcade was a constructive feature, the employ-
ment of the semi- or three-quarter detached column with its
entablature complete, as a decorative screen, was a travesty of
its original constructive function, without even the excuse of its
adding in any way to the solidity of the structure, for the whole
screen could be taken off from the Roman theatres and amphi-
theatres without in any sense interfering with their stability.
The employment of the attached column only, as a vertical
decorative feature subdividing the arches, might have been
admissible, but to add the entablature was a mistake, on account
of the intercolumniation, which was far in excess of that em-
ployed in any order, so that not only was it necessary to cut the
architrave into voussoirs, thus forming a flat arch, but the stones
composing it had to be built into the wall to ensure their stability;
the entablature thus became an element of weakness instead of
strength (fig. 13). The earliest example of the Arcade order is
the Tabularium in Rome (80 B.C.) where it was employed to
light a vaulted corridor running from one end to the other of the
structure and raised some 50 ft. from the ground. The column is
semi-detached, yj diameters high with an intercolumniation
of nearly 4 diameters, and an entablature with an architrave
which is less than half a diameter, quite incapable, therefore, of
carrying itself, much less than the rest of the entablature;
the impost pier of the arch is half a diameter, and the height
of the open arcade a little more than half its width. The shaft
^g^j^=^ , > ^ i J' i '
■JLJLfUULM
Fig. 12. — The Composite Order; Arch of Septimus Severus.
had twenty-four flutes with arrises, and rested on a square
plinth, and in the capital the echinus was only about one-twelfth
of the diameter, the shallowest known. The frieze was divided
by triglyphs, there being four between those over the axis of
each column; the correct number in the Greek Doric order being
one. In the theatre of Marcellus there were three triglyphs;
the impost pier was | diameter, thus giving greater solidity
to the wall, but resulting in a narrower opening. The Tabularium
had originally a second arcade above that now existing, with
l82
ORDER
semi-detached columns of the Ionic order, and these are found in
the upper storey of the theatre of Marcellus, the earliest example
existing of the superposed orders. A certain proportion exists
between the orders employed; thus the upper diameter of the
Doric column (which is 7I diameters high with a diminution of
between one-fifth and one-sixth of the lower diameter) is the
same as the lower diameter of the Ionic column, which is Si-
diameters high and a much slighter diminution. In the Colosseum
Fig. 13. — The Arcade Order; Theatre of Marcellus.
there were three storeys pierced with arcades, with the Corinthian
order on the third storey, and a superstructure (added at a later
date) without an arcade, and decorated with Corinthian pilasters
only. Apparently this scheme of decoration was considered
to be the best for the purpose, and with some slight changes was
employed for all the amphitheatres throughout the Empire.
The intercolumniation, on which the design is made, varies
in the examples of later date. With an intercolumniation of 6
diameters, the arcades are wider and a lighter effect is obtained,
and this is the proportion in the Colosseum.
The Five Orders: Italian. — The two Italian architects whose
text-books with illustrations of the five orders have been accepted
generally as the chief authorities on the subject are Vignola
and Palladio, the former in France and the latter in England,
the dates of the publication of their works being 1563 and 1570
respectively. In 1759 Sir William Chambers published a treatise
on civil architecture, in which he set forth his interpretation
of the five orders, and his treatise is still consulted by students.
They all of them based their conjectural restorations on the
descriptions given by Vitruvius, who, however, avoids using
the same term throughout, the words genus, ratio, species, mores
being employed, from which it may be concluded that the Greeks
themselves had no such term as that which is now defined as
" order," especially as in his book he invariably quotes the
Greek name when describing various parts of the temple. In
the preface to the fourth book he speaks only of the three orders
(genus), so that the Tuscan described in Book IV. chap. vii.
would seem to have been an afterthought, and his descrip-
tion of the entablature shows that it was entirely in wood and
therefore an incomplete development. The Italian revivalists,
however, evolved one of their orders out of it and added a fifth,
the Composite, of which there was no example in Rome before
A.D. 82. In the description which follows it must be understood
that it refers only to the Italian version of what the revivahsts
considered the Roman orders to consist of, and as a rule Vignola's
interpretation will be given, because he seems to have kept
closer to Vitruvius's descriptions and to have taken as his models
the finest examples then existing in Rome.
The Tuscan Order. — The base consists of a torus moulding,
resting on square plinths; the shaft is terminated below by an
apophyge and fillet and tapers upwards, the diminution being
between one-quarter and one-fifth of the lower diameter, with
an apophyge, fillet and astragal at the top, the capital consists
of a square abacus with fillet and cavetto, an echinus, fillet and
a necking; the whole column being 7 diameters high. The
intercolumniation given by Vignola is 25 diameters, instead
of the 3i diameters of Vitruvius's areostyle. The architrave,
frieze and cornice, are simple versions of the Doric, except that
there are no triglyphs in the frieze.
The Doric Order. — In his Doric order Vignola has followed
the Roman Doric order of the theatre of Marcellus, but he
gives it a base consisting of an astragal and torus resting on a
square plinth; in his shaft he copies the fluting (24 flutes) with
the arris of the columns of the thermae of Diocletian; his
capital, except the flowers decorating the necking and his
entablature, are entirely taken from the theatre of Marcellus;
in a second study he introduces an Attic base, carves the echinus
of the capital with the egg-and-tonguc, introduces two fasciae
in his architrave, and to support the cornice provides shallow
plain modillions with guttae on the soffits. In both the examples
given the columns taper upwards and are 8 diameters high.
The Ionic Order. — For the Ionic order Vignola discards the
temple of Fortuna Virilis, but enriches the order of the theatre
of Marcellus, adopting the base of the temple of Castor and the
fluted columns of the same; in his frieze he introduces that of
the Corinthian temple of Antoninus and Faustina, and in the
bedmould and cornice copies that of the thermae of Diocletian.
Palladio in his entablature introduces the convex friezes and
adopts a single uncarved modillion under the cornice. In both
cases the columns are fluted and 9 diameters high.
The Corinthian Order. — In this order Vignola, for his base,
returns to the temple of Castor, makes his columns 10 diameters
high, copies the capital of the portico of the Pantheon, introduces
a rib frieze with winged female figures and a buU about to be
sacrificed, and adopts the bedmould of the temple of Castor,
reversing the carving of two of the mouldings and the cornice,
and omitting the fluting of the corona of that temple. In
Palladio's Corinthian order the frieze is too narrow and the
bedmould, though copied from the temple of Castor, is of smaller
scale.
The Composite Order. — As in the Roman Composite order the
only original feature was the capital, there were no new versions
to be given of the entablature, but unfortunately they were
unable to copy the many examples in Rome. In the three best-
known capitals, those of the arches of Titus and Septimus
ORDER, HOLY
183
^
Tuscan.
Doric.
Ionic.
Fig. 14. — The Italian Orders.
Corinthian.
Composite.
Severus and in the thermae of Diocletian, the upper fillet of the
volute runs straight across the capital, being partially sunk in
the cavetto of the abacus; in the canalis of the volutes of all
these examples is a band of foliage which dips down to carry
the centre flower, and, on account of its projection, it hides,
from those looking only from below, the upper fillet of the volute.
The architects of the Revival, therefore, in their studies of the
capital, turned the volutes (which they would seem, like Ruskin,
to have thought were horns) down on to the top of the echinus,
producing a composition which is not in accordance with ancient
examples and shows ignorance of the origin and development
of the Ionic volute; unfortunately their interpretations of the
Composite capital were followed by Inigo Jones, and are employed
even in Regent Street, London, at the present day; there are,
however, two or three Renaissance examples in Paris, in which
the true Composite capital has been retained.
The Pedestal. — The architects of the Revival would seem to
have conceived the idea that no order was complete without
a pedestal. The only Roman examples of isolated columns
with pedestals known are those of the columns of Trajan, Marcus
Aurelius, Antoninus Pius and others of less importance, but
they carried statues only and had no structural functions as
supports to an entablature; the pedestals under the columns
which decorated the arches of triumph were built into and
formed part of the structure of the arch. The columns of the
tepidarium of the Roman thermae had pedestals of moderate
height (about 3 to 4 ft.) which bore no proportional relation to
the diameter of the column. Vignola, however, gave definite
proportions for the pedestal, which in the Doric order was to be
2 diameters in height, in the Ionic 25 diameters, and in the
Corinthian order 3 diameters, the result being that in the front
of the church of St John Lateran, where the Corinthian pilasters
are of great height, the pedestals are 12 to 13 ft. high. In
conjunction with the arcade there was more reason for pedestals
to the semi-detached columns on the upper storeys, but none
was employed on the ground storey, either in the theatre of
Marcellus or in the Colosseum. (R. P. S.)
ORDER, HOLY. "Holy Orders" {ordines sacri) may be
defined as the rank or status of persons empowered by virtue
of a certain form or ceremony to exercise spiritual functions in
the Christian church. Thus TertuUian {Idol. 7, Monog. 11)
mentions the " ecclesiastical order," including therein those
who held office in the church, and {Exhort. Cast, -ji) he dis-
tinguishes this ordo from the Christian plebs or laity. We may
compare the common use of the word ordo in profane writers,
who refer, e.g., to the ordo senatorms, ordo equestcr, &c. It is
true that the evidence of TertuUian does not carry us back
farther than the close of the 2nd or opening of the 3rd
century a.d. But a little before TertuUian, Irenaeus, though
he does not use the word ordo, anticipates in some measure
TertuUian's abstract term, for he recognizes a magislerii locus,
" a place of magistracy " or " presidency " in the church. Indeed,
phrases more or less equivalent occur in the sub-apostoUc Utera-
ture, and even in the New Testament itself, such as those who
are " over you in the Lord " (i Thess. v. 12), those " that bear
the rule " (Heb. xiii. 7; cf. 1 Clem. i. 3; Herm. Vis. ii. 2, 6).
Here we pause to remark that in TertuUian's view the church
as a whole possesses the power of self-government and administra-
tion, though in the interest of discipUne and convenience it
delegates that power to special officers. It is, he says, the
" authority of the church " which has constituted the difference
between the governing body and the laity, and in an emergency
a layman may baptize and celebrate {Exhort. Cast. 7), nor can
this statement be lightly set aside on the plea that TertuUian,
when he so wrote, had lapsed into Montanism. The fact is that
the Montanists represented the conservatism of their day, and
even now the Roman Church admits the right of laymen to baptize
when a priest cannot be had. The Apostolic Constitutions (viii. 32)
184
ORDER, HOLY
allow a layman to preach, if he be skilful and reverent, and the
language of St Ignatius {Ad Smyni. 8), " Let that be esteemed
a valid Eucharist which is celebrated in the presence of the
bishop or of some one commissioned by him," is really incon-
sistent with any firmly established principle that celebration by
a layman was in itself absolutely null (see also Eucharist).
When we go on to inquire what special offices the church
from the beginning, or almost from the beginning, adopted and
recognized, two points claim preliminary attention. In the
first place, much would be done in practical administration by
persons who held no definite position formally assigned to them,
although they wielded great influence on account of their age,
talents and character. Next, it must be carefully remembered
that the early church was, in a sense hard for us even to under-
stand, ruled and edified by the direct action of the Holy Spirit.
St Paul (i Cor. xii. 28) furnishes us with a list of church offices
very different from those which obtain in any church at the
present day.' " God," he says, " hath set some in the church,
first apostles, secondly prophets, thirdly teachers, then miracles,
then gifts of healing, helps, governments, (divers) kinds of
tongues." Ministry of this sort is not to be confounded with
" order," of which this article treats. It died out very gradually,
and the Didachc or Teaching of the Apostles, compiled probably
between a.d. 130 and 160, gives clear information on the nature
of this prophetic or charismatic ministry. The title of " apostle "
was not limited to the immediate disciples of our Lord, but was
given to missionaries or evangelists who went about founding
new churches; the prophets spoke by revelation; the teachers
were enabled by supernatural illumination to instruct others.
All of these men were called to their work by the internal voice
of the Holy Spirit: none of them was appointed or elected by
their fellows: none of them, and this is an important feature,
was necessarily confined to a local church. Nevertheless, side
by side with this prophetic ministry there was another, mediately
at least of human appointment, and local in its character. Here
we have the germ of orders in the technical sense. At first this
local ministry was twofold, consisting of presbyters or bishops
and deacons. Christian presbyters first appear (Acts xi. 30) in
the church of Jerusalem, and most likely the name and office
were adopted from the Jewish municipahties, perhaps from the
Jewish synagogues (see Priest). Afterwards St Paid and St
Barnabas in their first missionary journey "appointed^
(Acts xiv. 23) presbyters in every church." Further, we find
St Paul about a.d. 62 addressing the " samts " at Philippi
" with the bishops and deacons." The word eTricTKOTros or
overseer may be of Gentile origin, just as presbyter may
have been borrowed from the Jews. There is strong proof that
presbyter and episcopus are two names for the same office.
It has indeed been maintained by eminent scholars, chiefly by
Hatch and Harnack, that the word episcopus was given originally
to the chief officer of a club or a confraternity, so that the
episcopus was a financial officer, whereas the presbyters regulated
the discipline. To this it may be objected that presbyters
and bishops are never mentioned together, and that the names
were interchangeable (.\cts xx. 17 and 28; i Pet. v. i, 2; i Tim.
iii. 1-7 and v. 17-10; Tit. i. 5-7). The work of the presbyter
or bishop was concerned at first with discipline rather than with
teaching, which was largely in the hands of the charismatic
ministry; nevertheless, the Pastoral Epistles (i Tim. iii. 2)
insist that an episcopus must be " apt to teach," and some
presbyters (i Tim. v. 1 7) not only ruled but also " laboured in the
word and in teaching." They also " offered the gifts " (i [Clem.
44), i.e. to adopt Bishop Lightfoot's interpretation, "they led
the prayers and thanksgivings of the congregation, presented
the alms and contributions to God and asked His blessing on
them in the name of the whole body." Under the bishops or
presbyters stood the deacons or " helpers " (Philipp. i. i, i Tim.
iii. 8-13). Whether they were the successors, as most of the
Fathers beheved, of the seven chosen by the church of Jerusalem
' A partial exception may be made in favour of the " Catholic
Apostolic Church " founded by Edward Irving.
' Josephus, e.g. Antiq. vi. 4. 2, abundantly justifies this translation.
to relieve the apostles in the administration of alms (Acts vi.)
is a question still disputed and uncertain. Be that as it may,
the deacon was long considered to be the " servant of the widows
and the poor " (Jerome, Ep. 146), and the archdeacon, who first
appears towards the end of the 4th century, owes the greatness
of his position to the fact that he was the chief administrator of
church funds (see Archdeacon). This ancient idea of the
diaconate, ignored in the Roman Pontifical, has been restored
in the English ordinal. The growth of sacerdotal theories,
which were fully developed in Cyprian's time, fixed attention
on the bishop as a sacrificing priest, and on the deacon' as his
assistant at the altar.
Out of the twofold grew the threefold ministry, so that each
local church was governed by one episcopus surrounded by a
council of presbyters. James, the Lord's brother, who, partly
because of his relationship to Christ, stood supreme in the
church at Jerusalem, as also Timothy and Titus, who acted
as temporary delegates of St Paul at Ephesus and in Crete, are
justly considered to have been forerunners of the monarchical
episcopate. The episcopal rule in this new sense probably arose
in the lifetime of St John, and may have had his sanction. At
all events the rights of the monarchical bishop are strongly
asserted in the Ignatian epistles (about a.d. i 10) , and were already
recognized in the contemporary churches of Asia Minor. We
may attribute the origin of the episcopate to the need felt of
a single official to preside at the Eucharist, to represent the
church before the heathen state and in the face of rising heresy,
and to carry on correspondence with sister churches. The change
of constitution occurred at different times in different places.
Thus St Ignatius in writing to the Romans never refers to any
presiding bishop, and somewhat earlier Clement of Rome in
his epistles to the Corinthians uses the terms presbyter and
episcopus interchangeably. Hermas (about a.d. 140) confirms
the impression that the Roman Church of his day was under
presbyteral rule. Even when introduced, the monarchical
episcopate was not thought necessary for the ordination of other
bishops or presbyters. St Jerome {Ep. 146) tells us that as late
as the middle of the 3rd century the presbyters of Alexandria,
when the see was vacant, used to elect one of their own number
and without any further ordination set him in the episcopal
office. So the canons of Hippolytus (about a.d. 250) decree
that a confessor who has suffered torment for his adherence to
the Christian faith should merit and obtain the rank of presbyter
forthwith — " Immo confessio est ordinatio ejus." Likewise
in a.d. 314 the thirteenth canon of Ancyra (for the true reading
see Bishop Wordsworth's Ministry of Grace, p. 140) assumes
that city presbyters may with the bishop's leave ordain other
presbyters. Even among the medieval schoolmen, some (Gore,
Church and Ministry, p. 377) maintained that a priest might be
empowered by the pope to ordain other priests.
The threefold^ ministry was developed in the 2nd, a seven-
fold ministry in the middle of the 3rd century. There must,
says Cornelius {apud Euseb., H.E. vi. 43), be one bishop in the
Catholic Church; and he then enumerates the church officers
subject to himself as bishop of Rome. These are 46 presbyters,
7 deacons, 7 subdeacons, 42 acolytes, 52 exorcists and readers,
together with doorkeepers. The subdeacons, no doubt, became
a necessity when the deacons, whose number was limited to seven
in memory of their original institution, were no longer equal to
their duties in the " regions " of the imperial city, and left their
lower work, such as preparation of the sacred vessels, to their
subordinates. The office of acolyte may have been suggested by
the attendant assigned to heathen priests. The office of door-
keeper explains itself, though it must be remembered that it was
the special duty of the Christian ostiarius to exclude the un-
baptized and persons undergoing penance from the more solemn
part of the Eucharistic service. But readers and exorcists claim
^ " Fixed attention " on the deacon's ministration, the ministra-
tion itself being much more ancient. See Justin, Apol. i. 65.
' The Nestorians may be said to have a fourfold ministrj-, for
they reconsecrated a bishop when he was made catholicos or
patriarch. Chardon, v. p. 222.
I
ORDER, HOLY
185
special notice. The reader is the only minor official mentioned
by Tertullian {Praescr. 41). An ancient church order which
belongs to the latter part of the 2nd century (see Harnack's
Sources of Apostolic Canons, Engl. Transl. p. 54 scq.) mentions
the reader before the deacon, and speaks of him as filling " the
place of an evangelist." We are justified in believing that both
exorcists and readers, whose functions differed essentially from
the mechanical employments of the other minor clerics, belonged
originally to the " charismatic " ministry, and sank afterwards
to a low rank in the "orders" of the church (see Exorcist
and Lector). There were also other minor orders in the
ancient church which have fallen into oblivion or lost their
clerical character. Such were the copialac or grave-diggers, the
psalmislaeoT chaunters, and the parabolani, who at great
personal risk — whence the name — visited the sick in pestilence.
The modern Greek Church recognizes only two minor orders,
viz. those of subdeacons and readers, and this holds good of the
Oriental churches generaUy, with the single exception of the
Armenians.' The Anglican Church is content with the threefold
ministry of bishops, priests and deacons, but in recent times the
bishops have appointed lay-readers, licensed to read prayers
and preach in buildings which are not consecrated. The Latins,
and Armenians who have borrowed from the Latins, have sub-
deacons, acolytes, exorcists, readers and doorkeepers. Since the
pontificate of Innocent III., however, the Latin Church has
placed the subdiaconate among the greater or sacred orders, the
subdeacon being obliged to the law of celibacy and bound to the
daily recitation of the breviary offices. The minor orders, and
even the subdiaconate and diaconate, are now regarded as no
more than steps to the priesthood. Roman theologians generaUy
reckon only seven orders, although, if we count the episcopate
an order distinct from the presbyterate, the sum is not seven,
but eight. The explanation given by St Thomas {Supp. xl. 5.)
is that, whereas all the orders have reference to the body of
Christ present on the altar, the episcopate, so far forth, is not a
separate order, since a simple priest no less than a bishop
celebrates the Eucharist. The Council of Trent takes the same
view; it enumerates (Sess. xxiii. cap. 2) only seven orders, and
yet maintains (cap. 4) the ecclesiastical hierarchy of bishops,
priests and ministers, the bishops as successors of the Apostles
holding the highest place. The Roman Church forbids ordina-
tion to higher grades unless the candidate has received aU the
inferior orders. Further, a cleric is bound to exercise the minor
orders for a year before he can be ordained subdeacon, he must
be subdeacon for a year before he is ordained deacon, deacon for
a year before he is made priest. However, instances of men
elevated at once from the condition of laymen to the priesthood
were known in the early church, and Chardon {Hist, des sacra-
ments, vol. V. part I, ch. v.) shows that in exceptional cases men
were consecrated bishops without previous ordination to the
priesthood.
Passing to the effect of ordination, we meet with two views,
each of which stiU finds advocates. According to some, ordina-
tion simply entitles a man to hold an office and perform its
functions. It corresponds to the form by which, e.g., a Roman
official was put in possession of his magistracy. This theory is
clearly stated by Cranmer: " In the New Testament he that
is appointed bishop or priest needed no consecration, by the
Scripture, for election or appointment thereto is sufficient. "^
This view, widely held among modern scholars, has strong
support in the fact that the words used for ordination in the
first three centuries (xn-pOTOvetv, Ko.diaTa.vtiv, K\r]povadai, con-
stitucre, ordinare) also expressed appointment to civil office.
Very different is the medieval theory, which arose from the
gradual acceptance of the belief that the Jewish was the proto-
typeof the Christian priest. According, then, to the Roman view,
1 The Syrian Jacobites and the Maronites also ordain " singers,"
Denzinger, Rit. Oriental, i. p. 118 seq. ; Silbernagl, Kirchen des
Orients, pp. 254. 315.
2 Cranmer's works are to be found in Burnet, " Collection of
Records " appended to his History of the Reformation (ed. Pocock),
iv. 478. Cranrner also maintained that " bishops and priests are but
both one office in the beginning of Christ's religion," ib. p. 471.
holy order is a sacrament, and as such instituted by Christ;
it confers grace and power, besides setting a mark or character
upon the soul, in consequence of which ordination to the same
office cannot be reiterated. Such is the teaching of the Roman
Church, accepted by the Greeks and with certain modifications
by Anglicans of the High Church school, who appeal to i Tim.
iv. 14, 2 Tim. i. 6. We may conclude with brief reference to the
most important aspects of the Roman doctrine.
The ordinary minister of orders is a bishop. The tonsure and
minor orders are, however, still sometimes conferred by abbots,
who, though simple priests, have special faculties for the ordina-
tion of their monks. Some account has been already given of
scholastic opinion on presbyteral ordination to the diaconate and
even to the priesthood. Can a heretical or schismatical bishop
validly ordain? Is a simoniacal ordination valid ? All modern
theologians of the Roman Church answer these questions in
the affirmative, but from the 8th to the beginning of the 13th
century they were fiercely agitated with the utmost divergence
of opinion and practice. Pope Stephen reconsecrated bishops
consecrated in the usual way by his schismatical predecessor
Constantine. Pope Nicholas declared orders given by Photius
of Constantinople null. St Peter Damian was grievously per-
plexed about the validity of simoniacal ordinations. Similarly
William of Paris held that degradation deprived a priest of power
to consecrate.' St Thomas, on the contrary, contends that
" heretics and persons cut off from the church " {Sutntn. Suppl.
xxxviii. 2) may ordain validly, and that a priest who has been
degraded can still celebrate the Eucharist (Summ. iii. 82. 8)
validly, though of course not lawfully. This opinion, defended
by Bonaventura, Alexander of Hales, Scotus and others, soon
became and is now generally accepted.
The Schoolmen had no historical sense and little historical
information; hence they fell into one error after another on the
essentials in the rite of ordination. Some of them believed that
the essential matter in the consecration of a bishop consisted in
the placing the book of the gospels on his head and shoulders.
True, this rite was used both in East and W'est as early as the
4th century; it was not, however, universal. According to
common opinion, the matter and form of ordination to the
episcopate were the imposition of the consecrating bishop's
hands with the words, " Receive the Holy Ghost." The words in
question, and indeed any imperative form of this kind, are still
unknown to the East and were of very late introduction in the
West. The final imposition of hands and the bestowal of power
to forgive sins at the end of the ordination rite for priests in
the Roman Pontifical is later even than the tradition of instru-
ments. For Like reasons the tradition of the instruments,
i.e. the handing over of paten and chalice in ordination to
the priesthood, are admittedly non-essential, unless we adopt
the opinion of some Roman theologians that our Lord left the
determination of matter and form to the church, which has
insisted on different rites at different times.
The necessity of reference to sacerdotal power in the ordination
of priests and bishops wiU be considered a little farther on in
connexion with AngUcan orders.
Deaconesses in the East received the imposition of the bishop's
hands, but could not ascend to the priesthood. The Roman
theologians regard them as incapable of true ordination, alleging
I Tim. ii. 12. An unbaptized person is also incapable of vaHd
ordination. On the other hand, St Thomas holds that orders
may be validly conferred on children who have not come to the
use of reason. For lawful ordination in the Roman Church, a
man must be confirmed, tonsured, in possession of all orders
lower than that which he proposes to receive, of legitimate birth,
not a slave or notably mutilated, of good life and competent
knowledge. By the present law (Concil. Trid. Sess. xxiii. de Ref.
cap. 12) a subdeacon must have begun his twent3^-second, a
deacon his twenty-third, a priest his twenty-fifth year.^ The
' In reality this is a sur^-ival of the primitive view that holy
order is institution for an office which the local church confers and
can therefore take away.
* The canon law fixes the thirtieth year as the lowest age for
episcopal consecration.
i86
ORDER, HOLY
Council of Trent also requires that any one who receives holy
orders must have a " title," i.e. means of support. The chief
titles are poverty, i.e. solemn profession in a religious order,
patrimony and benefice. Holy orders are to be conferred on the
Ember Saturdays, on the Saturday before Passion Sunday or on
Holy Saturday (Easter Eve). The ancient and essential rule
that a bishop must be " chosen by all the people " {Can. Hipp.
ii. 7) has fallen into disuse, partly by the right of confirmation
allowed to the bishops of the province, partly by the influence
of Christian emperors, who controlled the elections in the capital
where they resided, most of all by the authority exercised by
kings after the invasion of the northern tribes and the dissolution
of the empire (see Church History).
Such in brief were the doctrine and use of the early churches,
gradually systematized, developed and transformed in the
churches of the Roman obedience. The Reformation brought
in radical changes, which were on the whole a return to the
primitive type. Calvin states his views clearly in the fourth book
of his Instiliites, cap. ill. Christ, as he holds, has established
in His church certain offices which are always to be retained.
First conies the order of presbyters or elders. These are sub-
divided into pastors, who administer the word and sacraments,
doctors, who teach and expound the Bible, elders pure and
simple, who exercise rule and discipline. The special care of the
poor is committed to deacons. Ordination is to be eftected by
imposition of hands. The monarchical episcopate is rejected.
This view of order was accepted in the Calvinistic churches, but
with various modifications. Knox, for example, did away with
the imposition of hands (M'Crie's il«o«, period vii.) , though the
rite was restored by the Scottish Presbyterian Church in the
Second Book of Discipline. Knox also provided the Church of
Scotland with superintendents or visitors, as well as readers and
exhorters, offices which soon fell into disuse. Nor do Scottish
Presbyterians now recognize any special class of doctors, unless
we suppose that these are represented by professors of theology.
Independents acknowledge the two orders of presbyters and
deacons, and differ from the Calvinistic presbyterians chiefly in
this, that with them the church is complete in each single con-
gregation, which is subject to no control of presbytery or synod.
Luther was not, like Calvin, a man of rigid system. He
refused to look upon any ecclesiastical constitution as binding
for all time. The keys, as he believed, were entrusted to the
church as a whole, and from the church as a whole the " ministers
of the word and sacraments " are to derive their institution and
authority. The form of government was not essential. Pro-
vided that the preaching of the gospel was free and full, Luther
was willing to tolerate episcopacy and even papacy. Hence the
Lutheran churches exhibit great variety of constitution. In
Scandinavia they are under episcopal rule. The Lutheran
Bugenhagen, who was in priest's orders, ordained seven super-
intendents, afterwards called bishops, for Denmark in 1527,
and Norway, then under the same crown, derives its present
episcopate from the same source. Sweden stands in a different
position. There three bishops were consecrated in 1528 by
Peter Magnusson, who had himself been consecrated by a cardinal
with the pope's approval at Rome in 1524, for the see of Westiras,
to which he had been elected by the chapter. J. A. Nicholson
{Apostolical Succession in (he Churcit of Sivcden, 1880) seems to
have proved so much from contemporary evidence. A reply
to Mr Nicholson was made in Swedish by a Roman priest, Bern-
hard, to whom Mr Nicholson replied in 1887. Unfortunately Mr
Nicholson gives no detailed account of the form used in con-
secration, and on this and other points fuller information is
needed. We may say, however, that Mr Nicholson has presented
a strong case for the preservation of episcopal succession in the
Swedish Church.
If the Swedish Church has preserved the episcopal succession,
it does not make much of that advantage, for it is in communion
with the Danish and Norwegian bodies, which can advance no
such claim. On the other hand, the Church of England adheres
closely to the episcopal constitution. It is true that in articles
xix. and xxxvi. she defines the church, without any express
reference to the episcopate, as a " congregation of faithful men
in which the pure word of God is preached and the sacraments
be duly administered according to Christ's ordinance," and
simply adds that the ordinal of Edward VI. for the consecration
of bishops, priests and deacons, contains all that is necessary for
such ordination and nothing which is of itself superstitious.
The preface to the ordinal (1550) goes farther. Therein we are
told that the threefold ministry of bishops, priests and deacons
may be traced back to apostolic times, and in the final revision
of 1662 a clause was added to the effect that no one is to be
accounted " a lawful bishop, priest or deacon in the Church of
England," unless he has had episcopal consecration or ordination.
The words " in the Church of England " deserve careful notice.
Nothing is said to condemn the opinion of Hooker {Eccl. Pol. vii.
14. 11) that "there may be sometimes very just and sufficient
reason to allow ordination made without a bishop," or of the
High Church Thorndike {apud Gibson on the Articles, ii. 74),
who " neither justifies nor condemns the orders of foreign
Protestants." The church lays down a rule of domestic policy,
and neither gives nor pretends to give any absolute criterion for
the validity of ordination.
But while the Church of England has declined communion
with non-episcopal churches, she has been involved in a long
controversy with the Church of Rome on thevahdityof her own
orders. It will be best to give first the leading facts, and then the
inferences which may be drawn from them.
The English Church derives its orders through Matthew
Parker, archbishop of Canterbury, who was consecrated in 1559
by William Barlow, bishop-elect of Chichester. We
may assume that the rite employed was serious and orders"
reverent, and there is no longer any need to refute
the fable of a ludicrous consecration at the " Nag's Head "
tavern. We may further take for granted that Barlow was a
bishop in the Catholic sense of the word. He had been nominated
bishop of St Asaph in 1536, translated to St David's in the same
year, and to Bath and Wells in 1547. He also sat in the upper
house of Convocation and in the House of Peers. Now if Barlow
all this time was not consecrated — and so far the only form of
consecration knov/n in England was according to the Roman rite —
he would have incurred the penalties of praemunire, let alone the
fact that Henry VIII. would not have tolerated such a defiance
of Catholic order for a moment. The registers at St David's
make no mention of his consecration, but this counts for nothing.
No reference in the registers can be produced for many ordinations
of undoubted validity. Parker thus was consecrated by a true
bishop according to the Edwardine ordinal, i.e. he received
imposition of hands with the words," Take the Holy Ghost and
remember that thou stir up the grace of God which is in thee by
imposition of hands." The corresponding form for the ordination
of a priest was" Receive thou the Holy Ghost: whose sins thou
dost forgive," &c. These were the sole forms in use from 1552
to 1562.
Roman authorities have from the beginning and throughout
consistently repudiated orders given according to the Edwardine
ordinal. The case first came under consideration when Cardinal
Pole returned to England early in Mary's reign with legatine
authority for reconciling the realm to the Holy See. In his
instructions to the bishops (Burnet Collect., pt. iii., bk. v., 2Z\
see also Dixon, Hist. Cli. of England, v. 238 seq.') he clearly
recognizes orders schismatical but valid, i.e. those conferred
in Henry's reign, and so distinguishes them by implication
from invalid orders, i.e. those given according to the Edwardine
book. In the former alone were " the form and intention of the
church preserved." He could not doubt for a moment the utter
invalidity of Edwardine ordinations to the priesthood. He
knew very well that the theologians of his church almost without
exception held that the handing over of the paten and chalice
with the words, " Receive power of offering sacrifice," &c., were
the essential matter and form of ordination to the priesthood;
indeed he published the decree of Eugenius IV. to that effect
' Compare also the article on Anglican orders in the Catholic
Encyclopedia, vol. i., especially at p. 492.
ORDER IN COUNCIL
187
(Wilkins, Concil. iv. 121). The Anglican priesthood being gone,
the episcopate also lapses. For according to the Pontifical, the
episcopate is the " summum saccrdotium "; the bishop in con-
secration receives '' the sacerdotal grace "; it is " his office
to consecrate, ordain, offer, baptize, confirm." Thus in the Pon-
tifical the words " Receive the Holy Ghost " are determined
and defined by the context. There is nothing in the Anglican
ordinal to show that the Holy Ghost is given for the consecration
of a bishop in the Roman sense. In 1704 John Gordon, formerly
Anglican bishop of Galloway, gave to the Holy Gfllce an account
of the manner in which he had been consecrated. The Sacred
Congregation, with the pope's approval, declared his orders to
be null. The constant practice has been to reordain uncon-
ditionally Anglican priests and deacons. In i8g6 Leo XIII.
summoned eight divines of his own communion to examine the
question anew. Four of those divines were, it is said, decidedly
opposed to the admission of Anglican orders as valid; four were
more or less favourably disposed to them. The report of this
commission was then handed over to a committee of cardinals, who
pronounced unanimously for the nullity of the orders in question.
Thereupon the pope published his bull Aposlolicac curac. In it he
lays the chief stress on the indeterminate nature of the Anglican
form " Receive the Holy Ghost " at least from 1552 till the
addition of the specific words, " for the office and work of a
bishop (or priest) in the church of God," as also on the changes
made in the Edwardine order " with the manifest intention. . .
of rejecting what the church does." His conclusion is that
Anglican orders are " absolutely null and utterly void." More-
over, in a letter to Cardinal Richard, archbishop of Paris, the
pope affirms that this his solemn decision is " firm, authoritative
and irrevocable."
For Roman Catholics the decision necessarily carries great
weight, and it may perhaps have its influence on Anglicans
of the school which approximates most closely to Roman belief.
It need not affect the opinion of dispassionate students. It
is not the judgment of experts. The rejection of Anghcan orders
in the i6th and 17th centuries was based on a theory about
the " tradition of instruments," which has long ceased to be
tenable in the face of history, and is abandoned by Romanists
themselves. The opinion of a liturgical scholar like Mgr. Louis
Duchesne, who was a member of the papal commission, on the
general question would be interesting in the highest degree.
Unfortunately we know nothing of his vote or of the reasons
he gave for it, and outside of the Roman pale the unanimous
decision of a committee of cardinals counts for very little. We
may grant the pope's contention that the Edwardine church
had no belief in priests who offered in sacrifice the body and
blood of Christ or in bishops capable of ordaining such priests.
We may grant further that the medieval offices have been
deliberately altered to exclude this view. But then the liturgy
of Serapion, the friend of Athanasius, recently discovered,
contains forms for the ordination of priests and bishops which
do not say a word about power to sacrifice, much less about
power to sacrifice Christ's literal body and blood. The canons
of Hippolytus, which are about 150 years older, and indeed all
the oldest forms for celebration, absolutely ignore any such
power of sacrifice. If they speak of sacrifice at all, it is a sacrifice
of the gifts brought by the faithful and distributed in the con-
gregation and among the poor, or again they refer to those
spiritual sacrifices which a bishop is to offer " day and night."
The Didache and Justin Martyr are no less unsatisfactory
from the Roman point of view. In short, the English reformers
knew very well that the ordinal and communion office which
they drew up could not satisfy the requirements of medieval
theology. They appealed not to the school divines, but to
Scripture and primitive antiquity. That is the standard by
which we are to test their work.
Authorities. — For holy order in the apostolic and sub-apostolic
age the reader may consult R. Rothe, Anfdnge der chnsliichen Kirche
(1837); A. Ritschl's Eyttstehung der altkatJwlischen Kirche (2nd ed.,
1857); J. B. Lightfoot's dissertation on the " Christian Ministry "
in his commentary on the Philippians (1868). A new era was
opened by E. Hatch's Organization of the Early Christian Church
(1880); to this Bishop C. Gore's Church and Ministry (18
reply. The facts are judicially stated and weighed in Bishop J.
Wordsworth's Ministry of Grace (1902). Dr T. M. Lindsay's Church
and Ministry in Early Centuries (1902) on the whole agrees with
Hatch, but is too eager to find modern Presbyterianism in the early
church. A. Harnack's edition of the Didache (1884), his Sources of
the Apostolic Canons (Eng. trans., 1895), the edition of the Canons
of Hippolytus by H. Achclis, in Texle und Unlersuchungen, vol. vi.
(1891), the translation of Serapion's Prayer-book (translated by
Bishop J. Wordsworth, 1899), are indispensable for serious study
of the subject.
Joann Morinus, De sacris ordinationibus (1655) and A. C. Chardon,
Histoire des sacraments, vol. v. (1745), are rich in material chiefly
relating to the patristic and medieval periods.
For the controversy on Anglican orders see P. F. Courayer,
Validite des ordinations anglaises (1732), and two works in reply by
M. Le Quien, Nullitc des ordinations anglicanes (1725}, Nullite des
ordinations anglicanes dcrnonstrce de nouveau (1730). In recent
times Anglican orders have been defended by A. W. Haddan,
Apostolical Succession in the Church of England; F. W. Puller,
The Bull Apostolicae Curae and the Edwardine Ordinal. They have
been attacked by E. E. Estcourt, Question of Anglican Ordinations
(1873), and by A. W. Hutton, The Anglican Ministry, with a preface
by Cardinal J. H. Newman (1879). (W. E. A.*)
ORDER IN COUNCIL, in Great Britain, an order issued by
the sovereign on the advice of the privy council, or more usually
on the advice of a few selected members thereof. It is the modern
equivalent of the medieval ordinance and of the proclamation
so frequently used by the Tudor and Stewart sovereigns. It is
opposed to the statute because it does not require the sanction
of parliament; it is issued by the sovereign by virtue of the
royal prerogative. But although theoretically orders in council
are thus independent of parliamentary authority, in practice they
are only issued on the advice of ministers of the crown, who are,
of course, responsible to parliament for their action in the matter.
Orders in council were first issued during the i8th century, and
their legality has sometimes been caUed in question, the fear
being evidently prevalent that they wottld be used, like the
earlier ordinances and proclamations, to alter the law. Con-
sequently in several cases parliament has subsequently passed
acts of indemnity to protect the persons responsible for issuing
them, and incidentally to assert its own authority. At the
present time the principle seems generally accepted that orders
in council may be issued on the strength of the royal prerogative,
but they must not seriously alter the law of the land.
The most celebrated instance of the use of orders in coimcil
was in 1807 when Great Britain was at war with France. In
answer to Napoleon's Berlin decree, the object of which was to
destroy the British shipping industry, George III. and his
ministers issued orders in council forbidding all vessels under
penalty of seizure to trade with ports under the influence of
France. Supplementary orders were issued later in the same
year, and also in 1808. Orders in council are used to regulate
the matters which need immediate attention on the death of
one sovereign and the accession of another.
In addition to these and other orders issued by the sovereign
by virtue of his prerogative, there is another class of orders in
council, viz. those issued by the authority of an act of parliament,
many of which provide thus for carrying out their provisions.
At the present day orders in council are extensively used by the
various administrative departments of the government, who
act on the strength of powers conferred upon them by some act
of parliament. They are largely used for regulating the details
of local government and matters concerning the navy and the
army, while a new bishopric is sometimes founded by an order
in council. They are also employed to regulate the affairs of
the crown colonies, and the lord-lieutenant of Ireland, the viceroy
of India, the governor-general of Canada, and other repre-
sentatives of the sovereign may issue orders in council under
certain conditions.
In times of emergency the use of orders in council is indispens-
able to the executive. In September 1766, a famine being
feared, the export of wheat was forbidden by an order in council,
and the Regulation of the Forces Act 1871 empowers the govern-
ment in a time of emergency to take possession of the railway
system of the country by the issue of such an order.
i88
ORDERIC VITALIS— ORDINARY
ORDERIC VITALIS (loys-c. 1142), the chronicler, was the
son of a French priest, Odder of Orleans, who had entered the
service of Roger Montgomery, earl of Shrewsbury, and had
received from his patron a chapel in that city. Orderic was the
eldest son of his parents. They sent him at the age of five to
learn his letters from an English priest, Siward by name, who
kept a school in the church of SS Peter and Paul at Shrewsbury.
When eleven years old he was entered as a novice in the Norman
monastery of St Evroul en Ouche, which Earl Roger had formerly
persecuted but, in his later years, was loading with gifts. The
parents paid thirty marks for their son's admission; and he
e.xpresses the conviction that they imposed this e.xile upon him
from an earnest desire for his welfare. Odeler's respect for the
monastic profession is attested by his own retirement, a few years
later, into a religious house which Earl Roger had founded at his
persuasion. But the young Orderic felt for some time, as he
tells us, like Joseph in a strange land. He did not know a word
of French when he reached Normandy; his book, though written
many years later, shows that he never lost his English cast of
mind or his attachment to the country of his birth. His superiors
rechristened him Vitalis (after a member of the legendary
Theban legion) because they found a difficulty in pronouncing
his baptismal name. But, in the title of his Ecclesiastical History
he prefixes the old to the new name and proudly adds the epithet
Angligcna. His cloistered life was uneventful. He became a
deacon in 1093, a priest in 1107. He left his cloister on several
occasions, and speaks of having visited Croyland, Worcester,
Cambrai (1105) and Cluny (1132). But he turned his attention
at an early date to literature, and for many years he appears to
have spent his summers in the scriptorium. His superiors (at
some time between 1099 and 1122) ordered him to write the
history of St Evroul. The work grew under his hands until it
became a general history of his own age. St Evroul was a house
of wealth and distinction. War-worn knights chose it as a
resting-place of their last years. It was constantly entertaining
visitors from southern Italy, where it had planted colonies of
monks, and from England, where it had extensive possessions.
Thus Orderic, though he witnessed no great events, was often
well informed about them. In spite of a cumbrous and affected
style, he is a vivid narrator; and his character sketches are
admirable as summaries of current estimates. His narrative
is badly arranged and full of unexpected digressions. But
he gives us much invaluable information for which we should
search the more methodical chroniclers in vain. He throws a
flood of light upon the manners and ideas of his own age; he
sometimes comments with surprising shrewdness upon the
broader aspects and tendencies of history. His narrative breaks
off in the middle of 1141, though he added some finishing touches
in 1 142. He tells us that he was then old and infirm. Probably
he did not long survive the completion of his great work.
The Historia ecclesiaslka falls into three sections, (i) Bks. i., ii.,
which are historically valueless, give the history of Christianity
from the birth of Christ. After 855 this becomes a bare catalogue
of popes, ending with the name of Innocent I. These books were
added, as an afterthought, to the original scheme; they were com-
posed in the years 1136-1141. (2) Bks. iii.-vi. form a history of
St Evroul, the original nucleus of the work. Planned before 1122,
they were mainly composed in the years 1123-1131. The fourth and
fifth books contain long digressions on the deeds of William the
Conqueror in Normandy and England. Before 1067 these are of
little value, being chiefly derived from two extant sources. William
of Jumieges' Historia Normantwrum and William of Poitiers' Gesta
Guilelmi. For the years 1067-107 1 Orderic follows the last portion
of the Gesta Guilelmi, and is therefore of the first importance. From
107 1 he begins to be an independent authority. But his notices of
political events in this part of his work are far less copious than in
(3) Bks. vii.-xiii., where ecclesiastical affairs are relegated to the
background. In this section, after sketching the history of France
under the CaroHngians and early Capets, Orderic takes up the
events of his own times, starting from about 1082. He has much
to say concerning the empire, the papacy, the Normans in Italy and
Apulia, the First Crusade (for which he follows Fulcher of Chartres
and Baudri of Bourgueil). But his chief interest is in the histories
of Duke Robert of Normandy, William Rufus and Henry I. He
continues his work, in the form of annals, up to the defeat and
capture of Stephen at Lincoln in 1141.
The Historia ecclesiastica was edited by Duchesne in his Historiae
Normattnorum scriptores (Paris, 1619). This is the edition cited by
Freeman and in many standard works. It is, however, inferior to
that of A. le Prevost in five vols. (Soc. de I'histoire de France, Paris,
1838-1855). The fifth volume contains excellent critical studies by
M. Leopold Delisle, and is admirably indexed. Migne's edition
(Patrologia latina, cl.xxxviii.) is merely a reprint of Duchesne.
There is a French translation (by L. Dubois) in Guizot's Collection
des memoires relatifs d, I'histoire de France (Paris, 1825-1827); and
one in English by T. Forester in Bohn's Antiquarian Library (4 vols.,
1853-1856). In addition to the Historia there exists, in the library
at Rouen, a manuscript edition of William of Jumieges' Historia
Normanyiortim which Leopold Delisle assigns to Orderic (see this
critic's Lettre d, M Jules Lair (1873). (H. W. C. D.)
ORDINANCE, or Ordonnance, in architecture, a composition
of some particular order or style. It need not be restricted to
columnar composition, but applies to any kind of design which
is subjected to conventional rules for its arrangement.
ORDINANCE, in medieval England, a form of legislation.
The ordinance differed from the statute because it did not
require the sanction of parliament , but was issued by the sovereign
by virtue of the royal prerogative, although, especially during
the reign of Edward I., the king frequently obtained the assent of
his council to his ordinances. Dr Stubbs {Const. Hist. vol. ii.)
defines the ordinance as " a regulation made by the king, by
himself or in his council or with the advice of his council, pro-
mulgated in letters patent or in charter, and liable to be recalled by
the same authority." But after remarking that " these generaliza-
tions do not cover all the instances of the use of ordinance," he
adds: " The statute is primarily a legislative act, the ordinance is
primarily an executive one." Legislation by ordinance was very
common during the reigns of Henry III. and Edward I. when
laws were issued by the king in council or enacted in parliament
indifferently. Both were regarded as equally binding. Soon,
however, legislation by ordinance aroused the jealousy of
parliament, especially when it was found that acts of parliament
were altered and their purpose defeated by this means. Con-
sequently in 1389 the Commons presented a petition to King
Richard II. asking that no ordinance should be made contrary
to the common law, or the ancient customs of the land, or the
statutes ordained by parliament. For this and other reasons
this form of legislation fell gradually into disuse, becoming
obsolete in the 15th century. The modern equivalent of the
ordinance is the order in council.
In 13 10, when Edward II. was on the throne and England was
in a very disturbed condition, a committee of twenty-one bishops,
earls and barons was chosen to make certain ordinances for the
better government of the country. These men were called
ordainers.
In the 17th century the use of the word ordinance was revived,
and was applied to some of the measures passed by the Long
Parliament, among them the famous self-denying ordinance of
1645. This form was used probably in conformity with the
opinion of Sir Edward Coke, who says in his Fourth Institute " an
ordinance in parliament wanteth the threefold consent, and is
ordained by one or two of them " (i.e. king, lords and commons).
The ordinances of the Long Parliament did not, of course, obtain
the assent of the king. At the present time the word ordinance
is used to describe a body of laws enacted by a body less than
sovereign. For example, the ordinances of Southern Nigeria
are issued by the governor of that colony with the assent of his
council.
Before 1789 the kings of France frequently issued ordonnances.
These were acts of legislation, and were similar to the ordinances
of the EngHsh kings in medieval times.
ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire), in canon
law, the name commonly employed to designate a superior
ecclesiastic exercising " ordinary " jurisdiction (jitrisdictionem
ordinariam) , i.e. in accordance with the normal organization of the
church. It is usually applied to the bishop of a diocese and to
those who exercise jurisdiction in his name or by delegation of
his functions. Thus, in Germany, the term ordinariat is applied
to the whole body of officials, including the bishop, through
whom a diocese is administered. In English law, however, the
term ordinary is now confined to the bishop and the chancellor
ORDINATE— ORDNANCE
189
of his court. The pope is the ordinarius of the whole Roman
Catholic Church, and is sometimes described as ordinarius
ordinariorum. Similarly in the Church of England the king is
legally the supreme ordinary, as the source of jurisdiction.
The use of the term ordinary is not confined to ecclesiastical
jurisdiction. In the civil law the judex ordinarius is a judge
who has regular jurisdiction as of course and of common right
as opposed to persons extraordinarily appointed. The term
survived throughout the middle ages wherever the Roman law
gained a foothold. In the Byzantine empire it was appHed to any
one filling a regular office (e.g. inraTos bpbivapLo$ = consul
ordinarius, opxw 6p8i,vapLos = praefectus ordinarius); but it
also occasionally implied rank as distinct from office, all those
who had the title of clarissimus being sometimes described as
opSivapLOL. In England the only case of the term being
employed in its civil use was that of the office of judge ordinary
created by the Divorce Act of 1857, a title which was, however,
only in existence for the space of about eighteen years owing to
the incorporation of the Divorce Court with the High Court
of Justice by the Judicature Act 1875. But in Scotland the
ordinary judges of the Inner and Outer Houses are called lords
ordinary, the junior lord ordinary of the Outer House acts as lord
ordinary of the bills, the second junior as lord ordinary on teinds,
the third junior as lord ordinary on Exchequer causes. In the
United States the ordinary possesses, in the states where such an
officer exists, powers vested in him by the constitution and acts
of the legislature identical with those usually vested in the
courts of probate. In South Carohna he was a judicial officer,
but the olfice no longer exists, as South Carohna has now a
probate court.
In the German universities the Professor ordinarius is the
occupant of one of the regular and permanent chairs in any
faculty.
ORDINATE, in the Cartesian system of co-ordinates, the
distance of a point from the horizontal
axis (axis of x) measured parallel to the
axis of y. Thus PR is the ordinate of P.
The word appears to have been first
used by Rene Descartes, and to be derived
from lincae ordinatae, a term used by
Roman surveyors for parallel lines. (See Geometry: Ana-
lytical.)
ORDNANCE (a syncopated form of " ordinance " or " or-
donnance," so spelt in this sense since the 17th century), a
general term for great guns for military and naval purposes,
as opposed to " small arms " and their equipment; hence the
term also includes miscellaneous stores under the control of the
ordnance department as organized. In England the Master-
General of the Ordnance, from Henry VIII. 's time, was head of
a board, partly military, partly civil, which managed all affairs
concerning the artillery, engineers and materiel of the army;
this was abolished in 1855, its duties being distributed. The
making of surveys and maps (see Map) was, for instance, handed
over eventually (iSSg) to the Board of Agriculture, though the
term " ordnance survey " stiU shows the origin.
I. History and Construction
The efficiency of any weapon depends entirely on two factors:
(i) its power to destroy men and material, (2) the moral effect
upon the enemy. Even at the present day the moral effect of
gun fire is of great importance, but when guns were first used
the noise they made on discharge must have produced a be-
wildering fear in those without previous experience of them;
more especially would this be the case with horses and other
animals. Villani wrote of the battle of Cressy that the " English
guns made a noise like thunder and caused much loss in men
and horses" (Hime, Proc. R. A. Institution, vol. 26). Now,
the moral effect may be considered more or less constant, for,
as men are educated to the presence of artillery, the range of
guns, their accuracy, mobility and on shore their invisibility, so
increase that there is always the ever present fear that the
stroke will fall without giving any evidence of whence it came.
On the other hand, the development of the gun has always
had an upward tendency, which of late years has been very
marked; the demand for the increase of energy has kept pace
with — or rather in recent times may be said to have caused —
improvements in metallurgical science.
The evolution of ordnance may be divided roughly into three
epochs. The first includes that period during which stone shot
were principally employed; the guns during this period (1313
to 1520) were mostly made of wrought iron, although the art of
casting bronze was then well known. This was due to the fact
that guns were made of large size to fire heavy stone shot, and,
in consequence, bronze guns would be very expensive, besides
which wrought iron was the stronger material. The second
epoch was that extending from 1520 to 1854, during which
cast iron round shot were generally employed. In this epoch,
both bronze and cast iron ordnance were used, but the progress
achieved was remarkably small. The increase of power actually
obtained was due to the use of corn, instead of serpentine, powder,
but guns were undoubtedly much better proportioned towards
the middle and end of this period than they were at the begin-
ning. The third or present epoch may be said to have commenced
in 1854, when elongated projectiles and rifled guns were be-
ginning to be adopted. The rapid progress made during this
period is as remarkable as the unproductiveness of the second
epoch. Even during recent years the call for greater power
has produced results which were beheved to be impossible in
1890.
The actual date of the introduction of cannon, and the country
in which they first appeared, have been the subject of much
antiquarian research; but no definite conclusion has been arrived
at. Some writers suppose (see Brackenbury, "Ancient Cannon
in Europe" in Proc. Royal Artillery Inst., vol. iv.) that gun-
powder was the result of a gradual development from incendiary
compounds, such as Greek and sea fire of far earher times, and
that cannon followed in natural sequence. Other writers
attribute the invention of cannon to the Chinese or Arabs. In
any case, after their introduction into Europe a comparatively
rapid progress was made. Early in the 14th century the first
guns were small and vase shaped; towards the end they had
become of huge dimensions firing heavy stone shot of from 200
to 450 ft weight.
The earhcst known representation of a gun in England is
contained in an illuminated manuscript " De Oificiis Regum "
at Christ Church, Oxford, of the time of Edward II. (1326).
This clearly shows a knight in armour firing a short primitive
weapon shaped something like a vase and loaded with an in-
cendiary arrow. This type of gun was a muzzle loader with a
vent channel at the breech end. There seems to be undoubted
evidence that in 133S there existed breech-loading guns of both
iron and brass, provided with one or more movable chambers
to facihtate loading (Proc. R. A. I., vol. iv. p. 291). These fire-
arms were evidently very small, as only 2 lb of gunpowder
were provided for firing 48 arrows, or about seven-tenths of an
ounce for each charge.
The great Bombarde of Ghent, called " Dulle Griete " (fig. i)
is beheved to belong to the end of the century, probably about
Fig. I. — Dulle Griete, Ghent.
1382, and, according to the Guide des voyagcurs dans la ville de
Gand (Voisin) the people of Ghent used it in 1411. This gun,
190
ORDNANCE
[HISTORY AND CONSTRUCTION
which weighs about 13 tons, is formed of an inner lining of
wrought iron longitudinal bars arranged like the staves of a
cask and welded together, surrounded by rings of wrought iron
driven or shrunk on. The chamber portion is of smaller dia-
meter, and some suppose it to be screwed to the muzzle portion.
The length of the gun is 197 in., the diameter of the bore 25 in.,
and the chamber 10 in. at the front and tapering to 6 in. dia-
meter at the breech end. It fired a granite ball weighing about
700 lb. Two wrought iron guns left by the English in 1423 when
they had to raise the siege of Mont St Michel in Normandy belong
to about the same period; the larger of these guns has a bore of
ig in. diameter.
' " Mons Meg "
(fig. 2) in Edin-
burgh Castle is a
wrought iron gun
Fig. 2.— Mens Meg. of a little later
period; it is built up in the same manner of iron bars and
external rings. It has a calibre of 20 in. and fired a granite
shot weighing 330 lb.
Bronze guns of almost identical dimensions to the " DuUe
Griete " were cast a little later (1468) at Constantinople (see
Lefroy, Proc. R. A. I., vol. vi.). One of these is now in the
Royal Military Repository, WoUwich. It is in two pieces
screwed together: the front portion has a cahbre of 25 in. and
is for the reception of the stone shot, which weighed 672 lb; and
a rear portion, forming the powder chamber, of 10 in. diameter.
The whole gun weighs nearly i8| tons.
To give some idea of the power of these guns, the damage
done by them to Sir John Duckworth's squadron in 1807 when
the Dardanelles were forced may be instanced. In this engage-
ment si.x; men-of-war were more or less damaged and some 126
men were killed or wounded. The guns were too unwieldy to lay
for each round and were consequently placed in a permanent
position; they were often kept loaded for months.
The 1 6th century was remarkable from the fact that the large
bombard type was discarded and smaller wrought iron guns
were made. This was due to the use of iron projectiles, which
enabled a blow to be delivered from a comparatively small gun
as destructive as that from the very weighty bombards throwing
stone shot.
Bronze guns also now came into great favour. They were
first cast in England in 1521 (Henry VIII.), and iron cannon
about 1540, foreign founders being introduced for the purpose
of teaching the Enghsh the art. The " Mary Rose," which sank
off Spithead in 1545, had on board both breech-loading wrought-
iron and muzzle-loading bronze guns.
The smaller guns cast at this period were of considerable
length, probably on account of the large charges of meal powder
which were fired. The long bronze gun in Dover Castle known
as " Queen Elizabeth's pocket pistol" has a calibre of 4-75 in.;
its bore is 23 ft. i in. long or 58 calibres, but its total length
including the cascable is 24 ft. 6 in. It was cast at Utrecht in
1544 and presented by Charles V. to Henry VIII.
Little or no classification of the various types of guns was
attempted during the 15th century. The following century saw
some attempt made at uniformity and the division of the several
calibres into classes, but it was not until about 1739, when Maritz
of Geneva introduced the boring of guns from the solid, that
actual uniformity of calibre was attained, as up to this date
they were always cast hollow and discrepancies naturally
occurred. In France organization was attempted in 1732 by
VaUiere, but to Gribeauvai (q.v.) is due the credit of having
simplified artOlery and introduced great improvements in the
equipment.
It is not possible to compare properly the power of the earlier
guns; at first small and feeble, they became later large and
unwieldy, but still feeble. The gunpowder called " serpentine "
often compounded from separate ingredients on the spot at the
time of loading,burnt slowly without strength and naturally varied
from round to round. The more fiercely burning gianulated
or corned powder, introduced into Germany about 1429, and
into England shortly after, was too strong for the larger pieces
of that date, and could be used only for small firearms for more
than a century after. These small guns were often loaded with
a lead or lead-coated ball driven down the bore by hammering.
The bronze and cast iron ordnance which followed in the i6th
century were strengthened in the 17th century, and so were
more adapted to use the corned powder. By this means some
access of energy and greater effective ranges were obtained.
In the i8th century and in the first half of the 19th no change
of importance was made. Greater purity of the ingredients and
better methods of manufacture had improved gunpowder; the
windage between the shot and the bore had also been reduced,
and guns had been strengthened to meet this progress, but the
principles of construction remained unaltered until the middle
of the 19th century. Metallurgical science had made great
progress, but cast iron was stiU the only metal considered
suitable for large guns, whilst bronze was used for field guns.
Many accidents, due to defects developing during practice, had,
however, occurred, in order to prevent which experimental guns
constructed of stronger material such as forged iron and steel
had been made. Some of these weapons were merely massive
solid blocks, with a hole bored in for the bore, and only with-
stood a few rounds before bursting. This result was attributed
to the metal being of an indifferent quality — quite a possible
reason as the treatment of large masses of steel was then in its
infancy, and even with the best modern appliances difficulties
have always existed in the efficient welding of large forgings of
iron. Forged iron, however, always gave some evidence of its
impending failure whereas the steel burst in pieces suddenly;
steel was, therefore, considered too treacherous a material for
use in ordnance. This view held for many years, and steel was
only again employed after many trials had been made to demon-
strate its reliability. It wiE be seen later that the ill success of
these experiments was greatly due to a want of knowledge of
the correct principles of gun construction.
The progress made since 1854 is dependent on and embraces
improvements in gun construction, rifling and breech mechan-
isms.
Considerable obscurity exists as regards the means adopted
for mounting the first cannon. From illuminations in con-
temporary manuscripts it appears that the earliest
guns, which were trunnionless, were simply laid on
the ground and supported by a timber framing at meats.
each side, whilst the flat breech end rested against a
strong wood support let into the ground to prevent recoil. This
arrangement was no doubt inconvenient, and a little later small
cannon were fastened in a wooden stock by iron bands; larger
guns were supported m massive timber cradles (fig. 3) and
Old
Equip-
Redrawn from Mallet's Construction of Artillery.
Fig. 3. — Primitive Gun-mounting.
secured thereto by iron straps or ropes. The ponderous weight
to be moved and the deficiency of mechanical means prevented
these large cannon and their cradles from being readily moved
when once placed in position. Laying was of the most primitive
kind, and the bombard was packed up in its wood cradle to the
required elevation once for all. When it v/as desired to breach
a wall the bombard with its bed would be laid on the ground at
about 100 yds. distance, the breech end of the gun or the rear
end of the bed abutting against a solid baulk of wood fixed to
the ground. " Mons Meg " was originally provided with a wood
cradle.
It is by no means certain when wheeled carriages were
HISTORY AND CONSTRUCTION]
ORDNANCE
191
introduced. They must have gradually appeared as a means of
surmounting the diificulties engendered by the recoil of the piece
and of transport of the early guns and their cradles. Andrea
Redusio m.entions in Chronicon Tarvisinum the use of two
wheeled bombard carriages at the siege of Quero by the Venetians
in 1376. It does not follow that these weapons were of large
dimensions, as the term " bombard " was apphcd to small guns
as well as to the more ponderous types.
The ancient carriages used on land are remarkable from the
fact that in gener;il design they contain the main principles
which have been included in field carriages up to the present day.
Until 1870 the body of all field carriages was made of wood.
In an early type the trail portion was made of a solid baulk
of timber supported at the front by a hard wood axletree, on
the arms of which the wheels were placed (iron axletrees were
introduced by Gribeauval in 1765). The gun resting in its
wooden cradle was carried in bearings on the trail immediately
over the axletree (fig. 4), the cradle being provided with an
From Clephan, Early Ordnance.
Fig. 4. — Early Field Gun.
axle or trunnions for the purpose. For giving elevation a wood
arc was fi.xed to the trail towards the rear end, and the breech
end could be moved up and down along this arc and fixed at
certain positions by a pin passing through both cradle and arc.
About the middle of the 15th century the trunnions were
formed with the gun — the wood cradle therefore became un-
necessary and was discarded. The carriage was then formed of
two strong cheeks or sides of wood fastened together by four
wood transoms. At the front end the cheeks were secured to
the wooden axletree, which was strengthened by a bar of iron
let into its under side. Trunnion bearings were cut in the upper
surface of the cheeks over the axletree, and these were lined
with iron, while the trunnions were secured in position by iron
cap-squares. Elevation was given by a wedge or " quoin "
being placed under the breech and supported by a transom or
stool bed. For transport the trail end of the carriage was sup-
ported on a limber, a pintle on the limber body passing through
a hole in the trail. One set of shafts were fixed to the limber,
and a single horse was harnessed to them; the remainder of the
team were attached in pairs in front. A driver was provided for
every two pairs of horses. In Italy oxen were often yoked to
the larger guns instead of horses. Tartaglia mentions in his
Nova scienlia (1562) that 28 oxen were required for a gun 15 ft.
in length and weighing 13,000 lb; horses were used for small
guns only.
For service on board ship the difficulties of the cramped
situation seem to have been surmounted in an ingenious manner.
In the " Mary Rose, " sunk in the reign of Henry VIII., the
brass guns with trunnions were mounted on short wood carriages
provided with four small wood wheels called " trucks " and
fastened to the gun ports by rope breechings. The iron breech-
loading guns were employed in restricted positions where loading
Fig. 5. — Truck Carriage.
Sighting.
at the muzzle would be difficult. They had no trunnions and
were mounted in a wood cradle, the under side of which was
grooved to enable it to slide on a directing bar.
At the end of the 17th century not much progress had been
made. The larger guns were mounted on short wood carriages
having two or four " trucks. " The guns and carriages recoiled
along the vessel's deck, and where this endangered the masts
or other structures the recoil was hindered by soft substances
being laid down in the path of the recoil.
The small guns were mounted in iron Y pieces — the upper
arms being provided with bearings for the gun trunnions — and
the stalk formed a
pivot which rested
in a socket in the
vessel 's side or
on a wall, so that
the gun could be
turned to any
quarter.
Similar carriages
(fig. 5) existed
untU the advent
of rifled guns, but a few small improvements, such as screw
elevating gear in place of the quoin, had been approved.
Cast iron standing carriages were also, about 1825, used on land
for hot climates and situations not much exposed.
The earliest guns were not provided with sights or other
means for directing them. This was not important, as the range
seldom exceeded 100 yds. As, however, ranges
became longer, some means became necessary for
giving the correct line and elevation (see also Sights). The
direction for fine was easily obtained by looking over the gun and
moving the carriage trail to the right or left as was necessary.
For elevation an instrument invented by Tartaglia called a
Gunner's Quadrant (sometimes also called a Gunner's Square)
was used ; this was a graduated quadrant of a circle (tig. 6)
connecting a long and
short arm forming a
right angle; a line with
a plummet hung from
the angle in such a
manner that on the long
arm being placed along
the bore near the muzzle
the plummet hung down
against the quadrant
and indicated the de-
grees of elevation given to the piece. The quadrant was divided
into 90° and also into 12 parts; it was continued past the
short arm for some degrees to enable depression to be given
to the gun. The instrument was also used for surveying in
obtaining the heights of buildings, and is still much employed
for elevating guns in its cUnometer form, in which a level takes
the place of the plummet.
For short range firing a chspart sight was in use early in the
17th century. A notch was cut on the top of the breech or base
ring, and on the muzzle ring a notched fore sight (called the
dispart sight) was placed in the same vertical plane as the notch,
and of such a height that a line stretched from the top of the
breech ring notch to the notch of the foresight was parallel to
the axis of the bore. These sights were well enough for close,
horizontal fire and so long as the enemy were within what was
called " point blank " range; that is the range to the first
graze, on a horizontal plane, of the shot when fired from a gun
the axis of which is horizontal. .'\s this range depends entirely,
other things being equal, on the height of the gun's a.xis above
the horizontal plane, it is not very definite. When, however,
the enemy were at a greater distance, elevation had to be given
to the gun and, as a quadrant was slow and not easy to use,
there was introduced an instrument, called a Gunner's Rule
(see The Art of Gunnery, by Nathanael Nye, 1670), which was
really a primitive form of tangent sight. This was a flat brass
Fig. 6. — Gunner's Quadrant.
192
ORDNANCE
[HISTORY AND CONSTRUCTION
scale 12 or 14 in. long divided on its flat surface into divisions
proportional to the tangents of angles with a base equal to the
distance from the notch on the base ring to the dispart notch. A
slit was made along the rule, and a thread with a bead on it was
mounted on a slider so that it could be moved in the sUt to any
required graduation. By sighting along the bead to the dispart
the gun could be laid on any object. Later still, the requisite
elevation was obtained by cutting a series of notches on the side
of the base ring and one on the muzzle ring. These were called
" Quarter Sights '' and allowed of elevations up to 3°; the lowest
notch with the one on the muzzle swell gave a Kne parallel to the
axis of the bore but above it so as to clear the cap-squares of the
trunnions. This system was also used in bronze field guns and
in all cast iron guns up to the 32-pdr. Difficulties in laying
occurred unless the direction was obtained by looking over the
top or dispart sight and the elevation then given by the quarter
sights. This was the system of sighting in use during the great
naval actions of the end of the i8th century and the beginning
of the 19th century. A pointed dispart sight was often used,
and for naval purposes it was fixed on the reinforce near the
trunnions, as the recoil of the gun through the port would
destroy it if fixed on the muzzle swell.
The double sighting operation was rendered urmecessary by the
use of " tangent scales " introduced by Gribeauval. Similarscales
were soon adopted in the Enghsh land service artiDery, but they
were not fuUy adopted in the English navy until about 1854
(see Naval Gunnery, by Sir Howard Douglas, p. 390), although
in the United States navy a system of sighting, which enabled
the guns to be layed at any degree of elevation, had been
appUed as early as 1812. These tangent scales were of brass
fitting into sockets on the breech end of the gun; they were
used in conjunction with the dispart fore sight and gave eleva-
tion up to 4° or 5° over the top of the gun. For greater elevation
a wooden tangent scale was provided which gave elevation up
to 8° or 10°.
In the British navy, before tangent sights were used, the plan
often adopted for rapidly laying the guns was by sighting, with
the notch on the breech ring and the dispart sight, on some
part of the masts of the enemy's vessel at a height corresponding
to the range.
With saihng ships about the middle of the 19th century the
angle of heel of the vessel when it was saihng on a wind was
ascertained from the ship's pendulum, and the lee guns elevated
or the weather guns depressed to compensate by means of a
graduated wooden stave called a ",heel scale" of which one end
was placed on the deck or last step of the carriage whilst the
upper end read in connection with a scale of degrees engraved
on the flat end of the cascable.
Subsequently the term " tangent sight " was given to the
" tangent scales," and they were fitted into holes made in the
body of the gun — the foresight usually being fitted to a hole
in the gun near the trunnions. Two pairs of sights — one at
each side — were generally arranged for, and in rifled guns the
holes for the tangent sight bars were inclined to compensate
for the drift of the projectile. As the drift angle varies with
the muzzle velocity, the tangent sights of howitzers were set
vertically, so that for the various charges used the deflection
to compensate for drift had to be given on the head of the sight
bar. Modern forms of sights are described and illustrated in the
article Sights.
Breech-loading ordnance dates from about the end of the
14th century, or soon after the introduction of cannon into
England (Brackenbury, Proc. R.A.I, v. 32). The
loadi s ^'•"^ body, in some cases, was fixed to a wood
Ordaaace. cradle by iron straps and the breech portion kept in
position between the muzzle portion and a vertical
block of wood fixed to the end of the cradle, by a wedge. Acci-
dents must have been common, and improvements were made
by dropping the breech or chamber of the weapon into a re-
ceptacle, solidly forged on or fastened by lugs to the rear end
of the gun (fig. 7). This system was used for small guns only,
such as wall pieces, &c., which could not be easily loaded at the
muzzle owing to the position in which they were placed, and in
order to obtain rapidity each gun was furnished with several
chambers.
Guns of this nature, caUed Petrieroes a Braza, were used in
particular positions even at the end of the 17th century. Moretii
states that they carried a stone ball of from 2 lb to 14 lb, which
Q
Fig. 7. — Early Breech-loader.
was placed in the bore of the gun and kept in position by wads.
The chambers, resembling an ordinary tankard in shape, had a
spigot formed on their front end which entered into a corre-
sponding recess at the rear end of the bore and so formed a rude
joint. Each chamber was nearly filled with powder and the
mouth closed by a wood stopper driven in; it was then inserted
into the breech of the gun and secured by a wedge. Even with
feeble gunpowder this means of securing the chamber does not
commend itself, but as powder improved there was a greater
probabihty of the breech end of the gun giving way; besides
which the escape of the powder gas from the imperfect joint
between the chamber and gun must have caused great in-
convenience. To these causes must be attributed the general
disuse of the breech-loading system during the i8th and first
half of the 19th centuries.
Robins mentions {Tracts of Gunnery, p. 337) that experi-
mental breech-loading rifled pieces had been tried in 1745 in
England to surmount the difliculty of loading from the muzzle.
In these there was an opening made in the side of the breech
which, after the loading had been completed, was closed by a
screw. The breech arrangement (fig. 8) of the rifled gun in-
^ectiort qC AA
SecL ion ot & ^ l
Fig. 8.— Cavalli Gun, 1845.
vented by Major Cavalli, a Sardinian officer, in 1S45, was far
superior to anything tried previously. After the projectile and
charge had been loaded into the gun through the breech, a cast
iron cylindrical plug, cupped on the front face, was introduced
into the chamber; a copper ring was placed against its rear
face; finally a strong iron wedge was passed through the body
of the gun horizontally just in rear of the plug, and prevented
it being blown out of the gun. In England the breech of one
of the experimental guns was blown ofl' after only a few rounds
had been fired. In Wahrendorff's gun, invented in 1846, the
breech arrangement (fig. 9) was very similar in principle to the
Cavalli gun. In addition to the breech plug and horizontal
wedge there was an iron door, hinged to the breech face of the
gun, which carried a rod attached to the rear of the breech plug.
The horizontal wedge had a slot cut from its right side to the
centre, so that it might freely pass this rod. After loading,
HISTORY AND CONSTRUCTION]
ORDNANCE
193
the hinged door, with the breech plug resting against its front
face, was swung into the breech opening, and the plug was
pushed forward to its position in the chamber of the gun; the
SccCfon oC >A A
Fig. 9. — Wahrendorff Gun, 1846.
wedge was then pushed across to prevent the plug being blown
back, and, finally, a nut screwed to the rear end of the plug
rod was given a couple of turns so that all was made tight and
secure. After firing, the breech was opened by reversing these
operations.
The Armstrong system of breech-loading introduced in 1854
was the first to give satisfactory results; its simple design and
few parts produced a favourable effect in the minds of artillerists,
which was increased by the excellent accuracy obtained in
shooting. The gun (fig. 10) had a removable breech block having
Fig. 10. — Armstrong B.L. Arrangement.
on its front face a coned copper ring which fitted into a coned
seating at the breech end of the powder chamber. The breech
block was secured by means of a powerful breech screw; a hole
was made through the screw so that, in loading, the shell and
cartridge could be passed through it after the breech block had
been removed. After loading, the block was dropped into its
place and the breech screw turned rapidly so that it might jam
I the block against its seating, and so prevent the escape of powder
gas when the gun was fired. This gun was most successful, and
a great number of guns of this type were soon introduced into
the British army and navy.
They were employed in the China campaign of i860, and
satisfactory reports were made as to their serviceableness; but
while the breech-loading system had obtained a firm footing on the
Continent of Europe, there was a strong prejudice against it in
1 England, and about 1864 M.L.R. guns were adopted. Breech-
loaders did not again find favour until about 1882, when a demand
was made for more powerful guns than the M.L.R. In conse-
quence, M.L. guns having enlarged chambers for burning large
charges of prismatic powder were experimented with by the
P'lswick Ordnance Co. and subsequently by the War Office,
rhc results were so promisingthat means were sought for further
niprovements, and breech-loading guns, having the Elswick
:up obturation, were reintroduced. ,^ . . .
Up to about 1850 the dimensions of canon had been propor-
tioned by means of empirical rules, as the real principles under-
lying the construction cf ordnance had been little
understood. It was known of course that a gun was mnl"^
subjected to two fundamental stresses — a circum-
ferential tension tending to split the gun open longitudinally, and
a longitudinal tension tending to pull the gun apart lengthwise;
the longitudinal strength of a gun is usually greatly in excess
of any requirements. It is easy to demonstrate that any so-called
homogeneous gun, i.e. a gun made of solid material and not
built up, soon reaches a limit of thickness beyond which
additional thickness is practically useless in giving strength
to resist circumferential stress. This is due to the fact that the
stress on the metal near the bore is far higher than that' on
the outer portion and soon reaches its maximum resistance which
additional thickness of metal does not materially increase. The
gun can, however, be arranged to withstand a considerably
higher working pressure by building it up on the principle of
initial tensions. The inner layers of the metal are thereby
compressed so that the gas pressure has first to reverse this
compression and then to extend the metal. The gun barrel
supported by the contraction of the outer hoops will then be able
to endure a gas pressure which can be expressed as being pro-
portionaltotheinitialfo»z/'rM5/o«plustheea;/f«iio»,whereasinthe
old type solid gun it was proportional to the extension only. The
first to employ successfully this important principle for all parts
of a gun was Lord Armstrong {q.v.), who in 1855-1856 produced
Fig. II. — Armstrong B.L. Construction.
a breech-loading field gun with a steel barrel strengthened by
wrought iron hoops. In this system (fig. 11) wrought iron coils
were shrunk over one another so that the inner tube, or barrel,
was placed in a state of compression and the outer portions in
a state of tension — the parts so proportioned that each performs
its maximum duty in resisting the pressure from within. Further,
by forming the outer parts of wrought iron bar coiled round a
mandril and then welding the coil into a solid hoop, the fibre
of the iron was arranged circumferentially and was thus in
the best position to resist this stress. These outer coils were
shrunk over a hollow breech-piece of forged iron, having the fibre
running lengthwise to resist the longitudinal stress. The several
cylinders were shrunk over the steel inner tube or barrel. To
obtain the necessary compression the exterior diameter of the
inner portion is turned in a lathe slightly greater than the interior
diameter of the outer coil. The outer coil is heated and expands;
it is then slipped over the inner portion and contracts on cooling.
If the strength of the two parts has been properly adjusted the
outer will remain in a state of tension and the inner in a state
of compression.
Every nation has adopted this fundamental principle which
governs all systems of modern gun construction. The winding,
at a high tension, of thin wire or ribbon on the barrel or on one of
the outer coils may be considered as having an exactly similar
effect to the shrinking of thin hoops over one another. The
American, Dr Woodbridge, claims to have originated the system
of strengthening guns by wire in 1850; Brunei, the great railway
engineer, also had similar plans; to Longridge, however, belongs
the credit of pointing out the proper mode of winding on the
wire with initial tension so adjusted as to make the firing tension
{i.e. the tension which exists when the gun is fired) of the
wire uniform for the maximum proof powder pressure. Great
XX. 7
194
ORDNANCE
[HISTORY AND CONSTRUCTION
success attended the early introduction of the coil system.
Large numbers (about 3500) of breech-loading Armstrong guns
from 2-5 in. to 7 in. calibre were manufactured for England
alone; most of these had barrels of coiled iron, but solid forged
iron barrels were also employed and a few
were of steel. This manufacture continued
until 1867, when M.L. guns built up on the coil
system (fig. 12) with the French form of rilling
were adopted; but as the knowledge of the
proper treatment and the quaUty of the steel
had improved, steel barrels bored from a solid
steel forging were mostly used; the exterior
layers were still iron hoops with the fibre of the
metal disposed as in the original type. In
order to cheapen manufacture the coils were
thickened, by Mr Fraser of Woolwich Arsenal,
so that a few thick coils were used instead of
a number of thin ones (fig. 13).
In the Fraser system an attempt was made to
obtain rigidity of construction and additional
longitudinal strength by interlocking the various
coils from breech to muzzle; this feature still
exists in all designs adopted by the English
government, but foreign designers do not favour it altogether, and
many of their guns of the latest type have a number of short
independent hoops shrunk on, especially over the chase. Their view
is that movements — such as stretching of the inner parts — are
bound to take place under the huge forces acting upon the tubes,
and that it is better to allow freedom for these to take place
naturally rather than to make any attempt to retard them. On
the other hand it cannot be denied that the rigid construction is
rh
A stronger material than ordinary carbon gun steel was conse-
quently demanded from the steel-makers, in order to keep the weights
of the heavier natures of guns within reasonable limits. The demand
was met by the introduction of a gun steel having about 4% of
nickel in addition to about 0-4 % of carbon. This alloy gives great
Fig. 12. — M.L. Gun Construction,
conducive to strength and durability, but it is essential that massive
tubes of the highest quality of steel should be employed.
The actual building up of a gun entails operations which are
exactly similar, whether it be of the M.L. or B.L. system; and
the hardening treatment of the steel is also the same — the coiled
iron hoops when welded, of course, received no such treatment.
Fig. 13. — M.L. Gun Construction (Fraser).
Fig. 14 shows the various stages of building up a B.L. gun and
illustrates at the same time the principle of the interlocking
system.
The steel barrels of the M.L. guns were forged solid; the material
was then tested so as to determine the most suitable temperature at
which the oil hardening treatment should be carried out after the
barrel had been bored. The bored barrel was simply heated to the
required temperature and plunged vertically into a tank of oil.
The subsequent annealing process was not introduced until some
years after; it is therefore not to be wondered at that steel proved
untrustworthy and so was used with reluctance.
Since 1880 the steel industry has made so much progress that this
material is now regarded as the metal most to be relied on. The long
high-power guns, however, require to be worked at a greater chamber
pressure than the older B.L. guns, with which 15 tons or 16 tons per
square inch was considered the maximum. With the designs now
produced 18-5 tons to 20 tons per square inch working pressure in the
chamber is the general rule.
Fig. 14. — Modern B.L. Construction,
toughness and endurance under a suitable oil hardening and annealing
process, the yielding stress being about 26 tons to 28 tons and the
breaking stress from 45 tons to 55 tons per square inch, with an
elongation of 16%. The tests for ordinary carbon gun steel are:
" yield not less than 21 tons, breaking stress between 34 tons and
44 tons per square inch, and elongation 17 %."
The toughness of nickel steel forgings renders them much more
difficult to machine, but the advantages have been so great that
practically all barrels and hoops (except jackets) of modern guns
are now made of this material.
The gun steel, whether of the carbon or nickel quality, used in
England and most foreign countries, is prepared by the open hearth
method in a regenerative gas furnace of the Siemens-
Martin type (see Iron AND Steel). The steel is run from 7""
the furnace into a large ladle, previously heated by gas, '""S™**.
and from this it is allowed to run into a cast iron ingot mould of
from 10 to 12 ft. high and 2 ft. or more in diameter. With ver>'
large ingots two furnaces may have to be employed. The external
shape of these ingots varies in different steel works, but they are so
arranged that, as the ingot slowly cools, the contraction of the metal
shall not set up dangerous internal stresses. The top of the ingot
is generally porous, and consequently, after cooling, it is usual
for about one-third of the length of the ingot to be cut from the top
and remelted ; a small part of the bottom is also often discarded.
The centre of the larger ingots is also inclined to be unsound, and
a hole is therefore bored through them to remove this part. In the
Whitworth and Harmet methods of fluid compressed steel, this
porosity at the top and centre of the ingot does not occur to
the same extent, and a much greater portion can therefore be
utilized.
The sound portion of the ingot is now heated in a reheating gas
furnace, which is usually built in close proximity to a hydraulic
forging press (fig. 15, Plate I.). This press is now almost exclusively
used for forging the steel in place of the steam hammers which were
formerly an important feature in all large works. The largest of
these steam hammers could not deliver a blow of much more than
.some 500 ft. tons of energy; with the hydraulic press, however,
the pressure amounts to, for ordinary purposes, from looo tons to
5000 tons, while for the manufacture of armour plates it may amount
to as much as 10,000 or 12,000 tons.
For forgings of 8-in. internal diameter and upwards, the bored out
ingot, just mentioned, is forged hollow on a tubular mandril, kept
cool by water running through the centre; from two to four hours
forging work can be performed before the metal has cooled down
too much. Generally one end of the ingot is forged down to the
proper size; it is then reheated and the other end similarly treated.
The forging of the steel and the subsequent operations have a ver>'
marked influence on the structure of the metal, as will be seen from
the micro-photographs shown in the article Alloys, where (a) and
(b) show the structure of the cast steel of the actual ingot; from
this it will be noticed that the crystals are verj' large and prominent,
but, as the metal passes through the various operations, these
crystals become smaller and less pronounced. Thus (c) and (d)
show the metal after forging; (e) shows the pearlite structure with
a magnification of 1000 diameters, which disappears on the steel
being oil hardened, and (/) shows the oil hardened and annealed
crystals. At the Bofors Works in Sweden, gun barrels up to 24 cm.
(9-5 in.) calibre have been formed of an unforged cast steel tube;
but this practice, although allowing of the production of an in-
expensive gun, is not followed by other nations.
After the forging is completed, it is annealed by reheating^ and
cooling slowly, and test pieces are cut from each end tangentially
ORDNANCE
Plate I.
XX. 194.
Plate II.
ORDNANCE
Fig. i8.— SHRINKING-ON PROCESS.
HISTORY AND CONSTRUCTION]
ORDNANCE
195
to the circumference of the bore; these are tested to ascertain the
quality of the steel in the soft state.
It is found that the quality of the steel is greatly improved by
forging, so long as this is not carried so far as to set up a laminar
structure in the metal, which is thereby rendered less suitable for
gun construction — being weaker across the laminae than in the
other directions. It is then termed over-forged.
If the tests are satisfactory the forging is rough-turned and bored,
then reheated to a temperature of about 1600° F., and hardened by
plunging it into a vertical tank of rape oil. This process is a some-
what critical one and great care is observed in uniformly heating,
to the required temperature, the whole of the forging in a furnace
in close proximity to the oil tank into which it is plunged and
completely submerged as rapidly as possible. In some cases the
oil in the tank is circulated by pumping, so that uniformity of cooling
is ensured; and, in addition, the oil tank is surrounded by a water
jacket which also helps to keep it at a uniform heat. The forging is
subsequently again heated to about 1200° F. and allowed to cool
slowly by being placed in warm sand, &c. This last operation is
termed annealing, and is intended to dissipate any internal stress
which may have been induced in the forging by any of the previous
processes, especially that of oil-hardening. After this annealing
process a second set of test pieces, two for tensile and two for bending
test, are cut from each end of the forging in the positions above
mentioned; for guns of less than 3-in. calibre only half this number
of test pieces is taken; and with hoops of less than 48 in. in length
the test pieces are taken only from the end which formed the upper
part of the cast ingot.
In all cases of annealed steel the test pieces of 2 in. length and
<''533 in- diameter must give the stipulated tests according to the
character of the steel. For breech screws the steel is made of a
harder quality, as it has to resist a crushing stress. These are the
tests required in England, but they differ in different countries; for
instance in France a harder class of carbon steel is employed for
hoops, in which the tensile strength must not be less than 44-5 tons,
nor the clastic limit less than 28-5 tons per square inch, neither must
the elongation fall below 12 %.
Assuming that the tests of the annealed forging are satisfactory,
the forging, which we will suppose to be a barrel, is tested for straight-
ness and if necessary rectified. It is then rough-turned in a lathe
(fig. 16) " to break the skin " (as it is termed technically) and so
interior of the covering tube or hoop finished to suit. The covering
hoop is allowed usually only a small shrinkage, or sometimes none,
as it is simply intended as a protection to the wire and to give
longitudinal strength; but in order to place it over the wire it must
be heated and thus some little contraction always does take place
on cooling. The heat to which these hoops are brought for shrinking
never exceeds that used in annealing, otherwise the modifying
effects of this process would be interfered with.
In the earliest modern type B.L. guns, the breech screw engaged
directly with a screw thread cut in the barrel, which thus had to
resist a large portion, if not all, of the longitudinal stress. This was
also the system first adopted in France, but there are certain
objections to it, the principal being that the barrel must be made of
large diameter to meet the longitudinal stress, and this in consequence
reduces the circumferential strength of the gun. Again, the diameter
of the screw is always considerably larger than the breech opening,
and so an abrupt change of section takes place, which it is always
best to avoid in structures liable to sudden shocks. The thick
barrel, however, gives stiffness against bending and, moreover, does
not materially lengthen with firing; thin barrels on the other hand
are gradually extended by the drawing out action of the shot as it
is forced through the gun. In some large guns with excessively thin
barrels this action was so pronounced as to entail considerable
inconvenience. In the English system the breech screw is engaged
either in the breech piece, i.e. the hoop which is shrunk on over
the breech end of the barrel, or in a special bush screwed into the
breech piece. This latter method suits the latest system of con-
struction in which the breech piece is put on the barrel from the
muzzle, while with the earlier type it was put on from the breech end.
With the earlier modern guns short hoops were used whenever
possible, as, for instance, over the chase, principally because the
steel in short lengths was less likely to contain flaws, but as the
metallurgical processes of steel making developed the necessity for
this disappeared, and the hoops became gradually longer. This has
however, increased correspondingly the difficulties in boring and
turning, and, to a much greater extent, those encountered in building
up the gun. In this operation the greatest care has to be taken, or
warping will occur during heating. The tubes are heated in a vertical
cylindrical furnace, gas jets playing both on the exterior and interior
of the tube. When sufficiently hot, known by the diameter of the
tube expanding to equal previously prepared gauges, the tube is
Lathe used in Guo' Constructioa.
prevent warping during the subsequent operations. It is then
bored out to nearly the finished dimension and afterwards fine
turned on the exterior. In the meantime the other portions of the
gun are in progress, and as it is far easier to turn down the outside
of a tube than to bore out the interior of the superimposed one to
the exact measurements required to allow for shrinkage, the interior
of the jacket and other hoops are bored out and finished before the
exterior of the internal tubes or of the barrel is fine turned. The
process of boring is illustrated in fig. 17. The barrel or hoop A, to
be bored, is passed through the revolving headstock B and firmly
held by jaws C, the other end being supported on rollers D. A
head E, mounted on the end of a boring bar F, is drawn gradually
through the barrel, as it revolves, by the leading screw K actuated
by the gear G. The boring head is provided with two or more
raised out of the furnace and dropped vertically over the barrel or
other portion of the gun (fig. 18, Plate II.). In cooling it shrinks
longitudinally as well as circumferentially, and in order to avoid
gaps between adjoining tubes the tube is, after being placed in
position, cooled at one end by a ring of water jets to make it grip,
while the other portions are kept hot by rings of burning gas
flames, which are successively extinguished to allow the hoop to
shorten gradually and thus prevent internal longitudinal stress. A
stream of water is also directed along the interior of the gun
during the building up process, in order to ensure the hoop cooling
from the interior. After the building up has been completed, the
barrel is fine-bored, then chambered and rifled. The breech is then
screwed either for the bush or breech screw and the breech
mechanism fitted to the gun.
:j ; , -^,,
Fig. 17. — Boring.
cutting tools, and also with a number of brass pins or pieces of
hard wood to act as guides, in order to keep the boring head central
after it has entered the barrel. The revolving headstock B is
driven by a belt and suitable gearing.
With wire guns the procedure is somewhat different. The wire
is wound on to its tube, which has been previously fine turned ; the
«xterior diameter of the wire is then carefully measured and the
In order to obtain additional longitudinal strength the outer
tubes are so arranged that each hooks on to its neighbour from
muzzle to breech. Thus, the chase hoop hooks on to the barrel by
a step, and the succeeding hoops hook on to each other until the
jacket is reached which is then secured to the breech piece by a
strong screwed ring. In all the latest patterns of English guns
there is a single chase hoop covering the forward portion of the
196
ORDNANCE
[HISTORY AND CONSTRUCTION
gun and a jacket covering the breech portion, an arrangement
which simplifies the design but increases the difficulties of manu-
facture.
Wire guns are now made of almost all calibres, ranging from 3 in.
to 12 in. Many authorities objected to guns of less calibre than
**J/?/ f^srcvz/^o /?'^a
Elswick Syslinii
' Fig.
Woolwich
[9. — Wire Fastening.
Svstein
4-7 in. being wound with wire, as they considered that on diameters
so small the interior surface of each layer of wire is over-compressed,
while the exterior is too much extended; but by proportioning the
thickness of the wire to the diameter of the tube on which it is
wound there is no reason for this to be so.
The wire is wound on the barrel at a certain tension, ascertained
by calculation, and varying from about 50 tons per square inch for
the layers first wound on the gun, to about 35 or 40 for the outer
layers. To fasten the wire at the beginning and end several methods
are adopted. In the Woolwich system a narrow annular ring
(fig. 19), with slots cut into one of its faces, is shrunk on to the
gun; into these slots one end of the wire is inserted and secured
in position by a steel screwed plug. The wire is wound on for the
distance desired and then back again to the ring, where the end is
fastened off in the same way. At Elswick the wire is fastened by
bending it into a shunt cut groove in a similar annular ring, but
the wire is only fastened off in the same way after several layers
have been wound.
With each succeeding layer of wire the interior layers are com-
pressed, and these in turn compress the barrel. It is therefore
necessary, in order to prevent the fatigue of the material, to make
the barrel comparatively thick, or, better still, to have an outer
barrel superimposed on the inner one. This latter arrangement
is now used in all guns of 4 in. calibre and upwards. It is not so
important with smaller guns as the barrel is always relatively thick,
and therefore meets the conditions.
With many modern guns the interior of the outer barrel, termed
the " A " tube, is taper bored, the larger end being towards the
breech ; and the e.xterior of the inner barrel or liner, called the
" inner A tube," is made tapered to correspond. The latter is, after
careful fitting, inserted in the outer barrel while both are cold, and
forced into position by hydraulic pressure or other mechanical
means.
The details of the machines for winding on the wire (see fig. 20)'
differ somewhat in different works, but all are arranged so that any'
desired tension can be given to the wire as it is being wound on to
the gun. The wire is manufactured in much the same way as
ordinary wire. A red-hot bar of steel, gradually rolled down between
rollers to a section about double that which it is finally intended to
have, is annealed and carefully pickled in an acid bath to detach any
scale. It is then wound on a drum, ready for the next process,
which consists in drawing it through graduated holes made in a
hardened steel draw-plate, the wire being often annealed and'
pickled during this process. The drawplate holes vary in size from'
slightly smaller than the rolled bar section to the finished size of the
wire, and, as a rule, the sharp corners of the wire are only given'
by the last draw. It is found that considerable wear takes place irt
the holes of the draw-plate, and a new plate may be required for
each hank of 500 or 600 yds. of wire. Great importance is attached
to the absence of scale from the wire when it is being drawn, and,'
after pickling, the rolled bar and wire are treated with lime or some'
similar substance to facilitate the drawing. The tests for the
finished wire are as follows: it has to stand a tensile stress of from'
90 to no tons per square inch of section, and a test for ductility^
in which a short length of wire is twisted a considerable number of
turns in one direction, then unwound and re-twisted in the opposite
direction, without showing signs of fracture. It will be seen that
the wire is extremely strong and the moderate stress of from 35
to 50 tons per square inch, which at most it is called upon to with-'
stand in a gun, is far less than what it could endure with perfect'
safety.
The wire after being manufactured is made up into hanks for
storage purposes; but when required for gun construction it is
thoroughly cleaned and wound on a drum R about 3 ft. 6 in. in
diameter, which is placed in one portion of the machine in connexion,
with a powerful band friction brake M. The wire is then led to the
gun A placed between centres or on rollers B.B. parallel to the axis
of the wire drum. By rotating the gun the wire is drawn off from the
drum against the resistance of the band brake, which is so designed
that, by adjusting the weight S suspended from the brake strap,
any desired resistance can be given in order to produce the necessar>-
tension in the wire as it is being wound on the gun. The stress on
Fig. 20. — Wire-winding Machine.
HISTORY AND CONSTRUCTION]
ORDNANCE
197
the wire is indicated on a dial, and the headstock, containing the
drum of wire, is capable of being moved along the bed G by a
leading screw H, driven by a belt through variable speed cones I;
the belt is moved along the cones by forks J, traversed by screws K,
which in their turn are actuated by chain belts from the hand
wheel L. The traversing speed is regulated to suit the speed of
winding by moving the belt along the speed cones.
The wire is rectangular in section, 0-25 in. wide and o-o6 in. thick,
and after it has been wound on to the gun it presents a very even
surface which requires little further preparation. The diameter
over the wire is gauged and the jacket or other covering hoop is
carefully bored equal to this, if no shrinkage is to be allowed; or the
dimension is diminished in accordance with the amount of shrinkage
to be arranged for.
The gun is built up, after wiring, in the same manner as a gun
without wire, the jacket or other hoop being heated in the vertical
gas furnace and when hot enough dropped into place over the wire,
cooled by the ring of water jets at the end first required to grip and
kept hot at the other, exactly as before described.
The machine arranged for rifling modern guns is very similar
to that employed for the old muzzle-loaders; it is a special tool
Riniae "^^"^ '" 8"" construction only (fig. 21), and is in reality
operation ^ copying machine. A steel or cast-iron bar J which
forms the copy of the developed rifling curve is first
made. The copying bar — which is straight if the rifling is to be uni-
form but curved if it is to be increasing — is fixed, inclined at the
bullet, from the muzzle. In 1856 Russia made a large number of
experimenls with a rifled gun invented by Monligny, a Belgian;
this was not a success, but in England the guns invented by
Major Cavalli, in 1845, and by Baron Wahrcndorff in 1846,
obtained some measure of favour. Both these guns were breech-
loaders. The Cavalli gun had a bore of 6-5 in. diameter; it was
rifled in two grooves having a uniform twist of i in 25 calibres,
and the elongated projectile had two ribs cast with it to fit the
grooves, but no means were taken to prevent windage. The
Wahrendorff gun had an enlarged chamber and the bore of
6-37 in. diameter was rifled in 2 grooves; the projectile had ribs
similar to that for the CavaOi gun; but Wahrendorff had also
tried lead-coated projectiles, the coating being attached by
grooves undercut in the outside of the shell. In 1854 Lancaster
submitted his plan of rifling; in this (fig. 22) the bore was made
of an oval section which twisted round the axis of the gun from
the breech to the muzzle; a projectile having an oval section
was fired. Several old cast-iron guns bored on this system
burst in the Crimean War from the projectile wedging in the
gun. In 1855 Armstrong experimented with a breech-loading
rifled gun, firing a lead-coated projectile. The rifling consisted
Fig. 21. — Rifling Machine.
proper angle, to standards K on the machine. The cutting tool is
carried at one end C of a strong hollow cylindrical rifling bar B, the
other end of which is fixed to a saddle M. This is moved along the
bed of the machine by a long screw N, and the rifling bar is conse-
quently either pushed into the gun or withdrawn by the motion of
the saddle along the machine. During this motion it is made to
rotate slowly by being connected to the copying bar by suitable
gearing I. It will thus be seen that the cutting tool will cut a spiral
groove along the bore of the gun in strict conformity with the
copy. In most English machines the cutting tool cuts only as the
rifling bar is drawn out of the gun; during the reverse motion the
cutter F is withdrawn out of action by means of a wedge arrange-
ment actuated by a rod passing through the centre of the rifling bar,
which also pushes forward the cutter at the proper time for cutting.
One, two or more grooves may be cut at one time, the full depth
being attained by slowly feeding the tool after each stroke. After
each set of grooves is cut the rifling bar or the gun is rotated so as
to bring the cutters to a new position. In some foreign machines
the cut is taken as the rifling bar is pushed into the gun.
Rifling is the term given to the numerous shallow grooves
cut spirally along the bore of a gun; the rib between two
Riaiar. grooves is called the " land." Rifling has been known
for many years; it was supposed to increase the range,
and no doubt did so, owing to the fact that the bullet having
to be forced into the gun during the loading operation became
a mechanical fit and prevented to a great extent the loss of gas
by windage which occurred with ordinary weapons. Kotter
(1520) and Banner (1552), both of Nuremberg, are respectively
credited as being the first to rifle gun barrels; and there is at the
Rotunda, Woolwich, a muzzle-loading barrel dated 1547 rifled
with six fine grooves. At this early period, rifling was applied
only to small arms, usually for sporting purposes. The
disadvantage of having, during loading, to force a soft lead (or
lead-covered) ball down a bore of smaller diameter prevented
its general employment for mihtary use. In 1661 Prussia
experimented with a gun rifled in thirteen shaUow grooves, and
in i6q6 the elliptical bore — similar to the Lancaster — had been
tried in Germany. In 1745 Robins was experimenting with
rifled guns and elongated shot in England. During the Peninsular
War about 1809, the only regiment (the " Rifle Brigade,"
formerly called the 05th) equipped with rifled arms, found con-
siderable difficulty in loading them with the old spherical lead
of a large number of shallow grooves having a uniform twist
of I in 38 calibres. When the gun was fired the lead-coated
projectile, which was slightly larger in diameter than the bore
of the gun, was forced into the rifling and so gave rotation to
the elongated projectile. Whitworth in 1857 brought out his
WHITWORTH BORE
lAHCASTER OVAL BORE
EARLY ARHSTROHC CROOVI
s®i
k1
FRENCH GROOVE
For *Luddtd frojiCCil**
POLYOROOVE (//ooM 6eccion }
^m
MODERN GROOVE {.£ar,j T^pt)
%
I %
m
KRUPP GROOVE
.w^
MODERN GROOVE (/acese Typt)
%
' ^
Fig. 22. — Sections of Rifling.
hexagonal bore method of rifling and a projectile which was
a good mechanical fit to the bore. Good results were obtained,
198
ORDNANCE
[HISTORY AND CONSTRUCTION
but although this system had certain advantages it did not
fulfil all requirements.
In 1863, England re-opened the whole question, and after
exhaustive trials of various inventions decided on the adoption
of the muzzle-loading type foi all guns, with the French system
of rifling. This system was invented in 1842 by Colonel Treiiille
de Beaulieu and consisted of a few wide and deep grooves which
gave rotation to a studded projectile. At the first trials two
grooves only were tried, but the number was afterwards in-
creased to three or more, as it was found that two grooves only
would not correctly centre the projectile. The adoption of the
muzzle-loading system with studded shot was a distinctly
retrograde step, as a considerable amount of clearance was
necessary between the bore and projectile for the purposes of
loading, and this resulted in the barrel being seriously eroded
by the rush of gas over the shot, and also led to a considerable
loss of energy. In the Wahrendorff and Armstrong systems
however the lead-coated projectiles entirely prevented windage,
besides which the projectile was perfectly centred and a high
degree of accuracy was obtained.
Shunt rifling was a brief attempt to make loading by the
muzzle easy without forfeiting the centring principle: in this
the rifling varied in width and in depth, at different portions of
the bore in such a manner that, during loading, the studs on the
projectile could move freely in the bore. When the gun was fired
the studs of the projectile were forced to travel in the shallow
part of the rifling, thus gripping and centring the projectile as
it left the muzzle.
With uniform rifling on the French system, the few studs —
generally two per groove — had to bear so high a pressure to
produce rotation that they sometimes gave way. This subject
was investigated by Captain (Sir Andrew) Noble, who showed
that by making the rifling an increasing twist, commencing with
no twist and gradually increasing until the necessary pitch was
obtained, the maximum pressure due to rotation was much
reduced. Increasing rifling was consequently adopted, with
beneficial results.
In order to prevent the heavy erosion due to windage, a gas
check was adopted which was attached to the base end of the
studded projectiles. In some guns the number of grooves of the
rifling was sufficiently great to admit of rotation being insured
by means of the gas check alone; in these guns studded pro-
jectiles were not employed, but the gas check, called " auto-
matic," to distinguish it from that fitted to studded projectiles
was usually indented around its circumference to correspond
with the rifling of the gun. It was found that the studless
projectile had considerably greater range and accuracy than the
studded projectile, with the additional advantage that the shell
was not weakened by the stud holes.
The introduction of the plain copper driving band for rotating
projectiles with breech-loading guns included a return to the
polygroove system with shallow grooves; this still exists, but the
continuous demand for greater power has had the effect of in-
creasing the number of grooves from that at first considered
necessary, in order to keep the rotating pressure on the driving
band within practical hmits.
Many ingenious devices for giving rotation and preventing the
escape of gas past the projectile were tried in the early days of
modern rifling. Experiments of this nature stiU continue to be
made with a view to improving the shooting and to prevent the
erosion of the bore of the gun. Briefly considered, without
going into any detail of the numerous plans, all rotating devices
fitted to projectiles can be divided into three classes — the
"centring, " the " compressing " and the " expansion " systems.
The two last named almost invariably include the " centring "
type. Studded (fig. 23) and Whitworth (fig. 24) hexagonal
projectiles, which can freely slide in the bore, come under the
first system.
In the compression class the coating or rings on the projectile
are larger in diameter than the bore and when fired the coating
(or rings) is squeezed or engraved by the rifling to fit the bore —
the projectile is consequently also centred. The old-fashioned
lead-coated shell (fig. 25), and the modern system of plain copper
driving bands (fig. 26), come under this class. Most variety
exists in the expansion type, where the pressure of the powder
gas acts on the base of the projectile or on the driving ring and
compresses a lead, copper or asbestos ring into the rifling grooves.
One of the earhest was the Hotchkiss (1865) shell (fig. 27), in
which a separate base end B was driven forward by the gas
pressure and squeezed out the lead ring L into the rifling. The
automatic gas check (fig. 28), and the gas check driving band
(fig. 29), belong to this system; in the last the lip L is expanded
into the rifling groove. In fig. 30 a copper driving band is
Fig. 23.
Fig. 24.
Fig. 25.
£^ <^ .B^^
Fig. 26
Fig. 27.
Fig. 28.
->
Fig. 29. Fig. 30.
tiGS. 23-30. — Proiectilcs for Rifled Ordnance.
associated with an asbestos packing A, contained in a canvas
bag or copper casing made in the form of a ring on the principle
of the de Bange obturator; but the results of this have not been
entirely satisfactory.
It win be seen that with breech-loading guns the projectile
is better centred, and the copper driving band forms a definite
stop for the projectile; and, in consequence, the capacity of
the gun chamber is practically constant. In addition, the use
of a copper driving band ensures a uniform resistance while
this is being engraved and the projectile forced through the
gun, and also prevents the escape of gas. These elements
have a very great influence on the accuracy of the shooting, and
fully account for the vastly superior results obtained from breech-
loading ordnance when compared with the muzzle-loading type.
Driving bands of other materials such as cupro-nickel and
ferro-nickel have also been tried.
Many authorities beUeve that the best results are obtained
when the projectile is fitted with two bands, one near the head and
the other near the base, and no doubt it is better centred when
so arranged, but such shot can only be fired from guns rifled vrith
a uniform twist, and it must also not be forgotten that the groove
formed for the front band in the head of the projectile necessarily
weakens that part of the projectile which should be strongest.
Projectiles with a driving band at the base only can be fired
from guns rifled either uniformly or with increasing twist.
The introduction of cordite (q.v.) about 1890 again brought
into special prominence the question of rifling. The erosion
caused by this explosive soon obliterated the rifling for some 4
or 5 cahbres at the breech end. The driving band of the shell
consequently started with indifferent engraving, and with the
increasing twist, then in general use, it was feared that the wear
would quickly render the gun useless. To remedy this the late
Commander Younghusband, R.N., proposed straight rifling,
which was adopted in 1895, for that portion of the rifling mostly
affected by the erosion, with a gradual increase of the twist
thence to the required pitch at the muzzle. Thus, any erosion
of the straight part of the rifling would not affect that portion
giving rotation, and it was argued that the gun would remain
efficient for a longer period. The defect in this system is that
when the projectile arrives at the end of the straight rifling it
has a considerable forward velocity and no rotation. Rotation
is then imparted by the increasing twist of rifling, and the
HISTORY AND CONSTRUCTION]
ORDNANCE
199
resulliag pressure on the engraved ribs of the driving band rises
suddenly to a maximura which, in high velocity guns, the
driving band is unable to resist. For this reason the straight
portion at the commencement of the rilling has been discarded,
and with high power guns firing a slow burning propcllant uniform
rifling has again found favour.
It is evident that in order that a projectile may have a definite
amount of spin as it leaves the gun a determinate amount of work
must be imparted to rotate it during its passage along the rified
portion of the bore. Put briefly, this work is the sum of the products
of the pressure between the engraved ribs on the driving band and
the lands of the rifling in the gun multiplied by the length of the
rifling over which this pressure acts. Sir Andrew Noble has proved
theoretically and e.xperimentally (see Phil. Mag., 1863 and 1873;
also Proc. Roy. Soc. vol. 50) that the rotating pressure depends on
the propelling pressure of the powder gas on the base of the projectile
and on the curve of the rifling. If this curve was so proportioned
as to make the rotating pressure approximately constant along the
bore, the result was an increasing or progressive curve partaking
of the nature of a parabola, in which case it was usual to make the
last two or three calibres of rifling at the muzzle of uniform twist
for the purpose of steadying the projectile and aiding accuracy.
In uniform rifling the curve is a straight line and the rotating
pressure is consequently mainly proportional to the propelling gas
pressure. The pressure for rotation with uniform rifling therefore
rises to a maximum with the propelling pressure and falls as it
becomes less towards the muzzle.
With increasing rifling, owing to the angle of twist continually
changing as the projectile travels along the bore, the ribs originally
engraved by the rifling on the driving band are forced to change their
direction correspondingly, and this occurs by the front surface of
the ribs wearing away. They are therefore weakened considerably,
and it is found that with high velocities the engraved part of the
band often entirely disappears through this progressive action.
It will thus be seen that although an increasing twist of rifling
may be so arranged as to give uniform pressure, it is evident that
if wear takes place, the engraved rib becomes weaker to resist shearing
as the shot advances, and the rate of wear also increases owing to
the increase of heat by friction. With the very narrow driving
bands used for low velocity guns this action was not so detrimental.
With the longmodern guns and the high muzzle velocities required,
the propelling gas pressures along the bore rise comparatively slowly
to a maximum and gradually fall until the muzzle is reached. The
pressure of the gas at all points of the bore is now considerably higher
than with the older patterns of B.L. guns.
For modern conditions, in order to obtain an increasing curve
giving an approximately constant driving pressure between the
rifling and driving band, this pressure becomes comparatively high.
The maximum rotating pressure, with uniform rifling, is certainly
somewhat higher, but not to a ver>' great extent, and as it occurs
when the projectile is still moving slowly, the wear due to friction
will be correspondingly low; the pressure gradually falls until the
muzzle is reached, where it is much lower than with increasing
rifling. The projectile thus leaves the gun without any g/eat
disturbance from the rifling pressure. Further, as the band is
engraved once for all with the angle it will have all along the bore
the pressure is distributed equally over the driving face of the
engraved ribs instead of being concentrated at the front of the ribs
as in progressive or increasing rifling.
The following formulae showing the driving pressures for increas-
ing and uniform rifling are calculated from Sir Andrew Noble's for-
mula, which Sir G. Greenhill has obtained independently by another
method.
Let R =total pressure, in tons, between rifling and driving band.
G = gaseous pressure, in tons, on the base of the projectile.
r = radius, in feet, of the bore.
;uT = coefiicient of friction.
p = radius of gyration of projectile.
6 = angle between the normal to the driving surface of groove
and radius.
fe = the pitch of the rifling, in feet.
fe = cotangent of angle of rifling at any point of rifling.
M = weight of the projectile in pounds.
c = the length, in feet, travelled by the projectile.
Then for parabolic rifling
R =
For uniform rifling
R =
2p'{Gz + Uv'-)
(r'-fe'+4pV) sin 5 . 2ij.,kz(fr
r'}
2irp'G
ti,{2Tv p-k-rh) {2Trp''-\- rhk) sin 6
U + k^)i ' (fe^+sin^ay
For modern rifling 5 = 90°; therefore sin 6 = i ; by which the above
expressions may be considerably simplified.
For parabolic rifling
2p'(4o'+fe')}(Gz + Mt'^)
kr^(k-2^,,Z)+2p-z{2Z+lJL,ky
For uniform rifling we can write hk = 2Tir and the expression reduces
to
pHlJtk-V: ,0.
R=-
"^■(p^*-g
+P=+r-
I'ig. 31 shows graphically the calculatetl results obtained for a
4-7-in. 50-calibre gun which has a shot travel of 17-3 ft.; the pressure
;r
1
T
1
/
^,
i.«^£?
^rCiffctMliMii
ATn^f^l I
/
\
,e/^i"4j^^^ "
''A'
i
/
Nil
-^
/ /
s
^
//
^V
//
^5%^..
/
^
p-.
/
""----.
. :,
/
f
a
4
6
e
.1
14 (
s le
FEET
4 7 INCH 50 CALIBRE GVI^
Fig. 31. — Pressure Curves (uniform and increasing twist).
curse A is for a rifling twist increasing from i in 60 calibres at the
breech to I in 30 calibres at the muzzle; curve B is for rifling having
a uniform twist of 1 in 30 calibres.
It must be remembered that this comparison is typical for modern
conditions; with old-fashioned guns firing black or brown powder
the maximum rotating pressure for uniform rifling could attain a
value 50 7o above that for increasing rifling.
In this example, with the increasing twist there is a loss of energy
of about 11% of the total muzzle energy, and for the uniform
rifling a loss of about 8%. This explains the reason for uniformly
rifled guns giving a higher muzzle velocity than those with increasing
rifling, supposing the guns to be otherwise similar.
The pitch of the rifling or the amount of twist to be given to it
depends altogether on the length of the projectile; if this is short
a small amount of twist only is necessary, if long a greater amount
of twist must be arranged for, in order to spin the shell more rapidly.
Sir G. Greenhill has shown that the pitch of the rifling necessary to
keep a projectile in steady motion is independent of the velocity,
of the calibre, or of the length of the gun, but depends principally
on the length of the shell and on its description, so that for similar
projectiles one pitch would do for all guns.
Table I., on following page, has been calculated from Greenhill's
formula.
In most modern guns the projectile varies in length from 3-5 to
4 calibres, so that the rifling is made to terminate at the muzzle
with a twist of I turn in 30 calibres, which is found ample to ensure
a steady flight to the projectile. In the United States a terminal
twist of I in 25 calibres is often adopted; Krupp also uses this in
some guns. With howitzers the projectile may be 4-5 calibres long,
and the rifling has to be made of a quicker twist to suit.
If the gun has, as is usually the case, a right-hand twist of rifling
the projectile drifts to the right; if it has a left-hand twist the
drift takes place to the left. The drift increases with
the range but in a greater ratio; further, the greater the
twist {i.e. the smaller the pitch of rifling) the greater the drift. On
the other hand the smooth B.L. projectiles drift less than studded
M.L. projectiles.
To find the angle, usually called the permanent angle of deflection,
at which the sights must be inclined to compensate for the drift,
a number of shots are fired at various ranges. The results obtained
are plotted on paper, and a straight line is then drawn from the point
representing the muzzle through the mean value of the plotted
curve.
The early guns were fired by inserting a red-hot wire into the
vent, or by filling the vent with powder and firing it by a red-
hot iron. Slow match held in a cleft stick afterwards
took the place of the hot iron, and this again was '^'""s
replaced by a port-fire. Filling the vent with loose meats.
powder was inconvenient and slow, and to improve
matters the powder was placed in a paper, tin or quill tube
200
ORDNANCE
[HISTORY AND CONSTRUCTION
which was simply pushed into the vent and fired by the slow
match or port-fire.
The first attempt to fire guns by mechanical means was made
in 1 781 by Sir Charles Douglas, who fitted flint locks, similar
to musket locks, but with the trigger actuated by a lanyard, to the
guns on board his ship H.M.S. " Duke." A double flint lock
introduced in 1818 by Sir Howard Douglas, R.A., continued to
Table I.
Minimum twist at muzzle of gun requisite to give stability of rotation
Length of
-= one turn in n calibres; or a pitch of n calibres.
projectile
Cast-iron common
Solid lead and tin
in calibres.
sheU.
PalUser shell,
cavity =^ vol.
Solid steel bullet
bullets of similar
cavity = a^ vol.
(s.g. = 8oJ.
composition
ofsheU
(s.g. =80).
to M.-H. bullets
(s.g. of irDn = 7-2).
(s g. = io"g).
n.
n.
«.
«.
2
63-87
71-08
72-21
84-29
I
59-84
66-59
67-66
78-98
2
56-31
62-67
63-67
74-32
3
53-19
59-19
60-14
70-20
4
50-41
56-10
57-00
66-53
5
47-91
53-32
54-17
63-24
6
45-65
50-81
51-62
60-26
7
43-61
48-53
49-30
57-55
3
8
9
41-74
40-02
38-45
36-99
46-45
44-54
42-79
41-16
47-19
55-09
45-25
1 2-17
52-72
CO* 7 J.
I
2
4o 4/
41-82
40-30
0" / -+
48-82
47-04
35-64
39-66
3
34-39
38-27
38-84
45-38
4
Zi-22
36-97
37-56
43-84
5
32-13
35-75
36-33
42 --to
6
31-11
34-62
35-17
41-05
7
30-15
33-55
34-09
39-79
8
29-25
32-55
33-07
38-61
9
28-40
31-61
32-11
37-48
4
27-60
30-72
31-21
36-43
I
26-85
29-88
30-36
35-43
J
26-13
29-08
29-55
34-49
3
25-45
28-33
28-78
33-59
4
24-81
27-61
28-05
32-74
5
24-20
26-93
27-36
31-94
6
23-65
26-32
26-74
31-21
7
23-06
25-66
26-08
30-44
8
22-53
25-08
25-48
29-74
9
22-03
24-51
24-91
29-07
5
21-56
23-98
24-36
28-44
I
21-08
23-46
23-84
27-83
2
20-64
22-97
23-34
27-24
3
20-22
22-50
22-86
26-68
4
19-81
22-05
22-40
26-14
5
19-42
2I-6l
21-96
25-63
6
19-04
21-19
21-53
25-13
7
18-68
20-79
21-12
24-66
8
18-33
20-40
20-73
24-20
9
i8-oo
20-03
20-35
23-75
6
17-67
19-67
19-98
23-33
7
14-99
16-68
16-95
19-78
8
13-02
14-48
14-72
17-18
9
11-50
12-80
13-00
15-18
lO-O
10-31
11-47
11-65
13-60
Breech
mechao'
Ism.
be used until about 1842, when it was replaced by a percussion
lock invented by an American named Hiddens. In this lock one
pull on the lanyard caused the hammer to fall and strike a per-
cussion patch or cap hung on a small hook over the vent, and
afterwards caused the hammer to be drawn backwards out
of the way of the blast from the vent. These somewhat
clumsy contrivances were swept away on the adoption in 1853
of friction tubes (see Ammunition), which had simply to be
placed in the vent and the friction bar withdrawn by means of
a lanyard.
Friction tubes continued to be used with aU muzzle-loading
ordnance except in one or two natures with which the charge
was ignited axially at the breech of the gun. In these a vent
sealing friction tube retained in the vent by a tube holder was
employed. With breech-loading field guns ordinary friction
tubes were also used until the introduction of cordite, which
eroded the vents so quickly by the escape of the gases that vent
seaHng tubes became a necessity.
In all other breech-loading ordnance and with the latest
pattern field guns the firing gear forms part of the breech
mechanism.
All modern breech mechanisms form two groups (o) the sliding
type as with the Krupp wedge system, (b) the swinging type as in
the interrupted screw system. Either type may be
used with B.L. guns (i.e. those with which the charge is
not contained in a metallic cartridge case) and Q.F. guns
(i.e. those with which a metallic cartridge case is used).
SHding mechanisms may be divided into two forms: (i) those
having the block or wedge sliding horizontally, and (2) those in
which the block works in a vertical direction, (i) is that used
principally by Krupp; (2) is best illustrated by the Hotchkiss
system for small Q.F. guns; the Nordenfelt, Skoda and the Driggs-
Schroeder mechanisms for small Q.F. guns are an adaptation of the
same principle.
The Krupp gear is in reality an improved Cavalli mechanism;
it is capable of being worked rapidly, is simple, with strong parts
not liable to derangement, except perhaps the obturator. The
breech end of the gun, however, occupies valuable space especially
when these guns are mounted in the restricted turrets or gun houses
on board ship.
Later it will be seen that owing to the difficulty of arranging a
convenient and efficient obturating device for the smokeless nitro-
powders, which have a peculiarly severe, searching effect, a metal
cartridge case has to be used with even the heaviest guns; naturally
this assumes large dimensions for the 305 m/m. gun.
The wedge (fig. 32) is housed in the breech piece, which covers
the breech part of the barrel, made very massive and extended to
the rear of the barrel. A slot, cut transversely through the extended
portion, forms a seat for the sliding block. The slot is formed so
that its front is a plane surface perpendicular to the axis of the gun,
while the rear is rounded and slightly inclined to the axis. One or
more ribs similarly inclined on the upper and lower surfaces of the
slot guide the breech block in its movements. For traversing the
block a quick pitched screw is fitted to its upper surface and works
in a nut attached to the upper part of the slot (in small guns this
traversing screw is dispensed with, as the block can be easily moved
by hand). As the rear seat of the sliding block is inclined, there is
a tendency for the block to be moved sideways, when the gun is
fired by the pressure in the chamber acting on the front face of the
wedge; this is prevented by a locking gear, consisting of a cylinder,
having a series of interrupted collars, which is mounted on a screw.
When the breech has been traversed into position, the collars are
rotated, by a cross handle at the side of the block, into grooves cut
in the rear surface of the slot; a further movement makes the
screw jam the collars hard in contact with the gun and secures the
breech. With small guns having no traversing gear a short strong
screw takes the place of the collars, and on the handle being turned
enters a threaded portion at the rear surface of the slot, actuates the
breech for the last (or first in opening) portion of its movement in
closing and secures it. To open the gun the movements are reversed.
The gun is fired by a friction tube, screwed into an axial vent bored
through the sliding block, or, in field guns, by a copper friction tube
through an oblique vent drilled through the top of the breech end
of the gun and through the block.
There is also fitted in some guns a percussion arrangement for
firing a percussion tube.
The obturation is effected by a Broadwell ring or some modificEr
tion of it; this is placed in a recess cut in the gun and rests against
a hard steel plate fitted in the breech block.
For modern Krupp mechanisms, for use with cartridge cases, the
arrangement (fig. 33) is very similar to that described above, but
some improvements have added to its simplicity. The transporting
screw is fitted with a strong projection which, at the end of the
movement for closing the breech, locks with a recess cut in the upper
surface of the slot and secures the breech. The extra locking device
is consequently dispensed with. The firing gear consists of a striker
fitted in the sliding block in line with the axis of the gun; the
striker is pushed back by a lever contained in the block and, on
release, is driven forward against the primer of the cartridge case by
a spiral spring.
In the Hotchkiss gun the mechanism has a vertical breech block
of a rectangular section. The actuating lever F (fig. 34) is on the
right side of the gun, and connected to a powerful crank arm C
working in a groove E cut on the right side of the breech block.
By pulling the lever towards the rear, the crank arm forces
down the block A and extracts the fired case by an extractor X,
which is actuated by a cam groove Y cut on one side or on
both sides of the block. As the mechanism is opened the hammer H
is cocked ready for the ne.xt round. To close the mechanism
the lever is pushed over to the front, and by releasing the trigger
sear by pulling the lanyard the hammer falls and fires the cap of
the cartridge case.
Automatic gear is now generally fitted which opens the breech
as the gun runs up after recoil and extracts the fired case by means
of a supplementary mechanism and strong spring actuated by the
recoil of the gun, and on pushing a new cartridge into the gun the
breech which was retained by the extractor is released and closes
automatically. ^--i -i..:3cJigxj
I
HISTORY AND CONSTRUCTION]
ORDNANCE
20I
'''The Nordenfelt mechanism consists of a breech block (fig. 35)
and a wedge to secure it. A hand lever on the shaft is pulled to
the rear, and this works the action cam, which pulls down the
wedge; the breech block is then caused to rotate and falls back to
the rear. This motion of the breech block actuates the extractor
Fig. 32 — Krupp Breech Action.
and extracts the case. While the wedge is being withdrawn the
firing pin is pulled back and cocked for the next round. The
mechanism is closed by reversing the hand lever; this rotates the
breech block upwards and pushes home the cartridge case, and the
wedge is then forced up and secures the breech block.
These small type Q.F. guns, which were introduced to cope with
torpedo boats, are now, however, of little account, since experiment
has proved that nothing smaller than a 12-pounder is sufficient so
to injure a modern torpedo boat as to stop it. Most of these small
guns are therefore in the English and in some other Services being
converted into " sub-calibre " guns for exercise purposes. These
sub-calibre guns retain their ordinary breech mechanism, but the
bodies are fitted with a strong steel plug screwed on the out.side
in' a similar manner to the breech screw of the parent gun. The
sub-calibre gun is placed in the parent gun and the screwed plug
engages in the threads of the breech opening.
There has been a gradual development of ideas regarding the
repelling power required by a vessel against torpedo boat attack.
The 12-pounder Q.F. 40-calibre guns we.-e replaced by the more
powerful 12-pounder Q.F. 50-calibre gun; this again by the 4-in.
high power gun of 50 calibres, and now 6-in. guns are being used.
One other form of sliding mechanism is of importance owing to
its adoption for the 75 m/m. French long recoil field gun (see below:
Field equipments). This mechanism is on the Nordenfelt eccentric
screw system and is very similar to that proposed by Clay about
i860; it has a breech screw (fig. 36) of large diameter mounted in
the breech opening, which is eccentric to the bore. For loading, the
breech block has a longitudinal opening cut through it, so that when
the mechanism is in the open
position this opening coincides
with the chamber, while a half
turn of the breech screw brings
its solid part opposite the
chamber and closes the gun.
The mechanism is very simple
and strong, but it is only
suitable for small Q.F. guns
using cartridge cases; the
firing gear is similar to that
applied to other types of
mechanism, and the fired case
is extracted by an extractor
actuated by the face of the
breech screw as it is opened.
With the swinging type of
breech mechanism we are con-
fronted with numberless pat-
terns, many of undoubted
merit and claiming certain
advantages over others, and
all showing the vast amount
of ingenuity expended in so
designing them that they may
be as simple, and, at the same
time, as effective and quick
acting as possible. It is impossible to deal with all these, and there-
fore only the more important systems will be described. The special
feature of this type is that the breech is closed by an interrupted
breech screw; the screw is either supported in a carrier ring or tray
hinged near the breech opening, or on a carrier arm which is hinged
near the outer circumference of the gun.
The screw may be of the cylindric interrupted, Welin and coned
types; these, or their modifications, practically embrace the various
forms used. The cylindric form (fig. 37) is the simplest ; it consists
of a strong screwed plug engaging with a corresponding screw
thread cut on the interior of the breech opening of the gun. The
screw surface of the breech plug is cut away in sections equally
divided and alternating with the threaded portions. The screw
s\irface of the breech opening is similarly cut away, so that the
plug can be pushed nearly home into the breech opening without
(trouble ; by then revolving
the breech screw through a
small angle the screwed por-
tions of the plug and breech
opening engage. Thus if three
screwed sections alternate with
three plain sections the
angle of revolution necessary
to ensure a full engagement
^ of the screw surfaces will be
60°. The Welin screw (fig. 38)
is an ingenious adaptation
of the cylindric type; in this
the surface is divided into
sections each formed of two
or three cylindrical screwed
steps with a single plain por-
tion; thus if there are three
sections, each section of which
has one plain division and
two screwed divisions, there will be in all six screwed portions and
three plain. The breech opening is correspondingly formed so
that the screwed threads would fully engage with 40° of movement.
There is consequently a greater amount of screwed circumferential
surface with the Welin screw than with the ordinary cylindric
interrupted type; the latter form has 50% screw surface while the
Welin has 60%. For equal screw surface the Wdin can therefore
be made shorter.
For medium guns the Elswick type of coned screw (fig. 39) has
found much favour, and this mechanism has been fitted to guns of
all calibres from 3-inch to 6-inch, both for the British and numerous
other governments. The coned breech screw is formed with the
front part conical and the rear cylindrical, to facilitate its entrance
into the gun, and also its exit; this form, moreover, is taken ad-
vantage of by cutting the interruptions in the screwed surface
alternately on the coned part and on the cylindrical part, so that
there is a screwed surface all roimd the circumference of the breech
screw. By this means the stress is taken all round the circumference,
both of the breech screw and in the gun, instead of in portions
alternately, as with other forms.
The Bofors breech screw is a modification. The surface is formed
of a truncated ogive instead of a cylinder and cone, and the threaded
jrartions are not alternate.
In the older types of mechanism for heavy B.L. guns the breech
was opened in from three to four different operations which involved
considerable loss of time. Fig. 40 shows the general type for g-2-in.,
lo-in. and 12-in. B.L. guns. To open the breech the cam lever C
was folded up so that it engaged the pin B in connexion with the
Fig. 33. — Krupp Breech Action.
ratchet lever E. This was worked and so disengaged the breech
screw from the threads cut in the gun; the cam lever was then
folded down as to to start the breech screw, and the winch handle Q
rotated and so withdrew the screw and swung it clear of the breech
opening. During these operations the firing lock was actuated and
made safe, but the fired tube had to be extracted by hand. To close
the gun these various operations must be reversed, and to open or close
the gun would certainly occupy at least half a minute with trained men.
To compare with this a modern 12-in. breech mechanism is shown
in fig. 41. In order to open this breech it is only necessary to turn
XX. ya
202
ORDNANCE
[HISTORY AND CONSTRUCTION
the handwheel continuously in one direction, and to close it again
the motion of the handwheel is simply reversed ; either closing or
opening the breech by hand occupies about 6 seconds. Supposing
the breech closed, the handwheel when rotated gives motion to the
link G through the worm wheel S and crank F. By this means the
Fig. 34. — Hotchkiss Q.F. Breech Mechanism.
tooth B is moved from its extreme left position to the right, and
so disengages the breech screw A from the threads in the gun; the
rack A^ on the breech screw then comes into gear with the pinion E
and draws the breech screw out of the gun into the carrier ring C,
which finally swings on the axis pin and clears the breech open-
ing. While the opening is being performed the firing lock L is
operated by the cam groove A^; this puts the firing mechanism,
either electric or percussion, to safety by withdrawing the firing
needle, extracts the fired tube and leaves the primer chamber open
for a fresh primer. All these operations are performed in the reverse
order on closing.
With both these types of mechanism the de Bange system of
obturation, with the pad only slightly coned, is used.
With smaller guns the mechanism is simpler, as less power is
required for opening the breech. Thus, with the 6-in. B.L. gun Mark
IV., introduced about 1885 (fig. 42) the breech is opened in three
separate operations — (o) the cam lever, which also locks the breech,
is raised into the vertical position and pulled over to the left ; this
disengages the screw threads; (6) the cam lever is folded down so
Fig. 35. — Nordenfeldt Q.F. Breech Mechanism.
that the cam acting on the rear face of the gun releases the de Bange
obturator, and the screw is then pulled by hand through the carrier
ring out of the breech; (c) the carrier ring and breech screw are
revolved together to the right, clear of the breech opening.
In a modern 6-in. gun fitted with de Bange obturator all these
operations are combined and the mechanism (fig. 43) worked by a
horizontal hand lever which is moved from left to right through an
angle of about 200°. The hand lever A moves a link B connected to
a pin C on the breech screw D and disengages the screw from the gun ;
a small lateral movement is then given to the axis pin of the carrier
so as to allow the obturator pad E to swing out of its seating; when
Fig. 36. — Eccentric Screw, Breech Mechanism.
this is quite free, the whole mechanism revolves on the axis pin and
thus clears the breech opening. The firing lock F is actuated at the
same time and ejects the fired tube G. A new tube is inserted while
the gun is being loaded, so that immediately the breech is closed the
charge can be fired without loss of time. In the old mechanisms the
breech had to be closed first, and the firing tube inserted after.
HISTORY AND CONSTRUCTION]
ORDNANCE
203
The breech mechanism for Q.F. guns firing metallic cartridge
cases is worked on similar principles, but is somewhat simpler than
that fur the de Bange obturation, due principally to the fact of the
firing primer being already contained in the cartridge case when this
is introduced into the gun.
In the English service the later patterns of breech mechanism for
medium aijd heavy B.L. guns have a Welin screw, with a " steep
HAND GEAR
SHAFT TO MOTOR
Fig. 37. — Interrupted Breech Screw — Cylindrical.
cone " de Bange obturator, supported on a carrier arm. This
arrangement allows the mechanism (fig. 44) to swing clear of the
breech opening immediately the threads of the breech screw are
disengaged from those in the breech in a similar manner to the
Q.F. guns fitted with a cone screw. The mechanism is actuated by
the handwheel L which rotates the hinge pin; this in turn, through
gearing, moves a crank arm D connected, by a link B, to the pin on
the breech screw. By continuously moving the handwheel the
link B is drawn towards the hinge pin until the breech screw threads
are disengaged ; the catch C then drops into a pocket on the breech
screw and fixes it to the carrier arm. The whole of the mechanism
then rotates around the hinge pin and leaves the breech open ready
for loading. As the breech screw threads are being disengaged the
electric or percussion lock W is operated by a cam groove in a
similar manner to that already described. In the latest modification
of this mechanism a roller at the end of the crank arm D works a
long lever connected to the breech screw by two pins. This forms
what is termed a " pure-couple " mechanism and it is claimed that
greater ease of working is ensured by its use. While the loading is
going on a new firing tube is
placed in the vent, so that on
closing the gun, by turning the
handwheel in the opposite
direction, the gun is ready for
firing. For 9'2-in. guns and
those of smaller calibre the
handwheel is replaced by a
hand lever pivoted on the
carrier (fig. 45). By giving
this lever a single motion from
left to right the mechanism is
opened.
For 6-in. and 4-in. guns
a shot support is attached
to the breech face which
is operated by the breech
mechanism so that when
the breech is open the shot
support is in position for loading, and it falls out of the way when
the breech is being closed.
In the larger types of all breech mechanisms ball bearings are
employed in various parts, such as the hinge pin bearings, &c., to
reduce friction and in most of the modern heavy guns on board
ship the breech mechanism is arranged to be worked by a hydraulic
cylinder placed on the breech face, or by a small hydraulic engine
or electric motor placed in some convenient position on the mounting.
The hand gear, however, is always retained for emergency and a
clutch is provided so that it can be put into action at a moment's
notice.
The Welin screw is largely used in the United States, but in heavy
guns the ordinary cone (not " steep cone ") de Bange obturator is
employed. The screw is mounted either in a carrier ring or on a
carrier tray. In France the ordinary type of interrupted screw is
adopted and this rests in a carrier tray. The operations of opening
and closing are very similar to those already described.
All the recent patterns of mechanism have an extractor fitted
to extract the empty cartridge case with Q.F. guns or the fired
tube with B.L. guns. In Q.F. field guns it generally takes the form
of a lever working on an axis pin. The longer arm of the lever is
formed into a jaw which rests on the inner face of the breech opening
beneath the rim of the cartridge case, and the short arm is so
arranged that when the breech is opened the carrier, in swinging
mechanisms, or the breech block itself, in sliding systems, suddenly
comes in contact with it; the long arm is thus jerked backwards
and extracts the case. In B.L. mechanisms the tube extractor is
Fig. 38. — Welin Breech Screw.
arranged on the same principle but in this case usually forms part
of the box slide, i.e. that portion of the mechanism attached by
interrupted collars to the rear end of the vent axial, in which the
firing lock slides as it is actuated by the opening or closing of the
breech mechanism. When the breech is being opened the firing pin
of the lock is drawn back to safety and the lock is moved aside from
over the tube; a tripper then actuates the extractor and ejects the
fired tube. The extractor and tripper are so contrived that when a
new tube is pushed home the extractor is also pushed back into the
closed position, or, if the tube is somewhat stiff to insert, the action
of closing the mechanism moves the lock over the primer and forces
it home.
The firing lock used in B.L. guns is an important part of the
Fig. 39. — Elswick Coned Screw.
mechanism. They are all designed on the same principle, with
a view to safety and rapidity, and may be regarded as a miniature
sliding breech mechanism. In the older types the lock or its sub-
stitute was manipulated by hand, and with electric firing the wires
from the tubes were joined up to the loose ends of the firing circuit ;
204
ORDNANCE
[HISTORY AND CONSTRUCTION
Fig. 41. — i2-in. Gun, Breech Mechanism.
. 1 TO
safety depended therefore on everything being in order and all
operations correctly performed. The gun could, however, be
fired before the breech was properly secured and a serious accident
caused ; to prevent this all the movements of modern locks are
arranged to be automatic, and wireless electric tubes are used so
that immediately the breech mechanism commences to open, the
lock itself is moved in the box slide so as to uncover the vent
opening. During the first part of this movement a foot on the
HISTORY AND CONSTRUCTION]
ORDNANCE
205
striker rides up an incline I (fig. 45) on the box slide and thus
pushes back the striker from contact with the tube. The ex-
tractor described above is actuated at the same time. Most locks
Fig. 40. — BreechMechanisms, Heavy Cjuns.
consist of a steel frame with a socket for containing the striker
and main spring. They arc contrived so as to be capable of firing
both electric and percussion tubes, but others are arranged for
firing only electric, separate locks being employed for use with
percussion tubes. The construction of both is very similar, but
with the percussion lock, or the combim-d lock, a trii^i,Tr is provided
Fig. 42.— Breech Mechanism, 6-in. B.L. Mark IV.
which drops into a notch in the striker when this is pulled back by
the lugs E E (fig. 45J on the outer attachment of the striker. On
the trigger being pulled by a lanyard the striker is released and
fires the tube.
For Q.F. guns with interrupted or coned breech screws the
striker is contained in the breech screw, but, in order to provide for
safety, a small lever cam or other contrivance is fitted
which, when the mechanism commences to open, is
operated by the hand lever and withdraws the striker
from contact with the primer inserted in the cartridge
case.
The striker consists of a steel needle, with the stem
insulated by ebonite or some similar material, contained
in an outer steel sheath. The sheath is formed with
a foot or lug which is acted upon by the safety gear; a
collar is also provided for taking the thrust of the main
spring.
Another form of lock now much in favour, especially
for field-gun mechanisms, is that known as a trip lock.
It is mainly used for percussion firing but can also be
combined for use with electric tubes. In this pattern the
striker is withdrawn, cocked and released by the con-
tinuous pull of a hand lever attached to the mounting
or by a lanyard attached to the lock. Should a miss-fire
occur the striker may be actuated as often as necessary
by releasing the hand lever or lanyard and again giving
a continuous pull (fig. 46).
In all modern heavy guns, especially when firing to
windward, there is a tendency, when the breech is opened
Back rapidly after firing, for a sheet of flame to issue
flash from the open breech. It was practically un-
known with the old black powders, but is of
frequent _ occurrence with all smokeless propellants. If
the gun is loaded immediately after the breech is opened
the fresh charge may be ignited and an accident caused.
Several serious accidents have already been traced to this
cause, notably one on the United States battleship
" Missouri " on 13th April 1904, when 33 lives were lost.
The flame js due to the large amount of highly heated
carbonic o.xide remaining in the gun from the explosion ot
the charge; this mixing with the oxygen of the air when
the breech is opened burns rapidly as a sheet of flame
in rear of the gun, and should wind be blowing down the gun the
action is more intense. By looking into the gun from the muzzle,
before the breech is opened, the gas can often be seen burning
with a pale-blue flame as it slowly mixes with air and a
curious singing noise is heard at the same time. It is now usual to
fit a special apparatus on the gun, so that directly the breech is
partly opened a blast of compressed air is allowed to enter the
rear end of the chamber and thus sweep the whole of the
residual gas out at the muzzle.
The purpose of the obturator is to render the breech
end of the gun gas-tight, and to prevent any escape of
gas past the breech mechanism. In the first „. ,
Armstrong B.L. gun this object was attained "" °"'
by fitting to the breech block a copper ring coned on
the exterior; the coned surface was forcibly pressed by
screwing up the breech screw against a corresponding
copper ring fitted at the breech opening of the gun
chamber. It is only possible to use this method when
the copper surfaces can be jammed together by a power-
ful screw.
Except the above, all obturators in use are arranged
to act automatically, i.e. the pressure set up in the
gun when it is fired expands the arrangement and seals
the opening; immediately the projectile leaves the bore
the pressure is relieved and the obturator, by its elasticity,
regains its original shape, so that the breech mechan-
ism can be opened or closed with ease. In the French
naval service B.L. guns have been in use since 1864, and
the system of obturation was arranged on the same expansion
principle as the leather packing ring of the hydraulic press. A steel
ring A (fig. 47) of cupped form was fastened by a screwed plug to a
thick steel plate, carried on the face of the breech screw, so that it
could rotate when the breech screw was rotated in opening or clos-
ing the gun. The outer lip of the cup fitted against a slightly coned
seating formed in the breech end of the gun chamber. When the
gun was fired, the gas pressure expanded the cup ring and forced
it into close bearing against the seating in the gun and the thick
steel plate on the breech screw, thus preventing any escape of gas.
Very similar to this was the Elswick cup obturator (fig. 48) intro-
duced by the Elswick Ordnance Company in 1881 ; its rear surface
was flat and it was held by a central bolt against the front of the
breech screw which was slightly rounded. The cup yielded to the
gas pressure until it was supported by the breech screw; this
action expanded the lip against a copper seating, let into the gun,
which could be renewed when necessary. Many of both types
are still in use and act perfectly efficiently if carefully treated.
The use of modern smokeless powder renders them and similar
devices, such as the Broadwell ring (fig. 49), &c., peculiarly liable to
damage, as a slight abrasion of the lip of the cup or ring, or of its
seating, allows gas to escape, and so accentuates the defect with
each round fired, l^nless, therefore, the fault be immediately
remedied considerable damage may be caused to the gun. The
Broadwell gas ring is still in use in the French naval service, where
Fic. 43. — Breech Mechanism, Modern 6-in. Gun.
it is made of copper (fig. 50), and also of steel in a modified form
(Piorkowski) in the German service (fig. 51) ; in the last-named service,
owing to the defect already named, all the latest guns, both light
and heavy, use metal cartridge cases. In the French navy, as in
■ji;i{ni3 ju '^a baueiq-ri .v sD 311 j oj •.>i.tii
2o6
ORDNANCE
[HISTORY AND CONSTRUCTION
most other services, cartridge cases arc used for the smaller and
medium guns only.
One of the most efficient obturators not liable to damage is the
plastic device introduced by Colonel de Bangc of the French
service and adopted by the French army and also by the British
and other governments. It consists of a pad (fig. 52) made up of
a strong annular-shaped canvas bag A, containing a mixture of
asbestos fibre and mutton suet; the bag with its contents is placed
in a properly formed die and subjected to hydraulic pressure by
which it becomes hard and firm. The pad so made is then placed on
the front of the breech screw B, and it is protected on its faces by
disks C, C, of metallic tin or copper having steel wedge rings on
the outer edges; the circumference of the complete pad and disks is
HINSE Pi"
Carrier
lockW
Fig. 44. — English modern Breech Mechanism, for heavy and medium guns.
generally only slightly coned and fits into a corresponding seating
formed at the breech end of the chamber, the canvas of the circum-
ference of the pad being in immediate contact with the seat. In
the English service the steep cone pattern (fig. 53) of de Bange
obturator is used with mechanisms having the Welin screw. In
front of the pad is placed a strong steel disk formed with a spindle,
and called a mushroom head D, the spindle passing through the
hole in the pad and through the breech screw, being secured in
rear by a nut. The firing vent is generally drilled through the
mushroom head and spindle and the part is then termed a " vent
axial." On the gun being fired the gas exerts a great pressure on
the mushroom head, which compresses the pad and squeezes it
out on the circumference into close contact with the seating, thus
forming a perfect gas seal. It is found that this apparently delicate
arrangement will stand considerable ill-usage and act perfectly for
an indefinite time, and, as it is easily replaced, it is regarded as one
of the best and most reliable forms of obturator. In some countries
the Freyre obturator is in use; this has a somewhat similar axial
head to the de Bange, but the asbestos pad is replaced by a single
steel wedge ring into which the axial head fits. On firing the gun
the head is forced into the wedge ring and expands it against the
seating in the gun.
One other means of obturation has to be considered, viz.
metallic cartridge cases. These are made of a kind of brass;
aluminium cases have been experimented with, but have not proved
satisfactory. The case (fig. 54) acts on the same principle as the
cup obturation and is extremely efficient for the purpose; more-
over, they have certain ad\'antages conducive to rapid firing when
used for small guns. The idea has developed from the use of such
cartridges in small arms, and larger cartridges of the same type
were introduced for 3-pounder and 6-pounder guns by Hotchkiss
and Nordenfelt about the year 1880 for the purpose of rapid
firing against torpedo boats. Then in
1886 the Elswick Company produced
a 36-pounder (soon converted to a
4S-pounder} of 4-7-in. calibre with the
powder charge contained in metallic
cases, and about 1888 a 6-in. 100-
pounder gun using similar cartridges.
A special advantage of the cartridge
case is that it contains the firing primer
by which the charge is ignited and con-
sequently renders the firing gear of the
gun more simple; on the other hand,
should a miss-fire occur the gun must
be opened to replace the primer. This
is a proceeding liable to produce an
accident, unless a long enough time is
allowed to elapse before attempting to
open the breech; guns having de Bange
obturators and firing tubes inserted
after the breech is closed are therefore
safer in this respect.
Some means of extracting the case
after firing must be fitted to the gun;
this is simple enough with small guns,
but with those of heavy natures the
extractor becomes a somewhat pon-
derous piece of gear.
Metallic cases of a short pattern
have been tried for large calibre guns;
although their action is quite efficient,
they are difficult to handle, and if a case
must be used it is preferable to employ
a fairly long one. It was for this reason
that in England up to 1898 it was
considered that for guns above 6-in.
calibre the de Bange obturation was the
most advantageous. Since then the de
Bange obturator has been employed in
guns of 4-in. calibre and above, the cart-
ridge case being retained only for 3-in.
and smaller guns. Krupp, however, uses
cartridge cases with all guns even up
to l2-in. calibre, but this is undoubtedly
due to the difficulties, which have already
been noticed, attending the use of
smokeless powder with the ordinary
forms of obturation applicable to the
wedge breech system. In the most
modern Krupp 12-in. guns the charge
is formed in two pieces; the piece
forming the front portion of the charge
is contained in a consumable envelope,
while the rear portion is contained in
a brass cartridge case, which forms the
obturator, about 48 in. long.
It will be seen that such large and
heavy cases add to the difficulties which
occur in handling or stowing the am-
munition of large calibre guns, and although the use of cartridge
cases with small guns adds to their rapidity of firing this is not
the case with heavy guns. It seems, therefore, that the balance of
advantages is certainly in favour of the de Bange system, for all
guns except those of small calibre. With ordinary' field guns cart-
ridge cases are now considered obligatory owing to their con-
venience in loading.
While the ordinary types of plastic obturators last for an inde-
finite time a cartridge case can be used for a limited number of
rounds only, depending on the calibre of the gun; with field guns
from ten to twenty rounds or even more may be fired from one
case if care is taken to reform it after each round; with large
guns they will not, of course, fire so many. Cartridge cases are
an expensive addition to the ammunition, so that there should be
no doubt about the advantages they offer before they are definitely
adopted for heavy guns.
The rapidity with which modern guns can be fired and the
enormous energy they develop is especially striking when one
HISTORY AND CONSTRUCTION]
ORDNANCE
207
IKICH SCACM
MUCH ^ouw ICWCR
avtn •DCICM MCSUMrM
CATO' XTMNlMt UVtH MUCH MCCIVKJMi
considers the same facts in connexion with the early guns.
Fave states in his Histoire et taciiqiie des trois amies (p. 23)
that during the invasion of Italy in 1494 by Charles
Kaage VIII. the guns were so unwieldy and the liring so slow
power. ^h^*- ''^^ damage caused by one shot could be repaired
before the next could be fired. The range, too, about
100 yds. for battering purposes, now seems absurdly short;
even at Waterloo 1200 yds. was all that separated the antagonists
at the commencement of the battle, but they approached to within
200 or 300 yds. without suffering serious loss from either musketry
or gun lire. Nelson fought his ships side by side with the enemy's;
and fifty years after Nelson's day a range of 1000 yds. at sea
was looked upon as an extreme distance at which to engage an
enemy. Contrast this with the lange of 12,000 yds. at which the
opposing Russian and Japanese fleets more than once commenced
a naval battle in 1904, while
the critical part of the action
took place at a distance of
7000 yds.
These long ranges naturally
intensified the requirements
of the British and other
navies, and, so that they
shall not be outclassed and
beaten by an enemy's long-
range fire, guns of continu-
ally increasing power are
demanded. In igoo a 12-in.
gun of 40 calibres was con-
sidered all that was necessary.
After the Russo-Japanese
War the demand rose first for
a 45-calibre gun and then for
a 50-calibre gun, and muzzle
velocities from about 2400 f .s.
to about 3000 f.s. In 1910
greater shell power was de-
manded, to meet which new
type guns of i3-5-in. and
14-in. calibre were being made.
In the days of M.L. heavy
guns one of the most difficult
problems was that of loading.
The weight of the shell and
powder was such that some
mechanical power had to be
employed for moving and
ramming them home, and as
hydraulic gear had by that
date been introduced it was
generally used for all loading
operations. To load, the guns had to be run back until their
muzzles were] within the turret, or, in the case of the 16-in.
80-ton guns of H.M.S. "Infle.xil)le," until they were just outside
the turret. The guns were then depressed to a fixed angle so as
to bring the loading gear, which was protected below the gun
deck, in line with the bore; the charge was first rammed home
and then the projectile. With this arrangement, and in order to
keep the turret of manageable dimensions, the guns had to be
made short. Thus the i2-5-in. 38-ton M.L. gun had a length of
bore of but 16 calibres, and the largest English service gun of
16-in. diameter had a bore of iS calibres in length; while the
largest of the type weighing 100 tons, built by Sir W. G. Arm-
strong & Co., for the Italian navy, had a bore of 17-72 in. and
a length of 20 calibres. The rate of fire was fairly rapid —
two rounds could be fired from one turret with the i2-5-in.
guns in about three minutes, while it took about four minutes
to fire the same number from the 80-ton and 100-ton gun
turrets.
The possibility of double loading M.L. guns was responsible
for the bursting on the 2nd January 1879 of a 38-ton gun in a
turret on H.M.S. " Thunderer "; and it was partly due to this
accident that B.L. guns were subsequently more favourably
regarded in England, as it was argued that the double loading of
a B.L. gun was an impossibility.
With the B.L. system guns gradually grew to be about 30
calibres in length of bore, and they were not made longer because
this was considered a disadvantage, not to be compensated for
by the small additional velocity which the old black and brown
prismatic powders were capable of imparting with guns of
greater length. Increase in the striking energy of the projectile
was consequently sought by increasing the weight of the pro-
jectile, and, to carry this out with advantage, a gun of larger
calibre had to be adopted. Thus the 12-in. B.L. gun of about
25 calibres in length gave place to the i3-s-in. gun of 30 calibres
and weighing 67 tons, and to the i6-25-in. also of 30 calibres and
weighing in tons. The 10,000- or 12,000-ton batlleships
UTu nTNNMO BRcrEHsguw
•uruMMc —
KaCA SLIU.VC
aiucDtsucw.
■UICN UHtW LCVU.
CAMIfR.
men 8W£CM MACM
Fig. 45.-
W
-Breech Mechanism for 6-inch B.L. Gun
carrying these enormous pieces were, judged by our present-day
standard, far too small to carry such a heavy armament with their
ponderous armoured machinery, which restricted the coal supply
and rendered other advantages impossible; even the 24,000-ton
battleships are none too large to carry the number of heavy guns
now required to form the main armament.
The weight and size of the old brown prismatic charges had
also reached huge dimensions; thus, while with heavy M.L. guns
the weight of the full charge was about one-fourth that of the
projectile, it had with heavy B.L. guns become one-half of the
weight of the shell or even a greater proportion. The intro-
duction of smokeless powder about iSgo, having more than three
times the amount of energy for the same weight of the older
powders, allowed longer guns to be used, which fired a much
smaller weight of charge but gave higher velocities; the muzzle
or striking energy demanded for piercing hard-faced armour
could consequently be obtained from guns of more moderate
calibre. The i3-5-in. and i6-25-in. guns were therefore gradually
discarded and new ships were armed with 12-in. guns of greater
power. As the ballistic requirements are increased the weight
of the charge becomes proportionately greater; thus for the
2o8
ORDNANCE
[HISTORY AND CONSTRUCTION
present high velocity guns it has reached a ratio of about 0-4
of the weight of the projectile.
V£NT A XML
BOX SLIDE
PERCUSSION
FIRING LEVER
Fig. 46.
The progress of artillery and the improvements made in armour
have been reciprocal; as the protective value of iron and
the case at the present time as regards both projectiles
and armour. As a matter of fact, armour, at the present-day
fighting ranges, is
rather ahead of
artillery — hence
the demand for
greater power; but
even with this the
probability of per-
foration is small,
and is usually only
obtained when the
projectile strikes
normally to the
surface of the plate;
the chance of this
happening in action
is somewhat re-
mote. During the
R u s s o- J a p a n e s e
War no instance of
perforation of the
thick belt or turret
armour is known;
the chief cause of
the Russian losses
was the bursting of
i2-in. and 6-in. shells
inside the un-
armoured portions
of their ships; it
is stated that no
ship survived after
being struck by ten
i2-in. projectiles.
Some authorities
have lately sought
to increase the
Fig. 47. — French Obturator.
y///////>y/////////.
Fig. 48. — Elswick Cup.
subsequently of steel plates has increased, so the penetrative
force or quahty of the projectile has advanced. Often, after a
Fig. 50.
Figs. 49-51.— Broadwell Ring.
Fig. 51.
period of
processes
apparent inactivity, fresh ideas or new metallurgical
have enabled further progress to be made; this is
"\ ELECTRIC FIRING WIRE muzzle energy —
without adding
weight or length
to the gun — by in-
creasing the weight
of the projectile. This can be done to a limited extent with
beneficial results, but it is impossible to carry the idea very far,
as the projectile becomes very long and difficulties may be
encountered with the rifling; or, if these are avoided, the
thickness of the walls of the shell is increased so much that
Fig. 52. — De Range Obturator.
Fig. 53. — Steep Cone de
Bange Obturator.
the heavier projectiles is in reality less powerful owing to its in-
ternal bursting charge being comparatively small. Again, many
foreign gunmakers claim that their guns are, in comparison
with English guns of the same power, of less weight. This is
true in a limited sense, but such guns have nothing like the same
factor of resistance as EngUsh guns, or, in other words, the English
HISTORY AND CONSTRUCTION]
ORDNANCE
209
guns are much stronger. This is an obvious advantage, but an
equally solid one is the fact that owing to the greater weight of
the home-made weapon the recoil energy is less and consequently
m\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\ \\\^ ^^^^
^^;^;j^^\\\\\\\\\\\\v\\\\\\\\V\\\V\\\\\v\vv\\\^v^\\'^
Fig. 54. — Metallic Cartridge Case.
the mounting can be made of a lighter pattern. Besides, the
weight of the gun is so disposed as to bring its centre of gravity
Table II. — Names and Weights of English Cannon, 1574
Robinet
Falconet
Falcon
Minion
Sac re
Demi-Culverin
Culvcrin
Demi-Cannon
Cannon .
Eliza-Cannon
Basiliske
Weight.
tb
200
500
800
1100
1500
2500
4000
6000
7000
8000
9000
Diameter
of Bore.
3i
3i
4^
5\
6\
/ 4
8
8§
Diameter
of Sliot.
It
3
3i
4
5
6i
7i
7f
Weight of
Shot.
4i
5
9
18
30
60
63
60
Table III.
Gun.
Weight of
Charge.
Weight of
Shot.
Muzzle
Velocity.
27-pr. 66 cwt. ....
i3^pr- 37-5 cwt
6i pr. 20 cwt. ....
3s pr. II cwt. ....
lb.
13-125
6-562
4-922
2-469
lb.
27
13-5
6-75
3-375
f.s.
1517
1618
1696
1720
Table IV. — British Smooth Bore Guns, i860.
as near the breech end as possible; by this means the radius
of the gun house is reduced to the smallest dimension and, in
consequence, there is a great .saving of weight of armour. The
extra weight of the gun is therefore
more than compensated for.
Until laic into the i6th century
the calibres of the guns were not
regulated with a view to the inter-
changeability of shot. In the follow-
ing century ordnance was divided into
classes, but even then, owing no doubt
to manufacturing difliculties, there
was no fixed size for the bore. The
Tables II. -VII. give some idea of the
size and weight of these pieces.
Table II. is taken from Cleveland's
Notes, but corrected from " An Old
Table of Ordnance " {Proc. R.A.I. , vol.
xxviii. p. 365); the last column gives
the range in scores of paces at point-
blank, a term tiscci in those days to denote the first part of the
trajectory which was supposed to be a straight line. Later the
point-blank range was that distance
from the gun on its carriage to the
first graze of the shot on the horizontal
plane when the axis of the gun was
placed horizontal; this depended on the
height of the gun above the ground
plane, but it was the only method of
determining the relative power of these
early guns.
In power, smooth-bore guns in Europe
did not differ very much from each other,
and it may be taken for granted that the
progress made since has been much the
same in all.
D'Antoni, in his Treatise of Fire Arms
(translated by Captain Thomson, R.A.),
gives particulars of Italian guns of about
1746, which are shown in Table III.
It will be seen that the velocities
given in Table III. are not inferior to
those obtained from guns actually in
use in i860 (see Table IV.). They were
considerably higher than those for
elongated rifled projectiles (Table V.)
for many years after their introduction ;
the last-named, however, during flight
only lost their velocity slowly, while the
spherical shot lost their velocity so rapidly
that at 2000 yds. range only about one-
third of the initial velocity was retained.
Weight of
Charge.
Serpentine.
ft
i
2
li
2^
4^
5
9
18
28
40
42
60
Scores of
Paces at
point-blank.
14
16
17
18
20
25
28
20
20
21
Official Designation of Gun.
Calibre.
Weight of
Gun.
Weight of
Charge.
Weight of
Projectile.
Muzzle
Velocity.
Muzzle
Energj'.
r 10 in. 87 cwt.
d
68 pr. 95 „
8 in. 65 „
t^
32 pr. 58 „
U
24 „ 50 „
>-l8 ,,38 „
Si f 12 „ 18 „
9 ■. 13 .,
, 6 „ 6 „
In.
10
8-12
8-05
6-375
5-823
5-292
4-623
4-20
3-668
Tons.
4-35
4-75
3-22
2-9
2-5
1-9
0-9
0-65
0-3
lb.
12
16
10
10
8
6
4
2-5
1-5
lb.
88-31
66-25
49-875
31-375
23-5
17-69
12-66
9-36
6-23
Ft. Sees.
1292
1579
1464
1690
1720
1690
1769
1614
1484
Ft. Tons.
1022
"45
742
621
482
350
275
169
95
Table V. — British B.L. Ordnance, i860. Armstrong System.
Official Designation of Gun.
Calibre.
Weight of
Gun.
Weight of
Charge.
Weight of
Projectile.
Muzzle
Velocity.
Muzzle
Energy-.
In.
Tons.
lb.
lb.
Ft. Sees.
Ft. Tons.
100 pr. ,. ....
7
3-6
12
103-75
1166
978
1
40
4-75
} 1-6 \
0-65 \
5
41-5
(1164
] "34
1 1 14
390
370
162
20 „
3-75
2-5
21-22
997
146
12 „
3-0
0-425
1-5
11-56
1 184
112
9 M
3-0
0-3
1-125
9-0
1141
81
6
2-5
0-175
0-75
6-0
946
37
At a later date the velodties of these guns were altered.
' Two patterns were in existence.
2IO
ORDNANCE
Table VI. — British Rifled Ordnance, i8go.
[HISTORY AND CONSTRUCTION
Official Desij
;nation Calibre.
Weight of
Weight of
Weight of
Muzzle
Muzzle
Perforation
of Wrought
Iron.
Rate of
of Gun
Gun.
Charge.
Projectile.
Velocity.
Energy.
Firing
Rounds.
Propellant.
M.L. Gu
ns — In.
Tons.
lb.
n>.
Ft. Sees.
Ft. Tons.
In.
Per Minute.
17-72 1
n. 17-72
100
450
2000
1548
33.233
24-5
\
Prism Black
16
16
80
450
1700
1540
29,806
25-0
1
Prism Brown
12-5
12-5
38
210
818
1575
14,140
19-2
h
Prism Black
12
12
35
140
714
1390
9.563
'5-2
1
p2
II
II
25
85
548
1 3(10
6,510
13-5
1
Pebble
10
10
18
70
410
■379
5.406
■2-5
1
3
9
9
12
50
256
1440
3.695
1 10
1
8
8
9
35
179
1 390
2.391
9-2
1
7
7
7
30
1 14-6
1525
1.854
9-2
I
64-pr.'
6-3
y2
10
66-9
1390
897
6-4
I
R.L.G."
B.L. Gun
s —
16-25 1
1. 16-25
II0-5
960
1800
20S7
54.390
38
i
S.B.C.
13-5
13-5
67
630
1250
2016
35.230
33
1
2
12
45
295
714
1914
18,137
24-5
I
PrismBrown
10
10
29
252
500
2100
15.290
25-8
I
9-2
9-2
22
166
380
2036
10.915
22-3
li
8
8
14
118
210
2200
7,046
20-0
2
6
6
5
48
100
i960
2,435
13-5
3
E.X.E.
5
5
2
16
50
1 800
1. 123
9-2
3
S.P.
4
4
1-3
12
25
1900
626
7-8
3
Q.F. Gun
3 —
4-7 in.
4-72
2-1
12
45
1786
995
8-8
8
6-pr.
2-24
0-4
1-94
6
1837
141-2
5-3
20
Q.F.
3..
1-85
0-25
1-5
i-i
1873
So- 2
4-0
20
' And many sinaller guns.
Table VII. — British B.L. Ordnance, igon.
Official Designation
Calibre.
Weight of
Weight of
Weight of
Muzzle
Muzzle
Perforation
of Wrought
Iron.
Rate of
of Gun.
Gun.
Charge.
Projectile.
Velocity.
Energy.
Firing
Rounds.
Propellant.
I...
Tons.
ft.
ft.
Ft. Sees.
Ft. Tons.
In.
Per Minute.
16-25 in.
16-25
1 10-5
960
1800
2087
54.390
38
_
S.B.C.
'3-5 in.
13-5
67
187
1250
2016
35.230
33
-
Cordite
12 m. Mark VIII.
12
46
167-5
850
2367
33.000
36-9
I
10
29
76
500
2040
I4.,S9I
24-8
i^
9-2 in. Mark X.
9-2
28
103
380
2601
17,826
i--i
22-
8 m.
8
14
32-625
210
2200
7,046
20-0
"
6 m. Mark \ 11.
6
7
20
100
2493
4.335
19-25
7
5 m.
5
2
4-45
50
1750
1 ,062
8-8
3
4 m.
4
1-3
3-06
25
1900
626
7-8
3
Q.F. Guns—
6 in.
6
7
13-25
100
2200
3.356
16-0
6
4-7..
4-72
2-1
5-43
45
2188
1.494
I2-0
8
4 ..
4
1-3
3-75
25
2456
1,046
II-6
9
12-pr.
3
0-6
1-94
12-5
2210
423
8-0
15
6 .,
2 24
0-4
0-483
6
1818
137
4-8
20
3 ..
1-81
0-25
0-396
3-3
1873
80-2
4-0
20
_ As regards rapidity of aimed fire — and no shooting is worth con-
sideration which is not aimed — much depends on the quickness
with which the gun can be opened, loaded and closed again ready
for firing, but quite as much depends on the ease and convenience
of moving to any required direction the gun with its mounting;
also on the system of recoil adopted and the method of sighting.
Two identically similar guns may consequently give entirely
different rates of firing, unless mounted and sighted on the same
system — without taking into consideration the personal element of
the gun detachment or crew. The rates of firing shown in many
tables are therefore not always a trustworthy criterion of the guns'
capabilities. The advantage of the Q.F. system (i.e. a gun firing
charges contained in metallic cases), when suitably mounted, over
the old B.L. guns was exhibited in a very marked manner in 1887,
when the first 4-7-in. Q.F. gun fired ten rounds in 47-5 seconds
and subsequently fifteen rounds in one minute. The 5-in. B.L. gun
when fired as rapidly as possible only fired ten rounds in 6 minutes
16 seconds; so that the Q.F. gun fired its tenth round before the
then service gun fired its second shot. Recent improvements made
in the mechanism of the B.L. gun enable it to compete with the
Q.F. system.
The tabulated armour-piercing value of a gun is based on the
Table
VUl.—Brilish Ordnance
, IQIO.
Official Designation
of Gun.
Calibre.
Weight of
Gun.
Weight of
Charge.
Weight of
Projectile.
Muzzle
Velocity.
Muzzle P/
Energy.
rforation
Wrought
Iron.
Rate of
Firing
Rounds.
Propellant.
12 in. Mark XI.
12 in. Mark X
10 in.
9-2 Mark X.
7-5 in.
6 in. Mark VIi.
4 in.
In.
12
12
10
9-2
7-5
6
4
Tons.
66
58
31
28
16
7-4
1-3
ft.
309
148
103
69-5
20
3-75
ft.
850
850
500
380
200
100
25
Ft. Sees.
2959
2900
2800
2640
2800
2493
2456
Ft. Tons.
51.580
47.697
27.205
18,400
10,88?
4.308
1,046
In.
51-5
51-0
39-5
33-3
290
19-6
11-6
Per Minute.
2
2
2
3
4
6
9
M.D.Cordite
Q
F. guns as i
n 1900.
lA
HISTORY AND CONSTRUCTION)
ORDNANCE
21 I
results given by various formulas. These often vary considerably,
so in order that a direct comparison in the tables may be made,
this value is obtained for wrought iron plate only, using Trcsidder's
formula, v/hich is one of the most trustworthy. The equivalent
thickness of Krupp cemented steel armour can be obtained
immediately by dividing the tabulated value for wrought iron by a
" factor of effect " of 2-t^ to 2-4 for uncapped armour piercing
shot, and about 2'0 for capped armour piercing shell. These
factors are dependent on the nature of the projectile and must
therefore be taken as approximate.
Tables VIII. -XXII. are obtained from trustworthy sources,
but as great secrecy is now observed in many countries there may
be a few inaccuracies; in some cases the whole of the data are not
available.
Table IX. — French Naval Ordnance, 1910.
Official Designation
of Gun.
Calibre.
Weight of
Gun.
Weight of
Charge.
Weight of
Projectile.
Muzzle
Velocity.
Muzzle
Energy.
Perforation
of Wrought
Iron.
Rate of
firing
Rounds.
Propellanl.
305 mm.
274
240
194
1647 ..
Q.F. Guns —
i64'7 mm.
140 ,,
100 ,,
75
65
47
In.
1201
10-8
9-45
7-64
6-46
6-46
5-44
3-94
2-9
2-57
1-85
Tons.
34
23
12
8
8
4
lb.
ft.
750
562
375
190
115
"5
66
31
14
3-3
Ft. -Sees.
2870
2650
2870
2870
3000
2870
2625
2395
3116
2871
2871
Ft. -Tons.
42,890
27,186
21,445
10,890
7,185
6,568
3.153
1,232
943
503
188
In.
46-0
38-8
37-0
290
263
24-5
200
12-4
14-5
10-8
7-9
Per Minute.
1-5
1-5
2
5
6
6
12
12
15
Smokeless
B. Powder
Table X. — German Naval Ordnance.
Official Designation
ot Gun.
Calibre.
Weight of
Gun.
Weight of
Charge.
Weight of
Projectile.
Muzzle
Velocity.
M uzzle
Energy.
Perforation
of Wrought
Iron.
Rate of
firing
Rounds.
Propellant.
Q.F. Guns—
28 cm.
24
21 ,,
17
15
10-5 „
In.
1 1 02
9-45
8-2
6-7
5-9
4-13
3-42
1-97
Tons.
33-3
25-4
15-75
7-8
4-73
I 645
1-34
0236
ft.
88-2
49-5
43-1
19-83
7-27
4-85
0-66
ft.
529
309
242
132
88
38-35
23-6
3-86
Ft. -Sees.
2854
2740
2526
2887
2461
2297
2789
2165
Ft. -Tons.
29,878
16,086
10,707
7,629
3,696
1,403
1,273
125
In.
40- 2
310
26- 1
26-1
180
12-75
14-7
5-4
Per Minute.
3
5
7
8
10
II
Nitro-
Glycerine
powder
Note. — It is stated that the new German 28 cm. 50 calibre naval gun weighing 43-9 tons fires, with a charge of 291 ft, a projectile of
760 ft with a velocity of 2S71 f.s.
Table XI. — Italian Naval Ordnance, 1910.
Official Designation
of Gun.
Calibre.
Weight of
Gun.
Weight of
Charge.
Weight of
Projectile.
Muzzle
Velocity.
Muzzle
Energy.
Perforation
of Wrought
Iron.
Rate of
firing
Rounds.
Propellant.
343
305
254
203
152
120
76
57
47
In.
13-5
12
10
8
6
4-72
3-0
2-24
i-8l
Tons
67-9
51
30
19
5-7
2-1
0-6
0-4
ft.
187-
231-
85
57
17
5
2
6
5
17
1-05
0-67
ft.
1215
850
450
250
100
45
I2-:
6
3-.
Ft. -Sees
2067
2580
2461
2526
2296
2116
2296
2198
2330
Ft. -Tons.
36,050
39,220
19,000
1 1 ,060
3,655
1,397
457
201
124
In.
340
420
310
27-0
I7-0
II-4
8-5
6-3
5-8
Per Minute.
\ Strip
} Ballistite
Table XII
— Russian
Naval Ordnance, 19 10.
Official Designation
of Gun.
Calibre.
Weight of
Gun.
Weight of
Charge.
Weight of
Projectile.
Muzzle
Velocity.
Muzzle
Energy.
Perforation
of Wrought
Iron.
Rate of
firing
Rounds.
Propellant.
In.
Tons.
ft.
ft.
Ft.-Secs.
Ft.-Tons.
In.
Per Minute.
12 in.
12
59
■•
720
2600
33,730
39-0
\ Nitro-
\ Cellulose
10 „
10
32
d88
2550
22,003
34-0
8 „
8
14
87
188
2950
11,345
29-5
6 „
6
6-28
50-6
91-5
2118
2,849
14-4
9 pr-
4-2
0-87
4-88
27-75
1226
289
4-2
^r>^"
3-43
0-45
3-1
15-0
1451
219
4-6
Q.F. Guns —
i8-5
5'75
91-5
2502
3,970
4-7 „
4-72
2-95
15-4
45-0
2502
1,953
14-6
2-9 .,
0-87
3-53
10-8
2700
546
10-3
1-81 ,,
l-8l
0-323
3-3
2003
91-8
4-6
212
ORDNANCE
[HISTORY AND CONSTRUCTION
Table XIII. — Austrian Naval Ordnance, 1910.
Official Designation
of Gun.
Calibre.
Weight of
Gun.
Weight of
Charge.
Weight of
Projectile.
Muzzle
Velocity.
Muzzle
Energy.
Perforation
of Wrought
Iron.
Rate of
firing
Rounds.
Propellant.
30-5 cm
24
19
15
12
7
4-7
3-7
In.
12-01
9-45
7-5
5-91
4-72
2-75
1-85
I 46
Tons.
21-5
II-6
5-2
2-0
0-253
120-6
56
28-8
9-7
0-79
lb.
990
474
198
I 12-5
52-4
15-2
3-3
i-o
Ft. -Sees.
2625
2595
2700
2608
2264
237«
2329
2346
Ft.-Tons.
47,300
22,121
10,025
5,308
3.554
In.
46-0
34-5
27-3
22-0
13-7
10-4
5-H
Per Minute.
3
10
10
Table XIV. — Austrian Coast Artillery, 1910.
Official Designation
of Gun.
30-5 cm.
28
15
Calibr
In.
12-01
11-024
5-906
Weight of
Gun.
Tons.
38'
4-28
Weight of
Charge.
lb.
198-4
220
18-28
Weight of
Projectile.
ft.
981
760
100
Muzzle
Velocity.
Ft. -Sees.
2297
1722
2297
Muzzle
Energy.
Ft.-Tons.
35,86o
15.615
3.659
Perforation
of Wrought
Iron.
In.
37-8
22-5
17-2
Rate of
firing
Rounds.
Per Minute.
Propellant.
Tubular
Prism
Table XV. — United States Naval Guns, 1910.
Official Designation
of Gun.
Calibre.
Weight of
Gun.
Weight of
Charge.
Weight of
Projectile.
Muzzle
Velocity.
Muzzle
Energy.
Perforation
of Wrought
Iron.
Rate of
firing
Rounds.
Propellant.
13
12
10
8
7
6
5
4-7
4
3
6 pr.
3
In.
13
12
10
8
7
(,
5
4-72
4
3
2-24
I -81
Tons.
61-4
56-1
34-6
18-7
12-7
8-6
5
ft.
180
340
207-5
98-5
58
37
23-8
12-3
3-85
ft.
1 1 30
870
510
260
165
105
50
45
35
13
6
3
Ft. -Sees.
2000
2950
2700
2750
2700
2800
3150
2600
2800
2700
2240
2200
Ft.-Tons
31.333
52.483
25.772
13.630
8,340
8.710
3.439
2,110
1.794
657
209
100
In.
31-8
52
38
3I-I
25-9
23-5
21-1
15-5
i6-i
ii-o
6-6
5-4
Per Minute.
', Nitro-
cellulose
Table XWl.— United States Coast Defence Guns.
Official Designation
of Gun.
Calibre.
Weight of
Gun.
Weight of
Charge.
Weight of
Projectile.
Muzzle
Velocity.
Muzzle
Energy.
Perforation
of Wrought
Iron.
Rate of
firing
Rounds.
Propellant.
In.
Tons.
ft.
ft.
Ft.-Secs.
Ft.-Tons.
Ir
1.
Per
M
inute.
\ Nitro-
16 in.
16
.27
612
2400
2150
77,000
46
4
) Cellulose
14
14
50
59
280
1660
1046
2150
53.220
36,730
41
340
2250
37
10
10
34-3
205
604
2250
21,200
31
5
8
8
14-4
80
316
2200
10,600
24
■5
■ .mn
6
6
9-45
35
106
2600
4.970
21
5
5
4-96
20
58
2600
2,718
17
-2
■ ^
4-72 ,
4-72
2-75
10-5
45
2600
2,110
15
•5
4
4
I-bl
7-5
55
2300
1,210
12
-0
3
3
I -2
6-0
15
2600
704
I I
■25
2-24 ,
2-24
0-38
1-35
6
2400
240
7
■3
12 ,
mortar
12
13
.^54
1046
1 150
9,590
/ 62
824
1325
10,025
Table XVII.-
■Japanese Naval Ordnance, 1910.
Official Designation
of Gun.
Calibre.
Weight of
Gun.
Weight of
Charge.
Weight of
Projectile.
Muzzle
Velocity.
Muzzle
Perforation
Rate of
Propellant.
Energy.
Iron.
Rounds..
In.
T<jns.
lb.
ft.
Ft.-Secs.
Ft.-Tons.
In.
Per Minute.
12-5
12
66
QQO
2308
2800
36,500
46,200
37-3
47-2
MD. Cordite
59
305
850
2-0
10
34
166-5
500
2850
28,170
40-9
3-0
..■J
8
17-5
44
250
2740
13.015
30-3
2-0
6
/
35
100
2800
5.436
29-3
7-0
4-72
2-1
5-5
45
2188
1.494
12-0
8
i
3
0-6 .J.
1-94
12-5
2210
423
8-0
12
3
0-9 ^^
10-8
2716
553
10-2
2-24
0-4
0-5
6-0
1818
138
4-8
20
1-35
0-25
0-4
3-3
1873
80
4-25
20
Note. — The Japanese fleet has mainly been armed by Armstrong's Works, but the " Katori " was armed by Vickers', and those
ships taken from the Russians during the late war are armed with guns from Krupp or Obuchoff. Guns of all sizes are now,
however, being constructed in Japan, so that the country is no longer dependent on foreign factories.
HISTORY AND CONSTRUCTION]
ORDNANCE
213
Table XVIII. — Sir W. G. Armslrong, Whilworlh & Co.'s Guns. Abridged Table.
Official Designation
of Gun.
12 1
10 ,
9-2.
8 ,
7-5.
6 ,
4-7.
4 .
6 pr.
3 „
Calibre.
In,
12
10
9-2
8
7-5
e
4'7
4
2-24
1-85
Weight of
Gun.
Tons.
69
36
28
21
15-75
8-75
3-3
I
Weight of
Chyrgc.
11).
318
2(JO
138
90
7('
35-:
15
1 1
5-75
I -'3
•625
Weight of
Projectile.
lb.
850
500
38"
25"
200
100
45
31
•4-3
6
3-3
Muzzle
Velocity.
F't.-Sccs.
2960
3000
3030
3000
3000
3050
3000
3000
3050
2400
2300
Muzzle
Energy.
Ft. -Tons.
5 1. ''4"
33,318
24,190
15,600
12,481
6,492
2,8()«
1.934
922
240
121
Perforation
of Wrought
Iron.
Note. — The most powerful gun of each calibre has been selected.
Tadle XIX. — Vickers, Sons and Maxim's Guns. .Abridged Table.
In.
51-5
44-0
40-8
34-9
321
26-0
I9-I
173
13-9
7-3
5-7
Kate of
firing
Rounds.
Per Minute.
2
3
4
5
6
9
12
12
30
25
25
Propellant.
, Semi-
automatic
Official Designation
of Gun.
Caliljrc.
Weight of
Gun.
Weight of
Charge.
Weight of
Projectile.
Muzzle
Velocity.
Muzzle
Energy.
Perforation
of Wrought
Iron.
Rate of
tiring
Rounds.
Propellant.
12 1
10 ,
9-2,
8 ,
7-
6
4-
4
3
6
3
5..
7,.
It
pr.
In.
12
10
9-2
8
7-5
6
4-72
4
2-24
1-85
Tons.
65'85
27-85
27-8
14-15
i6-o
7-8
3-1
0-95
0-46
0-28
lb.
344
172
184
90
80-03
43
17
11-25
3-625
>-55
1'066
lb.
850
496-6
380
216-7
200
100
45-14
31
12-5
6
3-3
Ft. -Sees.
3010
2863
3070
3090
3007
3190
3050
3030
2700
2600
2800
Ft.-Tons.
53.400
28,225
24.835
14.35"
12.54"
7.056
2,gio
1.975
632
281
179-4
In.
53-0
41-0
41-3
33-9
32-3
27-9
18-5
17-6
10-8
8-2
7-5
Per Minute.
2
3
4
6
8
10
1 2
15
25
28
3"
\ Semi-
/ automatic
Note. — The most powerful gun of each calibre has been selected.
Table XX. — Kriipp's Naval and Coast-Defence Ordnance. Abridged from Table of Ordnance, IQ06.
Official Designation
of Gun.
30-5 cm.
28
24
21
19
17
15
12
10-5 „
,1
?.:
7-5
5-7
5-0
Calibre.
1.
01
02
45
27
48
7
91
72
13
3-54
2-95
2-24
1-97
Weight of
Gun.
Tons.
U7 I.
)52
\36
(40
i T>
?25
\ 15
/16
\ II
)I2
\ ^
I 9
\ 5
} 6
2
3
\ I
\ 2
2 \
4(
4\
93 /
45 \
20/
90 \
¥^
64 \
55 '.
48 \
5 (
18 S
92 }
13 \
28
45
74
84
325
367
220
248
Weight of
Charge.
lb.
357
276
173-6
115-2
86-2
64-6
41-7
21-72
14-55
7-72
7-94
4-48
4-61
1-96
2-03
1-32
Weight of
Projectile.
lb.
W71
/981
\ 595
?76o
\374
} 474
\ 249
'/ 308
\ i87'
1 235
\ 141
) 176
) 90
I 112
\ 46
) 59
i 30
I 39
25
\
Muzzle
Velocity.
Ft. -Sees.
3251 (
2884 \
3255 (
2881 J
3255 (
2894 \
3251 I.
2920 )
3241 /
2890 S
3238/
2897 S
3245 (
2910 \
3274 /
2887 \
3281 i
2897 \
3162 (
2812 \
3248!
2887 \
3165 (
2812 \
3251 1
2887 \
3156;
2808 \
3242 /
2884 s
3156
2814 \
3242 (
2890 \
Muzzle
Energy.
Ft.-Tons.
56,540
43.754
27.540
18,101
13.572
10,259
6,603
3.442
2,306
1.377
1.452
797
840
350
369
236
249
Perforation
of Wrought
Iron.
\ 52-0 /
? 49-0 5
In.
? 53-0
52-0
49-0
\ 44-5
I 42-0
\ 38-6
} 36-5
\ 35-0
i 33-1
532-0
) 30-3
\ 27-4
( 26-1
\ 22-2
} 20-8
\ 19-5
? 18-3
\ i6-o
? 15-0
\ 16-5
( 15-6
.\ '3-3
/ 12-6
^ 13-9
( 13-0
U0-.
I 9-5
\ lo-S
9-9
8-7
8-4
o-o
8-75
Rate of
firing
Rounds.
Per Minute.
2-3
2-3
3-4
4-5
5-6
6-7
6-8
15-20
20-25
25-3"
30-40
40-50
40-50
Propellant.
The explosive
for the
charges of
guns of 10-5
cm. and up
wards con-
tains 25 °o of
nitroglycerin
The explosive
for charges
of guns up
to 9-5 cm.
contains40°
nitroglycerin
Note. — The above table includes a light and heavy type of gun, but for each the length of bore is 50 calibres; in the unabridged
table guns of 40 and 45 calibres are included. The particulars of the shorter pieces can be easily obtained from Table XX., as the
214
ORDNANCE
[HISTORY AND CONSTRUCTION
construction of Krupp's complete table is based on very simple rules. Thus, for the same relative length of gun, the weight of the
projectile and of the charge are, with few exceptions, in proportion to the cube of the calibre. Again, the weight of the gun varies as
the cube of the calibre multiplied by the length. The muzzle velocity is practically identical for guns of the same relative length,
and varies as the square root of the length; consequently the muzzle energy varies directly as the length. ^ Two weights^ of projectile
are given for every gun, but the muzzle energy of each, for the same charge, is identical; this result is never the case in actual
practice. Similar arithmetical processes are utilized for the Schneider-Canet, Bofors and Skoda tables, and only the first named is
therefore given. ■ ' i ' ' .
Table KXl.— Schneider-Canet Gu}is. Abridged Table.
Official Designation
of Gun.
Calibre.
Weight of
Gun.
Weight of
Charge.
Weight of
Projectile.
Muzzle
Velocity.
Muzzle
Energy.
Perforation
of Wrought
Iron.
Rate of
liring
Rounds.
Propc-Uant.
305 mm.
274-4 ..
240
200
175
150
120
100
75
57
47
In.
12-01
IO-9
9-45
7-«7
6-89
5-91
4-72
3-94
2-95
2-24
1-85
Tons.
57-6
41-9
28-0
16-25
10-8
6-8
3-5
2-0
1-2
•55
•30
lb.
lb.
826
606
407
231
165
99
48
28-6
14-3
6-0
3-3
Ft. -Sees.
3ii6
3116
31 16
3116
3116
31 16
3116
3116
31 16
3116
31 16
Ft.-Tons.
55.717
40,859
27.487
15,601
II. 143
6,686
3,268
1,931
917
400
223
In.
54-8
49-1
43-2
35-9
32-1
27-0
21-0
17-8
14-6
10-7
8-9
Per Minute.
Note. — The unabridged table gives only 45 and 50 calibre guns; the above table gives the particulars for 50 calibre guns.
Table XXll.—Belhlehem Steel Co.'s Guns. Abridged Table.
Official Designation
of Gun.
Calibre.
Weight of
Gun.
Weight of
Charge.
Weight of
Projectile.
Muzzle
Velocity.
Muzzle
Energy.
Perforation
of Wrought
Iron.
Kilte of
firing
Rounds.
Propellant.
18
12
10
8
7
6
5
4-
4
3
2-
I-
In.
18
12
10
724.
24
85
5
4-724
4
3
2-24
1-85
Tons,
60
53
35
18
14
8
4
4
lb.
6
5
4
75
2
6
85
43
245
ft.
2000
850
500
250
165
105
60
45
33
13
6
3
Ft. -Sees.
2250
2800
2800
2800
2900
2900
2900
2900
2900
2800
2400
2600
Ft.-Tons
70,185
46,195
27.174
13,587
9,619
6,180
3,490
2,623
1,924
707
240
142
In.
42-7
47-4
39-8
31-5
28-8
24-9
20-5
18-3
17-0
II-7
7-3
6-4
Per Minute.
Note. — The most powerful gun of each calibre has been selected.
Modern naval artillery may be looked upon as the high water
mark of gun construction, and keeps pace with the latest
scientific improvements. For coast defence the latest pattern
of ordnance is not of the same importance; in general very
similar guns are employed, although perhaps of an older type.
Formerly in the British Service the heaviest guns have been
used for this purpose; but of late years, where fortifications
could be erected in suitable situations, the largest gun favoured
is the 9-2-in. of the latest model. Other governments have,
however, selected still heavier pieces up to 12-in. calibre, mounted
in heavily armoured cupolas or gunhouses.
As regards field material, mobility is still one of the primary
conditions, and, as high power is seldom required, ordnance of
medium calibre is all that is necessary. For siege purposes guns
of 4-in. to 6-in. calibre are generally sufficient, but howitzers up
to 28 cm. (11 -02 in.) were used at the siege of Port Arthur,
1904. All authorities seem agreed that for ordinary field guns
75 mm. or 3-in. calibre is the smallest which can be efficiently
employed for the purpose, and the muzzle velocity is in nearly
all equipments about 500 m.s. (1640 f.s.).
For mountain equipments all foreign governments have selected
a 75-millimetre gun with a velocity of about 350 m.s. (1148 f.s.);
in England, however, a 2-75-in. has been supplied to mountain
batteries; this fires a projectile of 10 lb with 1440 f.s.
Field Howitzer batteries abroad have pieces of from 10 to 12
centimetres calibre and a low velocity; in England a 5-in.
howitzer is at present used, but it is intended to adopt a
4-5-in. howitzer of 17 calibres in length for future manufacture.
Heavy shell power and long range fighting render the work of
the gun designer particularly difficult, especially when this is
combined with conditions restricting length and
Theory of .y^,gJgh^ . a.nd, in addition, other considerations,
especially for naval guns, may have to be taken into
account such as the allowable weight of the armament,
and the size of the gun house or turret. These and other similar
conditions are important factors in deciding on the type of design
gun
atakiag.
which embodies most advantages for a heavy gun intended for
the main armament. For land defence more latitude is allowed
so long as this is combined with economy. With both heavy and
medium naval guns the length is often limited to 45 calibres on
account of pectiliarities in the design of the vessel, but usually
great rapidity of fire, high velocity and large shell power are
insisted upon. Again for Q.F. field guns, where high velocity
is not of importance, ease of manipulation, rapidity of working
and reliability even after months of arduous service are essential.
Supposing, Tiowever, that the initial conditions, imposed by the
shipbiulder or by the exigency of the case, can be fulfilled, it
still remains to so design the gun that, when it is fired, there is
an ample margin of safety to meet the various stresses to which
the several portions of the structure are subject. The two
principal stresses requiring special attention are the circum-
ferential stress, which tends to burst open the gun longitudinally,
and the longitudinal stress. The calculation for the last named
is based on the supposition that the gun is a hollow cylinder, closed
at one end by the breech screw and at the other by the shot,
both being firmly fixed to the cylinder. The gas pressure exerts
its force on the face of the breech screw and on the base of the shot
thus tending to pull the walls of the cylinder asunder. But
besides these there is the special stress on the threads of the
breech screw which must receive very careful consideration.
Regard must also be had to the fact that in building up the
gun, the smaller the diameter of the hoop and the longer it is, the
higher must be the temperature to which it is heated before shrink-
ing. This is necessary in order that the dilatation may allow
sufficient clearance to place the hoop correctly in position on the
gun, without the possibility of its contracting and gripping before
being so placed. Should it warp while being heated or while
HISTORY AND CONSTRUCTION]
ORDNANCE
215
being placed in position the hoop may prematurely grip on the
gun and may consequently have to be sacrificed by cutting it off
and shrinking on another.
The dilatation must be so adjusted that the required tempera-
ture to obtain it is not higher than that used for annealing
the forging, otherwise the effect of this annealing will be modified.
There is, therefore, for this reason, considerable risk in shrinking
up long hoops of small diameter.
Before heating hoops of large diameter two or three narrow
reference bands are turned on the exterior and their diameter
measured; special gauges are prepared to measure these plus
the dilatation required. After heating the hoop but before
shrinking it, the diameter of the reference bands when tested by
these gauges should not be in excess of them. The temperature
can then be easily ascertained by dividing the dilatation by the
coefficient of expansion of steel per degree F. or C, taking of
course the diameter into account.
For small hoops this method is not convenient, as the hoop
cools too quickly; the dilatation must then be obtained by
ascertaining the temperature, and this is best done by the use
of some form of pyrometer, such as a Siemens water pyrometer,
before the hoop is withdrawn from the furnace.
It may also be desired to obtain a given striking energy or
velocity at some definite range — then, the weight of the pro-
jectile being decided upon, the muzzle velocity is found from
the formulas (see Ballistics) given in Exterior Ballistics. From
this and the length of the gun allowable the designer has, with
the aid of former experience and the formulas given in Internal
Ballistics, to decide on the weight and nature of the powder
charge necessary and the internal dimensions of the powder
chamber and bore. These data are used to plot what is termed
a " gunmakers' curve," i.e. the curve of pressures along the bore
which the powder charge decided upon will give. The factor of
safety and the maximum allowable stress of the steel forgings
or steel wire also being known, the necessary strength of each
section of the gun can be easily found and it remains to so
proportion each part as to conform to these conditions and to
meet certain others, such as facilities for manufacture, which
experience only can determine.
When the second course consists of a single long tube into
which a tapered barrel is driven, as in the system adopted by the
Enghsh government, the two tubes are treated as a single tube
equal in thickness to the two together; but when the second
course consists of several tubes shrunk on to the barrel the addi-
tional strength, obtained by the initial tension of the shrunk
tubes, is sometimes taken account of in the calculation, or the
two may be treated as one thick tube.
The gunmakers' formulas for the strength of the gun are ob-
tained from considering the strength of a thick cyHnder exposed
to unequal internal and external pressures. Supposing
a transverse section of the gun to cut through n tubes,
the internal radius of the barrel is r,, in., the external
radius ri in., the external radius of the second course
is ra and so on; and the external radius of the jacket is r„.
Then if_T = a circumferential stress (tension) in tons per
square inch, Tn = a circumferential stress at radius r„
in., P = a radial stress (pressure) in tons per square
inch, and P„ = a radial stress at radius r„ in., the
formulas used in the calculation of the strength of built-
up guns are as follows: —
P„-ir„_i^-P„r„' , r„_,V„= P„_,-P„
consider that the proof tension of the barrel should not exceed 15
Ions and of the outer hoops 18 tons per square inch; with nickel
gun steel these become 20 tons and 24 tons respectively. If the
h"" hoop is the exterior tube then P„ = o; neglecting the atmospheric
pressure.
In all gun calculations for strength three cases must be con-
sidered :
(a) When the built-up gun is fired, the stress is called the Firing
Stress and is obtained by the repeated use of equation (4J ;
(6) When the gun, supposed to be a solid homogeneous block of
metal is fired, the stress is termed the Powder Stress and
is obtamed from the equations (i) and {2);
(c) When the built-up gun is in repose, the stress is then called
the Initial Stress or Stress of Repose.
Between these three cases the following relations hold: —
Initial Stress + Powder Stress = Firing Stress (5).
It is best to use different symbols to distinguish each kind of
stress. We will use for the Firing Stress P, T; for Powder Stress
p, t; and for the Initial Stress (p), (/).
The method of working will be illustrated by a practical example.
Take, for instance, a section across the chamber of a 4-7-in. Q.F.
gun, for which the diameter of the chamber is 5 in., that of the
barrel 8-2 in., and the external diameter of the jacket 15 in.
Here r„ = 2-5; r, = 4-i ; ^2 = 7-5
To=i5; T, = i8; P2 = o.
From (4) for the Firing Stress
Pi = (_ .« I Q.j\2Xl8 = 9-72 tons per square inch.
Po =
(4-1)'- (2-5)'
( ,.i)2 I /2.r)jX(i54-9-72)+9-72 = 2i tons per square inch.
From (3) the tension T'„ of the outer fibres of the hoops is obtained ;
thus
T'2 = P2+Ti-Pi = i8-9-72 = 8-28 tons per square inch.
T'i = Pi+To-Po = 9-72-f 15-21 =3-72 tons per square inch.
For any intermediate radius r the stress can be found by using
equations (l) and (2) or (l) or (2) and (3).
For the Powder Stress equations (i) and (2) are used by putting
H = I, and then pi = o (also remembering that, as there are two
hoops, the outer radius must be written r^) ; the formulas become
,_roW-|-/-2
'-.2 .,!_,,.2P0
^=;^
ivrr — r
2P0
(6)
(7).
When r = ro = 2-5, / = /o, />o = Po already found and:
to--
(7-5)' + (2-5)'
X21 =26-25 tons.
"(7-5)^-(2^^'^^'-'""-3
For the tension of the fibres at the outer circumference
/'2 = 26-25 -21 =5-25 tons,
from (3) and for a radius ''2 = 7-5 inches.
The stress for any intermediate radius r can be obtained from
(6) and (7) or, from (6) or {7) and (3).
Subtracting the Powder Stress from the Firing Stress the Initial
Stress is obtained, and the various results can be tabulated as
follows ; —
At Radius.
Tensions.
Pressures.
Firing
Stress.
Powder
Stress.
Initial
Stress.
Firing
Stress.
Powder
Stress.
Initial
Stress.
Barrel ) ^I^.-f
Jacket);;,:^;'
15-0
3-72
18-0
8-28
26-25
11-57
11-57
5-25
-11-25
- 7-85
6-43
3 -"3
21-0
9-72
9-72
21-0
6-32
6-32
3-4
3-4
T = -
r„.
i'r„'
-rn-i'
P„-,-P„
P„-
r„' — r„_i'
-r-P„r,r
r- r„--r^,'- ?-„"-r„_,-^
where r is any intermediate radius in the thickness of a tube
T„-P„ = T-P
(I)
(2).
(3)
in the same tube; also the pressure between the (b-i)"' and «"'
hoops is
P"-i=^-4^^(T^. + P.)+P» (4).
Equation (4) is usually known as the Gunmakers' formula and
from It, when P, and T„_,, T„_2 - . . are known the other pressures
can be found. The proof tension of the material is kept well below
the yielding stress. For ordinary carbon gun steel it is usual to
It is generally stipulated that the initial compression of the
material at the interior surface of the barrel shall not exceed
26 tons per square inch, i.e. (to) =-26 tons; in the example above
(/o) =-11-25 tons only, but in wire-wound guns special attention
to this condition is necessary.
It now remains for the designer so to dimension the several
hoops that they shall, when shrunk together, give the stresses
found by calculation. To do this the exterior diameter of the
barrel must be a little larger than the interior diameter of the
covering hoop; after this hoop is shrunk on to the barrel its
exterior diameter is turned in a lathe so that it is slightly larger
than the interior of the next course hoop and so on. It will be
seen that the fibres of the barrel must be compressed while the
fibres of the superimposed hoop are extended, and thus produce
the Initial Stress. The shrinkage S may be defined as the excess
of the external diameter of the tube over the internal diameter of
the hoop, when separate and both are in the cold state. Then
2l6
ORDNANCE
[HISTORY AND CONSTRUCTION
ii „S„+i denotes the shrinkage between the h'* and (h + i)"'
hoops .
= M [^'"^ - (^-i) + ^j+|:j:; k'->) +(/>.) i] (9).
Here M can be taken as 12,500 tons per square inch for
gun steel. In the e.xample already calculated the shrinkage
between the jacket and barrel is 0-009 in.
12,500 L
6-43+11-25 +
(4-i)'-(:
-5)'
(-11-25
+3-4)]
struction,
Wire
guns.
(4-i)= + (2-5)^
= 0-009 'f-
In that portion of the gun in which wire is used in the con-
exactly the same principles are involved. It may be
assumed that the tube on which the wire is wound is so
large, in comparison to the thickness of the wire, that
the compression of the concave surface of the wire and
the extension of its convex surface may be neglected without
sensible error.
The greatest advantage is obtained from the wire coils when
in the Firing Stress the tension T is uniform throughout the thick-
ness of the wiring. The Firing Stress T in the wire may be as low
as 25 tons per square inch and as high as 50 tons, but as the yielding
strength of the wire is never less than 80 tons per square inch nor
its breaking strength less than 90 tons, there is still an ample
margin especially when it is remembered that the factor of safety
is included in the calculation.
If the wire is wound direct on to the barrel and is covered by a
jacket, ro, ri being the radii in inches of the barrel, r,, r^ the radii
of the internal and external layers of wire, and ^2, rj the radii of the
jacket; then for the Firing Stress in the wire
T{r,-r)=Pr-P,n (9),
or ; , -
,,, ,,,.; ■,j,T(r-n)=Pin-Pr (10).
By combining these the gunmakers' formula for the wire is obtained
.-Vt Radius.
Tensions.
Pressures.
Firing
Stress.
Powder
Stress.
Initial
Stress.
Firing
Stress.
Powder
Stress.
Initial
Stress.
Jacket )!:= = 5-5
0-6
-5-4
25-0
25-0
7-5
5-25
26-25
13-125
13-125
7-5
7-5
5-25
-25-65
-18-525
11-S75
17-5
21-0
15-0
15-0
2-25
2-25
21-0
7-875
7-«75
2-25
2-25
7-125
7-125
Px=^(T + P,)+P2
(10a).
As T is to be uniform, when the gun is fired, the Initial Tensions
of the wire are arranged accordingly, and the tensions at which the
wire must be wound on to the guns have now to be determined.
Let 9 = the winding tension at radius r in.
(() =the initial tension at radius r in.
ip) = the radial pressure between any two layers of wire at
radius r in.
M is uniform for
It is assumed
Then
where
that
the
gun
«=(o+(wSS
steel and wire.
(II).
nr r,- +r'
and
By means
becomes
where
of
(o=T-p;
^'^' r- r-^ — r^
these two equations and (9)
r r — ror + rt,
(12),
(13)-
the expression (11 J
(14).
E = -(T+P-)r2
F = (T + P.2)r.-(T+Po)ro
G = (T+P2)r2 + (T + Po)r„.
To compare with the previous example, the stress for a '4-7-in.
Q.F. wire gun will be calculated. This consists of a barrel, inter-
mediate layer of wire and jacket.
Here ro = 2-5; ri=3-75; ''2 = 5-5; '■3 = 7-5 inches; the firing tension
Ti to T'2 of the wire = 25 tons per square inch, suppose.
Take Pc = 2i tons per square inch and consider that the jacket
fits tightly over the wire, but has no shrinkage. Then for the
Firing Stress, from (2), Pj = 2-25 tons,
and from (9) and (10), Ti(r2-ri) = Piri-P2'-2
Pi = 14-97, say 15 tons;
from (4) we can obtain To and T2 since Po, Pi and Pj are known;
from (3) To = 0-6 tons. T2 = 7-5 tons.
T'2 =-5-4 tons (a compression),
and
T3 = 5-25 tons.
The Powder Stress is obtained in the same way as in the previous
example, so also is the Initial Stress; therefore we may tabulate as
follows: —
As the wire is wound on, the pressure of the external layers will
compress those on the interior, thus producing an extension in the
wire which is equivalent to a reduction in the winding tension B
of the particular layer at radius r considered. If t represents this
reduction then
where
-{0-r,
'— 5 iip)
At the interior layer of wire t is the initial stress on the exterior
of the barrel and the winding tension must commence at
$= 11-875 + 18-525 = 30-4 tons per square inch.
As the jacket is supposed to have no shrinkage T=o and con-
sequently
6 = (/) = 1 7 - 5 tons per square inch.
These winding tensions can be found directly from formula (14)
and then
£=-149-875; F=34-875; = 264-875.
Sir G. Greenhill has put these formulas, both for the built-up and
wire-wound guns, into an extremely neat and practical geometrical
form, which can be used instead of the arithmetical processes; for
these see Text-Book of Gunnery, Treatise of Service Ordnance, 1893,
and Journal of the United States Artillery, vol. iv.
The longitudinal strength of the gun is very important especially
at the breech end ; along the forward portion of the gun the thickness
of the barrel and the interlocking of the covering hoops
provide ample strength, but at the breech special pro-
vision must be made. It is usual to provide for this by
means of a strong breech piece or jacket in small guns or
by both combined in large ones. Its amount is easily calculated on
the hypothesis that the stress is uniformly distributed throughout
the thickness of the breech piece, or jacket, or of both. If ro is the
largest radius of the gun chamber, roi the radius of the obturator
seating, ri the external radius of the barrel, and Po the maximum
powder pressure, then, with the usual form of chamber adopted with
guns fitted with obturation other than cartridge cases, there will be
a longitudinal stress on the barrel at the breech end of the chamber
due to the action of the pressure Po on 'the rear slope of the chamber,
of
Loagl:
tudinal
stress.
-(ro' — '•or)Po tons
this is resisted by the barrel of section --
4
sistance
{r,--ro-) so that the re-
R =
ro'
-roi'
Po tons.
ri' — ro-
This portion of the longitudinal stress is not of great importance
as the breech end of the barrel is supported in all modern designs
by the breech bush. In Q.F. guns, i.e. those firing cartridge cases,
the breech end of the chamber has the largest diameter, and ro-roi
so that there is no longitudinal stress on the chamber part of the barrel.
For the breech piece or outer tube of radii ri and ri, the resistance
R =
rr — ri
r<.?
,Po tons for B.L.
Po tons in Q.F. guns.
'•2'-'-l'
If the longitudinal stress is taken by a jacket only, the resistance
is found in the same way.
Generally for ordinary gun steel, the longitudinal stress on the
material is always kept below 10 tons per square inch or 13 tons for
nickel steel; but even with these low figures there is also included a
factor of safety of 1-5 to 2. In large guns it is best to consider the
jacket as an auxiliary aid only to longitudinal resistance, as, owing
to the necessary connexions between it and the breech bush and its
distance from the centre of pressure, there is a possibility that it
may not be taking its proportionate share of the stress.
The thread of the breech screw and of the breech bush (or opening)
must be so proportioned as to sustain the full pressure on the maxi-
mum obturator area; V or buttress shaped threads are always used
as they are stronger than other forms, but V threads have the great
advantage of centring the breech screw when under pressure.^
In most modern B.L. guns fitted with de Bange obturation the
HISTORY AND CONSTRUCTION
ORDNANCE
diameter of the seating is made just large enough to freely admit
the projectile; this is usually considerably smaller than the maximum
diameter of the chamber, consequently a less area is exposed to the
gas pressure and less screw thread section is required.
The principal features of the various systems of construction of
modern heavy guns may be briefly described.
CO
es
u
M
1
bj
t-
v>
>
CO
1
o
V
Z
u
ce
L.
\
1
" l
u
2 ^
Oj
^'
lO
o
(0
■
^Wii
^
CN
i=i
I
Figs. 55-57. — British, French and American Construction.
Fig. 55 is that adopted in England. The barrel or " inner A
tube " is surmounted by a second layer which is either shrunk on
in two or three pieces, as at Elswick, or is formed of one
Systems of ^^^^ piece called the "A tube," as in the VVoolwich
cons rue- gygje,^ This second layer is covered with wire, and
" ■ over this is shrunk the chase hoop or B tube and the
jacket. The breech bush is screwed into the rear end of the A tube
so that the principal longitudinal stress is taken by this tube.
Fig. 56 is the system adopted in the French service. In this the
barrel is surmounted over the breech end with two layers of short
thin hoops, which consequently approximate to the wire system.
Over the muzzle end two or three long tubes are shrunk; the chase-
hoop is also screwed to the barrel near the muzzle. A jacket is
shrunk over the breech portion of the gun, and the breech bush is
screwed into it at the rear end. The gun is further strengthened by
a long tube in front of the jacket to which it is attached by a screwed
collar.
Fig. 57 shows the design adopted for the United States navy.
Here the barrel is surmounted by a second course in two lengths,
and over the breech a third and fourth layer are shrunk. The
breech screw is screwed into the rear end of the second course.
F"ig. 58 is the Krupp system, of which, however, it is an old example;
it is believed, however, that Krupp still retains the essential pecu-
liarities of this design, viz. that over the breech end of the barrel is
shrunk a solid breech piece, made particularly massive in rear
where the breech wedge is seated. The remainder of the layers
consist of hoops which are comparatively short but may be covered
with longer thin tubes.
^se
32-2
Fig. 58. — Krupp Construction.
When guns are fired, the interior surface is gradually worn away
by the action of the powder gases; the breech end of the rifled
portion of the bore becomes enlarged, and the rifling „
itself partly obliterated. The ballistics suffer in conse- ros oa.
quence of the enlarged diameter of the bore, and the rifling may
be worn so much as not to properly rotate the projectile.
In all modern gun designs provision has, therefore, to be made
for repairing or replacing the barrel when it is worn out. There are
two methods of providing for the repair in the original design — the
first is by replacing the whole of the barrel by an entirely new one;
the second is to make the original barrel thick so that when it is
worn the interior can be bored out, either over a portion of its length
to cover the eroded part, or the full length for " through lining."
In large guns it is usual to make the original barrel, if it is intended
to be removed as a whole, tapered from end to end, so that by warming
the gun in a vertical position breech downwards to about 300° F.
and then suddenly cooling the barrel by a jet of water it can be
knocked out by heavy blows from a falling weight. A new tapered
barrel can then be inserted by driving it in. When a gun which had
originally a thick barrel is lined part of the barrel is bored out in a
machine, and it is usual to make the hole tapered so that a new
tapered liner can be inserted and driven home.
The wearing of the barrel owing to erosion is one of the mo.st
difficult problems the gun constructor has to face. Sir Andrew Noble
(see "Some Modern Explosives," a paper read at the Royal Institution,
1900, also " Researches on Explosives," part iii., Phil. Trans. Roy.
Soc.) has conclusively proved that the erosion is mainly dependent
on the very high temperature to which the interior surface of the
gun is raised and on the quantity of this heat. Both these factors
are, for any particular explosive, determined by some function of
the proportion of the weight of the charge to the extent of the
exposed surface. The passage for the products of combustion
gradually reduces from the maximum diameter of the chamber to
the diameter of the bore. The highly heated gases therefore impinge
more directly on that part of the bore which forms the seating for
the shot and acts on it for the longest time, i.e. for the whole time
the shot is in the gun. Consequently this part suflfers most wear.
It may be assumed that the weights of the charges vary as the
cube of the diameters of the bore, while the circumference of the
bore varies directly as the calibre; now as the wear depends princi-
pally on the weight of the charge in relation to the exposed surface
at the shot seating it varies as the square of the calibre. It is
evident too that the allowable wear will vary as the calibre, so that
the life of the gun or the number of rounds which can be fired is
inversely proportionate to the calibre.
The heat of combustion and the time of burning of the explosive
are factors in determining the amount of heat developed per unit
of time, and thus influence the proportion of heat conducted away
from the interior surface of the gun. The time of burning of the
explosive depends on the size and form of the explosive and on
the density of loading, while the heat of combustion depends on its
composition and cannot be treated of here, but it may be stated
generally that for equal weights Ballistite is more erosive than
Cordite Mark I., and Cordite Mark I. than Cordite M.D. All of
these explosives contain a fairly large proportion of nitro-glycerine,
and it is found that as the proportion of this ingredient is reduced
the erosion also decreases, so that for pure nitro-ccllulose powders
it is less still. Unfortunately pure nitro-cellulose powders are not
ballistically equal to the same weight of nitroglycerin powder;
the advantage of the less erosive action is lost owing to the greater
weight of pure nitro-cellulose explosive required to obtain the same
ballistics. _ . .
The effect of erosion on large high-power guns is serious, for m a
2l8
ORDNANCE
[FIELD ARTILLERY EQUIPMENTS
i2-in. gun after some 150 or fewer rounds are fired with a full charge
the barrel is worn so much as to need replacing. In the British
service it is considered that the wear produced by firing sixteen half
charges is equivalent to that of one full charge.
In small high-velocity guns the number of rounds with full charge
which can be fired without replacing the barrel is considerably greater;
while for low-velocity guns the number is higher still. In some guns
this number appears abnormally high; in others of exactly similar
type it may be low and for no apparent reason.
The first effect of the powder gases on the steel is a very charac-
teristic hardening of the surface of the whole of the bore; so much
is this the case that it is difficult to carry out any mechanical opera-
tion, except grinding, after a gun has been fired. When ignited the
explosive contained in the chamber of the gun burns fiercely, and as
the projectile travels along the bore the highly heated gases follow.
The surface of the bore near the chamber is naturally the most
highly heated and for the longest time; here too the rush of gas is
greatest. There is in consequence a film of steel swept off from the
surface, but this becomes less as the distance from the chamber
becomes greater, owing to the abstraction of heat by the bore. It
is a noticeable fact that only where a decided movement of gas
takes place is there any erosion : thus, towards the breech end of
the chamber where no rush of gas occurs there is no perceptible
erosion, even after many rounds have been fired. Again, at the
muzzle end there is very little erosion, as here the gases are in
contact with the bore for a minute fraction of time.
As the firing proceeds, the interior surface of the bore, where the
erosion is greatest, becomes covered with a network of very fine
cracks running both longitudinally and circumferentially. The
sides of these cracks in their turn become eroded and gradually
fissures are formed. With the old black and brown powders these
fissures were a feature of the erosion, while with the new type
smokeless powders the eroded surface is usually smooth, and it is
only after prolonged firing that fissures occur although fine cracks
occur after a comparatively few rounds have been fired.
Bibliography. — English: Nye, The Art of Gunnery (1670);
Norton, The Gunner, showing the whole Practice of Artillerie (London,
1628); Sir Jonas Moore, Treatise of Artillery (London, 1683);
Robins, New Principles of Gunnery (London, 1742); Hutton, Tracts
(London, 1812) ; Sir Howard Douglas, R.A., Naval Gunnery (London,
1855); Mallet, Construction of Artillery (London, 1856); Boxer,
Treatise on Artillery (London, 1856); Owen, Modern Artillery
(London, 1871); Text-Book Rifled Ordnance (London, 1877);
Treatise on Construction of Ordnance (London, 1879); Lloyd and
Hadcock, Artillery: its Progress and Present Position (Portsmouth,
1893); Treatise on Service Ordnance (London, 1893-1904); Catalogue
of Museum of Artillery in the Rotunda (Woolwich, 1906); Sir
.\ndrew Noble, Artillery and Explosives (1906); Brassey, Naval
Annual. United States: A. L. HoUey, Ordnance and Armour
(New York, 1865); E. Simpson, Ordnance and Naval Gunnery (New
York, 1862); Resistance of Guns to Tangential Rupture (Washington,
1892); Annual Reports of Chief of Ordnance; Fullam and Hart,
Text-Book of Ordnance and Gunnery (Annapolis, 1905) ; O. M. Lissak,
Ordnance and Gunnery (New York, 1907). French: Jacob, Resist-
ance et construction des houches i feu (Paris, 1909); De Lagabbe,
Materiel d'artillerie (Paris, 1903); Manuel du canonnier (1907);
Alvin, Lemons sur I'artillerie (Paris, 1908). German and Austrian:
Kaiser, Konstruktion der gezogenen Geschiitzrohre (Vienna, 1900) ;
Indra, Die wahre Gestalt der Spannungskurve (Vienna, _I90I)-
Italian: Tartaglia, La Nuova Scienta (Venice, 1562); Bianchi,
Materiale d'artiglieria (Turin, 1905). (A. G. H.)
II. Field Artillery Equipments
General Principles. — A field gun may be considered as a
machine for delivering shrapnel bullets and high-explosive shell
at a given distant point. The power of the machine is Hmitcd
by its weight, and this is limited by the load which a team of
six horses is able to pull at a trot on the road and across open
country. For under these conditions it is found that six is the
maximum number of horses which can work in one team without
loss of eflliciency. The most suitable load for a gun-team is
variously estimt^ted by different nations, according to the size
of the horses available and to the nature of the country in the
probable theatre of war. Thus in England the field artillery
load is fixed at 43 cwt. behind the traces; France, 42-5 cwt.,
Germany 41-5 cwt., and Japan (1903) 30 cwt. This load consists
of the gun with carriage and shield, the limber with ammunition
and entrenching tools, and the gunners with their kits and
accoutrements. The weights may be variously distributed, sub-
ject to the condition that for ease of draught the weight on the
gun wheels must not greatly exceed that on the limber wheels.
It is still usual to carry two gunners on seats on the gun axletree,
and two on the limber. But a Q.F. gun capable of firing 20
rounds a minute requires to be constantly accompanied by an
ammunition wagon, and the modern tendency is to take advant-
age of this to carry some of the gunners on the wagon. Thus in
the British field artillery two gunners are carried on the gun
limber, two on the wagon limber, one on the wagon body and
none on the gun. These five gunners, with the sergeant, called
the No. I, on his horse, make a full gun-detachment. Three
wagons for each gun usually are provided, two of which, with the
spare gunners and non-commissioned officers, are posted under
cover at some distance behind the battery. Besides lightening
the weight on the gun, the presence of the wagon allows the
number of rounds in the limber to be reduced. The result of
this redistribution of weights is that field artillery may now be
equipped with a much heavier and more powerful gun than was
formerly the case. A gun weighing 24 cwt. in action is about as
heavy as a detachment of six can man-handle. 1
The power of a field gun is measured by its muzzle energy, '
which is proportional to the weight of the shell multiplied by the
square of its velocity. The muzzle energy varies in different
equipments from 230 to 380 foot-tons. Details of the power,
weight and dimensions of the guns of the principal military ■
nations are given in Table A. 1
.\ gun of given weight and power may fire a heavy shell with
a low velocity, or a Ught shell with a high velocity. High velocity
is the gunner's ideal, for it implies a flat trajectory and a small
angle of descent. The bullets when blown forward out of the
shrapnel fly at first almost parallel to the surface of the ground,
covering at medium ranges a depth of some 350 yards, as against
half that distance for a low-velocity gun. Under modern j
tactical conditions a deep zone of shrapnel effect is most desirable. '
On the other hand, for a given power of gun, flatness of trajectory
means a corresponding reduction in the weight of the shell;
that is, in the number of shrapnel bullets discharged per minute.
We have accordingly to compromise between high velocity
and great shell power. Thus the British field gun fires an 185 lb
shell with muzzle velocity of 1590 ft. per second, while the French J
gun, which is practically of the same power, fires a 16 lb shell with |
M.V. of 1740 f.s. Again, a shell of given weight may be fired
either from a large-bore gun or from a small-bore gun; in the
latter case the length of the shell will be proportionately increased.
The small-bore gun is naturally the lighter of the two. But the
longer the shell the thicker must its walls be, in order not to
break up or collapse in the gun. The shorter the shell, the
higher is the percentage of useful weight, consisting of powder
and bullets, which it contains. We must, therefore, compromise
between these antagonistic conditions, and select the cahbre
which gives the maximum useful weight of projectiles for a given
weight of equipment. In practice it is found that a calibre of
3 in. is best suited to a shell weighing 15 lb; and that, starting
with this ratio, the calibre should vary as the cube root of the
weight of the shell.
As to rifling, the relative advantages of uniform and increasing
twist are disputed. The British field guns are rifled with uniform
twist, but the balance of European opinion is in favour of a
twist increasing from i turn in 50 calibres at the breech to i in 25
at the muzzle. Mathematically, the development of the groove
is a parabola.
For field guns the favourite breech actions are the interrupted
screw and the wedge. The latter is simpler, but affords a less
powerful extractor for throwing out the empty cartridge case.
This point is of importance, since cartridge cases hastily manu-
factured in war time might not all be true to gauge. Modern
guns have percussion locks, in which a striker impinges upon a
cap in the base of the metallic cartridge. All Q.F. guns have
repeating trip-locks. In these, when the firing-lever or lanyard
is pulled, the striker is first drawn back and then released, allow-
ing it to fly forward against the cap. The gun is usually fired
by the gun-layer; it is found that he lays more steadily if he
knows that the gun cannot go off tiU he is ready. A field gun
has to be sighted (see Sights) for laying {a) by direct vision
ih) by clinometer and aiming-point (see Artillery). The first
purpose is served by the ordinary and telescopic sights; the
second by the goniometric sight or the panorama sight. The
FIELD ARTILLERY EQUIPMENTS]
ORDNANCE
219
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ORDNANCE
[FIELD ARTILLERY EQUIPMENTS
independent line of sight is an arrangement of sights and elevating
gear found in many modern field guns, which divides between
two gunners the worl^ of aiming (called laying) the gun, and of
giving it the elevation required to hit the target.
In fig. 50 the gun is shown mounted on an intermediate
carriage elevated and depressed by the screw A. The telescopic
From Bethell's Modern Guns and Gunnr-ry.
Fig. 59. — Diagram illustrating the independent line of sight.
or ordinary sight is fixed to this carriage. The gun, in its cradle,
is elevated and depressed by the screw B. To lay the gun, the
layer works the laying screw A till the telescope points at the
target; the gun also, if no elevation has been given, is then
pointing straight at the target. To give the gun the elevation
necessary for the range, the elevating number on the right of
the gun now works the elevating screw B till the gun is sufficiently
elevated, the amount given being shown in yards of range on
a drum. The motion given to the gun does not disturb the
intermediate carriage with the telescope attached to it, and the
telescope still remains layed on the target. Once the sights are
layed on the target, the elevation of the gun may be changed
in a moment by a turn of the elevating wheel, without disturbing
the laying. The layer does not have to concern himself about the
elevation; he has only to keep his sights on the target while
the other numbers continue the service of the gun. This device
is especially valuable when firing at moving targets, when the
range and the laying have to be altered simultaneously.
The same result may also be obtained by other mechanical
devices without the use of the intermediate carriage. Thus the
British field guns have a long elevating screw with the sight
connected to its centre, the lower end passing through a nut at the
side of the upper carriage, the upper end through a nut at the
side of the cradle. Then, if the lower nut be turned by the
laying wheel, the screw, the sight and the gun will go up or down
together; if the upper nut be turned by the elevating wheel, the
gun wiU go up or down the screw without moving the sights.
Colonel Scott's " automatic " line of sight is an improvement
on the ordinary gear in that the sight can be cross-levelled to
eliminate the error due to difference of level of wheels. Krupp
has a similar device in which the sight-socket is on the cradle so
that it can be cross-levelled. The sight itself is connected to the
elevating gear, and is screwed out of its socket as the breech
of the gun is depressed, so that the sight remains in the same
place.
Construction of the Gun. — Field guns are made of steel, usually
containing a small percentage of nickel or chromium, or both, and
having a tensile breaking strain of about 50 tons per square inch.
In Austria, for facility of local manufacture, hard-drawn bronze is
still used, although this is considerably heavier than steel.
The Carriage (see Artillery, Plate I.). — The first field guns
used in war were supported by crossed stakes under the muzzle and
anchored by a spike on the breech which penetrated into the
ground. The next improvement was to mount the gun on a sleigh.
This method is still used in Norway and in Canada. The next step
was to mount the gun on a two-wheeled carriage, connected to a
second two-wheeled carriage (the limber) by a flexible coupling.
For centuries the gun-carriage was a rigid construction, recoiling on
firing, and having to be run up by hand after each round. In 1895
spring-spade equipments were introduced. In these a spade attached
to a helical spring was set under the carriage; on discharge the
spade dug into the ground, compressing the spring as the carriage
recoiled. The extension of the spring ran the gun up again without
assistance from the gunners.
The British 15 pr. used in the South African War (1899-1902)
had a spring spade carriage designed by Sir George Clarke. Similar
equipments were introduced by several continental powers. The
Japanese gun used in Manchuria (1904) had dragshoes attached by
wire ropes passing round drums on the wheels to a strong spring in
the trail. On recoil the wheels revolved backwards, compressing
the spring; after recoil the pull of the spring on the wire ropes
revolved the wheels forward and returned the gun to its former
position. The Italian 1902 semi-Q.F. carriage was constructed on a
very similar principle. All these semi-Q.F. equipments were open
to the objection that the gunners had to stand clear of the shield
every time the gun was fired. They have since been superseded
by Q.F. gun-recoil equipments.
The gun-carriage must be strong enough to carry the gun across
country, and it must be so constructed as not to move when the
gun is fired. If the gun-carriage were allowed to recoil to the rear
on discharge, the gunners would have to stand clear on firing,
abandoning the protection of the shield, and, moreover, the loss of
time entailed by running up and relaying the gun would render the
fire slow. The requirement of steadiness of the carriage is met by
allowing the gun itself to recoil on its carriage. Its motion is gradu-
ally checked by the hydraulic buffer (see below) and the gun is
returned to the firing position by helical springs, or, in the French,
Spanish and Portuguese equipments, by compressed air. The
carriage is held from recoiling by a spade fixed to the point of the
trail, which digs into the earth on discharge, and (usually) by
brakes on the wheels. This is known as the gun-recoil system, and
is now universally adopted. Field guns constructed on this principle
are styled Q.F., or quick-firing, guns.
Steadiness of Carriage. — In the gun-recoil equipment the con-
structional difficulty lies not in preventing the carriage from re-
coiling but in preventing the wheels from rising off the ground on
the shock of discharge. The force of recoil of the gun, acting in the
hne of motion of the centre of gravity of the recoiling parts, tends to
turn the carriage over backwards about the point of the trail, or,
more correctly, about the centre of the spade. This force is resisted
by the weight of the gun and carriage, which tends to keep the
wheels on the ground. The leverage with which the overturning force
acts is that due to the distance of its line of motion above the centre
of the spade; the leverage with which the steadying force acts is
that due to the horizontal distance of the centre of gravity of the
gun and carriage from the centre of the spade. If the force of recoil
be 6 ft. -tons, and if it be absorbed during a recoil of 3 ft., the average
overturning force is 2 tons; since the weight of the gun in action
may not greatly exceed I ton, the trail must be so long as to give a
leverage of at least two to one in favour of the steadying force.
It follows from the above that the steadiness of the carriage, for a
given muzzle energy, may be promoted by four factors, (a) In-
creasing the weight of the gun and recoiling parts. This reduces the
recoil-energy, {b) Increasing the length of recoil allowed. This
reduces the overturning pull, (c) Keeping the gun as low as possible,
either by reducing the height of the wheels, or by cranking the axle-
tree downwards. This reduces the leverage of the overturning force.
(d) Increasing the length of the trail. This increases the leverage of
the steadying force.
It will be seen from Table A that the condition of steadiness is
satisfied in the various Q.F. equipments by not very dissimilar
combinations of the above factors.
The crati/f? is the portion of the carriage upon which the gun slides
when it recoils. It also contains the buffer and running-up springs,
which are fixed either above or below the gun. The latter method
gives the stronger and simpler construction, and is favoured by all
nations except Great Britain. By putting the buffer on top the gun
can be set lower on the carriage, which is an advantage as regards
steadiness. A top-buffer cradle is of ring section, surrounding the
gun ; the gun is formed with ribs or guides extending for its whole
jength, which, on recoil, slide in grooves in the cradle. The cradle
is pivoted on horizontal trunnions to the intermediate carriage and
carries the buffer and springs on top. This construction is shown
in the illustration of the 18 pr. Q.F. gun (fig. 60, Plate III.).
In carriages having the buffer under the gun the cradle is a trough
of steel plate, usually closed in at the top. It has guides formed on
the upper edges fitted to take guide-blocks on the gun. The cradle
contains the buffer-cylinder, which is fixed to a horn projecting
downwards from the breech of the gun, and recoils with it; the
piston-rod is fixed to the front of the cradle. The running-up springs
are usually coiled round the buffer-cylinder, and, on recoil, are
compressed between a shoulder on the front end of the cylinder and
the rear plate of the cradle.
The cradle is mounted on a vertical pivot set in a saddle pivoted
on horizontal trunnions between the sides of the trail (Krupp) ;
or, as in the earlier Ehrhardt equipments, the vertical pivot is set in
the axletree itself, which has then to turn when the gun is elevated
or depressed. The Krupp cradle is shown in the drawing of the
German gun.
The_ buffer consists of a steel cylinder nearly filled with oil or
glycerine. In this cylinder works a piston with piston-rod attached
to the carriage; the cylinder is attached to the gun. On recoil the
piston is drawn from one end of the cylinder to the other, so that -
the liquid is forced to flow past the piston. The friction thus caused
gradually absorbs the recoil of the gun and brings it gently to a
standstill. As the gun recoils the centre of gravity of the gun and
carriage shifts to the rear, reducing the stability. The buffer-
resistance has to be gradually reduced proportionately to the rediicpH
ORDNANCE
Plate III.
Fig. 6o.— BRITISH i8-PR. QUICK-FIRING GUN.
Fig. 6i.— BRITISH 18-PR. OUICK-FIRING GUN AND LIMBER.
XX.
Fig. 62.— FRENCH 75-MiM- QUICK-FIRING GUN AND WAGON BODY IN ACTION.
Plate IV.
ORDNANCE
Fig. (4. DANISH (.IvRUPP) 7-5-CM. QUICK-FIRING FIELD GUN AND WAGON BODY IN ACTION.
Fig. 67.-EHRHARDT 4-7-IN. QUICK-FIRING FIELD HOWITZER (CONTROLLED RECOIL).
Fig 68.-KRUPP "-S-CM. MOUNTAIN GUN.
FIELD ARTILLERY EQUIPMENTS]
ORDNANCE
221
stability. To allow the liquid to flow past the piston, grooves
(called ports) are formed in tlie sides of the cylinder, and by varying
the depth of the grooves at different points the resistance can be
adjusted as required.
Running-up Gear. — In compressed-air equipments a separate
piston is attached to the gun, working in a cylinder on the carriage
connected with a reservoir of air at a pressure of about 300 lb to the
square inch. This gear is much lighter than the springs, but the
difficulty of keeping the piston and gland tight is a serious objection
to it, although this difficulty is partly overcome by filling the cylinder
with glycerine so that the air has no direct access to the piston or
the gland. In spring equipments the principal difficulty lies in
providing a sufficient length of recoil without undue compression of
the column of springs. Thus if the spring column be 6 ft. long
and the gun recoils 4^ ft. the springs arc compressed into a space
of 1 5 ft., or a quarter of their working length. This treatment is
liable to crush the springs. German gun-makers get over this
difficulty by the use of very high-class springs made of steel haying
a tenacity of about 140 tons to the square inch with an elastic limit
of 90 tons. They also use a valve in the buffer piston which relieves
the springs of resistance in running-up, and so allows slighter springs
to be used. But in England the telescopic spring-case patented by
the Elswick Ordnance Company is preferred. Suppose that the
spring-columns before firing are each 4 ft. long ; then if the telescopic
gear be pulled out for a distance of 4 ft. on recoil, each spring column
will be compressed to 2 ft., or only to half its length. Tensile running-
up springs are used by some firms, as Cockerill of Seraing (Li6ge).
They are open to the objection that if a spring breaks the gun is
for the time being rendered useless, which is not the case with
compression springs.
The intermediate carriage is used chiefly in equipments with
buffer above the gun ; it serves as a means of connecting the cradle
to the lower carriage. When the spade is fixed in the ground it is
impossible to shift the carriage laterally in order to correct the
aim, the intermediate carriage is therefore pivoted so that it can
traverse laterally about 3 degrees each way. Instead of using an
intermediate carriage the direction may be given to the gun by
shifting the whole carriage sideways along the axle in an arc about
the point of the trail, which is fixed by the spade. This system is
used in guns of French manufacture and in the 1902 Russian gun.
It is simple in action, but requires the shield to be cut away on either
side to clear the wheels at extreme traverse.
The trail is either a drawn steel tube, of circular section as in the
18 pr., or of closed U section as in the Ehrhardt carriages, or else a
box trail built up of sheet steel. In the Krupp equipments the
trail is bent downwards to give a greater range of elevation to the
gun.
Elevating Gear, in order to save space, is usually of the telescopic
screw pattern, in which one screw is inside the other so that the
two pack into half the length of a single screw. The spade is of the
shape shown in the illustration of the 18 pr. Q.F. gun. For equip-
ments which may have to be used on rock, such as the Swiss gun,
the spade is made to fold upwards when desired. The axletree is
usually a hollow steel forging with the ends tapered to receive the
wheels. The wheels are of wood, with naves of stamped steel.
Steel wheels have been tried but are less elastic than wood and have
been found unsuitable. England and the United States use 4 ft. 8 in.
wheels; most European nations use wheels 4 ft. 3 J in. in diameter.
The shield is made of hard steel, from o-i2 to 0236 in. thick.
The size and thickness of the shield are limited by considerations
of weight. Thus if 150 lb of weight be available this will provide a
shield about 5 ft. square and 35 mm. or 0-138 in. thick, proof
against rifle bullets at distances over 600 yds., and against shrapnel
bullets at all distances. The present tendency, since the introduction
of the French D bullet and German S bullet (see Ammunition :
Bullet), is to make shields thicker than this, 5 mm. or 0-2 in. being
the usual thickness.
Recent Developments of the Q.F. Gun-Carriage. — The principle of
" differential " recoil gear is as follows: Suppose an ordinary Q.F.
field gun held in the recoil position by a catch, loaded, released and
allowed to fly forward under the action of the running-up springs. A
valve in the buffer relieves the gun of any resistance to running-up.
While in rapid motion forward the gun is fired by a tripper which
catches the firing lever. The gun then returns to the recoil position
and is again held by the catch. On firing, the recoil-velocity is
reduced by the amount of the forward velocity previously imparted
to the gun. Thus if the ordinary recoil-velocity of a Q.F. gun be
30 fs., and if it be fired while running up at a velocity of 10 fs., the
recoil-velocity with respect to the carriage will be only 20 fs. And
since the recoil-energy is proportional to the weight of the gun
multiplied by the square of the recoil- velocity, the recoil-energy is
reduced in the proportion of 900 to 40Q, or roughly by one-half.
This halves the overturning stress on the carriage, and renders it
possible to make the gun and carriage lighter for the same power,
or to obtain greater power for the same weight. This increase of
efficiency is due to the fact that the whole of the recoil-energy is not,
as in ordinary Q.F. guns, absorbed by the friction in the buffer,
but that part of it is stored up and used to counteract the recoil
of the next round. If the hydraulic buffer be dispensed with, and
the whole of the recoil taken on the springs or compressed air gear.
the overturning stress is reduced to one-fourth of its norma! amount.
One practical difficulty in the way of applying the differential
system to field guns lies in the vibration and slight lateral motion
of the carriage during running-up. Since this motion takes place after
laying and before firing, it is liable to cause inaccuracy. The only
equipment on this principle as yet in use is the French 1907 mountain
gun referred to below.
" Semi-automatii- " Q.F. field and mountain guns are made by
the leading firms, but have not been generally introduced. In these
equipments the breech is thrown open by tripping gear during the
run-up, and the cartridge case is ejected. When the gun is reloaded
the action of introducing the cartridge releases the breech-block,
which is closed by a spring. In the Krupp semi-automatic gun the
breech-block is set vertically to facilitate loading. This etiuipment is
capable of firing thirty rounds per minute. The principal advantage
of the semi-automatic system lies not in the increased rate of fire
but in the fact that three gunners are sufficient to carry out the
service of the gun. This is of importance in mountain equipments,
where the size of the shield is limited.
The introduction of airships into military operations has pro-
duced the auto-airship gun, which differs from the ordinary field
gun in almost every respect. The attack of airships presents special
problems. High elevation, higher even than the howitzer's, may
have to be given, and, unlike the howitzer, the airship gun must be
a high-velocity weapon, both ranging power and flatness of tra-
jectory being essential. As regards the shell, to bring down a gas-
bag, or even to kill a crew, with time shrapnel is difficult, owing to
the speed of the airship and the difficulty of observing bursts.
Direct hits with ordinary shell are equally hard to obtain, unless the
balloon is stationary and the range known. Even if such a hit were
got, the ordinary fuse would not act on encountering the slight
resistance of the balloon envelope. As regards the equipment, the
absorption of recoil at high elevations presents difficulties, the
exaggeration of the angle of sight makes the sighting arrangements
complicated, and rapidity in changing the line of fire is essential.
The most powerful equipment that, in June 19 ID, had been constructed
to meet these conditions was the Krupp 75 mm., which is mounted
on a motor lorry, the weight of the equipment and carriage, without
gunners, being about 4! tons. The equipment is constructed on the
differential recoil principle, with rear trunnions on the cradle. The
shell is a 12 lb H.E., fitted with a highly sensitive fuse and con-
taining, beside the H.E. burster, a quantity of composition which
gives off a trail of smoke to facilitate ranging.
The British i8-pr. Q.F. Field Gun (1905) (see Plate III., figs. 60
and 61 ; also Artillery, Plate II.). — Taking fig. 60 from the top,
we see the buffer, telescopic spring-case and springs on top of the
cradle, the buffer being attached to the horn projecting upwards
from the breech. The cradle, of bronze, surrounds the gun, and is
pivoted on horizontal trunnions on the upper carriage. The gun
recoils in the cradle on the guide ribs, which extend for its whole
length. The upper carriage is pivoted vertically on the trail and is
traversed by the handle seen below the breech. The long elevating
screw is formed as a telescopic screw at its lower end to avoid any
downward projection; the screw does not turn, but the nut at
bottom raises the gun, screw and sights for laying, while the nut at
top raises and lowers the gun alone for giving elevation. The
tubular trail supports the brake-arms, which also carry the seats for
the layer and elevating number. The spade and traversing hand-
spike are seen at the end of the trail. The telescopic sight is on the
left of the gun. The shield is curved well back to give as much
protection as possible to the detachment. The lower portion of the
shield is hinged and folds up for travelling.
The French Q.F. Field Gun (iSqS) (fig. 62, Plate III.; see also
Artillery, Plate II.). — This is a powerful gun, of unusual length,
namely 36 calibres. The breech mechanism is of the eccentric screw
type (see Part I. of this article). The gun has compressed-air running-
up gear and traverses along the axletree. The carriage is anchored
by a trail spade and two brake-blocks which are arranged so as to
go under the wheels, forming dragshoes, on firing. This method of
anchoring causes some delay on coming into action and considerable
delay in changing on to a fresh target. The gun has a goniometric
sight with independent line of sight. The body of the ammunition
wagon is tilted alongside the gun, and, with its armoured bottom
and steel doors, forms a good protection for the gunners supplying
ammunition.
The German Q.F. Field Gun (1Q06) (fig. 63). — This is the 1896 gun
remounted on a Q.F. carriage. It is not a powerful gun, the ballistics
being the same as those of the British 15-pr. B.L. of 1893. It has a
single-motion wedge breech action. The gun is mounted on a cradle
with buffer and springs under the gun; the cradle traverses on a
vertical pivot set in a traversing bed which turns about the axletree.
The gun has an arc sight with prismatic telescope and a clinometer
mounted on it, and a circular laying-plane for laying on an auxiliary
mark. It has not the independent line of sight. The shield is in
three pieces, the top flap folding down for travelling. The carriage
stands perfectly steady on discharge.
The Russian Q.F. Field Gun {1903) is intended as an improvement
on the French gun, being of even greater power. Springs are used
for running-up instead of compressed air. To ensure steadiness the
gun is kept very low on the carriage; this is effected by the use of
222
ORDNANCE
[FIELD ARTILLERY EQUIPMENTS
a cranked axletree. The gun has not the independent line of sight,
but has a panorama sight. It traverses on the axletree.
The Danish Q.F. Field Gun (fig. 64, Plate IV.) is a good example
of the heavier or more powerful type of Krupp field gun. The gun
may be seen supported on the cradle, which contains the hydraulic
buffer and running-up springs. The wedge breechblock is open.
Horse Artillery Guns. — A horse artillery gun must be mobile
enough to accompany cavalry. This is secured partly by the
adoption of a light type of gun, partly by carrying the gunners on
horseback instead of on the carriage. It is considered that the
weight behind the team should not exceed 30 cwt. The Germans
have declined to introduce a special type of light gun, as they
Redrawn from Bethell's Modern Giots and Gunnery.
Fig. 63.— The German Q.F. Gun. C. 96. n./A. (1906).
The arc sight with panorama telescope is seen behind the shield,
which is curved backwards for better protection. The seats for the
gunners who lay and attend to the breech are on either side of the
trail. At the point of the trail are the spade, the traversing lever
and the trail eye by which the gun is limbered up.
The American Q.F. Field Gun. — This is an example of the Ehrhardt
type of gun. It is considerably more powerful than the field guns
adopted by most European powers. Steadiness is ensured by making
the trail 10* ft. long, or l\ ft. longer than the Krupp trail. The
construction is otherwise very similar to that of the Krupp gun
shown in fig. 64, Plate IV. Four rounds are carried in tubes on the
carriage.
Other Q.F. Equipments. — These closely resemble the standard
types of their makers, as given in the above table of field guns. The
Swiss and Dutch guns are light Krupps ; the Spanish and Portuguese
guns, by Schneider of Creusot, are improved and lighter models of
the French gun.
The new Italian gun is a medium Krupp. The Austrian gun is
similar to the American (Ehrhardt) but the gun itself is of bronze.
object to the complication entailed by the supply of two natures
of ammunition on the battlefield. The H.A. guns of other
nations are merely lighter and less powerful editions of their field
guns.
The Q.F. Field Howitzer. — A field howitzer is a gun capable of
throwing a shell weighing 35 to 45 lb at high angles of elevation, and
light enough to manoeuvre at a trot across open country. The
permissible weight of the equipment is but slightly greater than
that of a field gun. The object of the howitzer is to throw a heavy,
shell with an angle of descent of not less than 25°, so as to destroy|
overhead cover with high-explosive shell, and to search entrench-
ments and reach gunners behind their gun-shields with shrapnel.
Effect is obtained, not by the striking velocity of the shell, but by,
the amount of its high-explosive burster, or, in the case of shrapnel
fire, by the use of a large driving charge in the base of the shell
which gives the necessary forward and downward velocity to the.
bullets. _ _ , , !
Since the muzzle energy of a howitzer is limited by the weight of
the equipment, the heavy shell can only be fired with a low velocity,]
Rumanian (Krupp) Quick-Firing Field Gun.
The Rumanian Q.F. field gun (fig. 65) is a recent type of medium
Krupp gun. The shield is set well back, and has a hood projecting
forwards and fitting close to the gun. The brake is used for travelling
only; the brake-wheel is seen in front of the shield. The panorama
telescope is mounted on top of the arc sight; no foresight is used.
There are no axletree seats, the gunners being carried on the gun
limber and wagon limber. The wagon body (fig. 66) is tipped beside
the gun in action.
usually not exceeding 1000 ft. per second. And in order to secure
a steep angle of descent at short ranges this velocity is still further
reduced by using half and quarter charges.
The construction of the howitzer is much the same as that of a
gun. The calibre is usually between 4-3 and 4-7 in., and the length
does not much exceed 12 calibres. Case ammunition is used, and
the breech action is similar to that of a Q.F. gun. Howitzersare
usually provided with shields in order to enable them to come into
HEAVY FIELD AND SIEGE]
ORDNANCE
223
action in the open when necessary. At short ranges, with full
charge, they make very powerful guns.
Construction of the Carriage. — The gun-recoil system is used as in
a gun equipment. There is however one important difference. If
the recoil allowed be sufficient to keep the carriage steady at low
elevations, then when fired at an elevation of 45° the breech will
strike the ground. This may be to some extent avoided by placing
the trunnions of the cradle which supports the howitzer at the
extreme rear end, so that when elevated the breech of the howitzer
is not brought any nearer the ground (Krupp). One objection to
this is that the forward preponderance of the howitzer has to be
balanced by a spring to enable it to be elevatcfl.
A second method is known as controlled recoil. The buffer-liquid,
on recoil, has to pass through holes in the piston. The access of the
buffer-liquid to these holes is controlled by a disk valve rotated by
rifled grooves in the cylinder. By connecting the piston-rod to the
carriage so as to rotate the piston when the gun is elevated, the
area of the holes exposed by the disk valve can be decreased at high
elevations so as to shorten the recoil. This is known as the Vavasseur-
Ehrhardt control valve. Messrs Cockerill use a channel through
which the liquid is forced on recoil, which is partly closed by a stop-
cock connected to the left trunnion when the howitzer is elevated.
The running-up springs require to be strong in order to lift the
weight of the howitzer at 45° elevation. In most equipments twin
columns of springs are used.
The Ehrhardt Q.F. Field Howitzer, fig. 67 (Plate IV.), may be taken
as a type of the light field howitzer with controlled recoil, as opposed
Fig. 66. — Wagon Body, Rumanian (Krupp) Quick-firing Field Gun
to the Krupp pattern with rear trunnions and constant long recoil.
The howitzer is represented immediately after firing, before it has
run up. The recoil is automatically shortened so that when fired at
this high elevation the buffer, which is seen under the breech, does
not strike the ground. The sights are on the bar which passes through
the shield. The calibre is 4-7 in.; the howitzer fires a 46 lb shell
with M.V. 985 f.s., and weighs 25 cwt. in action with shield.
The Q.F. Mountain Gun. — A mountain gun has the same tactical
duties to fulfil as a field gun. It is merely a field gun sufficiently
mobile for mountain transport. Its weight and dimensions are
restricted by the following considerations: (i) The whole equip-
ment has to be carried on pack animals. (2) The average load for
a battery mule is about 280 lb, including 65 ft of saddle and equip-
ment. A few specially selected gun-mules can carry about 40 ft
more, or 320 ft. In Spain and Italy, where exceptionally fine mules
are available, some of the mountain battery loads amount to 375 lb.
(3) The loads must be short, the length being limited by that of the
neck of a mule. If possible no part of the equipment should bo more
than 4' 6" long. (4) The equipment must, therefore, be subdivided
into component parts such that no part weighs more than 320 — 65
or 255 ft, and these parts must be so designed as to be quickly as-
sembled. (5) The number of parts into which the equipment may
be subdivided is either four or five. British mountain batteries
have five gun and carriage mules, and yet they come into action and
fire the first round within one minute. Other nations mostly dividi,-
the equipment into four parts only, and use rather heavier loads
than is in England considered consistent with activity on a hillside
(6) Mountain guns are usually provided with shafts to enable them
to he drawn instead of being carried when travelling along a road.
, ■ On a 5-mule basis the total weight of gun and carriage carried
amounts to loj cwt. or more than half the weight of a field gun.
But the power obtainable is not commensurate, being in practice
limited by the weight of the gun itself, which is restricted by the
carrying power of the transport animals. In B.L. moimtain equip-
ments this difficulty has Iicen got over by carrying the gun in two
parts, which are screwed together on coming into action.
In the British service the 7 i)r. R.M.L. of 400 lb, the original
" screw gun," was superseded in 1900 by the 10 pr. B.L., also in
two pieces. A quick-firing mountain gun has since been introduced
(•907)- . . . , .
In modern mountain e<|uq)ments, such as the Schneider-Danglis
gun adopted by Russia, the gun is not divided across the bore but is
lightened for transport by removing the brccch-piece and breech-
block, which are carried separately. These guns fire a shell of I4'3 lb
with M.V. of 1 100 f.s.
When the gun is in one piece, the e(|uipmcnt naturally divides
itself into four parts, namely the gun, cradle, trail and axletree and
wheels. When a long jointed trail is used, as in the Krupp Q.F.
mountain equipment, the point of the trail is carried with the
wheels, which form a light load. In addition to this the f<jlding
shield with ammunition forms a fifth load. The shield need not,
however, be brought up till after the gun has opened fire.
Since the length of a mountain gun in one piece may not exceed
4 ft. 6 in., the calibre has to be comparatively large to get the neces-
sary DOwer, and is usually 75 mm. or 3 in. The weight may not
exceed 255 ft. A short breech action such as the swinging block or
the eccentric screw is preferred. The sights must be of simple
pattern; the independent line of sight is too complicated for moun-
tain work. But it is most desirable that the sight-socket should be
capable of being cross-levelled to eliminate the error introduced by
difference of level of wheels. Except in the French gun, the recoil
gear and running-up springs are similar to those used
in Q.F. field guns. In the Krupp mountain equip-
ment the gun docs not slide directly on the cradle
guides, but a steel forging called a sleigh is inter-
posed. This forms a sliding cover to the cradle, and
protects the guides. On coming into action the gun
is dropped into the sleigh and secured by a keyed lug.
The trail of a Q.F. mountain gun has to be from 6 ft.
to 7 ft. long to keep the gun steady. It is either carried
in two pieces(Krupp)or is hinged and folded(Ehrhardt).
The spade is similar to that used with field guns. The
wheels are of wood, about 3 ft. in diameter. The
elevating gear is a plain screw. The gun and cradle
traverse on a vertical pivot about 3 degrees each way.
A shield high enough to protect the gunners kneeling
weighs up to I cwt., and is carried in two pieces.
The Krupp mountain gun, fig. 68 (Plate IV.),
may be taken as an example of ordinary practice.
The gun is seen mounted on the sleigh, which
slides to the rear on the cradle when the gun
recoils. The cradle is pi\'oted vertically on a saddle
mounted on horizontal trunnions between the trail
brackets; the rearward extension of the saddle
forms the traversing bed and is supported by the
elevating screw. The foresight and arc sight are
attached to the cradle. Near the middle of the
7-ft. trail are seen the seats for the laying and
loading numbers. The trail is divided immediately
in rear of the seats. The calibre is 2-95 in., the
gun fires a shell weighing 11 ft 10 oz. with a muzzle velocity of
920 f.s. The weight in action is 820 ft, without shield.
The French 1907 mountain gun differs markedly from other
types in that the carriage is constructed with differential recoil
gear as described above. There is no hydraulic buffer, and the
whole of the recoil-energy is absorbed by the springs. The gun is
held in the recoil position by a catch, and when loaded and released
it is fired automatically by a tri])per on the cradle. The calibre is
2-65 in., and the shell weighs 11 ft 10 oz.
Authorities. — H. A. Bethell, Modern Guns and Gunnery (Wool-
wich, 1907, 3rd edition, 1910); Kenyon, F.A. Material on the Con-
tinent (R.A. Institution, Woolwich, 1905); Greenhill, "The
Dynamics of Gun Recoil," The Engineer (23rd August 1907); v.
Roskoten, Moderne Feldkanonen (Oldenburg, 1906); Rohne, Progres
de I'artillerie de campagne moderne (Paris, 1906) , Challeat, Theorie des
afffits d deformation (Paris, 1906), Siacci, Balistique exterieure;
Witzleben, Feldgeschiltzfrage in Portugal (Dresden, 1906); Castncr,
■' Development of Recoil Apparatus," Journal US Artillery (1904);
and Der Erfolg des stdndigen Rohrn'icklaufs bei Feldhaubitzen
(Frauenfeld, 1906); v. Reichenau, Munitionsausrii stung (Berlin,
1905). Shrapnels et boucliers and L'Obusier de campagne moderne
(Lucerne, 1906), Bahn. Die Entwicklung der Rohrriicklauf-Feld-
haubitze (Berlin, 1907), (H. A. B.)
III. Heavy Field and Siege Equipments
Heavy Field Batteries. — Since the days of Gujrat anJ Inker-
mann the value of heavy n^etal in the field has been recognized,
at all events in theory, but it was mainly due to the South African
war that " heavy " batteries have become a component part of
modern armies. Guns heavier than field guns have formed
part of the equipment of the Indian army for many years.
224
ORDNANCE
[HEAVY FIELD AND SIEGE
but they have existed for a specific purpose, and ordnance
originally designed for quite other functions has, from the
exigencies of war, been occasionally utihzed in the field, as was
the case in South Africa and Manchuria, but the heavy field
battery as we know it to-day is a new miUtary product. Its
role is an extensive one, as it embraces many of the functions of
ordinary field guns as well as some of those usually attributed to
fight siege pieces. In the heavy field armaments of the Powers as
they stand at the present time will be found guns, howitzers and
mortars, and projectiles that vary from 50 lb to more than five
times that weight, and no boundary line can be assigned which
will separate these field equipments from those of the light units
of a siege train It will be convenient to consider in turn the
three natures of ordnance (guns, howitzers and mortars) employed
and to quote some typical instances of each kind
The United States 60 pr. Gun. — This gun and its equipment are
of modern type (1904) Its general appearance is shown in figs. 69
_ and 70, Plate V. The calibre is 4-7"; the charge 5-94 lb
"*■ of smokeless powder and the muzzle velocity developed
is 1700 f.s. Fi.xed ammunition is employed, and with an elevation
of 15° the range is 7600 yds The weight of the equipment limbered
up is given as 7if cwt.: it is known as a siege gun
In its general aspect the carriage resembles a field carriage, but of
stronger type, with a special arrangement of cradle.
In fig. 71 two sections are given; the cradle, it will be seen,
consists of three cylinders (seen in section in the upper figure) which
From Lieut. -Colonel Onnond M. Lissak's Ordnance and Gunnery.
Fig. 71. — Diagram of 4-7-in. Siege Gun, U.S.A.
b, Traversing bracket, r, Rails. x, Axle.
p. Pintle bearing. s. Spring cylinders, y, Pintle yoke.
are bound together by broad steel bands; the two outer cylinders
carry rails r upon which the gun slides in recoil. The centre cylinder
contains the hydraulic gear for checking recoil, the two outer contain
the running-up springs J. These springs are arranged in three con-
centric columns, the front end of each outer column being con-
nected to the rear end of the next inner column by a steel tube,
flanged outwardly at the front end and inwardly at the rear end.
A rod carrying a head which acts on the inner coil only passes
through the centre of the cylinder and is fixed to a yoke that is
connected with a lug at the breech of the gun. The flanged tubes
thus convey the pressure from the innermost coil to the next outer
coil and finally to the outermost coil, so that in each cylinder the
springs work in tandem and have a long stroke with short assembled
length. It is thus seen the recoil takes place partially on the carriage
and only a portion of the energy remains to tend to cause movement
in the mounting.
The cradle is supported by trunnions in the casting y, which is
itself seated in the casting p, which forms a bearing for it. This
bearing is mounted between the front ends of the trail brackets, its
rear end embracing the hollow axle x. Attached to the lower surface
of y is the traversing bracket b, which extends to the rear under
the axle and forms a support for the traversing shaft / and for the
elevating mechanism.
For travelling (Plate V., fig. 69) the gun is withdrawn to the rear
and the breech is attached to a holding-down arrangement about
the middle of the trail. A spade is hinged at the point of the trail.
The British 60 pr. Gun. — This is known as a heavy battery gun ;
its calibre is 5", its length 32 calibres, its weight 39 cwt.; its charge
is 9j\. lb of cordite, its muzzle velocity 2080 f.s. and its effective
shrapnel range 10,000 yds. The weight behind the team is 106 cwts.,
3 qrs.
The German 10 cm. Gun is called a heavy battery gun; its calibre
is 4", its effective shrapnel range is 5750 yds., but common shell can
be used up to II ,000 yds. The organization is a six-gun battery,
but a platform has always to be used.
A howitzer is a comparatively light piece that fires a comparatively
heavy shell with a comparatively low muzzle velocity, and changes
in range are effected sometimes by alteration of charge „
as well as of elevation. On the continent of Europe ""' ""'
howitzers are more popular than guns for heavy field batteries
and light siege units.
The French 15 cm. {Rimailho) Howitzer. — This piece is at the
present time very popular in France, where, in 1907, some 120 bat-
teries of the field army were said to be armed with it. It came into
being from the conversion of an old pattern siege howitzer and its
adaptation to a new form of carriage, according to the plans of
Commandant Rimailho. The gun {canon de IS5 R) is a short piece,
made of steel, with a calibre of 6-1 "; the shell weighs about 94 tb
and has an effective range of 7000 yds. The breech opens auto-
matically after each round and a rapidity of fire of from 4 to 5
rounds a minute is claimed. The howitzer is supported on two
trunnions near its rear end so that the weight pivots about a point
near the breech, with the result that the latter remains nearly 5 ft.
above the ground level at all angles of elevation; space is thus left
for recoil, which is checked by a buffer, the construction of which is
a secret ; running-out springs are provided to return the gun to the
firing position. The piece recoils in a cradle to which is attached
the elevation scale, but the elevating gear is independent of the
carriage proper; the line of sight is also independent. The howitzer
has a special transporting carriage, but it can be placed on its firing
carriage, it is said, in two minutes. The weight behind the teams is
in each case about 47 cwt. On a war footing three ammunition
wagons per howitzer would be provided.
The German 75 cm. Howitzer. — The Germans also possess a 15 cm.
howitzer of modern type; its rate of fire is 2 to 3 rounds a minute;
its shell is 872 tb in weight and the weight behind the team is about
53 cwt.
The British 6" B.L. Howitzer. — This piece is made of steel, it
weighs 30 cwt., its shell weighs 122 lb and has an effective range of
7000 yds. The weight behind the team is 85 cwt.
Fig. 72 shows the howitzer and cradle A mounted on the travelling
carriage, from which it can be fired up to an angle of 35°: in fig. 73
Fig. 72. — Diagram, of British 6-in. B.L. Howitzer.
the wheels have been removed, the trail B has been lowered on to
the pivot plate C and secured to a pivot plug screwed into the
plate : to the trail is fitted the top carriage D, and when the howitzer
and cradle are thus mounted 70" elevation can be given. The
howitzer recoils through the cradle, in which are two hydraulic
buffers side by side, fig. 74, whose piston rods E are attached to the
howitzer so that the recoil of the latter draws the pistons J to the
rear. Consider now, in fig. 74, the right buffer only ; forged in one
piece with the piston and piston rod is a tail rod F of larger diameter
than the piston rod, and in the front of the cylinder is an annular
bronze casting G, called a floating piston, which bears against the
rear of the springs. On discharge, the howitzer slides along the
cradle to the rear, the piston rod E is drawn out of the cylinder
and the tail rod F is drawn in, and from its larger diameter causes
a pressure of oil against the floating piston G, which slides forward
and compresses the springs which are prevented moving by the
rods H. The action is the same in each buffer. After recoil the
springs expand and return the howitzer into the firing position.
HEAVY FIELD AND SIEGE]
ORDNANCE
225
The floating pistons are tapered slightly inside towards the front
to prevent violence in the running out action. The elevating gear,
which can be placed on the left side of either the trail or the top
carriage, actuates the arc K, bolted to the left side of the cradle.
When the gun is fired on wheels (fig. 72) an anchorage buffer M,
attached to the platform, checks the recoil, whilst the springs with
which it is provided cause the carriage to return to its position.
The United States 6" Howitzer. — This is a more modern equipment,
its date being 1905. The howitzer is a short piece, 13 calibres long;
it fires a 120- lb shell with a muzzle velocity of 900 f.s. It has an
ipEP%g..,a^
Fig. 73. — Diagram of British 6-in. B.L. Howitzer
(70° elevation).
extreme elevation of 45° and an effective range of 7000 yds. The
weight behind the team is 705 cwt. The carriage is of peculiar
construction (fig. 75). The howitzer is supported under its cradle,
which is carried on trunnions seated in the top carriage. The
cradle consists of three cylinders generally similar in arrangement
and in functions to those described for the 4-7" 60 pr. gun: the
howitzer is made in a single forging and carries a lug on its breech
end for the attachment of the recoil piston rod and the yoke for the
rods of the spring cylinders; flanged rails are formed on its upper
surface, which support it on its cradle. The top carriage rests on a
framework called a " pintle bearing." Flanges in the former engage
under clips in the latter; the pintle bearing is riveted to the front
part of the trail brackets, and forms a turn-table upon which the top
carriage and all supported by it have a movement of 3° traverse on
either side.
This movement of traverse is effected by a shaft and worm : the
former is supported in a fixture attached to the left trail bracket,
and the latter works in a nut pivoted to the top carriage.
Elevation is effected by a forging called the rocker. The rear
part of the latter is U-shaped and passes under the gun, being
Fig. 74. — Hydraulic buffers of British 6-in. B.L. Howitzer.
(N.B. — Spiral, instead of volute springs, are now used.)
attached to the cradle by a pivoted hook k. From cither side of the
U arms extend which embrace the cradle trunnions between the
cradle and the cheeks of the top carriage so that the rocker can
rotate about the cradle trunnions. The elevating gear is supported
in lugs on the under side of the top carriage, while the upper end
of the elevating screw is attached to the bottom of the rocker. The
rocker thus moves in elevation in the top carriage and gives elevation
to the cradle, and therefore to the gun, by means of the pivoted
hook above referred to.
The brackets of the trail extend separately to the rear, sufficiently
providing for free movements of recoil at any elevation; they are
then joined by transoms and top and bottom plates and terminate
in a detachable spade which is secured to the top of the trail in
travelling. The axle is of special shape to admit of the movements
of the cradle; it is lower in the middle than at the sides and is
made in three parts, held together by shrinkage in cylinders formed
in the sides of the pintle bearing.
A peculiarity of this carriage is that recoil is automatically
shortened as elevation increases. Thus the length of recoil is 50
at angles of firing from -5° to 0°, from 0° to 25° the 50" is gradually
reduced to 28", which is not changed for higher angles. This is
effected as follows: Four apertures are made in the jjiston of the
recoil cylinder and there are two longitudinal throttling grooves
in the walls of the cylinder. All apertures being ojien and deepest
part of grooves in use would correspond to a 50" reccjil; apertures
closed and grooves alone at work would mean a 28" recoil. A
rotating disk with apertures similar and similarly placed to those
on the piston is carried by the piston rod and rests against the
front of the piston, and is actuated during recoil by two lugs pro-
jecting into helical guide slots cut in the walls of the recoil cylin<!ir.
The latter is mounted so as to be capable of rotation in the cradle,
and its outer surface carries teeth which engage with similar teeth in
a ring surrounding the right spring cylinder. When th<' elevation is
between 0° and 25° these latter teeth engage in special gearing which
is seated in the hollow trunnion of the cradle and is attached to the
right check of the top carriage. The buffer conditions arc thus
made to correspond with the elevation.
The mortar is a short piece of ordnance that is always fired fmm
a bed. Changes in range are usually effected by varying Mortars.
the charge.
United States 3-6" Mortar. — This equipment is not modern; the
piece was intended for vertical fire against troops in entrenchment^;
the mortar weighs 245 lb, and its bed, which is made in a single
casting of steel, 300 lb. The latter rests in action on a wooden plat-
form and is held down by ropes and pickets.
The German 8-4" Mortar. — This equipment is perhaps the heaviest
field equipment existing. The mortar in action weighs about 4-9
tons; it has to be transported in a special vehicle and can only be
fired from a platform; four hours are required for bringing it into
action. Two platform wagons are attached to each mortar, weighing
respectively 2-9 and 4-9 tons. The equipment can be moved at a
walk on good roads, but two companies of infantry are always
attached for hauiage in case of need. A battery consists of 4 mortars,
and 160 rounds are carried. The shell weighs 250 lb and carries a
heavy charge of high explosive, with or without delay action fuze.
A special equipment designed by Messrs Krupp is shown in Plate
vi., figs. 76 and 77. It is a mobile mounting for an 8-26" mortar
with constant long recoil, which is fired, like a howitzer, from its
travelling carriage without a platform. This equipment weighs about
5 tons in action.
All the foregoing equipments may be considered mobile; that is
to say, the batteries in which they are organized are self-contained,
can move from place to place without external assistance, and may
be employed on either field or siege duties. Their uses may be
summed up as follows: The first object of the heavy artillery
accompanying an army is to demolish the barrier forts or other
frontier fortifications of a permanent nature in order to enable the
army to penetrate into the enemy's country. After this has been
done, a small portion of this artillery will be employed in connexion
with the siege of fortresses, while another, by far the more con-
siderable portion, will accompany the advance of the field army.
Heavy Siege Units. — When a serious siege has to be under-
taken it is necessary to organize one or more siege trains in
addition to the troops of the field army. Both heavy and light
siege units enter into the composition of a siege train. As to
the armament of the latter, we have said that it is not
exactly distinguishable from that of heavy field batteries,
and it has already been described. That of the former is
less definite. Heavy siege units are seldom mobile in the
sense that light siege units are: the ordnance comprising
the former has usually to be transported by some special
means; thus it might be conveyed by ordinary rail or ship
to some place from which special siege railways would admit
of its conveyance to its place in battery, and probably great
variety of calibre and mounting would exist. For example,
during the siege of Sevastopol a civil engineer, Robert
Mallet (1810-18S1), designed a 36" mortar; it did not, how-
ever, reach the seat of war; and in 1904 the Japanese made
use of their 1 1 ■ i " coast howitzers at Port Arthur. At the siege
manoeuvres in France in 1906 the heavy siege units were repre-
sented by their 6-i" gun and their 10-7" howitzer. The official
British pieces are a 6" gun and a 9-4" howitzer. Generally
speaking, whereas the most suitable armament of the light units
can as a rule be foreseen, that of the heavy would depend very
much on circumstances.
226
ORDNANCE
[GARRISON MOUNTINGS
The French lo-7" Howitzer. — As a typical piece the 10-7" howitzer
may be taken, which the French transported by special horse
draught, as it was found too heavy for the type of siege railway
made use of at the mock siege of Langres in 1907. Its total equip-
ment weighs 22 tons and it is transported in four components,
namely, the piece, the carriage, the slide and the platform. A
battery of six pieces would thus require, exclusive of ammunition
From Lieut.-Colonel Ormond M. Lissak's Ordttance and Gu;uiery.
Fig. 75. — Diagram of 6-in. Siege Howitzer, U.S.A.
b, Hand-wheel actuating wheel k, Hook, I, 2, 3, 4 and
brakes.
e. Elevating hand-wheel. n,
h, Handle. t.
I, 2, 3, 4 and 5
chanism for loading position.
Elevating screw.
Traversing wheel.
transport, 24 vehicles that would weigh 130 tons. The howitzer
was designed originally for coast defence; it weighs about 5 1 tons
and its bed weighed 6 J tons: to this equipment was added a slide
and a platform, consisting of a thick plate of iron upon which
the slide moves. The platform is provided with a pivot upon which
the front part of the slide fits. The latter consists of an iron frame-
work, having lateral movement around the aforesaid pivot; its
rear portion is provided with rollers to facilitate its movement on
the platform. Its upper portion consists of two inclined rails along
which the bed or carriage of the howitzer slides. To check recoil a
hydraulic buffer is attached to the front of the slide and also to the
bed.
The fighting units of siege artillery in the British service are
companies and brigades; each company would be armed with
from 4 to 6 light siege pieces or from 2 to 4 heavy pieces. A com-
pany is usually a major's command. Three such companies would
form a siege brigade under a lieutenant-colonel. If a siege train of
any magnitude were organized it might
be necessary to combine two or more
brigades into a division under a colonel
or brigadier. In the French service
each siege train consists of three divi-
sions. A division is divided into groups
and comprises some 50 pieces of ord-
nance, heavy and light. (J. R. J. J.)
IV. Gakrison Mountings
The armament of modem coast
fronts consists of (a) heavy B.L. guns,
9" and upwards; (b) medium guns,
4" and upwards, and (c) light Q.F.
guns; all these being for direct fire;
and (d) guns, howitzers or mortars of
various calibres for high angle fire.
Typical guns of type (a) are the Krupp
12" gun and the British 9-2 B.L. gun.
The Krupp 12" gun is built up of
crucible cast nickel steel, not wire
wound. It is 45 calibres long and
has the Krupp wedge-shaped breech-
closing apparatus. It is fitted with
a repeating trip lock. The cartridge
is a metallic case containing a charge
of 290 lb of tubular powder. The projectiles are of two
weights, 770 lb and 980 lb, and the respective muzzle
velocities are 3025 f.s. and 2700 f.s. The British 9-2 B.L. gun
is of wire-wound construction and is over 48 calibres long.
It has the asbestos pad and Welin screw system of obturation,
and its charge of 103 lb of cordite, contained in a cartridge of
silk cloth, fires a 380 fo projectile with a muzzle velocity of
2643 f.s. A typical gun of class (b) is the British 6" mark VTI.
It is similar in construction and breech mechanism to the last-
named and fires a 100 lb projectile with a charge of 23 lb cordite,
giving a muzzle velocity of 2493 f.s. A typical gun of class (c)
is the British 12 pr. Q.F.; its weight is 12 cwt., it is made of
steel, is 10-3 calibres long, and with a cordite charge of i lb 15 oz.
it fires a projectile 125 lb in weight with a muzzle velocity of
2197 f.s. and a possible rate of 15 aimed rounds a minute. A
typical piece of class {d) is the 11" Krupp howitzer. It is 12
calibres long, has a charge of 28^ lb smokeless powder and fires
steel shell weighing 470 lb or 760 lb. It is provided with a
shrapnel shell of the former weight which contains 1880
bullets.
The methods of mounting of coast ordnance are many; space
only permits of referring to certain typical arrangements.
I. The Moficrieff Principle. — The disappearing carriage originated,
at all events in England, with Colonel Sir A. Moncrieff, who, about
1864, proposed to utilize the energy of recoil to bring a
gun into a protected position and at the same time to *"
store up sufficient energy to raise it to a firing position when
loading was completed. To effect this a heavy counter-
weight was so adjusted that its tendency was to raise the
gun; when the latter was fired, it raised the counterweight and a
ratchet and pawl followed the action up: when the pawl was re-
leased the counterweight brought the gun back to the firing position ;
this application of the principle had many drawbacks, and never
had any success with guns' over 7 tons in weight. It was not until
Moncrieff invented the hydropneumatic appliances that any real
progress was made. In 1888 was introduced into the British service
the first of a large group of disappearing mountings for guns of types
(a) and (i). where the energy of recoil was absorbed chiefly by forcing
a large volume of liquid through a narrow opening or recoil valve,
and also by further compressing a large volume of already highly
compressed air; when recoil was completed the recoil valve closed
and the air was retained at very high pressure: the energy thus
stored up returned the gun to the firing position. The action will
be understood from the following example.
The British 6" B.L. Gun on 11. P. Mounting. Mark 7K— Fig. 78
shows a general view of the mounting; fig. 79 is a vertical and
appearing
mount'
lags.
GARRISON MOUNTINGS]
ORDNANCE
227
Fig
78. — British 6
fig. 80 a transverse section through the recoil cylinder. The gun
trunnions (fig. 78) are supported l>y the two arms of the elevator A,
which is pivoted to the front of the lower carriage at B. The breech
is supported by the two elevating bars C whose lower ends are
attached to the elevating arcs D. These arcs are worked by the
elevating gear actuated by the hand-wheel E. The arcs are struck
with the bars C as radii, their centres being points at the upper
end of the bars when the gun is in the loading position. Elevation
can thus be given to the gun whilst it is being loaded. The lower
carriage rests on a ring of live rollers G, which are free to traverse
round on a circular racer H, motion being given by traversing gear
actuated by the hand-wheel I. Supported by vertical stanchions
attached to the lower carriage is a horizontal circular shield J
through which the gun rises to the firing position. The manganese
bronze ram F which is attached to the elevators A by the cross-head
L is forced on recoil into the central chamber of the recoil cylinder
(see fig. 79), which is supported by trunnions M resting in the brackets
of the lower carriage. There are ten chambers N (figs. 79 and 80),
all of which are connected at the bottom with the recoil valve
chamber O, and consequently with each other. Nine of these
contain liquid in their lower portions and highly compressed air
above, and are connected at the top by a channel P to equalize the
pressure in each chamber. The tenth chamber N', which is situated
lowest in the cylinder, contains liquid alone and has at its up[ier end
the raising valve Q. On recoil the liquid in the central chamber is
forced by the ram through the recoil valve R into the outer chambers
N, thus further compressing the air. As R is a non-return valve the
air is maintained in this highly compressed state during loading.
The gun is raised by pushing the lever S (fig. 78) to the front which
actuates the rack T (fig. 79), thus opening Q, which allows the air
in the nine chambers to force liquid from the tenth chamber N'
into the centre ram chamber, lifting the ram. U is a pump (fig. 79)
by which the gun can be pumped down at drill. The liquid employed
in the buffer is a mixture of methylated spirits, mineral oil, distilled
water and carbonate of soda, and its aeration, due to the churning
it receives on recoil, is a serious drawback to this class of mounting.
From a 6" B.L. gun mounted in this fashion somewhat more than
one aimed round a minute can be obtained; from a 9-2" B.L. about
four such rounds in five minutes.
The foregoing description is now, however, principally interesting
as showing an ingenious application of mechanical principles for
military purposes. Mountings of this type are being gradually
withdrawn from the British service.
The Buffington-Crozier Principle. — In the United States a type of
disappearing carriage known as the Buffington-Crozier (fig. 81) is
used. Here, as in the earlier types of Moncricff carriage, a counter-
weight is employed, but the energy of recoil is partly absorbed by
a buffer, and the counterweight, which is constrained by guides to
move vertically up and down, is just able to raise the gun to the
»?-'-• ■ '. '•■; ^ ■■- -, , - . • '■-ii■<:;".Sv^'^^•^'■^'^^'•'^^;^---■'-'
78.— British 6" B.L. Gun on H.P. Mounting, Mark IV.
firing position. A satisfactory'
rate of fire is claimed for this
mounting, which has recently
been improved.
Balanced Pillar. — Another
type of disappearing mount-
ing for guns of type (A) or (c),
known as the balanced pillar,
is found on the continent of
Europe and in the United
States, where it is used for 5"
guns and under. A long steel
cylinder, which supports the
gun and its carriage, has a
vertical movement of about
35 ft. in an outer cylinder.
The inner cylinder and all
that it carries is balanced by
a counterweight. After the
gun is fired it can be brought
with its length parallel to the
parapet. Then by the action
of the mechanism the inner
cylinder can be made to sink
Fig. 79. — Vertical Section through
Recoil Cylinder of Gun shown in fig. 78.
Fig. 80. — Transverse Sec-
tion through Recoil Cylinder
of Gun shown in fig. 78.
in the outer cylinder and the gun is brought down to the loading
position; the release of the counterweight will cause it to
again. The gun has the usual motion
common axis of the two cylinders.
of traverse round
rise
the
228
ORDNANCE
[GARRISON MOUNTINGS
The heavy gun cupola is found on the continent of Europe in the
armaments of various Powers for guns of type (a), the German
Fig. 8i. — Buffington-Crozier Disappearing Carriage for lo" B.L. .Gun, U.S.A.
practice being occasionally to mount two 1 1 " guns in the same cupola.
The cast-iron cupola was introduced by Gruson of Magdeburg,
Cuoo'as ^"^^ "''^'^^' steel is now generally employed by Krupp.
In Gruson's design the gun and mounting are placed
upon a turn-table upon which also rest the bases of a scries of cast-
iron plates; these are verv' massive, are cur\-ilinear in section, and
are built up into a shallow dome which completely covers the
mountings as with a cap: the whole structure turns together, being
traversed round a central pivot. The chase of the gun emerges
through a port which admits of the necessary play of elevation.
A notable example of a cupola was erected at Spezzia containing
two 120-ton Krupp guns, the structure complete weighing 2050 tons.
A Krupp cupola of chilled cast-iron for two 28-cm. (11") is shown
in fig. 82. These are designed principally for coast defence in low
sites. The cupola, which is built up like a Gruson cupola of several
heavy iron masses, is resolved and the guns laid by hydraulic power.
A hea\'y chilled cast-iron collar protects the under side of the
armoured structure and the working mechanism of the guns. Fig. 83,
Plate VI., represents a
Krupp mounting for
an 1 1-2'' howitzer, with
a cupola-like shield.
This is worked both
electrically and by
hand. Vertical fire
from a weapon of this
type is sufficiently
powerful to penetrate
the protective deck of
a vessel. Light and
medium guns, types
(h) and (c), are some-
times mounted in
cupolas, especially on
land fronts (see below),
and disappearing
cupolas have also been
proposed for them :
in the latter the whole
structure is made to
sink by the action of
mechanism till the top
of the cupola is level
with the ground.
Types and further de-
tails will be found in
the article Fortifi-
cation AND Siege-
craft.
Mountings of the barbette type are much favoured in the British
service for guns of types (a) and (b) ; one of the most
modern is shown in fig. 21, where a 9-2" B.L. gun, Mark X.,
Barbette
mount'
is placed upon a Mark V. mounting, a combination which ^
admits of over five aimed rounds in two minutes.
The British g-z" B.L. Gun. — Fig. 84 shows a general view of the
mounting, fig. 85 a longitudinal section through the cradle on a
larger scale. The gun, which is trunnionless, carries a cross-head A
and recoils in the cradle C, being supported by its guides D, which
slide in longitudinal grooves in the cradle. To this cross-head is
attached the buffer cylinder B (see fig. 85) which recoils with the
gun, while the piston rod L is attached to the front of the cradle:
engaging with the buffer cylinder and in the same axial line is a
bronze casting containing two air chambers F and G : the casting is
attached to the rear of the cradle, which is supported by trunnions
E in the lower carriage. Thus on firing, the gun carries the buffer
Fig. 82. — Krupp Cupola for two 28-cm. Guns.
ORDNANCE
Plate V.
From Lieut.-Col. Ormond M. Lissak's Ordnance and Gunnery.
Fig. 69.— 47-IN. SIEGE GUN, TRAVELLING POSITION (U.S.A.).
From Lieut.-Col. Ormond M. Lissak's Ordnance and Gunnery.
Fig. 70.— 4-7-IN. SIEGE GUN, IN ACTION (U.S.A.).
X\. 229. '
Plate VI.
ORDNANCE
Fig. 83.— KRUPP ii-2-IX. HOWITZER AND SHIELD.
EiG. 76.— KRUPP S-26-IX. MORTAR, TliAX'ELLIXG.
Fig. 77.^KRUPP 8-20-1 X MORTAR,
FIRING POSITION.
Fig. 88.— KRUPP 3-4-IN. AUTOMATIC GUN.
From photographs by Fri.;drich Krupp A. G., E?sen/Ruhr.
GARRISON MOUNTINGS]
ORDNANCE
229
Fig. 84. — British 9-2" B.L. Gun, Mark X., on Barbette Mounting,
cylinder backwards with it, draws it off its piston rod L and forces
it into the air chamber F. The air in the chambers F and G is at a
high initial tension and, on recoil, the air in F is further compressed
and forced through the valve II into the chamber G. At the con-
clusion of recoil the air expands and forces the buffer cylinder to
the front, which carries with it the gun into its loading position;
but the valve H closes and the air has to make its way through a
narrow hole before it can act on the end of the buffer, thus preventing
violent action, which is further guarded against by the " control
ram " M which is bolted into the rear end of the buffer. To prevent
leakage ot air between the air chamber and the buffer at the gland
K the packing employed is a viscous liquid which is in communication
by means of the pipe J with the intcnsifier I. The latter consists
of a cylinder containing a piston and rod free to move : the front
face of this piston is subject to the pressure of the air in the air
chamber, the rear face is in communication with the liquid in the
gland. Now, as the piston head is held in position by the pressures
on either side of it, and as the effective area of the front face is
greater than that of the rear — on account of the rod — the liquid
pressure per square inch of the fluid in the gland, &c., must be greater
than that of the air in the air chamber, hence the latter cannot
escape through the former. The pressure in the chambers F and G
is adjusted on preparing for action by an air pump worked by hand.
The energy of recoil is further utilized as follows: hydraulic
cylinders called compressors are held in the cradle, and in them
work rams connected with the cross-head A (sec fig. 85) : they are
"^ST^
Fig. 85. — Details of Mounting shown in fig. 21.
also connected with a hydraulic accumulator (not shown) which
can be placed in any convenient position in the work, and the power
thus stored up be employed for raising the projectiles, for which
purpose two lifts are provided. One of these (W) is in the floor of
the emplacement, the other (W) is attached to and moves with the
mounting. Underneath and suspended from the circular gun plat-
form RR, which forms a shield, is an overhead railway QQ, on which
run trollies, each taking a projectile. The projectiles are stored in
the recess shown in section at O. By means of a shell barrow any
projectile can be placed on the lift \V and raised to a trolley which
can be run round over the lift W, which raises the projectile, as
shown at S, to a point suitable for loading.
Tlie British 6" B.L. Gun. — A typical mounting for guns of type
(b) is afforded by the British C.P. (central pivot), Mark II. mounting
for the 6" B.L. Mark VII. gun, a combination which admits of six
rounds a minute aimed fire. Fig. 86 shows a side elevation cf the
mounting with half the shield removed; fig. 87 a longitudinal
section of part of the cradle through the axis of the buffer. The
gun, which is trunnionlcss, recoils in the cradle A; the latter con-
tains a buffer B and two cylindrical boxes containing springs S.
Attached to the breech cf the gun is a piston rod C with piston D,
the latter having an opening or " port " E, through which the oil
passes on recoil, the pressure in the buffer, which would otherwise
vary with the velocity of the recoil, being kept constant by the
variation in the area of aperture afforded by E. This area is governed
by the action of the valve key strip F of varying section, w"hich is
inserted in the buffer in such a way that as the gun recoils the port E
is constrained to pass over it. On recoil the rods J, which are
attached to the gun in rear and screwed into the Hanged cyUnder H
in front, force back the front cf the springs S, whose rear ends butt
up against the rear of the spring boxes. After recoil the springs
return the gun to the firing position. To check the violence of this
action a control ram G is made use of : the
piston rod has a cylindrical hole in front
which, as the gun recoils, becomes filled
with oil, and before the piston can come
up against the front of the buffer this oil
has to be displaced by the thrust of the
ram G which checks the forward moveir.ent
of the gun. The cradle A rests on its
trunnions in seating.; in the lower carriage
and is elevated or depressed by the gtar
K'. The last-named drives the elevating
arc L, which is attached to the cradle at
M, tlie axis of the gun moving parallel to
the axis of the cradle. In fig. 86 the lower
carriage is almost entirely hidden by the
gears carried on it, namely, the elevating
gear K, the traversing gear N, which
works a spur pinion, gearing into the rack
O attached to the pedestal P: the
elevation indicators Q and R for record-
ing the angle of elevation of the gun
and the bracket S' which support the 6" armour plate T. The weight
of the lower carriage, cradle and gun is taken by a horizontal ring of
hard steel balls resting on the top of a massive forged steel " pivot "
U, the lower portion of which is shown supported in the cast-Iron
pedestal. The elevation indicator consists of a sector Q bolted to
the cradle trunnions; to its edge is attached a metaT tape, the
230
ORDNANCE
[NAVAL GUNS
|S«>!SK\Vv\^ — ^
:;^
K^ ^isj^iiiil II III I
Fig. 87
Fig. 87.
Fig. 86.
Fig. 86.— British Mark II. Barbette Mounting for 6" B.L. Gun.
-Longitudinal Section of Part of Cradle of Gun shown in fig. 13, through Axis of Buflfer.
Other end of which is fixed to the spindle supporting a pointer,
reading angles of elevation on the drum R. As the gun elevates
the tape is paid out, the slack being taken in and the pointer re-
volved by the action of a clock spring.' The mounting carries an
automatic sight (see Sights, Gun Sights).
The British 12-pr. Q.F. Gun. — A typical mounting for guns of
class (c) is the British pedestal mounting for the 12-pr. Q.F. gun.
This mounting consists of a cradle, a pivot, a pedestal and holdfast.
The cradle is a gunmetal casting, provided with trunnions that
rest in bearings on the pivot; the gun recoils in the upper portion
of the cradle and the lower part of the latter is bored at the rear
for an hydraulic buffer and at the front for a running-out spring.
The pivot is of steel, is fork-shaped at the top end, where are the
trunnion bearings for the cradle; its lower end is conical and fits
into bushes in the pedestal, where it is free to revolve but is pre-
vented from lifting by a holding-down screw.'^ The pedestal is
bolted down to the platform. The gun has a shoulder-piece and it
can be trained and elevated by the layer. It has also an automatic
sight.
A typical Krupp mounting of this kind is shown in fig. 88 , Plate VI . ,
which represents an 8-8-cm. (3-4") automatic gun firing, it is stated,
40 aimed rounds in the minute.
The United States 12" Mortar. — A typical mounting for pieces of
class (d) is afforded by the United States mounting, model of 1896,
for the 12" B.L. mortar. The piece is mounted in a top carriage or
saddle consisting of two arms connected by a heavy web. This
saddle is hinged on a heavy bolt and is connected to the front of
the turntable (fig. 89). The saddle inclines to the rear and upwards
at an angle of 45°, the upper ends forming trunnion bearings: it is
supported at a point about one-third of its length from the bolt or
fulcrum by five columns of double springs arranged in a row, side
by side. The recoil is checked by two hydraulic cylinders, one on
each side, the pistons of which are attached to the saddle near the
trunnions of the piece. When the mortar is fired the saddle revolves
about its fulcrum to the rear and downwards, carrying the mortar
and compressing the spring columns until the action is stopped by
the hydraulic buffers; the springs then assert themselves and return
the piece to the firing position. The mortar must always be brought
horizontal for loading.
' The elevation indicators are now read on a plate provided with
a spiral groove, which guides a stud on the reader along the scale of
graduations.
2 In a later mark there is no holding-down screw for pivot
The fighting units of coast artillery in the British service are the
fire command, the battery command and the group. The limits of
a fire command are governed by the possibility of efficient surveil-
lance and control that can be exercised by an individual, and these
limits vary much from time to time. Usually a number of forts or
emplacements are included in a fire command. The fire command
is broken up into battery commands, in every one of which it must
be possible for its commander actually to take charge of the guns
therein contained in all phases of action. The battery command is
divided up into gun groups, each consisting of one or more pieces
of like calibre, nature and shooting qualities. As a rule a fire
commander is a field officer, a battery commander a major or a
captain, a gun group commander a subaltern or senior N.C. officer.
In connexion with coast artillery range-finders (q.v.) and electric
lights (see Coast Defence) are installed and electric communications
established for the chain of command. (J. R. J. J.)
V. Naval Guns and Gunnery
In dealing with naval guns and gunnery, we shall take the
British navy as the basis. At the close of the 19th and at the
beginning of the 20th century it appeared that a type of British
battleship (see Ship) had been evolved which was stable as
regards disposition of armament, and that further advance
would consist merely in greater efficiency of individual guns,
in improvements of armour rendering possible the protection
of greater areas, and in changes of engine and boiler design
resulting in higher speeds. The " Majestic," " Glory," " Ex-
miouth," " London " and " Bulwark " classes differed from each
other only in such details, all of them subordinate to the main
raison d'etre of the battleship, i.e. the number and nature of
the guns which she carries.
The strength and disposition of the armaments of the ships of
these classes were identical except in small details (see fig. 90).
In every case the main armament consisted of a pair of 12-in.
guns forward and a pair aft, each pair enclosed in a hooded
barbette, which was more commonly designated a turret. The
turrets were on the midship line, and the guns in each com-
manded an arc of fire of 240°, i.e. from right ahead to 30° abaft
the beam on either side in the case of the fore turret, and from
NAVAL GUNS]
ORDNANCE
231
astern to 30° before either beam in the case of the after turret.
The secondary armament, consisting of twelve 6-in. guns, was
also symmetrically disposed. Two guns on either side (four in the
" Majestic " class) were mounted with arcs of fire of from 60°
capacity which were to kill and demoralize his personnel, pierce
his funnels, destroy any navigational or sighting appliances
which were exposed, set his woodwork on fire and render extinc-
tion of the fires impossible, and by piercing or bursting on
''MmmmmmmmmmmMmm
Fig. 89.-1^" B.L. Mortar, Model 1896, U.S.A.
before to 60° abaft the beam, while two guns each side forward
and two aft (one forward and one aft in the " Majestic " class)
fired through similar arcs to the turret guns, but on their own
sides only. Four of these 6-in. guns were mounted on either
side of the main deck and two on either side of the upper deck,
all being enclosed in casemates.
In the armoured and large protected cruisers built contempor-
aneously with these classes of battleships, the g- 2-in. gun had been
largely mounted, and it was the improvements brought about by
practical experience in the rate and accuracy of fire of this gun
that suggested its adoption in battleships to replace the whole
or a part of the 6-in. armament. During the period in which the
battleships referred to above were constructed, the idea of the
(I ,,
Dreadnought
Lord Nelson"
London
Fig. 90. — Diagrams showing Disposition of Armament in
Typical Ships.
functions of the respective divisions of the armament was that
the 1 2-in. guns were to injure the enemy's vitals by piercing
his armour with armour-piercing shot or shell, while the business
of the 6-in. guns was to cover him with a hail of shells of large
unarmourcd portions of his side diminish his reserve of buoyancy
and so impair his sea-going qualities.
These ideas were gradually losing favour; it was realized
that the damage done by an armour-piercing shot, whether or
not it hit and pierced armour, was limited to its own path,
while that done by an armour-piercing shell striking an un-
armourcd portion of the ship's side was inconsiderable as com-
pared with that effected by a common shell of the same calibre.
Further, the area of side, by piercing which an armour-piercing
projectile would reach any portion of the propelling machinery
or magazines of an enemy, was so small compared with the whole
exposed area of his side and upper works that it was scarcely
advantageous to fire at it projectiles, the effectiveness of which,
if they struck another portion of the enemy, was small in com-
parison with that of other projectiles which might equally well
be fired from the same gun. Again, the lessons of practical
experience showed that ships might be and were defeated by shell
fire alone, while their armour remained unpierced, and propelling
machinery and magazines intact.
All these considerations led to the conclusion that it was to
intensity of shell-fire, and especially to the fire of large capacity
and high explosive shell, that attention should be directed. At
the same time, while the rate of fire of the 6-in. guns, to which
great attention had been paid, remained stationary or nearly so,
the rate of fire of the 9-2 in. and 12-in. guns had considerably
improved, and their balhstic powers rendered possible more
accurate firing at long ranges than could be effected with the
6-in. guns. The explosive effect of a shell is said to vary as the
square of the weight of its bursting charge. The bursting charge,
with shell of the same type, bears a constant proportion to the
weight of the shell. Now the weight of the 12-in. shell is 850 lb,
that of the 9- 2-in. 380 lb, that of the 6-in. 100 lb. Hence it
would require fourteen 6-in. shells to produce the same effect
as one 9- 2-in., and seventy-two to produce the same effect as
one 12-in. shell, consequently the 6-in. gun to produce the same
shell effect as the 12-in. or 9-2-in. gun must fire 72 times, or 14
times, respectively, faster. The rate of fire of guns in action
depends upon a variety of conditions, an important one being
that of smoke interference, which tends to reduce the maximum
rate of fire of the smaller guns nearer to that practicable with the
heavier guns, but the rate of fire of the three guns in question,
232
ORDNANCE
[NAVAL GUNS
under battle conditions, is in the approximate proportions of
i: 1-5: 4, which would thus produce a shell effect (supposing
the hits made by each type of gun to bear a fixed proportion to
the rounds fired), in the proportions of 72: 22: 4, for the 12-in.,
y-2-in. and 6-in. guns respectively. This argument of course
takes no account of the probably greater effect produced by the
dispersion of the larger number of hits of the smaller gun over
the exposed area of the target, nor, on the other hand, does it
take account of the greater armour-piercing power of the 12-in.
shell which would have the result that a larger proportion of the
hits from the smaller gun would be defeated by the enemy's
armour, and so prove innocuous.
The shell effect forms a strong argument for the weight avail-
able for the heavy gun armament of a ship being disposed of in
the form only of the heaviest gun available. Another strong
argument is that deduced from the fact already stated, that, as
the calibre of the gun increases, its ballistic powers enable
accurate shooting to be made at a longer range.
The accuracy of a gun at any range depends mainly, for
practical naval purposes, on what is known as the " dangerous
space," or the limit within which the range must be known in
order that a target of a given height may be struck. Again, the
dangerous space at any range depends upon the remaining
velocity of the projectile at that range, which, as between guns
of different calibres but with the same initial muzzle velocity, is
greater, the greater the calibre of the gun and weight of projectile,
the advantage possessed by the larger gun in this respect being
much increased at great ranges. As a practical example, for a
target 30 ft. high at a range of 8000 yds., the dangerous spaces
of modern 12-in., 9-2-in. and 6-in. guns, which do not differ
greatly in muzzle velocity, are 75, 65 and 40 yds. respectively.
At whatever range a naval action is to be fought, it is evident
that there must be a period during which the enemy is within
the practical 12-in. gun range, and outside the practical 6-in.
gun range, and that during this period the weight allotted to
6-in. guns will be wasted, and this at the outset of an action,
when it is more important than at any time during its progress to
inflict damage on the enemy as a means of preventing him from
inflicting damage on ourselves. But if all the weight available be
allotted to 12-in. guns, the whole of the armament which wfll
bear on the enemy will come into action at the same time, and
that the earliest, and consequently most advantageous, time
possible. This train of argument led to the substitution of
9-2-in. guns in the 8 "King Edward VII." class (the first of
which was completed in 1905) for the upper deck 6-in. guns, and
eventually in the " Lord Nelson " and " Agamemnon " (com-
pleted in 1908) to the abolition of the 6-in. armament, which
was replaced by ten 9-2-in. guns.
At the beginning of the present century the subject of " fire
control " began to receive considerable attention, and a short
statement is necessary of the causes which render essential an
accurate and reliable system of controlling the fire of a ship
if hits are to be made at long range. In the first place, even with
the 12-in. gun, the range must be known with considerable
nicety for a ship to be hit. At a target 30 ft. high, at 8000 yds.,
for example, the range on the sights must be correct within
75 yds. or the shot will faff over or short of the target. No range-
finder has yet proved itself reliable, under service conditions,
to such a degree, and even if one were found, it could not be
relied upon to do more than place the first shot in fair proximity
to the target. The reason for this lies in the distinction which
must be drawn between the distance of a target and its " gun
range," or, in other words, the distance to which the sights must
be adjusted in order that the target may be hit.
This gun range varies with many conditions, foremost among
which are the wear of the gun, the temperature of the cordite,
the force and direction of the wind and other atmospheric
conditions. It can only be ascertained with certainty by a
process of " trial and error," using the gun itself. The error,
or distance which a shot £alls short of or beyond the target, can
be estimated with a greater approach to accuracy the greater the
height o-f the observer. It is the process of forming this estimate
which is termed " spotting," a duty the performance of which
calls for the exercise of the most accurate judgment on the part of
the " spotter," and which requires much practice in order that
efficiency may be secured. In practice, the first shot is fired
with the sights adjusted for the distance of the target given by the
range-finder, corrected as far as is practicable for the various con-
ditions affecting the gun range. The first shot is spotted, and the
result of the spotting observations governs the adjustment of the
sights for the next shot, which is spotted in its turn, and the
sights are readjusted until the target is hit. From this time
onwards it is (in theory) only necessary to apply the change in
range, due to the movements of our own ship and of the enemy,
for the interval between successive shots, in order to continue
hitting. This change of range, which may be considerable
(e.g. 1000 yds. per minute in the extreme case of ships approaching
each other directly, and each steaming at the rate of 15 knots), is
in practice extremely difficult to estimate correctly, and the
spotting is consequently continued in order to rectify errors
in estimating the rate of change in range. For various reasons the
" gun range " which has been referred to is not the same for
different natures of guns. This is mainly on account of the
difference in the height attained by their projectiles in the course
of their respective trajectories. While it is possible, by careful
calibration (i.e. the firing from the several guns of carefully
aimed rounds at a fixed target with known range and under
favourable conditions for practice), to make the shots from all
guns of the same nature fall in very close proximity to each other
when the sights of all are similarly adjusted, it has not been found
possible in practice to achieve this result with guns of different
natures. Consequently guns of each nature must be spotted for
independently, and it is obvious that this adds considerably
to the elaboration and complication of the fire control system.
This constitutes one of the reasons for the adoption of the
uniform armament in the " Dreadnought " and her successors;
another important reason lies in the fact that with the weight
available for the heavy gun armament disposed of in a small
number of very large guns, a greater proportion of these guns
can be mounted on the midship line, and consequently be avail-
able for fire on either side of the ship (see fig. 90). Thus in the
" Dreadnought," eight of her ten 12-in. guns can bear through a
considerable arc on either beam, while in the " Lord Nelson,"
although all her four i2-in. guns can bear on either beam, half
at least of her 9-2-in. armament (i.e. that half on the opposite
side to the enemy) will be at any moment out of bearing, and
consequently be for the time a useless weight. The same principle
of a uniform armament of 12-in. guns has been adopted in the
" Invincible " type, the only large cruisers designed since the
inception of the "Dreadnought." Thus the 12-in. gun forms
the sole heavy gun armament of all battleships and large cruisers
of the " Dreadnought " era. The gun so carried is known
as the Mark X., it is 45 calibres in length, and fires a projectile
weighing 850 lb with a charge of cordite of 260 lb, resulting in
a muzzle velocity of 2700 ft. per second. The Mark XI. gun was
designed to be mounted in the later " Dreadnoughts." Following
the same line of development as resulted in the Mark X. gun, it is
longer, heavier, fires an increased charge of cordite, and has a
higher muzzle velocity, viz. of 2960 ft. per second. This gun
appears to mark the climax of development along the present
lines, since the price to be paid in greater weight, length and
diminished durabiUty of rifling is out of all proportion to the
small increase in muzzle velocity. Further developments would
therefore be looked for in some other direction, such as the
adoption either of a new form of propellant or of a gun of larger
calilsre. A modern gun of lo-in. calibre is found in the battle-
ships " Triumph " and " Swiftsure." The next gun in importance
to the 12-in. is the 9-2-in., which forms part of the armament of
the " Lord Nelson " and " King Edward VII." classes of battle-
ships, and the principal armament of all armoured cruisers (ex-
cepting the " County " class) antecedent to the " Invincibles."
The latest gun of this calibre has developed from earher types in a
similar manner to the 12-in., that is to say, it has experienced
a gradual increase in length, weight, and weight of charge, with
NAVAL GUNS]
ORDNANCE
233
a consequently increased muzzle velocity. The latest type,
which is known as the Mark XI., and is mounted in the " Lord
Nelson " and " Agamemnon," is 50 calibres in length, weighs 28
tons, and with a charge of cordite of 130 lb gives to a projectile
of 3S0 lb a muzzle velocity of 2875 ft. per second. The y-j-in.
gun forms the secondary armament of the " Triumph " and
" Swiftsure," and is mounted in the armoured cruisers of the
" Minotaur," " Duke of Edinburgh " and " Devonshire "
classes. The 6-in. gun, of which there are a very large number
afloat in modern, though not the most recent, battleships, and
in armoured and first and second class cruisers, is the largest gun
which is worked by hand power alone. For this reason, and on
account of its rapidity of fire, it was for many years popular as
an efficient weapon. It was evolved from the 6-in. 80-pounder
B.L. gun, constructed at Elswick, which was the first breech-
loader adopted by the Royal Navy, and whose development has
culminated in the 6-in. Mark XL gun of the " King Edward
VII." class and contemporary cruisers, which fires a loo-lb
projectile with a muzzle velocity of 2900 ft. per second. It has
only now passed out of favour on account of its inferior hitting
power at long range as compared with that of guns of larger
calibre, and as a secondary armament of 6-in. guns is still being
included in the latest battleship designs of more than one foreign
navy — notably that of the Japanese, with their practical experi-
ence of modern war at sea — its abandonment in the British Navy
can scarcely be considered final. The 4-in. Q.F. gun is mounted in
the third-class cruisers of the " P " class as their main armament,
and an improved gun of this calibre, with muzzle velocity of
about 2800 ft. per second, is mounted in the later " Dread-
noughts," as their anti-torpedo-boat armament.
The increase in size of modern torpedo craft and the increased
range of modern torpedoes has led to a reconsideration of the
type of gun suitable for the protection of large ships against
torpedo attack. The conditions under which the anti-torpedo-
boat armament comes into play are the most unfavourable
possible for accurate gun-fire. The target is a comparatively
small one; it comes into view suddenly and unexpectedly; it
is moving rapidly, and the interval during which the boat must
be stopped, i.e. that between her being first sighted and her
arrival at the distance at which she can expect to fire her torpedo
with success, is in all probability a very short one. Moreover,
in the great majority of cases the attack will be made at night,
when the difficulties of rapid and correct adjustment of sights,
and of range-finding and spotting, are intensified. Two require-
ments then are paramount to be satisfied by the ideal anti-
torpedo-boat gun: (i) it must have a low trajectory, so that
its shooting will not be seriously affected by a small error in the
range on the sights; (2) one hit from it must suffice to stop a
hostile destroyer.
For many years it was considered that these requirements
would be met by the 12-pounder, which was the anti-torpedo-boat
gun for battleships from the " Majesties "to the" Dreadnought,"
the i2-pounders mounted in the " King Edwards " and the
" Dreadnought " being of a longer and heavier type, giving a
higher muzzle velocity. The introduction of a larger gun has,
however, been considered desirable, and a 4-in. gun of new type
is mounted in the later " Dreadnoughts," while in the older
battleships and large cruisers with secondary armaments it is
considered by many officers that the 6-in. guns will prove to be
the most effective weapon against torpedo craft. The gun
armament of destroyers being required to answer much the same
purpose as the anti-torpedo-boat armament of large ships,
namely, to disable hostile torpedo craft, the type of gun used has
followed a similar line of development.
Starting with 6-pounders in the first destroyers built, the
majority of the new destroyers have a fixed armament consisting
of one 1 2-poundcr forward, and four 6-pounders. This armament
has been changed in the larger destroyers to one of 12-pounders
only, while the latest ocean-going destroyers have two 4-in. guns.
Owing, however, to the strength of the decks of such craft being
insufficient to withstand the stresses set up by the discharge of a
gun giving very high muzzle velocity, the 4-in. gun for use in
light craft is one giving 2300 ft. per second muzzle velocity only
and has a very long recoil. The 6-pounder and 3-pounder Q.F.
guns arc no longer being mounted as part of the armaments of
modern ships. A very high rate of fire was attained in the
" semi-automatic " mounting of the 3-pounder, which was last
fitted in the " Duke of Edinburgh " class, but for reasons already
given guns of this type are no longer required, and the 3-pounder
is retained only as a boat gun for sub-cahbrc practice.
All double-banked pulling boats and all steam-boats are
fitted with arrangements for mounting one or two guns, according
to the size of the boat; the object of the boat armaments being
for use in river operations, for covering a landing, or in guard-
boats. Three descriptions of gun are used, the 12-pounder 8 cwt.
and 3-pounder, light Q.F. guns, and the Maxim rifle-calibre
machine gun.
Gun- Mountings. — Gun mountings in the British navy may
be divided broadly into two classes, power-worked and hand-
worked mountings. The former class includes the mountings
of guns of all calibres mounted in turrets or Vjarbettes, also of
9-2-in. guns mounted behind shields; the latter class includes
mountings of guns of all sizes up to the 7-5-in. which are
mounted in batteries, casemates or behind shields.
Hydraulic power has been adopted almost universally in the
British navy for power-worked mountings, although electricity
has been experimented with, and has been largely applied in
some foreign navies. The principal advantages of hydraulic,
as compared with electric, power are its comparative noiselessness
and reliability, and the ease with which defects can be diagnosed
and rectified. On the other hand, electric power is more easily
transmitted, and is already installed in all ships for working
electric light and other machinery, whereas hydraulic power,
when used, is generally installed for the purpose of working the
guns only. The 12-in. guns in the " Majestic " class, following
the practice with the earliest heavy B.L. guns, were loaded
normally at extreme elevation of 135°, and the turret had to be
trained to the fore and aft Une and locked there for each occasion
of loading. An alternative loading position was also provided,
in which the guns could be loaded at 1° of elevation and with
the turret trained in any direction. Loading in the alternative
position could, however, only be continued until the limited
supply of projectiles which could be stowed in the turret was
exhausted. Experience showed that a greater rapidity of fire
could be obtained by the use of this " aU round " loading position,
as it was termed, and in the latest ships of the " Majestic "
class, and in subsequent battleships, the fixed loading position
has been abandoned.
The details of recent 12-in. mountings vary considerably, a
drawing of one of the most recent being shown in fig. 91, for which
thanks are due to Messrs Vickers, Sons & Maxim, but in the majority
of cases there is a " working chamber " revolving with the turret.
A fixed ammunition hoist brings the shell and cartridges from shell-
room and magazine respectively into the working chamber, where
they are transferred to a cage which takes them up, by hydraulic
power, to the rear of the gun. The gun is strapped by steel bands to
a cradle (see fig. 91) which moves in and out along a slide on recoil,
the gun always remaining parallel to the slide. Gun, slide and cradle
are pivoted for elevation on trunnions carried in trunnion bearings
fi.xed to the structure of the turret, and the whole moving weight is
balanced with the gun in the " run out " position. The recoil of
the gun on firing is taken up by a hydraulic press placed underneath
the slide, and the gun is run out again into the firing position by
hydraulic power. Loading is carried out by means of a hydraulic
rammer, with the gun in the " run out " position, and at an angle of
elevation which varies with different mountings. In the most
recent mountings loading can be carried out with the gun at any
elevation, thus affording considerably greater facility to the gun-
layer for keeping his sights on the target during the process of
loading, and so increasing the rate of fire by enabling the gun to be
discharged immediately the loading operations are completed.
Elevating is by hydraulic power, and is effected by cylinders placed
underneath the slide, the pistons worlcing on an arm projecting
downwards. Turret turning engines are also hydraulic, and much
attention has been given of late years to the perfection of elevating
and turning gear such as will enable the turret or gun to respond
instantly to the wish of the gun-layer, and to move either with con-
siderable rapidity, or ver>' slowly and steadily as would be the case
when following a target at long range and with but little motion on
the ship. The breech is opened and closed by hand or by hydraulic
234
ORDNANCE
From a drawing supplied by Messrs. Vickers, Sons & Maxim.
Fig. 91. — Diagram of 12-in. Gun Mounting, " Dreadnought" type.
A,
Roller ring.
K,
B.
Gun slide.
L.
c,
Recoil buffer.
N,
D,
Gun cradle.
Pi,
G.
Rammer.
P2,
H,
Loading cage.
Elevating presses.
Guide rail for loading cage.
Trunk cage.
Breech block in open position.
Breech operating hand
wheel.
Ri, Transferring rammer pro-
jectiles from trunk cage to
gun-loading cage.
R2, Transferring rammer for
powder charges from trunk
cage to gun-loading cage.
R3, Transferring chamber.
R4, Training rack.
Rs, Training engine.
S, Rotating trunk.
T, Turntable.
W, Casing for chain rammer.
power, and a douche of water or blast of air, or a combination of
both, removes any smouldering fragments of cordite or cartridge
material before a fresh round is loaded.
Although there is little difference in principle between the arrange-
ments of the mountings in the later " Majesties " and those in the
" Dreadnought," improvements in detail have enabled the interval
between successive rounds to be reduced from about 55 seconds in
the former case to 25 or 30 seconds in the latter.
In the turrets containing 9-2-in. and 7-5-in, guns, which exist in
most British armoured and first-class protected cruisers, the moving
weights are, of course, not so large, and, as might be expected, the
assistance of hydraulic machinery is not necessary in so many
operations. A drawing of a typical 9-2-in. gun and mounting is
shown in fig. 92.
Training the turret and elevating the guns are, however, in all
cases performed by hydraulic power, as is the raising of the pro-
jectiles to their place on the loading tray in rear of the gun, but the
breech is opened and closed, and the charge and projectile rammed
home, by hand power only, while the gun, after recoil, is forced out
again to its firing position by means of springs. A ready supply
of thirty-two projectiles is stowed in a " shell carrier," which is a
circular trough running on rollers round the turret, but independently
of it. When a projectile is required to be loaded into the gun, the
shell carrier is rotated until the required projectile is under a hatch
in rear of the gun, when the projectile is raised by a hydraulic press
on to a swinging loading tray. It is intended that the shell carrier
shall be replenished direct from the shell-room during the pauses of
an engagement. A new type of 9'2-in. mounting has been installed
in the " Lord Nelson " and " Agamemnon," in which greater use is
made of hydraulic power with a view to improving rapidity of fire.
In this mounting, each projectile is brought up from the shell-
room as it is required, and the loading operations are performed
by hydraulic power instead of by hand.
The " King Edward VII." class of battleships and " Duke of
Edinburgh " class of cruisers are the last ships in which any 6-in.
guns have been mounted, and with the exception of the 7'5-in.
guns in the " Triumph " and " Swiftsure," these are the largest guns
which are worked entirely by hand. Other hand-worked guns are
the 4-in. and 12-pounder, which are mounted in small cruisers and
destroyers.
The principles of the 6-in., 4-in. and 12-pounder mountings are
similar. The rear part of the gun is partially enclosed in a metal
cradle, which carries the recoil cylinder and running out spring box.
The gun and cradle are balanced for elevation about trunnions on
the cradle, which fit into trunnion bearings on the carriage. The
latter carries the elevating and training gear, and the whole moving
weight is borne by a pivot pin which rotates on a ball bearing. The
gun recoils in the line of fire, and the energy of recoil is absorbed by
means of the recoil piston, whose rod is secured to the gun, passing
over a valve key secured to the cradle, in such a way as to produce
a channel of varying sectional area through which the liquid in the
recoil cylinder must pass from one side of the piston to the other.
Springs run the gun out again after firing into its original position.
The breech is opened by the single motion of a hand lever. A
" bare " charge is used in the 6-in. and 4-in. guns, with the de Bange
type of obturation, while a brass cartridge case has been retained
with the 12-pounder, as with the earlier Q.F. guns.
Firing is by electricity, percussion being available as an alternative
if required, and the current is usually taken off the dynamo mains
of the ship.
Sighting. — The great advances recently made in accuracy
of fire have been rendered possible, to a very great extent, by ,
the use of telescopic sighting apparatus. Arrangements are
made in all modern sights for the bars or disks which carry ■
the range graduations to be of considerable length or diameter
respectively, in order that no difficulty may be found in
adjusting the sights for every 25 or 50 yds. of range. In the
larger hand-worked mountings, where the laying of the gun for
elevation and for direction is effected by two men on opposite
sides of the gun, the sights used by them are " cross-connected, "
i.e. connected by rods and gearing to one another in such a way
that, initial paraOelism of the axes of the two telescopes having
Ni^VAL GUNSl
ORDNANCE
235
From a drawing supplied by Messrs Vickers, Sons & Maxim.
Fig. 92. — Diagram of a 9-2-in. Gun and Mounting,
A, Roller ring. G, Elevating press.
B, Recoil buffer. H,
C, Gun cradle slide frame. K,
D, Loading tray. L,
E, Shell carrier. M,
F, Pressure water pivot pipes. Pi,
Shell-lifting press.
Fixed armoured trunk.
Radial shell-lifting crane.
Axial powder hoist.
Breech block.
Hogue '
R.
R2
T,
U,
type.
Breech operating hand-
wheel.
Training rack.
Training engine.
Turntable.
Powder door.
been secured, the adjustments to one sight made by the sight-
setter are simultaneously effected at the sight on the opposite
of the gun.
In practice with the 6-in. and 4-in. guns, one man is responsible
for the laying of the gun for direction, and has consequently only
to think about the coincidence of the vertical cross-wire with the
target, while another man, who also fires, keeps the gun laid
for elevation, and is responsible only for the coincidence of the
target with the horizontal cross-wire. The 12-pounder has one
sight only, one man being considered sufficient to keep the gun
laid for elevation as well as for direction, and to fire. It is
essential that the sights shall be unaffected by the recoil of the
gim, so that they can be adjusted up to the moment of firing
by the sight-setter, and that it shall not be necessary for the gun-
layer to remove his eye from the telescope while the gun is
being fired and reloaded. It is also essential that the sights shall
move automatically in elevation and direction with the gun.
These two requirements are easily met in the hand-worked
mountings by the attachment of the sights to the cradle, which
does not move on recoil, and remains constantly parallel to the
gun; but in turret mountings the case is more complicated and
involves greater comple.xity of gearing.
The older turret sighting arrangement consisted of two horizontal
shafts, one for each gun, running across the turret, which were
rotated by pinions gearing into racks underneath the gun-slides,
the latter remaining of course always parallel to the guns. Pinions
keyed to these shafts geared in their turn into racks formed on
vertical sighting columns in the sighting positions, these columns,
which carried the sighting telescopes, accordingly moving up and
down with the guns. With'this arrangement an appreciable amount
of backlash was found to be inevitable, owing to the play between
the teeth of the several racks and pinions, and to the torsion of the
"Jiafts, and the arrangement was also open to the objection that the
telescopes were much exposed to possible injury from an enemy's
fire. These defects have been very largely obviated by the " rocking
motion sights," which have been fitted in the turrets of the latest
British battleships and cruisers. In these sights a sight-bracket is
secured to and rotates with the trunnion of the m.ounting; the
sight -carrier and telescope move along the top of the sight-bracket,
on a curved arc of which the trunnion is not the centre. When the
sight js at zero, the telescope is parallel to the axis of the gun, while
to adjust the sight, the sight-carrier with telescope is moved along
the curved arc by means of a rack and pinion a distance corresponding
to the graduations shown on the range dial, which is concentric
with the pinion.
Organization. — The organization of a large ship for action is
necessarily highly elaborate. Among the officers, next to the
captain, the most important duties are probably those of the
fire control officer. He is in communication by telephone or
voice tube with each of the several units composing the ship's
armament. This office is usually filled by the gunnery lieutenant.
In the conning tower with the captain is the navigating officer,
who attends to the course and speed of the ship, assisted by
petty officers to work the wheel and engine-room telegraphs. The
torpedo lieutenant, or another officer at the torpedo director,
is also in the conning tower, prepared to fire the torpedoes if
opportunity offers. Other officers of the military branch, and
marine officers, are in charge of various sections of the
' quarters."
The rate of advance in naval gunnery has been much accelerated
since 1902. The construction of the " Dreadnought," which em-
bodied a new principle both in nature and disposition of armament,
the rise of the United States and Japanese navies to the first rank,
and the practical experience of the Russo-Japanese war, were all
factors which contributed to the increase of the normal rate of
advance due to progress in metallurgy and engineering science. In
the British as well as in other navies, notably those of Germany,
the United States and Japan, ever-increased attention is being
devoted to the attainment of a rapid and accurate shell-fire, and
large sums are being expended upon fire control instruments and
elaborate aiming and sighting appliances. Size of armaments,
power of guns, resistance of armour, efficiency of projectiles, and,
above all, rapidity and accuracy of fire, all seem to be advancing
with giant strides. But there are two important ingredients of
naval gunnery which are not subject to change: the human factor,
and the factor of the elements — wind, sea and weather. The
latter ensures at any rate one datum point to the student of the
science, that is, that the extreme range in action is limited by
the maximum distance at which the enemy can be clearly seen,
which may be considered to be a distance of 8000 to 10,000 yds.
The permanence of the human factor assures that, however great
the advance in material, and, provided that no great discrepancies
exist in this respect between opposing navies, success at sea will be
the lot of the nation whose officers are the coolest and most in-
telligent, whose men are the best disciplined and best trained, and
whose nav-\' is in all respects the most imbued mth the habits and
traditions of the sea. (S. Fr.)
236
ORDOVICIAN SYSTEM
ORDOVICIAN SYSTEM, in geology, the group of strata which
occur normally between the Cambrian below and the Silurian
above; it is here regarded as including in ascending order the
Arenig, Llandeilo, and Caradoc or Bala series iqq.v.). The
name was introduced by C. Lapworth in 1879 to embrace those
rocks — well developed in the region formerly inhabited by the
Ordovices — which had been classed by Sir R. Murchison as
Lower Silurian and by A. Sedgwick in his Cambrian system.
The term is convenient and well established, but Lower Silurian
is still used by some authors. The line of demarcation between
the Ordovician and the Cambrian is not sharply defined, and
beds on the Tremadoc horizon of the Cambrian are placed by
many writers at the base of the Ordovician, with good palaeonto-
logical reasons.
The rocks of this system include all types of sedimentation;
when they lie flat and undisturbed, as in the Baltic region and
Russia, the sands and clays are as soft and incoherent as the
similar rocks of Tertiary age in the south of England; where
they have been subjected to powerful movements, as in Great
Britain, they are represented by slates, greywackes, quartzitcs,
chlorite-, actinolite- and garnet-schists, amphibolites and other
products of metamorphism. In Europe the type of rock varies
rapidly from point to point, limestones, shales, sandstones,
current-bedded grits and conglomerates or their metamorphosed
equivalents are all found within limited areas; but in northern
Europe particularly the paucity of limestones is a noteworthy
feature in contrast with the rocks of like age in the south, and
still more with the Ordovician of North America, in which
limestones are prevalent. In the Highlands of Scotland, in
north-west England, in Wales and Ireland, there are enormous
developments of contemporaneous lavas and tuffs and their
metamorphosed representatives; tuffs occur also in Brittany,
and lavas on a large scale in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick.
Distribution. — The Ordovician system is widely distributed.
The accompanying map indicates roughly the relative positions
of the principal land-masses and seas, but it must be accepted
with reserve.
A study of the fossils appears to point to the existence of
definite faunal regions or marine basins. The Ordovician rocks
waters, embracing China, Siberia and the Himalayas; C(>n-
cerning the last-named marine area not much is known. In
the opposite direction, the Baltic basin may have communicate;d,
through Greenland, with the North American and Arctic seas.
Over central and eastern North America another large body
of water probably lay, with open communications with the north
and west, and with a more constricted connexion with the
c Continent
Hypothetical Lanil & Sea areas
in the Early
Ordovician Period
After F. Frtch & R. RjeJc^ar.n
SouihAu3traliaii
Sea.
Atlantic sea. The lagoonal character of some of the rocks of
the Tunguska region of Siberia may perhaps be indicative of
continental border conditions in that quarter.
Some of the principal subdivisions of the Ordovician rocks
are enumerated in the table. Owing to the universal distribu-
tion of the graptolites, the correlation of widely separated
areas has been rendered possible wherever the muds and shales,
in which their remains are preserved, are found. Where they
are absent the correlation of the minor local subdivisions of
distant deposits is more difficult. In Great Britain, through
Ordovician System.
Ordovician Rocks: Generalized Correlation Table.
England
and
Wales.
Graptolite Zones.
Scotland.
Scandinavia.
W. Russia.
North American Continent.
Bohemia.
N.-W. France.
Xew York.
Quebec.
Caradoc
or
Bala group.
Dice'hcjaplus
ancep^.
D. coniplanaha,
Pleurograptus
lineari'i.
Dicram.^raptus
clingaiii.
Hartfell Shales.
.A.rdmillan Series,
and
Lowther Shales.
Brachiopod beds,
Trinucleus beds,
and
Lcpiacna
limestone.
Trinucleus
limestone.
D5.
D4.
D3.
Ores de May.
Calcaire de
Rosan.
Borkholm
and
Lyckhoim beds.
Wesenberg
beds.
Richmond beds
and %
Hudson river Shales. '^
c
Lorraine beds. ■- '^
Utica Shale. c
Lowest ^ y,
Anticosti -jj
limestone £
and T3
Hudson river '3
beds. S"
XI
r=?
Llandeilo
group.
Coe>wgraplu-i
gracilis.
Didyniof^rapf't^
Murciiisoni.
Glenkiln Shales
and
Barr Series.
Middle
Graptolite beds
and
Chasmops
limestone.
CyUidean
limestone.
D2.
Dry.
Schistes d.'S
Gembloux
and
ironstone.
Jewe, Itfer, and
Kuckers beds.
Echinosphaerite
limestone.
Trenton beds ^
and ci
Galena limestone. .5 ""
Black river beds. ^ _
Lowville limestone. S a
Trenton g ^
limestone. g;^
Coenograptus t3<
Shales. ^^Z
'3
(Lanvim)
and
Arenig group.
Didytnoejaptus
bifi-dus.
Tetragraptus
bryonides.
Radiolariiin
Cherts
and
Ballantrae
Series.
Lower
Graptolite beds
and
Orlhoceras
limestone.
Di^.
Grcs
Armoricain
(part).
Vaginatus
limestone
and
Glauconite
limestone.
Chazy limestone d r ,
(part) ^ ^
and rt
St Peter's sandstone. ^
Levis Shales p.
with ^
Tetragraptus, g
and Q
Phyllograptus. *-^
Tremadoc beds, Ceratopyge beds, and beds with Euloma-Niobe fauna here regarded as Cambrian : not invariably present.
of the British Isles seem to have been deposited in a North
Atlantic sea which embraced also the north of France and
Belgium. Conlluent with this sea on the east was a rather
peculiar basin which included Bohemia, southern France, Spain,
Portugal, the eastern Alps, Thuringia, Fichtelgebirge and the
Keller Wald. Another European basin, probably separated
from the Bohemian or Mediterranean sea in early Ordovician
times, lay over the Baltic region, Scandinavia, the Baltic pro-
vinces and north Germany, and communicated eastwards by
way of Russian Poland and central Russia with far eastern
C. Lapworth and his school, and J. E. Marr and the Cambridge
school, and in Scandinavia and the Baltic region, through
W. C. Brogger, S. A. Tulberg, F. Schmidt and others, the most
elaborate subdivision of the Ordovician rocks has been attained.
In the Baltic provinces of Russia, F. Schmidt describes the follow-
ing stages, in descending order: (Stage F) the Lyckhoim and
Borkholm zones, a highly fossiliferous series, equivalent to the
Middle Bala of Britain ; many of the limestones are largely formed of
Rhabdoporella and other calcareous algae. (E) Wesenberg zone =
Bala. (D) Jewe and Kegel zone. (C) Itfer beds, Kuckers Shale
(bituminous limestones and marls = Brandschiefer), Echinosphaerite
ORDOVICIAN SYSTEM
237
limestone = Upper Orthoceratite limestone of Sweden. (B) Ortho-
ceratite (Vaginaten) limestone = Orthoceratite limestone of Sweden,
(ylauconitic limestone, Glauconitic sand (Greensand). The last-
nxentioned reposes on Cambrian Dictyonema shales. While the
Ordovician rocks in Scania, the Baltic provinces anil north-central
Rbssia are undisturbed and level-bedded, those on the western side
ofl the Scandinavian axis and in the Urals have suffered movement
and are metamorphosed into schists, phyllites, quartzite, marble,
&n. ; and, especially in Scandinavia, have been extensively thrust.
Tl|ie Bohenlian Ordovician, " stage D " of Barrande, consists mainly
of grey wackes and shales with some ironstone beds and eruptive rocks
in the lower parts. In Germany the only large areas are found in the
Thuringer VVald, Fichtelgebirge, Frankenwald and Vogtland, where
they consist principally of unfossiliferous greywackes and shales
with some oolites and glauconitic ironstone (chamosite) in the lower
part. They are divisible into the Hauptschiefer or Lederschiefer and
the OIjer-Thuringit beds above, and the Griffelschiefer and Unter-
Thuringit beds below, which rest upon the Leitmitzschiefer of
the Euloma-Niobe (Cambrian) horizon. Across northern Russia
Ordovician rocks cover a great area; they consist of clays, bitumin-
ous and calcareous shales, sands and marls, which in the Ural region
have been metamorphosed; the Bukowka sandstone of Russian
Poland is of this age. In north-west France this system is represented
in Brittany and Normandy by the slates of Riadan, the gris de May,
the schistes a calymines (with an ironstone bed at the base) and the
gres armoricain. In the Ardennes are the schistes de Gcmbloux,
resting upon graptolitic shales of Arenig age. Sandstones and shales
occur in Languedoc, and various rocks in the Pyrenees. In the
Iberian peninsula Ordovician rocks are widely spread, represented
by sandstones, slates and shales covering the whole of the period ;
they are well developed in Asturia and Galicia. In the eastern Alps
about Graz are found calcareous shales with crinoids, the " Schock-
elkalk " and " Semriacher " shales; the Marthener beds of the
Carnic Alps are of this age. In China (Kiang-su, Kian-chang), in
Burma (Mandalay) and in the Himalayas (Niti and Spiti) Ordo-
vician fossil-bearing rocks are known.
On the North American continent Ordovician rocks cover a very
large area in the central, eastern and northern parts (north of lat. 30°).
As regards the classification and correlation of the strata, which
change in character from point to point, as is natural over so large an
area, much remains to be done. In the table the divisions of the
system that obtain in the New York district are enumerated; but
in each state there is a local nomenclature for the beds. Thus in
Iowa, Wisconsin and Minnesota we find (i) Lower Magnesian lime-
stone, St Peter's sandstone; (2) Trenton limestone, Galena lime-
stone; (3) Hudson river shales; in Arkansas, the California or
Magnesian limestone, Saccaroidal limestone, Izard limestone and
Polk Bayou limestone; in Oklahoma, the Arbuckle limestone,
Simpson series, Viola limestone and Sylvan shales; and in east
Tennessee, the Chickamauga limestone, Athens shale, Tellia sand-
stone, Sievicr shale and Bays sandstone. In Massachusetts there
are enormous series of schists which have been assigned to this
period. In west Virginia are the Martinsburg shales (1000 ft. or
more). In Canada the Ordovician rocks (Quebec group) are thickly
developed. In the upper division there are the lowest of the Anticosti
limestones, the Hudson river beds, and Trenton limestone; to the
middle division belong the Coenograplus shales; and the lower
division consists of the Levis shales with Sillery beds at the base.
In Nova Scotia and New Brunswick are the lower and upper divisions
of the Cobequid group, a series of shales, quartzites and conglomer-
ates with igneous rocks. In the polar regions Ordovician rocks are
represented by the Trenton limestone in Boothia and King William's
Land; by limestones with Caryocystis granehim in east Greenland;
and in the Barrow Straits by beds with AsapJms and Madurea.
In North Africa Ordovician rocks are probably present, and in
New Zealand the Arorere series (Wanaka group), and in Australia
(Victoria) the graptolitic, gold-bearing shales and slates belong to
this period. During this period there appears to have been a general
tendency for the sea to transgress on the land, a tendency which
increased towards its close, especially in the northern hemisphere
(Europe and the Appalachian regions). One of the results of this
movement was the interchange and commingling of many previously
separated faunal groups. About the beginning of the period the sea
withdrew from the land in Texas and south of the Rocky Mountains.
The folding of the Appalachians was in progress early in Ordovician
times and later in the period the first symptoms of the Scandinavian
and British folding set in.
Volcanic Activity. — This period was one of great volcanic
activity in several widely separated regions. " In Ayrshire
and the south-western districts (of the southern uplands), where
the volcanic constituents attain a great development, they
consist of basic lavas (diabase, &c.), with intercalated tuffs
and agglomerates. A characteristic feature of these lavas is
the development of ellipsoidal or pillow-structure in them.
This volcanic platform appears to underlie the Silurian region
over an area of at least 2000 sq. m., inasmuch as it comes to
the surface wherever the crests of the anticlines bring up suffi-
ciently deep parts of the formations. It is thus one of the most
extensive as well as one of the most ancient volcanic tracts
of Europe " (Sir A. Geikic, Text-hook of Geology, 4th ed. vol. ii.
p. 951). In the west of England and in Wales there was also
a very active volcanic centre. In the Snowdon district thousands
of feet of contemporaneous felsitic lavas and tuffs occur in the
Bala beds; while in Cader Idris, the Arenig Mountains and
the Arans there are similar eruptions of felsitic and rhyolitic
lavas, tuffs and agglomerates — probably many of ihem sub-
marine — interstratified in the Arenig formation. In the Lake
district a great series of lavas and ashes — the Borrowdale
scries — was erupted during the middle of the period; the earlier
effusions were andesitic, the later ones felsitic and rhyolitic.
In Ireland the Arenig lavas of Tyrone resemble some of those
in Scotland. Volcanic rocks (porphyrites, syenites and lavas)
occur in considerable force in the Ordovician rocks of Nova
Scotia and New Brunswick and New Zealand. Tuffs of this
age are found in Brittany, and diabase in Bohemia.
The economic products obtained from rocks of this period include
gold in Australia, New Zealand and Wales; iron ore in France;
lead and zinc from the Galena and Trenton horizons in Wisconsin,
Iowa and Illinois; manganese in Arkansas; oil and gas from the
Trenton stage in Ohio and east Indiana; roofing slates and slate
pencils in Wales and the Lake district; limestone in Great Britain
and Tennessee; phosphate beds in Wales and Tennessee; marble
in the Appalachian district; graphite (plum'oago) in the Lake
district; and jasper in Wales and southern Scotland.
Ordovician Life. — Compared with the preceding Cambrian
period, the Ordovician is remarkable for the great expansion
in numbers and variety of organisms, apart from the fact that
fossils are better preserved in the younger formations.
All the great classes of mollusks were represented, the most numer-
ous being the brachiopods, which, in addition to the simple forms of
the Cambrian, began at this time to develop spire-bearing genera
(Chonetes, Orthis, Orthisina, Strophomena, Crania, Schizotreta,
Poratnbonites, Rafinesquina, Leptaena,Zygospira). The gasteropods
now developed all the leading types of shell (Pleurotomaria, Omphalo-
trochus) ; but' both this class and the pelecypods {Lyrodesma,
Ctenodonta, Modiolopsis) were subordinate in importance to the
cephalopods. These mollusks were probably the most powerful
living creatures in the Ordovician seas; straight-shelled, slightly
curved, and nautiloid forms predominated ((^rthoceras, Cyrtoceras,
Gyroceras, Trocholites, Endoceras, Litoceras, Lituites, Actinoceras).
Some of the straight shells were of enormous size, 12 to 15 ft. long
and as much as i ft. in diameter, in the widest part. Trilobites were
present in great abundance, and in this period they reached the
climax of their development. In the lower stage we find Agnostus,
Calymene, Asaphus, Illaenus, Placoparia; on the Llandeilo horizon,
Calymene, Asaphus, Megalaspis, Dahianitis ; and, at the summit,
Trinucleus and Homalonotus. In the transition zone between
Ordovician and Cambrian, Ceratopyge, Euloma, Niohe, flourished.
Other important genera are Ogygia, Cheirurus, Harpes, Acidaspis.
Ostracods {Leperditia, Beyrichia), cyprids {Bairdia, Macrocypris),
phyllocarids (Ceratiocaris, Peltocaris), cirripeds {Lepidocoleus), and,
later, eurypterids represented other crustacean groups. The
bryozoans, Stomalopora, Monticulipora, Phylloporina, Fenestella and
others, were abundant and frequently formed beds of limestone.
.Among the echinoderms the cystoids were the most prominent
[Pleurocystis, Aristocystis) and at this period reached their climax;
crinoids (Archaeocrinus, Dendrocrinus) became more important;
while ophiuroids.echinoids {Bothriocidaris) and asteroids {Taeniaster,
Palaeaster) made their appearance. Corals {Streptelasma, Colum-
naria) were scarce, and sponges {Aulocopium, Caryospongia. .Archaco-
cyathus) were not particularly important; Reccptaculites, Ischadites,
are well-known fossils doubtfully referred to this group. Radiolaria
assisted in the formation of certain beds of chert, and foraminifcra
have been observed. The remarkable group, the graptolites, evi-
dently inhabited the seas in countless numbers and have left their
remains in the dark shales of this period all over the world. At this
time the diprionidian forms alone were represented by such genera as
Tetragraptus, Phyllograptus, Didymograptus, Dicellograptus, Diplo-
graptus and others. Of great interest are the earliest known indica-
tions of vertebrate life in the form of dermal plates and teeth of fish-
like organisms from the Ordovician of Colorado. The terrestrial life
of the period is very meagrely represented by the remains of land
plants, mostly poorly preserved in certain sandstones, and Dy scorpions
and several orders of insects, Protocimex (Sweden), Palaeoblattina
(Colorado).
One of the most striking facts brought out by the study of the
distribution of Ordovician fossils is the wide range of the northern or
" periarctic " faunal assemblage. This pcriarctic fauna prevails over
the whole world — so far as our present knowledge shows — with tlic
exception of the peculiar Bohemian or Mediterranean region, which
238
ORDU— ORE-DRESSING
includes north-west and south-west France, Spain, Italy, the Alps,
the Fichtelgebirge, east Thuringia, Harz and Rhenish Mountains.
Authorities. — Sir R. I. Murchison, Silurian System (1839) and
Siluria (1854, 1867); A. Sedgwick, Synopsis of the Classification 0}
the British Palaeozoic Rocks (1855); J. Barrande, Systime siluriendu
tentre de la Boheme (1852-1887); J. J. Bigsby, Thesaur-us Siluricus
(London, 1868); J. E. Marr, The Classification of the Cambrian and
Silurian Rocks (Cambridge, 1883); Charles Lapworth, "On the
Geological Distribution of the Rhabdophora," Annals and Mag. Nat.
Hist. ser. 5, vols, iii., iv., v., vi. (1879-1880); B. N. Peach, J. Home,
J. J. H. Teall, " The Silurian Rocks of Great Britain," vol. i., Scotland,
Mem. Geol. Survey (1899); F. Freeh and others, " Lethaea geog-
nostica," Theil i. Band 2 (Lethaea palaeozoica) (Stuttgart, 1897-
1902); Sir A. Geikie, Text-book of Geology (4th ed., 1903); and for
recent papers. Geological Literature, Geo!. Soc. (London, annual).
See also Cambrian and Silurian Systems. (J. A. H.)
ORDU (anc. Cotyora, where the " Ten Thousand " embarked
for home), a town on the N. coast of Asia Minor, between Samsun
and Kerasund, connected with Zara, and so with Sivas, by a
carriage road, and with Constantinople and Trebizond by
steamer. Pop. about 6000, more than half Christian. Ordu has
exceptionally good Greek schools, and a growing trade in filberts.
ORDUIN - NASHCHOKIN, ATHANASY LAVRENTEVICH
(?-i68o), Russian statesman, was the son of a poor official at
Pskov, who saw to it that his son was taught Latin, German and
mathematics. Athanasy began his pubUc career in i642asone
of the delineators of the new Russo-Swedish frontier after the
peace of Stolbova. Even then he had a great reputation at
Moscow as one who thoroughly understood " German ways and
things." He was one of the first Muscovites who dihgently
collected foreign books, and we hear of as many as sixty-nine
Latin works being sent to him at one time from abroad. He
attracted the attention of the young tsar Alexius by his resource-
fulness during the Pskov rebellion of 1650, which he succeeded in
localizing by personal influence. At the beginning of the
Swedish War, Orduin was appointed to a high command, in which
he displayed striking ability. In 1657 he was appointed minister-
plenipotentiary to treat with the Swedes on the Narova river.
He was the only Russian statesman of the day with sufiicient fore-
sight to grasp the fact that the Baltic seaboard, or even a part
of it, was worth more to Muscovy than ten times the same
amount of territory in Lithuania, and, despite ignorant jealousy
of his colleagues, succeeded (Dec. 1658) in concluding a
three-years' truce whereby the Muscovites were left in possession
of ah their conquests in Livonia. In 1660 he was sent as pleni-
potentiary to a second congress, to convert the truce of 1658
into a permanent peace. He advised that the truce with Sweden
should be prolonged and Charles II. of England invited to
mediate a northern peace. Finally he laid stress upon the
immense importance of Livonia for the development of Russian
trade. On being overruled he retired from the negotiations.
He was the chief plenipotentiary at the abortive congress of
Durovicha, which met in 1664, to terminate the Russo-Polish
War; and it was due in no small measure to his superior
abihty and great tenacity of purpose that Russia succeeded in
concluding with Poland the advantageous truce of Andrussowo
(Feb. II, 1667). On his return to Russia he was created
a boyar of the first class and entrusted with the direction
of the foreign office, with the title of " Guardian of the great
Tsarish Seal and Director of the great Imperial Offices." He
was, in fact, the first Russian chancellor. It was Orduin who
first abolished the onerous system of tolls on exports and imports,
and estabUshed a combination of native merchants for promoting
direct commercial relations between Sweden and Russia. He
also set on foot a postal system between Muscovy, Courland and
Poland, and introduced gazettes and bills of exchange into
Russia. With his name, too, is associated the building of the
first Russian merchant-vessels on the Dvina and Volga. But his
whole official career was a constant struggle with narrow routine
and personal jealousy on the part of the boyars and clerks of the
council. He was last employed in the negotiations for con-
firming the truce of Andrussowo (September 1669; March 1670).
In January 1671 we hear of him as in attendance upon the tsar
on the occasion of his second marriage; but in February the
same year he was dismissed, and withdrew to the Kruipetsky
monastery near Kiev, where he took the tonsure under the nairie
of Antony, and occupied himself with good works till his death
in 1680. In many things he anticipated Peter the Great. He
was absolutely incorruptible, thus standing, morally as well as
intellectuaUy, far above the level of his age.
See S. M. Solovev, History of Russia (Rus.), vol. xi. (St Petersburg,
1895, seq.); V. Ikonnikov, " Biography of Orduin-Nashchokin " (in
Russkaya Starina, Nos. 11-12) (St Petersburg, 1883); R. Nisbet Bain,
The_ First Romanovs (London, 1905, chaps. 4 and 6). (R. N. B.)
OREBRO, a town of Sweden, capital of the district ildn) of
Orebro, lying on both banks of the Svarti a mile above its entrance
into Lake Hjelmar, 135 m. W. of Stockholm by rail. Pop. (1900),
22,013. In great part rebuilt since a fire in 1854, it has a modern
appearance. An ancient castle, however, with four round towers,
remains on an island in the stream. It is used as a museum.
There may be mentioned also the church of St Nicholas, of the
13th century; and the King's House (Kungsstuga), an old and
picturesque timber building. In front of the modern town hall
stands a statue, by Karl Gustav Qvarnstrom (1810-1867), of the
patriot Engelbrecht (d. 1436), who was born here. The Swedish
reformers of the i6th century, Olaus and Laurentius Petri, are
commemorated by an obeHsk. Orebro is in close connexion with
the iron-mining district of central Sweden; it has mechanical
works and a technical college. A large trade is carried on, by
way of the Orebro canal and lakes Hjelmar and Malar, with
Stockholm.
Orebro was in existence in the nth century. Its castle, erected
by Birger Jarl in the 13th century, played an important part in
the early annals of Sweden; and no fewer than twenty diets
or important assemblies were held either in the castle or in the
town. Such were the Orebro concilium of 1537, the diet of 1540
in which the crown was declared hereditary, and that of 1810
when Bernadotte was elected crown prince.
ORE-DRESSING, one of the principal processes in the work
of mining (g.v.). When the miner hoists his ore ' to the surface, the
contained metal may be either in the native uncombined state,
as, for example, native gold, native silver, native copper,
or combined with other substances forming minerals of more
or less complex composition, as, for example, telluride of gold,
sulphide of silver, sulphide of copper. In both cases the
valuable mineral is always associated with minerals of no value.
The province of the ore-dresser is to separate the " values "
from the waste — for example, quartz, felspar, calcite — by mechan-
ical means, obtaining thereby " concentrates " and " tailings."
The province of the metallurgist is to extract the pure metal
from the concentrates by chemical means, with or without the
aid of heat. There are also a number of non-metallic minerals
which do not have any value, or at best do not reach their highest
value until they have been subjected to some form of mechanical
preparation; among them are diamonds, graphite, corundum,
garnet, asbestos and coal. Ore-dressing, for the purposes of this
article, may be divided into three parts: (i) properties of
minerals which render aid in their separation; (2) simple opera-
tions; (3) operations combined to form processes or mills.
I. The specific gravity of minerals varies greatly, some being
heavy, others light. The rate of settling in water is affected by the
specific gravity in this way : of two particles of the same /vonert/es
size but different specific gravity, the heavier settles more
rapidly than the lighter, while of two particles of different specific
gravity which settle at the same rate in water, that of higher specific
gravity is of smaller diameter than the other. The same state-
ments are true in regard to settling in air, and in regard to momentum
in air when the particles are thrown out in a horizontal direction.
Colour, lustre and fracture are of especial value in hand-picking, to aid
the eye in selecting the mineral sought. Instances are, of colours,
the white of quartz, the pale straw colour of felspar, the dull yellow
of limonite, the brass yellow of chalcopyrite, the pale metallic yellow
of pyrite; of lustres, the vitreous of quartz, the adamantine of
diamond and cerussite, the resinous of blende, the earthy of limonite,
and the metallic of pyrite; and of fractures, the cleavage planes of
felspar and galena, the conchoidal fracture of quartz and pyrite, the
granular of some forms of magnetite and blende. Magnetism is a
most direct and simple method of separating minerals where it is
available. The discovery that by the use of electro-magnets of great
' The O. Eng. word was ora, corresponding with Du. oer, the origin
of which is unknown. The form " ore " represents the OEng. ar,
brass; cf. Lat. aes, Skt. ayas.
ORE-DRESSING
239
pwwer minerals formerly regarded as non-magnetic are attracted,
has made it possible to separate several classes of minerals present
in an ore; for example, the strongly magnetic mineral may first be
ta ken out, then the mildly magnetic, and last the weakly magnetic,
tlie non-magnetic being left behind. Adhesion acts when brightly
b'iirnished particles of gold issuing with the sand from the stamp
mJill come in contact with an amalgamated copper plate, for they are
instantly plated with mercury and adhere to the copper, while the
sa^d is carried forward by the water. In this way a very perfect
separation of the gold from the sand is effected. In the South African
diamond fields it has been found that if the diamond-bearing sand
is ^aken in a stream of water over a smooth surface covered with a
suijtable coating of grease, the diamonds will adhere to the grease
while the sand does not.
2. The concentration of ores always proceeds by steps or stages.
Thus the ore must be crushed before the minerals can be separated,
and certain preliminary steps, such as sizing and classify-
Slmple ji^g^ j^^gj precede the final operations which produce the
'•''*"''''"*• finished concentrates. The more important of these
simple operations will now be described.
The ore as mined contains the valuable minerals attached to and
enclosed in lumps of waste rock. The province of crushing or dis-
integrating is to sever or unlock the values from the waste, so that
the methods of separation
are then able to part the
one from the other. In
crushing ores it is found
wise to progress by stages,
coarse crushing being best
done by one class of
machine, medium by
another, and fine by a
third. Coarse crushing is
accomplished by breakers of
the Blake type (fig. i) or of
the Gates Comet type (fig.
2). All of these machines
break by direct pressure,
caused by a movable jaw,
a (figs. 1,2), approaching towards and receding from a fixed jaw, b.
The largest size ever fed to a breaker is 24 in. in diameter, and the
smallest size to which the finest crushing commonly done by these
machines brings the ore is about \ in. diameter. The machine is
generally supplied with ore in lumps not larger than 9 in. in diameter,
and crushes them to about i i in. in diameter. Medium-size crushing
is done mostly by rolls or steam stamps. Rolls
(fig. 3) crush by direct pressure caused by the
ore being drawn between two revolving rolls
held closely together. They make the least
fine slimes or fines to be lost in the subsequent
treatment, and are therefore preferred for all
brittle minerals. The steam stamp works upon
the same principle as a steam hammer, the
pestle being forced down by steam pressure
acting through piston and cylinder with great
crushing force in the mortar. Steam stamps
have been very successful with the native
copper rock, because they break up the little
leaves, flakes and filaments of copper, and
render them susceptible of concentration,
which rolls do not. Fine crushing is done by
gravity stamps, pneumatic stamps, by cen-
trifugal roller mills, by amalgamating pans,
by ball mills, by Chile edgestone mills, by
tube mills and by arrastras. The gravity
stamp (fig. 4) is a pestle of 900-lb weight
Fig
I. — Blake Breaker.
a. Movable jaw.
b. Fixed jaw.
Fig. 2. — Gates
Breaker.
a, Movable jaw.
b, Fixed jaw.
c, Gear with eccen
trie hub and with more or less, which is lifted by a revolving
loose fit on the cam and falls by the force of gravity to
spindle. strike a heavy blow on the ore resting
on the die in the mortar and do the work
of crushing; the frequent revolution of the cam gives a more
or less rapid succession of blows. Gravity stamps are especially
adapted to the fine crushing of gold ores, which they reduce to
jf'jj-in. and sometimes even to sV-in. grains. The blow of the stamp
upon the fragments of quartz not only liberates
the fine particles of gold, but brightens them
so that they are quickly caught upon the
amalgamatedplates. The centrifugal roller mills
are suited to fine crushing of middle products,
namely by-products composed of grains con-
taining both values and waste, since they
avoid making much fine slimes. They crush
by the action of a roller, rolling on the inside
of a steel ring, both having vertical axes. The amalgamating
pan is suitable for grinding silver ores for amalgamation where the
finest grinding is sought, together with the chemical action from the
contact with iron. It crushes by a true grinding action of one surface
sliding upon another. The Chile edgestone mill is employed for the
finast grinding ever used preparatory to concentration. The arrastra
or drag-stone mill grinds still finer for amalgamating. The ball mill
Fig. 3. — Crushing
Rolls.
is a horizontal revolving cylinder with iron balls in it which do the
grinding; the pulverized ore passes out through screens in the
cylinder wall. It is a fine grinder, making a small amount of im-
palpable slimes. It is used for preparation for concentrating. The
lube mill is of similar construction, but it
is fed through the hollow shaft at <me end
and discharged through the hollow shaft
at the other; the finely ground ore is
floated out by water and contains a large
proportion of impalpable slimes. It is used
for preparation for cyaniding of gold.
A considerable class of workable min-
erals, among which are surface ores of iron
and surface phosphates, contain worthless
clay mixed with the valuable material,
the removal of which is accomplished by
the log washer. This is a disintegrator
consisting of a long narrow cylinder re-
volving in a trough which is nearly hori-
zontal. Upon the cylinder are knives or
paddles set at an angle, which serve the
double purpose of bruising and disintegrat-
ing the clay and of conveying the cleaned
lump ore to be discharged at the upper end
of the trough, the water meanwhile washing
away the clay at the lower end.
Roasting for Friability. — When two min-
erals — for example, pyrite and cassiterite
(tin ore) — one of which is decomposed and
rendered porous and friable by heat and
oxygen — are roasted in a furnace, the pyrite
becomes porous oxide of iron, while the
cassiterite is not changed. A gentle crush-
ing and washing operation will then break
and float away the lighter iron oxide,
leaving the cleaned cassiterite behind.
Sizing. — This is the first of the pre-
liminary operations of separation. It is
found useful in concentration, for dividing
an ore into a number of portions graded pio. 4. Gravity Stamp.
from coarser sizes down to finer sizes.
Each portion is made suitable for treatment on its respective machine.
If crushed ore be sifted upon a screen with holes of definite size, two
products will result — the oversize, which is unable to pass through the
screen, and the undersize, which does pass. If the latter size be sifted
upon another screen with smaller holes, it will again make oversize
and undersize. The operation can be repeated with more sieves until
the desired number of portions is obtained. P. von Rittinger adopted
for close sizing the following diameters in millimetres for the holes in a
set of screens: 64, 45-2, 32, 22-6, 16, 11-3, 8, 5-6, 4, 2-8, 2, 1-4, I.
Each of these holes has an area
double that of the one next below it ;
this may be called the screen ratio.
A process which does not need such ■
close sizing might use every other
screen of the above set, and in ex-
treme cases even every fourth screen.
In mills the screen ratio for coarse sizes
often differs from that for fine. Sizing
is done by cylindrical screens revolving upon their inclined axes
(fig. 5), by flat shaking screens, and by fixed screens with a com-
paratively steel slope. Either wire cloth with square holes or steel
plate punched with round holes is used. To remove the largest
lumps in the preliminary sizing, fixed-bar screens (grizzlies) are
preferred, on account of their strength and durability.
Sizes smaller than can be satisfactorily graded by screens are
treated by means of hydraulic classifiers and box classifiers. The
lower limit of screening and therefore the beginning of this work
Fig. 5. — Trommel or
Revolving Screen.
Fig. 6. — Hydraulic Classifier,
varies from grains of 5 millimetres to grains of i millimetre in
diameter. A hydraulic classifier (fig. 6) is a trough-like washer
through which the water and sand flow from one end to the other.
In the bottom, at regular intervals, are pockets or pits with hydraulic
devices which hinder the outflowing discharge of sand, b, by an
inflowing stream of clear water, a. By regulating the speed of these
water currents, the size of the grains in the several discharges can be
regulated, the first being the coarsest and the overflow at the end
the finest. Box classifiers (spitzkasten) are similar, except that the
pockets are much larger and no inflowing clear water is used; they
therefore do their work much less perfectly. Classifiers do not truly
size the ore, but merely class together grains which have equal
settling power. In any given product, except the first, the grain of
high specific gravity will always be smaller than that of low. The
240
ORE-DRESSING
box classifiers are suited to treating finer sizes than the hydraulic
classifiers, and therefore follow them in the mill treatment.
Picking Floors, the first of the final operations of separation, are
areas on which men, boys or girls pick out the valuable mineral
which is rich enough to ship at once to the smelter. The picking is
often accompanied and aided by breaking with a hammer. Picking
tables are generally so constructed that the pickers can sit still and
have the ore pass before them on a moving surface, such as a re-
volving circular table or travelling belt. Stationary picking tables
require the ore to be wheeled to and dumped in front of the pickers.
Picking out the values by hand has the double advantage that it
saves the power and time of crushing, and prevents the formation of
a good deal of fine slimes which are difficult to save.
Jigs treat ores ranging from i j in. in diameter down to ^ in. If
an intermittently pulsating current of water is passed up through a
horizontal sieve on which is a bed of ore, the heavy mineral and the
quartz quickly form layers, the former beneath the latter. The
machine by which this work is done is called a jig, and the operation
is called jigging. In the hand jig the sieve is moved up and down in
a tank of water to get
the desired separation.
In the power jig (fig. 7)
,the sieve, a, is stationary
P
-j: .the sieve, a, is
\__S-_^ pisjand the pulsating current
Fig. 7. — Harz Jig.
is obtained by placing a
vertical longitudinal par-
tition, c, extending part
of the way down to the
bottom of the jig box.
The sieve, a, is firmly
fastened on one side of
the partition, and on the other a piston or plunger, d, is moved
rapidly up and down by an eccentric, causing an up-and-down
current of water through the sieve, a. The sieve is fed at one end,
e, with a constant supply of water and ore, and the quartz over-
flows at the other. Clear water (" hydraulic water") is brought by the
pipe, i, into the space, g, below called the hutch, to regulate the condi-
tion of the bed of ore on a. The constantly accumulating bed of con-
centrates is either discharged through the sieve into the hutch, g, or
by some special device at the side. On jigs where the concentrates pass
through the sieve, a bed of heavy mineral grains too large to pass
holds back the lighter quartz. The quartz overflow from one sieve,
a, generally carries too much value to be thrown away, and it is
therefore jigged again upon a second sieve, b. In jigging difficult
ores, three, four, five and even six sieves are used. A succession of
sieves gives a set of products graded both in kind and in richness, the
heavier mineral, as galena, coming first, the lighter, as pyrites and
blende, coming later. The best jigging is done upon closely sized
products using a large amount of clear water added beneath the
sieve. Very good jigging may, however, be done upon the products
of hydraulic classifiers, where the heavy mineral is in small grains
and the quartz is large, by using a bed on the sieve and diminished
hydraulic water, which increases the suction or downward pull by
the returning plunger.
Bumping Tables. — Rittinger's table is a rectangular gently
sloping plane surface which by a bumping motion throws the heavy
particles to one side while the current of water washes down the
quartz to another, a
wedge-shaped divider
separating and guiding
the concentrates and
tailings into their re-
e-spective hoppers. The
capacity on pulp of 5^^
to ^(j in. size is some 4
tons in twenty - four
hours. In the Wilfley
table (fig. 8) and those
derived from it a gentler
vanning motion is substituted for the harsh bump; they have a
greatly increased width and a set of rifife blocks, b, at right angles to
the direction of flow, c, tapering in height towards the side where the
concentrates are discharged, d. This combination has produced a
table of great efficiency and capacity for treating grains from j in.
in diameter down to „ J^ in. or even finer. The capacity on ^ in. pulp
is from 15 to 25 tons in twenty-four hours.
Vanners are machines which treat ores on endless belts, generally of
rubber with flanges on the two sides. The belt (fig. 9) travels up a
gentle slope, a, on horizontal transverse rollers, and is shaken about
200 times a minute, either sidewise or endwise, to the extent of about
I in. The lower 10 ft. is called the concentrating plane, b, and
slopes 278% more or less from the horizontal; the upper 2 ft. of
length is called the cleaning plane, c. and slopes 4-45 % more or less.
The fine ore is fed on with water (technically called pulp) at the
intersection of the two planes, d. The vibration separates the ore
into layers, the heavy minerals beneath and the light above. The
downward flow of the w^ater carries the light waste off and discharges
it over the tail roller e into the waste launder, while the upward travel
of the belt carries up the heavy mineral. On the cleaning plane the
latter passes under a rov/ of jets,/, of clean water, which remove the
Fig. 8.— Wilfley Table.
Fig. 9. — Frue Vanner.
last of the waste rock; it clings to the belt while it passes over tjhe
head roller, and only leaves it when the belt is forced by the dipping
roller to dip in the water of the concentrates tank, g. The cleaned
l)elt then continues its return journey over the guide roller h to t.he
tail roller e, which it passes round,
and again does concentration
duty. Experience proves that for
exceedingly fine ores the end
shake with steep slope and rapid
travel does better work than the
side-shake vanner. For ordinary
gold stamp-mill pulp, where clean-
ness of tailings is the most important end, and where to gain it the
engineer is willing to throw a little quartz into the concentrates, the
end-shake vanner is again probably a little better than the side-
shake, but where cleanness of concentrates is sought the side-shake
vanner is the most satisfactory. The latter is much the most usual
form.
Slime-Tables are circular revolving tables (fig. 10) with flattened
conical surfaces, and a slope of i \ in. more or less per foot from centre
to circumference; a common size is 17 ft. in diameter, and a common
speed one revolution per minute. These tables treat material of
tiloin. and less in diameter coming from box classifiers. The principle
on which the table works is that the film of water upon the smooth
surface rolls the larger grains (quartz) towards the margin of the
table faster than the smaller grains (heavy mineral) which are in the
slow-moving bottom current. The revolution of the table then
discharges the quartz earlier at a, a, a, a, an intermediate middling
product next at b, and the heavy mineral last at c. Suitable launders
or troughs and catch-bo.\es are supplied for the three products. The
capacity of such a table is 12 tons or more of pulp, dry weight, in
twenty-four hours. Frames, used in concentrating tin ore in Cornwall,
are rectangular slime-tables which separate the waste from the
concentrates on the same principle as the circular tables, though they
Fig. 10. — Convex Revolving Slime-table.
run intermittently. They treat very fine pulp, and after being fed
for a short period (about fifteen minutes) the pulp is shut olT, the
concentrates are flushed off with a douche of water and caught in a
box, and the feed pulp is again turned on. Canvas tables are rect-
angular tables with plane surfaces covered with cotton duck (canvas)
free from seams; they slope about ij in. to the foot. They are fed
with stamp-mill pulp, with the tailings of vanners, or, best of all,
with very fine pulp overflowing from a fine classifier. The rough
surface of the duck is such an efficient catching surface that they can
run for an hour before the concentrates are removed — an operation
which is effected by shutting ofT the feed pulp, rinsing the surface
with a little clean water, and hosing or brooming off the concentrates
into a catch-box. The feed-pulp is then again turned on and the
work resumed. They have been more successful than any other
machine in treating the finest pulp, especially when their concen-
trates are finally cleaned on a steep slope end-shake vanner (the
G. G. Gates canvas table system of California).
Buddies act in principle like slime-tables, but they are stationary,
and they allow the sand to build itself up upon the conical surface,
which is surrounded by a retaining wall. When charged, the tailings
are shovelled from the outer part of the circle, the middlings from the
intervening annular part, and the concentrates from the inner part.
They treat somewhat coar.ser sizes than the slime-table. The term
buddle is sometimes applied to the slime-tables, but the majority
confine the phrase to the machine on which the sand builds up in a
deep layer.
Riffles. — When wooden blocks or cobble-stones of uniform size are
placed in the bottom of a sluice, the spaces between them are called
riffles; and when gold-bearing gravel is carried through the sluice by
a current of water, a great many eddies are produced, in which the
gold and other heavy minerals settle.
Kieves.-^T\ie kieve or dolly-tub is a tub as large or larger than an
ordinary oil-barrel, with sides flaring slightly upwards all the way
from the bottom. In the centre is a fittle vertical shaft, with hand-
crank at the top and stirring blades like those of a propeller at the
bottom. Fine concentrates from buddies or slime-tables are still
further enriched by treatment in the kieve. The kieve is filled
perhaps half full of water, and the paddles set in motion; concen-
trates are now shovelled in until it is nearly full, the rotation is
continued a little longer and then the shaft is quickly withdrawn and
ORE-DRESSING
241
thi side of the kieve steadily thumped by a bumping-bar as long as
settling continues. When this is completed, the water is siphoned
off, the top sand skimmed off and sent back to the huddle, and the
eniriched bottom shovelled out and sent to the smelter.
3. In designing concentration works, the millwright seeks so to
combine the various methods of coarse and fine crushing and of
preliminary and final concentration that he will obtain the
Combined ^laximum return from the ore with the minimum cost.
operations, g^j^g ^f jjjj, f^ore important of these mill schemes will now
be described.
The hand-jig process used for the zinc and lead ores of Missouri
is first to clean the ore from adhering clay by raking it back and
forth in a sluice with a running stream of water, and then shovel
it lipon a sloping screen with holes of about i in., where it yields
oversize and undcrsize. The former is hand-picked into lead ore,
zinc ore and waste, while the latter is jigged upon a hand-jig and
yields several layers of minerals removed by a hand-skimmer. The
top skimmings are waste, the middle skimmings come back with the
next charge to be jigged over, and the bottom skimmings go to a
second jig with finer screen. The coarsest of the hutch product, i.e.
the product which passed through the sieve and settled at the bottom
of the tank, goes to the second jig, the finest is sold to a sludge mill
to be finished on buddies. The second jig makes top skimmings which
are sent back to the first jig, middle skimmings which are zinc
concentrates, and bottom skimmings and hutch, which are lead
concentrates.
In the Missouri zinc-concentrating mill the ore carrying blende
and calamine with a httle galena is in very large crystallizations
and contains, when crushed, very little in the way of included
grains. It is crushed by Blake breaker and rolls, to pass through a
sieve with holes J in. in diameter, and is then treated on a power jig
with six consecutive sieves, yielding discharge and hutch products
from each sieve, and tailings to waste. The earlier discharges are
finished products, while the later are re-crushed and re-treated on
the same jig. The hutch products are treated on a finishing-jig with
five sieves, and yield galena from the first discharge and hutch, and
zinc ore from the others. The capacity of such jigs is very large,
even to 75 or 100 tons per day of ten hours.
In the diamond washing of Kimberley, South Africa, the material
taken from the mine is weathered by exposure to the air and rain for
several months, and the softening and disintegration thus well
started are completed by stirring in vats with water. Breaker and
rolls were tried in order to hasten the process, but the larger diamonds
were broken and ruined thereby. The material from the vats is
screened and jigged, and of the jig concentrates containing about
2 % of diamonds the coarser are hand-picked and the finer are
treated on a greased surface.
Lead and copper ores contain their values in brittle minerals, and
are concentrated in mills which vary somewhat according to local
conditions; the one here outlined is typical of the class. The ore is
crushed by breaker and rolls, and separated into a series of products
diminishing in size by a set of screens, hydraulic classifier and box
classifier. All the products of screens and hydraulic classifiers are
jigged on separate jigs yielding concentrates, middlings and tailings;
those of the box classifier are treated on the slime-table, vanner or
Wilfley table, yielding concentrates and tailings and perhaps midd-
lings. The coarser middlings contain values attached to grains of
quartz and are therefore sent back to be re-crushed and re-treated.
The finer middlings contain values difficult to save from their shape
only, and are sent back to the same machine or to another to be
finished.
The native copper rock of Lake Superior is broken by powerful
breakers, sometimes preceded by a heavy drop-hammer weighing
a ton, more or less. The operation is accompanied by hand-picking,
yielding rich nuggets with perhaps 75 % of copper ready for the
smelter ; at some mines a second grade is also picked out which goes
to a steam finishing-hammer and yields cleaned mass copper for the
smelter and rich stamp stuff. The run of rock which passes by the
hand-pickers is of a size that will pass through a bar screen with bars
3 in. apart, and goes to the steam stamps. The stamp crushes the
rock and discharges coarse copper through a pipe 4 in. iil diameter,
in which it descends against a rising stream of water which lifts out
the lighter rock. The copper is let out about once an hour by opening
a gate at the bottom. The rest of the rock is crushed to pass through
a screen with round holes \ in. in diameter, more or less. This sand
is treated in hydraulic classifiers with four pockets, the products
from the pockets being jigged by four roughing-jigs yielding finished
mineral copper for the smelter, included grains for the grinder,
partially concentrated products for the finishing-jigs, and tailings
which go to waste. The overflow of the hydraulic classifier runs to a
tank of which the overflow is sent to waste in order to diminish the
quantity of water, while the discharge from beneath, treated upon
slime-tables, yields concentrates, middlings and tailings. The
mirldlings are re-treated. All the finished concentrates put together
will assay from 60 to 80% of copper according to circumstances.
The extraction from the rock is from 50 to 80% of the copper con-
tained in it.
Cornwall Tin. — Tinstone in Cornwall occurs associated with
sulphides, wolfram, quartz, felspar, slate, &c., and is broken by
spalling-hammers to 3-in. lumps. Hammers make less slimes than
the rock-breakers, and they also break the ore more advantageously
for the hanil-picking. The latter rejects waste, removes as far as
pcjssijjlc the hurtful wolfram, and classes the values into groujjs
according to richness. Gravity or pneumatic stamps then crush the
ore to ^(j in., and stripes (a species of long rectangular buddle; yield
heads, middlings, tailings and fine slimes: the first three are sent
.se()arately to circular buddies, and the last to frames. The buddies
yield concentrates, middlings and tailings: the middlings are re-
treated, the tailings are all waste; the concentrates are still further
enriched by kieves, which yield tops to the buddle again and Ijottoms
shipped to the smelter. The fine slimes are treated on frames, the
concentrates of which go to buddies; of these the concentrates go to
kieves.
The Missouri zinc-lead sludge mill takes the finest part of the
hutch product of the hand-jigs. The treatment begins on revolving
screens with two sizes of holes, 25 mm. and I mm.: these take out
two coarser sizes, of which the coarser is waste and the other is jigged,
yielding concentrates and waste. The main treatment begins with
the finest size, which is much the largest product. It is fed to a
convex circular buddle (first buddle), and yields a coarser product at
the outer part of the circle and a finer product in the inner. The finer
product is treated by a series of buddlings which vary somewhat,
but in general are as follows: fed to a second buddle it yields zinc
and lead ore in the centre, next zinc ore, next middlings which come
back, and, outside of all, tailings. The zinc-lead ore is set on one side
until enough has accumulated to make a buddle run, when it is run
upon a third buddle yielding in the central part pure lead concen-
trates, next lead ore (which is returned to this treatment), next zinc
ore, and outside of all a zinc product which is fed to the second
buddle. The coarse outside product of the first buddle is treated in
much the same way as the fine, but it yields practically no lead zinc
product, which simplifies the series of buddlings necessary.
Gold Mill. — Gold ores usually contain their value in two con-
ditions — the free gold, which can be taken out by mercury, and
the combined gold, in which the metal is either coated with or
combined with compounds of sulphur, tellurium, &c. The usual
gold-milling scheme is to crush the ore by rock-breaker to about
I J- in. diameter, and then to crush with water by gravity stamps, a
little mercury being added to the mortar from time to time to begin
the amalgamation at the first moment the gold is liberated. The
pulp leaves the mortar through a screen with holes or slots i-^ to b^(, in.
in width, and is then passed over amalgamated plates of copper or
silver-plated copper. The free gold, amalgamated by the mercury,
adheres to the mercurial surface on the plate; the rest of the pulp
flows on through mercury traps to catch any of the mercury, which
drains off the end of the plate. The plates and mortar are periodic-
ally cleaned up, the plates being scraped to recover the amalgam and
leave them in good condition to do their work: if plates are used
inside the mortar, they are cleaned in the same way. The residue of
partly crushed ore in the mortar, with amalgam and free mercury
scattered through it, is ground for a time in a ball mill, panned to
recover the amalgam, and returned to the mortar. The pulp flowing
away from the mercury traps flows to a Frue vanner or Wilfley
table, on which it yields concentrates for the chlorination plant or
smelter and tailings: these are waste when the heavy mineral is of
low grade, but if the vanner concentrates are of high grade, they still
contain values in very fine sizes which can and should be saved.
Recent improvements in California for saving this material have been
made. The vanner tailings are sent to a fine classifier, from which the
light overflow only is saved; this is treated upon canvas tables
yielding concentrates and tailings, and these concentrates, treated
upon a little end-shake vanner with steep slope and rapid travel,
give clean, very fine, high-grade concentrates for the chlorination
works.
Iron Ores. — The brown ores of iron from surface deposits are
contaminated with a considerable amount of clay and some quartz.
The crude ore from surface pits or shallow underground workings
is treated in a log-washer and yields the fine clay, which runs to
waste, and the coarse material which is caught upon a screen and
hand-picked, to free it from the little quartz, or jigged if it contains
too much quartz. The magnetic oxide of iron occurs associated
with felspar and quartz, and can often be separated from them by
the magnet. The ore, after being broken by breaker and rolls to
a size varying from \ to -^f, of an inch in diameter, goes to a
magnetic machine which yields (i) the strongly magnetic, (2) the
weakly magnetic, and (3) the non-magnetic portions. The second or
middlings product contains grains of magnetite attached to quartz,
and is therefore re-crushed and sent back to the magnets; the
strongly magnetic portion is shipped to the furnace ; and the waste
to the dump heap. In concentrating by water certain zinc sulphides,
siderite (carbonate of iron) follows the zinc, and would seriously
injure the furnace work. By a carefully adjusted roasting of the
product in a furnace the siderite is converted into magnetic oxide
of iron, and can then be separated by magnet from the zinc ore. A
special magnet of very high power, known from its inventor as the
WetheriU magnet, has been designed for treating the franklinite of
New Jersey, a mineral which is non-magnetic in the usual machines.
The ore, crushed by breaker and rolls and hand-picked to remove
garnet, is treated upon a belt with a roughing magnet to take out the
most magnetic portion, and then very closely sized by screens with
242
OREGON
1 6, 24, 30 and 50 meshes per linear inch. The several products are
treated each on its own magnetic machine, yielding the franklinite
for the zinc oxide grates, and followed by spiegel furnace ; the residue,
which is jigged, yields the zinc silicate and oxide for the spelter
furnaces, and waste carrying the calcite, quartz and mica.
Asbestos, when of good quality, is in compact masses, which by
suitable bruising and beating are resolved into fine flexible fibres.
The Canadian asbestos is associated with serpentine, and is crushed
by breakers to f in., screened on iVin. screens to reject fines. The
values are removed by hand-picking and are crushed by rolls carefully
set so as not to break the fibre; this product is then sized by screens
and the various sizes are sent to the Cyclone pulverizer, which by
beating liberates the individual fibres. It then goes to a screen with
eleven holes to the linear inch, and yields a granular undersize and
oversize, and a fibrous oversize which is drawn oflf by a suction fan
to a settling-chamber with air outlets covered by fine screen cloth.
This fibrous product is the clean mineral for the market. A special
treatment separates the fibres of different lengths.
The usual method of dressing corundum and emery, after the
preliminary breaking, is to treat the material in an edge-stone mill
fitted with light wooden rollers. The action is that of grinding one
particle against another, whereby the talc, chlorite, mica, &c., are
worn off from the harder mineral. A constant current of water
carries off the light impurities. This is called the ".muller " process.
At Corundum Hill, North Carolina, the first step in removing the im-
purities from "sand "corundum is to subject it to the scouring action
of a stream of water while it is being sluiced from the mine to the mill,
the action being increased by several vertical drops of 5 to 10 ft.
in the sluice. After reaching the mill all that will not pass
through a 14-mesh screen is crushed by rolls, and the undersize of
the screen is treated in a washing trough ; this removes part of
the light waste, and the " muUers " mentioned above complete the
cleaning.
Graphite occurs in schist, but being of less specific gravity than the
other minerals which enter into the composition of the schist, it
settles later than they do. It also breaks into thin scales, which
reduces its settling rate still further. The ore is broken by breakers,
and by Chile edge-stone mills or by gravity stamps, to a size varying
with the character of the minerals from perhaps ^ to -fa in. diameter.
The pulp is then conveyed through a series of settling tanks of which
the later are larger than the earlier. The quartz and other waste
minerals settle in the earlier tanks, while the graphite settles later:
the latest tank gives the best graphite. In the Dixon Company's
works in New York some forms of concentrators are believed to have
replaced the slower settling tanks.
The phosphates of Florida are of four kinds: hard rock, soft rock,
land pebble and river pebble. The hard rock is crushed by toothed
rolls, and cleaned in log washers. The washed product is screened;
the sizes finer than A in. are thrown away because too poor; the
other sizes are dried and sold, some waste having been picked out of
the coarsest. The soft rock is simply dried, ground and sold. Land
pebble is treated by log washers, any clay balls remaining being re-
moved by a screen, and the phosphate dried and sold. In special
cases land pebble is treated by hydraulicking, followed by a log
washer, and this again by a powerful jet washer, to remove the last of
the clay. River pebble is taken from the river by centrifugal pumps,
and screened on two screens with i-in. and iV-in. holes respectively;
the oversize of the first sieve and the undersize of the second sieve are
thrown away because of too low grade. (R. H. R.)
OREGON, a North-Western state of the American Union,
on the Pacific slope, lying between 42° and 46° 18' N. lat. and
116° a' and 124° 32' W. long. It is bounded N. by the state
of Washington, from which it is separated in part by the Columbia
river, the 46th parallel forming the rest of the boundary; E.,
by Idaho, from which it is separated in part by the Snake river;
S., by Nevada and California, and W., by the Pacific Ocean.
It has an extreme length, E. and W., of 375 m., an extreme
width, N. and S., of 290 m., and a total area of 96,699 sq. m.,
of which 1092 sq. m. are water-surface.
Topography. — The coast of the state extends in a general N. and S.
direction for about 300 ra., and consists of long stretches of sandy
beach broken occasionally by lateral spurs of the Coast Range, which
project boldly into the sea and form high rocky headlands. With the
exception of the mouth of the Columbia river, the bays and inlets by
which the shore is indented are small and of very little importance.
Parallel with the coast and with its main axis about 20 m. inland is
an irregular chain of hills known as the Coast Range. It does not
attain a great height, but has numerous lateral spurs, especially
toward the W. Euchre Peak (Lincoln county), probably the highest
point in the range in Oregon, rises 3962 ft. above the sea. In southern
Oregon the general elevation of this range is greater than in the N.,
but the individual peaks are less prominent, and the range in some
respects resembles a plateau. Its western slope is generally longer
and more gentle than the eastern. A number of small streams,
among them the Nehalem, Coquille and Umpqua rivers, cut their
way through the Coast Range to reach the ocean. For the greater
portion of its length in Oregon, in the northern half of the state, the
Coast Range is bordered on the E. by the Willamette Valley , a
region about 200 m. long and about 30 m. wide, and the most thic'kly
populated portion of the state; here, therefore, the range is ealiily
defined, but in the S., near the Rogue river, it merges apparently
with the Cascade and the Sierra Nevada Mountains in a large complex
group designated as the Klamath Mountains, lying partly in Oref','on
and partly in California, and extending from the northern extrern'ity
of the Sierra Nevada to the sea. The Klamath Mountains separate
topographically southern Oregon from northern California. ■ A
number of ridges and peaks bearing special names, such as the Rojgue
river, Umpqua and Siskiyou Mountains, belong to this group.
The Cascade Mountains, the most important range in Oregon, ext(;nd
parallel with the coast and lie about 100 m. inland. The peaks of
this system are much higher than those of the Coast Range, varying
from 5000 to 11,000 ft., and the highest of them are cones of extsnct
volcanoes. Mount Hood (11,225 ft-), which is the highest point in
the state. Mount Jefferson (10,200 ft.), the Three Sister Peaks, Mount
Adams, Bachelor Mountain, and Diamond Peak (8807 ft.) all have
one or more glaciers on their sides. The Calapooya Mountains,
forming the water-parting between the Willamette and the Umpqua
rivers, are a lateral spur of the Cascades, and extend westward as far
as the Coast Range. The Cascade Mountains divide the state topo-
graphically into two sharply contrasted parts. West of this range the
country exhibits a great variety of surface structure, and is humid
and densely wooded; east of the range it consists of a broken table-
land, arid or semiarid, with a general elevation of 5000 ft. This
eastern tableland, though really very rugged and mountainous,
seems to have few striking topographic features when compared with
the more broken area to the VV. In the north-eastern part of this
eastern plateau lie the Blue Mountains, which have an average
elevation of about 6000 ft. and decline gradually toward the N. A
south-western spur, about 100 m. in length, and the principal ridge
together enclose on several sides a wide valley drained by the
tributaries of the John Day river. South of these mountains lies
the northern limit of the Great Basin region. In Oregon this area
ex-tends from the Nevada boundary northward for about 160 m., to
the head of the Silvies river, and embraces an area of about 1 6,000
sq. m. None of its sti earns reaches the sea, but all lose their waters
by seepage or evaporation. On the E., N., and N.W. the Great
Basin is bounded by the drainage systems of the tributaries of the
Columbia river, and on the S.W. by the drainage system of the
Klamath river. Its boundaries, however, cannot be definitely fixed,
as they change with the periods of humidity and drought. Goose
Lake, for example, lies in the Great Basin at some seasons; but at
other times it overflows and becomes a part of the drainage system of
the Sacramento river. Many of the mountains within the Basin
region consist of great faulted crust blocks, with a general N. and S.
trend. One face of these mountains is usually in the form of a steep
palisade, while the other has a very gradual slope. Between these
ridges lie almost level valleys, whose floors consist partly of lava
flows, partly of volcanic fragmental material, and partly of detritus
from the bordering mountains. During the wet season the valleys
often contain ephemeral lakes, whose waters on evaporating leave
a playa, or mud flat, often covered with an alkaline encrustation of
snowy whiteness. Some large permanent lakes occupy the troughs
between faulted blocks in southern Oregon. The greatest level, or
approximately level, area in the Great Basin region of Oregon is the
so-called Great Sandy Desert, a tract about 150 m. long and from
30 to 50 m. wide, lying in parts of Crook, Lake and Harney counties.
Its surface consists of a thick sheet of pumiceous sand and dust,
from which arise occasional buttes and mesas. On account of the
small amount of precipitation, the fissured condition of the under-
lying lava sheets, and the porous soil, the Great Sandy Desert has
practically no surface streams even in the wet season, and within its
limits no potable waters have been found. The most prominent
mountain range in the Oregon portion of the Great Basin is the
Steens Mountains in the S.E., which attain an altitude of about 9000
ft. above the sea and of 5000 ft. above Alvord Valley, which lies
along the eastern base. This range is a large monoclinal block, with
a trend almost N.E. and S.W., presenting a steep escarpment toward
the E., and sloping very gradually toward the W. It exhibits much
evidence of powerful erosion, having deep canyons in its sides, and it
bears evidence of previous glaciers. The region adjoining the Great
Basin on the E. is usually known as the Snake River Plains, and
embraces an area of about 1200 sq. m. in Malheur county. Here the
hills are deeply sculptured and the valleys much carved by streams
which often flow through deep canyons. Where the streams cut
their way through sheets of basaltic lava their banks are steep, almost
vertical cliffs, but where they cut through sedimentary rocks the
sides have a more gentle slope. When several alternate layers of
hard and soft rock are cut through by a stream its banks some-
times have the form of steps. The destruction of the grasses on
the hillsides by overgrazing in recent years has increased the
flooding by temporary streams, and consequently has tended to
deepen and increase the guUeys and channels of the mountains
and valleys.
The state as a whole has an average elevation of 3300 ft. ; with
20,300 sq. m. below 1000 ft.; 19,200 sq. m. between 1000 and 3000
ft-; 33,500 sq. m. between 3000 and 5000 ft.; and 23,030 sq. m.
between 5000 and 9000 ft.
OREGON
243
The most important stream is the Columbia river, which forms the
northern boundary for 300 m. and receives directly the waters of all
the important rivers in the state except a few in the S.W.
Rivers. and a few in the extreme E. About 160 m. from its mouth
are the Cascades, where the river cuts through the lava beds of the
Cascade Mountains and makes a descent of about 300 ft. through a
canyon 6 m. long and nearly I m. deep. The passage of vessels
through the river at this point is made possible by means of locks
Fifty-three m. farther up the stream is a second set of rapids
known as the Dalles, where the stream for about 2 m. is confined
within a narrow channel from 130 to 200 ft. wide The largest
tributary of the Columbia is the Snake river, which for nearly 200 m.
of its course forms the boundary between Oregon and Idaho. It
flows through a canyon from 2000 to 5000 ft. deep, with steep walls
of basaltic and kindred rocks. The powerful erosion has often caused
the columnar black basalt to assume weird and fantastic shapes.
The chief tributaries of the Snake river in Oregon arc the Grand
Ronde, Powder, Burnt, Malheur and Owyhee rivers. The principal
tributaries of the Columbia E. of the Cascade Mountains and lying
wholly within the state arc the John Day river, which rises in the
Blue Mountains and enters the Columbia 29 m. above the Dalles
after pursuing a winding course of about 250 m. ; and the Deschutes
river, which rises on the eastern slope of the Cascade Mountains, and
after flowing northward for about 320 m. enters the Columbia 12 m.
above the Dalles. The Deschutes river drains a region which is less
arid than the plateau farther E., and which contains a number of
small lakes. A peculiar feature of the stream is the uniformity of its
volume throughout the year; the great crevasses in the lava bed
through which it flows form natural spillways and check any tendency
of the stream to rise within its banks. The Willamette river, W. of
the Cascade Mountains, is the most important stream lying wholly
within the state. It rises on the western slope of the Cascades and
enters the Columbia river about 100 m. above its mouth, having
with its branches a length of about 300 m. In the western part of the
state a number of short streams flow directly into the Pacific Ocean,
the most important of these being the Rogue and the Umpqua rivers,
which have their sources in the Cascades.
In Southern Oregon, especially in the Great Basin region, there are
numerous lakes. Malheur Lake, in Harney county, during the wet
season is about 25 m. long and has an average width of
Lakes. 5 or 6 m. It is not over 10 ft. deep in any part, and is only
a few inches in depth a mile from the shore. In the summer most of
its bed is a playa or mud flat. Almost continuous with this body of
water on the S.W. is Harney Lake, roughly circular in form and
about 7-8 m. in diameter. The waters of both lakes arc alkaline, but
Malheur Lake is often freshened by overflowing into Harney Lake,
while the latter, having no outlet, is growing continually more
alkaline. East of the Steens Mountains there is a chain of very
small lakes, such as the Juniper, Manns and Alvord lakes, and also a
playa known as the Alvord Desert, which in the spring is covered with
a few inches, or perhaps i or 2 ft., of water, and becomes a lake
with an area of 50 or 60 sq. m. In the summer the dry bed is smooth
and very hard, and when the skies are clear the monotony of the
landscape is sometimes broken by a mirage. In Lake county,
occupying fault-made troughs, are several large bodies of water —
Lake Abert (about 5 m. by 15 m.), Warner Lake (50 m. long, 4-8 m.
wide). Summer Lake (a little smaller than Abert), and Goose Lake,
the one last named lying partly in California and draining into the
Sacramento system. The Upper and the Lower Klamath lakes of
Klamath county are noted for their scenic beauty. Near the north-
western boundary of Klamath county is the famous Crater Lake,
whose surface is 6239 ft. above the sea. This lake lies in a great pit
or caldera created by the wrecking in prehistoric times of the volcano
Mount Mazama, which according to geologists once had an altitude
of about 14,000 ft. above the sea and of 8000 ft. above the surrounding
tableland; the upper portion of the mountain fell inward, possibly
owing to the withdrawal of interior lava, and left a crater-like rim,
or caldera, rising 2000 ft. above the surrounding country. The lake
is 4 m. wide and 6 m. long, has a depth in some places of nearly
2000 ft., and is surrounded by walls of rock from 500 to 2000 ft. high.
In spite of its great elevation the lake has never been known to freeze,
and though it has no visible outlet its waters are fresh.
Fauna and Flora. — Large game has disappeared from the settled
areas, but is still fairly abundant on the plains of the east and among
the mountains of the west. In the mountain forests of south-western
Oregon bears, deer, elk, pumas, wolves and foxes are plentiful.
Among the south-eastern plateaus antelope are found at all seasons,
and deer and big-horn (mountain sheep), and occasionally a few elk,
in the winter. Bears, wolves, lynxes and foxes are also numerous in
the east, and there the coyote is found in disagreeable numbers.
The pocket-gopher and the jack-rabbit are so numerous as to be
great pests. The principal varieties of game-birds arc ducks, geese,
grouse and California quail. Sage-hens are occasionally seen on the
dry plateaus and valleys, especially in Harney county. The Oregon
robin {Merula naevia) and the Oregon snowbird (Jiinco Oreg,ontis) arc
common in Oregon and northward. On the rocky headlands and
islands of the coast nest thousands of gulls, cormorants, puffins,
guillemots, surf-ducks (Oedemia), dotterels, terns, petrels and
numerous other birds. There, too, the Steller's sea-lion (Eumelopias
slelUri) spends the mating season. The marine fauna is abundant
and of great economic importance. The river fauna of the coast is of
two distinct types: the type of the Columbia fauna in rivers north
of the Rogue; and another type in the Klamath and its tributaries.
Typical of the Columbia river is Ciilastomus matrocheilus and of the
Klamath, C. rimiculus. Lampreys, sticklebacks, cattoids, sturgeons
— the white sturgeon (Acipenser transmonlanus) is commonly known
as the " Oregon sturgeon "—trout and salmon are the principal
anadromous fish, the salmon and trout being the most important
economically. The best varieties of the siilmon for canning are:
the king, Chinook or quinnat (Oncorhynchus Ischawytscha) . far better
than any other variety; and the steel-head, blue back or sukkegh
(O. nerka).
The total woodland area of the state according to the United States
census of 1900 was 54,300 sq. m. or 56-8 % of the land area. The
Federal government established in 1907 and 1908 thirteen forest
reserves in the state, ten of which had an area of more than 1 ,000,000
acres each; their total area on the 1st of January 1910 was 25,345
s(|. m. From the coast to the eastern base of the Cascade Mountains
the state is heavily timbered, except in small prairies and clearings
in the Willamette and other valleys, and the most important tree
is the great Douglas fir, pine or spruce {Fseudolsuga Douglasii),
commonly called Oregon pine, which sometimes grows to a height
of 300 ft., and which was formerly in great demand for masts and
spars of sailing-vessels and for bridge timbers; the Douglas fir grows
more commercial timber to the acre than any other American variety,
and constitutes about five-sevenths of the total stand of the state.
Timber is also found on the Blue Mountains in the north-east and on
a number of mountains in the central and south-eastern parts of the
state. East of the Cascades the valleys are usually treeless, save for
a few willows and cottonwoods in the vicinity of streams. Over the
greater part of this region the sage-brush is the most common plant,
and by its ubiquity it imparts to the landscape the monotonous
greyish tint so characteristic of the arid regions of the western United
States. West of the Cascades most of the trees of commercial value
consist of Douglas fir. Cedar and hemlock also are commercially
valuable. There are small amounts of sugar pine, yellow pine, red
fir and silver fir (Abies grandis and A. nobilis) and spruce;' and
among the broad-leaved varieties the oak, ash, maple, mahogany-
birch or mountain mahogany {Cercocarpus ledifolia), aspen, cotton-
wood and balsam are the most common. East of the Cascades the
forests consist for the most part of yellow pine. In the south-east the
hills and lower slopes of the mountains are almost bare of trees. At
higher altitudes, however, the moisture increases and scattered
junipers begin to appear. Blending with these at their upper limit
and continuing above them are clumps of mountain mahogany,
which sometimes attains a height of 20 or 30 ft. Above this belt of
mahogany, pines and firs are sometimes found. In this region the
mountains have an upper, or cold, timber line, the height of which
depends upon the severity of the climate, and a lower, or dry, timber
line, which is determined by the amount of rainfall. These upper and
lower limits of the timber belt are sometimes very sharply defined,
so that tall mountains may be marked by a dark girdle of forest,
above and below which appear walls of bare rock. In a very arid
region the dry timber line may rise above the cold timber line, and in
such a case the mountain will contain no forests. Of this phenomenon
the Steens Mountains furnish a conspicuous example. It was
estimated that the forests of Oregon contained in 1900 about
150,000,000,000 ft. of Douglas fir or spruce, 40,000,000,000 ft. of
yellow pine and 35,000,000,000 ft. of other species — chiefly cedar,
hemlock and spruce. In the most heavily wooded region along the
Pacific coast and the lower course of the Columbia river are forests of
the Douglas fir with stands of 100,000 ft. of timber per acre. The
value of the lumber and timber products increased from $1,014,211
in 1870 to 86,530,757 in 1890, to $10,257,169 in 1900, and to
$12,483,908 in 1905.
Climate. — Perhaps no state in the union has such great local
variations in its climate as has Oregon. Along the coast the climate
is humid, mild and uniform, and, as has often been remarked, very
like the climate of the British Isles; in the eastern two-thirds of the
state, from which the moisture-laden winds are excluded by the high
coastwise mountains, the climate is dry and marked by great daily
and annual ranges of temperature. The mean annual temperature
varies with the elevation and the distance from the sea, being highest
along the western slope of the Coast Range at altitudes below 2000
ft., and lowest in the elevated regions E. of the Cascade Mountains.
The temperatures along the coast are never as high as 100° F. or as
low as zero. In the valleys between the Coast Range and the Cascade
Mountains the range of temperature is much greater than it is along
the coast; the absolute maximum and minimum being respectively
102° and -2° at Portland, in the N.W., and 108° and -4° at Ashland,
in the S.W. Owing to its greater elevation the southern portion
of Oregon experiences greater extremes of temperature than the
northern. In that part of the state E. of the Cascades the climate is
of a continental type, with much greater ranges of temperature than
in the W., although in a few low valleys, as at the Dalles, the
extremes are somewhat modified. While flowers bloom throughout
the year at Portland, frosts have occurred in every month of the
year'at Lakeview, in the Great Basin. At Astoria, near the mouth of
the Columbia river, the mean annual temperature is 52° F., with
extremes recorded of 97° and 10°; but at Silver Lake, in the Great
244
OREGON
Basin region, while the mean annual temperature is 44°, the highest
and lowest ever recorded are respectively 104° and -32°. These
records afford a striking illustration of the moderating influence of
the ocean upon climate.
As is the case in all the Pacific states, the amount of ramfall de-
creases from N. to S., and is greatest on the seaward slopes of the hills
and mountains. As the winds from the ocean are deprived of their
moisture on reaching the Coast and Cascade ranges, the amount of
annual precipitation, which in the coast counties varies from 75 to
138 in., constantly diminishes toward the E. until in the extreme
south-eastern part of the state it amounts to only about 8 iri. No
other state, e.xcept perhaps Washington, has such a great variation
in the amount of its rainfall. Precipitation on the Coast Range at
altitudes above 2000 ft. amounts to about 138 in. annually; in the
valleys E. of this range it varies from 20-2 in. at Ashland to 78-2 in.
at Portland. On the western slope of the Cascades it varies from
50 in. in the S. to 100 in. in the N. ; in the Columbia Valley the
amount is from 10 to 15 in.; in the valleys and foothills of the Blue
Mountains, 12 to 25 in.; and in the plateau region of central and
south-eastern Oregon, 8 to 22 in. In the region W. of the Cascade
Mountains there is a so-called wet season, which lasts from October
to March, and the summers are almost rainless. In the rest of the
state there is a maximum rainfall in the winter and a secondary wet
season in May and June, with the rest of the summer very dry.
During the winter the prevailing winds are from the S. and bring
moisture; during the summer they are from the N.W. and are
accompanied by cloudless skies and moderate temperatures. Winds
from the N.E. bring hot weather in the summer and intense cold in
the winter.
Soils. — The state has almost as great a variety of soils as of climate.
In the Willamette Valley the soils are mostly clay loams, of a basaltic
nature on the foothills and greatly enriched in the river bottom lands
by washings from the hills and by deposits of rich black humus. In
south-western Oregon, in the Rogue and Umpqua valleys, the char-
acteristic soil is a reddish clay, though other varieties are numerous.
In eastern Oregon the soils are of an entirely different type, being
usually of a greyish appearance, lacking in humus, and composed of
volcanic dust and alluvium from the uplands. They are deep, of
fine texture, easily worked and contain abundant plant food in the
form of soluble compounds of calcium, sodium and potassium. At
times, however, these salts are present in such excess as to render the
soils too alkaline for plant growing. Where there is no excess of
alkali and the water supply is sufficient, good crops can be grown
in this soil without the use of fertilizers.
Agriculture and Stock-Raising. — Oregon has some of the most
productive agricultural lands in the IJnited States, but they are
rather limited in extent, being confined for the most part to the
valleys west of the Cascade Mountains and the counties bordering
on the Columbia river east of those mountains. The other parts of
the state are generally too dry or too mountainous for growing crops,
but contain considerable areas suitable for grazing. In 1900 only
about one-si.xth of the total land surface was included in farms, and
a trifle less than one-third of the farm land was improved. There
were 35,837 farms, and their average size was 281 acres. Of the whole
number 33-0% (11,827) contained less than 100 acres each, 30-5%
(11,055) contained from 100 to 175 acres each, and 10-4% (3727),
devoted mainly to stock-raising, contained 500 acres or more each.
Nearly four-fifths of the farms (28,636) were operated by owners or
part owners, 3729 were operated by share tenants, 2637 by cash
tenants and 835 by owners and tenants or managers. The principal
crops are wheat, oats, hay, fruits, hops, potatoes and miscellaneous
vegetables. Sheep and cattle are raised extensively on ranches in the
semi-arid regions, large herds of cattle are kept on lands too wet for
cultivation in the western counties, and stock-raising and dairying
have become important factors in the operation of many of the best
farms. The acreage of wheat was 810,000 in 1909 and the crop was
16,377,000 bushels. The oat crop was 10,886,000 bushels. The barley-
crop was 1,984,000 bushels. The nights are so cool that Indian corn
is successfully grown only by careful cultivation, and the crop
amounted to only 552,000 bushels in 1909. The hay crop, 865,000
tons in 1909, is made quite largely from wild grasses and grains cut
green ; on the irrigated lands alfalfa is grown extensively for the
cattle and sheep, which are otherwise almost wholly dependent for
sustenance upon the bunch grass of the semi-arid plains. Both cattle
and sheep ranches in the region east of the Cascade Mountains have
been considerably encroached upon by the appropriation of lands
for agricultural purposes, and the cattle, also, have been forced to the
south and east by the grazing of sheep on lands formerly reserved
for them; but the numbers of both cattle and sheep on the farms
have become much larger. The whole number of sheep in the state
was 2,581,000 in 1910. The number of cattle other than dairy cows
was 698,000 and that of dairy cows 174,000. The dairy business is a
promising industry in the farming regions, especially in the Willam-
ette Valley. The number of horses in 1910 was 308,000. The small
number of swine (267,000 in 1910) is partly due to the small crop of
Indian corn. Fruit-growing has been an increasingly important
industry in the region between the Cascade and Coast Ranges and
(to a less degree) east of the Cascade Range; and the cultivation of
apples is especially important. The cultivation of hops was begun
in Oregon about 1850; the soil and climate of the Willamette Valley
were found to be exceedingly favourable to their growth, and the
product increased to 20,500,000 tb in 1905, when the state ranked
first in the Union in this industry.
The agricultural resources of the state may be considerably in-
creased by irrigation east of the Cascade Mountains. The irrigated
areas, which are widely distributed, increased from a total of 177,944
acres in 1S89 to 388,310 acres in 1002. In 1894 Congress passed the
" Carey Act " which authorizes the Secretary of the Interior, with
the approval of the President, to donate to each of the states in which
there are Federal desert lands as much of such lands (less than
1,000,000 acres) as the state may apply for, on condition that the
state reclaim by irrigation, cultivation and occupancy not less than
20 acres of each 160-acre tract within ten years, and under the
operation of this Act the state chose 432,203 acres for reclamation,
mostly in the basin of the Deschutes river. Furthermore there is
a state association engaged in irrigation projects, and the United
States Reclamation Service, established by an Act of Congress in
1902, has projects for utilizing the flood waters of the Umatilla,
Malheur, Silvies and Grande Ronde rivers, the waters of the Owyhee
and Wallowa rivers and Willow Creek, and the waters of some of the
lakes in the central part of the state. Two of these projects had been
begun by 1909: the Umatilla project in Umatilla county, to irrigate
20.440 acres with water diverted from the Umatilla river by a dam
(98 ft. high, 3500 ft. long) 2 m. above Echo, with a reser\oir of 1500
acres, was authorized in 1905 and was 855 °o finished in 1909; the
Klamath project, to irrigate 181,000 acres in Klamath county,
Oregon (about 145,000 acres) and Siskiyou and Modoc counties,
California, by two canals from Upper Klamath Lake and by a storage
dam (33 ft. high, 940 ft. long) in the Clear Lake reservoir of 25,000
acres, was authorized in 1905 and was 38% completed in 1909. It
has been estimated that the irrigated and irrigable area under private
canals is about 80,000 acres, and that that still undisposed of in 1909,
irrigated by the state under the Carey Act, amounted to 180,000
acres.
Fisheries. — The Columbia river has long been famous for its salmon,
and as the supply seemed threatened with exhaustion for several
years following the maximum catch in 1883, the state legislature in
1901 passed an act establishing a close season both early in the spring
and late in the summer and prohibiting any fishing, except with
hook and line, at any time, without a licence. In 1908 two laws pro-
posed by initiative petition were passed, stopping all fishing by night
and fishing in the navigable channels of the lower river, limiting the
length of seines to be used in the lower river and abolishing the use
of gear by fishermen of the upper river — the mouth of the Sandy
river, in Multnomah county, being the dividing line between the
upper and lower Columbia. Several hatcheries have been established
by the state authorities of Oregon and Washington and by the
Federal government for propagating the best varieties : the Chinooks
(0. tsdiawytscha) , the bluebacks (0. nerka) and, when the bluebacks
became scarce, silversides (0. kisutch). The total catch of salmon
on the Oregon side of the Columbia river in 1901 was 16,725,435 lb;
from this it rose to 24,575,228 lb in 1903, but fell to 18,151,743 ft in
1907 and 18,463,546 in 1908. Salmon are caught in smaller quantities
in the coast streams: 4,371,618 lb in 1901 and 8,043,690 ft in 1906,
but only 6,738,682 ft in 1907 and 6,422,511 ft in 1908. Some catfish,
shad, smelt, halibut, herring, perch, sturgeon, flounders, oysters,
clams, crabs and crawfish are also obtained from Oregon waters.
Minerals. — Gold was discovered in the Rogue and Klamath rivers
in the S. part of Oregon in 1852, and placer-mining was prosecuted
here without interruption until i860, when the metal was found in
larger quantities on the streams in Baker and Grant counties in the
north-eastern part of the state. Quartz-mining has since very largely
taken the place of placer-mining, but the two principal gold-producing
districts are still that traversed by the Blue Mountains in the north-
eastern quarter and that drained by the Rogue river in the south-
western corner, a continuation of the California field. The value of
the total output of the state was §2,113,356 in 1894, but only
$865,076 in 1908. Silver is obtained almost wholly in the form of
alloy with gold, and in 1908 the value of the output was only $23,109.
Lignitic coal was discovered on or near the coast of Coos Bay as early
as 1855, and this is still the only producti\e coalfield within the
state, although there are outcroppings of the mineral all along the
Coast Range N. of the Rogue river, along the W. foothills of the
Cascade Range and in the Blue Mountains; this coal is suitable for
steam and heating purposes but will not coke. The quantity of the
output was 86,259 short tons in 1908. Copper ores are known to be
quite widely distributed in the mountain districts, but there has
been little work on any except some in Josephine and Grant counties ;
in 1908 the state's output amounted to 291,377 ft of copper. Iron
ore, platinum, lead, quicksilver and cobalt have been obtained in the
state in merchantable quantities, and there is some zinc ore in the
Cascade Range. In Union county is a great amount of blue lime-
stone, and there is limestone, also, in Baker, Grant, Wallowa, Jackson
and Josephine counties. Sandstone is abundant, and there is sorne
granite, in the Coast Range. A variegated marble is obtained in
Douglas county, and other marbles are found in several counties.
Clays suitable for making brick and tile are found in nearly every
part of the state: in 1908 the clay products of the state were valued
at $555,768. Soapstone is abundant in both the E. and W. counties.
Ochre, or mineral paint, and mineral waters, too, are widely
OREGON
245
distributed. Tliere is some roofing slate along the Rogue river,
natural cement, nickel ore, bismuth and wolframite in Douglas county,
gypsum in Baker county, fire-clay in Clatsop county, borate of soda
on the marsh lands of Harney county, infusorial earth and tripoli
in the valley of the Deschutes river, chromate of iron in Curry
and Douglas counties, molybdenite in Union county, bauxite in
Clackamas county, borate of lime in Curry county, manganese ore in
Columbia county, and asbestos in several of the southern and
eastern counties. The total value of all mineral products in 1908 was
«2.743.434- . . , , , , ,
Manufactures. — Manufactunng is encouraged both by the variety
and abundance of raw material furnished by the mines, the forests,
the farms and the fisheries, and by the coal and water-power avail-
able for operating the machinery. The total value of manufactures
increased from §10,931,232 in 1880 to .'S4 1,432', 174 in 1890, or 279 °'o
in ten years, and although progress was slow from 1890 to 1900 there
was a rapid advance again from 1900 to 1905, when the value of
factory products increased from $36,592,714 to $55. 525. 123. The
manufactures of greatest value are lumber and timber products
($12,483,908 in 1905). Portland and Astoria are the chief manu-
facturing centres; in 1905 the value of the factory products of these
two cities was 57-2 % of that of the factory products of the entire
state.
Transportation and Commerce. — For no m. from the mouth of the
Columbia river to Portland, 12 m. up the Willamette river, is a
channel which in 1909 was navigable (20-22 ft. deep) by large ocean-
going vessels, and which will have a minimum depth of 25 ft. at low
water upon the completion of the Federal project of 1902. From the
mouth of the Willamette river vessels of light draft ascend the
Columbia (passing the Cascade Falls through a lock canal, which was
opened in 1896 and has a depth of 8 ft., a width of 92 ft. and two
locks, each 462 ft. long) to the mouth of the Snake river (in the state
of Washington), up that river to the mouth of the Ininaha, in
Wallowa county, on the eastern boundary of Oregon, and, when the
water is high, up the Imnaha river to the town of Imnaha, 516 m.
from the sea. The Willamette river is navigable to Harrisburg,
152 m. above Portland, but boats seldom go farther up the river
than Corvallis, 119 m. above Portland, and the depth at low water
to Corvallis is only 3 ft. On the coast, Coos Bay, a tidal estuary, is
the principal harbour between the mouth of the Columbia and San
Francisco; it admits vessels drawing 14 to 16 ft. of water, and both
the north and south forks of the Coos river are navigable for vessels
of light draft (the depth at low water is only 1-5 ft.) 14 m. from the
mouth of that river, and 8-5 m. on each fork. Farther north,
Yaquina Bay and Tillamook Bay also admit small steamboats.
The Coquille river is navigable for about 37 m., the Yaquina river
for 23 m. with a depth of 13 to 15 ft., the Siuslaw river for 6 m.
(for vessels drawing less than 6 ft., 15 m. farther for very light
draft vessels) and a few other coast streams for short distances.
The beginning of railway building in Oregon was delayed a few years
by a contest between parties desiring a line on the east side of the
Willamette river and parties desiring one on the west side. Finally,
on the 14th of May 1868, ground was broken for the proposed line on
the west side, and two days later it was broken for one on the east
side ; that on the east side was completed for 20 m. south of Portland
in 1869 and that on the west side was completed to the Yamhill river
in 1872. In 1870 the mileage was 159 m. The principal period of
railway building was from 1880 to 1890, during which 931-97 m. were
built and the state's mileage increased from 508 m. to 1,439-97 m-
In 1909 the total mileage was 2089-46 m. There is a state rail-
way commission. The principal railways are: that of the Oregon
Railroad & Navigation Company (controlled by the Union Pacific),
which crosses the north-eastern corner of the state and then runs along
the bank of the Columbia river to Portland; three lines of the
Southern Pacific in the Willamette Valley, the main line connecting
Portland with San Francisco; the Astoria & Columbia River, con-
necting Portland and Astoria; the Coos Bay, Roseburg & Eastern
Railroad & Navigation Company (owned by the Southern Pacific),
connecting Coos Bay with one of the Southern Pacific lines; and the
Corvallis & Eastern (owned by the Southern Pacific), connecting
Yaquina Bay with all three lines of the Southern Pacific. Throughout
the Cascade Mountain Region and the great semi-arid region cast of
those mountains, which together embrace more than two-thirds of
the state's area, there is not a railway.
The state carries on an extensive commerce with the Orient and
with the Canadian provinces. Its exports are principally lumber,
wheat, live-stock, fish and wool; its imports are largely a variety of
products of the Oriental countries. There are four customs districts :
southern Oregon, with Coos Bay as the port of entry; Willamette,
with Portland as the port of entry; Oregon, with Astoria as the port
of entry; and Yaquina, at the mouth of the Yaquina river.
Population. — The population of Oregon was 13,294 in 1850;
52,465 in i860; 90,923 in 1870; 174,768 in 18S0; 317,704 in 1S90;
413,536 in igoo, an increase of 30-2% in the decade; and 672,765
in 1910, a further increase of 62-7%. Of the total population in
1900, 347,788, or 84-1%, were native-born, 65,748 were foreign-
born, 394,582, or 95-4%, were of the white race, and 18,954
were coloured. Of those born within the United States opiiy
164,431, or less than one-half, were natives of Oregon, and of
those born in other states of the Union 128,654, or about seven-
tenlhs, were natives of one or another of the following stales:
Missouri, Illinois, Iowa, Ohio, California, New York, Indiana,
Kansas, Washington, Wisconsin and Pennsylvania. Nearly
three-fourths of the foreign-born were composed of the following:
13,292 Germans, 9365 Chinese, 9007 Scandinavians, 7508
Canadians, 5663 English and 4210 Irish. The coloured popula-
tion consisted of 10,397 Chinese, 4951 Indians, 2501 Japanese
and 1105 negroes.
The Indians are remnants of a large number of tribes, most of
which are aboriginal to this region, and they represent ten or more
distinct linguistic stocks. Most of them have been collected under
five government schools; the Clackamas, Cow Creek, Cala[)ooya,
Uakmiut, Mary's River, Molala, Nestucca, Rogue River, Santiam,
Shasta, Tumwater, Umpqua, Wapato and Yamhill, numbering 145
in 1909, under the Grande Ronde school, on the Grande Ronde
reservation in Polk and Yamhill counties; the Klamath (658),
Modoc (216), Paiute (103), and I^it River or Achomawi (56), under
the Klamath school on the Klamath reservation (1362-8 sq. m.) in
Klamath and Lake counties; the Al sea, Coquille, Kusan, Kwatami,
Rogue River, Skoton, Shasta, Saiustkea, Siuslaw, Tututni, Umpqua
and several other small tribes, numbering 442 in 1909, under the
Siletz school, on the Silctz reservation (5 sq. m.) in Lincoln
county; the Cayuse, Umatilla and Wallawalla, numbering 1205 in
1908, underthe Lfmatilla school, on the Umatilla reservation (124-73
sc]. m.) in Umatilla county, and the Paiute, Tenino, Warm Springs
and Wasco Indians, numbering 765 in 1909, under the Warm
Springs school on the Warm Springs reservation (503-29 sq. m.) in
Wasco and Crook counties. Most of the Indians are engaged in
farming and stock-raising, but a few still derive their maintenance
mainly from fishing and hunting.
Roman Catholics are the most numerous religious sect in
the state (in 1906 out of a total of 120,229 communicants of
all religious bodies, they numbered 35,317). The rural popula-
tion (i.e. population outside of incorporated places) is very
sparse, only about 25, in 1900, to the square mile, and while
it increased from 203,973 in 1890 to 229,894 in 1900, or only
1 1 '3%. the urban {i.e. population of places having 4000 in-
habitants or more) together with the semi-urban {i.e. population
of incorporated places having less than 4000 inhabitants) in-
creased during the same decade from 113,731 to 183,642, or
61-5%. The principal cities are Portland, Astoria, Baker
City and Salem, which is the capital.
Administration. — The state is still governed under its original
constitution of 1857, with the amendments adopted in 1902,
1906 and 1908. This constitution may be amended: by a
majority of the popidar vote at a regular general election, if
the amendment has been passed by a majority vote of all the
elected members of each house of the legislature; or by an
initiative petition; or by a constitutional convention, which
may not be called, however, unless the law providing for it
is approved by popular vote. The right of suffrage is conferred
by the constitution upon all white male citizens twenty-one
years of age and over who have resided in the state during the
six months immediately preceding the election, and upon every
white male of the required age who has been a resident of the
state for six months, and who, one year before the election,
has declared his intention of becoming a citizen and who has
resided in the United States for one year and in the state for
six months prior to the election. Idiots, insane persons and
persons convicted of serious crimes are disfranchised. The
clause excluding negroes and Chinese from the suffrage has
never been repealed, although it has been rendered nugatory
by the Fifteenth Amendment to the Federal Constitution.
Another provision which has been anntdled by amendment
to the Federal Constitution, but which still remains in the state
constitution, is a clause forbidding free negroes or mulattoes,
not residing in the state at the time of the adoption of the
constitution, to enter the state or to own real estate or make
contracts and maintain suits therein, and bidding the legislature
provide for the removal of such negroes and mulattoes and
for the punishment of persons bringing them into the state,
or employing or harbouring them. The constitution provides
that no Chinaman, not a resident of the state at the time of
246
OREGON
the adoption of the constitution, shall ever hold any real estate
or mining claim, or work any mining claim in the state.
The chief executive functions are vested in a governor, who
is elected for a term of four years, and who must be at least
30 years old and must have been a resident of the state for
three years before his election. He is not eligible to the office
for more than eight years in any period of twelve years. He
has the right of pardon and a veto of legislative acts, which
may be overridden by a two-thirds vote of the members present
of each house of the legislature. The other important adminis-
trative ofBcers are the secretary of state (who succeeds the
governor if he dies or resigns — there is no lieutenant-governor),
treasurer, attorney-general, superintendent of public instruction
and labour commissioner. No public officer may be impeached,
but for sufficient cause the governor may remove a Justice of
the supreme court or a prosecuting attorney from office, upon
a joint resolution of the legislature adopted by a two-thirds
vote in each house. A public oflicial may be tried for incom-
petence, corruption or malfeasance according to the regular
procedure in criminal cases, and if convicted he may be dis-
missed from office and receive such other penalties as the law
provides.
The legislative department (officially called " the legislative
assembly") consists of a Senate of thirty^ members chosen for four
years, with half the membership retiring every two j'ears, and a House
of Representatives with sixty "■ members elected biennially. A
senatorial district, if it contains more than one county, must be
composed of contiguous counties, and no county may be divided
between different senatorial districts. The sessions of the legislature
are biennial. Bills for raising revenue must originate in the House of
Representatives, but the Senate may offer amendments. Until 1902
the legislature was the sole law-making body in the state, but on the
2nd of June of this year the voters adopted a constitutional amend-
ment which declared that " the people reserve to themselves power
to propose laws and amendments to the constitution, and to enact or
reject the same at the polls, independent of the legislative assembly,
and also reserve power at their own option to approve or reject at
the polls any act of the legislative assembly." This provision for the
initiative and the referendum was made effective by a legislative act
of 1903. Eight per cent of the number of voters who at the last
preceding election voted for a justice of the supreme court, by filing
with the secretary of state a petition for the enactment of any law or
constitutional amendment — the petition must contain the full text of
the law and must be filed at least four months before the election at
which it is to be voted upon— may secure a vote on the proposed
measure at the next general election, and if it receives the approval of
the voters it becomes a law without interposition of the legislature,
and goes into effect from the day of the governor's proclamation
announcing the result of the election. A referendum of legislative
enactments may be ordered in two ways: the legislature itself may
refer any of its acts to the people for approval or rejection at the next
regular election, in which case the act may not be vetoed by the
governor and does not go into effect until approved at the polls; or
5 % of the number of voters at the last election for a supreme court
justice may by petition order any act, except such as are " necessary
for the immediate preservation of the public peace, health or safety,"
to be referred to the voters for their approval or rejection. Such a
petition must be filed within ninety days after the adjournment of
the session in which the act was passed. The secretary of state is
required to mail to every voter whose address he has a pamphlet
containing the text of the laws to be voted upon at the ensuing
election. Along with the text of the law, the state will print argu-
ments in its favour if any are submitted by the persons initiating the
measure and the cost of the extra printing is paid by the initiators.
In like manner, any one who will defray the expense of the printing
may submit arguments in opposition to any proposed measure, and
these will be included in the pamphlet and distributed by the state
at its own expense. This " te.\t-book " for the voters contained 60
pages in 1906 and 126 pages in 1908.
The power of the initiative was first exercised by the people of
Oregon in 1904, when they proposed and enacted a local option liquor
law and a direct primary law. As a result of the first of these
measures, in 1908 nineteen of the thirty-three counties of the state
had prohibited the sale of intoxicants since 1905. The most important
effect of the direct primary law has been the choice of United States
senators by what is practically a popular vote. Candidates for the
United States Senate are voted for in the primaries, and between 1904
and 1909 candidates for the state legislature were required to say
whether or not they would support the people's choice for United
' The constitution set 30 as the maximum number of senators,
60 as the maximum number ot representatives, and provided for 16
senators and 34 representatives in 1857-1860. It provided for an
enumeration and a reapportionment each tenth year after 1865.
States senator regardless of their own preferences.' In the state
election in June 1908 a Democrat received the highest popular vote
for the senatorship, and as a majority of the legislature of 1909 had
committed itself to vote for the people's choice, he was elected by
that body, although five-sixths of its members were Republicans.'
This was an anomaly in American politics. In June 1906 five laws
and five amendments to the constitution, proposed by initiative
petitions, and one law on which the referendum was ordered by
petition, were submitted to a popular vote. An amendment giving
women the right to vote was defeated, and among those adopted was
one providing for the initiative upon special and local laws and parts
of laws, and another giving cities and towns the exclusive right to
enact or amend their own charters, subject only to the constitution
and the criminal laws. Oregon was thus the first American state
to grant complete home rule to its municipalities. At the election
in June 1908 the number of initiative and referendum measures
amounted to nineteen, and the ballot required forty-one separate
marks and was over 2j ft. long.
The measures to be voted on consisted of eleven laws or con-
stitutional amendments proposed by initiative petition, four con-
stitutional amendments referred to the people by the legislature, and
four laws upon which the voters had ordered a referendum. Among
the measures defeated were the fourth woman's suffrage amendment
voted down in Oregon, a single-tax bill and an " open town " bill
designed to defeat the purpose of the local option liquor law. Among
the measures adopted were: a'law (of doubtful constitutionality)
requiring legislators to vote for the people's choice for a United
States senator — this was adopted by a vote of 69,668 to 21,162; a
corrupt practices act, regulating the expenditure of moneys in
political campaigns and limiting a candidate's expenses to one-
fourth of one year's salary; an amendment permitting the establish-
ment of state institutions elsewhere than at the capital; an amend-
ment changing the time of state elections from June to November;
an amendment permitting the legislature to pass a law providing for
proportional representation, i.e. representation for each political
party in proportion to its numerical strength, by providing for first
and second choice in voting — the system of preferential voting
adopted in Idaho in 1909; and the " recall," by which the voters
may remove from office after six months' serv^ice by a special election
any local official.*
Judiciary. — The judicial department of the state consists of a
supreme court, circuit courts, county courts (held by a county judge
in each county) and the courts of local justices of the peace. The
supreme court consists of five (before 1909 the number was three)
justices elected for a term of six years, and its jurisdiction extends
only to appeals from the decisions of the circuit courts. The judges
of the circuit courts were formerly supreme court justices on circuit;
they also are chosen for six years, and they have cognizance over all
cases, including appeals from inferior courts, not specifically re-
served by law for some other tri'ounal. The judges of the county
courts are elected for four years, and their courts have jurisdiction
over probate matters, civil cases involving amounts not exceeding
S500, and criminal cases in which the offence is not punishable by
death or imprisonment in the penitentiary. Each county is divided
into a number of districts or precincts, for each of which there is a
justice of the peace, elected biennially and having jurisdiction in
minor cases.
Local Government. — For the purposes of local government the
state is divided into thirty-four counties. The constitution provides
that no county may have an area of less than 400 sq. m., and that no
new county may be created unless its population is at least 1200.
County affairs are administered by the county judge acting with two
commissioners. Any portion of a county containing as many as 150
inhabitants may be incorporated as a town or city, and as such it
possesses complete self-government in all purely local matters, even
' Before 1904, under a law of 1901, the people voted for candidates
for the United States Senate, but the legislative assembly was in no
way bound to carry out the decision of the popular vote; and in
1904 the legislature chose as United States senator a candidate for
whom no votes had been cast in the popular election.
* It is to be noted that the Republican party had not favoured
requiring a pledge from members of the legislature that they would
vote for the people's choice for senator; that the Democratic candi-
date for senator (Gov. G. E. Chamberlain) was a prominent
advocate of the initiative, the referendum and the direct election of
United States senators; and that a wing of the Republican party
worked for the choice of the Democratic candidate by the people in
the hope that the (Republican) legislature would not ratify the
popular choice and so would nullify the direct primary law.
* At times the two law-making bodies — the legislature and the
people — have come into conflict. In 1906, for example, the people by
the initiative secured a law forbidding public officers from accepting
free passes from railways. In 1907 the legislature repealed all laws
on this subject and required railways to furnish free transportation
to certain officials. Upon this measure, however, the people ordered
a referendum and it was rejected at the polls. In 1908 the people
voted against increasing the number of supreme court judges; in
1909 the legislature increased the number.
OREGON
247
having the power to revise its own charter. A constitutional amend-
ment of 1906 forbids the formation of corporations by special laws
(formerly the constitution provided that corporations " shall not be
created by special laws except for municipal purposes ") and says:
" The legislative assembly shall not enact, amend or repeal any
charter or act of incorporation for any municipality, city or town."
The initiative and the referendum are employed in municipal
ordinances as well as in state laws; towns and cities make their own
provisions as to " the manner of exercising the initiative and refer-
endum powers as to their own municipal legislation"; but " not
more than 10 % of the legal voters may be required to order the
referendum nor more than 15 % to propose any measure by the
initiative, in any city or town."
Miscellaneous Laws. — The value of the homestead exempt from
judicial sale for the satisfaction of liabilities is limited to $1500; the
homestead must be owned and occupied by some member of the
family claiming the exemption and may not exceed in area one block
in a town or city or 160 acres outside of a municipality. The ex-
emption is not valid against a mortgage, but the mortgage must be
executed by both husband and wife, if the householder is married.
The debtor claims the exemption where the levy is made, but if the
sheriff deems the homestead greater in value than the law allows, he
may choose three disinterested persons to appraise it and sell any
portion that may be adjudged in excess of the legal limit. The
constitution provides that the property and pecuniary rights of every
married woman, at the time of her marriage, or afterwards, acquired
by gift, devise or inheritance, shall not be subject to the debts or
contracts of the husband; and that laws shall be passed providing
for the registration of the wife's separate property. Marriages
between whites and persons of negro descent, between whites and
Indians, and between first cousins are forbidden or are void. One
year's residence is necessary to secure a divorce, for which the causes
recognized are a conviction of felony, habitual drunkenness for one
year, physical incapacity, desertion for one year and cruelty or
personal indignities.
Education. — The public school system (organized 1873) is ad-
ministered by the state superintendent of public instruction, who
exercises a general supervision over the schools, and by the state
board of education, which prescribes the general rules and regulations
for their management. For the support of the schools there is a
school fund, amounting on the 1st of April 1909 to $5,861,475, and
consisting of the moneys derived from the sale of lands donated by
the Federal government and of small sums derived from miscellane-
ous sources. The fund is administered by a board consisting of the
governor, the secretary of state and the state treasurer, and the
income from it is apportioned among the counties according to the
number of children of school age. The counties are also required to
levy special school taxes, the aggregate annual amount of which
shall be equivalent to at least seven dollars for every child between
the ages of four and twenty years. If the total annual fund for a
school district amounts to less than $300, the district must levy a
special tax to bring the fund up to that sum. Each school district
in the state is required to have a school term of six months or more.
Special county taxes are levied for the maintenance of public school
libraries also. For all children between the ages of nine and fourteen
inclusive, school attendance is compulsory.
The total number of teachers in the public schools in 1908 was
4243; the total school enrollment, 107,493; the average daily
attendance 94,333. In 1908 there was paid for the support of
common schools $3,061,994; the average monthly salary of rural
teachers was $49-60, and of school principals, $80-87. The pro-
portion of illiterates is low: in 1900 of the total population 10 years
of age or over only 3-3 % was illiterate; of the male population of
the same age 3-9 %, of the female 2-3 % and of the native white
population only 0-8 % were illiterate.
In addition to the public schools, the state maintains; the Uni-
versity of Oregon at Eugene {q.v.)\ the State Agricultural College
(1870), at Corvallis (pop. 1900, 1819), the county-seat of Bentun
county, and the State Normal School (1882) at Monmouth (pop. in
1900, 606), in Polk county. Among the institutions not receiving
state aid are Albany College (Presbyterian, 1867), at Albany ; Colum-
bia University (Roman Catholic, 1901), at Portland; Dallas College
(United Evangelical, 1900), at Dallas; Pacific University (Congre-
gational, 1853), at Forest Grove; McMinnville College (Baptist,
1858), at McMinnville; Pacific College (Friends, founded in 1885
as an academy, college opened in 1891), at Newberg; Philomath
College (United Brethren, 1866), at Philomath; and Willamette
University (Methodist Episcopal, 1844), at Salem.
Charitable and Correctional Institutions. — The state supports the
following charitable and correctional institutions: a soldiers' home
(1894) at Roseburg and a school for deaf mutes (1870), an institute
for the blind (1873), a reform school, an insane asylum and a peni-
tentiary at Salem, the capital of the state. These institu.tions
(except the penitentiary, of which the governor of the state is an
inspector) are governed each by a board of three trustees, the
governor of the state and the secretary of state serving on all boards,
and the third trustee being the state treasurer on the boards for the
state insane asylum, the state reform school and the institute for
the feeble-minded, and the superintendent of public instruction
on the boards for the school for deaf mutes and the institute for
the blind.
Finance. — The constitution forbids the establishment or incorpora-
tion by the legislative assembly of any bank or banking company;
and it forbids any bank or banking company in the state from issuing
bills, checks, certificates, promissory notes or other paper to circulate
as money. Except in case of war the legislative assembly may not
contract a state debt greater than $50,000. To pay bounties to
soldiers in the Civil War a debt of $237,000 was contracted; but in
1870 only $90,000 of it was still outstanding. An issue of bonds (to be
redeemed from the sale of public lands) for a privately built canal at
Oregon City was authorized in 1870. About $175,000 more of debt
was incurred by Indian wars in 1874 and 1878; in the latter year the
public debt amounted to more than $650,000, but about $350,000
of this was in 10 % warrants for road-building, &c. ; the bonds and
warrants (with the exception of some never presented for redemption)
were speedily redeemed by a special property tax. Revenues for the
support of the government arc derived from the following sources: the
general property tax, the poll tax (the proceeds of which accrue to
the county in which it is collected), the inheritance tax, corporation
taxes, business taxes and licenses and fees. By far the most im-
portant source of revenue is the general property tax, which is
assessed for state, county and municipal purposes. The amount of
revenue to be raised for state purposes each year by this tax is com-
puted by a board consisting of the governor, the secretary of state
and the state treasurer, and it is apportioned among the counties on
the basis of their average expenditures for the previous five years.
At the close of the year 1907 the state was free from bonded
indebtedness; receipts into the treasury during the year were
$2,851,471, and the expenditure was $2,697,645.
History. — As to the European who first saw any portion of
the present Oregon there is some controversy and doubt. It
is known that within thirty years after the discovery of the
Pacific Ocean the Spaniards had explored the western coasts
of the American continent from the isthmus to the vicinity
of the forty-second parallel of north latitude, and it is possible
that the Spanish pilot Bartolome Ferrelo (or Ferrer), who in
1543 made the farthest northward voyage in the Pacific re-
corded in the first half of the i6th century, may have reached a
point on the Oregon coast. The profitable trade between the
Spanish colonies and the Far East, however, soon occupied
the whole attention of the Spaniards, and caused them to
neglect the exploration of the coast of north-western America
for many years. In 1579 the Englishman, Francis Drake,
came to this region seeking a route home by way of the North-
west Passage, and in his futile quest he seems to have gone
as far north as 43°.^ He took possession of the country in the
name of Queen Elizabeth and called it Albion. Near the end
of the century persistent stories of a North-west Passage caused
the Spanish rulers to plan further explorations of the Pacific
coast, so as to forestall other nations in the discovery of the
alleged new route and thus retain their monopoly of the South
Sea (Pacific Ocean). In 1603 Sebastian Vizcaino, acting under
orders of the viceroy of Mexico, reached the latitude of 42° N.,
and Martin Aguilar, with another vessel of the fleet, reached
a point near latitude 43° which he called Cape Blanco and
claimed to have discovered there a large river. For the next
century and a half Spain again neglected this region, until the
fear of English and Russian encroachment caused her to resume
the work of exploration. In 1774 Juan Perez sailed up the
coast as far as 54° N. lat., and on his return followed the shore
line very closely, thus making the first real and undisputed
exploration of the Oregon coast of which there is any record.
In the following year Bruno Heceta landed off what is now
called Point Grenville and took formal possession of the countrj',
and later, in lat. 46°9', he discovered a bay whose swift currents
led him to suspect that he was in the mouth of a large river
or strait. In 1778 Jonathan Carver iq.v.) published in London
Travels throughout the Interior Parts of North America, in which,
following the example of the Spaniards, he asserted that there
was a great river on the western coast, although, so far as is
known, no white man had then ever seen such a stream. Whether
his declaration was based on stories told by the Indians of the
interior, or upon reports of Spanish sailors, or had no basis at
all, is not known; its chief importance lies in the fact that
Carver called this undiscovered stream the Oregon, and that
' Some early writers assert that Drake even reached the lat. ot
48° N. and anchored in the Straits of Juan de Fuca.
248
OREGON
this name was eventually applied to the territory drained by
this great western river. The name, hke the whole story, may
have been of Spanish or Indian origin, or it may have been
purely fanciful.'
The Spaniards made no effort to colonize north-western
America or to develop its trade with the Indians, but toward
the end of the iSth century the traders of the great British
fur companies of the North were gradually pushing overland
to the Pacific. Upon the sea, too. the English were not idle.
Captain James Cook in March 17 78 sighted the coast of Oregon
in the lat. of 44°, and e.xamined it between 47° and 48° in the
hope of finding the Straits of Juan de Fuca described in Spanish
accounts. Soon after the close of the War of Independence
American merchants began to buy furs along the north-west
coast and to ship them to China to be exchanged for the products
of the East. It was in the prosecution of this trade that Captain
Robert Gray (1755-1806), an American in the service of Boston
merchants, discovered in 1792 the long-sought river of the West,
which he named the Columbia, after his ship. By the discovery
of this stream Gray gave to the United States a claim to the
whole territory drained by its waters. Other explorers had
searched in vain for this river. Cook had sailed by without
suspecting its presence; Captain John Meares (c. 1756-1809),
another English navigator, who visited the region in 17S8,
declared that no such river existed, and actually called its
estuary "Deception Bay"; and George Vancouver, who
visited the coast in 1792, was sceptical until he learned of Gray's
discovery.
Spanish claims to this part of North America did not long
remain undisputed by England and the United States. By
the Nootka Convention of 1790 Spain acknowledged the right
of British subjects to fish, trade and settle in the parts of the
northern Pacific coast not already occupied; and under the
treaty of 1819 (proclaimed in 1821) she ceded to the United
States aU the territory claimed by her N. of 42°. But even
before these agreements had been reached, Alexander Mackenzie,
in the service of the North-west Company, in 1793 had explored
through Canada to the Pacific coast in lat. about 52° 20' N.,
and Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, American explorers
acting under the orders of President Jefferson, in 1 805-1 806
had passed west of the Rocky Mountains and down the Columbia
river to the Pacific Ocean. Both British and American
adventurers were attracted to the region by the profitable fur
trade. In 1808 the North-west Company had several posts on
the Eraser river, and in the same year the American Eur Company
was organized by John Jacob Astor, who was planning to build
up a trade in the West. In 181 1 the Pacific Eur Company, a
kind of western division of the American Eur Company, founded
a trading post at the mouth of the Columbia which they called
Astoria, and set up a number of minor posts on the Willamette,
Spokane and Okanogan rivers. On hearing of the war between
England and the United States, Astor's associates, deeming
Astoria untenable, sold the property in October 1813 to the
North-west Company. In the following month a British ship
arrived, and its captain took formal possession of the post
and renamed it Eort George.
Soon after the restoration of peace between England and the
United States by the treaty of Ghent (1814), there arose the
so-called " Oregon question " or " North-western boundary
dispute," which agitated both countries for more than a genera-
tion and almost led to another war. As that treaty had stipulated
that all territory captured during the war should be restored
to its former owner, the American government in 1817 took
' There have been many ingenious, but quite unsatisfactory,
efforts to explain the derivation of the word Oregon. They are
enumerated at length in Bancroft's History of Oregon, vol. i. pp. 17-25.
It seems that after the publication of Carver's book the word Oregon
did not appear again in print until William CuUen Bryant employed
it in his poem Thanatopsis, in 1817. It was applied to the territory
drained by the Columbia river for the first time, perhaps, by Hall
J. Kelley, a promoter of immigration into the North-west, who in
memorials to Congress and numerous other writings referred to the
country as Oregon.
steps to reoccupy the Columbia Valley. The British government
at first protested, on the ground that Astoria was not captured
territory, but finally surrendered the post to the United States
in 1818. The United States was willing at the time to extend
the north-western boundary along the forty-ninth parallel from
the Lake of the Woods to the Pacific, but to this the British
government wotdd not consent; and on the 20th of October
1818 both nations agreed to a convention providing for the
" joint occupation " for ten years of the country " on the
north-west coast of America, westward of the Stony
[Rocky] Mountains." In the following year, as already
stated, Spain waived her claim to the territory north of 42°
in favour of the United States. In 1821, however, Russia
asserted her claim to all lands as far south as the fifty-first
parallel. Against this claim both England and the United
States protested, and in 1S24 the United States and Russia
concluded a treaty by which Russia agreed to make no settle-
ments south of 54° 40', and the United States agreed to make
none north of that line. From this time until the final settle-
ment of the controversy the Americans were disposed to believe
that their title was clear to all the territory south of the Russian
possessions; that is, to all the region west of the Rocky Mountains
between 42° and 54° 40' N. lat. In 1S27 the agreement of 1S18
between Great Britain and the United States as to joint occupa-
tion was renewed for an indefinite term, with the proviso that
it might be terminated by either party on twelve months' notice.
For the next two decades the history of Oregon is concerned
mainly with the British fur traders and the American immigrants.
The Hudson's Bay Company absorbed its rival, the North-west
Company, in 1821, and thus secured a practical monopoly of
the fur trade of the North and West. Its policy was to dis-
courage colonization so as to maintain the territory in which
it operated as a vast game preserve. Fortunately for the
Americans, however, the company in 1824 sent to the Columbia
river as its chief factor and governor west of the Rocky Mountains
Dr John McLoughlin (1784-1857), who ruled the region with
an iron hand, but with a benevolent purpose, for twenty-two
years. On the northern bank of the Columbia in 1824-1825
he built Fort Vancouver, which became a port for ocean vessels
and a great entrepot for the western fur trade; in 1829 he began
the settlement of Oregon City; and, most important of all, he
extended a hearty welcome to all settlers and aided them in
many ways, though this was against the company's interests.
In 1S32 four Indian chiefs from the Oregon country journeyed
to St Louis to obtain a copy of the white man's Bible; and this
incident aroused the missionary zeal of the rehgious denomina-
tions. In 1S34 Jason Lee (d. 1845) and his nephew, Daniel
Lee, went to Oregon as Methodist missionaries, and with
McLoughlin's assistance they established missions in the
Willamette valley. Samuel Parker went as a Presbyterian
missionary in 1835, and was followed in the next year by Marcus
Whitman and Henry H. Spalding (c. 1801-1874), who were
accompanied by their wives, the first white women, it is said,
to cross the American continent. Whitman settled at Wai-i-lat-
pu, about 5 m. W. of the present Walla Walla and 25 m. from
the Hudson's Bay Company's Fort Walla WaUa; and Spalding
at Lapwai, near the present Lewiston, Idaho. Roman Catholic
missions were established near Fort WaUa Walla in 1838. In
this year Jason Lee returned to the Eastern states and carried
back to Oregon with him by sea over fifty people, missionaries
and their families. It is significant, if true, that part of the
money for chartering his vessel was supplied from the secret-
service fund of the United States government.
As early as 1841 the Americans in Oregon began to feel the
need of some form of civil government, as the regulations of the
Hudson's Bay Company were the only laws then known to the
country. After several ineffectual attempts a provisional
government was finally organized by two meetings at Champoeg
(in what is now Marion county, north-east of Salem) on the 2nd
of May and on the 5th of July 1843. The governing body was
at first an executive committee of three citizens, but in 1845
this committee was abolished and a governor was chosen. In
OREGON
249
the " fundamental laws " of the provisional government
were incorporated a number of Articles from the Ordinance of
1787, among them the one prohibiting slavery. The new govern-
ment encountered the opposition of the missionaries and of the
non-American population, but it was soon strengthened by (he
" Great Immigration " in 1843, when nearly nine hundred men,
women and children, after assembling at Independence, Missouri,
crossed the plains in a body and settled in the Columbia Valley.
After this year the flow of immigrants steadily increased, about
1400 arriving in 1844, and 3000 in 1845.' Signs of hostility
to the Hudson's Bay Company now began to appear among
the American population, and in 1845 the provisional government
sought to extend its jurisdiction north of the Columbia river,
where the Americans had hitherto refrained from settling.
A compromise was finally reached, whereby the company was
to be exempt from taxes on all its property except the goods
sold to settlers, and the oflicers and employees of the company
and all the British residents were to become subject to the
provisional government. Meanwhile the western states had
inaugurated a movement in favour of the immediate and definite
settlement of the Oregon question, with the result that the
Democratic national convention of 1844 declared that the title
of the United States to " the whole of the territory of Oregon "
was " clear and unquestionable," and the party made " Fifty-
four forty or fight " a campaign slogan. The Democrats were
successful at the polls, and President Polk in his inaugural
address asserted the claim of the United States to all of Oregon
in terms suggesting the possibility of war. Negotiations, however,
resulted in a treaty, drafted by James Buchanan, the American
Secretary of State, and Richard Pakenham, the British envoy,
which the president in June 1846 submitted to the Senate for
its opinion and which he was advised to accept. By this instru-
ment the northern boundary of Oregon was fixed at the forty-
ninth parallel, extending westward from the crest of the Rocky
Mountains to the middle of the channel separating Vancouver's
Island from the mainland, " and thence southerly through the
middle of the said channel, and of Fuca's Straits, to the Pacific
Ocean."
Although President Polk immediately urged the formation
of a territorial government for Oregon, the bill introduced for
this purpose was held up in the Senate on account of the opposi-
tion of Southern leaders, who were seeking to maintain the abstract
principle that slavery could not be constitutionally prohibited
in any territory of the United States, although they had no hope
of Oregon ever becoming slave territory. Indian outbreaks,
however, which began in 1847, compelled Congress to take
measures for the defence of the inhabitants, and on the 14th of
August 1S48 a bill was enacted providing a territorial govern-
ment. As then constituted, the Territory embraced the whole
area to which the title of the United States had been confirmed
by the treaty of 1846, and included the present states of Oregon,
Washington and Idaho, and parts of Wyoming and Montana.
Its area was reduced in 1853 by the creation of the Territory of
Washington. The discovery of gold in California drew many
Oregon settlers to that country in 1848-1850, but this exodus
was soon offset as a result of the enactment by Congress in 1850
of the " land donation law," by which settlers in Oregon between
1850 and 1853 were entitled to large tracts of land free of cost.
The number of claims registered under this act was over eight
thousand.
In 1856 the people voted for statehood; and in June 1857
they elected members of a constitutional convention which
drafted a constitution at Salem in August and September 1857;
the constitution was ratified by popular vote in November
' For many years it was generally believed that the administration
at WashinEcton was prevented from surrendering its claims to Oregon,
in return for the grant by Great Britain of fishing stations in
Newfoundland, by Marcus Whitman, who in 1 842-1 843 made a
journey across the entire continent in the depth of winter to dissuade
the government from this purpose. This story seems to have no
foundation in fact; it was not Whitman, but the great influx of
settlers in 1843-T844 that saved Oregon, if, indeed, there was then
any danger of its being given up. (See Whitman, Marcus.)
1857; and on the 14th of February 1850 Oregon was admitted
into the Union with its present boundaries. The new state
was at first Democratic in politics, and the southern faction of
the Democratic party in i860 made a bid for its support by
nominating as their candidate for vice-president, on the ticket
with John C. Breckinridge, Joseph Lane (1801-1881), then a
senator from Oregon and previously its territorial governor.
The Douglas Democrats and the Republicans, however, worked
together as a union party, and Lincoln carried the state by a small
majority. The so-called union party broke up after the Civil
War, and by 1870 the Democrats were strong enough to prevent
the ratification by Oregon of the Fifteenth Amendment to the
Federal Constitution. In 1876, after the presidential election,
two sets of electoral returns were forwarded from Oregon, one
showing the choice of three Republican electors, and the other
(signed by the governor, who was a Democrat) showing the
election of two Republicans and one Democrat. The poiiular
vote was admittedly for the three Republican electors, but one
of the Republican electors (Watts) was a deputy-postmaster
and so seemed ineligible under the constitutional provision that
" no . . . person holding an ofllce of trust or profit under the
United States shall be an elector." Watts resigned as deputy-
postmaster, and the secretary of state of Oregon, who under
the state law was the canvassing officer, certified the election
of the three Republican electors. On the 6th of December the
three met. Watts resigned, and was immediately reappointed
by the other two. The Democratic claimant, with whom the
two Republican electors whose election was conceded, refused
to meet, met alone, appointed two other Democrats to fill the
two " vacancies," and the " electoral college " of the state so
constituted forthwith cast two votes for Hayes and one for
Tilden. The Electoral Commission decided that the three votes
should be counted for Hayes — if the one Democratic elector had
been adjudged chosen, the Democratic candidate for the presi-
dency, S. J. Tilden, would have been elected. The political
complexion of the state has generally been Republican, although
the contests between the two leading parties have often been
very close. The Indian outbreaks which began in 1847 continued
with occasional periods of quiet for nearly a generation, until
most of the Indians were either killed or placed on reservations.
The Indians were very active during the Civil War, when
the regular troops were withdrawn for service in the eastern
states, and Oregon's volunteers from 1861 to 1865 were needed
for home defence. The most noted Indian conflicts within the
state have been the Modoc War (1864-73) 3-id the Shoshone
War (1866-68). During the Spanish-American War Oregon
furnished a regiment of volunteers which served in the Philippines.
Governors of Oregon
Under the Provisional Government.
George Abernethy 1 845-1 849
Under the Territorial Government.
Joseph Lane 1849-1S50
Knitzing Pritchett (acting)
John P. Gaines
Joseph Lane
George Law Curry (acting) ....
John W. Davis
George Law Curry
Under the State Government.
John Whiteaker, Dem
Addison Crandall Gibbs, Rep.
George Lemuel Woods, Rep.
La Fayette Grover, Dem
Stephen Fowler Chadwick (acting)
William Wallace Thayer, Dem. .
Zenas Ferry Moody, Rep
Sylvester Pennoyer, Dem
William Paine Lord, Rep
Theodore Thurston Gcer, Rep. .
George Earle Chamberlain, Dem.
Frank W. Benson, I^ep. ....
Oswald West. Dem. ....
1850
1850-1852
1853 =
1853
1853-1854
1854-1859
1 859- 1 862
1 862- 1 866
1866-1870
1870-1877
1877-1878
1878-1882
1882-1887
1 887-1 895
1895-1899
1 899- 1 903
I 903- I 909
1909-191 1 '
lOII-
^ Held office only three days, May 16-19.
' Secretary of State; succeeded G. E. Chamberlain, who resigned
to become a member of the U.S. Senate.
250
OREGON CITY— OREL
Bibliography. — See generally W. Nash, The Settler's Handbook
to Oregon (Portland, 1904) ; and publications and reports of the
various national and state departments. For administration: J. R.
Robertson, " The Genesis of Political Authority and of a Common-
wealth Government in Oregon " in the Quarterly of the Oregon
Historical Society, vol. i. (Salem, 1901); Journal of the Constitutional
Convention of the State of Oregon held at Salem in 1857 (Salem, 1882) ;
C. B. Bellinger and W. W. Cotton, The Codes and Statutes of Oregon
(2 vols., San Francisco, 1902); and Frank Foxcroft, " Constitution
Mending and the Initiative," in the Atlantic Monthly for June 1906.
For history: H. H. Bancroft's History of the North-west Coast (2
vols., San Francisco, 1884) and History of Oregon (2 vols., San
Francisco, 1886-1888); William Barrows's Oregon: The Struggle for
Possession (Boston, 1883) in the "American Commonwealths"
series; J. Dunn's Oregon Territory and the British North American
Fur Trade (Philadelphia, 1845); W. H. Gray's History of Oregon,
1792-1849 (Portland, Oregon, 1870); H. S. Lyman's History of
Oregon (4 vols.. New York, 1903), the best complete history of the
state; Joseph Schafer's " Pacific Slope and Alaska," vol. x. of G. C.
Lee's History of North America (Philadelphia, 1904), more succinct.
On special features of the state's history see W. R. Manning's " The
Nootka Sound Controversy," pp. 279-478 of the Annual Report for
IQ04 (Washington, 1905) of the American Historical Association;
F. V. Holman's Dr JohnMcLoughlin, the Father of Oregon (Cleveland,
1907); J. H. Gilbert's Trade and Currency in Early Oregon, in the
Columbia University Studies in Economics, vol. xxvi.. No. I (New
York, 1907) ; and P. J. de Smet's " Oregon Missions and Travels over
the Rocky Mountains in 1845-1846," in vol. xxix. of R. G. Thwaites's
Early Western Travels (Cleveland, 1906). For the Whitman contro-
versy see Whitman, Marcus. Much historical material may be
found in the publications of the Oregon Historical Society, especially
in the Society's Quarterly (1900 sqq.), and of the Oregon Pioneer
Association.
OREGON CITY, a city and the county-seat of Clackamas
county, Oregon, U.S.A., on the E. bank of the Willamette
river, and S. of the mouth of the Clackamas river, about 15 m.
S. by E. of Portland. Pop. (i8qo) 3062; (iqoo) 3494 (535 being
foreign-born); (1910) 4287. It is served by the Southern Pacific
railway, by an electric line to Portland, by other electric lines,
and by small river steamboats. The principal business streets are
Main Street, on level ground along the river, and Seventh Street,
on a blufi which rises abruptly 100 ft. above the river and is
reached by four stairways elevated above the tracksof the Southern
Pacific. 'The residences are for the most part on this bluff, which
commands views of the peaks of the Cascade Mountains. The
river here makes a picturesque plunge of about 40 ft. over a
basalt ridge extending across the valley, and then flows between
nearly vertical walls of solid rock 20-50 ft. high; it is spanned
by a suspension bridge nearly 100 ft. above the water. A lock
canal enables vessels to pass the falls. The water-power works
woollen-mills, flour-mills, paper-mills, and an electric power
plant (of the Portland Railway, Light and Power Company),
which lights the city of Portland and transmits power
to that city for street railways and factories. The muni-
cipality owns the waterworks. Next to Astoria, Oregon City
is the oldest settlement in the state. In 1829 Dr John
McLoughlin (1784-1857), chief agent of the Hudson's Bay
Company, established a claim to the water-power at the Falls
of the Willamette and to land where Oregon City now stands,
and began the erection of a mill and several houses. After 1840,
in which year McLoughlin laid out a town here and named it
Oregon City, a Methodist Mission disputed his claim. He aided
many destitute American immigrants, left the service of the
company, and removed to Oregon City. In 1850 Congress gave
a great part of his claim at Oregon City for the endowment of
a university, and in 1862 the legislature of Oregon reconveyed
the land to McLoughlin's heirs on condition that they should
give $1000 to the university fund; but the questionable title
between 1840 and 1862 hindered the growth of the place, which
was chartered as a city in 1850.
O'REILLY, JOHN BOYLE (1844-1890), Irish-American
politician and journalist, was born near Drogheda on the 28th
of June 1844, the son of a schoolmaster. After some years of
newspaper experience, first as compositor, then as reporter,
during which he became an ardent revolutionist and joined the
Fenian organization known as the Irish Republican Brotherhood,
he enlisted in a British cavalry regiment with the purpose of
winning over the troops to the revolutionary cause (1863).
At this period wholesale corruption of the army, in which there
was a very large percentage of Irishmen, was a strong feature
in the Fenian programme, and O'Reilly, who soon became a
great favourite, was successful in disseminating disaffection in
his regiment. In 1866 the extent of the sedition in the regiments
in Ireland was discovered by the authorities. O'Reilly was
arrested at Dublin, where his regiment was then quartered, tried
by court-martial for concealing his knowledge of an impend-
ing mutiny, and sentenced to be shot, but the sentence was
subsequently commuted to twenty years' penal servitude. After
confinement in various English prisons, he was transported in
1867 to Bunbury, Western Australia. In 1869 he escaped to the
United States, and settled in Boston, where he became editor
of The Pilot, a Roman Catholic newspaper. He subsequently
organized the expedition which rescued all the Irish military
political prisoners from the Western Australia convict establish-
ments (1876), and he aided and abetted the American propaganda
in favour of Irish nationalism. O'Reilly died in Hull, Mass.,
on the loth of August 1890. Hisreputationin America naturally
differed very much from what it was in England, towards
whom he was uniformly mischievous. He was the author of
several volumes of poetry of considerable merit, and of a novel
of convict life, Moondyne, which achieved a great success. He
was also selected to write occasional odes in commemoration of
many American celebrations.
See J. J. Roche, Life of John Boyle O'Reilly, (Boston, 1891).
OREL, OR Orlov, a government of central Russia, bounded by
the governments of Smolensk, Kaluga and Tula on the N., and
by Voronezh and Kursk on the S., with an area of 18,036 sq. m.
The surface is an undulating plateau sloping gently towards the
west; the highest hills barely exceed goo ft., and none of the
valleys is less than 450 ft. above the sea. The principal rivers
are the Don, which forms part of the eastern boundary, and its
tributary the Sosna; the Oka, which rises in the district of
Orel and receives the navigable Zusha; and the Desna, with
the Bolva, draining the marshy lowlands in the west. Geologi-
cally Orel consists principally of Lower Devonian limestones,
marls and sandstones, covered with Jurassic clays, the last
appearing at the surface, however, only as isolated islands,
or in the valleys, being concealed for the most part under
thick beds of Cretaceous chalk, marls and sands. The
Carboniferous limestones and clays (of the so-called Moscow
basin) show in thenorth-west only at a great depth. The Jurassic
clays and marls are overlain at several places with a stratum of
clay containing good iron-ore, while the Devonian sandstones and
limestones are worked for building purposes. The whole is
buried under a bed, 30 to 40 ft. thick, of boulder-clay and loess,
the last covering extensive areas as well as the valleys. The
soil — a mixture of " black earth " with clay — is fertile, except in
the Desna region in the west, where sands and tenacious clays
predominate. On the Oka, Zusha, Desna and Bolva there is a
brisk traffic in corn, oil, hemp, timber, metal, glass, china, paper
and building-stone. Marshes occupy large areas in the basin of
the Desna, as also in several parts of that of the Oka; they are
mostly covered with forests, which run up to 50 to 65 °o of the
area in the districts of Bryansk, Trubchevsk and Karachev,
while towards the east, in the basin of the Don, wood is so scarce
that straw is used for fuel The climate is moderate, the average
yearly temperature at Orel being 41 -2° (14-8° in January and
67-0° in July).
The estimated population in 1906 was 2,365,700. It
consists almost exclusively of Great Russians, belonging to the
Orthodox Greek Church; the Nonconformists are reckoned at
about 12,000, the Roman Catholics at 3000 and the Jews at
1000. The chief occupation is agriculture, which is most pro-
ductive in the east and towards the centre of the government.
The principal crops are rye, oats, barley, v/heat, hemp, potatoes,
hops, vegetables, tobacco and fruit. Of the grain not used in the
distilleries a large proportion is exported to the Baltic. Hemp
and hemp-seed oil are extensively exported from the west to
Riga, Libau and St Petersburg. Tobacco is cultivated with
profit. Cattle and horse-breeding flourishes better than in the
OREL— ORELLI, J. C.
251
neighbouring governments — the Orel breeds of both carriage and
draught horses being held in estimation throughout Russia.
Bee-keeping is widely diffused in the forest districts, as are also
the timber-trade and the preparation of tar and pitch. Manu-
factures are rapidly increasing; they produce cast-iron rails,
machinery, locomotive engines and railway wagons, glass,
hemp-yarn and ropes, leather, timber, soap, tobacco and
chemical produce. There are also distilleries and a great many
smaller oil-works and flour-mills. Karachev and Syevsk arc
important centres for hemp-carding; Bolkhov and Elets are the
chief centres of the tanning industry; while the districts of Elets,
Dmitrov and partly IMtsensk supply flour and various food-
pastes. At Bryansk there is a government cannon-foundry.
The " Maltsov works " in the district of Bryansk are an industrial
colony {20,000), comprising several iron, machinery, glass and
rope works, where thousands of peasants find temporary or
permanent employment; they have their own technical school,
employ engineers of their own training, and have their own
narrow-gauge railways and telegraphs, both managed by boys of
the technical school. Numerous petty trades are carried on by
the peasants, along with agriculture. The government is divided
into twelve districts, of which the chief towns are Orel, the
capital, Bolkhov, Bryansk, Dmitrovsk, Elets, Karachev, Kromy,
Livny, Malo-arkhangelsk, Mtsensk, Syevsk and Trubchevsk.
In the Qth century the country was inhabited by the Slav
tribes of the Sycveryanes on the Desna and the Vyatichis on the
Oka, who both paid tribute to the Khazars. The Syeveryanes
recognised the rule of the princes of the Rurik family from 884,
and the Vyatichis from the middle of the loth century; but the
two peoples followed different historical lines, the former being
absorbed into the Suzdal principality, while the latter fell under
the rule of that of Chernigov. In the nth century both had
wealthy towns and villages; during the Mongol invasion of
1239-1242 these were all burned and pillaged, and the entire
territory devastated. With the decay of the Great Horde of the
Mongols the western part of the country fell under Lithuanian
rule, and was the object of repeated struggles between Lithuania
and Moscow. In the i6th century the Russians began to erect
new forts and fortify the old towns, and the territory was rapidly
colonized by immigrants from the north. In 1610 the towns of
the present government of Orel (then known as the Ukrayna
Ukraine, i.e. " border-region,") took an active share in the
insurrection against Moscow under the false Demetrius, and
suffered much from the civil war which ensued. They continued,
however, to be united with the rest of Russia.
(P. A. K.; J. T. Be.)
OREL, a town of Russia, capital of the government of the
same name, lies at the confluence of the Oka with the Orlik, on
the line of railway to the Crimea, 238 m. S.S.W. from Moscow.
Pop. (1875) 45,000. (1900) 70,075. It was founded in 1566, but
developed slowly, and ,had only a very few houses at the beginning
of the i8th century. The cathedral, begun in 1 794, was finished
only in 1861. The town possesses a military gymnasium (corps
of cadets), a public library, and storehouses for grain and timber.
The manufactures are rapidly increasing, and include hemp-
carding and spinning, rope-making, flour-mills and candle
factories. Orel is one of the chief markets of central Russia for
corn, hemp, hempseed oil, and tallow, exported; metal wares,
tobacco, kaolin, and glass ware are also exported, while salt,
groceries and manufactured goods are imported.
O'RELL, MAX, the nom-de-plumc of Paul Blouet (1848-
1903), French author and journalist, who was born in Brittany
in 1848. He served as a cavalry officer in the Franco-German
War, was captured at Sedan, but was released in time to join the
Versaillist army which overcame the Commune, and was severely
wounded during the second siege of Paris. In 1872 he went to
England as correspondent of several French newspapers, and in
1876 became the very efficient French master at St Paul's school,
London, retaining that post until 1S84. What induced him to
leave was the brilliant success of his first book, John Bull et son
&, which in its French and English forms was so widely read as to
make his pseudonym a household word in England and America.
Several other volumes of a similar type dealing in a like spirit
with Scotland, America and France followed. He married an
Englishwoman, who translated his books. But the main work of
the years between 1890 and 1900 was lecturing. Max O'Rell was
a ready and amusing speaker, and his easy manner and his
humorous gift made him very successful on the platform. He
lectured often in the United Kingdom and still more often in
America. He died in Paris, where he was acting as correspondent
of the New York Journal, on the 25th of May 1903.
ORELLI, HANS KONRAD VON (1846- ), Swiss theolo-
gian, was born at Zurich on the 25th of January 1846 and was
educated at Lausanne, ZUrich and Erlangen. He also visited
Tiibingen for theology and Leipzig for oriental languages. In
1869 he was appointed preacher at the orphan house, Ziirich, and
in 1871 Privatdozcnt at the university. In 1873 he went to Basel
as professor extraordinarius of theology, becoming ordinary pro-
fessor in i88i. His chief work is on the Old Testament; in addi-
tion to commentaries on Isaiah, Jeremiah (1886), Ezekiel and the
Twelve Prophets (188S), most of which have been translated, he
wrote Die alttcstamcntliche Wcissagiing von dcr V vllcndung drs
Gollcsrcichcs (Vienna, 1882; Eng. trans. Edinburgh, 1885),
Die himmlischen Hcerschaaren (Basel, 1889), and a journal of
Palestinian travel, Durchs Heilige Land (Basel, 1878).
ORELLI, JOHANN CASPAR VON (1787-1849), Swiss classical
scholar, was born at Zurich on the 13th of February 1787. He
belonged to a distinguished Itahan family, which had taken
refuge in Switzerland at the time of the Reformation. His
cousin, JOHANN Conrad Orelli (1770-1826), was the author
of several works in the department of later Greek literature.
From 1S07 to 1814 Orelli worked as preacher in the reformed
community of Bergamo, where he acquired the taste for Itahan
literature which led to the publication of Contrihulions to the
History of Italian Poetry (1810) and a biography (1812) of
Vittorino da Feltre, his ideal of a teacher. In 1814 he became
teacher of modern languages and history at the cantonal school
at Chur (Coire); in 1819, professor of eloquence and hermeneutics
at the Carolinum in Ziirich, and in 1833 professor at the new
university, the foundation of which was largely due to his efforts.
His attention during this period was mainly devoted to classical
literature and antiquities. He had already published (1814)
an edition, with critical notes and commentary, of the Antidosis
of Isocrates, the complete text of which, based upon the MSS.
in the Ambrosian and Laurentian libraries, had recently been
made known by Andreas Mystoxedes of Corfu. The three
works upon which his reputation rests are the following, (i)
A complete edition of Cicero in seven volumes (1S26-1838).
The first four volumes contained the text (new ed., 1845-1863),
the fifth the old Scholiasts, the remaining three (called Ono-
masticon Tullianum) a fife of Cicero, a bibliography of previous
editions, indexes of geographical and historical names, of laws
and legal formulae, of Greek words, and the consular annals.
After his death, the revised edition of the text was completed
by J. G. Baiter and C. Halm, and contained numerous emenda-
tions by Theodor Mommsen and J. N. Madvig. (2) The w'orks
of Horace (1837-1838; 4th ed., 1886-1892). The exegetical
commentary, although confessedly only a compilation from
the works of earlier commentators, shows great taste and exten-
sive learning, although hardly up to the exacting standard of
modern criticism. (3) Inscriptioniim Latinarum Selectarum
Collectio (1828; revised edition by W. Henzen, 1856), extremely
helpful for the study of Roman public and private life and
religion. His editions of Plato (1839-1841, including the old
schoha, in collaboration with A. W. W'inckelmann) and Tacitus
(1S46-1848, new ed. by various scholars, 1875-1S94) also
deserve mention. Orelli died at Zurich on the 6th of January
1849. He was a most liberal-minded man, both in politics and
religion, an enthusiastic supporter of popular education and a
most inspiring teacher. He took great interest in the struggle
of the Greeks for independence, and strongly favoured the
appointment of the notorious J. F. Strauss to the chair of dog-
matic theology at ZUrich, which led to the disturbance of the
6th of September 1839 and the fall of the liberal government.
252
ORENBURG— ORENSE
See Life by his younger brother Conrad in Neiijahrsblatt der
Stadtbibliothek Zurich (1851); J. Adert, Essai siir la Vie el les
Travaux de J. CO. (Geneva, 1849); H. Schweizer-Sidler, Geddchl-
nissrede auf J. CO. (Zurich, 1874); C. Bursian, Geschichte der
klassischen Philologie in Deulschland (1883).
ORENBURG, a government of south-eastern Russia, bounded
N. by the governments of Ufa and Perm, E. by Tobolsk, S.E. by
Turgai, and W. by Uralsk and Samara, with an area of 73,794
sq. m. Situated at the southern extremity of the Urals and
extending to the north-east on their eastern slope, Orenburg
consists of a hilly tract bordered on both sides by steppes. The
central ridge occasionally reaches an elevation of 5000 ft.;
there are several parallel ridges, which, however, nowhere exceed
2600 ft., and gradually sink towards the south. A great variety
of geological formations are represented within the government,
which is rich in minerals. Diorites and granites enter it from
the north and crop out at many places from underneath the
Silurian and Devonian deposits. The Carboniferous limestones
and sandstones, as well as softer Permian, Jurassic and Cretaceous
deposits, have a wide extension in the south and east. Coal has
been found on the Miyas (in N.) and near Iletsk (in S.). The
extremely rich layers of rock salt at Iletsk yield about 24,000
tons every year. Very fertile " black earth " covers wide areas
around the Urals. The government is traversed from north to
south by the Ural river, which also forms its southern boundary;
the chief tributaries are the Sakmara and the Ilek. The upper
courses of the Byelaya and Samara, tributaries of the Kama
and the Volga, also lie within the government, as well as affluents
of the Tobol on the eastern slope of the Ural range. Numerous
salt lakes occur in the district of Chelyabinsk; but several parts
of the flat lands occasionally suffer from want of water. Sixteen
per cent of the surface is under wood. The cHmate is continental
and dry, the average temperature at Orenburg being 37-4° Fahr.
(4-5° in January, 69-8° in July). Frosts of -^f and heats of
98° are not uncommon.
The estimated population in 1906 was 1,836,500, mainly
Great Russians, with Bashkirs and Meshcheryaks (25%). Gold
is extracted chiefly from alluvial deposits, about 116,500 oz.
every year; also some silver. Nearly one-fifth of all the copper
ore extracted in Russia comes from Orenburg (about 16,000 tons
annually) ; and every year 16,000 to 20,000 tons of cast iron and
11,500 tons of iron are obtained. Agriculture is carried on on
a large scale, the principal crops being wheat, rye, oats, barley
and potatoes. Horses, cattle and sheep are kept in large numbers
and camels are bred. Kitchen-gardening gives occupation to
nearly 11,000 persons. Various kinds of animal produce are
largely exported, and by knitting " Orenburg shawls " of goats'
wool the women earn £10,000 every year. The growth of
the industries is slow, but trade, especially with the Kirghiz, is
prosperous. The chief towns of the five districts into which the
government is divided are Orenburg, Orsk, Chelyabinsk, Troitsk
and Verkhne-Uralsk.
The government of Orenburg was formerly inhabited by the
Kirghiz in the south, and by the Bashkirs in the north. The latter
were brought under the rule of Russia in 1557, and a few years
later the fort of Ufa was erected in order to protect them against
the raids of the Kirghiz. The frequent risings of the Bashkirs,
and the continuous attacks of the Kirghiz, led the Russian
government in the i8th century to erect a line of forts and
blockhouses on the Ural and Sakmara rivers, and these were
afterwards extended south-westwards towards the Caspian, and
eastwards towards Omsk. The central point of these military
lines was the fort of Orenburg, originally founded in 1735 at
the confluence (now Orsk) of the Or with the Ural, and removed
in 1 740-1 743 120 m. lower down the Ural river to its present site.
In 1773 it was besieged by Pugachev, the leader of the revolt of
the peasantry. (P. A. K.; J. T. Be.)
ORENBURG, a town of Russia, capital of the government
of the same name, on the Ural river; connected by rail with
Samara (262 m.), and since 1905 with Tashkent (1150 m.).
Pop. (iqoo) 65,006, of whom about 30% were Tatars, Jews,
Bashkirs, &c. The town now includes the former suburbs of
Golubinaya and Novaya. It is an episcopal see of the Orthodox
Greek Church and the headquarters of the hetman of the Oren-
burg Cossacks. To a " barter house," 3 m. from the town,
the camel caravans bring carpets, silks, cottons, lambskins,
dried fruits, &c., from Bokhara, Khiva, Kokand and Tashkent,
to be bartered against the textiles, metallic goods, sugar and
manufactured wares of Russia. From 20,000 to 100,000 horses,
40,000 to 160,000 cattle, and 450,000 to 750,000 sheep are also
sold every year at the barter house. Formerly most of these
were sent alive to Russia; now some 200,000 head of cattle and
sheep are killed every year, and exported in cold-storage wagons.
Cattle are also bought by wandering merchants in the Steppe
provinces and Turkestan. Every year many tons of tallow,
hams, sausages, butter, cheese and game are exported by rail to
Samara. Besides these, nearly a milHon hides and sheepskins,
goat and astrakhan skins, as well as wool, horsehair, bristles, down,
horns, bones, &c., are exported. There are two cadet corps, a r
theological seminary, seminaries for Russian and Kirghiz teachers, -l
a museum, branches of the Russian Geographical Society and
the Gardening Society, and a military arsenal.
ORENDEL, a Middle High German poem, of no great literary
merit, dating from the close of the 12th century. The story is
associated with the town of Treves (Trier), where the poem was
probably written. The introduction narrates the story of the Holy
Coat, which, after many adventures, is swallowed by a whale. It
is recovered by Orendel, son of King Eigel of Treves, who had
embarked with twenty-two ships in order to woo the lovely
Brida, the mistress of the Holy Sepulchre, as his wife. Suffering
shipwreck, he falls into the hands of the fisherman Else, and
in his service catches the whale that has swallowed the Holy
Coat. The coat has the property of rendering the wearer proof
against wounds, and Orendel successfully overcomes innumer-
able perils and eventually wins Brida for his wife. A message
brought by an angel summons both back to Treves, where
Orendel meets with many adventures and at last disposes of
the Holy Coat by placing it in a stone sarcophagus. Another
angel announces both his and Brida's approaching death, when
they renounce the world and prepare for the end.
The poem exists in a single manuscript of the 15th century, and in
one print, dated 1512. It iias been edited by von der Hagen (1844),
L. Ettmiiller (1858) and A. E. Berger (1888); there is a modern
German translation by K. Simrock (1845). See H. Harkensee,
Untersuchungen iiber das Spielmannsgedicht Orendel (1879); F. Vogt,
in the Zeitschrift ftir deutsche Philologie, vol. xxii. (1890); R. Heinzel,
iiber das Gedicht vom Konig Orendel (1892); and K. MuUenhoff,
in Deutsche Altertumskunde, vol. i. (2nd ed., 1890), pp. 32 seq.
ORENSE, an inland province of north-western Spain, formed
in 1S33 of districts previously included in Galicia, and bounded
on the N. by Pontevedra and Lugo, E. by Leon and Zamora,
S. by Portugal, and W. by Portugal and Pontevedra. Pop.
(1900) 404,311; area 2694 sq. m. The surface of the province
is almost everywhere mountainous. Its western half is traversed
in a south-westerly direction by the river Mino (Portuguese
Minho), which flows through Portugal to the Atlantic; the
Sil, a left-hand tributary of the Mino, waters the north-eastern
districts; and the Limia rises in the central mountains and
flows west-south-west, reaching the sea at the Portuguese port
of Vianna do Castello. The upper valley of the Limia is the
only large tract of level country. The climate is very varied,
mild in some valleys, cold and damp in the highlands, rainy
near the northern border, and subject to rapid changes of
temperature. The railway from Monforte to Vigo runs through
the province. There are a few iron foundries of a primitive
sort, but lack of transport and of cheap coal hinder the growth
of mining and manufactures.
Though the soil is fertile and well watered, agricultural
products are not so important as arboriculture. The oak,
beech, pine, chestnut, walnut and plane grow in abundance
on the hills and mountains; pears, apples, cherries, almonds,
figs, roses and olives in the valleys, and even oranges and
lemons in sheltered spots. The chief towns are the capital,
Orense, AUariz, Carballino, Viana, Nogueira de Ramuin, Boboras,
Cartella and La Vega. See also Galicia.
ORENSE— ORESTES
353
ORENSE, an episcopal see and the capital of the Spanish
province of Orense; on the left banli. of the river Mino, and
on the Tuy-Monforte railway. Pop. (1900) 15,194. The river
is here crossed by a bridge — one of the most remarkable in
Spain — of seven arches, 1319 ft. in length, and at its highest
point 135 ft. above the bed of the river. This bridge was built
by Bishop Lorenzo in 1230, but has frequently been repaired.
The Gothic cathedral, also dating from Bishop Lorenzo's time,
is a comparatively small building, but has an image, El Santo
Cristo, which was brought from. Cape Finisterre in 1330 and
is celebrated throughout Galicia for its miraculous powers.
The city contains many schools, a public library and a theatre.
In the older streets there are some interesting medieval houses.
Chocolate and leather are manufactured, and there are saw-
mills, flour-mills and iron foundries. The three warm springs
to the west, known as Las Burgas, attract many summer visitors;
the waters were well known to the Romans, as their ancient
name, Aquae Originis, Aquae Urentes, or perhaps Aquae Salien-
tis, clearly indicates.
The Romans named Orense Aurium, probably from the
alluvial gold found in the Miiio valley. The bishopric, founded
in the 5th century by the Visigoths, was named the Sedes
Auriensis (see of Aurium), and from this the modern Orense
is derived. The city became the capital of the Suevi in the
6th century; it was sacked by the Moors in 716, and rebuilt
only in 884.
OREODON (i.e. " hillock-tooth "), the name of an Oligocene
genus of North American primitive ruminants related to the
camels, and typifying the family Orcodontidae. Typical oreo-
donts were long-tailed, four-toed, partially plantigrade ruminants
with sharp-crowned crcscentic molars, of which the upper ones
carry four cusps, and the first lower premolar canine-like both
in shape and function. In the type genus there are forty-four
teeth, forming an uninterrupted series. The vertebral artery
pierces the neck-vertebrae in the normal manner. The name
Oreodon is preoccupied by Orodus, the designation of a genus
of Palaeozoic fishes, and is likewise antedated by Merycoidodon,
which is now used b)' some writers. See Tylopoda.
ORESME, NICOLAS (c. 1320-1382), French bishop, celebrated
for his numerous works in both French and Latin on scholastic,
scientific and political questions, was born in Normandy at
the opening of the 14th century. In 1348 he was a student
in the college of Navarre at Paris, of which he became head
in 1356. In 1361 he was named dean of the cathedral of Rouen.
Charles V. had him appointed bishop of Lisieux on the i6th
of November 1377. He died in that city on the nth of July
13S2. One of his works, of great importance for the history
of economic conceptions in the middle ages, was the De origine,
nalura, jure et mutalionibus monelarum, of which there is also
a French edition. Oresme was the author of several works on
astrology, in which he showed its falseness as a science and
denounced its practice. At the request of Charles V. he trans-
lated the Ethics, Politics and Economics of Aristotle. In Decem-
ber 1363 he preached before Urban V. a sermon on reform in
the church, so severe in its arraignment that it was often brought
forward in the i6th century by Protestant polemists.
See Francis Meunier, Essai siir la vie et les ouvrages de Nicole
Oresme (Paris, 1857) ; Feret, La Faculte_ de theologie de I' Universite de
Paris (Paris, 1896, t. iii. p. 290 sqq.); Emile Bridrey, Nicole Oresme.
Etude des doctrines et des faits cconomiques (Paris, 1906).
ORESTES, in Greek legend, son of Agamemnon and Clytaem-
nestra. According to the Homeric story he was absent from
Mycenae when his father returned from the Trojan War and
was murdered by Aegisthus. Eight years later he returned
from Athens and revenged his father's death by slaying his
mother, and her paramour [Odyssey, iii. 306; xi. 542). According
to Pindar [Pytliia, xi. 25) he was saved by his nurse, who con-
veyed him out of the country when Clytaemnestra wished to
kill him. The tale is told much more fully and with many
variations in the tragedians. He was preserved by his sister
Electra from his father's fate, and conveyed to Phanote on
Mount Parnassus, where King Strophius took charge of him.
In his twentieth year he was ordered by the Delphic oracle to
return home and revenge his father's death. According to
Aeschylus, he met his sister Klectra before the tombof Agamem-
non, whither both had gone to perform rites to the dead; a
recognition takes jjlace, and they arrange how Orestes shall
accomplish his revenge. Orestes, after the deed, goes mad,
and is pursued by the Erinyes, whose duty it is to punish any
violation of the ties of family piety. He takes refuge in the
temple at Delphi; but, though Apollo had ordered him to do
the deed, he is powerless to protect his suppliant from the
consequences. At last Athena receives him on the acropolis
of Athens and arranges a formal trial of the case before twelve
Attic judges. The F>inyes demand their victim; he pleads
the orders of Apollo; the votes of the judges are equally divided,
and Athena gives her casting vote for acquittal. The F>iiiyes
are propitiated by a new ritual, in which they are worshijjped
as Eumenides (the Kindly), and Orestes dedicates an altar to
Athena Areia. With Aeschylus the punishment ends here,
but, according to Euripides, in order to escape the persecutions
of the Erinyes, he was ordered by Apollo to go to Tauris, carry
off the statue of Artemis which had fallen from heaven, and
bring it to Athens. He repairs to Tauris with Pylades, the son
of Strophius and the intimate friend of Orestes, and the pair
are at once imprisoned by the people, among whom the custom
is to sacrifice all strangers to Artemis. The priestess of Artemis,
whose duty it is to perform the sacrifice, is his sister Iphigeneia
(q.v.). She offers to release Orestes if he will carry home a letter
from her to Greece; he refuses to go, but bids Pylades take the
letter while he himself will stay and be slain. After a conflict
of mutual aft'ection, Pylades at last yields, but the letter brings
about a recognition between brother and sister, and all three
escape together, carrying with them the image of Artemis.
After his return to Greece, Orestes took possession of his father's
kingdom of Mycenae, to which were added Argos and Laconia.
He is said to have died of the bite of a snake in Arcadia. His
body was conveyed to Sparta for burial (where he was the object
of a cult), or, according to an Itahan legend, to Aricia, whence
it was removed to Rome (Servius on Aeiieid, ii. 116). The story
of Orestes was the subject of the Oresteia of Aeschylus (Agamem-
non, Choephori, Eumenides), of the Electra of Sophocles, of the
Electra, Iphigeneia in Tauris, and Orestes, of Euripides. There
is extant a Latin epic poem, consisting of about 1000 hexa-
meters, called Orcst'es Tragoedia, which has been ascribed to
Dracontius of Carthage.
Orestes appears also as a central figure in various legends
connected with his madness and purification, both in Greece
and Asia. In these Orestes is the guilt-laden mortal who is
purified from his sin by the grace of the gods, w^hose merciful
justice is shown to all persons whose crime is mitigated by
extenuating circumstances. These legends belong to an age
when higher ideas of law and of social duty were being established ;
the implacable blood-feud of primitive society gives place to
a fair trial, and in Athens, when the votes of the judges are
evenly divided, mercy prevails.
The legend of Orestes is the subject of a lengthy monograph by
T. Zielinski, "Die Orestessage und die Rechtfertigungsidee" in Neue
Jahrbiicher filr das klassische Altertum, ii. (1899). Orestes, according
to Zielinski, is the son of the sky-god Zeus-Agamemnon, who over-
cornes his wife the earth-goddess Gaia-Clytaemnestra; with the
assistance of the dragon Aegisthus, she slays her husband, whose
murder is in turn avenged by his son. The religion of Zeus is then
reformed under the influence of the cult of Apollo, who slays the
dragon brought up by the earth-goddess on Parnassus, the seat of
one of her oldest sanctuaries. Parnassus becomes the holy mountain
of Apollo, and Orestes himself an hypostasis of Apollo " of the
mountain," just as Pylades is Apollo "of the plain"; similarly
Electra, Iphigeneia and Chn,'sothemis are hypostases of Artemis.
Zeus being firmly seated on his throne as the result of the slaying of
the dragon by Orestes, the theological significance of the myth
is forgotten, and the identifications Zeus-Agamemnon and Gaia-
Clytaamnestra are abandoned. In the Homeric Oresteia the soul
of the murdered wife has no claim to vengeance, and Orestes rules
unmolested in Argos. But the ApoUine religion introduces the theory
of the rights of the soul and revenge for bloodshed. Apollo, who has
urged Orestes to parricide and has himself expiated the crime of
slaying the dragon, is able to purify others in similar case. Hence
254
ORFILA— ORFORD, ist EARL OF
Orestes, freed from the guilt of blood, is enabled to take possession
of the throne of his father. This is the Delphic Oresteia. But a new
idea is introduced by the Attic Oresteia. The claim that Apollo can
in every case purify from sin is met by Athens with a counterclaim
on behalf of the state. It is the community of which murdered and
murderer were members which has the right to e.xact revenge and
retribution, an idea which found expression in the foundation of the
Areopagus. If the accused is acquitted, the state undertakes to
appease the soul of the murdered person or its judicial representative,
the Erinys.
Others attach chief importance to the slaying of Neoptolemus
(Pyrrhus) by Orestes at Delphi; according to Radermacher (Das
Jenseils im Mythos der Hellenen, 1903), Orestes is an hypostasis of
ApcUo, Pyrrhus the principle of evil, which is overcome by the god;
on the other hand, Usener {Archiv fur Religionswesen, vii., 1899,
334) takes Orestes for a god of winter and the underworld, a double
of the Phocian Dionysus the " mountain " god (among the lonians a
summer-god, but in this case corresponding to Dionysus ii(\avai.y'n),
who subdues Pyrrhus " the light," the double of Apollo, the whole
being a form of the well-known myths of the expulsion of summer by
winter. S. Reinach (reviewing P. Mazan's L'Orestie d'Eschyle, 1902)
defends the theory of Bachofen, who finds in the legend of Orestes
an indication of the decay of matriarchal ideas.
See aiticle by Hofer in Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie; A.
Olivieri, " Sul mito di Oreste nella letteratura classica " (with a
section on modern literature) in Rivista di Filologia, xxvi. (1898),
and Jebb's edition of the Elcctra of Sophocles.
ORFILA, MATHIEU JOSEPH BONA VENTURE (i 787-1853),
French to.xicologist and chemist, was by birth a Spaniard,
having been born at Mahon in Minorca on the 24th of April
1787. An island meixhant's son, he looked naturally first to the
sea for a profession; but a voyage at the age of fifteen to Sardinia,
Sicily and Egypt did not prove satisfactory. He next took to
medicine, which he studied at the universities of Valencia and
Barcelona with such success that the local authorities of the
latter city made him a grant to enable him to follow his studies
at Madrid and Paris, preparatory to appointing him professor.
He had scarcely settled for that purpose in Paris when the out-
break of the Spanish war, in 1807, threatened destruction to
his prospects. But he had the good fortune to find a patron in
the chemist L. N. Vauquehn, who claimed him as his pupil,
guaranteed his conduct, and saved him from expulsion from
Paris. Four years afterwards he graduated, and immediately
became a private lecturer on chemistry in the French capital.
In 1819 he was appointed professor of medical jurisprudence,
and four years later he succeeded Vauquehn as professor of
chemistry in the faculty of medicine at Paris. In 1830 he was
nominated dean of that faculty, a high medical honour in France.
Under the Orleans dynasty, honours were lavishly showered upon
him; he became successively member of the councU of education
of France, member of the general council of the department
of the Seine, and commander of the Legion of Honour. But
by the repubhc of 1S48 he was held in less favour, and chagrin
at the treatment he experienced at the hands of the governments
which succeeded that of Louis Philippe is supposed to have
shortened his life. He died, after a short illness, in Paris on the
1 2 th of March 1853.
Orfila's chief publications are Traite des poisons, or Toxicologic
generate (1813); Elements de chimie medicate (1817); Lemons de
medccine tegate (1823); Traite des exliumations juridiques (1830);
and Rediercties sur I' empoisonnement par I'acide arsenieux (1841).
He also wrote many valuable papers, chiefly on subjects connected
with medical jurisprudence. His fame rests mainly on the first-
named work, published when he was only in his twenty-seventh year.
It is a vast mine of experimental observation on the symptoms of
poisoning of all kinds, on the appearances which poisons leave in the
dead body, on their physiological action, and on the means of de-
tecting them. Few branches of science, so important on their bear-
ings on every-day life and so difficult of investigation, can be said to
have been created and raised at once to a state of high advancement
by the labours of a single man.
ORFORD, EDWARD RUSSELL, Eajil of (1653-1727), British
admiral, was born in 1653, the son of Edward Russell, a younger
brother of the ist duke of Bedford. He was one of the first
gentleman officers of the nax'y regularly bred to the sea. In
167 1 he was named lieutenant of the " Advice " at the age of
eighteen, captain in the following year. He continued in active
service against the Dutch in the North Sea in 1672-73, and in
the Mediterranean in the operations against the Barbary Pirates
with Sir John Narborough and Arthur Herbert, afterwards earl
of Torrington, from 1676 to 1682. In 1683 he ceased to be
employed, and the reason must no doubt be looked for in the
fact that all members of the Russell family had fallen into dis-
favour with the king, after the discovery of WiUiam, Lord
Russell's conne.xion with the Rye House Plot. The family had
a private revenge to take which sharpened their sense of the
danger run by British liberties from the tyranny of King James
II. Throughout the negotiations preceding the revolution of
1688 Edward Russell appears acting on behalf and in the name
of the head of this great Whig house, which did so much to bring
it about, and profited by it so enormously in purse and power.
He signed the invitation which WilUam of Orange insisted on
having in writing in order to commit the chiefs of the opposition
to give him open help. Edward Russell's prominence at this
crisis was of itself enough to account for his importance after the
Revolution. When the war began with France in 1689, he served
at first under the earl of Torrington. But during 1690, when that
admiral avowed his intention of retiring to the Gunfleet, and of
leaving the French in command of the Channel, Russell was one
of those who condemned him most fiercely. In December i6go
he succeeded Torrington, and during 1691 he cruised without
meeting the French under Tourville {q.v.), who made no attempt
to meet him. At this time Russell, like some of the other extreme
Whigs, was discontented with the moderation of William of Orange
and had entered into negotiations with the exiled court, partly
out of spite, and partly to make themselves safe in case of a
restoration. But he was always ready to fight the French, and
in 1692 he defeated Tourville in the battle called La Hogue,
or Barfleur. Russell had Dutch allies with him, and they were
greatly superior in number, but the chief difficulty encountered
was in the pursuit, which Russell conducted with great resolution.
His utter inability to work with the Tories, with whom WilHam
III. would not quarrel altogether, made his retirement imperative
for a short time. But in 1694 he was appointed to the command
of the fleet which, taking advantage of the inability of the king
of France to maintain a great fleet in the Channel from want of
money, followed the French into the Mediterranean, confined
them to Toulon for the rest of the war, and co-operated with the
Spanish armies in Catalonia. He returned in 1695, and in 1697
was created earl of Orford. For the rest of his life he filled posts
of easy dignity and emolument, and died on the 26th of November
1727. He married his cousin, Mary Russell; but his title became j
extinct on his death without issue.
See Charnock, Biog. Nav. i. 354; Campbell's Lives of the Admirals,
ii. 317. (D. H.;
ORFORD, ROBERT WALPOLE, ist Earl of (1676-1745),
generally known as Sir Robert Walpole, prime minister of
England from 1721 to 1742, was the third but eldest surviving
son of Robert Walpole, M.P., of Houghton in Norfolk, by Mary,
only daughter and heiress of Sir Jefl'ery BurweU, of Rougham,
in Suffolk. The father, a jolly old squire of Whig poHtics who
revelled in outdoor sport and the pleasures of the table, trans-
mitted to his son the chief traits in his own character. The future
statesman was born at Houghton on the 26th of August 1676,
was an Eton colleger from 1690 to 1695 and was admitted at
King's College, Cambridge, as scholar on the 22nd of April
1696. At this time he was destined, as a younger son, for the
church, but his two elder brothers died young and he became
the heir to an estate producing about £2000 a year, whereupon on
the 25th of May 1698 he resigned his scholarship, and was soon
afterwards withdrawn by his father from the university. In
classical attainments he was excelled by Pidteney, Carteret,
and many others of his contemporaries in politics.
On his father's death in November 1700 the electors of the
family borough of Castle Rising returned him (January 1701)
to the House of Commons as their representative, but after two
short-lived parliaments he sought the suffrages of the more
important constituency of King's Lynn (July 23, 1702),
and was elected as its member at every subsequent dissolution
until he left the Lower House. From the first his shrewdness
in counsel and his zeal for the interests of the Whigs were generally
ORFORD, 1ST EARL OF
255
recognized. In June 1705 he was appointed one of the council
to Prince George of Denmark, the inactive husband of Queen
Anne, and then lord high admiral of England. Complaints
against the administration of the navy were then loud and
frequent (Burton's Queen A nne, ii. 22-31), and the responsibilities
of his new position tested his capacity for public life. His
abilities justified his advancement, in succession to his lifelong
rival, Henry St John, to the more important position of secretary-
at-war (February 25, 1708), which brought him into immediate
contact with the duke of Marlborough and the queen. With
this post he held for a short time (1710) thetreasurership of the
navy, and by the discharge of his official duties and by his skill
in debate became admitted to the inmost councils of the ministry.
He could not succeed, however, in diverting Godolphin from the
great error of that statesman's career, the impeachment of
Sacheverell, and when the committee was appointed in December
1709 for elaborating the articles of impeachment Walpole was
nominated one of the managers for the House of Commons.
On the wreck of the Whig parly which ensued, Walpole shared
in the general misfortune, and in spite of the flattery, followed
by the threats, of Harley he took his place with his friends in
opposition. His energies now shone forth with irresistible vigour;
both in debate and in the pamphlet press he vindicated Godolphin
from the charge that thirty-five millions of public money were not
accounted for, and in revenge for his zeal his political opponents
brought against him an accusation of personal corruption. On
these charges, now universally acknowledged to have proceeded
from party animosity, he was in January 171 2 expelled from
the House and committed to the Tower. His prison cell now
became the rendezvous of the Whigs among the aristocracy,
while the populace heard his praises commemorated in the ballads
of the streets. The ignominy which the Tories had endeavoured
to inflict upon him was turned into augmented reputation. In
the last parliament of Queen Anne he took the leading part in
defence of Sir Richard Steele against the attacks of the Tories.
After the accession of George, the Whigs for nearly half a
century retamed the control of English politics. Walpole
obtained the lucrative if unimportant post of paymaster-
general of the forces in the administration which was formed
under the nominal rule of Lord Hahfax, but of which Stanhope
and Townshend were the guiding spirits. A committee of
secrecy was appointed to inquire into the acts of the late ministry,
and especially into the Peace of Utrecht, with a view to the
impeachment of Harley and St John, and to Walpole was en-
trusted the place of chairman. Most of his colleagues in office
were members of the Houseof Lords, and the lead in the Commons
quickly became the reward of his talents and assiduity. Halifax
died on the iqth of May 1715, and after a short interval Walpole
was exalted into the conspicuous position of first lord of the
treasury and chancellor of the exchequer (October 11, 1715).
Jealousies, however, prevailed among the Whigs, and the
German favourites of the new monarch quickly showed their
discontent with the heads of the ministry. Townshend was
forced into resigning his secretaryship of state for the dignified
exile of viceroy of Ireland, but he never crossed the sea to Dublin,
and the support which Sunderland and Stanhope, the new
advisers of the king, received from him and from Walpole was
so grudging that Townshend was dismissed from the lord-
lieutenancy (April g, 1717), and Walpole on the next morning
withdrew from the ministry. They plunged into opposition
with unflagging energy, and in resisting the measure by which
it was proposed to limit the royal prerogative in the creation
of peerages (March-December 1718) Walpole exerted all his
powers. This display of ability brought about a partial re-
concihation of the two sections of the Whigs. To Townshend
was given the presidency of the council, and Walpole once again
assumed the paymastership of the forces (June 1720).
On the financial crash which followed the failure of the South
Sea scheme, the public voice insisted that he should assume
a more prominent place in public life. At this crisis in England's
fortunes Stanhope and James Craggs, the two secretaries
of state, were seized by death, John Aislabie, the chancellor of
the exchequer, was committed to the Tower, and Sunderland,
though acquitted of corruption, was compelled to resign the lead.
Walpole, at first lord of the treasury and chancellor of the
exchequer (April 1721), became with Townshend responsible
for the country's government (though for some years they had
to contend with the influence of Carteret), the danger arising
from the panic in South Sea stock was averted by its amalgama-
tion with Bank and East India stock, and during the rest of the
reign of George I. they remained at the head of the ministry.
The hopes of the Jacobites, which revived with these financial
troubles, soon drooped in disappointment. Atterbury, their
boldest leader, was exiled in 1723; Bolingbroke, in dismay
at their feebleness, sued for pardon, and was permitted to
return to his own country. The troubles which broke out in
Ireland over Wood's patent for a copper coinage were allayed
through the tact of Carteret, who had been banished in April
1724 as its lord-lieutenant by his triumphant rivals. The con-
tinent was still troubled with wars and rumours of wars, but a
treaty between England, Prussia and France was successfully
effected at Hanover in 1725.
England was kept free from warfare, and in the general
prosperity which ensued Walpole basked in the royal favour.
His eldest son was raised to the peerage as Baron Walpole
(June 10, 1723) and he himself became a Knight of the Bath
on the 27th of May 1725, and was rewarded with the Garter
in May 1726. Next year the first King George died, and Walpole's
enemies fondly believed that he would be driven from office,
but their expectations were doomed to disappointment. The
confidence which the old king had reposed in him was renewed by
his successor, and in the person of Queen Caroline, the discreet
ruler of her royal spouse, the second George, the Whig minister
found a faithful and lifelong friend. For three years he shared
power with Townshend, but the jealous Walpole brooked no
rival near the throne, and his brother-in-law withdrew from
official life to Norfolk in May 1730. Before and after that event
the administration was based on two principles, sound finance
at home and freedom from the intrigues and wars which raged
abroad. On the continent congresses and treaties were matters
of annual arrangement, and if the work of the plenipotentiaries
soon faded it was through their labours that England enjoyed
many years of peace. Walpole's influence received a serious
blow in 1733. The enormous frauds on the excise duties forced
themselves on his attention, and he proposed to check smuggling
and avoid fraud by levying the full tax on tobacco and wine
when they were removed from the warehouses for sale. His
opponents fastened on these proposals with irresistible force,
and so serious an agitation stirred the country that the ministerial
measure was dropped amid general rejoicing. Several of his
most active antagonists were dismissed from office or deprived
of their regiments, but their spirits remained unquenched, as
the incessant attacks in the Craftsman showed, and when Walpole
met a new House of Commons in 1734 his supporters were far
less numerous. The Gin Act of 1736, by which the tax on that
drink was raised to an excessive amount, led to disorders in the
suburbs of London; and the imprisonment of two notorious
smugglers in the Tolbooth at Edinburgh resulted in those
Porteous riots which have been rendered famous in the Heart
of Midlothian. These events weakened his influence with
large classes in England and Scotland, but his parUamentary
supremacy remained umimpaired, and was illustrated in 1737
by his defeat of Sir John Barnard's plan for the reduction
of the interest on the national debt, and by his passing of
the Playhouse Act, under which the London theatres are still
regulated. That year, however, heralded his fall from power.
His constant friend Queen Caroline died on the 20th of November
1737, and the prince of Wales, long discontented with his parents
and their minister, flung himself into active opposition. Many
of the boroughs within the limits of the duchy of Cornwall
were obedient to the prince's will, and he quickly attracted
to his cause a considerable number of adherents, of whom
Pitt and the Grenvilles were the most influential. The leading
orators of England thundered against Walpole in the senate,
256
ORFORD— ORGAN
and the press resounded with the taunts of the poet and
pamphleteer, illustrious and obscure, who found abundant
food for their invectives in the troubles with Spain over its
exclusive pretensions to the continent of America and its claim
to the right of searching English vessels. The minister long
resisted the pressure of the opposition for war, but at the close
of 1739 he abandoned his efforts to stem the current, and with a
divided cabinet was forced, as the king would not allow him
to resign, into hostility with Spain. The Tory minority known
as " the patriots " had seceded from parliament in March 1739,
but at the commencement of the new session, in November
1739, they returned to their places with redoubled energies.
The campaign was prosecuted with vigour, but the successes
of the troops brought little strength to Walpole's declining
popularity, and when parliament was dissolved in April 1741
his influence with his fellow-countrymen had faded away. His
enemies were active in opposition, while some of his colleagues
were lukewarm in support. In the new House of Commons
political parties were almost evenly balanced. Their strength
was tried immediately on the opening of parliament. After
the ministry had sustained some defeats on election petitions,
the voting on the return for Chippenham was accepted as a
decisive test of parties, and,asWalpole was beaten in the divisions,
he resolved on resigning his places. On the oth of February
1742 he was created earl of Orford, and two days later he ceased
to be prime minister. A committee of inquiry into the conduct
of his ministry for the previous ten years was ultimately granted,
but its deliberations ended in nought. Although he withdrew to
Houghton for a time, his influence over public affairs was unbroken
and he was still consulted by the monarch. He died at Arlington
Street, London, on the i8th of March 1745 and was buried at
Houghton on the 25th of March. With the permanent places,
valued at £15,000 per annum, which he had secured for his
family, and with his accumulations in office, he had rebuilt
the mansion at great expense, and formed a gallery of pictures
within its walls at a cost of £40,000, but the collection was sold
by his grandson for a much larger sum in 1779 to the empress
of Russia, and the estate and house of Houghton passed to Lord
Cholmondeley, the third earl having married the premier's
younger daughter.
Walpole was twice married — in 1700 to Catherine, eldest
daughter of John Shorter and grand-daughter of Sir John
Shorter, lord mayor of London, who died in 1737, having had
issue three sons and two daughters, and in March 1738 to Maria,
daughter of Thomas Skerret, a lady often mentioned in the
letters of Lady Mary Wortley Montagu. He was succeeded
in his earldom and other titles by his eldest son Robert (1701-
1751), who had been created Baron Walpole of Walpole in 1723;
the 3rd earl was the latter's only son George (1730-1791), " the
last of the English nobility who practised the ancient sport of
hawking," and the 4th earl was the famous Horace Walpole
(q.v.) the youngest son of the great Sir Robert. Horace Walpole
died unmarried on the 2nd of March 1797, when the earldom
became extinct, but the barony of Walpole of Walpole passed to
his cousin, Horatio (1723-1809), who had already succeeded his
father, Horatio Walpole, ist Baron Walpole of Wolterton in that
barony. In 1806 he was created earl of Orford, and this title still
remains in the possession of his descendants, Robert Horace
Walpole (b. 1854) becoming the 5th earl in 1894. When Horace
Walpole died his splendid residence at Houghton and the Norfolk
estates did not pass with the title, but were inherited by George
James Cholmondeley, 4th earl and afterwards ist marquess of
Cholmondeley.
Sir R. Walpole's life has been written by Archdeacon William
Coxa (1798 and 1800, 3 vols.), A. C. Ewald (1878) and John Viscount
Morley (1889). See also Walpole, a Study in Politics, by Edward
Jenks (1894); English Hist. Rev. xv. 251, 479, 665, xvi. 67, 308,
439 (his foreign policy, by Basil Williams) ; Bolingbroke, by Walter
Sichel (1901-1902, 2 vols.); the histories, letters and reminiscences
by his son, Horace Walpole; and the other lives of the chief political
personages of the period. (W. P. C.)
ORFORD, a small town, once of greater importance, in the
south-eastern parliamentary division of Suffolk, England,
21 m. E. by N. of Ipswich. Pop. (1901) 987. It lies by the
right bank of the river Aide, where that river flows south-west-
ward on the inner side of the great beach which has blocked its
direct outflow to the sea, and swells out seaward in the blunt
promontory of Orford Ness. The church of St Bartholomew is
of much interest. It retains a ruined Norman chancel of rich
and unusual design, while the body of the church is Decorated.
Of Orford castle the keep remains, standing high on a mound; it
is partly of Caen stone and partly of flintwork, and is of Norman
date.
ORGAN, in music, the name (from Gr. Sfyyavov, Lat. organum,
instrument) given to the well-known wind-instrument. The notes
of the organ are produced by pipes, which are blown by air under
pressure, technically called wind.
Pipes differ from one another in two principal ways — (i) in
pilch, (2) in quality of tone, (i) Consider first a series of pipes
producing notes of similar quality, but differing in pitch. Such
a series is called a stop. Each stop of the organ is in effect a
musical instrument in itself. (2) The pipes of different stops
dift'er, musically speaking, in their quality of tone, as well as
sometimes in their pitch. Physically, they differ in shape and
general arrangement. The sounding of the pipes is determined
by the use of keys, some of which are played by the hands, some
by the feet. A complete stop possesses a pipe for every key of
some one row of manuals or pedals. If one stop alone is caused
to sound, the effect is that of performance on a single instrument.
There are such things as incomplete stops, which do not extend
over a whole row of keys; and also there are stops which have
more than one pipe to each key. Every stop is provided with
mechanism by means of which the wind can be cut off from its
pipes, so that they cannot sound even when the keys are pressed.
This mechanism is made to terminate in a handle, which is
commonly spoken of as the stop. When the handle is pushed in,
the stop does not sound; when the handle is pulled out, the stop
sounds if the keys are pressed. An organ may contain from one
to four manuals or keyboards and one set of pedals. There are
exceptional instruments having five manuals, and also some
having two sets of pedals. The usual compass of the manuals
approximates to five octaves, from C to c"" inclusive. The
compass of the pedal is two and a half octaves, from C to f.
This represents the pitch in which the notes of the pedal are
written; but the pedal generally possesses stops sounding one
octave lower than the written note, and in some cases stops
sounding two octaves below the written note. Each manual or
pedal has as a rule one soundboard, on which all its pipes are
placed. Underneath the soundboard is the windchest, by which
the wind is conveyed from the bellows, through the soundboard
to the pipes. The windchest contains the mechanism of valves by
which the keys control the admission of wind to the soundboard.
The soundboard contains the grooves which receive the wind
from the valves, and the
slides by which the
handles of the stops con-
trol the transmission of
the wind through the
soundboard to the pipes
of the different stops.
The grooves of the
soundboard are spaces
left between wooden bars
glued on to the table of
the soundboard. There
is usually one groove for
every key. The grooves
of the bass notes, which
have to supply wind for
large pipes, are broader
than those of the treble.
The bass bars are also thicker than those of the treble, that
they may the better support the great weight which rests on
the bass portion of the soundboard. The table forms the top of
the grooves. The grooves are generally closed below with
Fig. I. — A portion of the Table with
the open grooves seen from above.
ORGAN
257
leather, except the opening left in each, which is closed by the
key-valve or pallet.
The sliders are connected with the draw-stops or stop-handles,
which arc covered in witlistout upper boards, on which the pipes
Fig. 2. — A section of a groove, with
the table, windchcst and pallet.
Fig. 3. — A section at right
angles to fig. 2.
•
•
•
t
)
«
1
1
•
•
•
•
•
.
'1-
.
.
•
■
.
*
•
•
•
•
•
.
,
.
•
.
■
■
•
•
•
^
•
,
"
•
•
,
•
i
1
Fig. 4. — A portion of the table
as it appears from above, with the
places for the sliders of the stops;
the small circles show the holes for
the wind.
stand. The stop-handles are pulled out, and holes are then
bored straight down through the upper boards, sliders and table
to admit the wind from the grooves to the pipes. When the sliders
are shifted by pushing in the handles, the holes no longer corre-
spond, and the pipes are silenced.
Pipes are divided first into jluc-plpcs and reed-pipes. Flue-
pipes are blown by a wind mouthpiece characteristic of the organ,
while ill reed-pipes the wind
acts on a metal tongue vibrat-
ing on a reed, and the motion
of the tongue determines the
speech of the pipe.
Pipes are made either of
wood or of metal. Wood
Hue-pipes are generally of the
form of a rectangular parallel-
epiped, metal flue-pipes of a
cylindrical shape. Reed-pipes
are conical or pyramidal, and
widen towards the top. Some
flue-pipes are made with
stopped ends; these as a rule
sound a note about an octave lower than the corresponding open
pipes of the same length. Such are the stopped diapason,
bourdon, and stopped flute.
The general elementary theory of the resonance of a pipe is
tolerably simple. The effective length of the pipe is determined
by measuring from the upper lip to the open end in open pipes,
and from the upper lip to the stopper and back again in stopped
pipes. To this is added
an allowance for the
effect of each opening,
since the condition of
perfect freedom from
constraint does not
subsist at the opening
itself. The corrected
length is traversed
twice (backwards and
forwards) by sound,
in the time of one
vibration of the re-
sultant note. This
describes in a rough
and general manner
the way in which any
disturbance gives rise
to the note of the
pipe; but the theory
of the mouth-pieces is
a much more difficult
matter, into which we
cannot here enter.
n n
n
Fig. 5. — a, An open diapasun; b, a
stopped diapason; r, an oboe; and d, a
trumpet — c and d being forms of reed-
pipes.
In reed-pipes which are simply conical the resonance of the
body is nearly the same as that of an open pipe of the same
length. Where the form is irregular no simple rule can be given.
Fig. 6. — Mouthpieces in some-
what greater detail.
But the resonance of the body of the pipe is generally the same
as the note produced. The tongue of a reed-pipe alternately
opens and closes the aperture of the reed. In this way it admits
pulses of wind to the body of
the pipe; these, if they recur at
the proper intervals, maintain
its vibration, which takes place
when the note produced corre-
sponds to the resonance of the
pipe. The reed itself has its
vibrating length determined by a
wire which presses against it.
The free end of this wire is
touched with the tuning tool
until a satisfactory note is pro-
duced.
The pitch of the different
stops is commonly denoted by
the conventional approximate
length of the pipe sounded by
C, the lowest key of the manual.
Even in incomplete stops which have no bass, the length of the
pipe which C would have if the stop were extended down serves
to indicate the pitch.
The conventional length of the C-pipe for stops having the
normal pitch of the keys is 8 ft.; a pipe having twice this length
sounds the octave below, a pipe having half that length the octave
above, and soon. Thus stops which sound the octave below the
normal pitch of the keys are spoken of as 16-foot stops. Even
where the pipes are stopped so that the actual length is only 8 ft.,
they are spoken of as having " 16-ft.tone." Similarly 3 2-ft. stops
sound two octaves below the normal pitch of the keys. But if
these notes are produced by stopped pipes, whose actual length
isonly i6ft., they arespokenof ashaving "32-ft. tone." Sixteen-
foot and 32-ft. stops are specially characteristic of the pedal,
where the names also signify the length of the open pipe which
would sound the note actually produced by the lowest C. Of
stops higher than the normal pitch of the keys, the octave is
denoted by 4 ft. if made with open pipes, 4-ft. tone if stopped;
the twelfth is commonly spoken of as 23, the fifteenth or double
octave as 2 ft. Higher-sounding stops are occasionally used,
but these generally form part of "mixtures," and the foot-
lengths of the separate ranks are not usually given.
The true or accurate lengths of the pipes vary within con-
siderable limits. The base of the scales (dimensions) varies
according to the standard of pitch, and the voicing and the
complicated natural laws of pipes produce other deviations
from simple relations, so that the conventional dimensions
can only be regarded as a simple means of classifying the
stops according to their pitch-relations. For this purpose
they are essential; they are continually appealed to in
discussion and description; and they are almost invariably
marked on the stop-handles in all countries, so that a moderate
knowledge of foreign nomenclatures, combined with the habit
of seizing the meaning of the figures such as 16, 8, 4, on the stop-
handles, will frequently suffice as a key to the complexities of a
foreign organ.
Each of the manuals, or rows of keys, of an orga.n constitutes
a separate organ, which is more or less complete in itself. The
names of the different manuals or organs are great organ, swell
organ, choir organ and solo organ. The fifth manual, where it
occurs, is the echo organ. The above is the usual order in point
of development and frequency of occurrence, although the solo
is sometimes preferred to the choir organ. The great organ is in
a certain sense the principal department of the organ. It may be
regarded as formed by a completely developed scries of those
fundamental stops which constitute the solid basis of the tone
of the instrument. If an instrument be constructed with only
a single manual this necessarily assumes, in general, the character-
istics of a great organ. The great organ is called " grande orgue "
in French, and first manual or " haupt-werk " in German.
It is proposed to describe the principal organ-stops under the
XX. 9
258
ORGAN
heads of the manuals to which they belong. The enumeration
will not be exhaustive, but will include all the usual types.
The great organ begins generally with stops of 16 ft. in large
instruments. In some cases a 32-foot sounding stop is introduced,
but this cannot be said to be a proper characteristic of the
0"^t great organ. The foundation tone is of 8 ft. , the stops
orsaa. ^j higher pitch serve to add brilliancy; those of 16 ft.,
which sound the octave below the normal pitch, serve to add gravity
and weight to the tone. Sixteen-foot stops are commonly spoken of
as " doubles," their conventional length being twice that of stops of
normal pitch.
The i6-ft. stops are the 16 double open diapason, and the 16
bourdon or double stopped diapason, to which, in very large instru-
ments, there may be added a 16 double trumpet. The double open
diapason on the great organ consists usually of metal pipes, having
moderate " scale," or transverse dimensions. These are of the same
general character as the pipes of the ordinary- open diapason, though
they are made somewhat less powerful. In the better instruments of
the second class as to size this stop alone would probably be regarded
as representing suitably and sufficiently the class of doubles on the
great organ. It gives great body to the general tone, and appears
decidedly preferable to the bourdon, which frequently takes its place.
The 16 bourdon, when used on the great organ, is made of rather
small scale and Ught tone. It gives great body to a large great organ
and affords interesting combinations with other stops, such as the
4-ft. flute. It is used either alone in smaller organs of the second
class, or in addition to a double open in larger instruments.
The 16 double trumpet is a trumpet (large reed stop) sounding the
octave below the normal pitch. It is used generally in instruments
of the largest size, but is somewhat more common in Germany. It
is useful in giving a massive character to the tone of the full great
organ, which is apt to become disagreeable on account of the great
development of stops of a piercing character. If, however, the
double trumpet is rough in tone, it is apt to communicate to the
whole a corresponding impression.
We now proceed to the 8-ft. stops (the reeds come at the end
according to ordinary usage). An ordinary great organ may contain
8 stopped diapason, 8 open diapason (one or more), 8
^"'^* gamba and 8 hohlflote. The 8 stopped diapason on the
'ft^fl great organ is usually of moderate scale, and some con-
siderable fulness of tone. Few stops admit of more
variety and individuality in their quality of tone than the stopped
diapason ; but too frequently the great organ stopped diapason fails
to attract attention on its merits, being regarded simply as an in-
considerable portion of the foundation tone.
If there is any one stop which in itself represents the organ as a
whole it is the open diapason. The pipes of this stop are the typical
metal pipes which have always been characteristic of the appearance
of the organ. A single open diapason stop is capable of being used
as an organ of sufficient power for many purposes, though of course
without variety. The pipes of this stop are called " principal " in
German, this appellation apparently corresponding to the fact that
they are the true and original organ-pipes. The English appellation
of " diapason " has been taken to mean that these are the normal
pipes which run through the whole compass. This, however, does not
appear to be the actual derivation of the term; originally it is
technically applied to the organ-builder's rule, which gives the
dimensions of pipes; and it appears that the application to the stop
followed on this meaning.
The scales, character and voicing of the open diapason vary with
fashion, and are different in different countries. We may distinguish
three principal types. The old English diapasons of the days before
the introduction of pedal organs into England were characterized by
a rich sweet tone, and were not very powerful. They were generally
voiced on a light wind, having a pressure equivalent to that of a
column of water of from 2 to 2^ in. The scale was in some cases
very large, as in Green's two open diapasons in the old organ at St
George's, Windsor; in these the wind was light, and the tone very
soft. In other cases the scale was smaller and the voicing bolder, as
in Father Smith's original diapasons in St Paul's Cathedral. But on
the whole the old English diapasons presented a lovely quality of
tone. English travellers of those days, accustomed to these diapasons,
usually found foreign organs harsh, noisy and uninteresting. And
there are many still in England who, while recognizing the necessity
of a firmer diapason tone in view of the introduction of the heavy
pedal bass, and the corresponding strengthening of the upper de-
partments of the organ tone, lament the disappearance of the old
diapason tone. However, it is possible with care to obtain diapasons
presenting the sweet characteristics of the old English tone, com-
bined with sufficient fulness and power to form a sound general
foundation. And there can be no doubt that this should be one of
the chief points to be kept in view in organ design.
The German diapason was of an entirely different character from
the English. The heavy bass of the pedals has been an essential
characteristic of the German organ for at least two or three centuries,
or, as it is said, for four. The development of the piercing stops of
high pitch was equally general. Thus foundation work of com-
paratively great power was required to maintain the balance of
tone; the ordinary German diapason was very loud, and we may
Great
organ
4 feet.
almost say coarse, in its tone when compared with the old English
diapason. The German stop was voiced as a rule on from 3j to 4 in.
of wind, not quite twice the pressure used in England.
The French diapason is a modern variety. It may be described
as presenting rather the characteristics of a loud gamba than of a
diapason. In other words the tone tends towards a certain quality
which may be described as " nasal " or metallic, or as approaching
to that of a string instrument of rather coarse character. Some
modern English builders appear to aim at the same model, and not
without success.
The tone of a diapason must be strong enough to assert itself. It
is the foundation of the whole organ tone. It is the voicer's business
to satisfy this condition in conjunction with the requirement that
the tone shall be full and of agreeable quality.
The 8 spitzflote may be regarded as a variety of open diapason.
The pipes taper slightly towards the top, and the quality is
slightly stringy. This stop was much used at one time in place of a
second open diapason. But it appears better that, where two open
diapasons are desirable, they should both be of full diapason quality,
though possibly of different strengths and dimensions. The ad-
mixture of stnngy qualities of tone with the diapasons is always to
be deprecated.
The 8 gamba was originally an imitation of the viola da gamba, a
sort of violoncello. When made of a light quality of tone it is a
pleasing stop ; but its use in the great organ instead of a second open
diapason is greatly to be deprecated for the reasons just stated.
The 8 hohlflote is an open flute, usually of wood, and of small
scale. If made to a moderate scale and fully voiced it possesses a
full pleasant tone, which is a useful support to the foundation tone
of the great organ. The 8 clarabella differs from the hohlflote in
being usually of rather large scale, and having the open pipes only
in the treble. In old organs a separate bass was generally
provided ; now it is more usual to supply the stop with a stopped
bass.
The 4-ft. stops of the great organ comprise the 4 principal and the
4 flute. The 4 principal is the octave of the open diapason, generally
of somewhat reduced scale and light but bright quality of
tone. The use of the word " principal " in connexion
with this stop is purely English, and is said to be con-
nected with the use made of it as the standard of tuning
for the whole organ. The Germans and French both designate this
stop as " octave."
Of the 4 flute there are several varieties — open, stopped, wood,
metal and harmonic. The harmonic flute has open metal pipes of
double the conventional length, which speak their octave. This is
determined partly by the voicing, partly by making a small hole
about the middle of the length, which determines the motion as that
of the two separate lengths between which the hole lies. Harmonic
flutes have a sweet but full and powerful tone. Other flutes are
generally rather light, except the waldflote, which is a powerful stop
of a somewhat hooting quality.
The great organ flute is frequently used to give brilliancy to light
combinations. Thus it may be used with the stopped diapason
alone, or with the 16 bourdon alone, or with any_^of these and either
or both of the open diapasons.
The ordinary use of the 4-ft. stops is to add a degree of loudness to
the diapasons. This is accompanied with a certain measure of keen-
ness, which may become disagreeable if the 4-ft. tone is dispro-
portionately strong. The ordinary practice is to use the 4-ft. tone
very freely.
The 2§ twelfth stop sounds fiddle g on the C key. It is composed
of diapason pipes, rather small and gently voiced. Its „
use is said to be to thicken the tone, which it certainly **
does. But how far the particular effect produced is °'^^''
desirable is another question. It is generally necessary . .^ oHch
that this stop should be accompanied by the fifteenth or
other octave sounding stop of higher pitch.
The 2 fifteenth, or superoctave, of the great organ consists of
diapason pipes sounding notes two octaves above the normal pitch
of the keys. The 2 piccolo is a fluty stop of less power, having the
same pitch. The 2-ft. tone is commonly used as giving a degree of
loudness to the great organ beyond that obtainable with the 4-ft.
tone.
The modern great organ fifteenth is generally a very powerful stop,
and requires great caution in its use in organs of moderate size, or in
limited spaces. The old English high pitched stops had little power,
and their brilliancy was capable of pleasing without offence. The
modern great organ up to fifteenth can only be heard with comfort
in very large spaces. Under such suitable circumstances the
fifteenth is capable of giving to the whole tone a ringing or silvery
character, which lends itself specially to contrast with the tone of
reeds. This peculiar keen tone requires for its full development the
mixtures.
Mixture, sesquialtera, furniture, cymbal, scharf, cornet, are various
names applied to a description of stop which possesses several ranks
or several pipes to each note. The pipes of each note sound a chord
which is generally composed of concordant notes of the harmonic
series whose fundamental is the proper note of the key. IModern
mixtures generally consist of fifths and octaves. Their composition
is not the same throughout the whole range of the keyboard. A
ORGAN
259
three-rank mixture may consist of the following (the numbers signify
intervals, reckoned along the scale) —
C — c (tenor) 15 — 19 — 22
c# to top 8 — 12 — 15.
For a somewhat larger full mixture this may be modified as
follows —
C—c' (middle) 15—19—22
c'S to top I — 8—12—15.
A sharp mixture suitable for a large instrument may be as follows —
Five Ranks.
C — c' 15 — 19 — 22 — 26 — 29
c'Uf—fii 8-12-15-19-22
g"—c" I— 8— 12— 15— 19
c'" to top I — 5 — 8— 12— 15.
The last two compositions are given by Hopkins in his great
treatise on the organ.
The early mixtures generally included the tierce (17th, or two
octaves and a third). The German practice was to unite this with
a twelfth, carrying the combination 12-17 throughout the keyboard
under the name of sesquialtera. The combination is not now usually
provided. The old English sesquialtera was ordinarily s'mply a form
of mixture, as was the furniture. The mounted cornet consisted
usually of five ranks —
I— 8— 12— 15— 17.
It extended from middle c upwards. The pipes were raised on a small
soundboard of their own. The stop was used for giving out a melody.
It is now obsolete.
The question of the employment and composition of mixtures is
of the greatest importance with respect to the good effect of the full
organ proper, i.e. without reeds. With reference to the whole
question of keen-toned stops it may be laid down that their free
employment in the great organ does not produce a good effect unless
the organ is situated in a very large space. If this is the case, properly
proportioned mixtures arc capable of giving to the tone of the full
diapason work a character which is brilliant without being over-
powering. The contrast between this class of tone and that afforded
by the reeds is one of the most charming and legitimate effects within
the range of the instrument.
We now pass to the reeds. The i6-ft. trumpet has been already
alluded to, and there remain 8 trumpet and 4 clarion or octave
trumpet. These are both stops of great power. The best
trumpets possess also richness and smoothness of tone.
Stops of this class can be used with the diapasons only,
producing what may be described as a rich-toned blare of
moderate strength. The more usual employment of the reeds is in
connexion with the entire great organ, the whole forming the ordinary
fortissimo of the instrument.
The second department of the English organ is the swell organ.
The whole of the swell pipes are enclosed in a box, faced on one or
_ .. more sides with a set of balanced shutters. When these
^* are closed the tone is almost completely muffled. When
" the shutters are opened, by means of a pedal usually, the
sound bursts out. In order that the use of the swell may be effective,
it is necessary that the shutters should close tightly, and that there
should be a sufficient volume of tone to produce an effect when they
are opened. The swell is of entirely English origin; it has been
introduced in Germany to a very small extent, but more widely in
France. It is usually called " recitatif " on the Continent. The
chief characteristic of the swell is the rich and powerful volume of
reed-tone of a peculiar character which it contains. But other stops
are also of importance. We consider them in order. The 16 bourdon,
small scale, is very commonly used in swells. It assists in giving
body to the tone. It occupies, however, a large space within the
swell box; and where the choice between it and a i6-ft. reed has to
be made there can be no doubt that the reed should be preferred, as it
contributes so much more to the development of the characteristic
swell tone. The 16 contra fagotto is the usual name of this stop.
It imparts great richness to the tone of the other swell reeds.
The 8-ft. diapason work is principally valuable for the soft effects
obtained from it. The diapasons are voiced less loudly than for the
great organ; and with the shutters closed they sound very soft.
The dulciana is the softest stop generally available; and either this
or some similar stop is introduced into the swell for the purpose of
obtaining effects of the most extreme softness. Space within the
swell box has generally to be economized. The complete bass of the
open diapason or dulciana requires an 8-ft. swell box, whereas even
a l6-ft. reed can be bent round so as to go within a smaller box if
necessary. The open diapason and the dulciana are therefore often
cut short at tenor c, and completed, if desired, with stopped pipes.
The 4 principal and the 4 flute stops are similar to the corresponding
stops in the great organ, hut are somewhat lighter in tone.
The 2 fifteenth and mixtures are much more pleasing in the swell
than in the great organ. The shutters tone them down, so that they
cannot easily become offensive. Added to the reeds, they give a
peculiar brilliancy to the full swell. But perhaps their most pleasing
use is when all the diapason work of the swell is used alone, and as a
contrast to the reeds.
Great
organ
Choir
organ.
The usual reeds are as follows, besides the doubles already
mentioned: 8 oboe, 8 cornopean, 8 trumpet and 4 clarion (octave
trumpet). The oboe (hautboy) is a conventional imitation of
the orchestral instrument. It is a stop of delicate tone, and perhaps
is at its best in solo passages, softly accompanied on another manual.
The cornopean has a powerful horn-like tone. It is the stop which,
more than any other, gives to the English swell its peculiar
character. The trumpet is used in addition to the cornopean in large
instruments. The clarion serves to add brightness and point to the
whole. The vox humana is also frequently placed on the swell.
The third department is the choir organ. The 8-ft.
work may contain 8 stopped diapason, 8 open diapason,
8 gamba, 8 keraulophon and 8 hohlflcite.
As a rule no open diapason is provided for choir organs, unless they
are larger than usual; but a small open is most useful as a means
of obtaining a better balance than usual against the other manuals.
The stopped diapason is generally made to contrast in some way with
that on the great organ. The hohlflote, or its representative, is
generally a lighter stop than what would be put on the great organ.
The gamba is better placed in the choir organ than in the great or the
swell. Such stops as the gamba and the keraulophon are frequently
placed in the swell with the idea of adding to the rcediness of the
tone. But this is fallacious. Their tone is not strong enough to
assert itself through the shutters, and their peculiar character is
therefore lost. On the choir organ, on the other hand, the sort of
strength required is just about what they possess, and they show to
advantage. The keraulophon is a stop invented by Gray and
Davison, and has been widely adopted for many years. It has a hole
made in each pipe near the top, and gives a peculiar tone very well
described by its name (horn-flute). Though not very like the gamba,
its tone is so far of the same type of quality that the two stops would
hardly be used together. It is generally the case that similar stops of
exceptional characters do not combine well, whereas stops of opposed
qualities do combine well. Thus a gamba and a keraulophon would
not combine well, whereas either of them forms an excellent com-
bination with a stopped diapason or a hohlflote.
The 4 principal is sometimes very useful. A light combination on
the choir, with excess of 4-ft. tone, may often be advantageously
contrasted with the more full and solid tone of the great diapasons,
or with other attainable effects. The 4 flute is constantly used.
The 2 piccolo is frequently found on the choir organ, but is not
particularly useful.
In organs which have no solo manual there is usually a clarionet
(cremona, cromorne or krummhorn, in old organs sometimes corno di
bassetto) on the choir, and often an orchestral oboe (real imitation of
the instrument). These are reed-stops. The dulciana and another
soft stop, the salicional, salcional or salicet (of similar strength, but
slightly more pungent quality), are often placed on the choir. They
are, however, hardly strong enough to be of much use there, and in
the swell they are useful for effects of extreme softness. In very
large instruments a fifteenth and a mixture are sometimes placed on
the choir, which in this case has a complete series of diapason work.
If the fifteenth and the mixtures are light enough the result is a sort
of imitation of the tone of the old English organ. It also forms a
useful echo to the great organ, i.e. a passage played on the great may
be repeated on the similar but fainter tone of the choir with the effect
of an echo. In instruments of the largest size the choir is sometimes
provided with a very small bourdon of i6-ft. tone, which helps to
give to the tone the character of that of a small full organ without
reeds.
The solo organ is comparatively modern, at all events in its
present usual form. A fourth manual was not unknown in old
German organs; but the contents of all four resembled
each other in a general sort of way, and there was nothing
like the English swell or the modern solo. The solo
appears to have arisen with Cavaill6-Coll in France, and Hill in
England, as a vehicle for the powerful reed-stops on heavy wind
introduced by these builders. Thus the French term for the solo is
"clavier des bombardes"; and in the earlier English solos the
" tuba mirabilis " was usually prominent. A solo organ may suitably
contain any of the following stops: 8 tromba (a powerful reed on
heavy wind), 8 harmonic flute (powerful tone and heavy wind), 8
clarionet and 8 orchestral oboe (real imitations of the instruments) and
8 vox humana (conventional imitation of the human voice). The last
three stops are reeds. They may be with advantage enclosed in a
swell box, having a separate pedal. In very large instruments a
complete series of both diapason and reed stops is occasionally placed
on the solo. But there does not seem to be much advantage in this
arrangement.
We now come to the pedal. This forms the general bass to the
whole organ. Thirty-two foot stops only occur in the largest
instruments; they are as follows: 32 open diapason
(wood or metal), 32-ft. tone bourdon and 32 contra
trombone, posaune, bombarde, sackbut (reed). The
32-ft. open diapason, whether wood or metal, is usually made of
large scale, and produces true musical notes throughout. Its musical
effect in the lower part of its range is, however, questionable, so far as
this depends on the possibility of recognizing the pitch of the notes.
It adds great richness to the general effect, particularly in large
spaces. The 32-ft. tone bourdon is not usually a successful stop.
Solo
organ.
Pedal
organ.
26o
ORGAN
It rarely produces its true note in the lower part of its range. The
32-ft. reed on the pedal has long been a characteristic of the largest
instruments. With the old type of reed it was rarely pleasant to
hear. The manufacture has been greatly improved, and these large
reeds are now made to produce a fairly smooth effect. Deep reed
notes, when rich and good, undoubtedly form one of the principal
elements in gii'ing the impression of power produced by large organs.
From this point of view they are of great importance. Nevertheless
the effect of large pedal reeds is generally more satisfactory to the
performer than to the listener.
The l6-ft. pitch may be regarded as the normal pitch of the pedal ;
the principal stops are as follows: 16 open diapason (wood or metal),
i6-ft. tone bourdon, 16 violone (imitation of double bass) and 16
trombone or posaune (reed). The 16-ft. open diapason on the pedal
assumes different forms according to circumstances. As a rule the
character is sufficiently indicated by the stop being of wood or metal.
The wooden open is generally of very large scale, and produces a
ponderous tone of great power and fulness, which is only suitable
for the accompaniment of the full organ, or of very powerful manual
combinations. Such a stop is, as a rule, unsuital:>le m organs of
moderate size, unless supplemented by lighter i6s for ordmary
purposes. The metal open is of considerably smaller scale (in fact all
metal pipes are effectively of much smaller scale than wooden pipes
of similar diameter). The metal gives a clear tone, Ughter than that
of large wooden pipes, and pleasanter for ordinary purposes. The
metal open combines advantageously with a bourdon. In the
largest organs both wood and metal open 16s may be suitably
provided. Where metal pipes are made a feature in the organ-case,
both the double open diapason in the great organ and the metal 16
of the pedal may be properly made of good metal (polished tin or
spotted metal), and worked in to the design of the organ-case.'
The same applies to the 32-ft. metal opens of the largest instruments.
This saves space in the interior, and gives the large pipes roorn to
speak, which is apt to be wanting when they are placed mside.
The 16-ft. tone bourdon on the pedal may be made of any scale
according to circumstances. If it is the chief bass of the organ it is
made very large and with great volume of tone. Such stops are un-
suitable for sof't purposes, and a soft 16, usually a violone, is required
in addition. If the loud department of the 16 tone is otherwise
provided for the bourdon may be made of moderate strength. It
may also be made very soft, like a manual bourdon. These three
different strengths ought always to be provided for in an instrument
of a complete character. The violone is also made of all three
strengths. In a few cases it furnishes the principal bass; frequently
it furnishes the moderate element; and it is often applied to obtain
a very soft 16-ft. tone. The 16-ft. reed is very comnion. The
observations made as to the effect of 32-ft. reeds are applicable also
in this case. , , .
The 8-ft. department of the pedal is only less important than the
16, because it is possible to replace it to a certain extent by coupling
or attaching the manuals to the pedals. The usual 8-ft. pedai-
stops are as follows: 8 principal bass (metal or wood), 8 bass flute
(stopped), 8 violoncello (imitation of the instrument) and 8 trumpet.
The remarks made above as to the scale of open i6s apply with little
change to the pedal principal. Only, since the manuals are generally
coupled, it is perhaps best to provide the large scale wood-stop, which
presents the powerful class of tone in which the manual diapasons are
deficient. The bass flute is almost a necessity in combination with
the light 16-ft. tone. A composition ought to be provided by which
the pedal can be reduced to these two elements by a single move-
ment. The violoncello is sometimes used instead of the bass flute
for the last-named purpose, for which, however, it is not so suitable.
It is a favourite stop for some solo purposes, but is not of much
general utility. The 8-ft. trumpet serves to give clearness and point
to the tone of the 16-ft. reed.
In the short preface to Mendelssohn'sOrgaw Sonatas it is stated
that everywhere, even in pianissimo, it is intended that the 16-ft.
tore of the pedal should be accompanied by 8-ft. tone. For the
purpose of realizing this as a general direction the soft 16-ft. arid 8-ft.
stops are required; large instruments are, however, occasionally
found which possess nothing of the kind.
The following stops of higher pitch are occasionally found on the
pedal: $i twelfth bass, 4 fifteenth bass, mixture and 4 clarion.
These serve to make the pedal tone practically independent of
coupling to the manual, which is a matter of great importance,
especially in the performance of certain compositions of Bach and
other writers, who appear to have been independent of couplers.
In some instruments two sets of pedals are provided, which may
be described as great and choir pedals. The great pedal is m the
usual oosition ; the choir pedal is in front of the other, and
Secoad sloping, it is so placed that the feet rest on it naturally
pedsl. ^^hgn stretched out in front of the performer. There is a
choir pedal of this kind in the organ in the minster at Ulm, built by
Walcker of Ludwigsburg. It is a very large instrume nt, having :oo
* Anything down to one-third tin and two-thirds lead is called tin.
But " pure tin" should have over 90% of tin. Absolutely pure
tin could not be worked. Spotted metal is said to have from one-
third to two-thirds tin. Under one-third tin no spots are said to rise,
and the mixture has the general characters of lead.
Fig. 7. — A, square, B, tracker;
C, metal square.
sounding stops. It has no compositions, which indeed are but little
known in Germany ; and without some arrangement such as this a
soft pedal would hardly be obtainable. There are a few other instru-
ments which have choir pedals, but they have not been introduced
into England.
In organs which have a single manual the characteristics of the
great and choir organs are usually united. In organs which have
two manuals the lower usually represents the united great
and choir, the upper is the swell, in organs which have '^"'onge-
three manuals the lower is usually the choir, but some- "lentof
times combines choir and solo, the middle is the great, '"anuals.
and the top is the swell. In organs which have four manuals the
order is solo, swell, great, choir, the solo being at the top and the
choir at the bottom.
Compositions are mechanical contrivances for moving the stop-
handles in groups at a time. The ordinary form consists of pedals,
which project from the front just above the pedal keys.
The arrangements are various. We may refer to the ^"'"Posi-
arrangement in the organ at Windsor, given later on. '''"'*•
A species of composition was introduced by Willis some years ago,
and has been adopted in many large English instruments, which acts
by means of a series of brass disks placed just under the front of the
keys of each manual, within reach of the thumb. These act by
means of pneumatic levers. A slight pressure on one of the disks sets
the machine attached to it in action, and the required change in the
stops is made without any exertion on the part of the performer.
The connexion between the keys and their pallets is made by
various mechanisms, some of which are very ancient. In square
and trackerwork (fig. 7)
the old squares were a^neral
made of wood. They •"^<=''^-
resemble in function the *"'*
squares used for taking bell-wires
round a corner. The trackers are
slight strips of wood, having
screwed wires whipped on to their
ends,which hold by leather buttons.
The trackers play the part of the
bell-wires. Where pressure has to
be transmitted instead of a pull,
thin but broad slips of wood are used, having pins stuck into their
ends to keep them in their places. These are slickers (fig. 8). Back-
falls (fig. 9) are narrow wooden levers turning on pins which pass
through their centres.
The fan frame (fig. 10) is
a set of backfalls having
one set of ends close
together, usually corres-
ponding to the keys; the
other ends are spread
widely apart. The roller
board' {'a^. 11) is a more
general mode of shifting
the movements sideways.
The roller is a slip of
wood, or a bit of metal
tube, which turns on two pins inserted into its ends. It has two
arms' projecting at right angles to its length. One of these receives
the pull at one point, the other gives it off at another. In case a
pull has to be transmitted
to more than one quarter, ^__, — . 1 >- ,
a roller will sometimes | |
have more than two arms.
The name of couplers
(fig. 12) is given to the
mechanical stop by which
the kevs of one manual are made to take down those of another,
or those of the pedal to take down those of the manuals, borne
old forms of the mechanism could not be put on while any of the
keys were depressed; others had a
tendency to throw the fingers off the
keys. These forms have been entirely
superseded. That now used consists
of a series of backfalls centred on a
movable support. The one set of ends
is connected with the moving keys;
the other set of ends is pierced by the
wires of the trackers or stickers from
the keys to be moved. In the one
position of the support these ends play
freely over the v,ires; in the other
they are brought up against the buttons
of the trackers or against the stickers
to be moved. The usual couplers are
— each of the manuals to the pedal,
swell to great, swell to great octave,
swell to great sub-octave, swell to
choir, choir to great sub-octave, and solo to great The swel octave
and sub-octave couplers are sometimes placed on the swell itseit. 1 ne
objection to this is, that if they are used when the swell is coupled to
J
Fig. 8. — A and B as in fig. 7; C, sticker.
Fig. 9. — Backfall.
Fig. 10. — Fan Frame.
ORGAN
261
sound in tune.
Fig. II. — Roller Board.
Fig. 12. — Coupler.
the great organ, as is very commonly the case, the octaves are reached
through two couplers. And, as couplers are not generally screwed
up quite tight, the octaves are often not sufficiently put down to
■ ■ The choir to great sub-octave coupler was used
chiefly as a substitute for a
double on the great organ.
It is common in organs of
the transition period, but
is not a good arrangement.
The pneumatic lever (fig.
13) consists of a small
power bellows attached to
each key, so that the de-
pression of the key admits
high-pressure wind to the
power bellows. The power
bellows then performs the
work of opening the valves, &c. In large organs the work to be
done would be beyond the reach of the most powerful finger with-
out this device. Similar devices are sometimes applied to the
compositions and other mechanical arrangements.
Pneumatic Iransjnission, with many other mechanical devices, was
invented by Willis. It consists of a divided pneumatic action. The
pneumatic wind, instead of being at once admitted to the power
bellows, is made to traverse a length of tubing, at the farther end of
which it reaches the work to be done. This principle admits of
application to divided organs, the pneumatic transmission passing
under the floor, as in the organ at St Paul's Cathedral.
Ventils are valves which control the wind-supply of the different
groups of stops. They were much recommended at one time as a
substitute for compositions. The
r' — ' — ^^^ ^~--- . practical difference is that com-
positions shift the stop-handles, so
that one can always see what there
is on the organ; ventils leave the
stop handles unmoved, so that the
player is liable to be deceived.
Other inconveniences might be
mentioned, but it is enough to say that practical opinion appears
decidedly to condemn the use of ventils.
The original pedal boards of Germany were flat and of very large
scale. The early practice in England was to make them very small,
as well as of short compass. Of late the compass C — f,
thirty notes, has been universally adopted with scales
varying from 2\ to 25 in. from centre to centre of the
naturals; 2| in. is the scale now recommended. A k-rge
number of organs have been provided with concave
radiating pedal boards. The objections to this arrange-
ment are mainly two: They present different scales at difi'erent
distances from the front; and, except just in front, they become so
narrow that the smallest
foot can hardly put down
the pedals singly. This
renders difficult the old
Bach style of playing, the
essence of which consists
in putting the feet over
each other freely, so as to
use the alternate method
as much as possible; and
this requires that the back
of the pedal board shall be
as available as the front.
The diversities of the
arrangements of different
organs present a great
difficulty. The best players
take a certain time to
master the arrangements
of a strange instrument.
With a view to the intro-
duction of uniformity a
conference on the subject
was arranged by the Col-
lege of Organistsin London,
and a series of resolutions and a series of recommendations were
published which deserve attention (1881), though they have now
been withdrawn. We may mention that the parallel concave form
was recommended for the pedal board, and 2% in. for the scale. The
positions of the stops of the various organs were to be as follows: —
Left. Right.
Swell. Solo.
Pedal. Great.
Couplers. Choir.
The order of compositions, &c., from piano to forte was to be in all
cases from left to right. The groups of compositions were to be in
the order from left to right — pedal, swell, couplers, great.
Two other points of detail may be alluded to. One is the position
of the pedal board with reference to the keys. The height from the
Arrange'
meats
about
the per-
former.
c
ffperv
^
^
^^^j^^^ji^j^^w^-^^^'^iD^?:^^'^^
^^XLtii^
1 '[ ./!-, ,>wj
e
^cLose^
Fig. 13. — Pneumatic
Lever.
C^eoct Orgn^Ti -^.^ \
Q
I?-i Old arrart^ern^rA
middle of the pedals to the great organ keys, it is agreed, should be
32 in. But as to the forward position there is a difference. The
resolutions said that " a plumb-line dropped from the front of the
great organ sharp keys falls 2 in. nearer the player than the front of
the centre short key of the pedal board." The old arrangement gave
usually 1 5 in. for this distance. But it is thought that the change
has not gone far enough, and 4 in. has been found preferable. There
is scarcely any single arrangement which is so important for the
comfort of the player as having sufficient space in this direction (fig.
14). The second matter is the provision of some other means of
acting on the swell than by the swell pedal. The use of the swell
pedal is inconsistent with the proper use of both feet on the pedal
keys; and there is no
doubt that incorrect habits 1
in this respect are com- 1 , ,
monly the result of the
English use of the swell
pedal. In fact, players
sometimes keep one foot
on the swell pedal all the
time, so that proper pedal
playing is impossible.
Arrangements have been
devised by means of which
a movable back to the seat
can be made the means of
acting on the swell. The
first " recommendation "
of the College of Organists
illustrated the require-
ment; it was, that "the
consideration of organ- ^■~~~~~
builders be directed to the
widely-expressed desire for
some means of operating
on the swell in addition to
the ordinary swell pedal."
G. Cooper had a movable
back to the seat of the
organ at St Sepulchre's, Fig. 14,
London. The swell was
opened by leaning back,
so that it could only be used when the swell was coupled to the
great. The writer has had an organ for more than twenty years
in which the movable back is provided with a strap passing
over one shoulder and buckling in front. It opens the swell
when the player leans forward. It is most valuable, particularly in
such things as accompanying the service. The emphasis required is
obtained when wanted without taking the feet from their other
duties. Young people pick it up easily; older people have difficulty.
As an example of an organ of a complete but not enormously large
character, we give the details of the organ at St George's Chapel,
Windsor, which was rebuilt by fvlessrs Gray and Davidson, according
to Sir Walter Parratt's designs, in the year 1883.
-Relative Position of Manual
and Pedal.
Four manuals, C to a'", 58
notes. Pedal, C to/', 30 notes.
Great Organ (3j-in. wind).
Double open diapason . . 16
Large open diapason ... 8
Open diapason .... 8
Stopped diapason ... 8
Clarabella 8
Principal 4
Harmonic flute .... 4
Twelfth 2f
Fifteenth 2
Sesquialtera' .111 ranks
Harmonic piccolo ... 2
Posaune 8
Clarion .... 4
Swell Organ (3-in. wind).
Lieblich bourdon . . . .16
Open diapason .... 8
Stopped diapason . . . 8
Dulciana 8
Vox coelestis' 8
Principal 4
Octave duiciana .... 4
Fifteenth 2
Mixture^ .... Ill ranks
Contra fagotto . . .16
Cornopean 8
Oboe 8
Vox humana 8
Clarion ... .4
Choir Organ (2j-in. wind).
Dulciana 8
Keraulophon 8
Stopped diapason ... 8
Viol d'orchestre .... 8
Flute 4
Piccolo 2
Corno di bassetto (reed) . 8
Solo Organ (6-in. wind).
Harmonic flute .... 8
Orchestral oboe .... 8
Tromba 8
Pedal Organ (4-in. wind).
Open diapason (wood) . . 16
Violone (metal) . .16
Bourdon (wood) .16
Wood flute 8
Trombone (wood tubes) . .16
Couplers.
Solo to great. Swell to pedal.
Swell to great. Great to pedal.
Solo to pedal. Choir to pedal.
Pneumatic action to great
organ and its couplers.
The arrangement of the stops
and compositions is as follows: —
Left. Over the keys. Right.
Solo. Couplers. Swell.
Choir. Tremulant. Great.
Pedal. (Knob below swell keys.)
' These are the old mixtures.
262
ORGAN
Composition Pedals,
Great and pedal
combined
/
I
I
itif
\ Great to pedal
in and ouL
I
//
Eeduce pedal to violone
Great to pedal in.
One swell pedal controls two sides of the swell box. The other
controls the box in which the orchestral oboe is placed. The vox
humana is in a box which is always shut, inside the swell box.
History of the Modern Organ.
The history of the ancient organ is dealt with in a separate
section below. The first keyboard is said to have been intro-
duced into the organ in the cathedral at Magdeburg about the
close of the nth century. There were sixteen keys; and a
drawing exists in a work of the 17th century' which purports
to represent them. They are said to have been an ell long and
3 in. broad. The drawing represents a complete octave with
naturals and short keys (semitones), arranged in the same
relative positions as in the modern keyboard. In early organs
with keyboards the keys are said to have required blows of the
fist to put them down. In these cases probably sounding the
notes of the plain song was all that could be accomplished.
As to the precise time and conditions under which the key-
board assumed its present form we know nothing. It is commonly
said that the change to narrow keys took place in the course of the
14th century, and the semitones were introduced about the
same time.
Many examples of organ keyboards still exist, both in England
and on the Continent, which have black naturals and white
short keys (semitones). The organ in the church at Heiligenblut
in Tirol had in 1S70 two manuals, one having black naturals
and white semitones, the other white naturals and black semi-
tones. In this organ the stops were acted on by iron levers
which moved right and left. It had a beautiful tone; it pos-
sessed a reservoir bellows of great capacity, and was altogether a
remarkable instrument. Harpsichords with black keyboards
also exist.
The mode of blowing practised about the time of the intro-
duction of the first keyboard appears to have been that which
Bellows ultimately developed into the method still generally
used in Germany. There were a great many separate
bellows, each like a magnified kitchen-bellows, but provided
with a valve, so that the wind could not return into the bellows.
One man had charge of two of these. Each foot was attached to
one bellows, and the blower held on by a bar above. It was
possible, by raising each of the two bellows in turn and then
resting his weight upon it, to produce a constant supply of wind
with the pressure due to his weight. A great many such bellows
were provided, and it seems that each pair required one man;
so that great numbers of blowers were employed. A slight
modification is enough to change this method into the German
one. Instead of fastening the feet to the bellows and pulling
them up, the blower treads on a lever which raises the bellows.
The bellows being loaded then supplies the wind of itself. The
bellows thus used have diagonal hinges, and various expedients
are employed to make them furnish steady wind. But the
English system of horizontal reservoirs and feeders appears far
superior.
The invention of the pedal may be set down to the 15th century.
About that time the organ assumed on the Continent of Europe
Pedal ^^^ general form which it has retained till lately,
more especially in Germany. This may be described
generally as having a compass of about four octaves in the
manuals and of two octaves in the pedal, with occasionally extra
notes at the top in both, and frequently " short octaves " at the
bottom. German short octaves are as follows. The manual and
pedal appear to terminate on E instead of C. Then the E key
sounds C, F=F, FS=D, G=G, GS = E, and the rest as ustial.
There were often three, sometimes four, manuals in large organs.
^ Praetorius, Theatrum Instrumentorum.
Cases.
1390
1429
1490
The character of all these was in general much the same, but they
were more softly voiced in succession, the softest manual being
sometimes spoken of as an echo organ. There are one or two
examples of the echo as a fourth or fifth manual in England at the
present time, in organs which have been designed more or less
under German inspiration. The old echo was long ago super-
seded by the swell in England.
A few ancient cases survive in a more or less altered condition.
Of these the following are worthy of mention, as
bearing on the question of date.
Sion (Switzerland). Gothic. A small instrument
Amiens. Originally Gothic. Large, with i6-ft. pipes .
Perpignan. Gothic. Large, with 32-ft. pipes ...
Lubeck. One of the finest Gothic organs in Europe. 32s. 1504
(or, according to Hopkins, 15 18).
In all these the cases are sufficiently preserved to make it almost
certain that pipes of the same lengths were originally employed.
The actual pipes are generally modern. Shortly after this date
we find Renaissance cases. At La Ferte Bernard (dep. Sarthe)
part of the substructure is Gothic, and is known to be of date
1 501; the organ above is Renaissance, and is known to be of
date 1536. At St Maurice, Angers, an organ was built in 1511,
with Renaissance case, two towers of 32-ft. pipes, 48 stops
and a separate pedal. An account of the instrument in a proces
verbal of 1533 furnishes good evidence. In the i6th century,
therefore, the organ had attained great completeness, and the
independent pedal was general on the Continent.
We cannot follow the history of German organs through the
intervening centuries; but we propose to give the items of one
of the principal organs of the Silbermanns, the great
builders of the iSth century — namely, that standing
in the Royal Catholic Church, Dresden. Without
being an enormously large instrument it is complete in its way,
and gives a very good idea of the German organ. The account
is taken from Hopkins. The date is 1754.'
Great.
German
organ.
Principal
Bourdon
Principal
Viola da Gamba
Rohrflote
Octave
Spitzflote
Quinta .
Quintaton .
Principal
Gedackt
Linda Maris
Octave .
Rohrflote
Nassat .
Gedackt
Principal
Rohrflote
Nassat .
Octave .
16
16 tone
8
8
8 tone
4
4
Echo
Octave
Tertia .
Mixtur
Cymbel
Cornet
Fagott
Trumpet
Clarin .
16 tone
8
8 tone
8 tone
4
4 tone
Choi
8 tone
4
4 tone
2l
2
Untersatz
Principal
Octave-bass
Octave .
Pedal.
Octave
Tertia
Flageolet .
Mixtur
Echo .
Vox humana
Quinta
SifHote
Mixtur
Sesquialtera
Chalumeaux
2
If
IV ranks
III
V
16
8
4
2
n
I
IV ranks
V
8 tone
I
III ranks
n
8 tone
32 tone
16
Echo to great.
Great to pedal.
Manuals-
Mixtur IV ranks
Pausan(trombone) 16
Trompette . 8
Clarin .... 4
Accessories.
I Tremulant echo.
I Tremulant great.
Compass.
C to d'" in alt. [ Pedal — Ci to tenor c.
The chief difference between English organs and those of the
Continent was that until the 19th century the pedal was absolutely
unknown in England. The heavy bass given by the
pedal being absent, a lighter style of voicing was
adopted, and the manuals were usually continued
down below the 8-ft. C so as to obtain additional bass by
' The writer heard this instrument as a boy, and has a very
pleasant recollection of the general effect.
English
organs.
ORGAN
263
playing octaves with the hands. Thus the old organ (date 1697)
of Father Smith in St Paul's Cathedral had manuals descending
to the i6-ft. C (Ci), with two open diapasons throughout.
Green's old organ at St George's, Windsor, had manuals descend-
ing to the i2-ft. F, also two open diapasons throughout, no
F#. But the more usual practice was to make the manual
descend to the io§ G, leaving out the Gj{. At the Revolution
most of the organs in England had been destroyed. Shortly
afterwards Bernard Smith, a German, commonly called Father
Smith, and Thomas and Rene Harris, Frenchmen, were largely
employed in building organs, which were wanted everywhere.
Father Smith perhaps had the greatest reputation of any builder
of the old time, and his work has lasted wonderfully. There is a
list in Rimbault of forty-five organs built for churches by him.
The list of Rene Harris is scarcely less extensive.
The most important step in the development of the old English
organ was the invention of the swell. This was first introduced
into an organ built by two Jordans, father and son, for St
Magnus's church near London Bridge, in 171 2.
Burney writes (1771): —
" It is very extraordinary that the swell, which has been Introduced
into the English organ more than fifty years, and which is so capable
of expression and of pleasing effects that it may be well said to be the
greatest and most important improvement that was ever made in
any keyed instrument, should be utterly unknown in Italy; and,
now 1 am on this subject, I must observe that most of the organs I
have met with on the Continent seem to be inferior to ours by Father
Smith, Byfield or Snetzler, in everything but size ! As the churches
there are very often immense, so are the organs; the tone is indeed
somewhat softened and refined by space and distance; but, when
heard near, it is intolerably coarse and noisy; and, though the
number of stops in these large instruments is very great, they afford
but little variety, being for the most part duplicates in unisons and
octaves to each other, such as the great and small I2ths, flutes and
iSths; hence in our organs, not only the touch and tone, but the
imitative stops, are greatly superior to those of any other organs I
have met with."
(As to these opinions, compare what is said on great organ
open diapasons above.)
In the course of the iSth century most of the old echoes were
altered into swells, and the swell came into almost universal
use in England. The development of the swell is inseparably
associated with the peculiar quality of English swell reeds.
These must have originated during the development of the
swell. We hear of a " good reed voicer " named Hancock, who
worked with Cranz, changing echoes into swells. However
it originated, the English reed is beautiful when properly made.
The original swells were usually short in compass downwards,
frequently extending only to fiddle g. It is only lately that the
value of the bass of the swell has been properly appreciated.
Short-compass swells may be said to have now disappeared.
The organ in St Stephen's, Coleman Street, was probably nearly
Avery's '" ''* original condition at the date when it was
old described by Hopkins. It was built by Averyin 1775.
English At all events the following arrangements might very
•rgan. ^^gH j^^^^ been the original ones. The pedal clavier
without pipes is no doubt a subsequent addition, and is omitted.
Great.
Open diapason.
Stopped diapason.
Principal.
Twelfth.
Fifteenth.
Stopped diapason.
Principal.
Flute.
Open diapason.
Stopped diapason.
Principal.
Great and choir-
no GiS-
-Gi to e"
Choir.
Swell.
Compass.
Sesquialtera — III ranks.
Mi.xture — 11 ranks.
Trumpet.
Clarion.
Cornet to middle c — v ranks.
Fifteenth.
Cremona to tenor c.
Cornet — HI ranks.
Trumpet.
Hautboy.
Swell — fiddle g to e'"
This gives an excellent idea of the old English organ. There
are several different accounts of the introduction of pedals
into England. It took place certainly before the end of the
i8th century, but only in a few instances; and for long after
the usual arrangement was simjjly to provide a pedal
clavier, usually from F, or Gi to tenor c or d, which took '^"f°,'fj!^
down the notes of the great organ. Unison diapason
pipes (i2-ft.) were occasionally used. In one or two cases,
as in the transition states of the old organ at St George's, Windsor,
a 24-ft. open diapason was employed as well as the unison
stop. But a more usual arrangement, of a most objectionable
character, was to combine the Gj — c pedal-board with a single
octave of so-called pedal-pipes, extending from the i6-ft. to
the S-ft. C; so that, instead of a uniform progression in ascending
the scale, there was always a break or repetition in passing C.
About the middle of the igth century it began to be generally
admitted that the German arrangement of the pedal was the
better, and the practice gradually became general of providing
a complete pedal-board of 2^ octaves (C—/), with at least one
stop of i6-ft. tone throughout, even on the smallest organs
that pretended to be of any real use. The study of the classical
works of Bach and Mendelssohn went hand in hand with this
change; for that study was impossible without the change,
and yet the desire for the study was one of the principal
motives for it. In the meantime Bishop, an English builder,
had invented composition pedals, which so greatly faciUtate
dealing with groups of stops. About the same time (1850) the
mechanics of the organ were advanced by the general inl roduction
of the pneumatic lever into large instruments; the whole
mechanisrn of the organ was revolutionized by Willis's improve-
ments; and the organ-builders of England, having obtained
from the Continent the fundamental ideas necessary for com-
pleteness, advanced to a point at which they appear to have
been decidedly ahead.
In the early part of the last quarter of the 19th century,
the future of the English organ appeared to be one of great
promise. Much confidence was felt in the brilliant
combinations of Willis's mechanism. The employment Present
of electricity had reached a certain stage, and the ol-gans.
necessary fundamental mechanism, under the name of
the electro-pneumatic lever, was to be obtained in a practical
form. Several new devices were in the air, by means of which the
control of the various valves was accomplished by the action
of wind, traversing channels, with complete abolition of trackers,
and even of stop slides; and Willis's classical mechanisms,
including those for acting on stop slides pneumatically without
direct mechanical connexion between slide and handle, were
almost universally adopted in large organs. The delicate
device of pneumatic lever on pneum.atic lever, by which alone the
small electromagnetic impulses available could be made to do
heavy work, had obtained recognition. If there was an occasional
failure, it was thought to be no more than might be expected
with work of a novel and delicate character. And it was con-
fidently expected that these devices would, in time, with the
improvements associated with practical use, come to be reliable.
This expectation has not been realized. The objections to the
modern pneumatic, and still more to the electropneumatic
machinery, are of two kinds — noise and inefficiency.
Noise in the Key Action. — We take as the standard of comparison
the old tracker organ, without pneumatics. There was always a
certain amount of noise. Now, even in the best instruments of
Willis himself during his lifetime, and still more in the best instru-
ments of the present day, the noise of the key action is judged to
be as bad as in the old tracker organ. The pneumatics have to be
driven by a powerful wind; the consequence is they get home with
a knock.
Noise in the Stop Action. — If in a large instrument with pneumatic
drawstop action one of the compositions which affects several stops
is put in action, the movement of the stops is followed by a blow
like a hammer, which is caused by the pneumatics getting home
under the powerful force employed. This is much worse than any-
thing there was in the old organ.
Inefficiency in the Key Action ; Delay and Cyphering. — This chieflv
shows itself in delay, both at the depressing and at the recovery of
the key. Some of the causes are the size of the pneumatic bellows,
which takes time to fill and time to empty; and, ver>' often, defective
regulation of the valves. The regulation of the valves is an art
264
ORGAN
in itself, and it is often the case that the performance in this respect
can he greatly improved by going over the regulation. The test is
the possibility of executing shakes and repetitions. It is quite
common to find mechanism by the first organ-builders of the day
on which shakes or repetitions cannot be executed.
Pneumatic transmission is also specially liable to cause delay.
In divided organs the swell is usually on the far side from the keys,
and the pneumatic transmission tufws pass it under the floor. The
swell touch is then considerably worse than the great. In all cases
there must be some delay on account of the time the pulse takes to
traverse the transmission tube with the velocity of sound. And if a
pneumatic bellows has to be filled at the far end the delay will be
more. Some of the delay experienced in large buildings may be due
to the time taken in supplying the energy necessary for setting up
and maintaining the vibrations of the air in the building. This
should, however, have been the same with the old tracker action;
and the opinion of old players is unanimous that they never ex-
perienced anything of the land. The shake and repetition are the
only real tests so far as the action is concerned.
Inefficiency in the key action also takes the form of " cyphering,"
i.e. a note sticks down. With the old tracker organ this could gener-
ally be cured without much difficulty by working on the action,
and with the separate pneumatic lever something could be done.
But the modern types of elaborated action are entirely enclosed in
wind-chest and sound-board. It was always foreseen that these
types would be dangerous, unless they could be made quite perfect,
and they have not been made perfect. When a note sticks, there is no
way of curing it except to get at the inside of the wind-chest, or to
remove all the pipes belonging to the note. A case happened
recently where, during a performance on an organ by a first-rate
modern builder, two cypherings took place. To cure the first all
the pipes belonging to the note were removed. In the second the
last three pages of a Bach fugue were played with a note cyphering
all the time; and such cases are of frequent occurrence.
Inefficiency in the Slop Action. — In this case the power provided
is insufficient to move the stop slide. As there is no direct connexion
between slide and handle, nothing can be done but to get inside the
organ and move the slide by hand. A case has recently occurred
where an organ by a first-rate builder, in constant use, and perfectly
cared for, got one of the slides stuck while in use. The organ was
locked, so nothing could be done. The same happened to another
slide a couple of days later. It is also an everyday experience that
the pneumatic compositions are insufficient to move the stops;
sometimes they move the stops about halfway, when a sort of wail
is heard.
One practical result is — where an organ is not too large to be dealt
with by the old mechanical methods, there is much to be said for
adhering to them.
It seems worth while to mention two suggestions by which these
imperfections in large organs might be reduced to a minimum.
For blowing, motors for stop action, &c., the writer would suggest
the employment of the Armstrong hydraulic accumulator system, at a
pressure of say 600 lb on the square inch. The pumping of the system
would be done by external power (electricity, gas, oil or steam),
quite away from the building containing the organ. The blowing
would be done by the hydraulic system at a point near the organ.
The small hydraulic motors attached to the stop slides, swell, &c.,
might have almost infinite power and be perfectly noiseless. The
key-work should be pneumatic and should use Willis's floating lever.
The swell pedal should be hydraulic, with the floating lever, as also
the action of the back of the seat if employed for opening the swell.
The effect of the floating lever is that the movement of the work
corresponds exactly with the movement of the part connected with
key or pedal. The connexion w'ith the key would have a regulation
so that the lever would begin to move a little later than the key,
the regulation being adjusted by trial so as to give shakes and
repetitions.
The principle of the floating lever is the same as that of the steam
steering gear in ships. The control of the power is attached to the
floating centre. It is always such that the movement of the work
brings back the floating centre into its standard position, and it acts
like a fixed centre with added pow'er.
As to the general arrangement of the instrument, it is desired to
make two protests. Firstly, the organ chamber is a monstrosity.
Shutting up the organ in a confined space is simply throwing money
away. An organ of a quarter the size would do the work better
if not shut up in an organ chamber. Secondly, it has become
customary to separate the different parts of an organ, putting the
pipes of the pedal, great and swell perhaps in different places at a
distance from one another, and the soft choir organ, which should be
close to the singers, perhaps, as in one actual case, in a remote
position where it cannot be heard at all and is useless for accompani-
ment. The parts of an organ so dispersed will not give a tone which
blends into a whole. The practice is undesirable. The divided organ
with pneumatic or electric transmission is to be avoided for all reasons.
General Rem.^rks o:j Organ Treatment
The organ probably presents more difficulties then any other
instrument in the way of a sound elementary mastery. A
person of ordinary capacity may work at it for years before
being able to play passages of moderate difficulty with con-
fidence and correctness. The special difficulty appears to be
chiefly mental, and arises from the number of things that have
to be thought of simultaneously. It does not lie in the execution
— at least not chiefly; for to play a hymn-tune correctly, the
bass being taken with the pedals, the tenor with the left hand,
and the two upper parts with the right, is a matter in which
there is no execution required; but it is of great difficulty to
an inexperienced player. Other distributions of parts — such as
bass with pedals, treble with right hand on a solo stop (e.g.
clarinet), two inner parts with a soft open diapason, or some-
thing of the kind — are of much greater difficulty in the first
instance. Another distribution is bass with pedals, melody with
reed or solo combination in the tenor with left hand (an octave
below its true pitch), inner parts with right hand on a soft open
diapason, or something that balances. This is of far greater
difficulty, as it requires rearrangement of parts to avoid those
faults of inversion the avoidance of which is known as double
counterpoint. All this can be practised with common hymn-
tunes; but the performer who can do these things with ease
is in some respects an advanced player.
There is a natural gift, which may be called the polyphonic
ear-brain. It i.s possessed by (roughly) about one in fifty of
musical students, by students of the organ in much the largest
proportion, and probably by a much smaller proportion of the
unsifted population. For the polyphonic ear-brain these diffi-
culties have no existence, or take little trouble to surmount. It
consists of the power of hearing the notes of a combination simul-
taneously, each being heard as an ordinary person hears a single
note. When a composition is played or sung in parts, each
part is heard as a separate tune; and the effect is realized in a
manner quite difierent from the single melody with accom-
paniment, which is all that an ordinary person usually hears. ■
This is in many but not all cases associated with the rare 1
power of remembering permanently the actual pitch of notes
heard.
The observations made in the gth edition of this Encyclopaedia
on "Balance of tone" do not now call for the stress there laid
on them, as there is an improvement in this respect. But it is
still desirable to insist on the importance of balance in the
performance of organ trios such as the organ sonatas of Bach.
In these compositions there are generally three notes sounding,
which may be regarded as belonging to three different voices,
of nearly equal strength but different mean pitch, and, if possible,
different quality; of these one is appropriated by each hand
and one by the pedal. They are written in three lines, and are
intended to be played on two manuals and the pedal.
The fugues of Bach are the classical organ music par excellence.
As to these nothing has come down to us as to the composer's
intentions, except that he generally played the fugues on the
full organ with doubles. It does not seem clear that this was
the case with the preludes; and, any way, the modern organ,
with its facilities for managing the stops, appears to counten-
ance a different treatment. The effect of doubles when a subject
or tune is given out in solo on a manual is very bad. The doubles
may be drawn with advantage when the parts are moving in
massive chords. The usual practice is perhaps to employ various
manual effects of a light character until the pedal enters, and
then to produce full organ in its various modifications, but
alv,-ays to aim at variety of tone. If a prelude begins with heavy
chords and pedal, then produce full organ at once. If it then
passes to lighter matter, reduce to some extent. Some begin
a fugue on the stopped diapason of the great organ, add more
as the parts enter, and continue working up throughout. But
perhaps it is the better practice to throw in loud organ during
the pedal parts, and soften between times.
One of the greatest requisites in organ-playing is dignity of
treatment. This is continually competing with clearness. The
chief mode of keeping the different parts distinct, where that
is necessary, is by using reeds of a pronounced character. These
reeds sometimes verge on the comic, and anything more than
ORGAN
265
the most sparing and careful employment of them is undesirable.'
Expression is not possible unless the stops are enclosed in a
swell box — a most desirable arrangement. In all cases hurry
is to be avoided. A calm steadiness, a minute finish of all the
phrasing, forms most of the difiEerence between first- and second-
rate players.
With reference to the general treatment of modern music we
quote the preface to Mendelssohn's Organ Sonatas: " In these
sonatas very much depends on the correct choice of the stops;
but, since every organ with which I am acquainted requires
in this respect special treatment, the stops of given names not
producing the same effect in different instruments, I have only
indicated certain limits, without specifying the names of the
stops. By fortissimo I mean the full organ; by pianissimo
usually one soft 8-foot stop alone; by forte, full organ without
some of the most powerful stops; by piano, several soft S-foot
stops together; and so on. In the pedal I wish everywhere,
even in pianissimo, S-foot and 16-foot (tone) together, except
where the contrary is expressly indicated, as in the sixth sonata
[this refers to a passage where an 8-foot pedal is used without
16]. It is therefore left to the player to combine the stops suit-
ably for the different pieces, but particularly to sec that, in the
simultaneous use of two manuals, the one keyboard is distin-
guished from the other by its quality, without forming a glaring
contrast."
Importance is attached to the above directions as to single
stops. The habit of mixing up two or more stops unnecessarily
results in the loss of the characteristic qualities of tone which
reach their highest value in single stops.
A habit is prevalent of using couplers in excess. One hears
the swell coupled to the great during an entire service. The
characteristics of the two manuals, which, separated, lend them-
selves to such charming contrasts, are lost in the mixture, just
as the characteristics of single stops are lost when employed
in groups. It is common to see an English organist keep the
right foot on the swell pedal and hop about with the left on
the pedals. This cannot be called pedal-playing. Both feet
should be used, except where the swell pedal is actually required.
It is a common habit to hold a note down when it should be
repeated. It should be struck again when indicated. The
repetition is a relief to the ear.
The older organists commonly filled up their chords, striking
pretty nearly every concordant note within reach. The effect of
this was in many cases to destroy effects of parts, or effects of re-
straint leading to contrasts intended by the composer. There
is a well-known case of a cHmax about a line before the end of
Bach's " Passacaglia." Here there is a pause on a chord of four
notes; one low in the bass (pedal); two forming a major third
in the middle; and one high in the treble. Some players fill in
every concordant note within the reach of both hands. Others
consider the effect of Bach's four notes superior. The writer
thinks that the average listener prefers the full chord, and the
polyphonic hearer the thin arrangement of parts. Of course
the parts are lost if thick chords are used. Restraint in the
use of the pedal is also sometimes intended to lead up to a con-
trast which is lost if the pedal is introduced too soon.
Contrast and variety are essential elements in organ effects.
A suitable phrase repeated on solo stops of different characters;
a see-saw in a series of rhythmical chords between two manuals
of different characters — contrasts generally — are charming when
suitably employed. Phrasing we cannot describe here. It is
just as important in the organ as in any solo instrument, or in
song.
There has been a tendency to attempt too much in the imita-
tion of orchestral instruments. While such stops as good flutes
and good imitations of wind instruments have their value, the
imitation of stringed instruments and of the orchestra in general
' As some difficulty has been felt as to what is here meant, an
instance is given. The writer has heard a first-rate player oniphaf ize
the entrance of a chorale in the pedal (Mendelssohn's 3rd sonata in
A) by coupling the choir clarinet to the pedal. The effect was coarse
and disagreeable, and would have been ridiculous if it had not been
so ugly. It was clear, but not dignified.
is undesirable. The organ's own proper tones are unequalled,
and it is a pity to make it a mere caricature of the orchestra.
The writer has had the opportunity of inspecting two of the
installations known by the name of R. Hope-Jones; both under
the care of an able enthusiast in the matter, Mr CoUinson, of
Edinburgh. The Hope-Jones system consists of two parts:
a mechanism, and a system of i)ipe-work. These must be con-
sidered separately. The mechanism is entirely electric. One
example consisted of an application of this mechanism to a fine
organ by Willis. The conditions were as favourable as possible,
with temperature regulation and constant use. Yet even in
this case the contacts failed occasionally. The difficulty about
repetition appeared to have been entirely got over, the perform-
ance being satisfactory when the contact was in good order.
These contacts appear to be the weak part of the system. All the
mechanism, couplers and all, is worked by means of these con-
tacts. With the care which is taken no difficulty is found in
getting the arrangement to work in the case of the Willis instru-
ment. The system is very compKcated, with double touch
couplers throughout, by means of which a solo can be effected
on one manual by varying the pressure. The study of the
double touch appears very difficult. Stop handles are done away
with. They are replaced by rockers, the faces of which are about
the size of small railway tickets. The appearance is as if the
surface where the slop handles would be was plastered over with
these rockers. They turn on a horizontal axis through the middle,
and a touch of the finger at top or bottom opens or closes the
stop. The other instrument was Hope-Jones thoughout, pipes
and mechanism. The curator was the same as in the case of the
Willis instrument. But, the hall being little used, there was no
temperature regulation, and very httle use. The state of the
mechanism was inferior, the contacts failing freely. It could not
be regarded as an admissible mechanism from the writer's point
of view. As to the pipe-work, the effect was remarkable; but
it could not be regarded as genuine organ work, as the player
admitted. Our requirement in the matter of action is a perfectly
unfailing connexion between key and pipe. And in this respect
we adhere to a preference for the old tracker action, where
possible. Anything that leaves a possibility of failure in the
connexion we regard as inadmissible.
The writer desires to acknowledge his obligations to Sir Walter
Parratt for much assistance in the preparation of this article.
(R. H. M. B.)
History of the Ancient Organ.
The earliest authentic records of the organ itself do not extend
beyond the second century B.C., but the evolution of the instru-
ment from the Syrinx or Pan-pipe goes back to a remote period.
The hydrauHc and pneumatic organs of the ancients were
practically the same instrument, differing only in the method
adopted for the compression of the wind supply; in the former
this was effected by the weight of water, and in the latter by
the more primitive expedient of working the bellows by hand or
foot. What is known, therefore, of the evolution of the organ
before hydraulic power was applied to it is common to both
hydraulic and pneumatic organs. The organ of the ancients was
a simple contrivance, consisting, in order of evolution, of three
essential parts: (i) a sequence of pipes graduated in length
and made of reed, wood or bronze; (2) a contrivance for com-
pressing the wind and for supplying it to the pipes in order to
make them speak, the ends of such pipes as were required to be
silent being at first stopped by the fingers; and (3) a system for
enabling the performer to store the wind and to control the
distribution of the supply separately to the several pipes at will.
The pipes of the syrinx were the prototypes of No. i; the
bellows and the bag-pipe — which was but the application of the
former to the reed — foreshadowed No. 2. The third part of the
organ was composed of contrivances and common objects used
by carpenters, such as boxes having sliding lids running in
grooves, levers, &c.
It seems probable that the syrinx was recognized by the ancients
as the basis of the organ. Hero of Alexandria, in his description of
the hydraulic organ, calls it a syrinx. Philo of Alexandria (c.
200 B.C.), mentioning the invention of the hydraulis(us) by Ctesibius,
XX. 9 a
266
ORGAN
says, " the kind of syrinx played by hand which we call hydraulis."
The fact that the syrinx was an assemblage of independent stopped
pipes, which in their original condition could not be mechanically
blown, since the movable lip of the player used to direct the air
stream against the sharp edge of the open end of the pipe was a
necessity, is no bar to the suggested derivation. Wind projected
into a pipe can produce no musical sound unless the wind be first
compressed and the even flow of the stream be interrupted and
converted into a series of pulses. In order to produce these pulses
in an organ-pipe, it is necessary to make use of some such contrivance
as a reed, flute or whistle mouthpiece (g.f.).
In the earliest organs there is no doubt that the pipes consisted
of lengths of the large reed known as KaXafios used for the syrinx,
but converted into open flue-pipes. Instead of cutting off the reed
immediately under the knot, as for syrinx pipes, a little extra length
was left and shaped to a point to form a foot or mouthpiece, which
was placed over the aperture in the wind-chest, so that it caused the
stream of air to split in two as it was driven through the hole into the
pipe by the action of the bellows. A narrow fissure was made through
the knot near the front of the pipe, and above it a horizontal slic was
cut in the reed, the two edges being bevelled inwards. When the
wind was pumped into the chest it found an outlet through one of
the holes in the lid, and the current, being divided by the foot of the
pipe, became compressed and was forced through the fissure in the
knot. It then ascended the pipe in an even stream, as yet silent,
until thrown into commotion by another obstacle, the upper sharp
edge or lip of the notch, which produced the regular flutterings or
pulses requisite for the emission of a note. The very simplicity of
this process disposes of any difficulty in accepting the syrinx as an
important factor in the evolution of the organ. The conversion of
a syrinx pipe is, in fact, a simpler and more natural expedient than
the more elaborate construction of a wooden flue-pipe.
In order to convert the syrinx into a mechanically played instru-
ment, the addition of the actuating principle of the bag-pipe was
necessary. It is probable that in the earliest attempts the leather
bag was actually retained and that the supply of wind was still
furnished by the mouth through an insufflation pipe. Such an
instrument is described and illustrated by Father Athanasius
Kircher,'^ but his drawing should be accepted with reserve, as it was
probably only an effort of the imagination to illustrate the text.
In the instrument, which he calls the Magraketha or Mashrokitha
of the Chaldees, the bag is described as being inside the wind-chest,
the insufflation pipe being carried through a hole in the side of the
box. Little wooden sliders manipulated by the fingers formed a
primitive means of controlling the escape of the wind through any
given pipe.
We have two pottery figures of musicians playing on primitive
organs in the next stage of development, namely with bellows,
and a description in the Talmud. The quotation as given by
Blasius Ugolinus states that the instrument known as the Magrepha
d'Aruchin' " consisted, as theSchilte Haggiborim teaches, of several
rows of pipes and was blown by bellows. It had, besides, holes and
small sliders answering to each pipe, which were set in motion by
the pressure of the organist; the vent-holes being open, a wonderful
variety of sounds was produced." The spurious letter of St Jerome
to Dardanus might also be consulted in this connexion. At Tarsus
in Asia Minor pottery and coins dating from c. 200 B.C. were ex-
cavated by W. Burckhardt Barker,' and amongst them is the frag-
ment of a figure of a musician playing upon an instrument fastened
to his breast, and having seven pipes set in a rectangular wind-chest,
in the centre of which appear to be two bellows of unequal sizes.
Unfortunately both drawing and description are somewhat vague:
nevertheless, there is no room for doubt that this was an organ,
perhaps without sliders or keys, the pipes being stopped at the open
end, nearest the player's mouth, by the fingers, supposing that there
was only one bellows. Another piece of pottery from Tarsus, dis-
covered in 1852, during excavations carried out at Kusick-Kolah by
M. M. Mazvillier and V. Langlois,' and preserved in the Louvre,
shows the back of an organ having fifteen pipes. Two models of
organs of more recent date recall the construction of that found by
Mr Barker. One found in Chinese Turkestan on the site of ancient
Khotan* (fig. I) represents a musician holding the instrument to
his breast ; both hands seem to be pressing what might he bellows ;
and there are seven pipes below the bellows. The other instrument
(fig. 2) is of Roman origin, and forms part of the decoration on a
medallion on a yellow pottery vase, which was excavated at Orange
(Dauphine, France), and is now preserved in the collection of M.
Emilien Dumas de Sommieres. The subject represented in the
^ See Musurgia, bk. ii. ch. iv. § 3, p. 3.
' or Eruchin. Treatise XXXIII. of Babyl. Talmud. See Thesaurus
Antiquitatum Sacrarum (Venice, 1744-1769), xxxii. 11 and 21.
' See Lares and Penates (London, 1853), p. 260, fig. 69.
* See W. Froehner, Monuments antiques du niusee de France
(Paris, 1873), pi. 32; also Archives des missions scientifiques, iv.
64-67.
'See Ancient Khotan, detailed report of archaeological explorations
in Chinese Turkestan, carried out by H.M. Indian Government, by
Marc. Aurel Stein (Oxford, 1907), plate xliii.
medallion is an amphitheatre, and in the centre a pneumatic organ
with bellows is plainly visible (fig. 2).
This brings us to a point in the history of the organ when the
existence of the hydraulic organ can no longer be ignored. Some
writers consider that the invention of the hydraulis in the 2nd
century B.C. by Ctesibius' of Alexandria constitutes the invention
of the organ, and that the pneumatic organ followed as an improve-
nicnt or variety. Such an assertion would seem to be untenable
in the face of what has been said above. It is most improbable that
a rnan busy with the theory and practice of. hydraulics would invent
a highly complex musical
instrument in which
essential parts lying out-
side his realm, such as
the flue-pipes, the
balanced keyboard, the
arrangements within the
wind-chest for the dis-
tribution of the wind,
are all in a highly de-
veloped state ; it would
be a case for which no
parallel exists in the
history of musical instru-
ments, all of which have
evolved slowly and surely
through the ages. On
the other hand, given a
pneumatic organ in
which the primitive un-
weighted bellows worked
unsatisfactorily, an
engineer would be prornpt to see an opportunity for the advan-
tageous application of his art.
There are two detailed and duly accredited descriptions of the
hydraulis extant, both of which presuppose the existence of a pneu-
matic organ. One is in Greek by Hero of Alexandria,' said to be a
pupil of Ctesibius,' and the other in Latin by Vitruvius [De Arch.
lib. X. cap. ii.). In both accounts reference is made to drawings
now lost. Mr Woodcroft states that in each MS. the diagrams are
said to have been copied faithfully, and that on consulting four MSS.
and three early printed editions ' he found that the mechanical
parts in all agree essentially, and that it is only the case of the
organ and the arrangement of the pipes which vary according to the
fancy of the artist.
The principle of the hydraulis, which remained a complete mystery
until recently, is now well understood. Representations of Roman
hydraulic organs abound, but they were not always identified as
such.'" As the front of the organ (the performer sat or stood at the
back) was invariably represented, there had been no indication of
the manner in which the pipes were made to sound. A clue was
furnished by a little baked clay model of an hydraulus, and parts of
the perfornier, excavated in 1885 on the ruins of Carthage and now
preserved in the Musie Lavigerie, attached to the cathedral of S.
Louis of Carthage. This little clay model, measuring 7J5 in. by
2f in. (figs. 3 and 4), modelled by Possessoris, a potter working at
the beginning of the 2nd century a.d., whose name appears on the
front, below the ends of the sliders, is so accurately designed that
it tallies in every point with the description of the instrument by
Hero and Vitruvius. The number and relative sizes of the three
From Marc Aurel Stcis,
Atuient Khotan, by pennis-
sion of the Clarendon Press.
Fig. I.
From Orange.
Fig. 2. — Roman
Pneumatic Organ.
" Tertullian (De anima, 14) names Archimedes, which is probably
an error. See in this connexion Hermann Degering, who devotes
considerable space to the question, Die Orgel, ihre Erjindung und ihre
Geschichte (Muenster, 1905).
' See The Pneumatics of Hero of Alexandria, translated from the
original Greek by Bennett Woodcroft (London, 1851), with diagrams.
* Edward Buhle in Die musikalischen Instrumente in den Minia-
turen des friihen Mittelalters, pt. i. (Leipzig, 1903), p. 55. Note i
corrects this as an error, assigning Hero's activity to the beginning
of our era, in which case the description by Vitruvius would be the
earlier in spite of the fact that the hydraulus, as he describes it,
contains an improvement on that of Hero, i.e. registers, and two
pumps instead of one, and that he omits to explain the purpose for
which water is used. Buhle gives as his authority Diels, " Das
phys. System des Strabon," p. 291, in Berliner Monatsberichte (Feb.
1893)-
' For an exhaustive and careful compilation of these editions, J
and of the literature of the hydraulus generally, see Dr Charles I
Maclean's article, " The Principle of the Hydraulic Organ," Intern. '
Mus. Ges. Sbd. vi. 2, pp. 183-237; also John W. Warman, Biblio-
graphy of the Organ, who, however, takes the erroneous view that the
medieval editions of Vitruvius and Hero may be taken as evidence
that the instrument itself was in use until about the middle or end
of the 17th century. See Proc. Mus. Assoc. (1903-1904), p. 40.
^» The present_ writer was apparently the first in England to draw
attention to this identity by introducing the drawing from the
Utrecht Psalter and the model of the Carthage Organ, &c. See
Music (London, Sept. 1898), p. 438.
ORGAN
267
Fig. 3. — Pottery Model
of the Hydraulus — Car-
thage, c. A.D. 150.
Fig. 4.
Carthage, c. a.d. 150.
rows of pipes, gauged by the remains of the organist, give the
requisite compass for the production of the six Greek scales in use
at that date.' A working reproduction based on the proportions
of the remains of the organist, but at half scale for the sake of
portability (the real organ must have measured 10 ft. in height by
4.^- ft. in width),
was successfully
carried out l:iy the
Rev. F. W. Galpin
in I goo- I go I by
the help of photo-
graphs'^ and of the
te.xt of Vitruvius.
The principle of
the hydraulus is
simple. An in-
verted funnel, or
bell of metal,
standing on short
feet and immersc<i
in water within
the altar-like re-
ceptacle forming
the base or pede-
stal, communi-
cates by means of
a pipe, with the
wind-chest, placed
above it. When
the air is pumped
into the funnel by
the alternate action of two pumps, one on each side of the organ,
constructed bucket within bucket and fitted with valves, the water
retreating before the compressed air, rises in the receptacle and
by its weight holds the air in a state of compression in the
funnel, whence it travels through the pipe into the wind-chest.
The rest of the process is common also to the pneumatic organ.
As there are two pumps worked alternately, these conditions
remain unchanged, until by pressure on a key working a
slider under the apertures leading to the pipes, the compressed air
is afforded an exit through the latter, thus producing the desired
note.^ It will be seen, therefore, that water
acts on the air as a compressor exactly in the
same manner as lead weights are used on the
wind reservoir of modern pneumatic organs.
The discovery of the Carthage model was of
the greatest importance to the history of the
keyboard (q.v.), for it proved beyond a doubt
the use at the beginning of our era of balanced
keys (seen in front of the organist) on the
principle described by Vitruvius. What
appears to be a second keyboard with smaller
keys on the side of the hydraulus labelled
Possessoris (fig. 4) is simply the ends of the
sliders, which are pushed out or drawn in by
the action of the keys.
The principle of the hydraulus made it
possible to construct large organs of powerful
tone more suitable for use in the arena than
the small pneumatic instruments, but the
hydraulic organ never entirely supplanted the
pneumatic, which was probably not so im-
perfect at the beginning of our era as has been
thought, since it outlived the former and seems
to have differed from it only in the matter of
pressure. The hydraulus, on the other hand,
must have had many drawbacks, that of causing
damp in the instrument being of a serious
nature; it was also unwieldy and difficult to
carry about.
Of the pneumatic organ in portable and portative form,
traces have been found during the palmy days of the Roman
empire, and the art of organ-building, of which the organ in fig. 5
is an example, never seems to have quite died out during the
decline of classic Rome and the dawn of Western civilization.
This illustration is derived from a 4th- or 5th-century slab in the
church of St Paul extra miiros at Rome. It is evident that the
hydraulic organ was widely known and used in the East during
the early centuries of our era, but it never won a footing in the
^ See Anonymi scriptio de musica, ed. Bellermann, p. 35.
"See " Notes on a Roman Hydraulus," Reliquary (igo4); also
the writer's " Researches into the Origin of the Organs of the
Ancients " in Intern. Mus. Ges., Sbd. ii. 2, pp. 167-202 (Leipzig,
1901), and Proc. Mus. Assoc. (1903-1904), pp. 54-55.
' For a more complete explanation of the action of the hydraulus,
with diagrams, see Victor Loret, Revue archcol. (Paris, 1890);
W. Chappell, History 0} Music (London, 1874), pp. 325-361.
From the Church of
St Paul extra nturos,
Rome. 4th or 5th cent.
A.D.
Fig. 5.
West, although a few solitary specimens found their way into the
palaces of kings and princes. On account of its association with
t.he theatre, gladiatorial combats and pagan amusements of
corrupt Rome, it was placed under a ban by the Church. The
ignorance and misinformation displayed on the subject by writers
and miniaturists of the early and late middle ages leave no room
for doubt that the instrument itself was unknown to them except
from hearsay.
Venice seems to have been famed for its organ-ljuilders during
the 9th century, for Louis le Debonnaire (778-840) sent there,
it is recorded, for a certain monk, Georgius Benevento,'* to con-
struct an hydraulic organ for his palace at Aix-la-Chapelle.
No progress in the art of organ-building is recorded until the
use of organs in the churches had long been established. The
recognition of the value of the organ in Christian worship proved an
incentive which led to the rapid development of the instrument.
In France and Germany the Romans must have used organs
and have introduced them to the conquered tribes as they did
in Spain, but the art of making them was soon lost after Roman
influence and civilization were withdrawn. Pippin, when he
wished to introduce the Roman ritual into the churches of
France, felt the need of an organ and applied to the Byzantine
emperor, Constantine Copronymus, to send him one, which
arrived by special embassy in 757 and was placed in the church
of St Corneille at Compiegne; the arrival of this organ was
obviously considered a great event; it is mentioned by all the
chroniclers of his reign. Charlemagne received a similar present
from the emperor of the East in 812, of which a description has
been preserved.^ The bellows were of hide, the pipes of bronze;
its tone was as loud as thunder and as sweet as that of lyre and
psaltery. This organ must have had registers like those of the
hydraulus of Vitruvius and the portative from Pompeii. In 826
we hear that his son Louis le Debonnaire obtained a pneumatic
organ for the church at Aix-la-Chapelle, not to be confounded with
the hydraulus installed in his palace.
The statement that the organ was introduced into the Roman
Church by Pope Vitalian at the end of the 7th century, which
has been generally accepted, is rejected by Buhle^ on the ground
of insufficient proof. There is abundant evidence to show that
the organ had taken its place in the churches in the loth century,
not only in England but in Germany, where the construction by
monks had become so general that we find no fewer than three
treatises on organ-building' written by monks, followed by three
more in the nth century.* i
Considerable activity was displayed in England in the 10th
century in organ-building on a large scale for churches and
monasteries, such as the monster organ for Bishop Alphege at
Winchester, which had 400 bronze pipes, 26 bellows and 2
manuals of 20 keys, each governing 10 pipes.' There is also the
elaborate organ presented by St Dunstan to his monastery at
Malmesbury.'"
' " Vita Hludovici Imperatoris," Mon. Germ. ii. pp. 629-630;
see also Buhle, op. cit. p. 58, note 4, where fuller references are
given.
' Gesta Karoli Monachi Sangallensis, lib. ii. cap. x. p. 751.
' Op. cit. p. 61, note 2, where the evidence is carefully sifted.
' (i) by Notker of St Gallen (see Hattemer, Denkmdler, Bd. iii.
pp. 568 seq.; Hugo Riemann, Studien Z. Gesch. der Notenschrift,
pp. 297 seq.; Martin Gerbert, i. pp. 100 seq. (2) By Bernelinius
(see Gerbert, i. pp. 318 and 325). The third is an anonymous gth-
century tract, the earliest of all, De mensura fistularum, giving only
the proportions of organ pipes. MS. Lat. 12949 fol. 43". Paris Bibl.
Nat. reproduced by Buhle, op. cit. p. 104 (Latin only).
' (i) De fistulis organicis, introduced in a MS. copy of Mart. Cap.
by a Bernese monk; see A. Schubiger, Musikal. Spicilegien, pp. 82
seq. Reproduced also by Buhle, op. cit. Beilage iv. pp. 1 14-116,
collated with a German translation. (2) Theophilus, De divers,
artibus, edited and translated into English by Robert Hendrie
(London, 1847); reproduced by Buhle, op. cit. Beilage iii. pp. 105
seq., Latin and German collated, who gives the title as Schedula
artium. (3) Tractatus de mensura fistularum, by Bishop Eberhard
of Freising. Martin Gerbert, op. cit. ii. pp. 279-281.
' See Wolstani, monachi Ventani, De Vita S. Swithuni; Cousse-
maker, " Essai sur les instruments de musique du moyen-&ge," in
Ann. Archcol., iii. pp. 281-282.
'"William of Malmesbury, Cest. Pontif., lib. v.
268
ORGANISTRUM
From the Bible of St Etienne Harding at Dijon. 1 2tli cent.
Fig. 6.
Earl Elwin gave money " Iriginta libras " to the monastery at
Ramsay for copper pipes for a great pneumatic organ to be played
on high days and holidays.'
The great activity recorded in the 12th and 13th centuries in
Germany is probably due to the influence and teaching of
Byzantine masters
during the gth cen-
tury. Pope John
VIII. (872-8S0) ap-
plied to Bishop Anno
of Freising to send
him an organ and an
organist.^ Organs
were installed in
Cologne (loth cen-
tury) , in Halberstadt,
in Erfurt, in Augs-
burg, Weltenburg
(nth century); in
Utrecht, Constance,
Petershausen (12th
century) ; Peters-
berg, Cologne Cathedral, 13th century.^ The rest of the
literary and archaeological material — treatises, monuments,
miniatures — available during the later middle ages yields
very scant authenticated information as to the progressive
steps which Lie between the 12th-
century organ as described by
Theophilus and the large church
organs of the days of Praetorius ■*
(1618).
The keyboard is the principal feature
concerning which miniatures offer any
evidence. Here and there a 13th-
century miniature gives a hint of
balanced keys on small portative
organs which already abound during
that and the next century. The
^^ Bernese monk in his treatise on the
Brit. Mus. Coiton MSS. Tiberius ?''S\"' *« ^^^ich reference w-as made
A vii. foL 104b. 14th century. '" the note above, clearly describes
pjg _ balanced keys, depressa lamina,
'' pressed down, not pulled out, as were
those mentioned by Theophilus; his description conforms strictly
with that of Hero, which suggests that he was borrowing from
classical authorities rather than describing an actual instrument
with which he was well acquainted, an expedient to which
Brit. Mus. Add, MS, 27695. 14th century.
Fig. 8.
many medieval writers had recourse. In the 14th-century minia-
tures, balanced keys are general for the larger portable organs.
The adoption of narrower keys in the larger organs may no
doubt be traced to the influence of the portatives, in which they in
' Vita S. Oswaldi: see Mabillon Acta S. scl. v. p. 756.
^ See Baluze, Miscell. v. p. 490.
' Buhle {op. cit.) gives a list with quotations from authorities;
see pp. 66 and 67.
* See IVIichael Praetorius Syntagma Musicum (Wolfenbiittel, 1618).
most cases resemble the white keys of the modern pianoforte. There
is no miniature on record in which the fist action on the keys is
indicated, the performer during the loth, nth and 12th centuries
being depicted in the act of drawing out the stop-like sliders — as for
instance, in the 12th-century manuscript Bible of St Etienne Harding
at Dijon "^ (fig. 6), where the organist is playing the notes D and F, the
sliders being lettered from C to C. From the 13th century the keys
are shown pressed down by means of one finger or of finger and
thumb (fig. 7). In the beautiful Spanish MS. said to have been
compiled for Alphonso XII. (c. 1237),
known as the Cantigas de Santa Maria,
a portative is shown having balanced
keys, one of which is being lightly pressed
by the thumb, the instrument resting on
the palm — while the left hand manipu-
lates the bellows.
The keys themselves varied in shape,
being either like a T; a wide rectangle,
with or without the corners rounded off,
or a narrow rectangle. The earliest in-
stance of chromatic keyboard is that of
the organ at Halberstadt' built in 1 36 1
and restored in 1495. An inscription on
the keyboard states that it formed part
of the original organ, which had the
semitonal arrangement of keys.'
It must not, however, be inferred from
these isolated cases that balanced keys
were general from the 13th century, nor
that the chromatic keys were common in
the 14th. The St Cecilia in the altar-
piece in Ghent by the brothers Hubert
and Jan van Eyck (15th cent.) is repre-
BriL Mus. .Add. MS. 2900a,
lo\. 6. 14th century.
Fig. 9.
sented as playing upon an organ with a modern-looking keyboard.
A picture by Fra Angelico (15th cent.) in the National Gallery
shows a portative with accidentals. It will probably be found
that the earliest development of the organ took place in Germany
and in the Netherlands. (K. S.)
ORGANISTRUM, the medieval Latin name for the earliest
known form of the hurdy-gurdy (q.v.). The organistrum was
large enough to rest on the knees of two performers sitting side
by side, one of whom turned the crank setting the wheel in
motion, while the other, the artist, manipulated the keys. The
word organistrum is derived from organum and instritmentum;
the former term was applied to the primitive harmonies, con-
sisting of octaves accompanied by fourths or fifths, first practised
by Hucbald in the loth century. This explanation enables
us to fix with tolerable certainty the date of the invention of
the organistrum, at the end of the loth or beginning of the nth
century, and also to understand the construction of the instru-
ment. A stringed instrument of the period — such as a guitar-
fiddle, a rotta or oval vielle — being used as model, the proportions
were increased for the convenience of holding the instrument and
of dividing' the performance between two persons. Inside the
body was the wheel, having a tire of leather well rosined, and
working easily through an aperture in the sound-board. The
three strings resting on the wheel and supported besides on a
bridge of the same height aU sounded at once as the wheel
revolved, and in the earliest examples the wooden tangents
taking the place of fingers on the frets of the neck acted upon
all three strings at once, thus producing the harmony known
as organum.
The organistrum appears on a bas-relief from the abbey of St
Georges de Boscherville (nth cent.), now preserved in the museum
of Rouen, where it is played by a royal lady, her maid turning the
crank. It has the place of honour in the centre of the band of
musicians representing the twenty-four elders of the Apocalypse
in the tympanum of the Gate of Glory of the cathedral of Santiago
da Compostella (12th cent.). There is also a fine example in a
miniature of a psalter of English workmanship (12th cent.), forming
part of the Hunterian collection in Glasgow University; this was
shown at the Exhibition of Illuminated MSS. at the Burlington
Fine Arts Club in 1908. (K. S.)
' See also for other organs with sliders being drawn out, A. Haseloff,
Eine Sdchsischthilringische Malerschule um die Wende des XIII.
Jahrh., pi. xxvi. No. 57, part of Studien zu der Kunstgeschichte;
the same is reproduced in Gori's Thesaurus diptychorum, Bd. iii.
Tab. 16, where it is falsely ascribed to the 9th century.
' Praetorius mentions the Halberstadt and Erfurt organs as having
been built 600 years before his time (1618), and still bearing on them
the date inscribed. See op. cit. p. 93.
' See A. J. Hipkins, History of the Pianoforte (London, 1896).
OJ'cGANON— ORIENTATION
26g
ORGANON (Gr. opjavov instrume^^ ^^^^ .,^^^^ ^^^k),
the name given to Aristot e s logical ^^^^^-^^^^^ ^hey are so
called because logic is itself neither a j^^;^^ ^^i^.,^^,^ j^^r a
practical art in the ordinary sense, ;)^^^^ ^^ ^j^ ^^ instrument
to aU scientific thought. Francis '^^^^^^ regarding the Aris-
totelian logic as he understood it aF^ ^^ ^^ ^^^jj , ^^ ^j^ ^^^
treatise the name A^owm Orgam .^^ ^j^^ j^^ji^f ^j^^^ l,^ ^ad
discovered a new mductive logic .^hich would lead necessarily
to the acquisition of new scienf.^^ knowledge. Compare also
Whewell's Novum Or gamun R t^^„, a„d Lambert's Ncucs
Organon. In medieval music t ^^^^^ ^^^ ^ppj;^^ j^ ^ ^i^^^il^r
sense to early attempts at im ^ ^^.^^^ counterpoint i.e. a part
sung as an accompaniment ab ^^^ ^^ ^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^ pl^i„.
song; It consisted of 8ths ^ j^^ ^^^ ^^1^^) ^^^^^ to the
plainsong. ^
ORGY (through French fr'*- ,. . ■ r-^ x«,,.„ in Hnrivn
^ ^ j,jm Lat. orgia, Or. op7ta, m deriva-
tion connected probably Wfi^^^ ^^^^ ^^ Lat. o^-mrf, to
sacrifice), a term ongmall- ^^j;^^. ^j^^ ^^„^t ^jt^.^ „^ ^„^.
nionies connected with the-^^^^^j^ ^^ ^^^^^j^ j^iti^^_ especially
those of Dionysus-Baccht;^ ^^^^ Dionysiac orgies, which were
restricted to women, wer'^ celebrated in the winter among the
Thracian hills or m spoft ^^^^^^ j^^^ ^; ^{^ ^he women
met, clad in f awn-skins,t • ^.^^^ j^^.^ dishevelled, swinging the
thyrsus and beating t\-> ^^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^^
themselves up to a stat^. ^^ ^^^ excitement. The holiest rites
took place at night by t^^^^ ^^ ^^^^^^^^ ^ ^^^^ t^e repre-
sentative of the god, ^ ^J^ .^ ^ tj^^^ ^3 Dionysus-
Zagreus had been torre j^.^ beUowing reproduced the cries of
the suffering god. W ' ^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^^ ^ith their teeth,
and the eatmgof the ^ ^^^^ ^^ ^ necessary part of the ritual.
Some further ntes wb-e ^^^.^^ .^ ^^^^^^^^ ^j^t^i^t^^ represented
the resurrection of th^ .^^ ^j^^ O^ ^^^^t Parnassus
the women earned Ua-S^ Dionysus-Licnites, the chUd cradled
in the winnowing f^ia^ ^^^ J^^^ ^^^^^^ j^^tj^^l ^f ^^e kind
was the rpterw^s ce^ ^^^^^ed every second winter on Parnassus
by the women of At ^^.^^ ^^^ pj^^>.^ ^j^^ celebrants were caUed
Maenads or Bacchate^_ The ecstatic enthusiasm of the Thracian
women KXco6co.«^r ^ .^^ ^^^^ especially distinguished.
The wild dances, ^^ ''^.^^^^ and other "orgiastic" cere-
monies which were- ^if^;acteristic of these rites have given rise
ORIA a town och^us and Mystery).
ORIA. a town o^(. ^^ .^ ^^^ province of Lecce, 25 m.
E. of raranto an j P^ ^^/^^ g^.^^^j^j ^^ ^^ij_ ^^^ j^ ^^ove
Urk Ihe chief to ir^POi), 8838. It occupies the site of the ancient
una, me cniei ^^ ^j ^-^^ SaUentini, which stood in a command-
ing position m tPg ^ ^^^^^^ ^j ^^^ peninsula of the ancient Calabria
\1fv- T ™ wdway between Brundusium and Tarentum on
iW^i^^^^^'- \. Strabo mentions that he saw there the old palace
smaUmuseum' ^^ kings (vi. 3. 6, p. 282). The town contains a
T^e D^ria fa^inand a fine castle of Frederick II., erected m 1227.
ine i.;ona lam^ ^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^ .^ ^^j^ to derive its name
Fre'dpWrk^ ^o'ec' Tommaso d'Oria, who led the rebeUion against
. " I; n Manfred. Much damage was done by a cyclone
in lo'jo.
f^'^^'.J?''-, OUEEBI, the local name of a smaU South African
^nH rhprnrtrv'^a scoparia), standing about 24 in. at the shoulder,
h I wthr^nrP rized by the presence of a bare glandular spot
oeiow «e eare ^ ^^^ upright horns of the bucks, which are ringed
wh,Vh thftph istance above the face, and the tufted bushy tail, of
To inrliX t lii ™inal two-thirds are black. The name is extended
Ah!,c^ n;,n ih-ie other members of the same genus, such as the
Rr;H=h F^ihn.C montana; the Gambian, O. nigricandata; the
plu^si Vf' African, O. haggardi; and the Mozambique, O.
ORIEL Jfre)
wn« thP \ar. \M^ FOSTER, Baron (174=^1828), Irish politician,
was return" 3 °f ^^^hony Foster of Louth, an Irish judge. He
mark in finm^ ^'^ ^^'^ -^"^^ parliament in 1761, and made his
rhanrpllnr n^nincial and Commercial questions, being appointed
bounties on rf ^^^ ^"^^ exchequer in 1784. His law giving
on its imnored ^^'^ exportation of corn and imposing heavy taxes
-tation is noted by Lecky as responsible for making
Ireland an arable instead of a pasture country. In i785hc became
Speaker. He opposed the Union, and ultimately refused to
surrender the Speaker's mace, which was kept by his family.
He was returned to the united parliament, and in 1804 became
chancellor of the Irish exchequer under Pitt. In 182 1 he was
created a peer of the United Kingdom as Baron Oriel of Ferrard
in the county of Louth, and died on the 23rd of August 1828.
His wife (d. 1824) had in 1790 been created an Irish peeress,
as Baroness Oriel, and in 1707 Viscountess Ferrard; and their
son , Thomas Henry (d. 1 843) , who married Viscountess Massereene
(in her own right) and took the name of Shefiington, inherited
all these titles; the later Viscounts Massereene being their
descendants.
ORIEL, in architecture, a projecting bay window on an upper
storey, which is carried by corbels or mouldings. It is usually
polygonal or semicircular in plan, but at Oxford in some of the
colleges there are examples which are rectangular and rise
through two or three storeys. In Germany it forms a favourite
feature, and is sometimes placed at the angle of a building,
carried up through two or three floors and covered with a loity
roof. The oriel is also said to have been provided as a recess
for an altar in an oratory or small chapel. In the 1 5th century
oriels came into general use, and arc frequently found over
entrance gateways.
The origin of the word is unknown. The suggested derivation
from Lat. aureolum, with the supposed meaning of a gilded
chamber or room, is not, according to the New English Dictionary,
borne out by any historical evidence, and early French forms
— such as eurieul — do not point to an origin in a word beginning
with aic. Du Cange (Glossarium, s.v. Orioluni) quotes Matthew
of Paris (1251, Vitac Abbatum S. Albani): adjacet atrium nobilis-
siniiim in introiiu, quod porticus vcl Oriolum appcllatur; and also
a French use of 1338, where a licence to build an oriol is granted
to one Jehan Bourgos. The earliest meaning seems to be a
gallery, portico or corridor, and the application of the term to
a particular form of window apparently arose from such a window
being in an "oriel." In ComwaU " orrel" is still used of a
balcony or porch at the head of an outside staircase leading to
an upper story in a fisherman's cottage. The name of Oriel
College, at Oxford, comes from a tenement known as Seneschal
Hall or La Oriole, and granted to the college in 1327. There
is no trace of the reason why the tenement was so called, but it
would seem that it referred to one of the earlier applications of
the word, to a gallery or porch, rather than to a window.
ORIENTATION, the term in architecture given to the position
of a building generally with reference to the points of the com-
pass, and more especially (as the word implies) to that of the
East. It would seem that 5ome of the Egyptian temples were
orientated in the direction of the sun or of some selected star, the
exact position of which on some particular day would be an
indication to the priest of the exact time of the year— a matter
of great importance in an agricultural country, when the calendar
was not known. The orientation of Greek temples has enabled
astronomers to calculate the dates of the foundation of early
temples, allowance being made for the gradual changes which in
the course of centuries had taken place in the precession of the
equinox. The principal front of the Greek temple always faced
east; and the rays of the rising sun, passing through the great
doorway of the naos, lighted up the statue at the further end, this
being the only occasion on which the people who came to witness
the event were able to gaze on the sculptured figure of the deity.
In early Christian architecture, in the five first basihcas built by
Constantine, the apse of the church was at the west end, and the
priest, standing behind the altar, faced the east; this orientation
being probably derived from that of the church of the Holy
Sepulchre at Jerusalem and the church at Bethlehem. Three-
fourths of the early churches in Rome followed this orientation,
but in many it was reversed at a later date. In Sta. Sophia.
Constantinople, and all the Byzantine churches, the apse was
always at the east end, and the same custom obtains in the early
churches in Syria and the Coptic churches in Egypt.
In Spain, Germany and England generally the eastern
270
ORIENTE— ORIGEN
orientation is generally observed, but in France and Italy
there are many variations. In Scotland it was the custom to
fix a pole in the ground over night, and in the morning
at sunrise to note the direction taken by the shadow of
the pole, which was followed when setting out the axis of the
choir; if such a custom had been followed in an early church,
when setting out another of later date there should be some
difiference in the orientation of the two, on account of the varia-
tion of the obliquity of the ecliptic in the interval, and this in
some cases accounts for the change of the axial line v/hich is
found in some churches, either when the east end has been
rebuilt, as was constantly the case throughout Europe, or when
a nave has been added to an earlier structure. In describing
churches it is usual to use the terms east, west, north and south,
on the assumption that the altar is at the east end, although this
may not be the real bearing of the edifice.
Indirectly also the term is sometimes used in the planning of
houses and the relation of the windows of the various rooms to
the sunshine and the weather — in other words, to the points of
the compass; thus an eastward aspect should be provided for
the morning- and dining-rooms, a south-western aspect for the
drawing-room, a westward for the library, and north by west for
the kitchen, larder, &c. (R. P. S.)
ORIENTE, OR La Region Orjentale, a large undefined
territory of Ecuador, comprising all that part of the republic
lying east of the Andes. Pop. (18S7 estimate), 80,000. The
territory was formed in 1884 from the older territories of Napo,
Canelos and Zamora, but its boundaries with the neighbouring
republics of Colombia and Peru are disputed. The territory is
covered with great forests, inhabited by wild Indians, and its
climate is hot and exceptionally humid. There are some mission
settlements and trading stations in the Andean foothills and on
some of the river courses, one of which is Archidona, on a small
tributary of the Napo, which is the nominal capital.
ORIGEN (c. i8s-c. 254), the most distinguished and most
influential of all the theologians of the ancient church, with the
possible exception of Augustine. He is the father of the church's
science; he is the founder of a theology which was brought to
perfection in the 4th and 5th centuries, and which still retained
the stamp of his genius when in the 6th century it disowned its
author. It was Origen who created the dogmatic of the church
and laid the foundations of the scientific criticism of the Old and
New Testaments. He could not have been what he was unless
two generations before him had laboured at the problem of
finding an intellectual expression and a philosophic basis for
Christianity (Justin, Tatian, Athenagoras, Pantaenus, Clement).
But their attempts, in comparison with his, are like a schoolboy's
essays beside the finished work of a master. Like all great
epoch-making personalities, he was favoured by the circum-
stances of his life, notwithstanding the relentless persecution
to which he was exposed. He lived in a time when the Christian
communities enjoyed almost uninterrupted peace and held an
acknowledged position in the world. By proclaiming the
reconciliation of science with the Christian faith, of the highest
culture with the Gospel, Origen did more than any other man to
win the Old World to the Christian religion. But he entered into
no diplomatic compromises; it was his deepest and most
solemn conviction that the sacredoracles of Christendom embraced
all the ideals of antiquity. His character was as transparent as
his life was blameless; there are few church fathers whose
biography leaves so pure an impression on the reader. The
atmosphere around him was a dangerous one for a philosopher
and theologian to breathe, but he kept his spiritual health un-
impaired, and even his sense of truth suffered less injury than
was the case with most of his contemporaries. To us, indeed,
his conception of the universe, like that of Philo, seems a strange
medley, and one may be at a loss to conceive how he could bring
together such heterogeneous elements; but there is no reason to
doubt that the harmony of all the essential parts of his system
was obvious enough to himself. It is true that in addressing the
Christian people he used different language from that which he
employed to the cultured; but there was no dissimulation in
that— on the contrary',\e v'it was a requirem.ent of his system.
Orthodox theology has ri^o'ever, in any of the confessions, ventured
beyond the circle which IT *he mind of Origen first measured out.
It has suspected and amj^^"ded its author, it has expunged his
heresies; but whether it haS°"oP"t anything better or more tenable
in their place may be gravelt f questioned.
Origen was born, perhaps aV .t Alexandria, of Christian parents
in the year 185 or 186. As a bv" ^y he showed evidence of remark-
able talents, and his father L^^eonidas gave him an excellent
education. At a very early age,\ fcil^out the year 200, he listened to
the lectures of Pantaenus and ClV -ment in the catechetical school.
This school, of which the origin (tf^'iough assigned to Athenagoras)
is unknown, was the first and for a ' long time the only institution
where Christians were instructed sisimultaneously in the Greek
sciences and the doctrines of the '^holy Scriptures. Alexandria
had been, since the days of the Ptol^^^'^mies, a centre for the inter-
change of ideas between East and Wat'^st — between Egypt, Syria,
Greece and Italy; and, as it had iiiurnished Judaism with an
Hellenic philosophy, so it also brou' 'ght about the alliance of
Christianity with Greek philosophy. ""^j^Asia Minor and the West
developed the strict ecclesiastical forn is by means of which the
church closed her lines against hea>nthenism, and especially
against heresy; in .Alexandria Christiyan ideas were handled in
a free and speculative fashion and wor?^ked out with the help of
Greek philosophy. Till near the end of-, the 2nd century the line
between heresy and orthodoxy was less it 'igidly drawn there than
at Ephesus, Lyons, Rome or Carthag' i- In the year 202 a
persecution arose, in which the fathe'^lr of Origen became a
martyr, and the family lost their liveliho- ^od. Origen, who had
distinguished himself by his intrepid zeairl. was supported for a
time by a lady of rank, but began i. vbout the same time
to earn his bread by teaching; and in\ 203 he was placed,
with the sanction of the bishop Demetriu, 5, at the head of the
catechetical school. Even then his attain fnients in the whole
circle of the sciences were extraordinary, t But the spirit of
investigation impelled him to devote hin>i'self to the highest
studies, philosophy and the exegesis of thfz^ sacred Scriptures.
With indomitable perseverance he applied'} himself to these
subjects; although himself a teacher, he regr'^tl^rly attended the
lectures of Ammonias Saccas, and made a the 'rough study of the
books of Plato and Numenius, of the Stoics and the Pythagoreans.
At the same time he endeavoured to acquict'e ^ knowledge of
Hebrew, in order to be able to read the Old uTestament in the
original. His manner of life was ascetic; ti^s sayings of the
Sermon on the Mount and the practical masiims of the Stoics
were his guiding stars. Four oboli a day, eaifned by copying
manuscripts, sufficed for his bodily sustenance.e A rash resolve
led him to mutilate himself that he might escap e from the lusts
of the flesh, and work unhindered in the insotruction of the
female sex. This step he afterwards regretted. ) As the attend-
ance at his classes continually increased — pap^ans thronging
to him as well as Christians — he handed over tlvje beginners to
his friend Heracles, and took charge of the more aa^vanced pupils
himself. Meanwhile the literary activity of Origen nwas increasing
year by year. He commenced his great work on the textual
criticism of the Scriptures; and at the instigatioii of his friend
Ambrosius, who provided him with the necessan,'-' amanuenses,
he published his commentaries on the Old Tt^stament and
his dogmatic investigations. In this manner he' laboured at
Alexandria for twenty-eight years (till 231-232). t This period,
however, was broken by many journeys, undertaken partly for
scientific and partly for ecclesiastical objects. W,e know that
he was in Rome in the time of Zephyrinus, agairi in Arabia,
where a Roman official wanted to hear his lectures, and in
Antioch, in response to a most flattering invitation from Julia
Mammaea (mother of Alexander Severus, afterwar'ds emperor),
who wished to become acquainted with his philosophy. In the
year 216 — the time when the imperial executioners were ravaging
Alexandria — we find Origen in Palestine. There tlie bi.shops of
Jerusalem and Caesarea received him in the most f rieTidly manner,
and got him to deliver public lectures in the churches. In the
East, especially in Asia Minor, it was still no unust^al thing for
ORIGEN
271
laymen, with permission of the bishop, to address the people in the
church. In Alexandria, however, this custom had been given
up, and Demetrius tooli occasion to express his disapproval and
recall Origen to Alexandria. Probably the bishop was jealous of
the high reputation of the teacher; and a coolness arose between
them which led, fifteen years later, to an open rupture. On his
way to Greece (apparently in the year 230) Origen was ordained
a presbyter in Palestine by his friends the bishops. This was
undoubtedly an infringement of the rights of the Alexandrian
bishop; at the same time it was simply a piece of spile on the part
of the latter that had kept Origen so long without any ecclesi-
astical consecration. Demetrius convened a synod, at which it
was resolved to banish Origen from Alexandria. Even this did
not satisfy his displeasure. A second synod, composed entirely
of bishops, determined that Origen must be deposed from the
presbyterial status. This decision was communicated to the
foreign churches, and seems to have been justified by referring
to the self-mutilation of Origen and adducing objectionable
doctrines which he was said to have promulgated. The details
of the incident are, however, unfortunately very obscure. No
formal excommunication of Origen appears to have been decreed;
it was considered sulticient to have him degraded to the position
of a layman. The sentence was approved by most of the
churches, in particular by that of Rome. At a later period
Origen sought to vindicate his teaching in a letter to the Roman
bishop Fabian, but, it would seem, without success. Even
Heracles, his former friend and sharer of his views, took part
against him; and by this means he procured his own election
shortly afterwards as successor to Demetrius.
In these circumstances Origen thought it best voluntarily to
retire from Alexandria (231-232). He betook himself to Palestine,
where his condemnation had not been acknowledged by the
churches any more than it had been in Phoenicia, Arabia and
.\chaea. He settled in Caesarea, and very shortly he had
a flourishing school there, whose reputation rivalled that of
Alexandria. His literary work, too, was prosecuted with
unabated vigour. Enthusiastic pupils sat at his feet (see the
Panegyric of Gregory Thaumaturgus), and the methodical
instruction which he imparted in all branches of knowledge was
famous all over the East. Here again his activity as a teacher
was interrupted by frequent journeys. Thus he was for two
years together at Caesarea in Cappadocia, where he was over-
taken by the Maximinian persecution; here he worked at his
recension of the Bible. We find him again in Nicomedia, in
Athens, and twice in Arabia. He was called there to combat the
unitarian christology of Beryllus, bishop of Bostra, and to clear
up certain eschatological questions. As he had formerly had
dealings with the house of Alexander Severus, so now he entered
into a correspondence with the emperor Philip the Arabian and
his wife Severa. But through aU situations of his life he pre-
served his equanimity, his keen interest in science, and his
indefatigable zeal for the instruction of others. In the, year 250
the Decian persecution broke out, Origen was arrested, imprisoned
and maltreated. But he survived these troubles — it is a mahcious
invention that he recanted during the persecution — and lived a
few years longer in active intercourse with his friends. He died,
probably in the year 254 (consequently under Valerian), at Tyre,
where his grave was still shown in the middle ages.
Writings. — Origen is probably the most prolific author of the
ancient church. " Which of us," asks Jerome, " can read all
that he has written?" The number of his works was estimated
at 6000, but that is certainly an exaggeration. Owing to the
increasing unpopularity of Origen in the church, a comparatively
small portion of these works have come down to us in the original.
We have more in the Latin translation of Rufinus; but this
translation in by no means trustworthy, since Rufinus, assuming
that Origen's writings had been tampered with by the heretics,
considered himself at liberty to omit or amend heterodox state-
ments. Origen's real opinion, however, may frequently be
gathered from the Philocalia — a sort of anthology from his
works prepared by Basil the Great and Gregory Nazianzenus.
The fragments in Photius and in the Apology of Pamphilus serve
for comparison. The writings of Origen consist of letters, and of
works in textual criticism, exegesis, apologetics, dogmatic and
practical theology.
1. Eusebius (to whom we owe our full knowledge of his life)
collected more than a hundred of Origen's letters, arranged
them in books, and deposited them in the library at Caesarea
(//. E. vi. 36). In the church library at Jerusalem (founded by
the bishop Alexander) there were also numerous letters of this
father (Euseb. H. E. vi. 20). But unfortunately they have all
been lost except two — one to Julius Africanus (about the history
of Susanna) and one to Gregory Thaumaturgus. There are,
besides, a couple of fragments.
2. Origen's textual studies on the Old Testament were under-
taken partly in order to improve the manuscript tradition,
and partly for apologetic reasons, to clear up the relation between
the LXX and the original Hebrew text. The results of more
than twenty years' labour were set forth in his Hexapla and
Tctrapla, in which he placed the Hebrew text side by side with
the various Greek versions, examined their mutual relations
in detail, and tried to find the basis for a more reliable text
of the LXX. The Hexapla was probably never fully written
out, but excerpts were made from it by various scholars at
Caesarea in the 4th century; and thus large sections of it have
been saved.' Origen worked also at the text of the New Testa-
ment, although he produced no recension of his own.
3. The exegetical labours of Origen extend over the whole
of the Old and New Testaments. They are divided into Scholia
(tj-qntLcoffw, short annotations, mostly grammatical), Homilies
(edifying expositions grounded on exegesis), and Commentaries
{rofwi). In the Greek original only a very small portion has
been preserved; in Latin translations, however, a good deal.
The most important parts are the homilies on Jeremiah, the
books of Moses, Joshua and Luke, and the commentaries on
IVIatthew, John and Romans. With grammatical precision,
antiquarian learning and critical discernment Origen combines
the allegorical method of interpretation — the logical corollary
of his conception of the inspiration of the Scriptures. He
distinguishes a threefold sense of scripture, a grammatico-
historical, a moral and a pneumatic — the last being the proper
and highest sense. He thus set up a formal theory of allegorical
exegesis, which is not quite extinct in the churches even yet,
but in his own system was of fundamental importance. On this
method the sacred writings are regarded as an inexhaustible
mine of philosophical and dogmatic wisdom; in reality the
exegete reads his own ideas into any passage he chooses. The
commentaries are of course intolerably diffuse and tedious,
a great deal of them is now quite unreadable; yet, on the other
hand, one has not unfrequently occasion to admire the sound
linguistic perception and the critical talent of the author.^
4. The principal apologetic work of Origen is his book Kara
KeX(70u (eight books), written at Caesarea in the time of Philip
the Arabian. It has been completely preserved in the original.
This work is invaluable as a source for the history and situation
of the church in the 2nd century; for it contains nearly the whole
of the famous work of Celsus (A670S a\r]dr]s) against Christianity.
What makes Origen's answer so instructive is that it shows how
close an affinity existed between Celsus and himself in their
fundamental philosophical and theological presuppositions. The
real state of the case is certainly unsuspected by Origen himself;
but many of his opponent's arguments he is unable to meet
except by a speculative reconstruction of the church doctrine
in question. Origen's apologetic is most effective when he
appeals to the spirit and power of Christianity as an evidence
of its truth. In details his argument is not free from sophistical
subterfuges and superficial reasoning.'
' Field, Origenis Hexaplorum quae supersunt (2 vols., Oxon.,
1867-1874).
• See Reuss, Geschichte der heil. Schriften d. N.T. (5th ed.), § 511.
' Kcim, Celsus (1873); Aub(5, Hist, des persecut. de I'cglise, vol. ii.
(1875) ; Ornsby, " O/igen against Celsus," Dublin Revievj (July 1879),
p. 58; P(^'lagaud, Etude sur Celse (1878); Lcbcdcff, Origen's Book
against Celsus (Moscow, 1878) (Russian) ; Overbeck in the Theolog. Lit.
Zcitung (1878), No. 22 (1879), No.g-.Orig.c. Cc/i., ed. Sel\v>n (1876).
272
ORIGEN
5. Of the dogmatic writings we possess only one in its integrity,
and that only in the translation of Rufinus,' Ilept apx<j>v (On
the Fundamental Doctrines). This work, which was composed
before 2 28, is the first attempt at a dogmatic at once scientific
and accommodated to the needs of the church. The material
is drawn from Scripture, but in such a way that the propositions
of the regiila fidei are respected. This material is then formed
into a system by all the resources of theintellect and of specula-
tion. Origen thus solved, after his own fashion, a problem
which his predecessor Clement had not even ventured to grapple
with. The first three books treat of God, the world, the fall
of spirits, anthropology and ethics. " Each of these three
books reaDy embraces, although not ni a strictly comprehensive
way, the whole scheme of the Christian view of the world, from
different points of view, and with different contents." The
fourth book explains the divinity of the Scriptures, and deduces
rules for their interpretation. It ought properly to stand as
first book at the beginning. The ten books of Stromata (in which
Origen compared the teaching of the Christians with that of the
philosophers, and corroborated all the Christian dogmas from
Plato, Aristotle, Numenius and Cornutus) have all perished,
with the exception of small fragments; so have the tractates
on the resurrection and on freewill.-
6. Of practical theological works we have still the IIpoTpeTrTt/cos
tU ixaprvpiov and the 2wra7(Ua Tre/r t evxT)^- For a knowledge
of Origen's Christian estimate of life and his relation to the
faith of the church these two treatises are of great importance.
The first was written during the persecution of Maximinus
Thrax, and was dedicated to his friends Ambrosius and
Protoctetus. The other also dates from the Caesarean period;
it mentions many interesting details, and concludes with a fine
exposition of the Lord's Prayer.
7. In his own lifetime Origen had to complain of falsifications
of his works and forgeries under his name. Many pieces still in
existence are wrongly ascribed to him ; yet it is doubtful whether a
single one of them was composed on purpose to deceive. The most
noteworthy are the Dialogues of a certain Adamantius "de recta
in Deum fide," which seem to have been erroneously attributed to
Origen so early as the 4th century, one reason being the fact that
Origen himself also bore that name. (Eusebius, H .E. vi. 14.)
Outline of Origen's View of the Universe and of Life. — The
system of Origen was formulated in opposition to the Greek
philosophers on the one hand, and the Christian Gnostics on the
other.^ But the science of faith, as expounded by him, bears
unmistakably the stamp both of Neo-Platonism and of Gnosticism.
As a theologian, in fact, Origen is not merely an orthodox
traditionalist and believing exegete, but a speculative philosopher
of Neo-Platonic tendencies. He is, moreover, a judicious critic.
The union of these four elements gives character to his theology,
and in a certain degree to all subsequent theology. It is this
combination which has determined the peculiar and varying
relations in which theology and the faith of the church have
stood to each other since the time of Origen. That relation
depends on the predominance of one or other of the four factors
embraced in his theology.
As an orthodox traditionalist Origen holds that Christianity
is a practical and religious saving principle, that it has unfolded
itself in an historical series of revealing facts, that the church
has accurately embodied the substance of her faith in the regiila
fidei, and that simple faith is sufficient for the renewal and salva-
tion of man. As a philosophical ideahst, however, he transmutes
the whole contents of the faith of the church into ideas which
bear the mark of Neo-Platonism, and were accordingly recognized
by the later Neo-Platonists as Hellenic* In Origen, however,
] There are, however, extensive fragments of the original in
existence.
' See Redepenning, Origenis de prir.cipiis, first sep. ed. (Leipzig,
1836) ; Schnitzer, Orig. iiber die Crtmdlehren des Glaubens, an attemjit
at reconstruction (1835).
' The opposition to the unitarians within the church must also be
kept in mind.
* Porphyr>' says of Origen, xard ris Tepi irpaypiaTuv Kal tov Belov
66Ja! 'EXXrii/i^wv (Euseb. H.E. vi. 19).
the mystic and ecstatic element is held in abeyance. The
ethico-religious ideal is the sorrowless condition, the state of
superioiity to all evils, the state of order and of rest. In this
condition man enters into hkeness to God and blessedness;
and it is reached through contemplative isolation and self-
knowledge, which is divine wisdom. " The soul is trained as
it were to behold itself in a mirror, it shows the divine spirit,
if it should be found worthy of such fellowship, as in a mirror,
and thus discovers the traces of a secret path to participation
in the divine nature." As a means to the realization of this ideal,
Origen introduces the whole ethics of Stoicism. But the link
that connects him with churchly realism, as well as with the Neo-
Platonic mysticism, is the conviction that complete and certain
knowledge rests wholly on divine revelation, i.e. on oracles.
Consequently his theology is cosmological speculation and ethical
reflection based on the sacred Scriptures. The Scriptures,
however, are treated by Origen on the basis of a matured theory
of inspiration in such a way that all their facts appear as the
vehicles of ideas, and have their highest valueonly in this aspect.
That is to say, his gnosis neutralizes all that is empirical and
historical, if not always as to its actuality, at least absolutely
in respect of its value. The most convincing proof of this is that
Origen (i) takes the idea of the immutabihty of God as the
regulating idea of his system, and (2) deprives the historical
" Word made flesh " of all significance for the true Gnostic.
To him Christ appears simply as the Logos who is with the Father
from eternity, and works from all eternity, to whom alone the
instructed Christian directs his thoughts, requiring nothing more
than a perfect — i.e. divine — teacher. In such propositions
historical Christianity is stripped oft as a mere husk. The objects
of reUgious knowledge are beyond the plane of history, or rather —
in a thorough!}' Gnostic and Neo-Platonic spirit — they are
regarded as belonging to a supra-mundane history. On this
view contact with the faith of the church could only be maintained
by distinguishing an exoteric and an esoteric form of Christianity.
This distinction was already current in the catechetical school
of Alexandria, but Origen gave it its boldest expression, and
justified it on the ground of the incapacity of the Christian
masses to grasp the deeper sense of Scripture, or unravel the
difficulties of exegesis. On the other hand, in deahng with the
problem of bringing his heterodox system into conformity with
the regula fidei he evinced a high degree of technical skill. An
external conformity was possible, inasmuch as speculation,
proceeding from the higher to the lower, could keep by the stages
of the regula fidei, which had been developed into a history of
salvation. The system itself aims in principle at being thoroughly
monistic; but, since matter, although created by God out of
nothing, was regarded merely as the sphere in which souls are
punished and purified, the system is pervaded by a strongly
dualistic element. The immutability of God requires the
eternity of the Logos and of the world. At this point Origen
succeeded in avoiding the heretical Gnostic idea of God by
assigningtotheGodheadtheattributesof goodness and righteous-
ness. The pre-existence of souls is another inference from the
immutability of God, although Origen also deduced it from the
nature of the soul, which as a spiritual potency must be eternal.
Indeed this is the fundamental idea of Origen — " the original
and indestructible unity of God and all spiritual essences."
From this follows the necessity for the created spirit, after
apostasy, error and sin, to return always to its origin in God.
The actual sinfulness of all men Origen was able to explain by
the theological hypothesis of pre-existence and the premundane
fall of each individual soul. He holds that freedom is the
inalienable prerogative of the finite spirit; and this is the second
point that distinguishes his theology from the heretical Gnosticism.
The system unfolds itself hke a drama, of which the successive
stages are as follows: the transcendental fall, the creation of
the material world, inaugurating the history of punishment
and redemption, the clothing of fallen souls in flesh, the dominion
of sin, evil and the demons on earth, the appearing of the Logos,
His union with a pure human soul. His esoteric preaching of
salvation, and His death in the flesh, then the imparting of the
ORIGINAL PACKAGE
Spirit, and the ultimate restoration of all things. The doctrine
of the restoration appeared necessary because the spirit, in
spite of its inherent freedom, cannot lose its true nature, and
because the final purposes of God cannot be foiled. The end,
however, is only relative, for spirits are continually falling, and
God remains through eternity the creator of the world. Moreover
the end is not conceived as a transfiguration of the world, but
as a liberation of the spirit from its unnatural union with the
sensual. Here the Gnostic and philosophical character of the
system is particularly manifest. The old Christian eschatology
is set aside; no one has dealt such deadly blows to Chiliasm
and Christian apocalypticism as Origcn. It need hardly be said
that he spiritualized the church doctrine of the resurrection of
the flesh. But, while in all these doctrines he appears in the
character of a Platonic philosopher, traces of rational criticism
are not wanting. Where his fundamental conception admits
of it, he tries to solve historical problems by historical
methods. Even in the christology, where he is treating of the
historical Christ, he entertains critical considerations; hence
it is not altogether without reason that in after times he was
suspected of " Ebionitic " views of the Person of Christ. Not
unfrequently he represents the unity of the Father and the Son
as a unity of agreement and harmony and " identity of will."
Although the theology of Origen exerted a considerable in-
fluence as a whole in the two following centuries, it certainly
lost nothing by the circumstance that several important pro-
positions were capable of being torn from their original setting
and placed in new connexions. It is in fact one of the peculiarities
of this theology, which professed to be at once churchly and
philosophical, that most of its formulae could be interpreted
and appreciated in ulramquc partem. By arbitrary divisions
and rearrangements the doctrinal statements of this " science
of faith " could be made to serve the most diverse dogmatic
tendencies. This is seen especially in the doctrine of the Logos.
On the basis of his idea of God Origcn was obliged to insist in
the strongest manner on the personality, the eternity (eternal
generation) and the essential divinity of the Logos.' On the
other hand, when he turned to consider the origin of the Logos
he did not hesitate to speak of Him as a Krlafia, and to include
Him amongst the rest of God's spiritual creatures. A ktIoixo.,
which is at the same time bjioovawvTiJo GetJJ, was no contradiction
to him, simply because he held the immutability, the pure know-
ledge and the blessedness which constituted the divine nature
to be communicable attributes. In later times both the orthodox
and the Arians appealed to his teaching, both with a certain
plausibility; but the inference of Arius, that an imparted
divinity must be divinity in the second degree, Origen did not
draw. With respect to other doctrines also, such as those of the
Holy Spirit and the incarnation of Christ, &c., Origen prepared
the way for the later dogmas. The technical terms round which
such bitter controversies raged in the 4th and 5th centuries are
often found in Origen lying peacefully side by side. But this
is just where his epoch-making importance lies, that all the later
parties in the church learned from him. And this is true not
only of the dogmatic parties; solitary monks and ambitious
priests, hard-headed critical exegetes,^ allegorists, mystics, all
found something congenial in his writings. The only man who
tried to shake off the theological influence of Origen was Marcellus
of Ancyra, who did not succeed in producing any lasting effect
on theology.
The attacks on Origen, which had begun in his lifetime,
did not cease for centuries, and only subsided during the time
of the fierce Arian controversy. It was not so much the relation
between pistis and gnosis — faith and knowledge — as defined by
Origen that gave offence, but rather isolated propositions, such
as his doctrines of the pre-existence of souls, of the soul and body
of Christ, of the resurrection of the flesh, of the final restoration,
' " Communis substantiae est filio cum patre; diroppota enim
oMoouo-ios videtur, i.e. unius substantiae cum illo corpore ex quo
est cLKoppoia..'^
^ E.g. Dionysius of Alexandria; compare his judicious verdict on
the Apocalypse.
and of the plurality of worlds. Even in the 3rd century Origcn's
view of the Trinity and of the Person of Christ was called in
ciuestion, and that from various points of view. It was not till
the 5th century, however, that objections of this kind became
frequent. In the 4th century Pamphilus, Euscbius of Caesarea,
Alhanasius, the Cappadocians, Didymus, and Rufinus wcreon the
side of Origen against the attacks of Methodius and many others.
But, when the zeal of Epiphanius was kindled against him,
when Jerome, alarmed about his own rc[)Utation, and in defiance
of his past attitude, turned against his once honoured teacher,
and Theophilus, patriarch of Alexandria, found it prudent, for
political reasons, and out of consideration for the uneducated
monks, to condemn Origen — then his authority received a
shock from which it never recovered. There were, doubtless,
in the 5th century church historians and theologians who still
spoke of him with reverence, but such men became fewer and
fewer. In the West Vincent of Lerins held up Origen as a
warning example {Commonit. 23), showing how iven the most
learned and most eminent of church teachers might become a
misleading light. In the East the exegetical school of Antioch
had an aversion to Origen; the Alexandrians had utterly
repudiated him. Nevertheless his writings were much read,
especially in Palestine. The monophysile monks appealed to his
authority, but could not prevent Justinian and the fifth oecumeni-
cal council at Constantinople (553) from anathematizing his
teaching. It is true that many scholars (e.g. Hefele, Concilicn-
gesch. ii. p. 858 sq.) deny that Origen was condemned by this
council; but Moller rightly holds that the condemnation is
proved {Realencyklop. f. protest. T/tcol. u. Kirche, xi. 113).
Sources and Literature. — Next to the works of Origen (see
Redepenning, " Des Hieronymus wicderaufgefundenes Vcrzcichnis
der Schriften desOrigens," mZeit.J. d. hist. Theol. (1851), pp. 66seq.)
the most important sources are: Gregory Thaumat., Pavegyricus
in Orig.; Euscbius, H.E. vi. ; Epiphanius, Haer. 64; the works of
Methodius, the Cappadocians, Jerome (see De vir. ill. 54, 61) and
Rufinus; Vincent. Lerin. Commonit. 23; Palladius, Hist. Latis. 147;
Justinian, Ep. ad Mennam (Mansi, ix. p. 487 seq.) ; Photius, Biblioth.
118, &c. There is no complete critical edition of Origen's works.
The best edition is that of Car. and C. Vine. Delarue (4 vols, fol.)
(Paris, 1733-1759), reprinted by Lommatzsch (25 vols. 8vo) (Berlin,
1831-1848) and by Migne, Patrol, curs, compl. scr. Gr., vols, xi.-xvii.
Several new pieces have been edited by Gallandi and A. Mai.
Amongst the older works on Origcn tho.se of Huctius (printed in
Delarue, vol. iv.) are the best; but Tillcmont, Fabricius, Walch
(Historie d. Kelzereien, vii. pp. 362-760) and Schrockh also deserve
to be mentioned. In recent times the doctrine of Origen has been
expounded in the great works on church history' by Baur, Dorncr,
Bohringer, Neandcr, Moller {Geschichte der Kosmologie in der
griechischen Kirche) and Kahnis {Die Lehre vom h. Ceist, vol. i.):
compare with these the works on the history of philosophy by Ritter,
Erdmann, Ueberweg and Zcller. Of monographs, the best and
most complete is Redepenning, Origenes, eine Darstellung seines
Lebens iind seiner Lehre (2 vo\s., 1841, 1846). Compare Thomasius,
Or!g. (1837); Kriigcr, " Uber das Vcrhaltnis des Orig. zu Ammonius
Sakkas," in the Ztschr. f. hist. Theol. (1843), i. p. 46 seq.; Fischer,
Comment, de Orig. theologia et cosmologia (1846); Ramers, Orig.
Lehre von der Auferstehung des Fleischcs (1851); Knittel, "Orig.
Lehre von der Menschwerdung," in the Theol. Quartalschr. (1872);
Schultz, " Christologie des Orig.," in the Jahrb. f. protest. Theol.
(1875); Mehlhorn, " Die Lehre von der menschlichen Freiheit nach
Orig.," in Zeitschr. f. Kirchengesch. vol. ii. (1878); Freppel, Origcne,
vol. i., 2nd ed. (Paris, 1875). A full list of the later bibliography will
be found in Harnack's Dogmengeschichte and Chronologie. (A. Ha.)
ORIGINAL PACKAGE, a legal term in America, meaning,
in general usage, the package in which goods, intended for
interstate commerce, are actually transported wholesale. The
term is used chiefly in determining the boundary between
Federal and state jurisdiction in the regulation of commerce,
and derives special significance by reason of the conflict between
the powers of Congress to regulate commerce and the police
legislation of the several states with respect to commodities
considered injurious to public health and morals, such as in-
toxicating liquors, cigarettes and oleomargarine. By the Federal
constitution Congress is vested with the power " to regulate
commerce with foreign nations and among the several states,
and with the Indian tribes," and each state is forbidden, without
the consent of Congress, to " lay any imposts or duties on imports
or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing
274
ORIGINAL PACKAGE
its inspection laws," and the basis of the law on the subject of
"originalpackage" was laid when, in 1827, Chief Justice ^larshall
interpreted these clauses in his decision of the case of Brown v.
Maryland,^ which tested the constitutionality of an act of the
legislature of Maryland requiring a hcence from importers of
foreign goods by bale or package and from persons selling the
same by wholesale, bale, package, hogshead, barrel or tierce.
After pronouncing such a hcence to be in effect a tax, the chief
justice observed that so long as the thing imported remained
" the property of the importer, in his warehouse, in the original
form or package in which it was imported," a tax upon it was
too plainly a duty on imports to escape the prohibition of the
Constitution, that imported commodities did not become subject
to the taxing power of the state until they had " become incor-
porated and mixed with the mass of property in the country,"
that the right to sell a thing imported was incident to the right
to import it, and consequently that a state tax upon the sale
was repugnant to the power of Congress to regulate foreign
commerce; and he added that the court supposed the same
principles apphed equally to interstate commerce. Later
decisions agree that the right to import commodities or to ship
them from one state to another carries with it the right to sell
them and have established the boundary line between Federal
and state control of both foreign imports and interstate ship-
ments at a sale in the original package ' or at the breaking of the
original package before sale for other purposes than inspection.'
A state or a municipality may, however, tax while in their
original packages any commodities which have been shipped in
from another state provided there be no discrimination against
such commodities; this permission being granted on the theory
that a general non-chscriminating tax is not a regulation of
commerce and therefore not repugnant to the power of Congress
to regulate interstate commerce.'' The first cases involving a
serious conflict between the power of Congress to regulate inter-
state commerce and the pohce powers of the several states were
the Licence Cases adjudicated by the Supreme Court of the
United States in January 1847.' They were to test the con-
stitutionality of a law of Massachusetts requiring a licence for the
sale of wines or spirituous liquors in a less quantity than 28
gallons, of a law of Rhode Island requiring a hcence for the sale
of such liquors in a less quantity than 10 gallons, and a law
of New Hampshire requiring a hcence for the sale of wines or
spirituous liquors in any quantity whatever, and in this case a
barrel of gin had been bought in Boston Mass., carried to Dover,
N.H., and there sold in the same barrel. Although the justices
based their opinions on different principles, the court pronounced
the laws constitutional. The justices did not even agree that
the power of Congress to regulate an interstate shipment in-
cluded the power to authorize a sale after shipment, which is the
basis of the original package doctrine as applied to interstate
commerce, and Chief Justice Taney with two other justices
who were of this opinion held that a state might nevertheless
in the exercise of its police powers regulate such sales so long as
Congress did not pass an act for that purpose. In this confused
and uncertain state the matter rested until the adjudication of
Leisy v. Hardin^ in 1889. In this case beer had been shipped
from Ilhnois into Iowa and then sold in the original kegs and cases
by an agent of the Ilhnois firm when Iowa had a law absolutely
prohibiting the sale of intoxicating liquors within its hmits
except for pharmaceutical, medicinal, chemical or sacramental
purposes. None of the justices now denied that the power of
Congress to regulate an interstate shipment included the power
to authorize a sale after shipment, and although there was dis-
agreement with reference to the right of a state to regulate the
sale in the absence of an act of Congress for that purpose, the
• 12 Wheaton 419.
2 Waring v. Mobile, 8 Wall. no.
' May I'. New Orleans, 178 U.S. 498 and ;« re McAllister (C.C.Md.),
51 Fed. 282.
• Woodruff V. Parham, 8 Wallace 123, and Hinson v. Lett, 8
Wallace 148.
' 5 Howard 504.
• 135 U.S. 100.
majority of the court were of the opinion that: " Whenever a
particular power of the general government is one which must
necessarily be exercised by it, and Congress remains silent,
this is not only not a concession that the powers reserved by the
states may be exerted as if the specific power had not been
elsewhere reposed, but, on the contrary, the only legitimate
conclusion is that the general government intended that power
should not be affirmatively exercised, and that the action of
the states cannot be permitted to effect that which would be
incompatible with such intention. Hence, inasmuch as inter-
state commerce, consisting in the transportation, purchase,
sale and exchange of commodities, is national in its character
and must be governed by a uniform system, so long as Congress
does not pass any law to regulate it , or allowing the states so to do,
it thereby indicates its will that such commerce shall be free and
untrammelled." The opinion of Chief Justice Taney in Pierce
V. New Hampshire was therefore in part overruled and the Iowa
law in so far as it applied to the sale in the original packages of
liquors shipped in from another state was pronounced uncon-
stitutional. As a consequence of this decision, Congress, in 1890,
passed the Wilson Act providing that all fermented, distilled, or
other intoxicating liquors or liquids transported into any state
or Territory for use, consumption, sale or storage therein should,
even though in the original packages, be subject to the police
laws of the state or Territory to the same extent as those produced
within the state or Territory. Even with this act, however, a
state is not permitted to interfere with an interstate shipment
of liquor direct to the consumer.'
What constitutes an original package was the principal
question in Atislin v. Tennessee^ which was decided in November
1900. The general assembly of Tennessee had in this case made
it a misdemeanour for any party to sell or to bring into the state
for selling or giving away any cigarettes. The defendant had
purchased at Durham, North Carolina, a quantity of cigarettes.
They were packed in pasteboard boxes containing ten cigarettes
each. The boxes were then placed in an open basket and in this
manner the cigarettes were delivered at the defendant's place
of business in Tennessee where he sold a package without
breaking it. The court decided against the defendant because it
held that the manner of transportation was evidently for the
purpose of evading the state law and that the boxes were not
original packages within the meaning of the Federal law, and in
this connexion it observed that " The whole theory of the exemp-
tion of the original package from the operation of the state laws is
based upon the idea that the property is imported in the ordinary
form in which, from time to time immemorial, foreign goods have
been brought into the country. These have gone at once into the
hands of the wholesale dealers, who have been in the habit of
breaking the package and distributing their contents among the
several retail dealers throughout the state. It was with reference
to this method of doing business that the doctrine of the exemption
of the original package grew up. " In the case of Schollenbergcr v.
Pennsylvania,^ however, the court decided that the state of
Pennsylvania could not prohibit the sale of oleomargarine by retail
when it had been shipped from Rhode Island in packages con-
taining only 10 lb each, and the original package doctrine has
been sharply criticized because of the difficulty in determining
what constitutes an original package as well as because of the
conflict between the doctrine and the police powers of the several
states. It has been urged that the doctrine be abandoned and
that commodities shipped into one state from another " be
treated just like other goods already there are treated."
See J. B. Uhle, " The Law Governing an Original Package," in
The American Law Register, vol. x.xix. (Philadelphia, 1890); Shackel-
ford Miller, " The Latest Phase of the Original Package Doctrine,"
and M. M. Townley, " What is the Original Package Doctrine?"
both in The American Law Revieto, vol. xxxv. (St Louis, 1901);
also F. H. Cooke, The Commerce Clause of the Federal Constitution
(New York, 1908).
' See Vance v. W. A. Vandercook Company, 1 70 U.S. 438.
» 179 U.S. 343.
' 171 U.S. I.
ORinUELA— ORINOCO
275
ORIHUELA, a town and episcopal see of eastern Spain, in the
province of Alicante; 13 m. N.Pl of Murcia and about 15 m.
from the Mediterranean Sea, on the Murcia-Elrhe railway.
Pop. (1900) 28,530. Orihuela is situated in a beautiful and
exceedingly fertile hucrta, or tract of highly cultivated land,
at the foot of a hmestone bridge, and on both sides of the river
Segura, which divides the city into two parts, Roig and San
Augusto, and is spanned by two bridges. There are remains
of a Moorish fort on the hill commanding the town; and the
north gateway — the Puerta del Colegio — is a fine lofty arch,
surmounted by an emblematic statue and the city arms. The
most prominent buildings are the episcopal palace (1733), with
a frontage of 600 ft.; the town house (1843), containing im-
portant archives; and the cathedral, a small Gothic structure
built on the site of a former mosque in the 14th century, and
enlarged and tastelessly restored in 1829. The university of
Orihuela, founded in 1568 by the archbishop of Valencia, was
closed in 1835, part of the revenue being applied to the support
of a college affiliated to the university of Valencia. Besides
numerous primary schools there are a theological seminary
and a normal school. The trade in fruit, cereals, oil and wine
is considerable. There are also tanneries, dye-works and manu-
factures of silk, linen and woollen fabrics, leather and starch.
Orihuela was captured by the Moors in 713, and retaken by
James I. of Aragon, for his father-in-law Alphonso of Castile,
in 1265. It was sacked during the disturbances at the beginning
of the reign of Charles V. (1530), and again in the War of Succes-
sion (1706). Local annals specially mention the plague of 1648,
the flood of 1651 and the earthquake of 1829.
ORILLIA, a town and port of entry of Simcoe county, Ontario,
Canada, situated 84 m. N. of Toronto, on Lake Couchiching
and on the Grand Trunk railway. Pop. (1901) 4907. It is a
favourite summer resort, and has steamboat communication
with other ports on Lakes Simcoe and Couchiching. It contains
an asylum maintained by the provincial government; also saw
and grist mills and iron foundries.
ORINOCO, a river in the north of South America, falling
north-east into the Atlantic between 60° 20' and 62° 30' W. It
is approximately 1500 m. long, but it is several hundred miles
longer if measured by its Guaviare branch. Lying south and
east of the main stream is a vast, densely forested region called
Venezuelan Guiana, diversified by ranges of low mountains,
irregular broken ridges and granitic masses, which define the
courses of many une.xplored tributaries of the Orinoco.
In 1498, Columbus, when exploring the Gulf of Paria, which
receives a large part of the outflow of the Orinoco, noted the
freshness of its waters, but made no examination of their origin.
The caravels of Ojeda which, in 1499, followed almost the same
track as that of Columbus, probably passed in sight of one or
more of the mouths of the Orinoco. The first to explore any
portion of the mighty river was the reckless and daring adven-
turer Ordaz. In his expedition (i 531-1532) he entered its
principal outlet, the Boca de Navios, and, at the cost of many
lives, ascended to the junction of the Meta with the parent
stream. From Ordaz up to recent times the Orinoco has been
the scene of many voyages of discovery, including those in quest
of El Dorado, and seme scientific surveys have been made,
especially among its upper waters, by Jose Solano and Diaz de
la Fuente of the Spanish boundary line commission of Yturriaga
and Solano (1757-1763), Humboldt (1800) and Michelena y
Rojas (1855-1857). The last ascended to the Mawaca, a point
about 170 m. above the northern entrance to the Casiquiare
canal, and then a few miles up the Mawaca. A little knowledge
about its sources above these points was given by the savages
to de la Fuente in 1759 and to Mendoza in 1764, and we are also
indebted to Humboldt for some vague data.
At the date of the discovery, the Orinoco, like the Amazon,
bore different names, according to those of the tribes occupying
its margins. The conquistador Ordaz found that, at its mouth,
it was called the Uriaparia, this being the name of the cacique
of the tribe there. The Caribs, holding a certain section of the
river, named it the Ibirinoco, corrupted by the Spaniards into
Orinoco. It was known to other tribes as the Barraguan and
to others as the Maraguaca. The Cabres called it the I'aragua,
because it flooded such a vast area of country.
The principal affluent of the Orinoco from the Guiana district
is the Ventuari, thu head waters of which are also unknown. It
is an important stream, which, running south-west, joins the Orinoco
about 90 m. aljove its Guaviare branch. Two other large triljularies
of the Orinoco flow north from the interior of this mysterious Guiana
region, the Caura and the Caroni. The former has recently been
explored by Andre, who found it greatly obstructed by falls and
rapids ; the latter is about 800 m. long, 400 of which are more or less
navigal)lc.
South of the Guaviare, as far as the divortium aquarum, between
it and the Rio Negro branch of the Amazon, the country is dry and
only partially swept by moisture-laden winds, so that few streams of
moment are found in its southern drainage area; but north of it,
as far as 6° 30' N., the north-east trade winds, which have escaped
condensation in the hot lower valley of the Orinoco, beat against the
cold eastern slopes of the lofty Colombian Andes, and ceaselessly
pour down such vast volumes of water that the almost countless
streams which flow across the plains of Colombia and western
Venezuela are taxed beyond their capacity to carry it to the Orinoco,
and for several months of the year they flood tens of thousands of
square miles of the districts they traverse. Among these the Apure,
Arauca, Meta and Guaviare hold the first rank.
The Apure is formed by two great rivers, the Uribante and Sarare.
The former, which rises in the Sierra de Merida, which overlooks the
Lake of Maracaibo, has 16 large affluents; the latter has its sources
near the Colombian city of Pamplona, and they are only separated
from the basin of the river Magdalena by the " Oriental " Andean
range. From the Uribante-Sarare junction to the Orinoco the length
of the Apure is 645 m., of which Codazzi makes the doubtful claim
that 564 are navigable, for there are some troublesome rapids 1 14 m.
above its mouth, where the Apure is 3 m. wide. The numerous
affluents which enter it from the north water the beautiful eastern
and southern slopes of the Merida, Caraboso and Caracas mountain
ranges. A few of them are navigable for a short distance; among
these the most important is the many-armed Portugueza, on the
main route south from the Caribbean coast to the llanos. A few
large streams enter the lower Apure from the south, but they are
frequently entangled in lateral canals, due to the slight elevation of
the plains above sea-level, the waters of the Apure, especially
during flood tirne, having opened a great number of caiios before
reaching the Orinoco.
The " Oriental " Andes of Colombia give birth to another great
affluent of the Orinoco, the Arauca, which soon reaches the plain
and parallels the Apure on the south. Perez says that the Sarare
branch of the Apure has formed a gigantic dam across its own
course by prodigious quantities of trees, brush, vines and roots,
and thus, impounding its own waters, has cut a new channel to
the southward across the lowlands and joined the Arauca, from
which the Sarare may be reached in small craft and ascended to
the vicinity of Pamplona. The Arauca is navigable for large boats
and barges up to the Andes, and by sail to its middle course. In
floods, unable to carry the additional water contributed by the
Sarare, it overflows its banks, and by several caiios gives its surplus
to the Capanaparo, which, about 18 m. farther south, joins the
Orinoco.
The Meta is known as such from the union of two Andean streams,
the Negro and Humadea, which rise near Bogota. At their junction,
700 ft. above sea-level, it is 1000 ft. wide and 7 ft. deep in the dry
season, but in flood the Meta rises 30 ft. It is navigable up to the
old " Apostadcro," about 150 m. above its mouth, but launches may
ascend it, in the wet season, about 500 m., to the junction of the Negro
with the Humadea. In the dry season, however, it is obstructed by
reefs, sandbanks, shallows, snags, trees and floating timber from the
" Apostadero " up, so that even canoes find its ascent difficult, while
savage hordes along its banks add to the dangers to be encountered.
The Guaviare is the next great western tributary of the Orinoco.
Eugenio Alvarado, a Spanish commissioner for the boundary
delimitation of Colombia with Brazil in 1759, informed the viceroy
at Bogota that the rivers Arivari and Guayabero rise between
Neiva and Popayan, and unite to take the composite name of
Guaviare. In those times they called it Guaibari, or Guayuare.
The Guaviare is about 500 m. long, of which 300 are called navigable,
although not free from obstructions. Its upper portion has many
rapids and falls. The banks are forested throughout, and the river
is infested by numerous alligators, so ferocious that they attack
canoes. Two-thirds of the way up, it receives its Ariari tributar>'
from the north-west, which is navigable for large boats. Near its
mouth the Guaviare is joined by its great south-western affluent, the
Ynirida. Above its rapid of Mariapiri, 180 m. up. this stream runs
swiftly through a rough countn,-, but for a long distance is a succes-
sion of lakes and shallow, overflowed areas. Its head-waters do not
reach the Andes.
Between the Guaviare and the Meta the Orinoco is obstructed by
the famous Maipures cataract, where, in several channels, it breaks
through a granite spur of the Guiana highlands for a length of about
176
ORIOLE— ORION
4 m., with a total fall of about 40 ft., and then, after passing tv/o
minor reefs, reaches the Aturcs rapids, where it plunges through a
succession of gorges for a distance of about 6 m., winding among
confused masses of granite boulders, and falling about 30 ft. At
the mouth of the Meta it is about I m. wide, but as it flows north-
wards it increases its width until, at the point where it receives its
Apure afifluent, it is over 2 m. wide in the dry season and about
7 m. in floods. It rises 32 ft. at Cariben, but at the Angostura, or
narrows, where the river is but 800 ft. wide, the difference between
high and low river is 50 ft., and was even 60 in 1892.
The Orinoco finds its way to the ocean through a delta of about
700 sq. m. area, so little above sea level that much of it is periodically
flooded. The river is navigable for large steamers up to the raudal
or rapid of Cariben, 700 m. from the sea, and to within 6 m. of the
mouth of the Meta. Maintaining its eastern course from the Apure,
the main stream finds its way along the southern side of the delta,
where it is called the Corosimi river, and enters the sea at the Boca
Grande; but in front of the Tortola island, at the beginning of the
Corosimi and 100 m. from the sea, it throws northwards to the
Gulf of Paria another great arm which, about 100 m. long, and
known as the Rio Vagre, bounds the western side of the delta. En
route to the gulf the Vagre sends across the delta, east and north, two
canos or canals of considerable volume, called the Macareo and
Cuscuino. The delta is also cut into many irregular divisions by
other canals which derive their flow from its great boundary rivers,
the Corosimi and Vagre, and its numerous islands and vast swamps
are covered with a dense vegetation. The Boca Grande outlet
is the deepest, and is the main navigable entrance to the Orinoco at
all seasons, the muddy bar usually maintaining a depth of 16 ft.
The Spanish conquistador and his descendants have not been
a blessing to the basin of the Orinoco. All they can boast of is
the destruction of its population and products, so that the number
of inhabitants of one of the richest valleys in the world is less
to-day than it was four centuries ago. The entire river trade
centres upon Ciudad Bolivar, on the right bank of the Orinoco,
373 m. above its mouth. The only other river port of any
importance is San Fernando, on the Apure. It is a stopping-
point for the incipient steamer traffic of the valley, which is
principally confined to the Apure and lower Orinoco. It
occupies, however, but a few small steam craft. There is steam
connexion between Ciudad Bolivar and the island of Trinidad.
Cattle are carried by vessels from the valley to the neighbouring
foreign colonies, and a few local steamers do a coasting trade
between the river and the Caribbean ports of Venezuela. A
transit trade with Colombia, via the Meta river, has been carried
on by two smaU steamers, but subject to interruptions from
political causes. (G. E. C.)
ORIOLE (O. Fr. Oriol, Lat. aureolus), the name once apphed
to a bird, from its golden colouring — the Oriolus galbula of
Linnaeus — but now commonly used in a much wider sense.
The golden oriole, which is the type of the Passerine family
Oriolidae, is a far from uncommon spring-visitor to the British
Islands, but has very rarely bred there. On the continent of
Europe it is a well-known if not an abundant bird, and its range
in summer extends so far to the east as Irkutsk, while in winter
it is found in Natal and Damaraland. In India it is replaced
by a closely allied form, O. kundoo, the mango-bird, chiefly
distinguishable by the male possessing a black streak behind
as well as in front of the eye; and both in Asia and Africa are
several other species more or less resembling O. galbula, but some
depart considerably from that type, assuming a black head, or
even a glowing crimson, instead of the ordinary yellow colouring,
while others again remain constant to the dingy type of plumage
which characterizes the female of the more normal form. Among
these last are the aberrant species of the group Mimetes or
Mimeta, belonging to the Austrahan Region, respecting which
A. R. Wallace pointed out, first in the Zoological Society's
Proceedings (1863, pp. 26-28), and afterwards in his Malay
Archipelago (ii. pp. 150-153), the very curious signs of " mimi-
cry " (see Honey-eater). It is a singular circumstance that
this group Mimeta first received its name from P. P. King
(Survey, b'c. of Australia, ii. 417) under the behef that the birds
composing it belonged to the family McUphagidae, which had
assumed the appearance of orioles, whereas Wallace's investiga-
tions tend to show that the imitation (unconscious, of course)
is on the part of the latter. The external similarity of the
Mimeta and the Tropidorhynchus of the island of Bouru, one
of the Moluccas, is perfectly wonderful, and has again and again
deceived some of the best ornithologists, though the birds are
structurally far apart. Another genus which has been referred
to the Oriolidae, and may here be mentioned, is Sphecotheres,
peculiar to the Australian Region, and distinguishable from the
more normal orioles by a bare space round the eye. Orioles
are shy and restless birds, frequenting gardens and woods, and
living on insects and fruit. The nest is pocket-shaped, of bark,
grass and fibres, and the eggs are white or salmon-coloured
with dark spots. The " American orioles " (see Icterus) belong
to a different Passerine family, the Icieridac. (A. N.)
ORION (or Oarion), in Greek mythology, son of Hyrieus
(Eponymus of Hyria in Boeotia), or of Poseidon, a mighty hunter
of great beauty and gigantic strength, perhaps corresponding
to the " wild huntsman " of Teutonic mythology. He is also
sometimes represented as sprung from the earth. He was the
favourite of Eos, the dawn-goddess, who loved him and carried
him off to Delos; but the gods were angry, and would not be
appeased till Artemis slew him with her arrows {Odyssey, v. 121).
According to other accounts which attribute Orion's death
to Artemis, the goddess herself loved him and was deceived
by the angry Apollo into shooting him by mistake; or he paid
the penalty of offering violence to her, or of challenging her
to a contest of quoit-throwing (Apollodorus i. 4; Hyginus,
Poet, astron. ii. 34; Horace, Odes, iii. 4, 71). In another legend
he was blinded by Oenopion of Chios for having violated his
daughter Merope; but having made his way to the place where
the sun rose, he recovered his sight (Hyginus, loc. ciL; Parthenius,
Erotica, 20). He afterwards retired to Crete, where he Hved
the life of a hunter with Artemis; but having threatened to
exterminate all living creatures on the island, he was killed by
the bite of a scorpion sent by the earth-goddess (Ovid, Fasti,
V. 537). In the lower world his shade is seen by Odysseus
driving the wOd beasts before him as he had done on earth
{Odyssey, xi. 572). After his death he was changed into the
constellation which is called by his name. It took the form
of a warrior, wearing a girdle of three stars and a Uon's skin,
and carrying a club and a sword. When it rose early it was
a sign of summer; when late, of winter and stormy weather;
when it rose about midnight it heralded the season of vintage.
See Kiientzle, Uber die Slernsagen der Griechen (1897), and his
article in Roscher's Lexikon ; he shows that in the oldest legend
Orion the constellation and Orion the hero are quite distinct, without
deciding which was the earlier conception. The attempt sometimes
made to attribute an astronomical origin to the myths connected
with his name is unsuccessful, except in the case of Orion's pursuit
of Pleione and her daughters (see Pleiades) and his death from the
bite of the scorpion ; see also C. O. Miiller, Kleine Deutsche Schriften,
ii. (1848); O. Gruppe, Griechische Mythologie, ii. pp. 945, 952;
Preller-Robert, Griechische Mythologie (1894), pp. 448-454; Grimm,
Teutonic Mythology (Eng. trans., 1883), ii. p. 726, iii. p. 948.
In Astronomy. — The constellation Orion is mentioned by
Homer {II. xviii. 486, xxii. 29; Od. v. 274), and also in the
Old Testament (Amos v. 8, Job ix. 9). The Hebrew name
for Orion also means " fool," in reference perhaps to a mytho-
logical story of a " foolhardy, heaven-daring rebel who was
chained to the sky for his impiety " (Driver). For the Assyrian
names see Constellation. Ptolemy catalogued 38 stars,
Tycho Brahe 42 and Hevelius 62. Orion is one of the most
conspicuous constellations. It consists of three stars of the ist
magnitude, four of the 2nd, and many of inferior magnitude,
a Orionis, or Betelgeuse, is a bright, yellowish-red star of varying
magnitude (0-5 to 1-4, generally o-g). j3 Orionis or Regel is a
ist magnitude star, y Orionis or BeUatrix, and k Orionis are
stars of the 2nd magnitude. These four stars, in the order
a, /3, 7, K, form an approximate rectangle. Three coUinear
stars f, € and 5 Orionis constitute the "belt of Orion"; of
these €, the central star, is of the ist magnitude, 5 of the 2nd,
while f Orionis is a fine double star, its components having
magnitudes 2 and 6; there is also a faint companion of magnitude
10. a Orionis, very close to f Orionis, is a very fine multiple star,
described by Sir William Herschel as two sets of treble stars;
more stars have been revealed by larger telescopes, d Orionis is
.
ORION AND ORUS— ORISTANO
277
a multiple star, situated in the famous nebula of Orion, one
of the most beautiful in the heavens. (See Nebula.)
ORION and ORUS, the names of several Greek grammarians,
frequently confused. The following are the most important,
(i) Orion of Thebes in Egypt (5th century a.d.), the teacher
of Proclus the neo-Platonist and of Eudocia, the wife of the
younger Theodosius. He taught at Alexandria, Caesarea in
Cappadocia and Byzantium. He was the author of a partly
e.xtant etymological Lexicon (ed. F. W. Sturz, 1820), largely
used by the compilers of the £iym6)/og/cMm Magnum, the Elymolo-
gicum Gudianmn and other similar works; a collection of
maxims in three books, addressed to Eudocia, also ascribed
to him by Suidas, still exists in a Warsaw MS. (z) Orus of
Miletus, who, according to Ritschl, flourished not later than the
2nd century A.D., and was a contemporary of Herodian and a
little junior to Phrynichus (according to Rcitzenstein he was
a contemporary of Orion). His chief works were treatises on
orthography; on Atticisms, written in opposition to Phrynichus;
on the names of nations.
See F. Ritschl, De Oro el Orione Commentatio (1834); R. Rcitzen-
stein, Geschichte der griechiscben Etymologika (1H07}; and article
" Orion " in Smith's Dictionary oj Greek and Roman Biography.
ORISKANY, a village of Oneida county. New York, U.S.A.,
about 7 m. N.W. of Utica. Pop. about 800. Oriskany is served
by the New York Central & Hudson River railway. There are
malleable iron works and a manufactory of paper makers' felts
here. In a ravine, about 2 m. west of Oriskany, was fought
on the 6th of August 1777 the battle of Oriskany, an important
minor engagement of the American War of Independence.
On the 4th of August Gen. Nicholas Herkimer, who had been
colonerof the Tyrone county (New York) militia in 1775, and
had been made a brigadier-general of the state militia in 1776,
had gathered about Soo miUtiamen at Fort Dayton (on the site
of the present Herkimer, New Y'ork) for the relief of Fort Schuyler
(see Rome, N.Y.) then besieged by British and Indians under
Colonel Barry St Leger and Joseph Brant. On the 6th General
Herkimer's force, on its march to Fort Schuyler, was ambushed
by a force of British under Sir John Johnson and Indians under
Joseph Brant in the ravine above mentioned. The rear portion
of Herkimer's troops escaped from the trap, but were pursued
by the Indians, and many of them were overtaken and killed.
Between the remainder and the British and Indians there was
a desperate hand-to-hand conflict, interrupted by a violent
thunderstorm, with no quarter shown by either side. On
hearing the firing near Fort Schuyler (incident to a sortie by
Lieut .-Colonel Marinus Willett) the British withdrew, after
about 200 Americans had been killed and as many more taken
prisoners, the loss of the British in killed being about the same.
General Herkimer (who had advised advancing slowly, awaiting
signal shots announcing the sortie, and had been caUed " Tory "
and " coward " in consequence), though his leg had been broken
by a shot at the beginning of the action, continued to direct
the fighting on the American side, but died on the i6th of August
as a result of the clumsy amputation of his leg. The battle,
though indecisive, had an important influence in preventing
St Leger from effecting a junction with General BurgojTie.
The battlefield is marked by a monument erected in 1884.
See Orderly Book of Sir John Johnson during the Oriskany Campaign
(Albany, 1882), with notes by W. L. Stone and J. W. De Peystur;
Publications of the Oneida Historical Society, vol. i. (Utica, N.Y.,
1877) ; and Phoebe S. Cowen, Tlie Herkimers and Schuylers (Albany,
1903)-
ORISSA, a tract of India, in Bengal, consisting of a British
division and twenty-four tributary states. The historical capital
is Cuttack; and Puri, with its temple of Jagannath, is world-
famous. Orissa dift"ers from the rest of Bengal in being under
a temporary settlement of land revenue. A new settlement
for a term of thirty years was concluded in igoo, estimated
to raise the total land revenue by more than one half; the
greater part of this increase being levied gradually during the
first eleven years of the term. To obviate destructive inun-
dations and famines, the Orissa system of canals has been con-
structed, with a capital outlay of nearly two milUons sterling.
(See Mahanadi). The province is traversed by the East Coast
railway, which was opened throughout from Calcutta to Madras
in igoi.
The Division of Orissa consists of the five districts of Cuttack,
Puri, Balasorc, Sambolpur and the forfeited state of Angul.
Total area 13,770 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 5,003,121, showing an
increase of 7% in the decade. According to the census of 1901
the total number of persons in aU India speaking Oriya was more
than c)\ millions, showing that the linguistic area (extending
into Madras and the Central Provinces) is much larger than the
political province.
The whole of Orissa is holy ground. On the southern bank
of the Baitarani shrine rises after shrine in honour of Siva, the
All-Destroyer. On leaving the stream the pilgrim enters Jajpur,
hterally the city of sacrifice, the headquarters of the region of
pilgrimage sacred to the wife of the All-Destroyer. There is
not a fiscal division in Orissa without its community of cenobites,
scarcely a village without consecrated lands, and not a single
ancient family that has not devoted its best acres to the gods.
Every town is filled with temples, and every hamlet has its shrine.
The national reverence of the Hindus for holy places has been
for ages concentrated on Puri, sacred to Vishnu under his title
of Jagannath, the Lord of the World. liesides its copious water-
supply in time of high flood, Orissa has an average rainfall
of 62-J in. per annum. Nevertheless, the uncontrolled state
of the water-supply has subjected the country from time im-
memorial to droughts no less than to inundation. Thus the
terrible famine of 1865-1866, which swept away one-fourth of the
entire population, was followed in i866by a flood which destroyed
crops to the value of £3,000,000. Since then much has been done
by government to husband the abundant water-supply.
The early history of the kingdom ot Orissa (Odra-desa), as
recorded in the archives of the temple of Jagannath, is largely
mythical. A blank in the records from about 50 B.C. to a.d. 319
corresponds to a period of Yavana occupation and Buddhist
influence, during which the numerous rock monasteries of Orissa
were excavated. The founder of the Kesari or Lion dynasty,
which ruled from a.d. 474 to 1132, is said to have restored the
worshipof Jagannath, and under this line the great Sivaite temple
at Bhuvaneswar was constructed. In 1132 a new line (the
Gajapati dynasty) succeeded, and Vishnu took the place of Siva
in the royal worship. This dynasty was extinguished in 1532-
1534, and in 1578, after half a century of war, Orissa became
a province of the Mogul empire. It nominally passed to the
British in 1765, by the Diwani grant of Bengal, Bhar and
Orissa; but at that time it was occupied by the Mahratta
raja of Nagpur, from whom it was finally conquered in 1803.
The Tributary States of Orissa, known also as the Tributary
Mahals, or the Garhjats, occupy the hills between the British
districts and the Central Provinces. The most important are
Mayurbhanj, Keonjhar, Dhenkanal, Baud and Nayagarh.
In 1905 five Oriya-speaking states (Bamra, Rairakhol, Sonpur,
Patna and Kalahandi) were added from the Central Provinces
and two (Gangpur and Bonai) from the Chota Nagpur states.
This made the total area 28,046 sq. m. and the pop. (1901)
3,173,395-
Up to the year 1888 some doubt existed as to the actual
position of the Tributary states of Orissa; but in that year the
secretary of state accepted the view that they did not form part
of British India, and modified powers were handed over to the
Orissa chiefs under the control of a superintendent.
See Sir W. W. Hunter, Orissa (1872).
ORISTANO, a town and archiepiscopal see of Sardinia, situated
23 ft. above sea-level, about 3 m. from the eastern shore of a
gulf on the W. coast, to which it gives its name, and 59 m. N.
by W. of Cagliari by rail. Pop. (1901) 7107. The town preserves
some scanty remains of the walls (dating from the end of the 13th
century), by which it was surrounded, and two gates, the Porta
Manna, surmounted by a lofty square tower, known also as the
Torre S. Cristoforo, and the Porta Marina. The houses are
largely constructed of sun-dried bricks, and are low, so that the
area of the town is considerable in proportion to its population.
278
ORIYA— ORKNEY, EARL OF
The cathedral was reconstructed in 1733 in the baroque style,
and scanty traces of the original building of the 12th century
exist (see D. Scano in U Arte, igoi, p. 359; 1903, p. 15): and also
in Sloria dell' arte in Sardegna dal XI. al XI V. secolo, Cagliari-
Sassari, 1907). Some statuettes and sculptured slabs partly
belonging to its pulpit, perhaps the work of Andrea Pisano,
have been found; upon the reverse side of two of the slabs are
still older reliefs of the Sth or 9th century; so that the slabs
perhaps originally came from Tharros. In the sacristy is some
fine silverwork. The church of S. Francesco also dates from
the end of the 13th century, but has been altered. A line statue
by Nino, son of Andrea, is preserved here. Two m. south of
Oristano is the village of S. Giusta, with a beautiful Romanesque
church of the Pisan period dedicated to this saint (D. Scano,
Bollettino dell' arte, Feb. 1907, p. S), containing several antique
columns. It was once an independent episcopal see. The lagoons
on the coast are full of fish, but are a cause of malaria. The
environs are fertile, and a quantity of garden produce is grown;
while good wine {vernaccia) is also made, and also ordinary
pottery in considerable quantities, supplying most of the island.
The bridge crossing the river Tirso, a little to the north of the
town, over 300 ft. long, with live arches, took the place, in 1S70,
of an old one which is said to have been of Roman origin. A
m. south of the mouth of this river is the landing-place for
shipping. The large orange groves of Mills lie 13 m. N. of
Oristano at the base of Monte Ferru, where they are sheltered
from the wind. The finest belong to the Marchese Boyl, whose
plantation contains some 500,000 orange and lemon trees. The
inhabitants of Mihs manufacture reed baskets and mats, which
they sell throughout Sardinia.
Oristano occupies the site of the Roman Othoca, the point at
which the inland road and the coast road from Carales to Turris
Libisonis bifurcated, but otherwise an unimportant place,
overshadowed by Tharros. The medieval town is said to have
been founded in 1070. It was the seat from the nth century
onwards of the giiidici (judges) of Arborea, one of the four
divisions of the island. Almost the last of these judges was
Eleonora (1347-1403); after her death Oristano became the seat
of a marquisate, which was suppressed in 1478. The frontier
castles of Monreale and Sanluri, some 20 and 30 m. respectively
to the S.S.E., were the scene of much fighting between the
Aragonese government and the giudici and marquises of Arborea
in the 14th and 15th centuries. (T. As.)
ORIYA (properly Oriyd), the Aryan language of Odra or
Orissa in India. It is the vernacular not only of that province
but also of the adjoining districts and native states of Madras
and of the Central Provinces. In 1901 it was spoken by 9,687,429
people. It is closely related to Bengali and Assamese, and with
them and with Bihari it forms the Eastern Group of the Indo-
Aryan vernaculars. See Bengali.
ORIZABA (Aztec, Citlaltepetl, " star mountain "), an extinct
or dormant volcano, on the boundary between the Mexicanstates
of Puebla and Vera Cruz and very nearly on the 19th parallel.
It rises from the south-eastern margin of the great Mexican
plateau to an elevation of 18,314 ft., according to Scovell and
Bunsen's measurements in 1891-1892, or 18,250 and 18,209 ft.
according to other authorities, and 18,701 (5700 metres) by the
Comision Geografica Exploradora. It is the highest peak in
Mexico and the second highest in North America. Its upper
timber fine is about 13,500 ft. above sea-level, and Hans Gadow
found patches of apparently permanent snow at an elevation of
14,400 ft. on its S.E. side in 1902. The first ascent of Orizaba
was made by Reynolds and Maynard in 184S, since when other
successful attempts have been made and many failures have been
recorded. Its last eruptive period was 1 545-1 566, and the volcano
is now considered to be extinct, although Humboldt records that
smoke was seen issuing from its summit as late as the beginning
of the 19th century.
ORIZABA (Indian name Aliuaializ-apan, pleasant waters),
a city of Mexico in the state of Vera Cruz, 82 m. by rail W.S.W.
of the port of Vera Cruz. Pop. (1900) 32,894, including a large
percentage of Indians and half-breeds. The Mexican railway
affords frequent communication with the City of Mexico and
Vera Cruz, and a short line (4I m.) connects with Ingenio, an
industrial village. Orizaba stands in a fertile, well-watered,
and richly wooded valley of the Sierra Madre Oriental, 4025
ft. above sea-level, and about 18 m. S. of the snow-crowned
volcano that bears its name. It has a mild, humid and healthful
climate. The public edifices include the parish church of San
Miguel, a chamber of commerce, a handsome theatre, and some
hospitals. The city is the centre of a rich agricultural region
which produces sugar, rum, tobacco and Indian corn. In
colonial times, when tobacco was one of the crown monopolies,
Orizaba was one of the districts officially licensed to produce it.
It is also a manufacturing centre of importance, having good
water power from the Rio Blanco and producing cotton and
woollen fabrics. Its cotton factories are among the largest
in the republic. Paper is also made at Cocolapan in the canton
of Orizaba. The forests in this vicinity are noted for orchids
and ferns. An Indian town called Ahuaializapan, subject to
Aztec rule, stood here when Cortes arrived on the coast. The
Spanish town that succeeded it did not receive its charter until
1774, though it was one of the stopping-places between Vera
Cruz and the capital. In 1862 it was the headquarters of the
French.
ORKHON INSCRIPTIONS, ancient Turkish inscriptions of the
Sth century A.D., discovered near the river Orkhon to the south
of Lake Baikal in 1889. They are written in an alphabet derived
from an Aramaic source and recount the history of the northern
branch of the Turks or Tu-kiue of Chinese historians. Sec
Turks.
ORKNEY, EARL OF, a Scottish title held at different periods
by various families, including its present possessors the Fitz-
maurices. The Orkney Islands (q.v.) were ruled by jarls or earls
under the supremacy of the kings of Norway from very early times
to about 1360, many of these jarls being also earls of Caithness
under the supremacy of the Scottish kings. Perhaps the most
prominent of them were a certain Paul (d. 1099) who assisted the
Norwegian king, Harald III. Haardraada, when he invaded
England in 1066; and his grandson Paul the Silent, who built,
at least in part, the cathedral of St Magnus at Kirkwall. They
were related to the royal families of Scotland and Norway.
In its more modern sense the earldom dates from about 1380,
and the first family to hold it was that of Sinclair, Sir Henry
Sinclair (d. c. 1400) of Roslin, near Edinburgh, being recognized
as earl by the king of Norway. Sir Henry was the son of Sir
William Sinclair, who was killed by the Saracens whilst accom-
panying Sir James Douglas, the bearer of the Bruce's heart, to
Palestine in 1330, and on the maternal side was the grandson of
Malise, who called himself earl of Strathearn, Caithness and
Orkney. He ruled the islands almost like a king, and employed
in his service the Venetian travellers Nicolo and Antonio Zeno.
His son Henry (d. 1418) was admiral of Scotland and was taken
prisoner by the English in 1406, together with Prince James,
afterwards King James I.; his grandson William, the 3rd earl
(c. 1404-1480), was chancellor of Scotland and took some part
in public affairs. In 1455 William was created earl of Caithness,
and in 1470 he resigned his earldom of Orkney to James III. of
Scotland, who had just acquired the sovereignty of these islands
through his marriage with Margaret, daughter of Christian L,
king of Denmark and Norway. In 1567 Queen Mary's lover,
James Hepburn, earl of Bothwell, was created duke of Orkney,
and in 15S1 her half-brother Robert Stewart (d. 1592), an illegiti-
mate son of James V., was made earl of Orkney. Robert, who
was abbot of Holyrood, joined the party of the reformers and was
afterwards one of the principal enemies of the regent Morton.
His son Patrick acted in a very arbitrary manner in the Orkneys,
where he set the royal authority at defiance; in 1609 he was
seized and imprisoned, and, after his bastard son Robert had
suffered death for heading a rebellion, he himself w^s executed in
February 1614, when his honours and estates were forfeited.
In 1696 Lord George Hamilton was created earl of Orkney
(see below). He married Elizabeth Villiers (see below), and he
was succeeded by his daughter Anne (d. 1756), the wife of
ORKNEY, COUNTESS OF— ORKNEY ISLANDS
279
William O'Brien, 4th earl of Inchiquin. Anne's daughter Mary
[c. 1721-1791) and her granddaughter Mary (1755-1831) were
both countesses of Orkney in their own right; the younger
Mary married Thomas Fitzmaurice (1742-179,5), son of John
Petty, earl of Shelburne, and was succeeded in the title by
her grandson, Thomas John Hamilton Fitzmaurice (1803-1877),
whose descendants still hold the earldom.
ORKNEY, ELIZABETH HAMILTON. Countess of [c. 1657-
1733), mistress of the English King William III., daughter of
Colonel Sir Edward Villiers of Richmond, was born about 1657.
Her mother, Frances Howard, daughter of the 2nd earl of Suffolk,
was governess to theprincesses Mary and Anne, and secured place
and influence for her children in Mary's household. Edward
Villiers, afterwards created ist earl of Jersey (1656-1711),
became master of the horse, while his sisters Anne and Elizabeth
were among the maids of honour who accompanied Mary to the
Hague on her marriage. Ehzabeth Villiers became William's
acknowledged mistress in 1680. After his accession to the
English crown he settled on her a large share of the confis-
cated Irish estates of James U. This grant was revoked by
parliament, however, in 1699. Mary's distrust of Marlborough
was fomented by Edward Villiers, and the bitter hostility
between Ehzabeth Vilhers and the duchess of Marlborough
perhaps helped to secure the duke's disgrace with Wilhani.
Shortly after Mary's death, William, actuated, it is said, by his
wife's expressed wishes, broke with Elizabeth Villiers, who was
married to her cousin, Lord George Hamilton, fifth son of the
3rd duke of Hamilton, in November 1695. The husband was
gratified early in the next year with the titles of earl of Orkney,
viscount of Kirkwall and Baron Dechmont. The countess of
Orkney served her husband's interests with great skill, and the
marriage proved a happy one. She died in London on the 19th
of April 1733.
ORKNEY. GEORGE HAMILTON. Earl of (1666-173 7),
British soldier, was the fifth son of Wilham, duke of Hamilton,
and was trained for the military career by his uncle. Lord
Dumbarton, in the 1st Foot. In 1689 he became lieut.-
colonel and a few months later brevet colonel. He served at the
battles of the Boyne and of Aughrim, and, at the head of the
Royal Fusihers, at Steinkirk. As colonel of his old regiment, the
ist Foot, he took part in the battle of Landen or Neerwinden, and
in the siege of Namur, serving also at Athlone and Limerick in
the Irish war. At Namur Hamilton received a severe wound,
and in recognition of his services was made a brigadier. In
1695 he married Elizabeth Vilhers (see above), who was " the
wisest woman " Swift " ever knew." The following year he was
made earl of Orkney in the Scottish peerage. As a major-
general he took the field with Marlborough in Flanders, and
on January ist, 1 703-1 704 he became heutenant-general. At
Blenheim it was Orkney's command which carried the village,
and in June 1705 he led a flying column which marched from the
Moselle to the rescue of Liege. At Ramillies he headed the
pursuit of the defeated French, at Oudenarde he played a dis-
tinguished part and in 1708 he captured the forts of St Amand
andjSt Martin at Tournay. At the desperately fought battle of
Malplaquet Lord Orkney's battalions led the assault on the
French entrenchments, and suffered very severe losses. He
remained with the army in Flanders till the end of the war, as
" general of the foot," and at the peace he was made colonel-
commandant of the ist Foot as a reward for his services. He
occupied various civil and military posts of importance, culminat-
ing with the appointment of " field marshal of all His Majesty's
forces " in 1736. This appointment is the first instance of field
marshal's rank (as now understood) in the British Service. A
year later he died in London.
ORKNEY ISLANDS, a group of islands, forming a county,
off the north coast of Scotland. The islands are separated from
the mainland by the Pentland Firth, which is 6j m, wide between
Brough Ness in the island of South Ronaldshay and Duncansbay
Head in Caithness-shire. The group is commonly estimated
to consist of 67 islands, of which 30 are inhabited (though in the
case of four of them the population comprises only the light-
house attendants), but the number may be increased to as many
as 90 by including rocky islets more usually counted with the
islands of which they probably once formed part. The Orkneys
lie between 58° 41' and 59° 24' N., and 2° 22' and 3° 26' W.,
measure 50 m. from N.E. to S.W. and 29 m. from E. to W.,
and cover 240,476 acres or 375-5 sq. m. E.\cepting on the west
coasts of the larger islands, which present rugged cliff scenery
remarkable both for beauty and for colouring, the group lies
somewhat low and is of bleak aspect, owing to the absence of
trees. The highest hills are found in Hoy. The only other islands
containing heights of any importance are Pomona, with Ward
Hill (880 ft.), and Wideford (740 ft.) and Rousay. Nearly all of
the islands possess lakes, and Loch Harray and Loch Stenness
in Pomona attain noteworthy proportions. The rivers are
merely streams draining the high land. Excepting on the west
fronts of Pomona, Hoy and Rousay, the coast-line of the islands
is deeply indented, and the islands themselves are divided from
each other by straits generally called sounds or firths, though off
the north-east of Hoy the designation Bring Deeps is used,
south of Pomona is Scapa Flow and to the south-west of Eday
is found the Fall of Warness. The very names of the islands
indicate their nature, for the terminal a or ay is the Norse ey,
meaning " island," which is scarcely disguised even in the words
Pomona and Hoy. The islets are usually styled liolms and the
isolated rocks skerries. The tidal currents, or races, or roosl
(as some of them are called locally, from the Icelandic) off many
of the isles run with enormous velocity, and whirlpools are of
frequent occurrence, and strong enough at times to prove a
source of danger to small craft. The charm of the Orkneys
does not lie in their ordinary physical features, so much as in
beautiful atmospheric effects, extraordinary examples of light
and shade, and rich coloration of cliff and sea.
Geology. — All the islands of this group are built up entirely of Old
Red Sandstone. As in the neighbouring mainland of Caithness,
these rocks rest upon the metamorphic rocks of the eastern schists,
as may be seen on Pomona, where a narrow strip is exposed between
Stromness and Inganess, and again in the small island of Graemsay;
they are represented by grey gneiss and granite. The upper division
of the Old Red Sandstone is found only in Hoy, where it forms the
Old Man and neighbouring cliffs on the N.W. coast. The Old Man
presents a characteristic section, for it exhibits a thick pile of massive,
current-bedded red sandstones, resting, near the foot of the pinnacle,
upon a thin bed of amygdaloidal porphyrite, which in its turn lies
unconformably upon steeply inclined flagstones. This bed of volcanic
rock may be followed northward in the cliffs, and it may be noticed
that it thickens considerably in that direction. The Lower Old
Red Sandstone is represented by well-bedded flagstones over most
of the islands; in the south of Pomona these are faulted against an
overlying series of massive red sandstones, but a gradual passage
from the flagstones to the sandstones may be followed from Westray
S.E. into Eday. A strong synclinal fold traverses Eday and Shapin-
say, the axis being N. and S. Near Haco's Ness in Shapinsay there
is a small exposure of amygdaloidal diabase which is of course older
than that in Hoy. Many indications of ice action are found in these
islands; striated surfaces are to be seen on the cliffs in Eday and
Westray, in Kirkwall Bay and on Stennie Hill in Eday; boulder
clay, with marine shells, and with many boulders of rocks foreign
to the islands (chalk, oolitic limestone, flint, &c.), which must have
been brought up from the region of Moray Firth, rests upon the old
strata in many places. Local moraines are found in some of the
valleys in Pomona and Hoy.
Climate and Industries. — The climate is remarkably temperate
and equable for so northerly a latitude. The average temperature
for the year is 46° F., for winter 39° F. and for summer 54° 3' F.
The winter months are January, February and March, the last being
the coldest. Spring never begins till April, and it is the middle of
June before the heat grows genial. September is frequently the
finest month, and at the end of October or beginning of November
occurs the peerie (or little) summer, the counterpart of the St
Martin's summer of more southerly climes. The average annual
rainfall varies from 33-4 in. to 37 in. Fogs occur during summer and
early autumn, and furious gales may be expected four or five times
in the year, when the crash of the Atlantic waves is audible for
20 m. To tourists one of the fascinations of the islands is their
" nightless summers." On the longest day the sun rises at 3 o'clock
A.M. and sets at 9.25 p.m., and darkness is unknown, it being possible
to read at midnight. Winter, however, is long and depressing. On
the shortest day the sun rises at 9.10 a.m. and sets at 3.17 P.M.
The soil generally is a sandy loam or a strong but friable clay, and
very fertile. Large quantities of seaweed as well as lime and marl
are available for manure. Until the middle of the 19th centur>'
28o
ORKNEY ISLANDS
the methods of agriculture were of a primitive character, but since
then they have been entirely transformed, and Orcadian farming
is now not below the average standard of the Scottish lowlands.
The crofters' houses have been rebuilt of stone and lime, and are
superior to those in most parts of the Highlands. The holdings run
fairly small, the average being between 30 and 40 acres. Practically
the only grain crops that are cultivated are oats (which greatly
predominate) and barley, while the favoured root crops are turnips
(much the most extensively grown) and potatoes. Not half of the
area has been brought under cultivation, and the acreage under wood
is insignificant. The raising of live stock is rigorously pursued.
Shorthorns and polled Angus are the commonest breeds of cattle;
the sheep are mostly Cheviots and a Cheviot-Leicester cross, but the
native sheep are still reared in considerable numbers in Hoy and
South Ronaldshay, pigs are also kept on several of the islands,
and the horses — as a rule hardy, active and small, though larger
than the famous Shetland ponies — are very numerous, but mainly
employed in connexion with agricultural work. The woollen trade
once promised to reach considerable dimensions, but towards the
end of the i8th century was superseded by the linen (for which flax
came to be largely grown) ; and when this in turn collapsed before
the products of the mills of Dundee, Dunfermline and Glasgow,
straw-plaiting was taken up, though only to be killed in due time
by the competition of the south. The kelp industry, formerly of at
least minor importance, has ceased. Sandstone is quarried on several
islands, and distilleries are found in Pomona (near Kirkwall and
Stromness). But apart from agriculture the principal industry is
fishing. For several centuries the Dutch practically monopolized
the herring fishery, but when their supremacy was destroyed by the
salt duty, the Orcadians failed to seize the opportunity thus pre-
sented, and George Barry (d. 1805) says that in his day the fisheries
were almost totally neglected. The industry, however, has now been
organized, and over 2000 persons are employed in the various branches
of it. The great catches are herring, cod and ling, but lobsters and
crabs are also exported in large quantities. There is a regular com-
munication by steamer becween Stromness and Kirkwall, and Thurso,
Wick, Aberdeen and Leith, and also between Kirkwall and Lerwick
and other points of the Shetlands.
Population and Administration. — In 1891 the population
numbered 30,453, and in 1901 it was 28,699, or 67 persons to
the sq. m. In 1901 there were 70 persons who spoke Gaelic
and English, but none who spoke Gaelic only. Orkney unites
with Shetland to send one member to parliament, and Kirkwall,
the county town and the only royal burgh, is one of the Wick
district groups of parliamentary burghs. There is a combination
poorhouse at Kirkwall, where there are also two hospitals.
Orkney forms a sheriffdom with Shetland and Caithness, and a
resident sheriff-substitute sits at Kirkwall. The county is under
the school-board jurisdiction, but at Kirkwall and Stromness
there are public schools giving secondary education.
The Inhabited Islands. — Premising that they are more or less
scattered, and that several lie on the same plane, the following list
gives the majority of the inhabited islands from south to north,
the number within brackets indicating the population. Sule Skerry
(3) and the Pentland Skerries (8) lie at the eastern entrance of the
Portland Firth; Swona (23), I5 m. from the mainland, belongs to
Caithness and is situated in the parish of Canisbay; South Ronald-
shay (1991) is the best cultivated and most fertile of the southern
isles of the group. On Hoxa Head, to the west of the large village
of St Margaret's Hope, is a broch, or round tower, and the island
contains, besides, examples of Picts' houses and standing stones.
Hoy (q.v.; 1216) is the southernmost of the larger islands. Flotta
(372), east of Hoy, was the home for a long time of the Scandinavian
compiler of the Codex Flotlicensis, which furnished Thormodr
Torfaaus (1636-1719), the Icelandic antiquary, with many of the
facts for his History of Norway, more particularly with reference to
the Norse occupation of Orkney. Pharay (59) also lies E. of Hoy.
Burray (677) is famous for the broch from which the island takes its
name (Borgarey, Norse, " island of the broch "). The tower stands
on the north-western shore, is 15 ft. high, has walls from 15 to 20 ft.
thick, built of layers of flat stones without cement or mortar, and
an interior diameter of 40 ft. It is entered from the east by a
passage, on each side of which there is a small chamber constructed
within the thickness of the wall. Similar chambers occur on the
west, north and south sides, accessible only from the interior.
Adjoining the southern chamber is the inside stair conducting to
the top of the brocli ; of this stair some twenty steps remain. Between
Hoy and Pomona are Hunda (8), Cava (17), and Graemsay (195),
which has excellent soil and is mostly under cultivation. The isle
is surrounded by shoals, and high-level and low-level lighthouses
have been erected, the one at the north-west and the other at the
north-east corner. The cliffs of Copinshay (10) are a favourite haunt
of sea-birds, which are captured by the cragsmen for their feathers
and eggs. Half a mile to the N.E. is the great rock which, from a
fancied resemblance to a horse rearing its head from the sea, is called
the Horse of Coi:)4nshay. Pomona (g.v. ; 16,235) 's the principal
island, and as such is known also as Mainland. Shapinshay (765)
was the birthplace of William Irving, father of Washington Irving.
It possesses several examples of Pictish and Scandinavian an-
tiquities, such as the " Odin stone " and the broch of Burrowstone.
Balfour Castle, a mansion in the Scottish Baronial style built in 1848,
is situated near the south-western extremity of the island. The
island takes its name from Hjalpand, a Norse viking. Gairsay (33)
was the residence of Sweyn Asleifson, the rover, celebrated in the
Orkneyinga Saga for his exploits as a trencherman and his feats in
battle. Stronsay (1159) is a busy station of the herring fishery,
and is also largely under cultivation. At Lamb Head, its south-
easterly point, is a broch and Pictish pier, and about 2 m. farther
north, on Odin Bay, is a round pit in the rocks called the Vat of
Kirbuster. The well of Kildinguie was once resorted to as a specific
for leprosy. Papa Stronsay (16) commemorates in its name, as
others of both the Orkneys and Shetlands do, the labours of the
Celtic papae, or missionaries, who preached the Christian gospel before
the arrival of the Northmen. The adjacent Veira or Wire has a
population of 60. Egilshay (142) is the island on which St Magnus
was murdered by his cousin Hacco in 115. It derives its name —
Church {ecclesia) Island — from the little church of St Magnus,
now in ruins, consisting of a chancel 15 ft. long, and nave 30 ft. long.
The building has a round tower at the west end of the nave. The
tower resembles similar constructions found beside Irish churches
of the 7th and 8th centuries and has walls 3 ft. thick. It is doubtful
whether it must be ascribed to the Celtic evangelists or to a much
later period — not earlier than the 12th century. On Rousay (627)
the cairn of Blotchnie Fiold (811 ft.), the higliest point of the island,
commands a beautiful survey of the northern isles of the archipelago.
At the southern base of the hill stands the fine mansion of Trumbland
House. Eday (596) contains several specimens of weems, mounds
and standing stones. It affords good pasturage and has sandstone
quarries. Carrick village, once a burgh of barony, with salt pans
and other manufactures, was named after the earl of Carrick, brother
of Patrick Stewart, 2nd earl of Orkney (d. 1614.). It was off this
island that John Gow, the pirate, was taken in 1725. Sanday
(1727), with an area of 19 sq. m., is one of the largest of the northern
isles, and yields excellent crops of potatoes and grain. It has safe
harbours, in the north at Otterswick and in the south at Kettletoft.
The antiquities include a broch in Elsness. Pharay (47) lies W. of
Edey. Westray (1956), one of the seats of the cod fishery, has a
good harbour at Pier-o'-wall. Noltland Castle, in the vicinity, is
interesting as having been proposed as the refuge of Queen Mary
after her flight from Loch Leven. It dates from the 15th century
or even earlier, and was at one time the property of Sir Gilbert
Balfour, the Master of Queen Mary's Household. The building, now
in ruins, was never completed. On one side of the inner court, to
which a finely ornamental doorway gives access, is a large hall with
a vaulted ceiling of stone, 20 ft. high. The cliffs and overhanging
crags at Noup Head (250 ft.), the most westerly point, are remark-
ably picturesque. An isolated portion, divided from the headland
by a narrow chasm, is known as the Stack of Noup. Gentleman's
Cave, I m. to the south, was so called from the circumstance that it
afforded shelter to five of the leading followers of Prince Charles
Edward, who lay here during the winter of 1 745-1 746. Papa
Westray (295) and North Ronaldshay (442) are the most northerly
islands of the group. The latter is only reached from Sanday, from
which it is separated by a dangerous firth 25 m. wide. The monu-
mental stone with Ogham inscription, which was discovered in the
broch of Burrian, must date from the days of the early Christian
missionaries.
History. — The Orkneys were the Orcades of classical writers,
and the word is probably derived from the Norse Orkn, seal,
and cy, island. The original inhabitants were Picts, evidence
of whose occupation still exists in numerous weems or under-
ground houses, chambered mounds, barrows or burial mounds,
brochs or round towers, and stone circles and standing stones.
Such implements as have survived are of the rudest description,
and include querns or stone handmiUs for grinding corn, stone
worls and bone combs employed in primitive forms of woollen
manufacture, and specimens of simple pottery ware. If, as
seems likely, the Dalriadic Scots towards the beginning of the
6th century established a footing in the islands, their success
was short-lived, and the Picts regained power and kept it until
dispossessed by the Norsemen in the gth century. In the wake
of the Scots incursionists followed the Celtic missionaries about
565. They were companions of St Columba and their efforts to
convert the folk to Christianity seem to have impressed the
popular imagination, for several islands bear the epithet " Papa "
in commemoration of the preachers. Norse pirates having
made the islands the headquarters of their buccaneering expedi-
tions indifferently against their own Norway and the coasts and
isles of Scotland, Harold Haarfager (" Fair Hair ") subdued
ORLEANAIS— ORLEANISTS
i8i
the rovers in 875 and both the Orkneys and Shetlands to
Norway. They remained under the rule of Norse earls until
1231, when the line of the jarls became extinct. In that year
the earldom of Caithness was granted to Magnus, second son of
the earl of Angus, whom the king of Norway apparently con-
firmed in the title. In 1468 the Orkneys and Shetlands were
pledged by Christian I. of Denmark for the payment of the dowry
of his daughter Margaret, betrothed to James III. of Scotland,
and as the money was never paid, their connexion with the crown
of Scotland has been perpetual. In 147 1 James bestowed the
castle and lands of Ravenscraig in Fife on William, earl of Orkney,
in exchange for all his rights to the earldom of Orkney, which,
by act of parliament passed on the 20th of February of the same
year, was annexed to the Scottish crown. In 1564 Lord Robert
Stewart, natural son of James V., who had visited Kirkwall
twenty-four years before, was made sherifT of the Orkneys and
Shetlands, and received possession of the estates of the udallers;
in 1581 he was created earl of Orkney by James IV., the charter
being ratified ten years later to his son Patrick, but in 161 5 the
earldom was again annexed to the crown. The islands were the
rendezvous of Montrose's expedition in 1650 which culminated
in his imprisonment and death. During the Protectorate they
were visited by a detachment of Cromwell's troops, who initiated
the inhabitants into various industrial arts and new methods
of agriculture. In 1707 the islands were granted to the earl of
Morton in mortgage, redeemable by the Crown on payment
of £30,000, and subject to an annual feu-duty of £500; but
in 1766 his estates were sold to Sir Lawrence Dundas, ancestor
of the earls of Zetland. In early times both the archbishop
of Hamburg and the archbishop of York disputed with the
Norwegians ecclesiastical jurisdiction over the Orkneys and
the right of consecrating bishops; but ultimately the Norwegian
bishops, the first of whom was William the Old, consecrated
in 1102, continued the canonical succession. The see remained
vacant from 1580 to 1606, and from 1638 till the Restoration,
and, after the accession of William II., the episcopacy was finally
abolished (1697), although many of the clergy refused to conform.
The topography of the Orkneys is wholly Norse, and the Norse
tongue, at last extinguished by the constant influx of settlers
from Scotland, lingered until the end of the i8th century. Readers
of Scott's P;Va/e will remember the frank contempt which Magnus
Troil expressed for the Scots, and his opinions probably accurately
reflected the general Norse feeling on the subject. When the
islands were given as security for the princess's dowry, there
seems reason to believe that it was intended to redeem the pledge,
because it was then stipulated that the Norse system of govern-
ment and the law of St Olaf should continue to be observed in
Orkney and Shetland. Thus the udal succession and mode of
land tenure (or, that is, absolute freehold as distinguished from
feudal tenure) still obtain to some extent, and the remaining
udallers hold their lands and pass them on without written title.
Among weU-known Orcadians may be mentioned James Atkine
(1613-1687), bishop first of Moray and afterwards of Galloway,
Murdoch McKenzie (d. 1797), the hydrographer; Malcolm Laing
(1762-1818), author of the History of Scotland from the Union
of the Crowns to the Union of the Kingdoms; Mary Brunton
(i778-i8r8), author of Self-Control, Discipline and other novels;
Samuel Laing (178(^1868), author of A Residence in Norway,
and translator of the Heimskringla, the Icelandic chronicle of
the kings of Norway; Thomas Stewart Traill (1781-1862), pro-
fessor of medical jurisprudence in Edinburgh University and
editor of the 8th edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica;
Samuel Laing (1812-1897), chairman of the London, Brighton
& South Coast railway, and introducer of the system of
" parliamentary " trains with fares of one penny a mile; Dr
John Rae (1813-1893), the Arctic explorer; and William
Balfour Baikie (1825-1864), the African traveller.
Bibliography. — The Orkneyinga Saga, ed. G. Vigfusson, trans-
lated by Sir George Dasent (1887-1894), and the edition of Dr Joseph
Anderson (1873); James Wallace, Account of the Islands of Orkney
(1700; new ed., 1884); George Low, Tour through the Islands of
Orkney and Shetland in 1^74 (1879); G. Barry, History of Orkney
(1805, 1867); Da.mc\ ( 'jorru:, Sumtners and Winters in the Orkneys
(1868); D. Balfour, Odal Rights and Feudal Wrongs (i860); J.
Fergusson, The Brochs and Rude Stone Monuments of the Orkney
Islands (1877); J. B. Craven, History of the Episcopal Church in
Orkney (1883); J. R. Tudor, Orkney and Shetland (1883).
ORLEANAIS, one of the provinces into which JFrance was
divided before the Revolution. It was the country around
Orleans, the pagus Aurelianensis; it lay on both banks of the
Loire, and for ecclesiastical purposes formed the diocese of
Orleans. It was in the possession of the Capet family before
the advent of Hugh Capet to the throne of France in 987, and in
1344 Philip VI. gave it with the title of duke to Philip (d. 1375),
one of his younger sons. In a geographical sense the region
around Orleans is sometimes known as Orleanais, but this is
somewhat smaller than the former province.
See A. Thomas, Les Etats provinciaux de la France centrale (1879).
ORLEANISTS, a French political party which arose out of
the Revolution, and ceased to have a separate existence shortly
after the establishment of the third republic in 1872. It took
its name from the Orleans branch of the house of Bourbon, the
descendants of the duke of Orleans, the younger brother of
Louis XIV., who were its chiefs. The political aim of the
Orleanists may be said to have been to find a common measure
for the monarchical principle and the " rights of man " as set
forth by the revolutionary leaders in 1789. The articles on
Philippe, nicknamed EgaKte (see Orleans, L.P.J., dukeof), and
his son Louis Philippe, king of the French (1830-1S48), will show
the process of events by which it came to pass that the Orleans
princes became the more or less successful advocates of this
attempted compromise between old and new. It may be noted
here, however, that a certain attitude of opposition, and of
patronage of " freedom," was traditional in this branch of the
house of Bourbon. Saint-Simon tells us that the regent Orleans
who died in 1723 was in the habit of avowing his admiration for
English liberty — at least in safe company and private con-
versation, figalite, who had reasons to dislike King Louis XVI.
and his queen, Marie Antoinette, stepped naturally into the
position of spokesman of the liberal royalists of the early revolu-
tionary time, and it was a short step from that position to the
attitude of liberal candidates for the throne, as against the elder
branch of the royal house which claimed to reign by divine
right. The elder branch as represented by Louis XVIII. v.'as
prepared to grant (octroycr), and did grant, a charter of liberties.
The count of Chambord, the last of the line (the Spanish Bourbons
who descended directly from Louis XIV. were considered to be
barred by the renunciation of Philip V. of Spain), was equally
ready to grant a constitution. But these princes claimed to
rule " in chief of God " and to confer constitutional rights on
their subjects of their own free will, and mere motion. This
feudal language and these mystic pretensions offended a people
so devoted to principles as the French, and so acute in drawing
deductions from premises, for they concluded, not unreasonably,
that rights granted as a favour were always subject to revocation
as a punishment. Therefore those of them who considered a
monarchical government as more beneficial to France than a
republic, but who were not disposed to hold their freedom
subject to the pleasure of a king, were either Bonapartists who
professed to rule by the choice of the nation, or supporters of the
Orleans princes who were ready to reign by an " original com-
pact " and by the wiU of the people. The difference therefore
between the supporters of the elder fine, or Legitimists, and
the Orleanists was profound, for it went down to the very
foundations of government.
The first generation of Orleanists, the immediate supporters of
Philippe figalite, were swamped in the turmoil of the great
revolution. Yet it has been justly pointed out by Albert Sorel
in his L'Europe et la revolution franqaise, that they subsisted
under the Empire, and that they came naturally to the front
when the revival of hberalism overthrew the restored legitimate
monarchy of Louis X\TII. and Charles X. During the Restora-
tion, 181 5-1830, everything tended to identify the liberals with
the Orleanists. Legitimism was incompatible with constitutional
freedom. Bonapartism was in eclipse, and was moreover
essentially a Caesarism which in the hands of the great Napoleon
282
ORLEANS, DUKES OF— ORLEANS, DUKE OF
had been a despotism, calling itself democratic for no better
reason than because it reduced all men to an equality of
submission to a master. Those rights of equality before the
law, and in social life, which had been far dearer to Frenchmen
of the revolutionary epoch than political freedom, were secured.
The ne.xt step was to obtain political freedom, and it was made
under the guidance of men who were Orleanists because the
Orleans princes seemed to them to offer the best guarantee for
such a government as they desired — a government which did not
profess to stand above the people and to own it by virtue of a
divine and legitimate hereditary right, nor one which, hke the
Bonapartists, implied a master relying on an army, and the
general subjection of the nation. The liberals who were Orleanists
had the advantage of being very ably led by men eminent in
letters and in practical affairs — Guizot, Thiers, the BrogUes,
the banker Lafi&tte and many others. When the unsurpassed
folly of the legitimate rulers brought about the revolution of 1S30,
the Orleanists stepped into its place, and they marked the pro-
found change which had been made in the character of the govern-
ment by calling the king. " King of the French " and not " King
of France and Navarre." He was chief of the people by compact
with the people, and not a territorial lord holding, in feudal
phrase, " in chief of God."
The events of the eighteen years of Orleanist rule cannot be
detailed here. They^were on the whole profitable to France.
That they ended in another " general overturn " in 1848 was
due no doubt in part to errors of conduct in individual princes and
politicians, but mainly to the fact that the Orleanist conception
of what was meant by the word " people " led them to offend
the long-standing and deeply-rooted love of the French for
equality. It had been inevitable that the Orleanists, in their
dislike of " divine right " on the one hand, and their fear of
democratic Caesarism on the other, should turn for examples
of a free government to England, and in England itself to the
Whigs, both the old Whigs of the Revolution Settlement of 1689,
and the new Whigs who extorted political franchises for the
middle classes by the Reform Bill. They saw there a monarchy
based on a parliamentary title, governing constitutionally and
supported by the middle classes, and they endeavoured to
establish the like in France under the name of a jusle-milieu,
a via media between absolutism by divine right, and a democracy
which they were convinced would lead to Caesarism. The French
equivalent for the English middle-class constituencies was to be
a pays legal of about a quarter of a million of voters by whom
all the rest of the country was to be " virtually represented."
The doctrine was expounded and was acted upon by Guizot with
uncompromising rigour. The Orleanist monarchy became so
thoroughly middle-class that the nation outside of the pays legal
ended by thinking that it was being governed by a privileged
class less offensive, but also a great deal less brilliant, than the
aristocracy of the old monarchy.
The revolution of 1848 swept the Orleanist party from power
for ever. The Orleanists indeed continued throughout the
Second Republic and the Empire (1848-1S70) to enjoy a marked
social and hterary prestige, on the strength of the wealth and
capacity of some of their members, their influence in the French
Academy and the ability of their organs in the press — particu-
larly the Revue des deux niondcs,\.hfi Journal des debats, a.ndxhe
papers directed by E. Herve. During the Empire the discreet
opposition of the Orleanists, exercised for the most part with
infinite dexterity and tact, by reticences, omissions, and historical
studies in which the Empire was attacked under foreign or
ancient names, was a perpetual thorn in the side of Napoleon III.
Yet they possessed little hold on the country and outside of a
cultivated liberal circle in Paris. Their weakness was demon-
strated when the second empire was swept awa)' by the German
War of 1870-71. The country in its disgust at the Bonapartists
and its fear of the Republicans, chose a great many royalists to
represent it in the Assembly which met in Bordeaux on the 12th
of February 1872. In this body the Orleanists again exercised
a kind of leadership by virtue of individual capacity, but they
were coimterbalanced by the Legitimists. The most effective
proof of power they gave was to render possible the expulsion
from power of Thiers on the 24th of May 1873, as punishment for
his dexterous imposition of the Republic on the unwilling
majority of the Assembly. Their real occupation was to en-
deavour to bring about a fusion between themselves and the
Legitimists which should unite the two royalist parties for the
confusion of the Bonapartists and Republicans. The belief
that a fusion would strengthen the royahsts was natural and
was not new. As far back as 1850 Guizot had proposed, or had
thought of proposing, one, but it was on the condition that the
comte de Chambord would resign his divine pretentions. When
a fusion was arranged in 1873 it was on quite another footing.
After much exchange of notes and many agitated conferences in
committee rooms and drawing-rooms, the comte de Paris, the
representative of the Orleanists, sought an interview with the -^
comte de Chambord at Frohsdorff, and obtained it by giving a
written engagement that he came not only to pay his respects to
the head of his house, but also to " accept his principle." It has
been somewhat artlessly pleaded by the Orleanists that this
engagement was given with mental reservations. But there were
no mental reservations on the part of the comte de Chambord,
and the country showed its belief that the hberal royalists had
been fused by absorption in the divine right royalists. It
returned republicans at by-elections till it transformed the
Assembly. The Orleanist princes had stiU a part to play, more
particularly after the death of the comte de Chambord in 1883
left them heads of the house of France, but the Orleanist party
ceased to exist as an independent political organization.
Authorities. — The Orleanists are necessarily more or less dealt
with in all histories of France since 1789, and in most political
memoirs, but their principles can be learnt and their fortunes
followed from the following: A. Sorel, L' Europe et la revolution
fran<;aise (Paris, 1885-1904); F. Guizot, Histoire parlementaire de
la France (Paris, 1819-1848) and Memoires pour servir d I'histoire
de mon temps (Paris, 1858-1867); P. de la Gorce, Histoire dusecond
empire (Paris, 1894-1904); and G. Hanotaux, Histoire de la France
contemporaine (Paris, 1903, &c.). (D. H.)
ORLEANS, DUKES OF. The title of duke of Orleans was
first created by King Phihp VI. in favour of his son Philip,
who died without legitimate issue in 1375. The second duke
of Orleans, created in 1392, was Louis, a younger son of Charles
v., whose heir was his son, the poet Charles of Orleans. Charles's
son Louis, the succeeding duke, became king of France as Louis
XII. in 1498, when the duchy of Orleans was united with the
royal domain. In 1626 Louis XIII. created his brother, Jean
Baptiste Gaston, duke of Orleans, and having become extinct
on the death of this prince in 1660 the title was revived in the
following year by Louis XIV. in favour of his brother PhiUp.
Descendants of this duke have retained the title until the present
day, one of them becoming king of France as Louis Phihppe
in 1830. Two distinguished families are descended from the
first house of Orleans: the counts of Angouleme, who were
descended from John, a son of Duke Louis I., and who furnished
France with a king in the person of Francis I. ; and the counts
and dukes of Longueville, whose founder was John, count of
Dunois, the bastard of Orleans, a natural son of the same duke.
In addition to the dukes of Orleans the most important members
of this family are: Anne Marie Louise, duchess of Montpensier;
Francis, prince of Joinville; Louis Philippe Albert, count of
Paris; and the traveller Prince Henry of Orleans. See the
genealogical table to the article Bourbon.
See below for separate articles on the chief personages.
ORLEANS, CHARLES, Duke of (1391-1465), commonly
called Charles d'Orleans, French poet, was the eldest son of
Louis, duke of Orleans (brother of Charles VI. of France), and
of Valentina Visconti, daughter of Giau Galeazzo, duke of
Milan. He was born on the 26th of May 1391. Although
many minor detaOs are preserved of his youth, nothing except his
reception in 1403, from his uncle the king, of a pension of 12,000
livres d'or is worth noticing, until his marriage three years
later (June 29, 1406) with Isabella, his cousin, widow of
Richard II. of England. The bride was two years older than
her husband, and is thought to have married him unwillingly.
ORLEANS, DUKE OF— ORLEANS, PRINCE OF
283
but she brought him a great dowry — it is said, 500,000 francs.
She died three years later, leaving Charles at the age of eighteen
a widower and father of a daughter. He was already duke of
Orleans, for Louis had been assassinated by the Burgundians
two years before (1407). He soon saw himself the most im-
portant person in France, except the dukes of Burgundy and
Brittany, the king being a cipher. This position his natural
temperament by no means quahfied him to fill. His mother
desired vengeance for her husband, and Charles did his best
to carry out her wishes by fiUing France with intestine war.
Of this, however, he was only nominally one of the leaders, the
real guidance of his party resting with Bernard VH., the great
count of Armagnac, whose daughter, Bonne, he married, or at
least formally espoused, in 1410. Five years of confused negotia-
tions, plots and fightings passed before the Enghsh invasion
and the battle of Agincourt, where Charles was joint commander-
in-chief. According to one account he was dangerously wounded
and narrowly escaped with his life. He was certainly taken
prisoner and carried to England, which country was his residence
thenceforward for a full quarter of a century. Windsor, Ponto-
fract, Ampthill, Wingfield (Suffolk) and the Tower are named
among other places as the scenes of his captivity, which, how-
ever, was anything but a rigorous one. He was maintained
in the state due not merely to one of the greatest nobles of
France but to one who ranked high in the order of succession
to the crown. He hunted and hawked and enjoyed society
amply, though the very dignities which secured him these
privileges made his ransom great, and his release difficult to
arrange. Above all, he had leisure to devote himself to literary
work. But for this he would hardly be more than a name.
This work consists wholly of short poems in the peculiar
artificial metres which had become fashionable in France about
half a century or more before his birth, and which continued
to be fashionable till nearly a century after his death. Besides
these a number of English poems have been attributed to him,
but without certainty. They have not much poetical merit,
but they exhibit something of the smoothness of versification
not uncommon in those who write, with care, a language not
their own. The ingenuity of a single English critic has striven
to attribute to him a curious book in prose, called Le Debat dcs
heraiits de France et d' Anglderre, but Paul Meyer, in his edition
of the book in question, has completely disposed of this theory.
For all practical purposes, therefore, Charles's work consists
of some hundreds of short French poems, a few in various
metres, but the majority either ballades or rondels. The chrono-
logy of these poems is not always clear, still less the identity
of the persons to whom they are addressed, and it is certain
that some, perhaps the greater part of them, belong to the later
years of the poet's life. But many are expressly stated in the
manuscripts to have been " composed in prison," others are
obviously so composed, and, on the whole, there is in them a
remarkable unity of literary flavour. Charles d'Orleans is not
distinguished by any extraordinary strength of passion or origin-
ahty of character; but he is only the more valuable as the last
and not the least accomplished representative of the poetry
of the middle of the middle ages, in which the form was almost
everything, and the personality of the poet, save in rare instances,
nothing. Yet he is not entirely without differentia. He is a
capital example of the cultivated and refined — it may almost
be called the lettered — chivalry of the last chivalrous age,
expert to the utmost degree in carrying out the traditional
details of a graceful convention in love and literature. But
he is more than this; in a certain easy grace and truth of ex-
pression, as well as in a peculiar mixture of melancholy, which
is not incompatible with the enjoyment of the pleasures, even
the trifling pleasures, of hfe, with listlessness that is fully able
to occupy itself about those trifles, he stands quite alone. He
has the urbanity of the iSth century without its vicious and
prosaic frivolity, the poetry of the middle ages without their
tendency to tediousness. His best-known rondels — those on
Spring, on the Harbingers of Summer, and others — rank second
to nothing of their kind.
Poetry, however, could hardly be an entire consolation, and
Charles was perpetually scheming for liberty. But the English
government had too many reasons for keeping him, and it was
not till his hereditary foe Phihp the Good of Burgundy interested
himself in him that the government of Henry VT., which had
by that time lost most of its hold on France, released him in
return for an immediate payment of 80,000 saluls d'or, and an
engagement on his part to pay 140,000 crowns at a future time.
Tlie agreement was concluded on the 2nd of July, 1440. He was
actually released on the 3rd of November following, and almost
immediately cemented his friendship with Duke Philip by marry-
ing his niece, Mary of Cleves, who brought him a considerable
dowry to assist the payment of his ransom. He had, however, some
difficulty in making up the balance, as well as the large sum
required for his brother, Jean d'Angouleme, who also was an
Enghsh prisoner. The last twenty-five years of his life (for,
curiously enough, it divides itself into three almost exactly
equal periods, each of that length) were spent partly in negotiat-
ing, with a little fighting intermixed, for the purpose of gaining
the Italian county of .'\sti, on which he had claims through
his mother, partly in travelling about, but chiefly at his jjrincipal
seat of Blois. Here he kept a miniature court which, from the
literary point of view at least, was not devoid of brilliancy.
At this most of the best-known French men-of-letters at the
time — Villon, Olivier de la Marche, Chastelain, Jean Meschinot
and others — were residents or visitors or correspondents. His
son, afterwards Louis XII., was not born till 1462, three years
before Charles's own death. He had become, notwithstanding
his high position, something of a nullity in politics, and tradition
ascribes his death to vexation at the harshness with which
Louis XI. rejected his attempt to mediate on behalf of the duke
of Brittany. At any rate he died, on the 4lh of January, 1465, at
Amboise. Many of his later poems are small occasional pieces
addressed to his courtiers and companions, and in not a few
cases answers to them by those to whom they were addressed
exist.
The best edition of Charles d'Orleans's poems, with a brief but
sufficient account of his life, is that of C- d'Hericault in the Nouvelle
collection Jannet (Paris, 1874). For the English poems see the
edition by Watson Taylor for the Roxburghe Club (1827). (G. Sa.)
ORLEANS, FERDINAND PHILIP LOUIS CHARLES HENRY,
Duke of (1810-1842), born at Palermo on the 3rd of September
1 8 10, was the son of Louis Phihppe, duke of Orleans, afterwards
king of France, and Marie Amehe, princess of the Two Sicilies.
Under the Restoration he bore the title of duke of Chartres, and
studied classics in Paris at the College Henri IV. At the out-
break of the Revolution, which in 1830 set his father on the
throne, he was colonel of a regiment of Hussans. He then
assumed the title of duke of Orleans, and was sent by the king to
Lyons to put down the formidable riots which had broken out
there (1831), and then to the siege of Antwerp (1832). He was
appointed lieutenant-general, and made several campaigns in
Algeria (1835, 1830, 1840). On his return to France he organized
the battalions of light infantry known as the chasseurs d'Orleans.
He died as the result of a carriage accident at NeuiUy, near Paris,
on the 13th of July 1842.
The duke of Orleans had married (May 30, 1837) Helene
Louise Elisabeth of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, and had by her two
sons, the count of Paris and the duke of Chartres. On the 24th
of February 1848, after the abdication of Louis Phihppe, the
duchess of Orleans went to the Chamber of Deputies assembled
in the Palais Bourbon in the hope of having her eldest son
proclaimed and of obtaining the regency; but the threatening
attitude of the populace forced her to flee. She took refuge in
England, and died at Richmond on the iSth of May 1858.
(M. P.*)
ORLEANS, HENRI, Prince of (1S67-1901), eldest son of
Robert, duke of Chartres, was born at Ham, near Richmond,
Surrey, on the i6th of October 1867. In i88q, at the instance
of his father, who paid the expenses of the tour, he undertook,
in company with MM. Bonvalot and Dedecken, a journey through
Siberia to Siam. In the course of their travels they crossed the
284
ORLEANS, DUCHESS OF— ORLEANS, DUKE OF
mountain range of Tibet, and the fruits of their observations,
submitted to the Geographical Society of Paris (and later in-
corporated in De Paris an Tonkin & Iravcrs le Tibet inconnu,
published in 1892), brought them conjointly the gold medal
of that society. In 1892 the prince made a short journey of
exploration in East Africa, and shortly afterwards visited
Madagascar, proceeding thence to Tongking. From this point
he set out for Assam, and was successful in discovering the
sources of the river Irrawaddy, a brilliant geographical achieve-
ment which secured the medal of the Geographical Society of
Paris and the cross of the Legion of Honour. In 1897 he revisited
Abyssinia, and political differences arising from this trip led to a
duel with the comte de Turin, in which both combatants were
wounded. While on a trip to Assam in 1901 he died at Saigon
on the 9th of August. Prince Henri was a somewhat violent
Anglophobe, and his diatribes against Great Britain contrasted
rather curiously with the cordial reception which his position as
a traveller obtained for him in London, where he was given the
gold medal of the Royal Geographical Society.
ORLEANS, HENRIETTA, Duchess of (1644-1670), third
daughter of the English king, Charles I., and his queen, Henrietta
Maria, was born during the Civil War at E.xeter on the i6th of
June 1644. A few days after her birth her mother left England,
and provision for her maintenance having been made by Charles
she lived at Exeter under the care of Lady Dalkeith (afterwards
countess of Morton) until the surrender of the city to the parha-
mentarians, when she was taken to Oatlands in Surrey. Then
in July 1646 Lady Dalkeith carried the princess in disguise to
France, and she rejoined her mother in Paris, where her girlhood
was spent and where she was educated as a Roman Catholic.
Henrietta was present at the coronation of Louis XIV., and was
mentioned as a possible bride for the king, but she was betrothed,
not to Louis, but to his only brother Philip. After the restoration
of her brother Charles II., she returned to England with her
mother, but a few months later she was again in Paris, where
she was married to Philip, now duke of Orleans, on the 30th of
March 1661. The duchess was very popular at the court of
Louis XIV., and was on good terms with the grand monarch
himself; she shared in the knowledge of state secrets, but was
soon estranged from her husband, and at the best her conduct
was very imprudent. In 1670, at the instigation of Louis, she
visited England and obtained the signature of Charles II. 's
ministers to the treaty of Dover; her success in this matter
greatly delighted Louis, but it did not improve her relations with
Philip, who had long refused his consent to his wife's visit to
England. Shortly after returning to France, Henrietta died at
St Cloud on the 30th of June 1670. She was buried at St Denis,
her funeral oration being pronounced by her friend Bossuet,
and it was asserted that she had been poisoned by order of her
husband. She left two daughters, Marie Louise, wife of Charles
II. of Spain, and Anne Marie, wife of Victor Amadeus II. of Savoy.
According to legitimist principles, the descendants of Henrietta,
through her daughter Marie of Savoy, are entitled to wear the
British crown.
ORLEANS, JEAN BAPTISTE GASTON, Duke of (1608-1660),
third son of the French king Henry IV., and his wife Marie de
Medici, was born at Fontainebleau on the 25th of April 160S.
Known at first as the duke of Anjou, he was created duke of
Orleans in 1626, and was nominaUy in command of the army
which besieged La Rochelle in 1628, having already entered
upon that course of political intrigue which was destined to
occupy the remainder of his hfe. On two occasions he was
obliged to leave France for conspiring against the government of
his mother and of Cardinal Richelieu; and after waging an
unsuccessful war in Languedoc, he took refuge in Flanders.
Reconciled with his brother Louis XIII., he plotted against
Richelieu in 1635, fled from the country, and then submitted
to the king and the cardinal. Soon afterwards the same process
was repeated. Orleans stirred up Cinq-Mars to attempt Riche-
lieu's murder, and then deserted his unfortunate accomplice.
In 1643, on the death of Louis XIII., Gaston became heutenant-
general of the kingdom, and fought against Spain on the northern
frontiers of France; but during t'ne wars of the Fronde he passed
with great facility from one party to the other. Then exiled by
Mazarin to Blois in 1652 he remained there until his death
on the 2nd of February 1660. Gaston's first wife was Marie
(d. 1627), daughter and heiress of Henri de Bourbon, ducde Mont-
pensier (d. 1608), and his second wife was Marguerite (d. 1672),
sister of Charles III., duke of Lorraine. By Marie he left a
daughter, Anne Marie, duchesse de Montpensier (q.v.) ; and by
Marguerite he left three daughters, Marguerite Louise (1645-
1721), wife of Cosimo III., grand duke of Tuscany; Elizabeth
(1646-1696), wife of Louis Joseph, duke of Guise; and Frangoise
Madeleine (164S-1664), wife of Charles Emmanuel II., duke of
Savoy. (M. P.*)
ORLEANS, LOUIS, Duke of (1372-1407), younger son of the
French king, Charles V., was born on the 13th of March 1372.
Having been made count of Valois and of Beaumont-sur-Oise,
and then duke of Touraine, he received the duchy of Orleans
from liis brother Charles VI. in 1392, three years after his
marriage with Valentina (d. 1408), daughter of Gian Galeazzo
Visconti, duke of Milan. This lady brought the county of Asti
to her husband; but more important was her claim upon Milan,
which she transmitted to her descendants, and which furnished
Louis XII. and Francis I. with a pretext for interference in
northern Italy. When Charles VL became insane in 1392,
Orleans placed himself in opposition to his uncle Phihp II.,
duke of Burgundy, who was conducting the government; and
this quarrel was not only the dominating factor in the affairs of
France, but extended beyond the borders of that country.
Continued after PhiHp's death in 1404 with his son and successor,
John the Fearless, it culminated in the murder of Orleans by
one of John's partisans on the 23rd of November 1407. The
duke, who was an accomplished and generous prince, was
suspected of immoral relations with several ladies of the royal
house, among them Isabella of Bavaria, the queen of Charles VI.
He had eight children by Valentina Visconti, including his
successor, Charles of Orleans, the poet, and one of his natural
sons was the famous bastard of Orleans, John, count of Dunois.
See E. Jarry, La Vie politique de Louis d Orleans (Paris, 1889).
ORLEANS, LOUIS, Duke of (1703-1752), only son of Duke
Philip II., the regent Orleans, was born at VersaiOes on the
4th of August 1703. A pious, charitable and cultured prince,
he took very httle part in the politics of the time, although he
was conspicuous for his hostility to Cardinal Dubois in 1723.
In 1730 Cardinal Fleury secured his dismissal from the position
of colonel-general of the infantry, a post which he had held for
nine years; and retiring into private life, he spent his time
mainly in translating the Psalms and the epistles of St Paul.
Having succeeded his father as duke of Orleans in 1723, he died
in the abbey of St Genevieve at Paris on the 4th of February
1752. His wife Augusta (d. 1726), daughter of Louis William,
margrave of Baden, bore him an only son, Louis Phihppe, who
succeeded his father as duke of Orleans.
ORLEANS, LOUIS PHILIPPE, Duke of (1725-1785), son of
Louis, duke of Orleans, was born at Versailles on the 12th of
May 1725, and was known as the duke of Chartres until his
father's cleath in 1752. Serving with the French armies he
distinguished himself in the campaigns of 1742, 1743 and 1744,
and at the battle of Fontenoy in 1745, retiring to Bagnolet in
1757, and occupying his time with theatrical performances and
the society of men of letters. He died at St Assise on the i8th
of November 1785. The duke married Loube Henriette de
Bourbon-Conti, who bore him a son Phihp (Egahte), duke of
Orleans, and a daughter, who married the last duke of Bourbon.
His second wife, Madame de Montesson, whom he married
secretly in 1773, was a clever woman and an authoress of some
repute. He had two natural sons, known as the abbot of St
Far and the abbot of St Albin.
See L' Automne d'un prince, a collection of letters from the duke to
his second wife, edited by J. Hermand (1910).
ORLEANS, LOUIS PHILIPPE JOSEPH, Duke of (1747-1793),
called Philippe Egalite, son of Louis Philippe, duke of Orleans,
and of Louise Henriette of Bourbon-Conti, was born at St Cloud
ORLEANS, DUKES OF
285
on the 13th of April 1747. Having borne the title of duke of
Montpensier until his grandfather's death in 1752, he became
duke of Chartres, and in 1769 married Louise Marie Adelaide
de Bourbon-Penthievre, daughter and heiress of the duke of
Penthievre, grand admiral of France, and the richest heiress of
the time. Her wealth made it certain that he would be the richest
man in France, and he determined to play a part equal to that of
his great-grandfather, the regent, whom he resembled in character
and debauchery. As duke of Chartres he opposed the plans of
Maupeou in 1771, and was promptly exiled to his country
estate of Villers-Cotterets (Aisne). When Louis XVI. came
to the throne in 1774 Chartres still found himself looked on coldly
at court; Marie Antoinette hated him, and envied him for his
wealth, wit and freedom from etiquette, and he was not slow
to return her hatred with scorn. In 1778 he served in the
squadron of D'Orvilliers, and was present in the naval] battle
of Ushant on the 27th of July 1778. He hoped to see further
service, but the queen was opposed to this, and he was removed
from the navy, and given the honorary post of colonel-general
of hussars. He then abandoned himself to pleasure; he often
visited London, and became an intimate friend of the prince
of Wales (afterwards George IV.); he brought to Paris the
" anglo-mania," as it was called, and made jockeys as fashionable
as they were in England. He also made himself very popular
in Paris by his: large gifts to the poor in time of famine, and
by throwing open the gardens of the Palais Royal to the people.
Before the meeting of the notables in 1787 he had succeeded his
father as duke of Orleans, and showed his liberal ideas, which
were largely learnt in England, so boldly that he was believed
to be aiming at becoming constitutional king of France. In
November he again showed his liberalism in the lit de justice,
which Brienne had made the king hold, and was again exiled to
Villers-Cotterets. The approaching convocation of the states-
general made his friends very active on his behalf; he circulated
in every bailliage the pamphlets which F. J. Sieyes had drawn
up at his request, and was elected in three — bj' the noblesse
of Paris, Villers-Cotterets and Crepy-en-Valois. In the estate
of the nobility he headed the liberal minority under the guidance
of Adrien Duport, and led the minority of forty-seven noblemen
who seceded from their own estate (June 1789) and joined the
Tiers fitat. The part he played during the summer of 1789 is
one of the most debated points in the history of the Revolution.
The court accused him of being at the bottom of every popular
movement, and saw the " gold of Orleans " as the cause of the
Reveillon riot and the taking of the Bastille, as the republicans
later saw the " gold of Pitt " in every germ of opposition to
themselves. There can be no doubt that he hated the queen,
and bitterly resented his long disgrace at court, and also that he
sincerely wished for a thorough reform of the government and
the establishment of some such constitution as that of England;
and no doubt such friends as Adrien Duport and Choderlos
de Laclos,for their own reasons, wished to see himkingof France.
The best testimony for the behaviour of Orleans during this
summer is the testimony of an English lady, Mrs Grace Dalrymple
Elliott, who shared his heart with the comtesse de Buffon, and
from which it is absolutely certain that at the time of the riot
of the 12th of July he was on a fishing excursion, and was
rudely treated by the king on the next day when going to ofTer
him his services. He indeed became so disgusted with the
false position of a pretender to the crown, into which he was
being forced, that he wished to go to America, but, as the
comtesse de BufJon would not go with him, he decided to remain
in Paris. He was again accused, unjustly, of having caused
the march of the women to Versailles on the sth of October.
La Fayette, jealous of his popularity, persuaded the king to
send the duke to England on a mission, and thus get him out
of France, and he accordingly remained in England from October
17S9 to July 1790. On the 7th of July he took his seat in the
Assembly, and on the 2nd of October both he and Mirabeau were
declared by the Assembly entirely free of any complicity in the
events of October. He now tried to keep himself as much out
of the political world as possible, but in vain, for the court would
suspect him, and his friends would talk about his being king.
The best proof of his not being ambitious of such a doubtful
piece of preferment is that he made no attempt to get himself
made king, regent or lieutenant-general of the kingdom at the
time of the flight to Varennes in June 1791. He, on the contrary,
again tried to make his peace with the court in January 1792,
but he was so insulted that he was not encouraged to sacrifice
himself for the sake of the king and queen, who persisted in
remembering all old enmities in their time of trouble. In the
summer of 1792 he was present for a short time with the army
of the north, with his two sons, the duke of Chartres and the
duke of Montpensier, but had returned to Paris before the loth
of August. After that day he underwent great personal risk
in saving fugitives; in particular, he saved the life of the count
of Champcenetz, the governor of the Tuileries, who was his
personal enemy, at the request of Mrs Elliott. It was impossible
for him to recede, and, after accepting the title of Citoyen Egalite,
conferred on him by the commune of Paris, he was elected
twentieth and last deputy for Paris to the Convention. In that
body he sat as quietly as he had done in the National Assembly,
but on the occasion of the king's trial he had to speak, and then
only to give his vote for the death of Louis. His compliance
did not save him from suspicion, which was especially aroused by
the friendship of his eldest son, the duke of Chartres, with
Dumouriez, and when the news of the desertion of Chartres
with Dumouriez became known at Paris all the Bourbons left
in France, including figalite, were ordered to be arrested on the
5th of April. He remained in prison till the month of October,
when the Reign of Terror began. He was naturally the very
sort of victim wanted, and he was decreed " of accusation "
on the 3rd of October. He was tried on the 6th of November
and was guillotined on the same day, with a smile upon his lips
and without any appearance of fear. No man ever was more
blamed than Orleans during the Revolution, but the faults
of ambition and intrigue were his friends', not his own; it was
his friends who wished him to be on the throne. Personally
he possessed the charming manners of a polished grand seigneur:
debauched and cynical, but never rude or cruel, full of gentle
consideration for all about him but selfish in his pursuit of
pleasure, he has had to bear a heavy load of blame, but it is
ridiculous to describe the idle and courteous voluptuary as being
a dark and designing scoundrel, capable of murder if it would
serve his ambition. The execution of Philippe figalite made
the friend of Dumouriez, who was living in exile, duke of Orleans.
Authorities. — Baschet, Histoire de Philippe £.galiie\ Journal
oi Mrs Grace Dalrymple Elliott (1859); A. Nettement, Philippe-
Egalite (Paris, 1842); Laurentie, Histoire des dues d'Orleans (Paris,
1832); G. Peignot, Precis kistoriqtie de la maison d'Orleans (Paris,
1830); L. C. R(ousselet), Correspondance de Louis-Philippe Joseph
d'Orleans avec Louis XVI (Paris, 1800); Rivarol, Portrait du due
d'Orleans et de Madame de Genlis; Tournois, Histoire du Louis
Philippe Joseph due d'Orleans (Paris, 1842).
ORLEANS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ROBERT, Duke of (1869-
), eldest son of the comte de Paris, was born at York House,
Twickenham, on the 6th of February 1869. The law of exile
against the French princes having been abrogated in 187 1, he
returned with his parents to France. He was first educated by a
private tutor, and then foUowed the courses of the municipal
college at Eu. In 1882 he entered the College Stanislas, Paris,
and took a first prize in a competitive Latin translation. On the
death of the comte de Chambord, the comte de Paris became head
of the Bourbons; and in 1886 he and his son were exiled from
France. Queen Victoria appointed the duke of Orleans a super-
numerary cadet at the Royal Military College, Sandhurst.
After passing his examinations he received a commission in the
4th battalion of the 60th Rifles, then quartered in India. In
January 1888 the duke went out to India, accompanied by
Colonel de Parseval as military governor and adviser. At
Bombay he was received by the duke of Connaught and Lord
Reay, and at Calcutta he became the guest of the viceroy, the
marquess of Dufferin, who organized for the duke and his cousin,
Prince Henry of Orleans, a grand tiger-shooting expedition in
Nepaul. The duke now reported himself to the commander-in-
286
ORLEANS, DUKES OF— ORLEANS
chief .afterwards Earl Roberts,and joined his regiment at Chakrata.
After seeing service, the duke ceased his connexion with the
Indian army in February 1889, and returned to England. On
attaining his majority, he entered Paris (February 7, iSgo),
and proceeding to the mairie, expressed his desire, as a French-
man, to perform his military service. This act caused great
excitement, and he was arrested in conformity with the law of
1886, which forbade the soil of France to the direct heirs of the
families which had reigned there. He was tried, and sentenced
to two years' imprisonment; but he was liberated by President
Garnot after a few months' nominal incarceration (June 4),
and conducted to the Swiss frontier. This escapade won for him
the title of " Le Premier Conscrit de France." After the comte
de Paris 's funeral (September 12, 1894) the duke received his
adherents in London, and then removed to Brussels, as being
nearer France. On the 5th of November 1896 the duke
married the archduchess Maria Dorothea Amalia of Austria, the
ceremony taking place at Vienna. It was alleged that some of
his followers were implicated in the conspiracies against the
French Republic in 1899. A letter which the duke wrote in 1900,
approving the artist whose caricatures were grossly insulting to
Queen Victoria, excited great indignation both in England and
in many French circles, and estranged him from many with
whom he had formerly been upon friendly terms; but after
Queen Victoria's death it was allowed to become known that
this affair had been forgotten and forgiven by the British
royal family. The duke of Orleans made several long ex-
ploring journeys, being particularly interested in polar dis-
coveries. In 1905 he published Une croisicrc au Spitzberg, and,
later, another account of his travels, under the title .4 trovers
la Banquise.
ORLEANS, PHILIP I., Duke or (1640-1701), son of the French
king Louis XIII., was born at St Germain-en-Laye on the 21st of
September 1640. In 1661 he was created duke of Orleans, and
married Henrietta, sister of Charles II. of England; but the
marriage was not a happy one, and the death of the duchess in
1670 was attributed to poison. Subsequently he married
Charlotte Elizabeth, daughter of Charles Louis, elector palatine
of the Rhine. Having fought with distinction in Flanders in
1667, Monsieur, as Orleans was generaUy called, returned to
military life in 1672, and in 1677 gained a great victory at Cassel
and took St Omer. Louis XIV., it was said, was jealous of his
brother's success; at all events Orleans never commanded an
army again. He died at St Cloud on the 8th of June 1701,
leaving a son, Philip, the regent Orleans, and two daughters:
Anne Marie (1669-1728), wife of Victor Amadeus II., duke
of Savoy; and Elizabeth Charlotte (1676-1744), wife of Leo-
pold, duke of Lorraine. His eldest daughter, Marie Louise
(1662-1689), wife of Charles II. of Spain, died before her
father. (M. P.*)
ORLEANS, PHILIP II., Duke of (1674-1723), regent of France,
son of Philip I., duke of Orleans, and his second wife, the
princess palatine, was born on the 2nd of August 1674, and had
his first experience of arms at the siege of Mons in 1691. His
marriage with Mile de Blois, the legitimized daughter of Louis
XIV., won him the favour of the king. He fought with distinc-
tion at Steinkerk, Neerwinden and Namur (1692-1695). During
the next few years, being without employment, he studied
natural science. He was next given a command in Italy (1706)
and in Spain (i 707-1 708) where he gained some important
successes, but he cherished lofty ambitions and was suspected of
wishing to take the place of Philip V. on the throne of Spain.
Louis XIV. was angry at these pretensions, and for a long time
held him in disfavour. In his will, however, he appointed him
president of the council of regency of the young King Louis XV.
(1715). After the death of the king, the duke of Orleans went to
the parlement, had the will annulled, and himself invested with
absolute power. At first he made a good use of this, counselling
economy, decreasing taxation, disbanding 25,000 soldiers and
restoring liberty to the persecuted Jansenists. But the inquisi-
torial measures which he had begun against the financiers led to
disturbances. He was, moreover, weak enough to countenance
the risky operations of the banker John Law (1717), whose
bankruptcy led to such a disastrous crisis in the public and
private affairs of France.
There existed a party of malcontents who wished to transfer
the regency from Orleans to Philip V., king of Spain. A con-
spiracy was formed, under the inspiration of Cardinal Alberoni,
first minister of Spain, and directed by the prince of Cellamare,
Spanish ambassador in France, with the complicity of the duke
and duchess of Maine; but in 1718 it was discovered and
defeated. Dubois, formerly tutor to the duke of Orleans, and
now his all-powerful minister, caused war to be declared against
Spain, with the support of the emperor, and of England and
Holland (Quadruple Alliance). After some successes of the
French marshal, the duke of Berwick, in Spain, and of the
imperial troops in Sicily, Philip V. made peace with the regent
(1720).
On the majority of the king, which was declared on the isth
of February 1723, the duke of Orleans resigned the supreme
power; but he became first minister to the king, and remained
in office till his death on the 23rd of December 1723. The
regent had great qualities, both brilliant and solid, which were
unfortunately spoilt by an excessive taste for pleasure. His
dissolute manners found only too many imitators, and the
regency was one of the most corrupt periods in French history.
See J. B. H. R. Capefigue, Histoire de Philippe d'Orlcans, regent de
France (2 vols., Paris, 1838); A. Baudrillart, Philippe V. et la cour
de France, vol. ii. (Paris, 1890); and L. VViesener, Le regent, I'abbe
Dubois et les Anglais (3 vols., Paris, 1891-1899). (M. P.*)
ORLEANS, a city of north central France, chief town of the
department of Loiret, on the right bank of the Loire, 77 m.
S.S.W. of Paris by rail. Pop. (1906), town, 57,544; commune,
68,614. At Les Aubrais, a mile to the north, is one of the chief
railway junctions in the country. Besides the Paris and Orleans
railway, which there divides into two main lines — a western to
Nantes and Bordeaux via Tours, and a southern to Bourges and
Toulouse via Vierzon — branches leave Les Aubrais eastwards
for Pithiviers, Chalons-sur-Marne and Gien, north-west for
Chateaudun and Rouen. The whole town of Orleans is clustered
together on the right bank of the river and surrounded by fine
boulevards, beyond which it sends out suburbs along the various
roads. It is connected with the suburb of St Marceau on the
left bank by a handsome stone bridge of nine arches, erected in the
i8th century. Farther up is the railway bridge. The river is
canalized on the right, and serves as a continuation of the
Orleans Canal, which unites the Loire with the Seine by the
canal of the Loing.
Owing to its position on the northernmost point of the Loire
Orleans has long been the centre of communication between the
Loire basin and Paris. The chief interest of the place lies in
its public buildings and the historical events of which it has been
the scene. Proceeding from the railway station to the bridge
over the Loire, the visitor crosses Orleans from north to south
and passes through the Place du Martroi, the heart of the city.
In the middle of the square stands an equestrian statue of Joan of
Arc, in bronze, resting on a granite pedestal surrounded by
bas-reliefs representing the leading episodes in her life. In 1855
it took the place of an older statue executed in the beginning of
the century, which was then transferred to the left bank of the
Loire at the end of the bridge, a few paces from' the spot where a
simple cross marks the site of the Fort des Toiirelles captured by
Joan of Arc in 1429. From the Place du Martroi, the Rue Jeanne
d'Arc leads to the cathedral of Ste Croix. This church, begun in
1287, was burned by the Huguenots in 1567 before its completion.
Henry IV., in 1601, laid the first stone of the new structure, the
building of which continued until 1829. It consists of a vestibule,
a nave with double aisles, a corresponding choir, a transept and
an apse. Its length is 472 ft., its width at the transept 220 ft.
and the height of the central vaults 112 ft. The west front has
two flat-topped towers, each of three storeys, of which the first
is square, the second octagonal and the third cylindrical. The
whole front is Gothic, but was designed and constructed in the
1 8th century and exhibits all the defects of the period, though its
ORLEANS
287
proportions are impressive. A central spire (igth century) 328 ft.
high, on the other hand, recalls the pure Gothic style of the
13th century. In the interior the choir chapels and the apse,
dating from the original erection of the building, and the fine
modern tomb of Mgr. F. A. P. Dupanloup, bishop from 1840 to
i<S78, are worthy of note. In the episcopal palace and the higher
seminary are several remarkable pictures and pieces of wood-
carving; and the latter building has a crypt of the Qth century,
belonging to the church of St Avit demolished in 1428. The
church of St Aignan consists of a transept and choir of the second
half of the 15th century; it contains in a gilded and carved
wooden shrine the remains of its patron saint, who occupied the
see of Orleans at the time of Attila's invasion. The crypt dates
from the gth to the beginning of the nth century. The once
beautiful sculpture of the exterior has been altogether ruined;
the interior has been restored, but not in keeping with the
original style. A third church, St Euverte, dedicated to one of
the oldest bishops of Orleans (d. 391), is an early Gothic building
dating from the 13th, completely restored in the 15th century.
St Pierre-le-Puellier dates in its oldest portions from the loth
or even the qth century. To the west of the Rue Royale stand
the church of St Paul, whose fagade and isolated tower both
bear fine features of Renaissance work, and Notre-Dame de
Recouvrance, rebuilt between 1517 and 1519 in the Renaissance
style and dedicated to the memory of the deliverance of the city.
The hotel de ville, built under Francis I. and Henry II. and
restored in the igth century, was formerly the residence of the
governors ot Orleans, and was occupied by the kings and queens
of France from Francis II. to Henry IV. The front of the
building, with its different coloured bricks, its balconies sup-
ported by caryatides attributed to Jean Goujon, its gable-ends
and its windows, recalls the Flemish style. There are several
niches with statues. Beneath, between the double fiight of steps
leading up to the entrance, stands a bronze reproduction of the
statue of Joan of Arc, a masterpiece of the princess Mary of
Orleans, preserved in the Versailles museum. The richly-
decorated apartments of the first storey containpain tings, interest-
ing chimneys, and a bronze statuette (also by the princess Mary)
representing Joan of Arc mounted on a caparisoned horse and
clothed in the garb of the knights of the isth century. The great
hall in which it is placed also possesses a chimney decorated with
three bas-reliefs of Domreniy, Orleans and Reims, all associated
with her life. The historical museum at Orleans is one of the
most interesting of provincial collections, the numismatic,
medieval and Renaissance departments, and the collection of
ancient vases being of great value. The city also possesses a
separate picture gallery, a sculpture gallery and a natural
history museum, which are established in the former hotel de
ville, a Renaissance building of the latter half of the 1 5th century.
The public library comprises among its manuscripts a number
dating from the 7th century, and obtained in most cases from
St Benoit on the Loire. The general hospital is incorporated with
the Hotel Dieu, and forms one of the finest institutions of the
kind in France. The salle des fetes, formerly the corn-market,
stands within a vast cloister formed by 15th-century arcades,
once belonging to the old cemetery. The sal/e des T/iiscs (1411)
of the university is the meeting-place of the Archaeological
Society of the city. Among the old private houses numerous at
Orleans, that of Agnes Sorel (15th and i6th century), which
contains a large collection of objects and works of art relating to
Joan of Arc, that of Francis I., of the first half of the i6th century,
that occupied by Joan of .'\rc during the siege of 1429, and that
known as the house of Diane de Poitiers (i6th century), which
contains the historical museum, are of special interest. The
hole! dela VieiUe-Intendancc , built in the 15th and i6th centuries,
served as residence of the intcndants of Orleans in later times.
The " White Tower " is the last representative of the towers
rendered famous by the siege. A statue to the jurisconsult,
R. J. Pothier (1699-1772), one of the most illustrious of the
natives of Orleans, stands in front of the hotel de viUe. The
anniversary of the raising of the siege in 1429 by Joan of Arc is
celebrated every year with great pomp. After the English had
retired, the popular enthusiasm improvised a procession, which
marched with singing of hymns from the cathedral to St Paul,
and the ceremony is still repealed on the 8th of May by the clergy
and the civil and military functionaries. Orleans is the seat of
a bishopric, a prefect, a court of appeal, and a court of assizes
and headquarters of the V. army corps. There are tribunals of
first instance and of commerce, a board of trade-arbitration, a
chamber of commerce and a branch of the Bank of France;
and training colleges for both sexes, a lycee for boys, a technical
school and an ecclesiastical seminary.
The more important industries of the town are t he manufacture
of tobacco (by the state), blankets, hairpins, vinegar, machinery,
agricultural implements, hosiery, tools and ironware, and the
preparation of preserved vegetables. Wine, wool, grain and
live stock are the commercial staples of the city, round which
there are important nurseries.
The site of Orleans must have been occupied very early in
history by a trading post for commerce between northern and
central and southern Gaul. At the time of the Roman conquest
the town was known as Gcnabinn, and was the starting-point of
the great revolt against Julius Caesar in 52 B.C. In the 5th
century it had taken the name Aurelianiim from either Marcus
Aurelius or Aurelian. It was vainly besieged in 451 by Attila,
who was awed by the intercession of its bishop, St Aignan, and
finally driven off by the patrician Aetius. Odoacer and his
Saxons also failed to take it in 471, but in 498 it fell into the hands
of Clovis, who in 511 held here the first ecclesiastical council
assembled in France. The dignity which it then obtained, of
being the capital of a separate kingdom, was lost by its union with
that of Paris in 613. In the loth century the town was given in
fief to the counts of Paris, who in 987 ousted the Carolingian
line from the throne of France. In 099 a great fire devastated the
town. Orleans remained during all the medieval period one of
the first cities of the French monarchy; several of the kings
dwelt within its walls, or were consecrated in its cathedral;
it had a royal mint, was the seat of councils, and obtained for
its schools the name of university (1309), and for its soldiery an
equal standing with those of Paris. Philip, fifth son of Philip VI.,
was the first of the dukes of Orleans. After the assassination of
his successor Louisbyjean Sans-Peur, dukeof Burgundy (1407),
the people of Orleans sided resolutely with the Armagnacs, and
in this way brought upon themselves the attacks of the Bur-
gundians and the English. Joan of Arc, having entered the
beleaguered city on the 20th of April 1429, effected the raising
of the siege by means of an attack on the 7th of May on the
Fort des Tourelles, in the course of which she was wounded.
Early in the i6th century the town became a centre of Pro-
testantism. After the Amboise conspiracy (1560) the states-
general were convoked at Orleans, where Francis II. died.
In 1562 it became the headquarters of Louis I. of Bourbon,
prince of Conde, the Protestant commander-in-chief. In 1363
Francis, duke of Guise, laid siege to it, and had captured the
tcte-dii-pont on the left bank of the Loire when he was assassin-
ated. Orleans was surrendered to the king, who had its fortifica-
tions razed. It was held by the Huguenots from 1567 to 1568.
The St Bartholomew massacre there in 1572 lasted a whole week.
It was given as a lieu de suret-' to the League under Henry III.,
but surrendered to Henry IV. in person in 1504. During the
Revolution the city suffered from the sanguinary excesses of
Bertrand Barere and Collot d'Herbois. It was occupied by the
Prussians in 1815 and in 1870, the latter campaign being dis-
cussed below.
See E. Bimbenet, Histoire de la ville d' Orleans (Orleans, 1884-
1888).
The Orleans Campaign o? 1870
Orleans was the central point of the second portion of the
Franco-German War {q.v.), the city and the line of the Loire
being at first the rendezvous of the new armies improvised by
the government of National Defence and afterwards the starting-
point of the most important attempt made to relieve Paris.
The campaign has thus two well-marked phases, the first ending
with the first capture of Orleans on the 10th of October, and
288
ORLEANS
the second with the second and final capture on the night of the
4th of December.
Shortly after the fall of the empire the government of National
Defence, having decided that it must remain in Paris in spite of the
impending siege, despatched a delegation to Tours to direct the
government and the war in the provinces. This was originally
composed (10-15 September) of two aged lawyers, Cremieux and
Glais-Bizoin, and a naval officer, Vice-Admiral Fourichon, who had
charge of both the war and the marine ministries. A retired general,
de la Motte-Rouge, was placed in command of the " territorial
division of Tours." He found, scattered over the south and west
of France, a number of regular units, mostly provisional regiments,
squadrons and batteries, assembled from the depots, and all exceed-
ingly ill supplied and equipped; but of such forces as he could
muster he constituted the 15th corps. There were also ever-growing
forces of mobiles, but these were wholly untrained and undisciplined,
scarcely organized in battalions and for the most part armed with
old-pattern weapons.
In these circumstances — the relative unimportance of the pro-
vincial war, the senility of the directors, the want of numbers,
equipment and training in the troops available outside the walls of
Paris — the role of the delegation was at first restricted to the estab-
hshment of a cordon of weak posts just out of reach of the German
cavalry, with the object of protecting the formation of new corps and
divisions in the interior. At the time of the investment of Paris part
of the provincial forces were actually called in to reinforce the
garrison. Only Reyau's weak cavalry division was sent out from
Paris into the open country.
On their side the Germans had not enough forces left, after in-
vesting the capital with the III. and IV. Armies and Metz with the
I. and II., to undertake a long forward stride to the Loire or the Cher.
The only covering force provided on the south side of their Paris
lines was the I. Bavarian corps, which had also to act as the reserve
of the III. Army, and the cavalry divisions (6th, 4th, 2nd), whose chief
work was the collection of supplies for the besiegers.
Shortly after this, near the end of September, francs-tireurs and
small parties of National Guards became very active in Beauce,
Perche and Gatinais, and the Germ.an 4th cavalry division between
Etampes and Toury was reinforced by some Bavarian battalions
in consequence. But no important assemblies of French troops
were noted, and indeed Orleans was twice evacuated on the mere
rumour of the German advance. Moltke and every otiier German
soldier gave no credence to rumours of the formation of a 15th corps
behind the Loire — Trochu himself disbelieved in its existence —
and the cavalry divisions, with their infantry supports, went about
their ordinary business of gathering supplies.
In reality, however, the Delegation, unready as were its troops,
was on the point of taking the offensive. In deference to popular
clamour, a show of force in Beauce was decided upon. This was
carried out by a force of all arms under Reyau on the 5th of October.
It succeeded only too well. Prince Albert of Prussia, commander of
the 4th cavalry division, which engaged Reyau at Toury, was so
much impressed that he gave back 20 m. and sent alarming reports
to army headquarters, which thereupon lost its incredulity and
announced in army orders that the French " Army of the Loire " was
advancing from Orleans. Von der Tann, the commander of the I.
Bavarian corps, was ordered to take up a defensive position at
Montlhery and to send out a detachment to cover Prince Albert's
retreat. The 22nd infantry division was added to his command,
and the 2nd and 6th cavalry divisions warned to protect his flanks.
Thus the Germans were led to pay attention to the existence of the
15th corps when that corps was not only itself incomplete but also
unsupported by the 16th, 17th and other still merely potential
formations.
The preparations of the Germans were superfluous, for the demon-
stration ended in nothing. Reyau drew away leisurely towards
Fontainebleau forest, and only a part of the 15th corps was sent up
from Bourges to Orleans. Further, the fears of a sortie from Paris,
which had occupied the German headquarters for some time, having
for a moment ceased, Moltke on the 7th ordered von der Tann,
with the I. Bavarian corps, 22nd division, and the three cavalry
divisions, to advance. Next day these orders expanded. Orleans
and, if possible. Tours itself were to be captured.
The punishment for the military promenade in Beauce was
at hand. The main body of the 15th corps, which had not been
required to take part in it, was kept back at Bourges
* . and Vierzon, and only the miscellaneous troops
capture or ,, ■ rl ■, 1 , ,11
Orleans. actually m Beauce were available to meet the blow
they had provoked. On the loth von der Tann at-
tacked Reyau, who had returned from Fontainebleau towards
Orleans, at Artenay. Had it not been that von der Tann believed
that the 15th corps was in front of him, and therefore attacked
deliberately and carefully, Reyau's resistance would have been
even more brief than it was. The French were enormously
outnumbered, and, after a brave resistance, were driven towards
Orleans in great disorder. Being still without any real offensive
intentions, the Delegation and La Motte-Rouge decided, the
same night, to evacuate Orleans. On the nth, therefore, von
der Tann's advance had to deal with no more than a strong
rearguard on the outskirts of Orleans. But he was no longer
on the plain of Beauce; villas, hedges and vineyards, as well
as the outskirts of the great forest of Orleans, gave excellent
cover to the French infantry, all of which showed steadiness
and some battalions true heroism, and the attack developed
so slowly that the final positions of the defenders were not
forced till close upon nightfall. The Germans lost at least 1000
men, and the harvest of prisoners proved to be no more than
1500. So far from pressing on to Tours, the Germans were
well content with the occupation of Orleans.
The defeated enemy disappeared into Sologne, whither the assail-
ants could not follow. Rumours of all sorts began to assail the
German commander, who could not collect reliable news by means
of the agencies under his own control because of the fluctuating but
dense cordon of mobiles and francs-tireurs all around him. Moltke
and Blumenthal wished him to strike out southward towards the
arsenals of Bourges, the depots of vehicles at Chateauroux and the
improvised government offices at Tours. But he represented that
he could not maintain himself nine or ten marches away from his
nearest supports, and he was therefore allowed to stay at Orleans.
The 22nd division and the 4th cavalry division, however, were
withdrawn from him, and under these conditions von der Tann
became uneasy as to his prospects of retaining even Orleans. His
uneasiness was emphasized by reports of the appearance of heavy
masses of French troops on the Loire above and below Orleans —
reports that were true as regards the side of Blois, and more or less
false as regards the Gien country. This news was obtained by the
III. Army headquarters on the 19th of October, and next day von
der Tann was ordered " not to abandon Orleans unless threatened
by a greatly superior force." Such a threat soon became pronounced.
A new directing influence was at work at Tours in the person of
Leon Gambetta, who arrived there by balloon from Paris and took
control of the Delegation on the nth. With de Freycinet (who was
appointed deputy minister of war) as his most valued assistant,
Gambetta at once became not merely the head of the government
in the provinces, but the actual director of the war, in virtue of the
fact that he was the very incarnation of the spirit of resistance to
the invader. De la Motte-Rouge was replaced at the head of the
15th corps by General d'Aurelle de Paladines, under whom at the
same time the embryo i6th corps was placed. The new commander
with practically dictatorial powers occupied himself first of all with
the organization and training of his motley troops. The Delegation
indeed planned an advance from Gien on Fontainebleau, but this
was given up on d'Aurelle's representations, and the 15th corps
drew back to a strong position at Salbris in front of _. _
Bourges. There by dint of personal ascendancy, relent- , ^ /w''
less drilling and a few severe courts-martial, d'Aurelle
produced an enormous improvement in the quality of his troops.
Gambetta reinforced the troops at Salbris to the figure of 60,000,
for the camp there was not merely a rendezvous but a school, the
atmosphere of which profoundly affected even troops that only
spent three or four days within its bounds. Meantime the i6th
corps was formed at Blois and Vendome, covered by a screen of
francs-tireurs and National Guards. On October 23 a large force
was sent over to the i6th corps from Salbris. This step was the first
in a new plan of campaign.
A few days before it was taken, there had occurred an incident
which led Moltke to a fresh misunderstanding of the situation
towards the Loire. As mentioned above, the 22nd infan- chat
try and 4th cavalry divisions had been withdrawn from ^^^
von der Tann's command and ordered back to Paris,
and on their way thither they were told to clear the country round
Chateaudun and Chartres. General von Vv'ittich, therefore, with the
22nd division and some cavalry, appeared before Chateaudun on the
18th of October. The little town was strongly held and repulsed the
first attack. Wittich then prepared a second assault so carefully that
sunset was at hand when it was made. It would seem indeed
that at this period, when the Germans were hoping for a speedy
return to their fatherland, the spirit of the offensive in all ranks
had temporarily died away. The assailants carried the edge of the
town, only to find tliemselves involved in a painful struggle in the
streets. House-to-house fighting went on long after dark, but at
last the inhabitants gave way, and the Germans punished the town
for its unconventional resistance by subjecting it to what was
practically a sack.' After this von Wittich passed on to Charters,
which, making his preparations more carefully, he was able to occupy
after a few shells had been fired. These events, and the presence of a
French force at Dreux, as a matter of fact signified nothing, for the
15th and 1 6th corps were stil l on the Loire and at Salbris, but they
' In 1879 the government added the cross of the Legion of Honour
to the town arms of Chateaudun.
ORLEANS
289
Emcrv V«lker K-
bewildered the German headquarters and conjured up a phantom
" Army of the West," just as the promenade in Beauce had fashioned
" the Army of the Loire " out of the small force under Reyau.
Once more, indeed, as so often in the war, the Germans tried to solve
the French problem by German data, and in their devotion to the
net idea of " full steam ahead," could not conceive of military
activity being spasmodic or unaimed. But this time the Versailles
strategists were wrong only in their guess as to the direction of the
blow. A blow was certainly impending.
By now the deliverance of Paris had become the defined objective
of the " new formations " and of the provincial Delegation. Many
plans were discussed, both at Paris and at Tours, for a combined
effort, but each strategist had to convince the rest of the soundness
of his own views, and the interchange of information and plans
between Trochu and Gambetta was necessarily precarious. In the
end, however, a few clear principles were accepted — Paris must be
relieved, not merely revictualled, and the troops must be set in
motion with that object at the earliest possible moment. For
200,000 French regulars were closely invested in Metz by Prince
Frederick Charles with the I. and II. Armies, if they passed into
captivity, the veterans of Vionville and St Privat could be brought
over to the Loire, and already there were strange rumours of intrigues
between Bazaine, Bismarck and the empress Eugenic. But de
Freycinet and d'Aurelle had different views as to the method of
recapturing Orleans, which was agreed upon as the first thing to be
done, and a compromise had to be made, by which 25,000 men
were to advance by Gien and Chateauneuf and the main mass
(75,000) from Blois by Beaugency, the hazards of this double
movement being minimized by the weakness of the forces under
von der Tann (the highest estimate of these that reached Tours
was 60,000 and their real number only 26,000). The preliminary
movements were to be completed by the 29th of October, when one
strong division of the 15th corps was to be set at Gien and the
remainder of the 15th and i6th corps between Blois and Vendome.
This was duly carried out, and the Germans were confirmed in
their suspicions of a concentration to the west of Paris by the despatch
of dummy troop-trains to Le Mans. But bad weather, the news of
the disastrous capitulation of Bazaine and the opening of a series of
futile peace negotiations delayed the denouement, the Gien column
was hastily recalled, and the French armies stood fast all along the
line in their original grouping, 75,000 men (15th and i6th corps) at
Blois-Vendome, 10,000 men in Sologne and 25,000 at Gien. The
Germans round Orleans were some 25,000 strong. Between
Montlhery and Chartres were 21,000 more; but these were paralysed
by the fictitious " Western Army " of the French, and von Wittich
even thought of obtaining assistance from von der Tann. The
activity of the irregulars, and the defiant attitude of the civil
population ever>'where, presaged a blow to be delivered by the
once despised " new formations," but the direction of this blow
was misconceived by the German headquarters, by the staff of the
III. Army and by von der Tann alike, till the eve of its delivery.
The halt of the French army allowed this uneasiness to grow, and,
in default of a target, Moltke was unable to assign a definite task
to the II. Army, now on its way from Metz. One of its corps,
therefore, was sent to the lines before Paris to release the 17th
and 22nd infantry divisions from siege duties, and these, with the
I. Bavarian corps and the 2nd, 4th and 6th cavalry divisions, were
constituted into a special detachment of the III. Army, under
Friedrich Franz, grand duke of Mecklenburg-Schwcrin. The duke
was ordered to cover the siege of Paris and to break up the " new
formations," but he was directed, not towards Orleans or even
Tours, but towards Le Mans, concentrating with that object between
Ch^teaudun and Chartres.
D'Aurelle, if cautious and slow, at least employed spare time
well. The i6th corps was disciplined to the standard attained by
the 15th and Chanzy was placed at the head of it, General Fiereck,
commanding at Le Mans, was ordered to attract the enemy's notice
to the west by demonstrations, the defence of localities by irregulars
was thoroughly organized, and in the first days of November, on
de Freycinet's demand, the general advance was resumed. There
was a difference of opinion between d'Aurelle and Chanzy as to the
objective, the latter wishing to make the main effort by the left,
so as to cut off the Bavarians from Paris, the former, to make it by
the right with a view to recapturing Orleans, and, as on the German
side at Gravelotte, a compromise was made whereby the army was
deployed in equal force all along the line.
The debut was singularly encouraging. Part of the German 2nd
cavalry division, with its infantry supports, was severely handled
290
ORLEANS
by the French advanced guard near the hamlet of St Laurent des
Bois (November 8). The half-heartedness of the Germans, evidenced
by the number of prisoners taken unwounded, greatly encouraged the
" new formations," who cheerfully submitted to a cold bivouac in
anticipation of victory. Next morning the advance was resumed,
d'Aurelle with the 15th corps on the right wing, Chanzy with the
l6th on the left and Reyau's cavalry to the front. The march was
made straight across country, in battle order, each brigade in line
of battalion columns covered by a dense skirmish line. The French
generals were determined that no accident should occur to shake
the moral of the young troops they commanded.
At Orleans, meanwhile, von der Tann, in ever-growing suspense,
had, rightly or wrongly, decided to stand his ground. He had been
instructed by the headquarters staff not to fall back except under
heavy pressure. He had his own reputation, dimmed by the
failure of 1866, to retrieve, and national honour and loyalty seemed
to him to require, in the words of his own staff officer, that " ere
actual conflict had taken place with the ' greatly superior ' enemy,
no hostile force should enter the city placed under the protection of
the Bavarians." But he could not allow himself to be enveloped
in Orleans itself, and therefore, calling upon the far-distant IH.
Army reserves for support, he took up his position with 23,500 men
around Coulmiers, leaving 2500 men to hold Orleans. The line of
defence was from St Peravy on the Chateaudun road through
Coulmiers to La Renardiere, and thence along the Mauve stream,
and here he was attacked in force on the gth of November. The
French approached from the south-west, and when their right had
taken contact, the remainder gradually swung round and attacked
Ijhe Bavarian centre and right. The result was foregone, given the
disparity of force, but the erratic movements of Reyau's
Battle of cavalry on the extreme left of d'Aurelle's line exposed
Coulmiers (^fj^^izy to a partial repulse and saved the Bavarian right.
When at last the French stormed Coulmiers, and von der Tann
had begun to retire, it was already nightfall, and the exhausted
remnant of the L Bavarian corps was able to draw off unpursued.
The Orleans garrison followed suit, and the French army, gathering
in its two outlying columns from Sologne and Gien, reoccupied the
city. So ended the first blow of the Republic's armies. Coulmiers
would indeed have been a crushing victory had Reyau's cavalry
performed its part in the scheme and above all had d'Aurelle, adopt-
ing unreservedly either his own plan or Chanzy's, massed his troops
here, economized them there, in accordance with the plan, instead
of arraying them in equal strength at all points. But d'Aurelle
wished abov'e all to avoid what is now called a " regrettable incident "
— hence his advance across country en bataille — and to thin out his
line at any point might have been disastrous. And incomplete as
it was, the victory had a moral significance which can scarcely be
overrated. The " new formations " had won the first battle, and it
was confidently hoped by all patriots that the spell of defeat was
broken.
But d'Aurelle and the government viewed their success from the
standpoint of their own side, and while von der Tann, glad to
escape from the trap, fell back quickly to Angerville, d'Aurelle's only
fear was an offensive return. Not even when von der Tann's defen-
sive intentions were established did d'Aurelle resume the advance.
The columns from Gien and the Sologne peacefully reoccupied
Orleans, while the victors of Coulmiers went into cold and muddy
bivouacs north of the city, for d'Aurelle feared that their dispersion
in comfortable quarters would weaken the newly forged links of
discipline. The French general knew that he had only put his hand
to the plough, and he thought that before ploughing in earnest he
must examine and overhaul his implement. In this opinion he was
supported not only by soldiers who, like Chanzy, distrusted the
staying power of the men, but even by the government, which knew
that the limit of the capital's resistance was still distant, and felt
the present vital necessity of protecting Bourges, Chateauroux and
Tours from Prince Frederick Charles, who with the H. Army was
now approaching from the east. The plan of General Borel, the chief
of staff, for a lateral displacement of the whole army towards Chartres
and Dreux, which would have left the prince without an animate
target and concentrated the largest possible force on the weakest
point of Moltke's position, but would have exposed the arsenals
of the south, was rejected, and d'Aurelle organized a large fortified
camp of instruction to the north of the captured city, to which came,
beside the isth and l6th corps, the new 17th and i8th.
To return to the Germans. An army at the halt, screened by
active irregulars, is invisible, and the German commanders were
again at a loss. It has been mentioned that a day or two
ola^s before the battle of Coulmiers Moltke had created an
^yj^^ Army Detachment under the grand duke of Mecklenburg
for operations south of Paris. His objects in so doing
"• must now be briefly summarized. On November the i s't
he had written to the II. Army to the effect that " the south of
France would hardly make great efforts for Paris," and that the
three disposable corps of the army were to range over the country
as far as Chalon-sur-Sa6ne, Nevers and Bourges. By the 7th his
views had so far changed that he sanctioned the formation of the
" Detachment " with a view to breaking up the Army of the Loire
by a march into theyjest towards Le Mans, the right wing of the II.
Army at the same time hurrying on to Fontainebleau to cover the
south side of the Paris investment. The king, however, less con-
vinced than Moltkeof the position of the Army of the Loire, suspended
the westward deployment of the Detachment, with the result that
on the loth the retreating Bavarians were reinforced by two fresh
divisions. But the same day all touch with the French was lost —
perhaps deliberately, in accordance with the maxim that defeated
troops should avoid contact with the victor. The curtain descended,
and next day a few vague movements of small bodies misled the'
grand duke into seeking his target towards Chartres and Dreux,
directly away from d'Aurelle's real position. Once more the king
intervened and brought him back to the Orleans-Paris road (Nov.
13-14), but Moltke hurried forward the IX. corps (II. Army)
from Fontainebleau to Etampes so as to release the grand duke
from covering duties while satisfying the king's wishes for direct
protection towards Orleans.
Moltke's views of the problem had not fundamentally changed
since the day when he ordered the II. Army to spread out over
southern France. He now told the grand duke to beat the Army
of the Loire or Army of the West near Dreux or Chartres, and, that
done, to sweep through a broad belt of country on the line Alengon-
Verneuil towards Rouen, the outer wing of the II. Army meanwhile,
after recapturing Orleans and destroying Bourges, to descend the
Loire and Cher valleys towards Tours (14 Nov). On the 15th a
fresh batch of information and surmises caused the leader of the
Detachment, who had not yet received orders to do so, to leave the
Paris-Orleans road to take care of itself and to swing out north-
westward at once. The Detachment reached Chartres, Rambouillet
and Auneau that night, and headquarters, having meanwhile been
mystified by the news of a quite meaningless fight between German
cavalry and some mobiles at Dreux, did not venture to reimpose
the veto. The adventures of the Detachment need not be traced
in detail. It moved first north towards the line Mantes-Dreux, and
delivered a blow in the air. Then, hoping to find a target
towards Nogent le Rotrou, it swung round so as to face '*'<"'*"
south-west. Everywhere it met with the sharpest resist- ""^"'^ <>'
ance from small parties, nowhere it found a large body J /**"
of all arms to attack. Matters were made worse by staff "™"'e'»''
blunders in the duke's headquarters, and on the 19th, after a day of
indescribable confusion, he had to halt to sort out his divisions.
Moltke gave him the rest day he asked for the more readily as he
was beginning to suspect that the king was right, that there were
considerable forces still at Orleans, and that the Detachment might
be wanted there after all.
This alteration in his views had been brought about by the reports
from the 11. Army during its advance from Champagne to the
Gatinais. At the time of the first order indicating Chalon,
Nevers and Bourges as its objectives this army had just f^^
opened out into line from its circular position round of the U.
Metz, and it therefore naturally faced south. Moving '^''tny.
forward, it reached the line Troyes-Neufchateau about the time
Coulmiers was fought, and was ordered to send in its right (IX. corps)
to Fontainebleau. The II. corps had already been taken to
strengthen the besiegers, thereby releasing the two Prussian divisions
(17th and 22nd) that joined von der Tann on the lOth. The II.
Army next changed front, in accordance with Moltke's directions,
so as to face S.E. towards Orleans and Gien, and on the i6th the
IX. corps and 1st cavalry division were at Mereville and on the
Orleans-Paris road, the III. at Sens and the X. at Tonnerre. The
III. and X. from this time onward marched, camped and slept in
the midst of a population so hostile that von Voigts-Rhetz kept his
baggage in the midst of the fighting troops, and Prince Frederick
Charles himself, with an escort, visited the villages lying off the
main roads to gauge for himself the temper of the inhabitants.
From prisoners it was gleaned that the French i8th corps, supposed
by the Germans to be forming in the Dijon-Lyons region, had
arrived on the Loire, and a deserter said that there were 40,000 men
encamped at Chevilly, just north of Orleans. Moltke's faith in his
own reading of the situation was at last shaken ; whether the Army
of the Loire had joined the Army of the West or was still on the
Loire, he did not yet know, but it was almost certain that from
wherever they came, considerable French forces were around Orleans.
He warned the prince to check the southward swing of the X. corps
" because it cannot yet be foreseen whether the whole army will not
have to be employed towards Chateaudun and Orleans," and turned
to the Detachment for further information, cautioning the grand
duke at the same time to keep touch with the II. Army. But,
ignoring the hint, the grand duke, thinking that he had at last
brought the elusive " Army of the West " to bay in the broken
ground round Nogent-le-Rotrou, opened out, in accordance with
German strategic principles, for a double envelopment of the enemy.
He struck another blow in the air. The " Army of the West " had
never really existed as an army, and its best-organized units had
been sent back to join the new 2 1st corps at Le Mans ere the Detach-
ment came into action at all, while the older mobiles continued the
" small war " in front of the Germans, and sniped their sentries and .
trapped their patrols as before. .Almost simultaneously with the
news of this disappointment, the prince, who had meanwhile used
his cavalry vigorously, sent word to Versailles on the 20th that the
French 15th, i6th, 17th and iSth corps (in all over 150,000 men)
were round Orleans, At this moment the III. corps was close to the
ORLEANS
291
Forest of Orleans, the IX. corps away to the right rear at Angerville,
and the X. equally distant to the south-east, as well as separated in
three self-contained columns a day's march apart. It seemed as if
another Vionville was at hand, but this time Alvenslcbcn and
Voigts-Rhetz did not attack an obscure objective coule que coilte.
They stood fast, by the prince's order, to close up for battle and to
wait on events in front of the Detachment.
The Germans had now discovered their target, and their strategical
system, uncomplicated by past nightmares, should have worked
smoothly to a decisive result. But there was nearly as much con-
fusion between the various high officers as before. Prince Frederick
Charles, in possession of the facts and almost in contact with the
enemy, wrote to the grand duke to say that the II. Army was
about to attack the enemy, and to suggest that the Detachment,
which he knew to be heading for Le Mans, should make a " diver-
sion " in his favour towards Tours, reserving to himself and his own
army, as on the 2nd of July l866 before Koniggriitz, the perils and
the honours of the battle. The grand duke meanwhile, whose temper
was now roused, was making a last attempt to bring the phantom
" Army of the West " to action. Rejecting Blumenthal's somewhat
timidly worded advice to go slowly, the grand duke spread out his
forces for the last time for an enveloping advance on Le Mans.
He had not gone far when, on the 23rd, he received a peremptory
order from the king, through the III. Army headquarters, to bring
back his forces to Beauce and to be on the middle Loire
TheDe- ^j latest by the 26th. In vain he pleaded for a day to
"rf ""d" close up; the king replied that the march must go on,
to ards ^'^'^ much depended on it. Moltke, in fact, had seized
Orleans ^^^ reins more firmly at the critical moment, and given
directions to the army commanders_that the II. Army and
the Detachment were to make a combined and concerted attack
as soon as possible after the 26th. By that date the last brigades
of the II. Army would have come up, and the Detachment was to
time its own march accordingly. Yet even at this step Blumenthal,
the original author of the Western expedition, in transmitting the
king's order to the grand duke, assigned not Orleans but Beaugency,
some miles down the river, as the objective of the Detachment.
D'Aurelle meanwhile had resolutely maintained his policy of
inaction, confirmed in that course by the miserable and ill-equipped
condition of the troops that came from the east and the
"""^ west to double the numbers of the relatively well-discip-
'""'*■ lined army of Coulmiers. In the grand duke's move to
the west, d'Aurelle saw only a trap to lure him into the plains and
to offer him up as a victim to the approaching II. Army, the force
of which he at first greatly exaggerated. All this time Gambetta
and de Freycinet were receiving messages from Paris that spoke of
desperate sorties being planned, and assigned December 15th as
the last day of resistance. On the 19th of November de Freycinet
wrote to d'Aurelle urging him to form a plan of active operations
without delay, and even suggesting one (which was, in fact, vicious),
but in reply the general merely promised to study the civilian's
scheme. A severe letter from Gambetta, which followed this, had
no better effect. D'Aurelle had, in fact, become a pessimist, and
the Delegation, instead of removing him, merely suggested fresh
plans.
On the 24th, however, the French at last took the offensive,
in the direction of Fontainebleau Forest, to co-operate with the
great sortie from Paris which was now (definitely arranged. But
owing to d'Aurelle's objections, the first orders were modified so
far that on attaining the points ordered, Chilleurs (15th corps)
Boiscommun-Bellegarde (20th), the troops were to await the order
to advance. Shortly afterwards the 1 8th corps from Gien was ordered
to advance on the line Montargis-Ladon. The rest of d'Aurelle's
huge army was scarcely affected by these movements. Meanwhile
Prince Frederick Charles, to clear up the situation, had pushed out
strong reconnaissances of all arms from the front of the II. Army,
and these naturally developed strong forces of the defenders. The
advanced troops of the X. corps had severe engagements with
fractions of the 20th corps at Ladon and Maizieres, and those of the
III. corps were sharply repulsed at Neuville and drew the fire of
several battalions and batteries at Artenay. The French offensive
slowly developed on the 25th and 26th, for the Germans were not
ready to advance, and in addition greatly puzzled. The erratic
movements of the grand duke towards Le Mans before he was recalled
to the Loire had seriously disquieted both the Delegation and
d'Aurelle, and the 17th corps, under a young and energetic leader,
de Sonis, was moved restlessly hither and thither in the country
south and west of Chateaudun. A fight at Brou (10 m. W. of
Bonneval) provoked the grand duke into another false move. This
time the Detachment, then near Drou6 (12 m. W. of Chateaudun)
and Authon (22 m. W. of Bonneval), swung round north-east in
defiance of the order to go to Beaugency, and had to be brought
back by the drastic method of placing it under the orders of
Prince Frederick Charles. General von Stosch of the headquarters
staff was at the same time sent to act as Moltke's representative
with the duke's headquarters, and Lieut. -Colonel von Waldersee to
Prince Frederick Charles's to report thence direct to 'the king, who
was dissatisfied with the diluted information with which the various
staff offices furnished him. Still, the upshot was that Prince
Frederick Charles was entrusted with affairs on the Loire, and all
Prince
Frederick
Charles In
general
command.
superior control was voluntarily surrendered. The prince had very
clear ideas, at the outset, of the task before him. If the French
advanced towards Fontainebleau or elsewhere, he expected
to be able to repeal Napoleon's strategy of 1814, fighting
containing actions with the IX. and X. corps and deliver-
ing blow after blow at different points on d'Aurelle's line
of march with the 111. If the French, as seemed more
likely, stood fast, he thought his task more formidable,
and therefore, abandoning the idea of a strategic envelopment, he
ordered the Detachment inwards with the intention of directly
attacking the Orleans position from the north-west.
As regards the method of the offensive, there is herein no material
advance on the prince's first scheme; the detachment is simply
added to the forces making the attack, and the diversion on Tours is
abandoned. But the prince was at any rate a leader who enjoyed
the responsibilities of director of operations — he even said that he
would find the shuttle-play of the III. corps alluded to above " an
interesting novelty in his experience of Army command " — while at
the same time the unfortunate d'Aurelle was asking the Delegation
to give orders direct to his generals.
It was now November 27lh. The Versailles headquarters were in
a state of intense nervous exaltation waiting for the sortie of 70,000
men that was daily expected to be launched at the investing line,
and the king's parting words to von Waldersee indicate sufficiently
the gravity of the decision that was now entrusted to the most
resolute troop-leader in the service: " We are on the eve of a
decisive moment. I know well that my troops are better than the
French, but that does not deceive me into supposing that we have
not a crisis before us. . . . If Prince Frederick Charles is beaten, we
must give up the investment of Paris. . . . "The II. Army was waiting
events on a dangerously extended front from Toury on the Paris-
Orleans road (which the prince still thought it his duty to cover) to
Beaune-la-Rolande. The Detachment, which never yet had concen-
trated save to deliver blows in the air, was approaching Chateaudun
and Bonneval when von Stosch arrived and gave it the encourage-
ment, the reforms in the staff work and the rest-day it needed. The
French, who themselves had suffered from over-extension, had by
now condensed on the extreme right. In these general conditions
the battle of Beaune-la-Rolande took place — an engagement almost
as honourable to Voigts-Rhetz and the X. corps as Vionville to
Alvensleben and the 111. The French attack began early on the
morning of the 28th, under command of General Crouzat. It was
directed on Beaune-la-Rolande from three sides, and only the want
of combination between the various units of the French
and the arrival in the afternoon of part of the III. corps
saved the X. from annihilation. As it was, the Germans
engaged were utterly exhausted, and the X. corps had but
three rounds of ammunition per man left. But the magnificent resist-
ance of the men of Vionville prolonged the fight until night had fallen
and Crouzat, thinking the battle lost, ordered his troops to evacuate
the battlefield. As at Coulmiers, and with even more deplorable
results, the French commander saw only the confusion in his own
lines, and feared to hazard the issue of the campaign on the mere
supposition that the enemy was even more exhausted. There was
another resemblance, too, between Coulmiers and Beaune-la-
Rolande, in that the French forces on the outer flank towards
Artenay stood idle without attempting to influence the decision.
Prince Frederick Charles himself took only a cursory survey of
the battlefield, and failed to realize that the whole of the enemy's
right wing had been engaged, in spite of what Waldersee, who had
been in Beaune, told him of events there. So far, therefore, from
considering the battle as a great victory to be followed up by an
energetic pursuit, he still feared a move round his left flank from
Gien and Montargis towards Fontainebleau. The II. Army orders
issued on the night of the battle actually had in view a farther ex-
tension eastward. Beaune-la-Rolande was a French defeat without
being a German victory, and for the fact that it was a defeat, not a
mere check, there was no cause but Crouzat's impressions of the
state of the 20th corps, which, composed as it was of the newest
levies in his array, was the most susceptible of unreasoning bravery
and unreasoning depression.
In view of this, d'Aurelle and de Freycinet decided that the
offensive was to be continued not towards Beaune-Nemours, but
from the front of the steadier 15th and i6th corps towards Pithiviers,
and with that object, on the 29th — a day of inaction for the Germans
— the 1 8th and 20th corps began to close on the centre. There was
sharp fighting on the 30th at various points along the north-eastern
and eastern fringes of the Forest of Orleans, in which for the most
part the French were successful. On the 29th the II. Army was
inactive in spite of almost frantic appeals from Versailles to go
forward (the great sortie from Paris had begun), and the Detachment,
in accordance with the prince's orders and not with the views held
by von Stosch, headed eastward to prolong the right of the II.
Army, halting on the 29th in the area Orgeres-Toury. The prince's
message to the grand duke contained the significant phrase, " my
plans to drive the enemy out of Orleans " — he no longer thought
of a strategical envelopment of the Army of the Loire in Orleans.:
Disillusioned during the 30th as to the supposed danger on the side
of Montargis, he closed from both wings towards the centre, but
still defensively and well clear of the edge of the dangerous forest.
BeaunC'
la-
Rolande,
292
ORLEY
On this day d'Aurelle and the French generals assembled to receive
de Freycinet's orders for the next advance. The i8th and 20th
corps were to attack Beaune-la-Rolande, the 15th and i6th Pithi-
viers, while the 17th, aided by the 21st from Le Mans, was to look
after the security of Orleans against a possible southward advance
of the Detachment. A wise modification was arranged between
d'Aurelle and Chanzy, whereby the first day's operations should
be directed to driving away the Detachment with the lyth and i6th
corps, preparatory to the move on Pithiviers. On the 1st of
December, then, no events of importance took place on the front
, of the II. Army, the centre of gravity having shifted to
Orgeres-Toury and the direction of events to the grand
Advance of
the French
left wing.
duke and Stosch. Fortunately for the Germans the
cavalry general von Schmidt, who had been called upon
to return to the II. Army with his division, managed to impress
Stosch, in a farewell interview, with the imminence of the danger,
and a still more urgent argument was the action of Villepion-
Terrainiers, in which Chanzy with one infantry and one cavalry
division attacked part of the I. Bavarian corps and drove it to
Orgeres with a loss of 1000 men. Von Stosch, therefore, so far from
literally obeying the waiting policy indicated in the orders from
Prince Frederick Charles, cautiously led the grand duke to prepare
for a battle, and the grand duke, seeing the chance of which he had
been cheated so often, and secure in his royal rank and in the support
of Moltke, Stosch and Blumenthal, took control again. Lastly,
von Stosch called back the 22nd division, which had been taken
from the Detachment to form the reserve of the II. Army.
The result of the decision thus made at the Detachment head-
quarters was of the highest importance. The French main body
Battle of n'°'^''"g north-westward in the general direction of Tour\-
Loiiiny encountered first the I. Bavarian corps, then the 17th
Pouory division, and finally the 22nd division, and the leadership
of the German generals, who took every advantage of
the disconnected and spasmodic movements of the enemy, secured
X a complete success (battle of Loigny-Poupry, 2nd Dec). Mean-
while, and long before victor>' had declared itself. Prince Frederick
Charles, still keeping the III. and X. corps on the side of Boiscommun
and Bellegarde, had sent the IX. corps westward to support the
Detachment, and halted von Schmidt's returning cavalry division
on the Paris road. But from this point there began an interchange
of telegrams which almost nullified the strategical effect of the
battle. The grand duke and von Stosch, desirous above all of
enveloping — that is, driving into Orleans — the target that after so
many disappointments they had found and struck, wished to expand
westwards so as to prevent the escape of the French towards
Chateaudun, and with that object asked the II. Army " to attack
Artenay and to take over the protection of the great road." Both
von Stosch and von Waldersee had reported to the II. Army the
importance of the French troops west of the main road, and Prince
Frederick Charles, as above mentioned, had already moved the IX.
corps and 6th cavalry division towards the Detachment. But
when after the battle the grand duke's request to the II. Army
arrived at the prince's headquarters, the reply was a curt general
order for a direct concentric attack on Orleans by all forces under
his command.
This was Moltke's doing. Before Waldersee's telegrams from the
front arrived at Versailles, he had sent to the prince a peremptory
order " to attack Orleans and thus to bring about the decision."
This order was based on Moltke's view that the main body of the
French had, after Beaune-la-Rolande, gathered on the west side of
the great road, and although the king, in spite of the repulse of the
great sortie from Paris, was still uneasy as to the possibility of a
French offensive on Fontainebleau, he allowed the chief of his
staff to have his way. The order, consequently, went forth.
Long before it could be translated into action, the battle of Loigny-
Poupry had completely changed the situation. Yet it was obeyed,
and no attempt was made by the prince either to obtain its cancel-
lation or to override it by the e.xercise of the beloved " initiative."
At the prince's headquarters it was construed as a reflection upon
the lethargy of that army after Beaune-la-Rolande, and — although it
was the incompleteness of his own reports of that action that had
misled Moltke as to the magnitude of the effort that had been
expended to win it — the prince, bitterly resentful, fell into that
dangerous condition of mind which induces a punctilious execution
of orders to the letter, at whatever cost and without regard to
circumstances. Hence the order to the Detachment, which allowed
the French field army to escape, and substituted for a decisive
victory the barren " second capture of Orleans."
The plan for this second capture was simple: III. corps to fight
its way from Pithiviers to Chilleurs-aux-Bois and thence down the
Pithiviers-Orleans road through the forest, IX. corps to
ni'corps ^'^^^"ce on Artenay and thence down the main road,
laOrleans I^etachment to fight its way southward over the plains.
Forest. ^' '^°'^P^ '" rear of the centre as reserve. Only a small
force was left on the side of Montargis, and the III. and
X. corps, which were many miles away to the south and south-east,
had to get into position at once (evening of the 2nd) by night marches
if necessary. In short, a single grand line of battle, 40 m. long,
supported only by one corps in rear of the centre, was to sweep over
all obstacles, woods, fields, orchards and enemy, at a uniform rate
of progress, and on the evening of the second day to converge on
Orleans.' The advance opened on the morning of the 3rd of
December. The French left or main group included the 15th, i6th
and 17th corps, the right of the 15th corps being in advance of
the forest edge near Santeau. The right group, now under Bourbaki,
consisted of the i8th and 20th corps, and faced north-east towards
Beaune-la-Rolande and Montargis, the left flank being at Chambon.
Fortunately for the III. corps, which numbered barely 13,000 rifles
in all, the thinnest part of the opposing cordon was its centre, and
the adventurous march of this corps carried it far into the forest to
Loury. Only at Chilleurs was any serious resistance met with;
elsewhere the French sheered otT to their left, leaving the Pithiviers-
Orleans road clear. In the night of the 3rd-4th isolated fractions
of the enemy came accidentally in contact with von Alvensleben's
outposts, but a sudden night encounter in woods was too much
for the half-trained French, and a panic ensued, in which five guns
were abandoned. But, as Alvcnsleben himself said, when he
marched into the forest from Chilleurs he " went with open eyes
into a den " from w-hich it was more than probable he would never
emerge — Chilleurs was, in fact, reoccupied behind him by part of
the 15th corps. By the fortune of war the III. corps actually did
emerge safely, but only thanks to the inactivity of the French right
group under Bourbaki,^ and to the almost entire absence of direct
opposition, not to Prince Frederick Charles's dispositions.
On the main road, meantime, the IX. corps had captured a series
of villages, and at nightfall of the short December day reached
the N.W. corner of the Forest. The Detachment, slowly pushing
before it part of the army it had defeated at Loigny, and protecting
itself on the outer flank by a flank guard (I. Bavarians) against the
rest, had closed in towards Chevilly. Prince Frederick Charles,
angered by the slow, painful and indecisive day's work, ordered the
advance to be continued and the French positions about Chevilly
stormed in the dark, but fortunately was dissuaded by von Stosch,
who rode over to his headquarters. But the prince never (except
perhaps for a brief moment during the battle of Loigny-Poupry)
believed that there was any serious obstacle in the way of the Detach-
ment except its own fears, and repeatedly impressed upon Stosch
the fact that Orleans was the watchword and the objective for
every one.
In pursuance of the idee fixe, the prince issued orders for the 4th
to the following effect: III. corps to advance on Orleans and to
" bring artillery into action against the city," at the same time
carefully guarding his left flank; IX. and 6th cavalry division to go
forward along the general line of the main road; Detachment to
make an enveloping attack on Gidy in concert with the attack of the
IX. corps. In the forest Alvensleben, knowing that he could not
capture Orleans single-handed, guarded his left with a whole division
and with the other advanced on the city, stormed the village of
Vaumainbert, which was stubbornly defended by a small French force,
and close upon nightfall perfunctorily threw a few shells into Orleans.
The flank-guard division had meanwhile been gravely imperilled
by the advance of Crouzat's 20th corps, but once again the III. corps
was miraculously saved, for Bourbaki, receiving word from d'Aurelle
that the left group could not hold its position in advance of the
Loire, and that the line of retreat of the right group was by Gien,
ordered the fight to be broken off.
In the centre the IX. corps, after fighting hard all day, progressed
no farther than Cercottes. The prince and the grand duke had a
short interview, but, being personal enemies, their inter- „
course was confined to the prince's issuing his orders /^'h" t
without inquiring closely into the positions of the Detach- „ .
ment and its opponents. Thus while the main body of
the French left group, under the determined Chanzy, slipped away
to the left, to continue the struggle for three months longer, the
Detachment was compelled to conform to the movements of the IX.
corps. But it was handled resolutely, and in the afternoon its
right swung in to Ormcs. The 2nd cavalry division, finding a target
and open ground, charged the demoralized defenders with great
effect, a panic began and spread, and by nightfall, when the prince,
who was with the IX. corps, had actually given up hope of capturing
Orleans that day and had issued orders to suspend the fight, his
rival and subordinate was marching into Orleans with bands playing
and colours flying. There was no pursuit, and the severed wings
of the French army thenceforward carried on the campaign as two
separate armies under Chanzy and Bourbaki respectively.
See F. Hoenig, Volkskrie^ av der Loire, and L. A. Hale, The
People's War, besides general and special histories and memoirs
referred to in Franco-German War. (C. F. A.)
ORLEY, BERNARD VAN (1401-1542), Flemish painter, the
son and pupil of the painter Vaientyn van Orley, was born at
' The same night Moltke received copies of the prince's orders
and also news of the victory of Loigny-Poupry, but for some reason
that is still unknown he let events take their course.
^ With all his faults, Bourbaki was hardly responsible for this
failure. Gambetta had for some days been giving orders to the
i8th and 20th corps direct, but precisely at the moment he handed
back the control of the group to d'Aurelle, this being arranged over
the wires while the III. corps was advancing.
ORLOV— ORM
293
Brussels and completed his art education in Rome in the school
of Raphael. He returned to Brussels, where he held an appoint-
ment as court painter to Margaret of Austria until 1527, in
which year he lost this position and left the city. He only
returned to it upon being reinstated by Mary of Hungary in
1532, and died there in 1542. Whilst in his earlier work he
continued the tradition of the Van Eyclcs and their followers,
he inaugurated a new era in Flemish art by introducing into
his native country the Italian manner of the later Renaissance,
the style of which he had acquired during his sojourn in Rome.
His art inarks the passing from the Gothic to the Renaissance
period; he is the chief figure in the period of decline which
preceded the advent of Rubens. Meticulously careful execution,
brilliant colouring, and an almost Umbrian sense of design are
the chief characteristics of his work.
Van Orley, together with Michael Cocxie, superintended the
execution of van Aclst's tapestries for the Vatican, after
Raphael's designs, and is himself responsible for some remark-
able tapestry designs, such as the panels at Hampton Court.
His also are the designs for some of the stained glass windows
in the cathedral of Ste Gudule, in Brussels, at the museum of
which city are a number of his principal works, notably the
triptych representing "The Patience of Job" (1521). Among
his finest paintings are a " Trinity " at Liibeck cathedral, a
" Pieta " at Brussels, a Madonna at Munich and another at
Liverpool.
The National Gallery owns a " Magdalen, reading," another version
of the same subject being at the Dublin National Gallcr^'. Lord
Northbrook possesses a portrait of Charles V. by the master.
ORLOV, the name of a noble Russian family that produced
several distinguished statesmen, diplomatists and soldiers.
Gregory {Grigorii) Grigorievich Orlov, Count (1734-
1783), Russian statesman, was the son of Gregory Orlov, governor
of Great Novgorod. He was educated in the corps of cadets
at St Petersburg, began his mihtary career in the Seven Years'
War, and was wounded at Zorndorf. While serving in the capi-
tal as an artillery ofiicer he caught the fancy of Catherine II.,
and was the leader of the conspiracy which resulted in the
dethronement and death of Peter III. (1762). After the event,
Catherine raised him to the rank of count and made him adjutant-
general, director-general of engineers and general-in-chief. At
one time the empress thought of marrying her favourite, but
the plan was frustrated by Nikita Panin. Orlov's influence
became paramount after the discovery of the Khitrovo plot
to murder the whole Orlov family. Gregory Orlov was no states-
man, but he had a quick wit, a fairly accurate appreciation of
current events, and was a useful and sympathetic counsellor
during the earlier portion of Catherine's reign. He entered
with enthusiasm, both from patriotic and from economical
motives, into the question of the improvement of the condition
of the serfs and their partial emancipation. He was also their
most prominent advocate in the great commission of 1767,
though he aimed primarily at pleasing the empress, who affected
great liberality in her earlier years. He was one of the earliest
propagandists of the Slavophil idea of the emancipation of the
Christians from the Turkish yoke. In 1771 he was sent as first
Russian plenipotentiary to the peace-congress of Focshani;
but he failed in his mission, owing partly to the obstinacy of the
Turks, and partly (according to Panin) to his own outrageous
insolence. On returning without permission to St Petersburg,
he found himself superseded in the empress's favour by Vasil'-
chikov. When Potemkin, in 1771, superseded Vasil'chikov,
Orlov became of no account at court and went abroad for some
years. He returned to Russia a few months previously to his
death, which took place at Moscow in 1780. For some time
before his death he was out of his mind. Late in life he married
his m'ece, Madame Zinoveva, but left no children.
See A. P. Barsukov, Narratives from Russian History in the iSth
Century (Rus.) (St Petersburg, 1885).
Alexis GRiGORiEvrcH Orlov, Count (1737-1808), brother of
the above, was by far the ablest member of the Orlov countly
family, and was also remarkable for his athletic strength and
dexterity. In the revolution of 1762 he played an even more
important part than his brother Gregory. It was he who
conveyed Peter III. to the chateau of Ropsha and murdered
him there with his own hands. In 1770 he was appointed com-
mander-in-chief of the fleet sent against the Turks, whose far
superior navy he annihilated at Cheshme (July 5th 1770), a
victory which led to the conquest of the Greek archipelago.
For this exploit he received, in 1774, the honorific epithet
Chcsmcnsky, and the privilege of quartering the imperial arms
in his shield. The same year he went into retirement and
settled at Moscow. He devoted himself to horse-breeding, and
produced the finest race of horses then known by crossing Arab
and Frisian, and Arab and English studs. In the war with
Napoleon during 1806-07 Orlov commanded the militia of the
fifth district, which was placed on a war footing almost entirely
at his own expense. He left an estate worth five millions of
roubles and 30,000 serfs.
See article, " The Associates of Catherine II.," No. 2, in Russkaya
Starina (Rus.) (St Petersburg, 1873).
Theodore (Fedor) Grigorievich Orlov, Count (1741-1706),
Russian general, first distinguished himself in the Seven Years'
War. He participated with his elder brothers, Gregory and
Alexis, in the cotip d'etat of 1762, after which he was appointed
chief procurator of the senate. During the first Turkish War
of Catherine II. he served under Admiral Spiridov, and was
one of the first to break through the Turkish line of battle at
Cheshme. Subsequently, at Hydra, he put to flight eighteen
Turkish vessels. These exploits were, by the order of Catherine,
commemorated by a triumphal column, crowned with naval
trophies, erected at Tsarskoe Selo. In 1775 he retired from the
public service. Orlov was never married, but had five natural
children, whom Catherine ennobled and legitimatized.
Alexis Fedorovich Orlov, Prince (1787-1S62), Russian
statesman, the son of a natural son of Count Theodore Grigorie-
vich Orlov, took part in all the Napoleonic wars from 1805 to
the capture of Paris. For his services as commander of the
cavalry regiment of the Life Guards on the occasion of the
rebellion of 1825 he was created a count, and in the Turkish
War of 1828-29 rose to the rank of lieutenant-general. It is
from this time that the brilliant diplomatic career of Orlov
begins. He was the Russian plenipotentiary at the peace of
Adrianople, and in 1S33 was appointed Russian ambassador at
Constantinople, holding at the same time the post of commander-
in-chief of the Black Sea fleet. He was, indeed, one of the most
trusty agents of Nicholas I., whom in 1837 he accompanied on
his foreign tour. In 1854 he was sent to Vienna to bring Austria
over to the side of Russia, but without success. In 1856 he
was one of the plenipotentiaries who concluded the peace of
Paris. The same year he was raised to the dignity of prince,
and was appointed president of the imperial council of state
and of the council of ministers. In 1857, during the absence
of the emperor, he presided over the commission formed to
consider the question of the emancipation of the serfs, to which
he was altogether hostile.
His only son, Prince Nikolai Aleksyeevich Orlov (1827-
1885), was a distinguished Russian diplomatist and author. He
first adopted a military career, and was seriously wounded in
the Crimean War. Subsequently he entered the diplomatic
service, and represented Russia successively at Brussels (1860-
1S70), Paris (1870-18S2) and Berlin (1882-1885). As a publicist
he stood in the forefront of reform. His articles on corporal
punishment, which appeared in Russkaya Starina in 1 88 1, brought
about its abolition. He also advocated tolerance towards the
dissenters. His historical work, Sketch of Three Weeks' Campaign
in :So6 (St Petersburg, 1856) is still of value. (R. N. B.)
ORM, or Ormin, the author of an English book, called by
himself Ormuimn (" because Orm made it "), consisting of
metrical homilies on the gospels read at mass. The unique MS.,
now in the Bodleian Library, is certainly Orm's autograph,
and contains abundant corrections by his own hand. On palaeoy
graphical grounds it is referred to about a.d. 1200, and tl
date is supported by the linguistic evidence. The dialecj
midland, with some northern features. It is marked ip
294
ORMAZD— ORMEROD
unparalleled degree by the abundance of Scandinavian words,
while the French element in its vocabulary is extraordinarily
small. The precise determination of the locality is not free from
difficulty, as it is now recognized that the criteria formerly
relied on for distinguishing between the eastern and the western
varieties of the midland dialect are not valid, at least for this
early period. The Ormulum certainly contains a surprisingly
large number of words that are otherwise nearly peculiar to
western texts; but the inference that might be drawn from this
fact appears to be untenable in face of the remarkable lexical
affinities between this work and Havelok, which is certainly of
north-east midland origin. On the whole, the language of the
Ormulum seems to point to north Lincolnshire as the author's
native district.
The work is dedicated to a certain Walter, at whose request
it was composed, and whom Orm addresses as his brother in
a threefold sense — " according to the flesh," as his fellow-
Christian, and as being a member of the same religious fraternity,
that of the Augustinian Canons. The present writer has sug-
gested {Athenaeum, iqth May 1906) that Orm and Walter may
have been inmates of the Augustinian priory of Elsham, near the
Humber, which was established about the middle of the 12th
century by Walter de AmundevUle. In his foundation charter
(Dugdale's Monasticon, ed. Caley and Bandinel, vi. 560) Walter
endows the priory with lands, and also grants to it the services
of certain villeins, among whom are his steward {praepositus)
William, son of Leofwine, and his wife and famOy. As this
WiUiani is said to have had an uncle named Orm, and probably
owed his Norman name to a godfather belonging to the Amunde-
ville family, it seems not unlikely that the author of the Ormulum
and his brother Walter were his sons, named respectively after
their father's uncle and his lord, and that they entered the
religious house of which they had been made subjects.
The name Orm is Scandinavian (Old Norse Ormr, literally
" serpent," corresponding to the Old Eng. wyrm, " worm "),
and was not uncommon in the Danish parts of England. It
occurs once in the book. The Gallicized form Ormin is found
only in one passage, where the author gives it as the name by
which he was christened. If this statement be meant literally
{i.e. if the writer was not merely treating the two names as
equivalent), it shows that he must, like his brother, have had a
Norman godfather. The ending -in was frequently appended
to names in Old French, e.g. in Johannin for Joban, John. The
title Ormulum for the book which Orm made was probably an
imitation of Speculum, a common medieval name for books of
devotion or religious edification.
The Ormulum is written in lines alternately of eight and seven
syllables, without either rhyme or alliteration. The rhythm
may be seen from the opening couplet :
Nu, bro})err Wallter, bro{)err min
Affterr {Je flashess kinde.
The extant portion of the work, not including the dedication
and introduction, consists of about 20,000 fines. But the table
of contents refers to 242 homilies, of which only 31 are preserved;
and as the dedication implies that the book had been completed,
and that it included homilies on the gospels for nearly all the
year, it would seem that the huge fragment which we possess
is not much more than one-eighth of this extraordinary monu-
ment of pious industry.
The Ormulum is entirely destitute of poetic merit, though
the author's visible enjoyment of his task renders it not un-
interesting reading. To the history of biblical interpretation
and of theological ideas it probably contributes little or nothing
that is not well-known from other sources. For the philologist,
however, the work is of immense value, partly as a unique
specimen of the north-midland dialect of the period, and partly
because the author had invented an original system of phonetic
spelling, which throws great light on the contemporary pronuncia-
tion of English. In closed syllables the shortness of a vowel is
indicated by the doubling of the following consonant. In open
syllables this method would have been misleading, as it would
have suggested a phonetic doubling of the consonant. In such
cases Orm had recourse to the device of placing the mark <->
over the vowel. Frequently, but apparently not according to
any discoverable rule, he distinguishes long vowels by one, two
or three accents over the letter. Like some earlier w-riters,
he retained the Old English form of the letter g (5) where it
expressed a spirant sound (not, however, distinguishing between
the guttural and the palatal spirant), and used the continental
g for the guttural stop and the sound dzh. He was, however,
original in distinguishing the two latter sounds by using slightly
different forms of the letter. This fact was unfortunately not
perceived by the editors, so that the printed text confounds the
two symbols throughout. The discovery was made by Professor
A. S. Napier in 1890. It must be confessed that Orm often
forgets his o^\ti rules of speUing, and although hundreds of
oversights are corrected by interlineation, many inconsistencies
still remain. Nevertheless, the orthography of the Ormulum
is the most valuable existing source of information on the
development of sounds in Middle English. j
The Ormulum was edited for the first time by R. M. White in 1854.
A revised edition, by R. Holt, was published in 1878. Many im-
portant corrections of the text were given by E. Kolbing in the first
volume of Englische Studien. With reference to the three forms of
the letter g, see A. S. Napier, Notes on the Orthography of the Ormulum,
printed with A History 0} the Holy Rood Tree (Early English Text
Society, 1894). (H. Br.)
ORMAZD, or Ormuzd (0. Persian Auramazda or Ahuramazda) ,
the supreme deity of Zoroastrianism. He is represented as the
god and creator of good, light, intelligence, in perpetual opposi-
tion to Ahriman the lord of evil, darkness and ignorance. The
dualism of the earlier Zoroastrians, which may be compared with
the Christian doctrine of God and Satan, gradually tended in
later times towards monotheism. At all times it was believed
that Ormazd would ultimately vanquish Ahriman. See further
Zoroaster.
ORME, ROBERT (i 728-1801), Engfish historian of India,
was born at Anjengo on the Malabar coast on the 25th of
December 1728, the son of a surgeon in the Company's service.
Educated at Harrow, he was appointed to a writership in Bengal
in 1743. He returned to England in 1753 in the same ship with
Clive, with whom he formed a close friendship. From 1754 to
1758 he was a member of councU at Madras, in which capacity
he largely influenced the sending of Clive to Calcutta to avenge
the catastrophe of the Black Hole. His great work — A History
of the Military Transactions of the British Nation in Indostan
from 174s — was published in three volumes in 1763 and 1778
(Madras reprint, 1861-1862). This was followed by a volume
of Historical Fragments (1781), dealing with an earlier period.
In 1769 he was appointed historiographer to the East India
Company. He died at Ealing on the 13th of January 1801.
His valuable coUections of MSS. are in the India Office library.
The characteristics of his work, of which the influence is admirably-
shown in Thackeray's The Newcomes, are thus described by
Macaulay: " Orme, inferior to no English historian in style
and power of painting, is minute even to tediousness. In one
volume he allots, on an average, a closely printed quarto page
to the events of every forty-eight hours. The consequence is
that his narrative, though one of the most authentic and one of
the most finely written in our language, has never been very
popular, and is now scarcely ever read." Not a few of the most
picturesque passages in Macaulay's own Essay on Clive are
borrowed from Orme. (J. S. Co.)
ORMEROD, ELEANOR A. (1828-1901), English entomologist,
was the daughter of George Ormerod, F.R.S., author of The
History of Cheshire, and was bom at Sedbury Park, Gloucester-
shire, on the nth of May 1828. From her earliest childhood
insects were her deUght, and the opportunity afforded for
entomological study by the large estate upon which she grew
up and the interest she took in agriculture generally soon made
her a local authority upon this subject. When, in 1868, the
Royal Horticultural Society began forming a collection of
insect pests of the farm for practical purposes, Miss Ormerod
largely contributed to it, and was awarded the Flora medal of the
society. In 1877 she issued a pamphlet. Notes for Observations
ORMOC— ORMONDE, EARL AND MARQUESS OF
295
on Injurious Insects, which was distributed among persons
interested in this line of inquiry, who readily sent in the results
of their researches, and was thus the beginning of the v/ell-known
Annual Series of Reports on Injurious Insects and Farm Fcsts.
In 1 88 1 Miss Ormerod pubhshed a special report upon the
" turnip-lly," and in 1882 was appointed consulting entomologist
to the Royal Agricultural Society, a post she held until 1892.
For several years she was lecturer on scientific entomology at
the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester. Her fame was not
confined to England: she received silver and gold medals from
the university of Moscow for her models of insects injurious to
plants, and her treatise on The Injurious Insects of South Africa
showed how wide was her range. In i8gc) she received the large
silver medal from the Societe Nationale d' Acclimatation dc
France. Among others of her works are the Cobden Journals,
Manual of Injurious Insects, and Handbook of Insects injurious
to Orchard and Bush Fruits. Almost the last honour which
fell to her was the honorary degree of LL.D. of Edinburgh
University — a unique distinction, for she was the first woman
upon whom the university had conferred this degree. The
dean of the legal faculty in making the presentation aptly
summoned up Miss Ormerod's services as follows: " The pre-
eminent position which Miss Ormerod holds in the world of
science is the reward of patient study and unwearying observation.
Her investigations have been chiefly directed towards the
discovery of methods for the prevention of the ravages of those
insects which are injurious to orchard, field and forest. Her
labours have been crowned with such success that she is entitled
to be hailed the protectress of agriculture and the fruits of the
earth— a beneficent Demeter of the 19th century." She died
at St Albans on the 19th of July 1901.
ORMOC, a town of the province of Leyte, island of Lcyte,
Phihppine Islands, on the W. coast about 35 m. S.W. of Tacloban.
Pop. (1903), after the annexation of Albuera, 20,761. There
are thirty-three barrios or viUages in the town, and the largest
of them had a population in 1903 of 5419. The language is
Visayan. Ormoc is in a great hemp-producing region and is
open to coast trade.
ORMOLU (Fr. or moulu, gold ground or pounded), an alloy
of copper and zinc, sometimes with an addition of tin. The name
is also used to describe gilded brass or copper. The tint of
ormolu approximates closely to that of gold; it is heightened
by a wash of gold lacquer, by immersion in dilute sulphuric
acid, or by burnishing. The principal use of ormolu is for the
mountings of furniture. With it the great French ebenistes
of the i8th century obtained results which, in the most finished
examples, are almost as fine as jewelers' work. The mounts
were usually cast and then chiselled with extraordinary skill
and delicacy.
ORMOND, a village and winter resort of Volusia county,
Florida, U.S.A., about 68 m. by rail S. of St Augustine. It is
situated on the Hahfax river, an arm of the Atlantic Ocean
extending for 25 m. along the E. coast of Florida. Pop. (1900)
595; (1905 state census) 689. It is served by the Florida
East Coast Railway. The Hahfax river region is famous for
its excellent oranges and grape-fruit. The hard and compact
Ormond-Daytona beach, about 200 ft. wide at low tide and about
20 m. long, offers exceptional facilities for driving, motoring and
bicycling; on it are held the annual tournaments of the Florida
East Coast Automobile Association. The old King's Road, built
by the Enghsh between 1763 and 1783, from St Mary's, Georgia,
some 400 m. to the south, has been improved for automobiles
between Ormond and Jacksonville. About 2 m. west of Ormond
are the ruins of an old sugar mill, probably dating from the
last quarter of the i8th century and not, as is freauently said,
from the Spanish occupation in the i6th century. About 5 m.
south of Ormond and also on the Halifax river is another popular
winter resort, Daytona (pop. 1900, 1690; 1905, state census,
2199), founded in 1870 as Tomoka by Mathias Day of Mansfield,
Ohio, in whose honour it was renamed Daytona in 1871. Its
streets and drives are shaded by live oaks, palmettos, hickories
and magnohas.
ORMONDE, EARL AND MARQUESS OF, titles stiU held
by the famous Irish family of Butler {ti-v.), the name being
taken from a district now part of Co. Tipperary. In 1328
James Butler (c. 1305-1337). a son of Edmund Butler, was
created earl of Ormonde, one reason for his elevation being
the fact that his wife Eleanor, a daughter of Humfrey Bohun,
carl of Hereford, was a granddaughter of King Edward I.
His son James, the 2nd earl (1331-1382), was four times governor
of Ireland; the kilter's grandson James, the 4th earl (d. 1452),
held the same position several times, and won repute not only
as a soldier, but as a scholar. His son James, the 5th earl (1420-
c. 1461), was created an English peer as carl of Wiltshire in 1449.
A truculent partisan of the house of Lancaster, he was lord
high treasurer of England in 1455 and again in 1459, and was
taken prisoner after the battle of Towton in 1461. He and his
two brothers were than attainted, and he died without issue,
the exact date of his death being unknown. The attainder was
repealed in the Irish parliament in 1476, when his brother
Sir John Butler (c. 142 2-1478), who had been pardoned by
Edward IV. a few years previously, became 6th earl of Ormonde.
John, who was a fine hnguist, served Edward IV. as ambassador
to many European princes, and this king is said to have described
him as " the goodliest knight he ever beheld and the finest
gentleman in Christendom." His brother Thomas, the 7th
earl (c. 1424-1 5 15), a courtier and an English baron under
Richard III. and Henry VII., was ambassador to France and
to Burgundy; he left no sons, and on his death in August 15 15
his earldom reverted to the crown.
Margaret, a daughter of this earl, married Sir William Boleyn
of Bhckling, and their son Sir Thomas Boleyn (1477-1539) was
created earl of Ormonde and of Wiltshire in 1529. He went on
several important errands for Henry VIII., during one of which
he arranged the prehminaries for the Field of the Cloth of Gold;
he was lord privy seal from 1530 to 1536, and served the king
in many other ways. He was the father of Henry's queen, Anne
Boleyn, but both this lady, and her only brother, George Boleyn,
Viscount Rochford, had been put to death before their father
died in March 1539.
Meanwhile in 1513 the title of earl of Ormonde had been
assumed by Sir Piers Butler (c. 1467-1539), a cousin of the 7th
earl, and a man of great influence in Ireland. He was lord
deputy, and later lord treasurer of Ireland, and in 1528 he
surrendered his claim to the earldom of Ormonde and was
created earl of Ossory. Thenin iS38hewasmadeearlofOrmonde,
this being a new creation; however, he counts as the 8th earl
of the Butler family. In 1550 his second son Richard (d. 1571)
was created Viscount Mountgarret, a title still held by the
Butlers. The 8th earl's son, James, the 9th earl (c. 1490-1546),
lord high treasurer of Ireland, was created Viscount Thurles in
1536. In 1544 an act of parUament confirmed him in the
possession of his earldom, which, for practical purposes, was
declared to be the creation of 1328, and not the new creation of
1538.
Thomas, the loth earl (1532-1614), a son of the 9th earl, was
lord high treasurer of Ireland and a very prominent personage
during the latter part of the i6th century. He was a Protestant
and threw his great influence on the side of the Enghsh queen
and her ministers in their efforts to crush the Irish rebels, but
he was perhaps more anxious to prosecute a fierce feud with his
hereditary foe, the earl of Desmond, this struggle between the
two factions desolating Munster for many years. His successor
was his nephew Walter (i 569-1633), who was imprisoned from
1617 to 1625 for refusing to surrender the Ormonde estates to his
cousin Elizabeth, the wife of Sir R. Preston and the only daughter
of the loth earl. He was deprived of the palatine rights in the
county of Tipperary, which had belonged to his ancestors for 400
years, but he recovered many of the family estates after his
release from prison in 1625.
Walter's grandson, James, the 12th earl, was created marquess
of Ormonde in 1642 and duke of Ormonde in 1661 (see beJow);
his son was Thomas Butler, earl of Ossory {q.v.), and his grandson
was James Butler, 2nd duke of Ormonde (see below).
296
ORMONDE, 1ST DUKE OF
When Charles Butler, earl of Arran (1671-1758), the brother
and successor of the 2nd duke, died in December 1758, the
dukedom and marquessate became extinct, but the earldom was
claimed by a kinsman, John Butler (d. 1766). John's cousin,
Walter (1703-1783), inherited this claim, and Walter's son John
(1740-1795) obtained a confirmation of it from the Irish House
of Lords in 1791. He is reckoned as the 17th earl. His son
Walter, the i8th earl (1770-1820), was created marquess of
Ormonde in 1816, a title which became extinct on his death, but
was revived in favour of his brother James (1774-1838) in 1825.
James was the grandfather of James Edward William Theobald.
Butler (b. 1844), who became the 3rd marquess in 1854. The
marquess sits in the House of Lords as Baron Ormonde of
Llanthony, a creation of 1821.
See J. H. Round on " The Earldoms of Ormonde " in Joseph
Foster's Collectanea Genealogica (1881-1883).
ORMONDE, JAMES BUTLER, ist Duke of (1610-1688),
Irish statesman and soldier, eldest son of Thomas Butler,
Viscount Thurles, and of Elizabeth, daughter of Sir John Poyntz,
and grandson of Walter, nth earl of Ormonde (see above), was
born in London on the 19th of October 1610. On the death of
his father by drowning in 1619, the boy was made a royal ward
by James I., removed from his Roman Catholic tutor, and placed
in the household of Abbot, archbishop of Canterbury, with whom
he stayed until 1625, residing afterwards in Ireland with his
grandfather. In 1629, by his marriage with his cousin, the Lady
Elizabeth Preston, daughter and heiress of Richard, earl of
Desmond, he put an end to the long-standing quarrel between
the families and united their estates. In 1632 on the death of
his grandfather he succeeded him to the earldom.
He was already noted in Ireland, as had been many of his race,
for his fine presence and great bodily vigour. His active career
began in 1633 with the arrival of StrafJord, by whom he was
treated, in spite of his independence of character, with great
favour. Writing to the king, Strafford described him as
" young, but take it from me, a very staid head," and Ormonde
was throughout his Irish government his chief friend and support.
In 1640 during Strafford's absence he was made commajider-in-
chief of the forces, and in August he was appointed lieutenant-
general. On the outbreak of the rebeUion in 1641 he rendered
admirable service in the expedition to Naas, and in the march
into the Pale in 1642, though much hampered by the lords
justices, who were jealous of his power and recalled him after he
had succeeded in relieving Drogheda. He was publicly thanked
by the English parliament and presented with a jewel of the
value of £620. On the 15th of April 1642 he gained the battle
of Kilrush against Lord Mountgarret. On the 30th of August
he was created a marquess, and on the i6th of September was
appointed lieutenant-general with a commission direct from the
king. On the i8th of March 1643 he won the battle of New
Ross against Thomas Preston, afterwards Viscount Tara. In
September, the civil war in England having meanwhile broken
out, Ormonde, in view of the successes of the rebels and the un-
certain loyalty of the Scots in Ulster, concluded with the latter,
in opposition to the lords justices, on the 15th of September,
the " cessation " by which the greater part of Ireland was given
up into the hands of the Catholic Confederation, leaving only
small districts on the east coast and round Cork, together with
certain fortresses in the north and west then actually in their
possession, to the English commanders. He subsequently, by
the king's orders, despatched a body of troops into England
(shortly afterwards routed by Fairfax at Nantwich) and was
appointed in January 1644 lord lieutenant, with special instruc-
tions to do all in his power to keep the Scotch army occupied.
In the midst of all the plots and struggles of Scots, Old Irish,
Catholic Irish of English race, and Protestants, and in spite of the
intrigues of the pope's nuncio as well as of attempts by the
parliament's commissioners to ruin his power, Ormonde showed
the greatest firmness and al^ility. He assisted Antrim in his
unsuccessful expedition into Scotland. On the 2Sth of INIarch
1646 he concluded a treaty with the Irish which granted re-
ligious concessions and removed various grievances. Mean-
while the difhculties of his position had been greatly increased
by Glamorgan's treaty with the Roman Catholics on the 25th of
August 1645, and it became clear that he could not long hope to
hold Dublin against the Irish rebels. He thereupon applied to
the English parliament, signed a treaty on the 19th of June 1647,
gave Dubhn into their hands upon terms which protected the
interests of both Protestants and Roman Catholics so far as they
had not actually entered into rebellion, and sailed for England at
the beginning of August. He attended Charles during August
and October at Hampton Court, but subsequently, in March
1648, in order to avoid arrest by the parliament, he joined the
queen and prince of Wales at Paris. In September of the same
year, the pope's nuncio having been expelled, and affairs other-
wise looking favourable, he returned to Ireland to endeavour to
unite all parties for the king. On the 17th of January 1649 he
concluded a peace with the rebels on the basis of the free exercise
of their religion, on the execution of the king proclaimed Charles
II. and was created a knight of the Garter in September. He
upheld the royal cause with great vigour though with slight
success, and on the conquest of the island by Cromwell he
returned to France in December 1650.
Ormonde now, though in great straits for want of money,
resided in constant attendance upon Charles and the queen-
mother in Paris, and accompanied the former to Aix and Cologne
when expelled from France by Mazarin's treaty with Cromwell
in 1655. In 165S he went disguised, and at great risk, upon a
secret mission into England to gain trustworthy intelligence as
to the chances of a rising. He attended the king at Fuent-
errabia in 1659 and had an interview with Mazarin; and was
actively engaged in the secret transactions immediately pre-
ceding the Restoration. On the return of the king he was at
once appointed a commissioner for the treasury and the navy,
made lord steward of the household, a privy councillor, lord
lieutenant of Somerset (an office which he resigned in 1672),
high steward of Westminster, Kingston and Bristol, chancellor
of Dublin University, Baron Butler of Llanthony and earl of
Brecknock in the peerage of England; and on the 30th of March
1661 he was created duke of Ormonde in the Irish peerage and
lord high steward of England. At the same time he recovered
his enormous estates in Ireland, and large grants in recom-
pense of the fortune he had spent in the royal service were made
to him by the king, while in the following year the Irish parlia-
ment presented him with £30,000. His losses, however, according
to Carte, exceeded his gains by £868,000. On the 4th of Novem-
ber 1661 he once more received the lord lieutenantship of Ireland,
and was busily engaged in the work of settling that country.
The most important and most difticult problem was the land
question, and the Act of Explanation was passed through the
Irish parhament by Ormonde on the 23rd of December 1665.
His heart was in his government, and he vehemently opposed
the bill prohibiting the importation of Irish cattle which struck
so fatal a blow at Irish trade; and retahated by prohibiting
the import into Ireland of Scottish commodities, and obtained
leave to trade with foreign countries. He encouraged Irish
manufactures and learning to the utmost, and it was to his
efforts that the Irish College of Physicians owes its incorporation.
Ormonde's personality had always been a striking one, and
in the new reign his virtues and patriotism became still more
conspicuous. He represented almost alone the older and nobler
generation. He stood aloof while the counsels of the king were
guided by dishonour; and proud of the loyalty of his race which
had remained unspotted through five centuries, he bore with
silent self-respect calumny, envy and the loss of royal favour,
declaring, " However Ul I may stand at court I am resolved to
lye well in the chronicle."
He soon became the mark for attack from all that was worst
in the court. Buckingham especially did his utmost to under-
mine his influence. Ormonde's almost irresponsible govern-
ment of Ireland during troublous times was no doubt open to |
criticism. He had biUeted soldiers on civilians, and had executed
martial law. The impeachment, however, threatened by
Buckingham in 1667 and 1668 fell through. Nevertheless by
ORMONDE, 2ND DUKE OF
297
1669 constant importunity had had its usual effect upon Charles,
and on the 14th of March Ormonde was removed from the govern-
ment of Ireland and from the committee for Irish affairs. He
made no complaint, insisted that his sons and others over whom
he had intiuence should retain their posts, and continued to fullil
with dignified persistence the duties of his other offices, while
the greatness of his character and services was recognized by his
election as chanceUor of Oxford University on the 4lh of August.
In 1670 an extraordinary attempt was made to assassinate
the duke by a ruffian and adventurer named Thomas Blood,
already notorious for an unsuccessful plot to surprise Dublin
Castle in 1663, and later for stealing the royal crown from the
Tower. Ormonde was attacked by this person and his ac-
complices while driving up Si James's Street on the night of
the 6th of December, dragged out of his coach, and taken on
horseback along Piccadilly with the intention of hanging him
at Tyburn. Ormonde, however, succeeded in overcoming the
horseman to whom he was bound, and his servants coming up,
he escaped. The outrage, it was suspected, had been instigated
by the duke of Buckingham, who was openly accused of the
crime by Lord Ossory, Ormonde's son, in the king's presence,
and threatened by him with instant death if any violence should
happen to his father; and some colour was given to these sus-
picions by the improper action of the king in pardoning Blood,
and in admitting him to his presence and treating him with
favour after his apprehension while endeavouring to steal the
crown jewels.
In 167 1 Ormonde successfully opposed Richard Talbot's
attempt to upset the Act of Settlement. In 1673 he again
visited Ireland, returned to London in 1675 to give advice to
Charles on affairs in parliament, and in 1677 was again restored
to favour and reappointed to the lord lieutenancy. On his
arrival in Ireland he occupied himself in placing the revenue
and the army upon a proper footing. Upon the outbreak of
the popish terror in England, he at once took the most vigorous
and comprehensive steps, though with as Uttle harshness as
possible, towards rendering the Roman CathoKcs, who were
in the proportion of 15 to i, powerless; and the mildness and
moderation of his measures served as the ground of an attack
upon him in England led by Shaftesbury, from which he was
defended with great spirit by his son Lord Ossory. In 1682
Charles summoned Ormonde to court. The same year he wrote
" A Letter ... in answer to the earl of Anglesey, his Observa-
tions upon the earl of Castlehaven's Memoires concerning the
RebelUon of Ireland," and gave to Charles a general support.
On the gth of November 1683 an English dukedom was conferred
upon him, and in June 1684 he returned to Ireland; but he
was recalled in October in consequence of fresh intrigues. Before,
however, he could give up his government to Rochester, Charles
II. died; and Ormonde's last act as lord lieutenant was to
proclaim James II. in Dubhn. Subsequently he lived in retire-
ment at Cornbury in Oxfordshire, lent to him by Lord Clarendon,
but emerged from it in 1687 to offer a firm and successful opposi-
tion at the board of the Charterhouse to James's attempt to
assume the dispensing power, and force upon the institution
a Roman Catholic candidate without taking the oaths according
to the statutes and the act of parliament. He also refused the
king his support in the question of the Indulgence; notwith-
standing which James, to his credit, refused to take away his
offices, and continued to hold him in respect and favour to the last.
Ormonde died on the 21st of July 1688, not having, as he
rejoiced to know, "outlived his intellectuals"; and with him
disappeared the greatest and grandest figure of the times. His
splendid qualities were expressed with some felicity in verses
written on welcoming his return to Ireland and printed in
1682:
" A Man of Plato's grand nobility.
An inbred greatness, innate honesty;
A Man not form'd of accidents, and whom
Misfortune might oppress, not overcome . . .
Who weighs himself not by opinion
But conscience of a noble action."
He was buried in Westminster Abbey on the ist of August.
He had, besides two daughters, three sons who grew to
maturity. The eldest of these, Thomas, earl of Ossory (1634-
lOSo) predeceased him, his eldest son succeeding as znd duke of
Ormonde. The other two, Richard, created earl of Arran, and
John, created earl of Gowran, both dying without male issue,
and the male descent of the ist duke becoming exti.ict in the
person of Charles, 3rd duke of Ormonde, the earldom subse-
quently reverted to the descendants of Walter, nth earl of
Ormonde.
.Authorities. — Life of the Duke of Ormonde, by Thomas Carte;
the same author's Collection of Original Letters, found among, the
Duke of Ormonde' s Papers (1739), and the Carle MSS. in the Bodleian
Library at Oxford; Life of Ormonde, by Sir Robert Southwell,
printed in the History of the Irish Portiiiment, by Lord Mountniorres
(1792), vol. i.; Correspondence between Archbishop Williams and the
Marquess of Ormonde, ed. by B. H. Beedham (rei)rintt-(l from Archue-
ol()i;ia Catnbrensis, l86y); Observations on the Articles of Peace
between James, Earl of Ormonde, and the Irish Rebels, by Jutm
Milton; Hist. MSS. Comm. Reps, ii.-iv. and vi.-x., esp. Rep. viii.,
appendix, p. 499, and Rep. xiv. App. : pt. vii., MSS. of Marquis of
Ormonde, together with new series; Notes and Queries, vi. ser. v.,
pp. 343, 431; Gardiner's Hist, of the Civil War; Calendar of Slate
Papers {Domestic) and Irish, i6jj-i662,\\\ih introductions ; Biof^raphia
Brilannica (Kippis); Scottish Hist. Soc. Publications: Letters and
Papers of 1650, ed. by S. R. Gardiner, vol. xvii. (1894).
ORMONDE, JAMES BUTLER, 2ND Duke of (1665-1745),
Irish statesman and soldier, son of Thomas, earl of Ossory, and
grandson of the ist duke, was born in Dublin on the 29th of
April 1665, and was educated in France and afterwards at
Christ Church, Oxford. On the death of his father in 1680 he
became earl of Ossory by courtesy. He obtained command of a
cavalry regiment in Ireland in 1684, and having received an
appointment at court on the accession of James II., he served
against the duke of Monmouth. Having succeeded his grandfather
as duke of Ormonde in 168S, he joined William of Orange, by
whom he w as made colonel of a regiment of horse-guards, which he
commanded at the battle of the Boyne. In 1691 he served on
the continent under William, and after the accession of Anne
he was placed in command of the land forces co-operating
with Sir George Rooke in Spain. Having been made a privy
councillor, Ormonde succeeded Rochester as viceroy of Ireland
in 1703, a post which he held till 1707. On the dismissal of the
duke of Marlborough in 171 1, Ormonde was appointed captain-
general in his place, and allowed himself to be made the tocl of
the Tory ministry, whose policy was to carry on the war in the
Netherlands while giving secret orders to Ormonde to take
no active part in supporting their allies under Prince Eugene.
Ormonde's position as captain-general made him a personage
of much importance in the crisis brought about by the death of
Queen Anne. Though he had supported the revolution of 1688,
he was traditionally a Tory, and Lord Bolingbroke was his
political leader. During the last years of Queen Anne he almost
certainly had Jacobite leanings, and corresponded with the
duke of Berwick. He joined Bolingbroke and Oxford, however,
in signing the proclamation of King George I., by whom he was
nevertheless deprived of the captain-generalship. In June 17 15
he was impeached, and fled to France, where he for some time
resided with Bolingbroke, and in 1716 his immense estates
were confiscated to the crown by act of parliament, though by a
subsequent act his brother, Charles Butler, earl of Arran, was
enabled to repurchase them. After taking part in the Jacobite
invasion in 1715, Ormonde settled in Spain, where he was in
favourat court and enjoyed a pension from the crown. Towards
the end of his life he resided much at Avignon, where he was
seen in 1733 by Lady Mary Wortley Montagu. Ormonde
died on the i6th of November 1745, and was buried in West-
minster A'obey.
With little of his grandfather's ability, and inferior to him
in elevation of character, Ormonde was nevertheless one of
the great figures of his time. Handsome, dignified, magnanimous
and open-handed, and free from the meanness, treacher)- and
venality of many of his leading contemporaries, he enjoyed
a popularity which, with greater stability of purpose, might
have enabled him to exercise commanding influence over events.
XX. 10 iJ
298
ORMSKIRK— ORNE
See Thomas Carte, Hist, of the Life of James, Duke of Ormonde
(6 vols-, Oxford, 1851), which contains much information respecting
the life of the second duke; Earl Stanhope, Hist of Eti gland, com-
prising the Reign of Queen Anne until the Peace of Utrecht (London,
1870) ; F. W. Wyon, Hist, of Great Britain during the Reign of Queen
Anne (2 vols., London, 1876); William Coxe, Memoirs of Marl-
borough (3 vols., new edition, London, 1847).
ORMSKIRK, a market town and urban district in the Ormskirk
parliamentary division of Lancashire, England, 11 m. N.E. of
Liverpool by the Lancashire and Yorkshire railway Pop.
(iQOi), 6857. The church of St Peter and St Paul is a spacious
building in various styles of architecture, but principally Per-
pendicular. It possesses the rare feature of two western towers,
the one square and embattled, the other octagonal and bearing
a short spire. There are various Norman fragments, including
a fine early window in the chancel. To the south-east of the
church, and divided from it by a screen, is the Derby chapel,
the exclusive property of the earls of Derby, whose vault is
contained within. A free grammar school was founded about
1614. Rope and twine making, iron-founding and brewing
are carried on, and the town has long been famous for its ginger-
bread.
The name and church existed in the time of Richard I., when
the priory of Burscough was founded. A few fragments of this
remain about 2 m. N. of Ormskirk. The prior and convent
obtained from Edward I. a royal charter for a market at the
manor of Ormskirk. On the dissolution of the monasteries
the manor was granted to the earl of Derby.
ORNAMENT (Lat. ornare, to adorn), in decorative art, that
element which adds an embellishment of beauty in detail. Orna-
ment is in its nature accessory, and implies a thing to be orna-
mented, which is its active cause and by rights suggests its
design (9. 11.). It does not exist apart from its application. Nor
is it properly added to a thing already in existence (that is but
a makeshift for design), but is rather such modification of the
thing in the making as may be determined by the consideration
of beauty. For example, the construction and proportions
of a chair are determined by use (by the necessity of combining
the maximum of strength with the minimum of weight, and of
fitting it to the proportions of the human body, &c.); and any
modification of the plan, such as the turning of legs, the shaping
of arms and back, carving, inlay, mouldings, &c. — any recon-
sideration even of the merely utilitarian plan from the point of
view of art — has strictly to do with Ornament, which thus,
far from being an afterthought, belongs to the very inception of
the thing. Ornament is good only in so far as it is an indispens-
able part of something, helping its effect without hurt to its use.
It is begotten of use by the consideration of beauty. The test
of ornament is its fitness. It must occupy a space, fulfil a purpose,
be adapted to the material in which and the process by which
it is executed. This implies treatment. The treatment befitting
a wall space does not equally befit a floor space of the same
dimensions. What is suitable to hand-painting is not equally
suitable to stencilling; nor what is proper to mosaic proper
to carpet-weaving. Neither the purposes of decoration nor
the conditions of production allow great scope for naturalism
in ornament. Its forms are derived from nature, more or less;
but repose is best secured by some removedness from nature —
necessitated also by the due treatment of material after its
kind and according to its fashioning. . In the case of recurring
ornament it is inept to multiply natural flowers, &c., which
at every repetition lose something of their natural attraction.
The artist in ornament does not imitate natural forms. Such
as he may employ he transfigures. He does not necessarily
set out with any idea of natural form (this comes to him by
the way) ; his first thought is to solve a given problem in design,
and he solves it perhaps most surely by means of abstract
ornament — witness the work of the Greeks and of the Arabs.
The extremity of tasteless naturalism, reached towards the
beginning of the Victorian era, was the opportunity of English
reformers, prominent amongst whom was Owen Jones, whose
fault was in insisting upon a form of ornament too abstract
to suit English ideas. William Morris and others led the way
back to nature, but to nature trained in the way of ornament.
The Styles of ornament, so-called, mark the evolution of design,
being the direct outcome of Greek, Roman, Byzantine, Gothic
or other conditions, in days when fashion moved slowly. Post-
Renaissance ornament goes by the name of the reigning king;
but the character of the historic periods was not sought by artists;
it came of their working in the way natural to them and doing
their best. " Style," as distinguished from " the Styles," comes
of an artist's intelligent and sympathetic treatment of his
material, and of his personal sincerity and strength. Inter-
national trafBc has gone far to do away with national character-
istics in ornament, which becomes yearly more and more alike
all the world over. The subsidiary nature of ornament and its
subjection to conditions lead to its frequent repetition, which
results in pattern, repeated forms falling inevitably into lines,
always self-asserting, and liable to annoy in proportion as they
were not foreseen by the designer. He cannot, therefore, safely
disregard them. Indeed, his first business is to build pattern
upon lines, if not intrinsically beautiful, at least helpful to the
scheme of decoration. He may disguise them; but capable
designers are generally quite frank about the construction
of their pattern, and not afraid of pronounced Lines. Of course,
adaptation being all-essential to pattern, an artist must be
versed in the technique of any manufacture for which he designs.
His art is in being equal to the occasion. (L. F. D.)
ORNE, a department of the north-west of France, about half
of which formerly belonged to the province of Normandy and
the rest to the duchy of Alenfon and to Perche. Pop. (1906)
315-993- Area, 2371 sq. m. It is bounded N. by Calvados, N.E.
by Eure, E. and S.E. by Eure-et-Loir, S. by Sarthe and Mayenne
and W. by Manche. Geologically there are two distinct regions:
to the west of the Orne and the railway from Argentan to Alenfon
lie primitive rocks connected with those of Brittany; to the
east begin the Jurassic and Cretaceous formations of Normandy.
The latter district is agriculturally the richest part of thedepart-
mcnt; in the former the poverty of the soil has led the inhabit-
ants to seek their subsistence from industrial pursuits. Between
the northern portions, draining to the Channel, and the southern
portion, belonging to the basin of the Loire, stretch the hills of
Perche and Normandy, which generally have a height of from 800
to 1000 ft. The highest point in the department, situated in
the forest of Ecouves north of Alenfon, reaches 1368 ft. The
department gives birth to three Seine tributaries — the Eure, its
afBuent the Iton, and the Risle, which passes by Laigle. The
Touques, passing by Vimoutiers, the Dives and the Orne fall
into the English Channel, the last passing Sees and Argentan,
and receiving the Noireau with its tributary the Vere, which runs
past Flers. Towards the Loire flows the Huisne, a feeder of the
Sarthe passing by Mortagne, the Sarthe, which passes by Alenf on,
and the Mayenne, some of whose affluents rise to the north
of the dividing range and make their way through it by the
most picturesque defiles. The department, indeed, with its
beautiful forests containing oaks several centuries old, its
meadows, streams, deep gorges and stupendous rocks, is one of
the most picturesque of all France. In the matter of climate
Orne belongs to the Seine region. The mean temperature is
50° F.; the summer heat is never extreme; the west winds are
the most frequent; the rainfall, distributed over about a
hundred days in the year, amounts to 36 in. or about 5 in. more
than the average for France.
Horse-breeding is the most flourishing business in the rural
districts; there are three breeds — those of Perche, Le Merlerault
and Brittany. The great government stud of Le Pin-au-Haras
(established in 1714), with its school of horse-breeding, is situated
between Le Merlerault and Argentan. Several horse-training
establishments exist in the department. A large number of lean
cattle are bought in the neighbouring departments to be
fattened; the farms in the vicinity of Vimoutiers, on the borders
of Calvados, produce the famous Camembert cheese, and others
excellent butter. The bee industry is very flourishing. Oats,
wheat, barley and buckwheat are the chief cereals, besides
which fodder in great quantity and variety, potatoes and some
i
HISTORY]
ORNITHOLOGY
299
hemp are grown. The variety of production is due to the great
natural diversity of the soils. Small farms are the rule, and the
fields in those cases are surrounded by hedges relieved by pollard
trees. Along the roads or in the enclosures are planted numerous
pear and apple frees, the latter yielding cider, part of which is
manufactured into brandy. Beech, oak, birch and pine are the
chief timber trees in the extensive forests of the department.
Orne has iron mines and freestone quarries; a kind of smoky
quartz known as Alenfon diamond is found. Its most celebrated
mineral waters are those of the hot springs of Bagnoles, which
contain salt, sulphur and arsenic, and are employed for tonic and
restorative purposes in cases of general debility. In the forest
of Belleme is the chalybeate spring of La Hesse, which was used
by the Romans.
Cotton and linen weaving, principally carried on at Flers (q.v.)
and La Ferte-Mace (pop. 4355), forms the staple industry of
Orne. Alenpon and Vimoutiers arc engaged in the production
of linen and canvas. Vimoutiers has bleacheries, which, together
with dye-works, are found in the textile centres. Only a few
workmen are now employed at Alenfon in the making of the
lace which takes its name from the town. Foundries and wire-
works also exist in the department, and articles in copper, zinc
and lead are manufactured. Pins, needles, wire and hardware
are produced at Laigle (pop. 4416), and Tinchebray is also a
centre for hardware manufacture. There are also glass-works,
paper-mills, tanneries (the waters of the Orne being reputed
to give a special quality to the leather) and glove-works. Coal,
raw cotton, metals and machinery are imported into the depart-
ment, which exports its woven and metal manufacture, live
stock and farm produce.
The department is served by the Western railway. There are
four arrondissements, with Alenfon, the capital, Argentan,
Domfront and Mortagne as their chief towns, 36 cantons and 512
communes. The department forms the diocese of Sees (province
of Rouen) and part of the academic (educational division) of
Caen, and the region of the IV. army corps; its court of appeal
is at Caen. The chief places are Alenfon, Argentan, Mortagne,
Flers and Sees. Carrouges has remains of a chateau of the
iSth and 17th centuries; Chambois has a donjon of the 12th
century; and there is a fine Renaissance chateau at O. A
church in Laigle has a fine tower of the 15th century. There are
a great number of megahthic monuments in the department.
ORNITHOLOGY,! properly the methodical study and conse-
quent knowledge of birds with all that relates to them; but the
difficulty of assigning a limit to the commencement of such study
and knowledge gives the word a very vague meaning, and
practically procures its application to much that does not enter
the domain of science. This elastic application renders it im-
possible in the following sketch of the history of ornithology to
draw any sharp distinction between works that are emphatically
ornithological and those to which that title can only be attached
by courtesy; for, since birds have always attracted far greater
attention than any other group of animals with which in number
or in importance they can be compared, there has grown up
concerning them a literature of corresponding magnitude and of
the widest range, extending from the recondite and laborious
investigations of the morphologist and anatomist to the casual
observations of the sportsman or the schoolboy.
Though birds make a not unimportant appearance in the
earliest written records of the human race, the painter's brush
has preserved their counterfeit presentment for a still longer
period. A fragmentary fresco taken from a tomb at Medum
was desposited some years ago, though in a decaying condition,
in the Museum of Egyptian Antiquities, Cairo. This Egyptian
picture was said to date from the time of the third or fourth
dynasty, some three thousand years before the Christian era.
In it were depicted with a marvellous fidehty, and thorough
appreciation of form and colouring (despite a certain conventional
' Ornithologia, from the Greek bpvid-, crude form of opws, a bird,
and -"Koyla, allied to X670S, commonly Englished a discourse. The
earliest known use of the word Ornithology seems to be in the third
edition of Blount's Glossographia (1670), where it is noted as being
" the title of a late Book."
treatment), the figures of six geese. Four of these figures can
be unhesitatingly referred to two species {Anser albifrons and
A. riificoliis) well known at the present day. In later ages the
representations of birds of one sort or another in Egyptian
paintings and sculptures become countless, and the bassi-rilievi
of Assyrian monuments, though mostly belonging of course to a
subsequent period, are not without them. No figures of birds,
however, seem yet to have been found on the incised stones,
bones or ivories of the prehistoric races of Europe.
History of Ornithology to End oj i8lh Century.
Aristotle was the first serious author on ornithology with
whose writings we are acquainted, but even he had, as he tells
us, predecessors; and, looking to that portion of his
works on animals which has come down to us, one ^orks.
finds that, though more than 170 sorts of birds are
mentioned,^ yet what is said of them amounts on the whole to
very little, and this consists more of desultory observations in
illustration of his general remarks (which are to a considerable
extent physiological or bearing on the subject of reproduction)
than of an attempt at a connected account of birds. One of his
commentators, C. J. Sundevall — equally proficient in classical
as in ornithological knowledge — was, in 1863, compelled to
leave more than a score of the birds of which Aristotle wrote
unidentified. Next in order of date, though at a long interval,
comes Pliny the Elder, in whose Historia Nalurulis Book X.
is devoted to birds. Neither Aristotle nor Pliny attempted to
classify the birds known to them beyond a very rough and for
the most part obvious grouping. Aristotle seems to recognize
eight principal groups: (i) Gampsonyches, approximately
equivalent to the Accipitres of Linnaeus; (2) Scolccopliaga,
containing most of what would now be called Oscines, excepting
indeed the (3) Acanthoptiaga, composed of the goldfinch, siskin
and a few others; (4) Scnipophaga, the woodpeckers; (5)
Peristeroide, or pigeons; (6) Sc/iizopoda, (7) Sicganopoda, and
(8) Barea, nearly the same respectively as the Linnaean Grallae,
Aiiseres and Gallinae. Pliny, relying wholly on characters
taken from the feet, limits himself to three groups — without
assigning names to them — those which have " hooked tallons,
as Hawkes; or round long clawes, as Hennes; or else they be
broad, flat, and whole-footed, as Geese and all the sort in manner
of water-foule " — to use the words of Philemon Holland, who,
in 1601, pubHshed a quaint and, though condensed, yet fairly
faithful English translation of Pliny's work.
About a century later came Aelian, who died about a.d. 140,
and compiled in Greek (though he was an Italian by birth) a
number of miscellaneous observations on the peculiarities of
animals. His work is a kind of commonplace book kept without
scientific discrimination. A considerable number of birds are
mentioned, and something said of almost each of them; but
that something is too often nonsense according to modern ideas.
The twenty-six books Dc Animal ibiisoi Albertus Magnus (Groot),
printed in 1478, are founded mainly on Aristotle. The twenty-
third of these books is De Avihiis, and therein a great number
of birds' names make their earliest appearance, few of which are
without interest from a philologist's if not an ornithologist's
point of view, but there is much difficulty in recognizing the
species to which many of them belong. In 1485 was printed the
first dated copy of the volume known as the Ortiis sanitatis,
to the popularity of which many editions testify.^ Though
said by its author, Johann Vi^onnecke von Caub (Latinized as
Johannes de Cuba), to have been composed from a study of the
^ This is Sundevall's estimate; Drs Aubert and Wimmer in their
excellent edition of the 'laTopiai xepi fuuv (Leipzig, 1868) limit the
number to 126.
' Absurd as much that we find both in Albertus Magnus and the
Ortus seems to modern eyes, if we go a step lower in the scale and
consult the " Bestiaries " or treatises on animals which were common
from the 12th to the 14th century we shall meet with many
more absurdities. See for instance that by Philippe de Thaun
(Philippus Taonensis), dedicated to Adelaide or Alice, queen of
Hcnrj' I. of England, and probably written soon after 1121, as
printed by the late I,Ir Thomas Wright, in his Popular Treatises on
Science written during the Middle Ages (London, 1841).
;oo
ORNITHOLOGY
[HISTORY
collections formed by a certain nobleman who had travelled
in Eastern Europe, Western Asia and Egypt — possible Breiden-
bach, an account of whose travels in the Levant was printed
at IMentz in i486 — it is really a medical treatise, and its zoological
portion is mainly an abbreviation of the writings of Albertus
Magnus, with a few interpolations from Isidorus of Seville (who
flourished in the beginning of the 7th century, and was the
author of many works highly esteemed in the middle ages) and
a work known as Physiologus {q.v.). The third iractalus of this
volume deals with birds — including among them bats, bees
and other flying creatures; but as it is the first printed book
in which figures of birds are introduced it merits notice, though
most of the illustrations, which are rude woodcuts, fail, even
in the coloured copies, to give any precise indication of the
species intended to be represented.
The revival of learning was at hand, and William Turner,
a Northumbrian, while residing abroad to avoid persecution
at home, printed at Cologne in 1544 the first commentary on
the birds mentioned by Aristotle and Pliny conceived in any-
thing hke the spirit that moves modern naturalists.' In the
same year and from the same press was issued a Dialogits de
Avibus by Gybertus Longolius, and in 1570 Caius brought out
in London his treatise De rariorum animalium atqiie stirpium
historia. In this last work, small though it be, ornithology
has a good share; and aU three may still be consulted with
interest and advantage by its votaries.- Meanwhile the study
received a great impulse from the appearance, at Zurich in 1555,
of the third book of Conrad Gesner's Historia Animalium " qvi
est de Auium natura," and at Paris in the same year of Pierre
Belon's (Bellonius) Histoirc dc la nature des Oyscaux. Gesner
brought an amount of erudition, hitherto unequalled, to bear
upon his subject; and, making due allowance for the times
in which he wrote, his judgment must in most respects be
deemed excellent. In his work, however, there is little that
can be called systematic treatment. Like nearly all his pre-
decessors since Aelian, he adopted an alphabetical arrangement,
though this was not too pedantically preserved, and did not
hinder him from placing together the kinds of birds which he
supposed (and generally supposed rightly) to have the most
resemblance to that one whose name, being best known, was
chosen for the headpiece (as it were) of his particular theme,
thus recognizing to some extent the principle of classification.^
Belon, with perhaps less book-learning than his contemporar)',
was evidently no mean scholar, and undoubtedly had more
practical knowledge of birds — their internal as well as external
structure. Hence his work, written in Frencfi, contains a far
greater amount of original matter; and his personal observa-
tions made in many countries, from England to Egypt, enabled
him to avoid most of the puerilities which disfigure other works
of his own or of a preceding age. Besides this, Belon disposed
the birds known to him according to a definite system, which
(rude as we now know it to be) formed a foundation on which
several of his successors were content to build, and even to this
day traces of its influence may still be discerned in the arrange-
ment followed by writers who have faintly appreciated the
principles on which modern taxonomers rest the outline of their
schemes. Both his work and that of Gesner were illustrated
with woodcuts, many of which display much spirit and regard
to accuracy.
Belon, as has just been said, had a knowledge of the anatomy
' This was reprinted at Cambridge in i82.'5by Dr George Thackeray.
" The Seventh of Wotton's De diffcrentiis animalium Libri Decern,
published at Paris in 1552, treats of birds; but his work is merely a
compilation from Aristotle and Pliny, with references to other classi-
cal writers who have mere or less incidentally mentioned birds and
other animals. The author in his preface states — " Veterum
scriptorum sententias in unum quasi cumuU'.m coaceruaui, do meo
nihil addidi." Nevertheless he makes some attempt at a systematic
arrangement of birds, which, according to his lights, is far from
despicable.
' For instance, under the title of " Accipiter " we have to look,
not only for the sparrow-hawk and gos-hawk, but for many other
birds of the family (as we now call it) removed comparatively far
from those species by modern ornithologists.
01 birds, and he seems to have been the first to institute a direct
comparison of their skeleton with that of man; but in this
respect he only anticipated by a few years the more precise
researches of Volcher Colter, a Frisian, who in 1573 and 1575
pubUshed at Nuremberg two treatises, in one of which the
internal structure of birds in general is very creditably described,
while in the other the osteology and myology of certain forms
is given in considerable detail, and illustrated by carefully
drawn figures. The first is entitled Exlernantm et internarum
principalium humani corporis Tabulae, &c. while the second,
which is the most valuable, is merely appended to the Lectiones
Gabrielis Fallopii dc partibus similaribus humani corporis, &c.,
and thus, the scope of each work being regarded as medical,
the author's labours were wholly overlooked by the mere natural-
historians who followed, though Colter introduced a table, " De
diffcrentiis .\uium," furnishing a key to a rough classification
of such birds as were known to him, and this as nearly the first
attempt of the kind deserves notice here.
Contemporary with these three men was Ulysses Aldro-
vandus, a Bolognese, who wrote an Historia Naturalium in
sixteen folio volumes, most of which were not printed till after
his death in 1605; but those on birds appeared between 1599
and 1603. The work is almost wholly a compilation, and that
not of the most discriminative kind, while a peculiar jealousy
of Gesner is continuously displayed, though his statements are
very constantly quoted — nearly always as those of " Orni-
thologus," his name appearing but few times in the text, and
not at all in the list of authors cited. W'ith certain modifications
in principle not very important, but characterized by much
more elaborate detail, .\ldrovandus adopted Belon's method
of arrangement, but in a few respects there is a manifest retro-
gression. The work of Aldrovandus was illustrated by copper-
plates, but none of his figures approach those of his immediate
predecessors in character or accuracy. Nevertheless the book
was eagerly sought, and several editions of it appeared.*
Mention must be made of a medical treatise by Caspar
Schwenckfcld, published at Liegnitz in 1603, under the title
of Thcriotropheum Silesiae, the fourth book of which consists of
an " Aviarium Silesiae," and is the earhest of the works we now
know by the name of fauna. The author was well acquainted
with the labours of his predecessors, as his list of over one
hundred of them testifies. Most of the birds he describes are
characterized with accuracy sufficient to enable them to be
identified, and his observations upon them have still some
interest; but he was innocent of any methodical system, and was
not e.xempt from most of the professional fallacies of his time.^
Hitherto, from the nature of the case, the works aforesaid
treated of scarcely any but the birds belonging to the orbis
velerihus notits; but the geographical discoveries of the i6th
century began to bear fruit, and many animals of kinds un-
suspected were, about one hundred years later, made known.
Here there is only space to name Bontius, Clusius, Hernandez
(or Fernandez), Marcgrave, Nieremberg and Piso,^ whose several
works describing the natural products of both the Indies —
whether the result of their own observation or compilation — ■
together with those of Olina and Worm, produced a marked
effect, since they led up to what may be deemed the foundation
of scientific ornithology.'
■* The Historia Naturalis of Johannes Johnstonus, said to be of
Scottish descent but by birth a Pole, ran through several editions
during the 17th century, but is little more than an epitome of the
work of .Mdrovandus.
' The Ilierozoicon of Bochart — a treatise on the animals named in
Holy Writ — was published in 1619.
* For Lichtenstein's determination of the birds described by
Marcgrave and Piso see the Abhandltingen of the Berlin Academy
for 1817 (pp. 155 seq.).
' The earliest list of British birds seems to be that in the Pinax
Rerum Naturalium of Christopher Merrctt, published in 1667.
In the following year appeared the Onomasticon Zooicon of Walter
Charleton, which contains some information on ornithology. An
enlarged edition of the latter, under the title of Exereitationes, &c.,
was published in 1677; but neither of these writers is of much
authority. In 1684 Sibbald in his Scotia illustrata published the
earliest Fauna of Scotland.
HISTORY]
ORNITHOLOGY
301
Liaaaeus.
This foundation was laid by the joint labours of Francis
Willughby (1635-1672) and John Ray (1628-1705), for it is
impossible to separate their share of work in natural
aoll"^ay^ history more than to say that, while the former more
especially devoted himself to zoology, botany was the
favourite pursuit of the latter. Together they studied, together
they travelled and together they collected. Willughby, the
younger of the two, and at first the other's pupil, seems to
have gradually become the master; but, he dying before the
promise of his life was fulfilled, his writings were given to the
world by his friend Ray, who, adding to them from his own
stores, published the Oniilhologia in Latin in 1676, and in
English with many emendations in 1678. In this work birds
generally were grouped in two great divisions — " land-fowl "
and "water-fowl" — the former being subdivided into those which
have a crooked beak and talons, and those which have a straighter
bill and claws, while the latter was separated into those which
frequent waters and watery places, and those that swim in the
water — each subdivision being further broken up into many
sections, to the whole of which a key was given. Thus it became
possible for almost any diligent reader without much chance
of error to refer to its proper place nearly every bird he was hkely
to meet with. Ray's interest in ornithology continued, and in
1694 he completed a Synopsis Melhodica Avium, which, through
the fault of the booksellers to whom it was entrusted, was not
published till 1713, when Derham gave it to the world.'
Two years after Ray's death, Linnaeus, the great reformer
of natural history, was born, and in 1735 appeared the first
edition of the celebrated Systema Naturae. Successive
editions of this work were produced under its author's
supervision in 1740, 1748, 1758 and 1766. Impressed by the
belief that verbosity was the bane of science, he carried terseness
to an extreme which frequently created obscurity, and this in
no branch of zoology more than in that which relates to birds.
Still the practice introduced by him of assigning to each species
a diagnosis by which it ought in theory to be distinguishable
from any other known species, and of naming it by two words —
the first being the generic and the second the specific term,
was so manifest an improvement upon anything which had
previously obtained that the Linnaean method of differentiation
and nomenclature established itself before long in spite of all
opposition, and in principle became almost universally adopted.
In his classification of birds Linnaeus for the most part followed
Ray, and where he departed from his model he seldom improved
upon it.
In 1745 P. Barrere brought out at Perpignan a little book
called Ornilhologiac Specimen novum, and in 1752 Mohring
published at Aurich one still smaller, his Avium Genera. Both
these works (now rare) are manifestly framed on the Linnaean
method, so far as it had then reached; but in their arrangement
of the various forms of birds they differed greatly from that
which they designed to supplant, and they deservedly obtained
little success. Yet as systematists their authors were no worse
than Klein, whose Historiae Avium Prodromus, appearing at
Lubeck in 1750, and Stemmata Avium at Leipzig in 1750, met
with considerable favour in some quarters. The chief merit of
the latter work Hes in its forty plates, whereon the heads and
feet of many birds are indifferently figured.^
But, while the successive editions of Linnaeus's great work
were revolutionizing natural history, and his example of precision
in language producing excellent effect on scientific writers,
several other authors were advancing the study of ornithology
in a very different way — a way that pleased the eye even more
than his labours were pleasing the mind. Between 1731 and
' To this was added a supplement by Petiver on the Birds of
Madras, taken from pictures and information sent him by one Edward
Buckley of Fort St George, being the first attempt to catalogue the
birds of any part of the British possessions in India.
2 After Klein's death his Prodromus, written in Latin, had the
unwonted fortune of two distinct translations into German, pub-
lished in the same year 1760, the one at Leipzig and Ltibeck by
Behn, the other at Danzig by Reyger — each of whom added more
or less to the original.
1743 Mark Catesby brought out in London his Natural History
of Carolina — two large folios containing highly coloured plates
of the birds of that colony, Florida and the Bahamas.' ideazar
Albin between 1738 and 1740 produced a Natural History of
Birds in three volumes of more modest dimensions; but he
seems to have been ignorant of ornithology, and his coloured
plates are greatly inferior to Catesby's. Far better both as
draughtsman and as authority was George Edwards, who in
1743 began, under the same title as Albin, a series of plates
with letterpress, which was continued by the name of Gleanings
in Natural History, and finished in 1760, when it h;id reached
seven parts, forming four quarto volumes, the figures of which
are nearly always quoted with approval.'
The year which saw the works of Edwards completed was still
further distinguished by the appearance in France, where little had
been done since Belon's days,' in six quarto volumes, „ .
of the Ornithologie of Mathurin Jacques Brisson — a work
of very great merit so far as it goes, for asa descriptive ornithologist
the author stands even now unsurpassed; but it must be said
that his knowledge, according to internal evidence, was confined
to books and to the external parts of birds' skins. It was enough
for him to give a scrupulously exact description of such specimens
as came under his eye, distinguishing these by prefixing two
asterisks to their name, using a single asterisk where he had
only seen a part of the bird, and leaving unmarked those that
he described from other authors. His attempt at classification
was certainly better than that of Linnaeus; and it is rather
curious that the researches of the latest ornithologists point
to results in some degree comparable with Brisson's systematic
arrangement, for they refuse to keep the birds-of-prey at the
head of the Class Aves, and they require the establishment of
a much larger number of " Orders " than for a long while was
thought advisable. Of such " Orders " Brisson had twenty-six
and he gave pigeons and poultry precedence of the birds which
are plunderers and scavengers. But greater value lies in his
generic or sub-generic divisions, which, taken as a whole, are
far more natural than those of Linnaeus, and consequently
capable of better diagnosis. More than this, he seems to be the
earliest ornithologist, perhaps the earliest zoologist, to conceive
the idea of each genus possessing what is now called a " type "
— though such a term does not occur in his work; and, in like
manner, without declaring it in so many words, he indicated
unmistakably the existence of subgenera — all this being effected
by the skilful use of names. Unfortunately he was too soon in
the field to avail himself, even had he been so minded, of the
convenient mode of nomenclature brought into use by Linnaeus.
Immediately on the completion of his Regne Animate in 1756,
Brisson set about his Ornithologie, and if is only in the last
two volumes of the latter that any reference is made to the
tenth edition of the Systema Naturae, in which the binomial
method was introduced. It is certain that the first four volumes
were written if not printed before that method was promulgated,
and when the fame of Linnaeus as a zoologist rested on little
more than the very meagre sixth edition of the Systema Naturae
and the first edition of his Fauna Suecica. Brisson has been
charged with jealousy of, if not hostility to, the great Swede,
and it is true that in the preface to his Ornithologie he complains
of the insufficiency of the Linnaean characters, but, when one
considers how much better acquainted with birds the Frenchman
was, such criticism must be allowed to be pardonable if not
wholly just. Brisson's work was in French, with a parallel
translation (edited, it is said, by Pallas) in Latin, which last was
reprinted separately at Leiden three years afterwards.
' Several birds from Jamaica were figured in Sloane's Voyage, &c.
(1705-1725), and a good many exotic species in the Thesaurus, &c..
of Seba (1734-1765), but from their faulty execution these plates had
little effect upon Ornithology.
" The works of Catesby and Edwards were afterwards reproduced
at Nuremberg and Amsterdam by Seligmann, with the letterpress in
German, French and Dutch.
'' Birds were treated of in a worthless fashion by one D. B. in a
Dictionnaire raisonne et universel des animaux, published at Paris in
1759-
302
ORNITHOLOGY
[HISTORY
In 1767 there was issued at Paris a book entitled L'Histoirc
naturelle eclaircie dans une de ses parties principales, I'orni-
thologie. This was the work of Salerne, published after his death,
and is often spoken of as being a mere translation of Ray's
Synopsis, but a vast amount of fresh matter, and mostly of
good quality, is added.
The success of Edwards's very respectable work seems to
have provoked competition, and in 1765, at the instigation of
Buffon, the younger d'Aubenton began the pubhcation known
as the Planches enlumincez d'kistoire naturelle, which appearing
in forty-two parts was not completed till 1780, when the plates'
it contained reached the number of 1008 — all coloured, as its
title intimates, and nearly all representing birds. This enormous
work was subsidized by the French government; and, though
the figures are utterly devoid of artistic merit, they display the
species they are intended to depict with sufficient approach to
fidelity to ensure recognition in most cases without fear of error,
which in the absence of any te.xt is no small praise.^
But Buffon was not content with merely causing to be pub-
lished this unparalleled set of plates. He seems to have regarded
the work just named as a necessary precursor to his own labours
in ornithology. His Histoire naturelle, generate et particuliere,
was begun in 1749, and in 1770 he brought out, with the assist-
ance of Guenau de Montbeillard,^ the first volume of his great
Histoire naturelle des oiscaux. Buffon was the first man who
formed any theory that may be called reasonable of the geo-
graphical distribution of animals. He proclaimed the variability
of species in opposition to the views of Linnaeus as to their
fixity, and moreover supposed that this variability arose in part
by degradation.'' Taking his labours as a whole, there cannot
be a doubt that he enormously enlarged the purview of
naturaUsts, and, even if limited to birds, that, on the completion
of his work upon them in 1783, ornithology stood in a very
different position from that which it had before occupied.
Great as were the services of Buffon to ornithology in one
direction, those of a wholly different kind rendered by John
Latham must not be overlooked. In 1781 he began
*"" a work the practical utility of which was immediately
recognized. This was his General Synopsis of Birds, and, though
formed generally on the model of Linnaeus, greatly diverged
in some respects therefrom. The classification was modified,
chiefly on the old hues of Willughby and Ray, and certainly
for the better; but no scientific nomenclature was adopted,
which, as the author subsequently found, was a change for the
worse. His scope was co-extensive with that of Brisson, but
Latham did not possess the inborn faculty of picking out the
character wherein one species differs from another. His op-
portunities of becoming acquainted with birds were hardly
inferior to Brisson's, for during Latham's long hfetime there
poured in upon him countless new discoveries from all parts
of the world, but especially from the newly-explored shores
of Australia and the islands of the Pacific Ocean. The British
Museum had been formed, and he had access to everything
it contained in addition to the abundant materials afforded
him by the private museum of Sir Ashton Lever.* Latham
entered, so far as the limits of his work would allow, into the
1 They were drawn and engraved by Martinet, who himself began
in 1787 a Histoire des oiseaux with small coloured plates which have
some merit, but the text is worthless.
- Between 1767 and 1776 there appeared at Florence a Storia
Nalurale degli Uccelli, in five folio volumes, containing a number of
ill-drawn and ill-coloured figures from the collection of Giovanni
Gerini, an ardent collector who died in 1751, and therefore must be
acquitted of any share in the work, which, though sometimes attri-
buted to him, is'that of certain learned men who did not happen to be
ornithologists (cf. Savi, Ornitologia Toscana, i. Introduzione, p. v.).
^ He retired on the completion of the sixth volume, and thereupon
Buffon associated Bexon with himself.
* See St George Mivart's address to the Section of Biology, Rep.
Brit. Association (Sheffield Meeting, 1879), p. 356. _
^ In 1792 Shaw began the Museum Leverianum in illustration of
this collection, which was finally dispersed by sale, and what is known
to remain of it found its way to Vienna. Of the specimens in the
British Museum described by Latham it is to be feared that scarcely
an\ e.dst. They were probably very imperfectly prepared.
history of the birds he described, and this with evident zest
whereby he differed from his French predecessor; but the
number of cases in which he erred as to the determination of
his species must be very great, and not unfrequently the same
species is described more than once. His Synopsis was finished
in 1785; two supplements were added in 1787 and 1802,^ and
in 1790 he produced an abstract of the work under the title
of Index Qrnithologicus, wherein he assigned names on the
Linnaean method to all the species described. Not to recur
again to his labours, it may be said here that between 1821 and
1828 he published at Winchester, in eleven volumes, an enlarged
edition of his original work, entitling it A General History of
Birds; but his defects as a compiler, which had been manifest
before, rather increased with age, and the consequences were
not happy.'
About the time that Buffon was bringing to an end his studies
of birds, Mauduyt undertook to write the Ornithologie of the
Encyclopedie methodique — a comparatively easy task, con-
sidering the recent works of his fellow-countrymen on that
subject, and finished in 1784. Here it requires no further com-
ment, especially as a new edition was called for in 1790, the
ornithological portion of which was begun by Bonnaterre, who,
however, had only finished three hundred and twenty pages
of it when he lost his life in the French Revolution; and the
work thus arrested was continued by Vieillot under the slightly
changed title of Tableau encyclopedique et methodique des trois
r'egnes de la Nature — the Ornithologie forming volumes four to
seven, and not completed till 1823. In the former edition
Mauduyt had taken the subjects alphabetically; but here
they are disposed according to an arrangement, with some
few modifications, furnished by d'Aubenton, which is extremely
shallow and unworthy of consideration.
Several other works bearing upon ornithology in general, but
of less importance than most of those just named, belong to this
period. Among others may be mentioned the Genera of Birds by
Thomas Pennant, first printed at Edinburgh in 1773, but best
knoivn by the edition which appeared in London in 1781; the
Elementa Ornithologica and Museum Ornithologicum of Schaffer,
published at Ratisbon in 1774 and 1784 respectively; Peter Brown's
New Illustrations of Zoology in London in 1776; Hermann's Tabulae
Affinitatum Anitnalium at Strasburg in 1783, followed posthumously
in 1804 by his Observalioncs Zoologicae; Jacquin's Beytraege zur
Geschichte der Voegel at Vienna in 1784, and in 1790 at the same
place the larger work of Spalowsky with nearly the same title;
Sparrman's Museum Carlsonianum at Stockholm from 1786 to 1789;
and in 1794 Hayes's Portraits of rare and curious Birds from the
menagery of Child the banker at Osterley near London. The same
draughtsman (who had in 1775 produced a History of British Birds)
in 1822 began another series of Figures of rare and curious Birds.^
The practice of Brisson, Buffon, Latham and others of neglecting
to name after the Linnaean fashion the species they described gave
great encouragement to compilation, and led to what has proved
to be of some inconvenience to modern ornithologists. In 1773
P. L. S. Miiller brought out at Nuremberg a German translation of
the Systema Naturae, completing it in 1776 by a Supplement con-
taining a list of animals thus described, which had hitherto been
technically anonymous, with diagnoses and names on the Linnaean
model. In 1783 Boddaert printed at Utrecht a Table des planches
enlumineez,^ in which he attempted to refer every species of bird
figured in that extensive series to its proper Linnaean genus, and
to assign it a scientific name if it did not already possess one. In
like manner in 1786, Scopoli — already the author of a little book
published at Leipzig in 1769 under the title of Annus I. Historico-
tiaturalis, in which are described many birds, mostly from his
' A German translation by Bechstein subsequently appeared.
' He also prepared for publication a second edition of his Index
Ornithologicus, but this was never printed, and the manuscript
came into A. Newton's possession.
* The Naturalist's Miscellany or Vivarium Naturale, in English
and Latin, of Shaw and Nodder, the former being the author, the
latter the draughtsman and engraver, was begun in 1789 and carried
on till Shaw's death, forming twenty-four volumes. It contains
figures of more than 280 birds, but very poorly executed. In 1814
a sequel, The Zoological Miscellany, was begun by Leach, Nodder
continuing to do the plates. This was completed in 1817, and forms
three volumes with 149 plates, 27 of which represent birds.
' Of this work only fifty copies were printed, and it is one of the
rarest known to the ornithologist. Only two copies are believed to
exist in England, one in the British Museum, the other in orivatc
hands. It was reprinted in 1874 by Mr Tegetmeier.
HISTORY]
ORNITHOLOGY
303
own collection or the Imperial vivarium at Vienna — was at the
pains to print at Pa via in his miscellaneous Veliciae Florae el faunae
Insubricae a Specimen Zoologicum ' containing diagnoses, duly
named, of the birds discovered and described by Sonncrat in his
Voyage aux Indes orientales and Voyage d, la Nouvelle
Soaaerat. (j„,j„(,g_ severally published at Paris in 1772 and 177(1.
But the most striking example of compilation was that exhibited
by J. F. Gmelin, who in 1788 commenced what he called the Thir-
^ ,, teenth Edition of the celebrated Systema Naturae, which
*"* "■ obtained so wide a circulation that, in the comparative
rarity of the original, the additions of this editor have been very
frequently quoted, even by expert naturalists, as though they were
the work of the author himself. Gmelin availed himself of every
publication he could, but he perhaps found his richest booty in the
labours of Latham, neatly condensing his English descriptions into
Latin diagnoses, and bestowing on them binomial names. Hence
it is that Gmehn appears as the authority for so much of the nomen-
clature now in use. He took many liberties with the details of
Linnaeus's work, but left the classification, at least of the birds, as
it was — a few new genera excepted.^
During all this time little had been done in studying the internal
structure of birds; ^ but the foundations of the science of embry-
ology had been laid by the investigations into the development of
the chick by the great Harvey. Between 1666 and 1669 Perrault
edited at Paris eight accounts of the dissection by du Vcrney of
as many species of birds, which, translated into English, were pub-
lished by the Royal Society in 1702, under the title of The Natural
History of Animals. After the death of the two anatomists just
named, another series of similar descriptions of eight other species
was found among their papers, and the whole were published in the
Memoires of the French Academy of Sciences in 1733 and 1734.
But in 1681 Gerard Blasius had brought out at Amsterdam an
Anatome Animalium, containing the results of all the dissections of
animals that he could find; and the second part of this book,
treating of Volatilia, makes a respectable show of more than one
hundred and twenty closely-printed quarto pages, though nearly
two-thirds is devoted to a treatise De Ovo et Pullo, containing among
other things a reprint of Harvey's researches, and the scientific
rank of the whole book may be interred from bats being still classed
with birds. In 1720 Valentini published, at Frankfort-on-the-Main,
his Amphithealrum Zootomicum, in which again most of the existing
accounts of the anatomy of birds were reprinted. But these and
many other contributions,'' made until nearly the close of the
l8th century, though highly meritorious, were unconnected as a
whole, and it is plain that no conception of what it was in the power
of Comparative Anatomy to set forth had occurred to the most
diligent dissectors.
It was reserved for Georges Cuvier, who in 1798 published
at Paris his Tableau elemcnlaire dc Vhisloire natiirelle des ani-
maux, to lay the foundation of a thoroughly and
hitherto unknown mode of appreciating the value
of the various groups of the animal kingdom. Yet his first
attempt was a mere sketch.* Though he made a perceptible
advance on the classification of Linnaeus, at that time pre-
dominant, it is now easy to see in how many ways — want of
sufficient material being no doubt one of the chief — Cuvier
failed to produce a really natural arrangement. His principles,
however, are those which must still guide taxonomers, not-
withstanding that they have in so great a degree overthrown
the entire scheme which he propounded. Confining our atten-
tion here to ornithology, Cuvier's arrangement of the class
Avcs is now seen to be not very much better than any which
it superseded. But this view is gained by following the methods
which Cuvier taught. In the work just mentioned few details
are given; but even the more elaborate classification of birds
contained in his Lemons d' anatomie comparee of 1805 is based
wholly on external characters, such as had been used by nearly
all his predecessors; and the Regne Animal of 1817, when he
" This was reprinted in 1882 by the Willughby Society.
^ Daudin's unfinished Traile elementaire et complet d' ornithologie
appeared at Paris in 1800, and therefore is the last of these general
works published in the i8th century.
' A succinct notice of the older works on ornithotomy is given by
Professor Selenka in the introduction to that portion of Dr Bronn's
Klassen und Ordnungen des Thierreichs relating to birds (pp. 1-9)
published in 1869; and Professor Carus's Ceschichte der Zoologie,
published in 1872, may also be usefully consulted for further in-
formation on this and other heads.
* The treatises of the two Bartholinis and Borrichius published
at Copenhagen deserve mention if only to record the activity of
Danish anatomists in those days.
' It had no effect on Lacepede, who in the following year added
a Tableau methodigiie containing a classification of birds to his
Discours d'ouverture (Mem. de I'lnstitut, iii. pp. 454-468, 503-519).
Cuvier,
was in his fullest vigour, afforded not the least evidence that
he had ever dissected a couple even of birds •> with the object
of determining their relative position in his system, which then,
as before, depended wholly on the configuration of bills, wings
and feet. But, though apparently without such a knowledge
of the anatomy of birds as would enable him to apply it to the
formation of that natural system which he was fully aware had
yet to be sought, he seems to have been an excellent judge of
the characters afforded by the bill and limbs, and the use he
made of them, coupled with the extraordinary reputation he
acquired on other grounds, procured for his system the adhesion
for many years of the majority of ornithologists.'
Hitherto mention has chiefly been made of works on general
ornithology, but it will be understood that these were largely aided
by the enterprise of travellers, and as there were many of them who
published their narratives in separate forms their contributions
have to be considered. Of those travellers then the first to be here
especially named is Marsigli, the fifth volume of whose Danulnus
Pannonico-Mysicus is devoted to the birds he met with in the valley
of the Danube, and appeared at the Hague in 1725, followed by a
French translation in 1744.* Most of the many pupils whom Linnaeus
sent to foreign countries submitted their discoveries to him, but
Kalm, Hasselqvist and Osbeck published separately their respective
travels in North America, the Levant and China." The incessant
journeys of Pallas and his colleagues — Falk, Georgi, S. G. Gmelin,
Giildenstadt, Lepechin and others — in the exploration of the
recently extended Russian empire supplied not only much material
to the Commentarii and Acta of the Academy of St Petersburg, but
more that is to be found in their narratives — all of it being of the
highest interest to students of Palaearctic or Nearctic ornithology.
Nearly the whole of their results, it may here be said, were summed
up in the important Zoographia Rosso-Asiatica of the first-named
naturalist, which saw the light in 181 1 — the year of its author's
death — but, owing to circumstances over which he had no control,
was not generally accessible till twenty years later. Of still wider
interest are the accounts of Cook's three famous voyages, though
unhappily much of the information gained by the naturalists who
accompanied him on one or more of them seems to be irretrievably
lost; the original observations of the elder Forster were not printed
till 1844, ^nd the valuable collection of zoological drawings made
by the younger Forster still remains unpublished in the J^riiish
Museum. The several accounts by John White, Collins, Phillips,
Hunter and others of the colonization of New South Wales at the
end of the last century ought not to be overlooked by any Australian
ornithologist. The only information at this period on the ornitho-
logy of South America is contained in the two works on Chile by
Molina, published at Bologna in 1776 and 1782. The travels of
Le Vaillant in South Africa having been completed in 1785, his great
Oiseaux d'Afrique began to appear in Paris in 1797; but it is hard
to speak properly of this work, for several of the species described in
it are certainly not, and never were in his time, inhabitants of that
country, though he sometimes gives a long account of the circum-
stances under which he observed them.'"
From travellers who employ themselves in collecting the animals
of any distant country the zoologists who stay at home and study
those of their own district, be it great or small, are really not so
much divided as at first might appear. Both may well be named
Faunists," and of the latter there were not a few who having
turned their attention more or less to ornithology' should here be
' So little regard did he pay to the osteology of birds that,
according to de Blainville (Jour, de Physique, xcii. p. 187, note),
the skeleton of a fowl to which was attached the head of a hornbill
was for a long time exhibited in the Museum of Comparative Ana-
tomy at Paris ! Yet, in order to determine the difference of structure
in their organs of voice, Cuvier, as he says in his Lemons (iv. 464),
dissected more than one hundred and fifty species of birds. L'n-
fortunately for him, as will appear in the sequel, it seems not to
have occurred to him to use any of the results he obtained as the
basis of a classification.
' It is unnecessary to enumerate the various editions of the Regne
Animal. Of the English translations, that edited by Griffiths and
Pidgeon is the most complete. The ornithological portion of it
contained in these volumes received many additions from John
Edward Gray, and appeared in 1829.
'Though much later in date, the Iter per Poseganam Sclavoniae
of Piller and Mittercacher, published at Buda in 1783, may perhaps
be here most conveniently mentioned.
" The results of Forskal's travels in the Levant, published after
his death by Niebuhr, require mention, but the ornithology they
contain is but scant.
'" It has been charitably suggested that, his collection and notes
having suffered shipwreck, he was induced to supply the latter from
his memory and the former by the nearest approach to his lost
specimens that he could obtain. This explanation, poor as it is,
fails, however, in regard to some species.
30+
ORNITHOLOGY
[HISTORY
mentioned, and first among them Rzaczynski, who in 1721 brought
out at Sandomirsk the Ilistoria naturalis curiosa regni Poloniae, to
which an Auctuarium was posthumously published at Danzig in
1742. This also may be perhaps the most proper place to notice
the Historia avium Hungariae of Grossinger, published at Posen in
1793. In 1734 J. L. Frisch began the long series of works on the
birds of Germany with which the literature of ornithology is en-
riched, by his VorsleUung der Vogel Teutschlands, which was only
completed in 1763, and, its coloured plates proving very attractive,
was again issued at Berlin in 1817. The little fly-sheet of Zorn' —
for it is scarcely more — on the birds of the Hercynian Forest made
its appearance at Pappenheim in 1745. In 1756 Kramer published
at Vienna a modest Elenchus of the plants and animals of Lower
Austria, and J. D. Petersen produced at Altona in 1766 a Vcrzeichniss
ballhischer Vogel; while in 1791 J. B. Fischer's Versiich einer
Naturgeschichte von Liiiand appeared at Konigsberg, next year
Beseke brought out at Mitau his Beylrag ziir Naturgeschichte der
Vogel Kurlands, and in 1794 Siemsscn's Handbuch of the birds of
Mecklenburg was published at Rostock. But these works, locally
useful as they may have been, did not occupy the whole attention
of German ornithologists, for in 1791 Bechstein reached the second
volume of his Gemeinniilzige Naturgeschichte Deutschlands, treating
of the birds of that country, which ended with the fourth in 1795.
Of this an abridged edition by the name of Ornilhologisches Taschen-
buch appeared in 1802 and 1803, with a supplement in 1812; while
between 1805 and 1809 a fuller edition of the original was issued.
Moreover in 1795 J. A. Naumann humbly began at Cothen a treatise
on the birds of the principality of Anhalt, which on its completion
in 1804 was found to have swollen into an ornithology of northern
Germany and the neighbouring countries. Eight supplements were
successively published between 1805 and 1817, and in 1822 a new
edition was required. This Naturgeschichte der Viigel Deutschlajids,
being almost wholly rewritten by his son J. F. Naumann, is by far
the best thing of the kind as yet produced in any country. The
fulness and accuracy of the text, combined with the neat beauty
of its coloured plates, have gone far to promote the study of ornitho-
logy in Germany, and while essentially a popular work, since it is
suited to the comprehension of all readers, it is throughout written
with a simple dignity that commends it to the serious and scientific.
Its twelfth and last volume was published in 1844 — by no means
too long a period for so arduous and honest a performance, and a
supplement was begun in 1847; but, the editor — or author as he
may be fairly called — dying in 1857, this continuation was finished
in i860 by the joint efforts of J. H. Blasius and Dr Baldamus. In
1800 Borkhauscn with others commenced at Darmstadt a Teutsche
Ornithologie in folio which appeared at intervals till 1812, and remains
unfinished, though a reissue of the portion published took place
between 1837 and 1841.
Other European countries, though not quite so prolific as Germany,
bore some ornithological fruit at this period; but in all southern
Europe only four faunistic products can be named : the Saggio di
storia naturale Bresciana of Pilati, published at Brescia in 1769;
the Ornitologia dell' Europa meridionale of Bernini, published at
Parma between 1772 and 1776; the Uccelli di Sardegna of Cetti,
published at Sassari in 1776; and the Romana ornithologia of Gilius,
published at Rome in 1781 — the last being in great part devoted to
pigeons and poultry. More appeared in the North, for in 1770
Amsterdam sent forth the beginning of Nozeman's Nedcrlandsche
Vogelen, a fairly illustrated work in folio, but only completed by
Houttuyn in 1829, and in Scandinavia most of all was done. In
1746 the great Linnaeus had produced a Fauna Svecica, of which a
second edition appeared in 1 76 1, and a third, revised by Retzius, in
1800. In 1764 Briinnich published at Copenhagen his Ornithologia
horealis, a compendious sketch of the birds of all the countries
then subject to the Danish crown. At the same place appeared in
1767 Leem's work, De Lapponibus Finmarchiae, to which Gunnerus
contributed some good notes on the ornithology of northern Norway,
and at Copenhagen and Leipzig was published in 1780 the Fauna
Groenlandica of Otho Fabricius.
Of strictly American origin can here be cited only W. Bartram's
Travels through North and South Carolina and B. S. Barton's Fragments
of the Natural History of Pennsylvania, ■ both printed at Philadelphia,
one in 1791, the other in 1799; but J. R. Forster published a
Catalogue of the Animals of North America in London in 1771, and
the following year described in the Philosophical Transactions a
few birds from Hudson Bay.' A greater undertaking was Pen-
nant's Arctic Zoology, published in 1785, with a supplement in 1787.
The scope of this work was originally intended to be limited to
North America, but circumstances induced him to include all the
species of Northern Europe and Northern Asia, and though not
free from errors it is a praiseworthy performance. A second edition
appeared in 1792.
The ornithology of Britain naturally demands greater attention.
' His earlier work under the title of Petinotheologie can hardly be
deemed scientific.
' This extremely rare book has been reprinted by the Willughby
Society.
'Both of these treatises have also been reprinted by the Willughby
Society.
The earliest list of British birds we possess is that given by Merrett
in his Puiax rerum naturalium Britannicarum, printed in London
in 1667. •■ In 1677 Plot published his Natural History of Oxfordshire,
which reached a second edition in 1705, and in 1686 that of Stafford^
shire. A similar work on Lancashire, Cheshire and the Peak was sent
out in 1700 by Leigh, and one on Cornwall by Borlase in 1758 — all
these four being printed at Oxford. In 1766 appeared Pennant's
British Zoology, a well-illustrated folio, of which a second edition in
octavo was published in 1768, and considerable additions (forming
the nominally third edition) in 1770, while in 1777 there were two
issues, one in octavo, the other in quarto, each called the fourth
edition. In 1812, long after the author's death, another edition was
printed, of which his son-in-law Hanmer was the reputed editor, but
he received much assistance from Latham, and through carelessness
many of the additions herein made have often been ascribed to
Pennant. In 1769 Berkenhout gave to the world his Outlines of
the Natural History of Great Britain and Ireland, which reappeared
under the title of Synopsis of the same in 1795. Tunstall's Ornitho-
logia Britannica. which appeared in 1771, is little more than a list of
names.' Hayes's Natural History of British Birds, a folio with forty
plates, appeared between 1771 and 1775, but was of no scientific
value. In 1781 Nash's Worcestershire included a few ornithological
notices; and VValcott in 1789 published an illustrated Synopsis
of British Birds, coloured copies of which are rare. Simultaneously
William Lewin began his seven quarto volumes on the Birds of
Great Britain, a reissue in eight volumes following between 1795
and 1801. In 1791 J. Heysham added to Hutchins's Cumberland a Wst
of birds of that county, whilst in the same year began Thomas
Lord's \'aluelcss Entire Neiv Systetn of Ornithology, the text of which
was written or corrected by Dr Dupree, and in 1794 Donovan began
a History of British Birds which was only finished in
1819 — the earlier portion being reissued about the same "<"""''"'•
time. Bolton's Harmonia ruralis, an account of British song-birds,
first appeared between 1794 and 1796, but subsequent editions
appeared up to 1846.
All the foregoing publications yield in importance to two that
remain to be mentioned, a notice of which will fitly conclude this
part of our subject. In 1767 Pennant, several of whose works
have already been named, entered into correspondence with Gilbert
White, receiving from him much information, almost wholly drawn
from his own observation, for the succeeding editions of the British
Zoology. In 1769 White began exchanging letters of a similar
character with Barrington. The epistolary intercourse with the
former continued until 1780 and with the latter until 1787. In
1789 White's share of the correspondence, together with some
miscellaneous matter, was published as The Natural History of
Sclborne — from the name of the village in which he lived. Observa-
tions on birds form the principal though by no means the whole
theme of this book, which may be safely said to have done more to
promote a love of ornithology in England than any other work
that has been written, nay more than all the other works (except
one next to be mentioned) put together. It has passed through a
far greater number of editions than any other work on natural
history in the whole world, and has become emphatically an English
classic — the graceful simplicity of its style, the elevating tone of its
spirit, and the sympathetic chords it strikes recommending it to
every lover of Nature, while the severely scientific reader can
scarcely find an error in any statement it contains, whether of
matter of fact or opinion. It is almost certain that more than half
the zoologists of the British Islands for many years past have been
infected with their love of the study of Gilbert White; and it can
hardly be supposed that his influence will cease.
The other work to the importance of which on ornithology in
England allusion has been made is Bewick's History of British Birds.
The first volume of this, containing the land-birds, appeared in
17976 — the text being, it is understood, by Beilby — the second,
containing the water-birds, in 1804. The woodcuts illustrating this
work are generally of surpassing excellence, and it takes rank in
the category of artistic publications. Fully admitting the extra-
ordinary execution of the engravings, every ornithologist may
perceive that as portraits of the birds they are of very unequal merit.
Some of the figures were drawn from stuffed specimens, and accord-
ingly perpetuate all the imperfections of the original; others
represent species with the appearance of which the artist was not
* In this year there were two issues of this book; one, nominally
a second edition, only differs from the first in having a new title-
page. No real second edition ever appeared, but in anticipation
of it Sir Thomas Browne prepared in or about 1671 (?) his " Account
of Birds found in Norfolk," of which the draft, now in the British
Museum, was printed in his collected works by Wilkin in 1835.
If a fair copy was ever made its resting-place is unknown.
* It has been republished by the Willughby Society.
' There were two issues — virtually two editions — of this with the
same date on the title-page, though one of them is said not to have
been published till the following year. Among several other indicia
this may be recognized by the woodcut of the " sea eagle " at page 11,
bearing at its base the inscription " WyclifTe, 1791," and by the
additional misprint on page 145 of Sahaeniclus for Schaeniclus.
HISTORY]
ORNITHOLOGY
305
familiar, and these are cither wanting in expression or are caricatures;'
but those that were drawn from live birds, or represent s[>ccics
which he knew in life, are worthy of all praise. It is well known
that the earlier editions of this work, especially if they be upon
large paper, command extravagant prices; but in reality the
copies on smaller paper are now the rarer, for the stock of them has
been consumed in nurseries and schoolrooms, where they have
been torn up or worn out with incessant use. Moreover, whatever
the lovers of the fine arts may say, it is nearly certain that the
" Bewick Collector" is mistaken in attaching so high a value to
these old editions, for owing to the want of skill in printing — in-
different ink being especially assigned as one cause — many of the
earlier issues fail to show the most delicate touches of the engraver,
which the increased care bestowed upon the edition of 1847 (published
under the supervision of John Hancock) has revealed — though it
must be admitted that certain blocks have suffered from wear of
the press so as to be incapable of any more producing the effect
intended. Of the text it may be said that it is respectable, but no
more.
The existence of these two works explains the widely-spread taste
for ornithology in England, which is to foreigners so puzzling, and
the zeal— not always according to knowledge, but occasionally
reaching to serious study — with which that taste is pursued.
Ornithology in the iglh Century.
On reviewing the progress of ornithology since the end of
the 18th century, the first thing that will strike us is the fact
that general works, though still undertaken, have become
proportionally fewer, while special works, whether relating
to the ornithic portion of the fauna of any particular country,
or limited to certain groups of birds — works to which the name
of " Monograph " has become wholly restricted — have become
far more numerous. Another change has come over the condi-
tion of ornithology, as of kindred sciences, induced by the
multiplication of learned societies which issue publications as
well as of periodicals of greater or less scientific pretension.
A number of these must necessarily be left unnoticed here.
Still it seems advisable to furnish some connected account of
the progress made in the ornithological knowledge of the British
Islands and those parts of the European continent which lie
nearest to them or are most commonly sought by travellers,
the Dominion of Canada and the United States of America,
South Africa, India, together with Australia and New Zealand.
The more important monographs will usually be found cited
in the separate articles on birds contained in this work, though
some, by reason of changed views of classification, have for
practical purposes to be regarded now as general works.
It will perhaps be most convenient to begin by mentioning some
of these last, and in particular a number of them which appeared at
Paris very early in the 19th century. First inorderof them
is the Histoire naturelle d'line partie d'oiseaux nouveaux el
rares de I'Amerique et des Indes, a folio volume ^ published
in 1801 by Le Vaillant. This is devoted to the very distinct and not
nearly-allied groups of hornbills and of birds which for want of
a better name we must call " Chatterers," and is illustrated, like
those works of which a notice immediately follows, by coloured
plates, done in what was then considered to be the highest style of
art and by the best draughtsmen procurable. The first volume of a
Histoire naturelle des perroquets, a companion work by the same
author, appeared in the same year, and is truly a monograph, since
the parrots constitute a family of birds so naturally severed from
all others that there has rarely been anything else confounded with
them. The second volume came out in 1805, and a third was
issued in 1837-1838 long after the death of its predecessor's author,
by Bourjot St-Hilaire. Between 1803 and 1806 Le Vaillant also
published in just the same style two volumes with the title of Histoire
naturelle des oiseaux de Paradis et des rolliers, suivie de celle des
toucans et des barbus, an assemblage of forms, which, miscellaneous
as it is, was surpassed in incongruity by a fourth work on the same
scale, the Histoire naturelle des promerops et des guepiers, des
couroucous el des touraios, for herein are found jays, waxwings,
the cock-of-the-rock (Rnpicota), and what not besides. The plates
in this last are by Barraband, for many years regarded as the per-
fection of ornithological artists, and indeed the figures, when they
happen to have been drawn from the life, are not bad; but his skill
was quite unable to vivify the preserved specimens contained in
museums, and when he had only these as subjects he simply copied
the distortions of the " bird-stuffer." The following year, 1808,
being aided by Temminck of Amsterdam, of whose son we shall
presently hear more, Le Vaillant brought out the sixth volume of
' This is especially observable in the figures of the birds of prey.
' There is also an issue of this, as of the same author's other works,
on large quarto paper.
Le Vail
laat.
Audebert
and
Vtelllot.
his Oiseaux d'Afrigue, already mentioned. Four more volumes of this
work were promised; but the means of executing them were denied
to him, and, though he lived until 1824, his publications ceased.
A similar series of works was projected and begun about the
same time as that of Le Vaillant by Audebert and Vieillot, though
the former, who was by profession a i)aint<-r and illustrated
the work, was already dead more than a year before the
appearance of the two volumes, bearing date 1802, and
entitled Uiseaux dorcs ou d reflets mitalliques, the effect
of the plates in which he sought to heighten by the lavish use of
gilding. The first volume contains the " Colibris, (Jiseaux-mouches,
Jacamars et Promerops," the second the " (jfimpereaux " and
" Oiseaux de Paradis " — associations which set all the laws of system-
atic method at defiance. His colleague, Vieillot, brought out in 1805
a Histoire naturelle des phis beaux chanteurs de la /.one Torride with
figures by Langlois of tropical finches, grosbeaks, buntings and
other hard-billed birds; and in 1807 two volumes of a Histoire
nalurelle des oiseaux de I'Amerique septentrionale, without, however,
paying much attention to the limits commonly assigned by geo-
graphers to that part of the world. In 1805 Anselme Desmarest
published a Histoire naturelle des tangaras, des manakins ~
et des todiers, which, though belonging to the same * '"^res .
category as all the former, differs from them in its more scientific
treatment of the subjects to which it refers; and, in 1808, K. J.
Temminck, whose father's aid to Le Vaillant has already _
been noticed, brought out at Paris a Histoire naturelle '*"""'"«•
des pigeons illustrated by Madame Knip, who had drawn the plates
for Desmarest's volume.^
Since we have begun by considering these large illustrated works
in which the text is made subservient to the coloured plates, it may
be convenient to continue our notice of such others of similar
character as it may be expedient to mention here, though thereby
we shall be led somewhat far afield. Most of them are but luxuries,
and there is some degree of truth in the remark of Andreas Wagner
in his Report on the Progress of Zoology for 1S43, drawn up for the
Ray Society (p. 60), that they " are not adapted for the extension
and promotion of science, but must inevitably, on account of their
unnecessary costliness, constantly tend to reduce the number of
naturalists who are able to avail themselves of them, and they thus
enrich ornithology only to its ultimate injury." Earliest in date
as it is greatest in bulk stands Audubon's Birds of
America in four volumes, containing four hundred and Auduboa.
thirty-five plates, of which the first part appeared in London in 1827
and the last in 1838. It does not seem to have been the author's
original intention to publish any letterpress to this enormous work,
but to let the plates tell their own story, though finally, with the
assistance, as is now known, of William Macgillivray, a text, on the
whole more than respectable, was produced in five large
octavos under the title of Ornithological Biography, of
which more will be said in the sequel. Audubon has been
greatly extolled as an ornithological artist; but he was far too much
addicted to representing his subjects in violent action and in postures
that outrage nature, while his drawing is very frequently defective.*
In 1866 D. G. Elliot began, and in 1869 finished, a sequel
to Audubon's great work in two volumes, on the same Elliot,
scale — The New and Hitherto unfigured Species of the Birds of North
America, containing life-size figures of all those which had been
added to its fauna since the completion of the former.
In 1830 John Edward Gray commenced the Illustrations of
Indian Zoology, a series of plates of vertebrated animals,
but mostly of birds, from drawings, it is believed hy^^il*^,,
native artists in the collection of General Hardwicke, ^ wee.
whose name is therefore associated with the work. Scientific
names are assigned to the species figured; but no text
was ever supplied. In 1832 Edward Lear, afterwards tear.
well known as a humorist, brought out his Illustrations of the Family
of Psittacidae, a volume which deserves especial notice from the
extreme fidelity to nature and the great artistic skill with which
the figures were e.xecuted.
This same year (1832) saw the beginning of the marvellous series
of illustrated ornithological works by which the name of John
Gould is likely to be always remembered. A Century of
Birds from the Himalaya Mountains was followed by The
Macgil-
livray,
Oould.
' Temminck subsequently reproduced, with many additions, the
text of this volume in his Histoire naturelle des pigeons et des gallina-
cees, published at Amsterdam in 1813-1815, in 3 vols. 8vo. Between
1838 and 1848 M. Florent-Provost brought out at Paris a further set
of illustrations of pigeons by Mme Knip.
■• On the completion of these two works, for they must be regarded
as distinct, an octavo edition in seven volumes under the title of
The Birds of America was published in 1840-1844. In this the large
plates were reduced by means of the camera lucida, the te.xt was
revised, and the whole systematically arranged. Other reprints
have since been issued, but they are vastly inferior both in execution
and value. A sequel to the octavo Birds of America, corresponding
with it in form, was brought out in 1853-1855 by Cassin as Illustra-
tions of the Birds of California, Texas, Oregon, British and Russian
A merica.
3o6
Birds of Europe in five volumes, published between 1832 and 1837,
while in the interim (1834) appeared A Monograph of the Ram-
phastidae, of which a second edition was some years later called for,
then the Icones avium, of which only two parts were published
(1837-1838), and A Monograph of the Trogonidae (1838), which also
reached a second edition. Sailing in 1838 for New South Wales,
on his return in 1840 he at once commenced the greatest of all his
works, Tlie Birds of Australia, which was finished in 1848 in seven
volumes, to which several supplementary parts, forming another
volume, were subsequently added. In 1849 he began A Monograph
of the Trochiiidae or Humming-birds extending to five volumes, the
last of which appeared in 1861, and was followed by a supplement
by Mr Salvin. A Monograph of the Odontophorinae or Partridges
of America (1850); The Birds of Asia, in seven volumes, the last
completed by Mr Sharpe (1850-1S83); The Birds of Great Britain,
in five volumes (i 863-1 873); and The Birds of New Guinea, begun in
1875, and, after the author's death in 1 881, undertaken by Mr
Sharpe, make up the wonderful tale consisting of more than forty
folio volumes, and containing more than three thousand coloured
plates. The earlier of these works were illustrated by Mrs Gould,
and the figures in them are fairly good; but those in the later,
except when (as he occasionally did) he secured the services of Mr
Wolf, are not so much to be commended. There is, it is true, a
smoothness and finish about them not often seen elsewhere; but,
as though to avoid the exaggerations of Audubon, Gould usually
adopted the tamest of attitudes in which to represent his subjects,
whereby expression as well as vivacity is wanting. Moreover, both
in drawing and in colouring there is frequently much that is untrue
to nature, so that it has not uncommonly happened for them to fail
in the chief object of all zoological plates, that of affording sure
means of recognizing specimens on comparison. In estimating the
letterpress, which was avowedly held to be of secondary importance
to the plates, we must bear in mind that, to ensure the success of
his works, it had to be written to suit a very peculiarly composed
body of subscribers. Nevertheless a scientific character was so
adroitly assumed that scientific men — some of them even ornitholo-
gists — have thence been led to believe the text had a scientific
value, and that of a high class. However, it must also be remembered
that, throughout the whole of his career, Gould consulted the con-
venience of working ornithologists by almost invariably refraining
from including in his folio works the technical description of any new
species without first publishing it in some journal of comparatively
easy access.
An ambitious attempt to produce in England a general series of
coloured plates on a large scale was Louis Fraser's Zoologia Typica,
_ the first part of which bears date 1841-1842. Others
appeared at irregular intervals until 1849, when the work,
which seems never to have received the support it deserved, was
discontinued. The seventy plates (forty-six of which represent
birds) composing, with some explanatory letterpress, the volume,
are by C. Ccusens and H. N. Turner — the latter (as his publications
prove) a zoologist of much promise, who in 1 851 died, a victim to
his own zeal for investigation, of a wound received in dissecting.
The chief object of the author, who had been naturalist to the Niger
Expedition, and curator to the Museum of the Zoological Society
of London, was to figure the animals contained in its gardens or
described in its Proceeditigs, which until the year 1848 were not
illustrated.
The publication of the Zoological Sketches of Joseph Wolf, from
animals in the gardens of the Zoological Society of London, was
^ .. begun about 1855, with a brief te.xt by D. W. Mitchell, at
" * that time the Society's secretary', in illustration of them.
After his death in 1859, the explanatory letterpress was rewritten
by P. L. Sclater, his successor in that office, and a volume was
completed in 1861. Upon this a second series was commenced,
and brought to an end in 1868. Though a comparatively small
number of species of birds are figured in this magnificent work
(seventeen only in the first series, and twenty-two in the second),
it must be mentioned here, for their likenesses are so admirably
executed as to place it in regard to ornithological portraiture at the
head of all others. There is not a single plate that is unworthy of
the greatest of all animal painters.
Proceeding to illustrated works generally of less pretentious size,
but of greater ornithological utility than the books last mentioned,
which are fitter for the drawing-room than the study, we next have
to consider some in which the text is not wholly subordinated to the
plates, though the latter still form a conspicuous feature of the
publication. First of these in point of time as well as in importance
is the Nouveau reciieil des planches colorices d'oiseaux of Temminck
_ . . and Langier, intended as a sequel to the Planches en-
Temm ac i^^ninies of D'Aubenton before noticed, and like that
, . work issued both in folio and quarto size. The first
* portion of this was published at Paris in 1820, and of its
one hundred and two livraisons, which appeared with great irre-
gularity (Ibis, 1868, p. 500), the last was issued in 1839, containing
the titles of the five volumes that the whole forms, together with a
" Tableau m(^thodique " which but indifferently serves the purpose
of an index. There are six hundred plates, but the exact number
of species figured (which has been computed at six hundred and
sixty-one) is not so easily ascertained. Generally the subject of
ORNITHOLOGY
[HISTORY
each plate has letterpress to correspond, but in some cases this is
wanting, while on the other hand descriptions of species not figured
are occasionally introduced, and usually observations on the dis-
tribution and construction of each genus or group are added. The
]5lates, which show no improvement in execution on those of Martinet,
are after drawings by Huct and Pretre, the former being perhaps
the less bad draughtsman of the two, for he seems to have had an
idea of what a bird when alive looks like, though he was not able
to give his figures any vitality, while the latter simply delineated
the stiff and dishevelled specimens from museum shelves. Still
the colouring is pretty well done, and experience has proved that
generally speaking there is not much difficulty in recognizing the
species represented. The letterpress is commonly limited to technical
details, and is not always accurate; but it is of its kind useful, for
in general knowledge of the outside of birds Temminck probably
surpassed any of his contemporaries. The " Tableau mdthodique "
offers a convenient concordance of the old Planches enluminees and
its successor, and is arranged after the system set forth by Temminck
in the first volume of the second edition of his Manuel d'ornilhologie,
of which something must presently be said.
The Galerie des oiseaux, a rival work, with plates by Oudart,
seems to have been begun immediately after the former. The
original project was apparently to give a figure and n d ri
description of every species of bird ; but that was soon "
found to be impossible; and, when six parts had been issued, with
te.xt by some unnamed author, the scheme was brought within
practicable limits, and the writing of the letterpress was vieUloL
entrusted to Vieillot, who, proceeding on a systematic
plan, performed his task very creditably, completing the work,
which forms two quarto volumes, in 1825, the original text and
fifty-seven plates being relegated to the end of the second volume
as a supplement. His portion is illustrated by two hundred and
ninety-nine coloured plates that, wretched as they are, have been
continually reproduced in various text-books — a fact possibly due
to their subjects having been judiciously selected. It is a tradition
that, this work not being favourably regarded by the authorities
of the Paris Museum, its draughtsman and author were refused
closer access to the specimens required, and had to draw and describe
them through the glass as they stood on the shelves of the cases.
In 1825 Jardine and Selby began a series of Illustrations of
Ornithology, the several parts of which appeared at long and irregular
intervals, so that it was not until 1839 that three volumes , ..
containing one hundred and fifty plates were completed. w c";*
Then they set about a Second Series, which, forming a
single volume with fifty-three plates, was finished in 1843. These
authors, being zealous amateur artists, were their own draughtsmen
to the extent even of lithographing the figures. In 1828 James
Wilson (author of the article Ornithology in the 7th and ^,.
8th editions of the present work) began, under the title ° '
of Illustrations of Zoology, the publication of a series of his own
drawings (which he did not, however, himself engrave) with corre-
sponding letterpress. Of the thirty-six plates illustrating this
volume, a small folio, twenty are devoted to Ornithology, and
contain figures, which, it must be allowed, are not very successful,
of several species rare at the time.
Though the three works last mentioned fairly come under the
same category as the Planches enluminees and the Planches coloriees,
no one of them can be properly deemed their rightful ^ „
heirs. The claim to that succession was made in 1845
by Des Murs for his Iconographie ornithologique, which, containing
seventy-two plates by Pr6vot and Oudart' (the latter of whom had
marvellously improved in his drawings since he worked with Vieillot),
was completed in 1849. Simultaneously with this Du Bus began a
work on a plan precisely similar, the Esquisses ornitho- _ _
logiques, illustrated by Severeyns, which, however,
stopped short in 1849 with its thirty-seventh plate, while the letter-
press unfortunately does not go beyond that belonging to the
twentieth. In 1866 the succession was again taken up by tJie Exotic
Ornithology of Messrs Sclater and Salvin, containing one Sclater
hundred plates, representing one hundred and four .
species, all from Central or South America, which are saMo
neatly executed by J. Smit. The accompanying letter-
press is in some places copious, and useful lists of the species of
various genera are occasionally subjoined, adding to the definite
value of the work, which, forming one volume, was completed in 1869.
Rowley's Ornithological Miscellany in three quarto volumes,
profusely illustrated, appeared between 1875 and 1878. The
contents are as varied as the authorship, and, most of the Powkr
leading English ornithologists having contributed to the
work, some of the papers are extremely good, while in the plates,
which are in Keulemans's best manner, many rare species of birds
are figured, some of them for the first time.
More recent monographs have been more exact, and some of them
equally sumptuous. Amongst these may be mentioned _F. E.
Blaauw's Monograph of the Cranes (1897, folio); St G. Mivart's
Monograph of the Lories (1898, folio); the Hon. W. Rothschild's
Monograph of the Genus Casuarius (1899, quarto); R. B. Sharpe's
' On the title-page credit is given to the latter alone, but only
two-thirds of the plates (from pL 25 to the end) bear his name.
HISTORYj
ORNITHOLOGY
307
Monograph of the Paradiseidae (1898, folio); H. Secbohm's Mono-
graph of the Thrushes (1900, imp. quarto); J. (j. Millais' British
Surface-feeding Ducks (1902, folio); and the Hon. W. Rothschild's
Extinct Birds (1907, quarto).
Most of the works lately named, being very costly, are not easily
accessible. The few next to be mentioned, being of smaller size
(octavo), may be within reach of more persons, and, therefore, can
be passed over in a briefer fashion without detriment. In many
ways, however, they are nearly as important. Swainson's Zoological
Illustrations in three volumes, containing one hundred
Svalason, ^^^ eighty-two plates, whereof seventy represent birds,
appeared between 1820 and 1821, and in 1829 a second series of
the same was begun by him, which, extending to another three
volumes, contained forty-eight more plates of birds out of one
hundred and thirty-six, and was completed in 1833. All the figures
were drawn by the author, who as an ornithological artist had no
rival in his time. Every plate is not beyond criticism, but his worst
drawings show more knowledge of bird-life than do the best of his
English or French contemporaries. A work of somewhat similar
character, but one in which the letterpress is of greater value, is the
Ce?iturie zoologigne of Lesson, a single volume that.
Lesson. though bearing the date 1830 on its title-page, is believcii
to have been begun in 1829,' and was certainly not finished until
1831. It received the benefit of Isidore Geoffroy St-Hilaire's
assistance. Notwithstanding its name it only contains eighty
plates, but of them forty-two, all by Pretre and in his usual stiff
style, represent birds. Concurrently with this volume appeared
Lesson's Traite d'ornithologie, which is dated 1831, and may perhaps
be here most conveniently mentioned. Its professedly systematic
form strictly relegates it to another group of works, but the presence
of an " Atlas " (also in octavo) of one hundred and nineteen plates
to some extent justifies its notice in this place. Between 1831 and
1834 the same author brought out, in continuation of his Centurie,
his Illustrations de zoologie with sixty plates, twenty of which
represent birds. In 1832 Kittlitz began to publish some Kup-
fertafeln ziir Naturgeschichte der Vbgel, in which many new
Kitllltz. species are figured; but the work came to an end with
its thirty-sixth plate in the following year. In 1845 Reichenbach
commenced with his Praktische Naturgeschichte der Vogel
Relcnen- ^^^ extraordinary series of illustrated publications which,
bach. under titles far too numerous here to repeat, ended in or
about 1855, and are commonly known collectively as his Voll-
stdndigste Naturgeschichte der Vogel.- Herein are contained more
than nine hundred coloured and more than one hundred uncolourcd
plates, which are crowded with the figures of birds, a large proportion
of them reduced copies from other works, and especially those of
Gould.
It now behoves us to turn to general and particularly systematic
works in which plates, if they exist at all, form but an accessory to
the text. These need not detain us for long, since, however well
some of them may have been executed, regard being had to their
epoch, and whatever repute some of them may have achieved, they
are, so far as general information and especially classification is
concerned, wholly obsolete, and most of them almost useless except
as matters of antiquarian interest. It will be enough merely to
name Dumeril's Zoologie analytique (l8o6) and Gravenhorst's Ver-
gleichende Ubersicht des linneischfn und einiger neuern zoologischcn
Systeme (1807); nor need we linger over Shaw's General
sf^^^" ^""^"SV: ^ pretentious compilation continued by Stephens.
ep eas. Yhe last seven of its fourteen volumes include the Class
Aves, and the first part of them appeared in 1809, but, the original
author dying in 1815, when only two volumes of birds were published,
the remainder was brought to an end in 1826 by his successor, who
afterwards became well known as an entomologist. The engravings
which these volumes contain are mostly bad copies, often of bad
figures, though many are piracies from Bewick, and the whole is
a most unsatisfactory performance. Of a very different kind is the
next we have to notice, the Prodromus systematis mammaliunt et
. avium of Illiger, published at Berlin in 181 1, which must
^''' in its day have been a valuable little manual, and on
many points it may now be consulted to advantage — the characters
of the genera being admirably given, and good explanatory lists of
the technical terms of ornithology furnished. The classification
was quite new, and made a step distinctly in advance of anything
VI 111 i. i^^i had before appeared.^ In 1816 Vieillot published
* " at Paris an Analyse d'lme nouvelle ornithologie elcmenlaire,
containing a method of classification which he had tried in vain to
get printed before, both in Turin and in London.' Some of the
'■ In 1828 he had brought out, under the title of Manuel d'orni-
thologie, two handy duodecimos which are very good of their kind.
^Technically speaking they are in quarto, but their size is so
small that they may be well spoken of here. In 1879 Dr A. B.
Meyer brought out an Index to them.
' Illiger may be considered the founder of the school of nomen-
clatural purists. He would not tolerate any of the " barbarous "
generic terms adopted by other writers, though some had been in
use for many years.
' The method was communicated to the Turin Academy, on loth
January 1814, and was ordered to be printed {Mem. Ac. Sc. Turin,
Tern-
tnlack.
ideas in this are said to have been taken from Illiger; but the two
systems seem to be wholly distinct. Vicillot's was afterwards more
fully expounded in the scries of articles which he contributed between
1816 and 1819 to the second edition of the Nouveau dictionnaire
d'histoire naturelle containing much valuable information. The
views of neither of these systematizers pleased Temminck, who in
18 1 7 replied rather sharply to Vieillot in some Observations
sur la classification methodique des oiseaux, a pamphlet
published at Amsterdam, and prefixed to the second edition
of his Manuel d'ornithologie, which appeared in 1820, an Analyse du
syslime general d'ornithologie. This proved a great success, and
his arrangement, though by no means simple,' was not only adopted
by many ornithologists of almost every country, but still has some
adherents. The following year Ranzani of Bologna, in his Elemenli
di soologia — a very respectable compilation — came to
treat of birds, and then followed to some extent the plan Haazaal.
of De Blainville and Merrem (concerning which much more has to
be said by and by), placing the Struthious birds in an Order by
themselves. In 1827 Wagler brought out the first part
of a Systema avium, in this form never completed, >yagler.
consisting of forty-nine detached monographs of as many genera,
the species of which are most elaborately described. The arrange-
ment he subsequently adopted for them and for other groups is
to be found in his Natiirliches System der Amphibien (pp. 77-128),
published in 1830, and is too fanciful to require any further attention.
The several attempts at system-making by Kaup, from
his Allgemeine Zoologie in 1829 to his Vber Classification Haup.
der Vogel in 1849, were equally arbitrary and aljortive; but his
Skizzirte Entwickelungs-Geschichle in 1829 must be here named, as
it is so often quoted on account of the number of new genera which
the peculiar views he had embraced compelled him to invent.
These views he shared more or less with Vigors and Swainson, and
to them attention will be immediately especially invited, while
consideration of the scheme gradually developed from 1831 onward
by Charles Lucien Bonaparte, and still not without its
influence, is deferred until we come to treat of the rise Bona-
and progress of what we may term the reformed school pane.
of ornithology. Yet injustice would be done to one of the ablest
of those now to be called the old masters of the science if mention
were not here made of the Conspectus generum avium, begun in
1850 by the naturalist last named, with the help of Schlegel, and
unfortunately interrupted by its author's death six years Iater.°
The systematic publications of George Robert Gray, so
long in charge of the ornithological collection of the ' '
British Museum, began with A List of the Genera of Birds "■''■
published in 1840. This, having been closely, though by no means
in a hostile spirit, criticized by Strickland (Ann. Nat. History, vi.
p. 410; vii. pp. 26 and 159), was followed by a second edition in
1 84 1, in which nearly all the corrections of the reviewer were adopted,
and in 1844 began the publication of The Genera of Birds, beautifully
illustrated — first by Mitchell and afterwards by Mr Wolf — which
will always keep Gray's name in remembrance. The enormous
labour required for this work seems scarcely to have been appreciated,
though it remains to this day one of the most useful books in an
ornithologist's library. Yet it must be confessed that its author
was hardly an ornithologist, but for the accident of his calling.
He was a thoroughly conscientious clerk, devoted to his duty and
unsparing of trouble. However, to have conceived the idea of
executing a work on so grand a scale as this — it forms three folio
volumes, and contains one hundred and eighty-five coloured and
one hundred and forty-eight uncolourcd plates, with references
to upwards of two thousand four hundred generic names — was in
itself a mark of genius, and it was brought to a successful conclusion
in 1849. Costly as it necessarily was, it has been of great service
to working ornithologists. In 1855 Gray brought out, as one of the
Museum publications, A Catalogue of the Genera and Subgenera of
Birds, a handy little volume, naturally founded on the larger works.
Its chief drawback is that it does not give any more reference to the
authority for a generic term than the name of its inventor and the
year of its application, though of course more precise information
would have at least doubled the size of the book. The same de-
ficiency became still more apparent when, between 1869 and 1871,
he published his Hand-List of Genera and Species of Birds in three
1813-1814, p. xxviii.); but, through the derangements of that
stormy period, the order was never carried out (Mem. Accad. Sc.
Torino, xxiii. p. xcvii.). The minute-book of the Linnean Society of
London shows that his Prolusio was read at meetings of that Society
between the 15th of November 1814 and the 21st of February 1815.
Why it was not at once accepted is not told, but the entn,' respecting
it, which must be of much later date, in the " Register of Papers "
is " Published already." It is due to Vieillot to mention these
facts, as he has been accused of publishing his method in haste to
anticipate some of Cuvicr's views, but he might well complain of
the delay in London. Some reparation has been made to his memory
by the reprinting of his Analyse by the Willughby Society.
' He recognized sixteen Orders of Bird^, while \'ieillot had been
content with five, and Illiger with seven.
* To this very indispensable work a good index was supplied in
1865 by Dr Finsch.
3o8
ORNITHOLOGY
[HISTORY
octavo volumes (or parts, as they are called). Giebel's Thesaurus
ornithologiae, also in three volumes, published between
1872 and 1877, is a slight advance, but both works have
been completely superseded by the British Museum Catalogue of
Birds, the twenty-seventh and final volume of which was published
in 1895, ^n<l by the compact and invaluable British Museum Hand-
List, the four volumes of which were completed by Dr R. B. Sharpe
in 1903.
It may be convenient here to deal with the theory of the
Quinary System, which was promulgated with great zeal by its
upholders during the end of the first and early part of
Quinary j^jjg second quarter of the igth century, and for some
years seemed likely to carry all before it. The success
it gained was doubtless due in some degree to the difficulty
which most men had in comprehending it, for it was enwrapped
in alluring mystery, but more to the confidence with which it
was announced as being the long-looked-for key to the wonders
of creation, since its promoters did not hesitate to term it the
discovery of " the Natural System," though they condescended,
by way of explanation to less exalted intellects than their own,
to allow it the more moderate appellation of the Circular or
Quinary System.
A comparison of the relation of created beings to a number of
intersecting circles is as old as the days of Nieremberg, who in
1635 wrote (Historia naturae, lib. iii. cap. 3) — " NuUus hiatus est,
nulla fractio, nulla dispersio formarum, invicem connexa sunt velut
annulus annulo "; but it is almost clear that he was thinking only
of a chain. In 1806 Fischer de Waldheim, in his Tableaux syn-
optiqiies de zoognosie (p. i8i), quoting Nieremberg, extended his
figure of speech, and, while justly deprecating the notion that the
series of forms belonging to any particular group of creatures —
the Mammalia was that whence he took his instance — could be
placed in a straight line, imagined the various genera to be arrayed
in a series of contiguous circles around Man as a centre. Though
there is nothing to show that Fischer intended, by what is here
said, to do anything else than illustrate more fully the marvellous
interconnexion of different animals, or that he attached any realistic
meaning to his metaphor, his words were eagerly caught up by the
prophet of the new faith. This was William Sharpe
Macleay, Macleay, a man of education and real genius, who in
1 819 and 1 82 1 brought out a work under the title of Horae Entomo-
logicae, which was soon after hailed by \'igors as containing a new
revelation, and applied by him to ornithology in some
Vigors. a Observations on the Natural Affinities that connect the
Orders and Families of Birds," read before the Linnean Society of
London in 1823, and afterwards published in its Transactions (xiv.
pp. 395-517)- In the following year Vigors returned to the subject
in some papers published in the recently established Zoological
Journal, and found an energetic condisciple and coadjutor in
Swainson, who, for more than a dozen years — to the
end, in fact, of his career as an ornithological writer —
was instant in season and out of season in pressing on all
his readers the views he had, through Vigors, adopted from Macleay,
though not without some modification of detail if not of principle.
What these views were it would be manifestly improper for a sceptic
to state e.xcept in the tei'ms of a believer. Their enunciation must
therefore be given in Swainson's own words, though it must be
admitted that space cannot be found here for the diagrams, which
it was alleged were necessary for the right understanding of the
theory. Tfiis theory, as originally propounded by Macleay, was said
by Swainson in 1835 {Ceogr. and Classific. of Animals, p. 202) to
have consisted of the following propositions:^ —
" I. That the series of natural animals is continuous, forming,
as it were, a circle; so that, upon commencing at any one given
point, and thence tracing all the modifications of structure, we
shall be imperceptibly led, after passing through numerous forms,
again to the point from which we started.
" 2. That no groups are natural which do not exhibit, or show
an evident tendency to exhibit, such a circular series.
" 3. That the primar>' divisions of ever>' large group are ten, five
of which are composed of comparatively large circles, and five of
smaller: these latter being termed osculant, and being intermediate
between the former, which they serve to connect.
" 4. That there is a tendency in such groups as are placed at the
opposite points of a circle of affinity ' to meet each other.'
" 5. That one of the five larger groups into which every natural
circle is divided ' bears a resemblance to all the rest, or, more strictly
speaking, consists of types which represent those of each of the four
other groups, together with a type peculiar to itself.' "
Swain
soa.
^ We prefer giving them here in Swainson's version, because he
seems to have set iliem forth more clearly and concisely than Macleay
ever did, and, moreover, Swainson's application of them to
ornithology — a branch of science that lay outside of Macleay's
proper studies — appears to be more suitable to the present
occasion.
As subsequently modified by Swainson {torn. cit. pp. 224, 225),
the foregoing propositions take the following form: —
" I. That every natural series of beings, in its progress from
a given point, either actually returns, or evinces a tendency to
return, again to that point, thereby forming a circle.
" II. The primary circular divisions of every group are three
actually, or five apparently.
" III. The contents of such a circular group are symbolically (or
analogically) represented by the contents of all other circles in the
animal kingdom.
" IV. That these primary' divisions of every group are character-
ized by definite peculiarities of form, structure and economy,
which, under diversified modifications, are uniform throughout the
animal kingdom, and are therefore to be regarded as the primary
types of nature.
" V. That the different ranks or degrees of circular groups ex-
hibited in the animal kingdom are nine in number, each being
involved within the other."
Though, as above stated, the theor>' here promulgated owed its
temporary success chiefly to the extraordinary assurance and perti-
nacity with which it was urged upon a public generally incapable
of understanding what it meant, that it received some support from
men of science nmst be admitted. A " circular system " was
advocated by the eminent botanist Fries, and the views of Macleay
met with the partial approbation of the celebrated entomologist
Kirby, while at least as much may be said of the imaginative Oken,
whose mysticism far surpassed that of the Quinarians. But it
is obvious to every one who nowadays indulges in the profitless
pastime of studying their writings that, as a whole, they failed in
grasping the essential difference between homology (or " affinity,"
as they generally termed it) and analogy — though this difference
had been fully understood and set forth by Aristotle himself — and,
moreover, that in seeking for analogies on which to base their
foregone conclusions they were often put to hard shifts. Another
singular fact is that they often seemed to be totally unaware of the
tendency if not the meaning of some of their own expressions: thus
Macleay could write, and doubtless in perfect good faith {Trans.
Linn. Society, xvi. p. 9, note), " Naturalists have nothing to do
with mysticism, and but little with a priori reasoning." Yet his
followers, if not he himself, were ever making use of language in
the highest degree metaphorical, and were always explaining facts
in accordance with preconceived opinions. Fleming,
already the author of a harmless and extremely orthodox '^'^'"'"S-
Philosophy of Zoology, pointed out in 1829 in the Quarterly Review
(xli. pp. 302-327) some of the fallacies of Macleay's method, and in
return provoked from him a reply, in the form of a letter addressed
to Vigors On the Dying Struggle of the Dichotomous System, couched
in language the force of which no one even at the present day can
deny, though to the modern naturalist its invective power contrasts
ludicrously with the strength of its ratiocination. But, confining
ourselves to what is here our special business, it is to be remarked
that perhaps the heaviest blow dealt at these strange doctrines was
that delivered by Rennie, who, in an edition of Montagu's Ornitho-
logical Dictionary (pp. xxxiii.-lv.), published in 1831 and again
issued in 1833, attacked the Quinary System, and especially its
application to ornithology by Vigors and Swainson, in a wa> that
might perhaps have demolished it, had not the author mingled with
his undoubtedly sound reason much that is foreign to any question
with which a naturalist, as such, ought to deal — though that herein
he was only following the example of one of his opponents, who had
constantly treated the subject in like manner, is to be allowed.
This did not hinder Swainson, who had succeeded in getting the
ornithological portion of the first zoological work ever published at
the expense of the British government (namely, the Fauna Boreali-
Americana) executed in accordance with his own opinions, from
maintaining them more strongly than ever in several of the volumes
treating of Natural History which he contributed to the Cabinet
Cyclopaedia — among others that from which we have just given some
extracts — and in what may be deemed the culmination in England of
the Quinary' System, the volume of the " Naturalist's Library " on
The Natural Arrangement and History of Flycatchers, published in
1838, of which unhappy performance mention has already been
made in this present work (vol. x. p. 584, note). This seems to
have been his last attempt; for, two years later, his Bibliography
of Zoology shows little trace of his favourite theory', though nothing
he had uttered in its support was retracted. Appearing almost
simultaneously with this work, an article by Strickland {Mag. Nat.
History, ser. 2, iv. pp. 219-226) entitled Observations upon turi^t
the Affinities and A nalogies of Organized Beings administered fand
to the theory a shock from which it never recovered,
though attempts were now and then made by its adherents to revive
it; and, even ten years or more later, Kaup, one of the few foreign
ornithologists who had embraced Quinary principles, was by mis-
taken kindness allowed to publish l\Ionographs of the Birds-of-Prey
(Jardine's Contributions to Ornithology, 1849, pp. 68-75, 9^-121 ;
1850, pp. 51-80; 1851, pp. 1 19-136; 1852, pp. 103-122; and
Trans. Zool. Society, iv. pp. 201-260), in which its absurdity reached
the climax.
The mischief caused by this theory of a Quinary System was
very great, but was chiefly confined to Britain, for (as has been
HISTORY]
ORNITHOLOGY
309
Faunae.
already stated) the extraordinary views of its adherents found little
favour on the continent of Europe. The purely artificial character
of tlie System of Linnaeus and his successors had been perceived,
and men were at a loss to find a substitute for it. The new doctrine,
loudly proclaiming the discovery of a " Natural " System, led away
many from the steady practice which should have followed the
teaching of Cuvier (though he in ornithology had not been able to
act up to the princijiles he had lain down) and from the extended
study of Comparative Anatomy. Moreover, it veiled the honest
attempts that were making both in France and (Germany to find
real grounds for establishing an improved state of things, and con-
sequently the labours of De Blainville, Eticnne, Geoffroy St-Hilaire
and L'Herminier, of Merrem, Johannes Miiller and Nitzsch — to
say nothing of others — w-ere almost wholly unknown on this side
of the Channel, and even the value of the investigations of British
ornithotomists of high merit, such as Macartney and Macgillivray,
was almost completely overlooked. True it is that there were not
wanting other men in these islands whose common sense refused to
accept the metaphorical doctrine and the mystical jargon of the
Quinarians, but so strenuously and persistently had the latter
asserted their infallibility, and so vigorously had they assailed any
who ventured to doubt it, that most peaceable ornithologists found
it best to bend to the furious blast, and in some sort to acf|uicscc at
least in the phraseology of the self-styled interpreters of Creative
Will. But, while thus lamenting this unfortunate iierversion into
a mistaken channel of ornithological energy, we must not over-
blame those who caused it. Macleay indeed never pretended to a
high position in this branch of science, his tastes lying in the direction
of Entomology; but few of their countrymen knew more of birds
than did Swainson and Vigors; and, while the latter, as editor for
many years of the Zoological Journal, and the first secretary of the
Zoological Society, has especial claims to the regard of all zoologists,
so the former's indefatigable pursuit of Natural History, and
conscientious labour in its behalf — among other ways by means of
his graceful pencil — deserve to be remembered as a set-off against
the injury he unwittingly caused.
It is now incumbent upon us to take a rapid survey of the
ornithological works which come more or less under the designa-
tion of " Faunae ";' but these are so numerous that it
will be necessary to limit thissurvey,as before indicated,
to those countries alone which form the homes of English
people, or are commonly visited by them in ordinary travel.
Beginning with New Zealand, it is hardly needful to go further back
than Sir W. L. BuUer's beautiful Birds of New Zealand (410, 1S72-
New 1^73)' with coloured plates by Keulemans, since the publi-
Zealand. '^'"'"" °f which the same author has issued a Manual of the
Birds of New Zealand (8vo, 1882), founded on the former;
but justice requires that mention be made of the labours of G. R. Gray,
first in the Appendix to Dieffenbach's Travels in New Zealand (1843)
and then in the ornithological portion of the Zoology of the Voyage
of H.M.S. "Erebus" and " Terror," begun in 1864, but left un-
finished from the following year until completed by Mr Sharpe in
1876. A considerable number of valuable papers on the ornithology
of the country by Sir W. L. BuUcr, Drs Hector and Von Haast, F. W.
Hutton, Mr Potts and others arc to be found in the Transactions and
Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute. Sir W. L. BuUer's Supple-
ment to the Birds of New Zealand (1905-1906) completes the great
work of this author.
Passing to Australia, we have the first good description of some
of its birds in the several old voyages and in Latham's works before
Australia, mentioned. Shaw's Zoology of New Holland (410, 1794)
added those of a few more, as did J. W. Lewin's Natural
History of the Birds of New South Wales (4to, 1822), which reached
a third edition in 1838. Gould's great Birds of Australia has been
already named, and he subsequently reproduced with some additions
the text of that work under the title of Handbook to the Birds of
Australia (2 vols. 8vo, 1865). In 1866 Mr Diggles commenced a
similar publication. The Ornithology of Australia, but the coloured
plates, though fairly drawn, are not comparable to those of his pre-
decessor. This is still incomplete, though the parts that have
appeared have been collected to form two volumes and issued with
title-pages. Some notices of Australian birds by Mr Ramsay and
others are to be found in the Proceedings of the Linnaean Society of
New South Wales and of the Royal Society of Tasmania.
Coming to British Indian possessions, and beginning with Ceylon,
we have Kelaart's Prodrotnus faunae Zeylanicae (8vo, 1852), and
Ceyloa. ^^^ admirable Birds of Ceylon by Captain Legge (4to,
1878-1880), with coloured plates by Mr Keulemans of
all the peculiar species. It is hardly possible to name any book
that has been more conscientiously executed than this. Blyth's
Mammals and Birds of Burma (8vo, 1875)- contains much
valuable information. Jerdon's Birds of India (8vo, 1862-1864;
' A very useful list of more general scope is given as the Appendix
to an address by Mr Sclater to the British Association in 1875
(Report, pt. ii. pp. 114-133).
' This is a posthumous publication, nominally forming an extra
number of the Journal of the Asiatic Society; but, since it was
separately issued, it is entitled to notice here.
West
ladies.
reprinted 1877) 's a comprehensive work on the ornithology of the
peninsula. A very fairly executed compilation on the subject by
aii anonymous writer is to be foiinrl in a late edition of
tile Cyclopaedia of India, published at Madras, and W. T. ""Ila.
HIaiiford's Birds of British India (1S98) remains the standard work.
Stray Feathers, an ornithological journal for India and its de-
pendencies, contains many interesting and some valuable papers.
In regard to South Alrica, besides the well-known work of Le
Vaillant already mentioned, there is the second volume of Sir
.\iidrew Smith's Illustrations of the Zoology of South
.\frica (4to, 1838-1842), which is devoted to birds. This f?T"
is an important but cannot be called a satisfactory work. '
Its one hundred and fourteen plates by Ford truthfully represent
one hundred and twenty-two of the mounted S[>ecimens obtained
b\' the author in his explorations into the interior. Layard's handy
Bird^ of South Africa (8vo, 1867;, though by no means free from
l.iiilts, has much to rec(jinmend it. A so-called new edition of it by
K. B. Sharpe apiieared in 1875-1884, but was executed on a plan
Ml wholly different that it must be regarded as a distinct work.
C. J. Andersson's Notes on the Birds of Damara Land (8vo, 1872),
edited by J. H. Gurney, was useful in its day, but has been super-
seded by the more cimiprehensive and extremely accurate volumes,
the Birds of Africa, by C. E. Shelley (i900-i9o'7), and the German
work on the same subject by Anton Reichenow (1900-1905).
Of special works relating io the British West Indies, C. Waterton's
well-known Wanderings has pas.sed through several editions since
its first appearance in 1825, and must be mentioned here,
though, strictly speaking, much of the country he traversed
was not British territory. To Dr Cabanis we are indebted
for the ornithological results of Richard Schomburgh's researches
given in the third volume (pp. 662-765) of the latter's Reisen im
Britisch-Guiana (8vo, 1848), and then in Leotaud's Oiseaux de I'ilc de
la Trinidad (Hvo, 1866). Of the Antilles there is only to be named
P. H. Gosse's excellent Birds of Jamaica (i2mo, 1847), together with
its Illustrations^ (sm. fob, 1849) beautifully executed by him. A
nominal list, with references, of the birds of the island is contained
in the Handbook of Jamaica.
[An admirable "List of Faunal Publications relating to North
American Ornithology " up to 1878 has been given by Elliott
Coues as an appendix to his Birds of the Colorado Valley
(pp. 567-784). Special mention should be made of the ^"''^
following works most of which have appeared since '^'"eiica.
that time: S. F. Baird, T. M. Brewer and Robert Ridgway,
History of North American Birds: The Land Birds (3 vols.,
Boston, 1875), The Water Birds (2 vols., Boston, 1884); Elliott
Coues, Ctieck List of North American Birds (Boston, 1882), Key
to North American Birds (Boston, 1887), Birds of the Northwest,
U.S. Geological Survey, Misc. pubs., No. 3 (1874) and Buds of the
Colorado Valley, ibid, No. 11 (1878); Robert Ridgway, Manual of
North American Birds (Philadelphia, 1887); Frank M. Chapman,
Color Key to North American Birds (New York, 1903); Handbook of
Birds of Eastern North America (ibid, 1895) and The Warblers of
Vorth America (ibid, 1907), with notable coloured illustrations by
L. A. Fuertes and Bruce Horsfall; Ur. A. K. Fisher, Hawks and Owls
■tf the United States in their Relation to Agriculture, U.S. Department
ot Agriculture, Bull. No. 3 (Washington, 1893), a ver>' important
.vork; D. G. Elliot, Gallinaceous Game Birds of North America
(Mew York, 1897) and Wild Fowl of the United Slates and British
Possessions (1898), and Robert Ridgway's learned and invaluable
Birds of North and Middle America, published by the Smithsonian
Institution, Bull. No. 50 (Washington, 1901 sqq.). Among con-
temporary writers in a more popular style are John Burroughs (q.v.) ;
Herbert K. Job and A. R. Dugmore who have done much remarkable
work in bird photography; Dallas Lore Sharp, Bradford Torrey,
E. H. Parkhurst, Mrs Florence Merriam Bailey, Olive Thome
Miller (Mrs Harriet Mann Miller) and Mrs Mabel Osgood Wright.
.Alexander Wilson's American Ornithology, originally published be-
ween 1808 and 1814, has gone through many editions including those
issued in Great Britain, by Jameson (4 vols. 16 mo, 1831), and
jardine (3 vols. 8vo, 1832). The former of these has the entire text,
but no plates; the latter reproduces the plates, but the text is in
places much condensed, and excellent notes are added. A contin-
uation of Wilson's work was issued by Bonaparte between 1825 and
1833, and most of the later editions include the work of both authors.
The works of .'\udubon, and the FaunaBorcali-AmericanaofRkhard-
son and Swainson have already been noticed, but they need naming
here, as also do Nuttall's Manual of the Ornithology of the United
Si lies and of Canada (2 vols., Boston, 1832-1834; 2nd cd., 1840);
and the Birds of Long Island (8 vo. New York, 1844) by J. P. Giraud,
remarkable for its excellent account of the habits of shore-birds.
The Bulletin of the Nuttall Ornithological Club was published from
■ 876 to 1884, when it was superseded by The Auk. .\ bi-monthly,
Bird-Lore, established in 1899, is edited by Frank M. Chapman.
.\ recent valuable work is that of Mary B. Beebe and C. W. Beebe,
f)ur Search for a Wilderness (New York, 1910) which deals with the
birds of Venezuela and British Guiana, while Central America is
fully treated in the comprehensive and beautiful Biologia Cenlrali-
Americana of F. du Cane Godman and O. Salvin (1898-1905). X.l
Returning to the Old World, we have first Iceland, the
fullest — indeed the only full — account of the birds of which is
3IO
ORNITHOLOGY
[HISTORY
Scandi-
navia.
Faber's Prodromus der isldndischen Ornithologie (8vo, 1822), though
the island has since been visited by several good ornithologists —
Proctor, Krtlper and Wolley among them. A list of its
birds, with some notes, bibliographical and biological, has
been given as an Appendix to Baring-Gould's Iceland,
its Scenes and Sagas (8vo, 1862) ; and Shepherd's North-west Peninsula
of Iceland (8vo, 1867) recounts a somewhat profitless expedition
made thither expressly for ornithological objects. For the birds of
the Faeroes there is H. C. Miiller's Faeroernes Fuglefauna (8vo, 1862),
of which a German translation has appeared.' The ornithology of
Norway has been treated in a great many papers by Herr Collett,
some of which may be said to have been separately published as
Norges Fugle (8vo, 1868; with a supplement, 1871), and The
Ornithology of Northern Norway (8vo, 1872) — this last in English.
For Scandinavia generally Herr Collin's Skandinaviens Fugle (8vo,
1873) is a greatly bettered edition of the very moderate Danmarks
Fugle of Kjaerbolling; but the ornithological portion of Nilsson's
Skandinavisk Fauna, Foglarna (3rd ed., 2 vols., 8vo, 1858) is of
great merit; while the text of Sundevall's Svenska Foglarna (obi. fol.,
1856-1873), unfortunately unfinished at his death, and Herr Holm-
gren's Skandinaviens Foglar (2 vols. 8vo, 1866— 1875) deserve naming.
Works on the birds of Germany are far too numerous to be re-
counted. That of the two Naumanns stands at the head of all,
„ and perhaps at the head of the " Faunal " works of all
^' countries. It has been added to by C. R. Hennicke —
Naumann's Birds of Middle Europe (1907). For want of space it
must here suffice simply to name some of the ornithologists who
have elaborated, to an extent elsewhere unknown, the science as
regards their own country: Altum, Baldamus, Bechstein, Blasius
(father and two sons), BoUe, Borggreve, whose Vogel- Fauna von
Norddeutschland (8vo, 1869) contains what is practically a biblio-
graphical index to the subject, Brehm (father and sons). Von Drostc,
Giitke, Gloger, Hintz, Alexander and Eugen von Homeyer, Jiickel,
Koch, Konig-Warthausen, Krtlper, Kutter, Landbeck, Landois,
Leisler, Von Maltzan, Bernard Meyer, Von der Muhle, Neumann,
Tobias, Johann Wolf and Zander.^ Were we to extend the list
beyond the boundaries of the German empire, and include the
ornithologists of Austria, Bohemia and the other states subject
to the same monarch, the number would be nearly doubled ; but
that would overpass our proposed limits, though Herr von Pelzeln
must be named. ^ Passing onward to Switzerland, we must content
ourselves by referring to the list of works, forming a Bibliographia
ornithologica Helvetica, drawn up by Dr Stolkec for Dr Fatio's
Bulletin de la Societe Ornithologique Suisse (ii. pp. 90-1 19).
As to Italy, we can but name here the Fauna d'ltalia, of
Italy.
which the second part, Uccelli (8vo, 1872), by Count Salvadori
contains an excellent bibliography of Italian works on the subject,
and the posthumously published Ornitologia italiana of Savi (3 vols.
S I and '^'^0'l873~l877)-* *-^o™'ngto the Iberian peninsula, we must
p?fL" . in default of separate works depart from our rule of not
■ mentioning contributions to journals, for of the former
there are only Colonel Irhy' sOrnithology of the Straits of Gibraltar (8vo,
1875) and Mr A. C. Smith's Spring Tour in Portugal * to be named,
and these only partially cover the ground. However, Dr A. E.
Brehm has published a list of Spanish birds (Allgem. deutsche natur-
hist. Zeitung, iii. p. 431), and The Ibis contains several excellent
papers by Lord Lilford and by H. Saunders, the latter of whom there
records (l 871, p. 55) the few works on ornithology by Spanish authors,
and in the Bulletin de la Societe Zoologique de France (i. p. 315;
ii. pp. 1 1, 89, 185) has given a list of the Spanish birds known to him.
Returning northwards, we have of the birds of the whole of
France nothing of real importance more recent than the volume
France Oiseaux in Vieillot's Faune frangaise (8vo, 1822-1829);
but there is a great number of local publications of which
Mr Saunders has furnished {Zoologist, 1878, pp. 95-99) a catalague.
^ Journal fiir Ornithologie (1869), pp. 107, 341, 381. One may
almost say an English translation also, for Major Feilden's con-
tribution to the Zoologist for 1872 on the same subject gives the
most essential part of Herr Miiller's information.
2 This is, of course, no complete list of German ornithologists.
Some of the most eminent of them have written scarcely a line on
the birds of their own country, as Cabanis (editor since 1853 of the
Journal fiir Ornithologie), Finsch, Hartlaub, Prince Max of Wied,
A. B. Meyer, Nathusius, Nehrkorn, Reichenbach, Reichenow and
Schalow among others.
' A useful ornithological bibliography of the Austrian-Hungarian
dominions was printed in the Verhatidlungen of the Zoological and
Botanical Society of Vienna for 1878, by Victor Ritter von Tschusi
zu Schmidhofen. A similar bibliography of Russian ornithology
by Alexander Brandt was printed at St Petersburg in 1877 or 1878.
* A useful compendium of Greek and Turkish ornithology by
Drs Kriiper and Hartlaub is contained in Mommsen's Griechische
Jakrzeiten for 1875 (Heft III.). For other countries in the Levant
there are Canon 'Tristram's Fauna and Flora of Palestine (4to, 1884)
and Captain Shelley's Handbook to the Birds of Egypt (8\'o, 1872).
' In the final chapter of this work the author gives a list of
Portuguese birds, including besides those observed by him those
recorded by Professor Barboza du Bocage in the Gazeta medica de
Lisboa (1861), pp. 17-21.
Some of these seem only to have appeared in journals, but many
have certainly been issued separately. Those of most interest to
English ornithologists naturally refer to Britanny, Normandy and
Picardy, and are by Baillon, Benoist, Blandin, Bureau, Canivet,
Chesnon, Degland, Demarle, De Norguet, Gentil, Hardy, Lemetteil,
Lemonnicier, Lesauvage, Maignon, Marcotte, Nourry and Tasl6,
while perhaps the Ornithologie parisienne of M. Rene Paquet, under
the pseudonym of Neree Quepat, should also be named. Of the rest
the most important are the Ornithologie proven^ale of Roux (2 vols.
4to, 1825-1829); Risso's Histoire naturelle . . . des environs de
Nice (5 vols. 8vo. 1826-1827); the Ornithologie du Dauphine of
Bouteille and Labatie (2 vols. 8vo, 1843- 1844); the Faune meri-
dionale of Crespon (2 vols. 8vo, 1844); the Ornithologie de la Savoie
of Bailly (4 vols. 8vo, 1853-1854), and Les Richesses ornithologiques
du midi de la France (4to, 1859-1861) of MM. Jaubert and
Barth^lemy-Lapommeraye. For Belgium the Faune ReMum
beige of Baron De Selys-Longchamps (8vo, 1842), old as
it is, remains the classical work, though the Planches coloriees
des oiseaux de la Belgique of M. Dubois (8vo, 1851-1860) is so much
later in date. In regard to Holland we have Schlegel's huh
De Vogels van Nederland (3 vols. 8vo, 1854-1858; 2nd ed., "o""""-
2 vols., 1878), besides his De Dieren van Nederland: Vogels (8vo,
1861).
Before considering the ornithological works relating solely to the
British Islands, it may be well to cast a glance on a few of those
that refer to Europe in general, the more so since most „ .
of them are of Continental origin. First we have the .
already-mentioned Manuel d' ornithologie of Temminck,
which originally appeared as a single volume in 1815;* but that was
speedily superseded by the second edition of 1820, in two volumes.
Two supplementary parts were issued in 1835 and 1840 respectively,
and the work for many years deservedly maintained the highest
position as the authority on European ornithology — indeed in
England it may almost without exaggeration be said to have been
nearly the only foreign ornithological work known; but, as could
only be expected, grave defects are now to be discovered in it.
Some of them were already manifest when one of its author's col-
leagues, Schlegel (who had been employed to write the text for
Susemihl's plates, originally intended to illustrate Tcmminck's
work), brought out his bilingual Revue critique des oiseaux d' Europe
(8vo, 1844), a very remarkable volume, since it correlated and
consolidated the labours of French and German, to say nothing of
Russian, ornithologists. Of Gould's Birds of Europe (5 vols, fol.,
1 832-1 837) nothing need be added to what has been already said.
The year 1849 saw the publication of Degland's Ornithologie euro-
peenne (2 vols. 8vo), a work fully intended to take the place of
Temminck's; but of which Bonaparte, in a caustic but by no means
ill-deserved Revue critique (12 mo, 1850), said that the author had
performed a miracle since he had worked without a collection of
specimens and without a library. A second edition, revised by M.
Gerbe (2 vols. 8vo, 1867), strove to remedy, and to some extent did
remedy, the grosser errors of the first, but enough still remain to
make few statements in the work trustworthy unless corroborated
by other evidence. Meanwhile in England Dr Bree had in 1858
begun the publication of The Birds of Europe not observed in the
British Isles (4 vols. 8vo), which was completed in 1863, and in
1875 reached a second and improved edition (5 vols.). In 1862
M. Dubois brought out a similar work on the " Especes non observ^es
en Belgique," being supplementary to that of his above named.
In 1870 Anton Fritsch completed his Naturgeschichte der Vogel
Europas (8vo, with atlas in folio); and in 1871 Messrs Sharpe and
Dresser began the publication of their Birds of Europe, which was
completed by the latter in 1879 (8 vols. 4to), and is unquestionably
the most complete work of its kind, both for fulness of information
and beauty of illustration — the coloured plates being nearly all by
Keulemans. This work has since been completed by H. E. Dresser's
Supplement to the Birds of Europe (1896). H. Noble's List of Euro-
pean Birds (1898) is a useful compilation, and Dresser's magnificent
Eggs of the Birds of Europe is another great contribution by that
author to European ornithology.
Coming now to works on British birds only, the first of the present
century that requires remark is Montagu's Ornithological Dictionary
(2 vols. 8vo, 1802; supplement 1813), the merits of
which have been so long and so fully acknowledged both
abroad and at home that no further comment is here
wanted. In 1831 Rennie brought out a modified edition of it
(reissued in 1833), and Newman another in 1866 (reissued in 1883) ;
but those who wish to know the author's views had better consult
the original. Next in order come the very inferior British Ornithology
of Graves (3 vols. 8vo, 181 1-1821), and a work with the same title
by Hunt (3 vols. 8vo, 1815-1822), published at Norwich, but never
finished. Then we have Selby's Illustrations of British Ornithology,
two folio volumes of coloured plates engraved by himself, between
1821 and 1833, with letterpress also in two volumes (8vo, 1825-1833),
a second edition of the first volume being also issued (1833), for the
author, having yielded to the pressure of the " Quinarian " doctrines
then in vogue, thought it necessary to adjust his classification
accordingly, and it must be admitted that for information the
British
Isles.
' Copies are said to exist bearing the date 1814.
TAXONOMY]
ORNITHOLOGY
311
second edition is best. In 1828 Fleming brought out his History
of British Animals (8vo), in which the birds are treated at consider-
able length (pp. 41-146), though not with great success. In 1835
Mr Jenyns (afterwards Blomefield) produced as excellent Manual
of B:itish Vertebrate Animals, a volume (8vo) executed with great
scientific skill, the birds again receiving due attention (pp. 49-286J,
and the descriptions of the various species being as accurate as they
are terse. In the same year began the Coloured Illustrations of
British Birds and their Eggs of H. L. Meyer (4tu), which was com-
pleted in 1843, whereof a .second edition (7 vols. 8vo, 1842-1850)
was brought out, and subsequently (1852-1857) a reissue of the
latter. In 1836 appeared Eyton's History of the rarer British Birds,
intended as a sequel to Bewick's well-known volumes, to which no
important additions had been made since the issue of 1 82 1. The
year 1837 saw the beginning of two remarkable works by Macgillivray
and Yarrell respectively, and each entitled A History of British
Birds. Of Yarrell's work in three volumes, a second edition was
published in 1845, a third in 1856, and a fourth, begun in 1871, and
almost wholly rewritten. Of the compilations based upon this work,
without which they could not have been composed, there is no need
to speak. One of the few appearing since, with the same scope, that
are not borrowed is Jardine's Birds of Great Britain and Ireland
(4 vols. 8vo, 1838-1843), forming part of his Naturalist's Library;
and Gould's Birds of Great Britain has been already mentioned.
The local works on English birds are too numerous to be mentioned ;
almost every county has had its ornithology recorded. Of more
recent general works there should be mentioned A. G. Butler's
British Birds with their Nests and Eggs (6 vols., 1896), the various
editions of Howard Saunders's Manual of British Birds, and Lord
Lilford's beautifully illustrated Coloured Figures of the Birds of the
British Islands (1885-1897).
Taxonomy.
The good effects of " Faunal " works such as those named in
the foregoing rapid survey none can doubt, but important as
they are, they do not of themselves constitute ornithology as
a science; and an inquiry, no less wide and far more recondite,
still remains. By whatever term we choose to call it — Classifica-
tion, Arrangement, Systematizing or Taxonomy — that inquiry
which has for its object the discovery of the natural groups into
which birds fall, and the mutual relations of those groups, has
always been one of the deepest interest. It is now for us to trace
the rise of the present more advanced school of ornithologists,
whose labours yet give signs of far greater promise.
It would probably be unsafe to place its origin further back
than a few scattered hints contained in the " Pterographische
Fragmente " of Christian Ludwig Nitzsch, published
in the Magazin fiir den neuesteti Zustand der Natur-
kunde (edited by Voigt) for May 1806 (xi. pp. 393-417), and even
these might be left to pass unnoticed, were it not that we recog-
nize in them the germ of the great work which the same admirable
zoologist subsequently accomphshed. In these " Fragments,"
apparently his earliest productions, we find him engaged on the
subject with which his name will always be especially identified,
the structure and arrangement of feathers. In the following year
another set of hints — of a kind so different that probably no one
then Hving would have thought it possible that they should ever
be brought in correlation with those of Nitzsch — are contained in a
memoir on Fishes contributed to the tenth volume of the Annales
du Museum d'histoire naturelle of Paris by fitienne
Geoff roy St-Hilaire in 1807.' Here we have it stated
as a general truth (p. 100) that young birds have the
sternum formed of five separate pieces — one in the middle, being
its keel, and two " annexes " on each side to which the ribs are
articulated — all, however, finally uniting to form the single
" breast-bone." Further on (pp. 101, 102) we find observations
as to the number of ribs which are attached to each of the
" annexes " — there being sometimes more of them articulated to
the anterior than to the posterior, and in certain forms no ribs
belonging to one, all being applied to the other. Moreover, the
author goes on to remark that in adult birds trace of the origin
of the sternum from five centres of ossification is always more or
less indicated by sutures, and that, though these sutures had been
generally regarded as ridges for the attachment of the sternal
muscles, they indeed mark the extreme points of the five primary
bony pieces of the sternum.
' In the Philosophie anaiomique (i. pp. 69-101, and especially
pp. 135, 136), which appeared in 1818, Gcoffroy St-Hilaire explained
the views ho had adopted at greater length.
Nitzsch.
k a. St
HUaire.
In 1810 appeared at Heidelberg the first volume of F.
Ticdemann's carefully-wrought Anatomic und Naturgeschichte
der Vogcl — which shows a remarkable advance upon
the work which Cuvier did in 1805, and in some respects mana
is superior to his later production of 181 7. It is, how-
ever, only noticed here on account of the numerous references
made to it by succeeding writers, for neither in this nor in the
author's second volume (not published until 1814) did he pro-
pound any systematic arrangement of the Class. More germane
to our present subject are the Osteographische Beitrdge zur
Naturgeschichte der Vogel of C. L. Nitzsch, printed at Leipzig in
1811 — a miscellaneous set of detached essays on some
pecuharities of the skeleton or portions of the skeleton
of certain birds — one of the most remarkable of which is that on
the component parts of the foot (pp. 101-105) pointing out the
aberration from the ordinary structure exhibited by the Goat-
sucker (Caprimulgus) and the Swift (Cypselus) — an aberration
which, if rightly understood, would have conveyed a warning
to those ornithological systematists who put their trust in birds'
toes for characters on which to erect a classification, that there
was in them more of importance, hidden in the integument,
than had hitherto been suspected; but the warning was of
little avail, if any, till many years had elapsed. However,
Nitzsch had not as yet seenhis way to proposing any methodical
arrangement of the various groups of birds, and it was not until
some eighteen months later that a scheme of classification in
the main anatomical was attempted.
This scheme was the work of Blasius Merrem, who, in a
communication to the Academy of Sciences of Berlin on the
loth December 181 2, which was published in its
Ahhandlungen for the following year (pp. 237-259),
set forth a Tentamen systematis naturalis avium, no less modestly
entitled than modestly executed. The attempt of Merrem must
be regarded as the virtual starting-point of the latest efforts
in Systematic Ornithology, and in that view its proposals deserve
to be stated at length. Without pledging ourselves to the
acceptance of all its details — some of which, as is only natural,
cannot be sustained with our present knowledge — it is certainly
not too much to say that Merrem's merits are almost incompar-
ably superior to those of any of his predecessors. Premising then
that the chief characters assigned by this systematist to his several
groups are drawn from almost all parts of the structure of birds,
and are supplemented by some others of their more prominent
peculiarities, we present the following abstract of his scheme: — ^
I. AVES CARINATAE.
1. Aves aereae. ^
A. Rapaces. — a. Accipitres — Vultur, Falco, Sagittarius.
b. Strix.
B. Hymenopodes. — a. Chelidoncs: a. C. nocturnae —
Caprimulgus; /3. C. diurnae —
Hirimdo.
b. Oscincs: a. O. conirostres —
Loxia, Fringilla, Emheriza, Tan-
gara; /3. O. tcnuirostres —
Alauda, Motacilla, Muscicapa,
Todus, Lanius, Ampelis, Tur-
dus, Paradisea, Buphaga, Stur-
nus, Oriolus, Gracula, Coracias.
Connis, Pipral, Parus, Sitta,
Certhiae quaedam.
C. Mellisugae. — Trochilus, Certhiae et Upupae plurimae.
D. Dendrocolaptae. — Pious, Yunx.
E. Brevilingues. — a. Upupa; b. Ispidae.
F. Levirostres. — a. Ramphastus, Scythropsl; h. Psillacus.
G. Coccyges. — Cuculus, Trogon, Bucco, Crotophaga.
2. Aves terrestres.
A. Columba.
B. Gallinae.
3. Aves aquaticae.
A. Odontorhynchi : a. Boscades — Anas; b. Mergus;
c. Phoenicopterus.
^ - ^ ^1
- The names of the genera are, he tells us, for the most part those
of Linnaeus, as being the best-known, though not the best. To some
of the Linnaean genera he dare not, however, assign a place, for
instance, Buceros, Haematopiis, Merops, Glareola (Brisson's genus,
by the by) and Palamedea.
312
ORNITHOLOGY
[TAXONOMY
B. Platyrhynchi. — Pelicanus, Phaeton, Plolus.
C. Aptenodytes.
D. Urinatrices: a. Cepphi — Alca, Colymbi pedibus
palmatis; b. Prodiceps, Colymbi pedibus lobatis.
E. Stenorhynchi. — Procellaria, Diomedea, Larus, Sterna,
Rhynchops.
4. Aves palustres.
A. Rusticolae: a. Phalarides — Rallus, Fulica, Parra;
b. Limosugae — Ntimenius, Scolopax, Tringa, Char-
adrius, Recurvirostra.
B. Grallae:a. Erodii — Ardeae ungue intermedio serrato,
Cancroma; b. Pelargi — Ciconia, Mycteria, Tantati
quidam, Scopus, Platalea; c. Gerani — Ardeae
cristatae, Grues, Psophia.
C. Otis.
II. AvES RATITAE. — Struthio.
The most novel feature, and one the importance of which
most ornithologists of the present day are fully prepared to
admit, is the separation of the class Avcs into two great divisions,
which from one of the most obvious distinctions they present
were called by its author Cariiiatae'- and Ratitae,- according as
the sternum possesses a keel (crista in the phraseology of many
anatomists) or not. But Merrem, who subsequently communi-
cated to the Academy of Berlin a more detailed memoir on
the " flat-breasted " birds,^ was careful not here to rest his
divisions on the presence or absence of their sternal character
alone. He concisely cites (p. 238) no fewer than eight other
characters of more or less value as peculiar to the Carinate
Division, the first of which is that the feathers have their barbs
furnished with hooks, in consequence of which the barbs, includ-
ing those of the wing-quills, cling closely together; while among
the rest may be mentioned the position of the furcula and
coracoids,'' which keep the wing-bones apart; the limitation of
the number of the lumbar vertebra to fifteen, and of the
carpals to two; as well as the divergent direction of the iliac
bones — the corresponding characters peculiar to the Ratite
Division being the disconnected condition of the barbs of the
feathers, through the absence of any hooks whereby they might
cohere; the non-existence of the furcula, and the coalescence
of the coracoids with the scapulae (or, as he expressed it, the
extension of the scapulae to supply the place of the coracoids,
which he thought were wanting) ; the lumbar vertebrae being
twenty and the carpals three in number; and the parallelism
of the iliac bones.
As for Merrem's partitioning of the inferior groups there is
less to be said in its praise as a whole, though credit must be
given to his anatomical knowledge for leading him to the percep-
tion of several affinities, as well as differences, that had never
before been suggested by superficial systematists. But it must
be confessed that (chiefly, no doubt, from paucity of accessible
material) he overlooked many points, both of alliance and the
opposite, which since his time have gradually come to be
admitted.
Notice has next to be taken of a Memoir on the Employment
of Sternal Characters in establishing Natural Families among
Birds, which was read by De Blainville before the
Academy of Sciences of Paris in 1815,^ but not pub-
lished in full for more than five years later (Journal
de physique . . . ei des arts, xcii. 185-215), though an
abstract forming part of a Prodrome d'une nouvelle distribution
du regne animal appeared earlier (op. cit. Ixxxiii. 252, 253,
258, 259; and Bull. soc. philomath, de Paris, 1816, p. no).
This is a very disappointing performance, since the author
observes that, notwithstanding his new classification of birds
is based on a study of the form of the sternal apparatus, yet,
because that lies wholly within the body, he is compelled to have
recourse to such outward characters as are afforded by the
' From carina, a keel.
- From rales, a raft or flat-bottomed barge.
^ " Beschrcibung des Gerippes eines Casuars nebst einigen beiliiu-
figen Bemerkungen (iber die flachbriistigen Vogel," Abhandl. der
Berlin. Akademie, Phys. Klasse (1817), pp. 179-198, tabb. i.-iii.
* Merrem, as did many others in his time, calls the coracoids
" claviculae "; but it is now well understood that in birds the real
claviculae form the furcula or " merry-thought."
' Not 1 81 2, as has sometimes been stated.
De Blain
vine.
proportion of the limbs and the disposition of the toes — even as
had been the practice of most ornithologists before him! It
is evident that the features of the sternum of which De Blainville
chiefly relied were those drawn from its posterior margin, which
no very extensive experience of specimens is needed to show are
of comparatively slight value; for the number of " echavcrures "
— notches as they have sometimes been called in English — when
they exist, goes but a very short way as a guide, and is so variable
in some very natural groups as to be even in that shoit way
occasionally misleading. '^ There is no appearance of his having
at all taken into consideration the far more trustworthy characters
furnished by the anterior part of the sternum, as well as by the
coracoids and the furcula. Still De Blainville made some advance
in a right direction, as for instance by elevating the parrots'
and the pigeons as " Ordres," equal in rank to that of the birds
of prey and some others. According to the testimony of
L'Herminier (for whom see later) he divided the " Passereatix "
into two sections, the "faux " and the " vrais "; but, while the
latter were very correctly defined, the former were most arbitrarily
separated from the " Grimpeurs." He also split his Grallatores
and Natatores (practically identical with the Grallae and A7tseres
of Linnaeus) each into four sections; but he failed to see — as
on his own principles he ought to have seen — that each of these
sections was at least equivalent to almost any one of his other
" Ordres." He had, however, the courage to act up to his own
professions in collocating the rollers (Coracias) with the bee-
eaters (M crops), ahd had the sagacity to surmise that Menura
was not a Gallinaceous bird. The greatest benefit conferred by
this memoir is probably that it stimulated the efforts, presently
to be mentioned, of one of his pupils, and that it brought more
distinctly into sight that other factor, originally discovered by
Merrem, of which it now clearly became the duty of systematizers
to take cognizance.
Following the chronological order we are here adopting, we
next have to recur to the labours of Nitzsch, who, in 1820, in
a treatise on the nasal glands of birds — a subject that ^.
had already attracted the attention of Jacobson
(Nouv. Bull. soc. philomath, de. Paris, iii. 267-269) — first put
forth in Meckel's Deutschcs Arcliiv fUr die Physiologic (vi. 251-
260) a statement of his general views on ornithological classifica-
tion which were based on a comparative examination of those
bodies in various forms. It seems unnecessary here to occupy
space by giving an abstract of his plan,* which hardly includes
any but European species, because it was subsequently elaborated
with no inconsiderable modifications in a way that must presently
be mentioned at greater length. But the scheme, crude as it was,
possesses some interest. It is not only a key to much of his
later work — to nearly all indeed that was published in his life-
time — but in it are founded several definite groups (for example,
Passerinae and Picariae) that subsequent experience has shown
to be more or less natural; and it further serves as additional
evidence of the breadth of his views, and his trust in the teachings
of anatomy.
That Nitzsch took this extended view is abundantly proved
by the valuable series of ornithotomical observations which he
must have been for some time accumulating, and almost immedi-
ately afterwards began to contribute to the younger Naumann's
excellent Naturgeschichte der Vogel Dcutschlands, already noticed
above. Besides a concise general treatise on the organization of
birds to be found in the Introduction to this work (i. 23-52), a
brief description from Nitzsch's pen of the peculiarities of the
internal structure of nearly every genus is incorporated with the
author's prefatory remarks, as each passed under consideration,
' Cf. Philos. Transactions (l86g), p. 337, note.
' This view of them had been long before taken by Willughby,
but abandoned by all later authors.
' This plan, having been repeated by Schcipss in 1829 (op. cit. xii.
p. 73). became known to Sir R. Owen in 1835, who then drew to it
the attention of Kirby (Seventh Bridgewater Treatise, n. pp. 444, 445).
and in the next year referred to it in his own article" Aves " in
Todd's Cyclopaedia of Anatomy (i. p. 266), so that Englishmen need
no excuse for not being aware of one of Nitzsch's labours, though
his more advanced work of 1829, presently to be mentioned, was not
referred to by Sir R. Owen.
TAXONOMY]
ORNITHOLOGY
313
and these descriptions being almost without exception so drawn
up as to be comparative are accordingly of great utility to
the student of classification, though they have been so greatly
neglected. Upon these descriptions he was still engaged till
death, in 1837, put an end to his labours, when his place as
Naumann's assistant for the remainder of the work was taken by
Rudolph Wagner; but, from time to time, a few more, which
he had already completed, made their posthumous appearance
in it, and, in subsequent years, some selections from his unpub-
lished papers were through the care of Giebel presented to the
public. Throughout the whole of this series the same marvellous
industry and scrupulous accuracy are manifested, and attentive
study of it will show how many times Nitzsch anticipated the
conclusions of modern taxonomers. Yet over and over again
his determination of the affinities of several groups even of
European birds was disregarded; and his labours, being con-
tained in a bulky and costly work, were hardly known at all
outside of his own country, and within it by no means appreciated
so much as they deserved ' — for even Naumann himself, who
gave them publication, and was doubtless in some degree
influenced by them, utterly failed to perceive the importance
of the characters offered by the song-muscles of certain groups,
though their peculiarities were all duly described and recorded
by his coadjutor, as some indeed had been long before by Cuvier
in his famous dissertation ^ on the organs of voice in birds
{LcQons d'anatomic comparee, iv. 450-491). Nitzsch's name was
subsequently dismissed by Cuvier without a word of praise, and
in terms which would have been applicable to many another and
inferior author, while Temminck, terming Naumann's work an
" ouvrage dc luxe " — it being in truth one of the cheapest for its
contents ever published — effectually shut it out from the realms
of science. In Britain it seems to have been positively unknown
until quoted some years after its completion by a catalogue-
compiler on account of some peculiarities of nomenclature
which it presented.
Now we must return to France, where, in 1827, L'Herminier,
a Creole of Guadaloupe and a pupil of De BlainvLUe's, contributed
to the Aclcs of the Linnaean Society of Paris for
mlale'r. ^^^^ X^^"" ('^i- 3"93) 'he " Recherches sur I'appareil
sternal des Oiseaux," which the precept and example
of his master had prompted him to undertake, and Cuvier
had found for him the means of executing. A second and
considerably enlarged edition of this very remarkable treatise
was published as a separate work in the following year. We
have already seen that De Blainville, though fully persuaded
of the great value of sternal features as a method of classification,
had been compelled to fall back upon the old pedal characters
so often employed before; but now the scholar had learnt to
excel his teacher, and not only to form an at least provisional
arrangement of the various members of the Class, based on
sternal characters, but to describe these characters at some
length, and so give a reason for the faith that was in him. There
is no evidence, so far as we can see, of his having been aware
of Merrem's views; but like that anatomist he without hesitation
divided the class into two great " coupes," to which he gave,
however, no other names than " Oiseaux normaux " and " Oiseaux
anomaux " — exactly corresponding with his predecessor's
Carinatae and Ralilae — and, moreover, he had a great advantage
in founding these groups, since he had discovered, apparently
from his own investigations, that the mode of ossification in each
was distinct; for hitherto the statement of there being five
centres of ossification in every bird's sternum seems to have
been accepted as a general truth, without contradiction, whereas
in the ostrich and the rhea, at any rate, L'Herminier found that
there were but two such primitive points,' and from analogy
' Their value was, however, understood by Gloger, who in 1834,
as will presently be seen, expressed his regret at not being able to
use them.
' Cuvier's first observations on the subject seem to have appeared
in the Magazin encyclopcdiqice for 1795 (ii. pp. 330, 358).
^ This fact in the ostrich appears to have been known already to
Geoffroy St-Hilaire from his own observation in Egypt, but does not
seem to have been published by him.
he judged that the same would be the case with the casso-
wary and the emeu, which, with the two forms mentioned
above, made up the whole of the " Oiseaux anomaux " whose
existence was then generally acknowledged.* These are the forms
which composed the family previously termed Cur sores by De
Blainville; but L'Herminier was able to distinguish no fewer
than thirty-four families of " Oiseaux normaux," and the
judgment with which their separation and definition were effected
must be deemed on the whole to be most creditable to him. It
is to be remarked, however, that the wealth of the Paris Museum,
which he enjoyed to the full, placed him in a situation incompar-
ably more favourable for arriving at results than that which
was occupied by Merrem, to whom many of the most remarkable
forms were wholly unknown, while L'Herminier had at his
disposal examples of nearly every type then known to exist.
But the latter used this privilege wisely and well — not, after
the manner of De Blainville and others subsequent to him,
relying solely or even chiefly on the character afforded by the
posterior portion of the sternum, but taking also into considera-
tion those of the anterior, as well as of the in some cases still
more important characters presented by the pre-sternal bones,
such as the furcula, coracoids and scapulae. L'Herminier thus
separated the families of " Normal Birds ": —
1. " Accipitres " — Accipitres,
Linn.
2. " Serpentaires " — Cypogera-
nus, Illiger.
3. " Chouettcs " — Strix, Linn.
4. "Touracos" — Opaelus,
Vieillot.
5. " Perroquets " — Psitlacus,
Linn.
6. " Colibris " — Trochilus, Linn.
7. "Martinets" — Cy/Jie/wj, Illi-
ger.
8. " Engoulevents " — Capri-
midgus, Linn.
9. " Coucous " — Cuculus, Linn.
10. "Couroucous" — rrogo«,Linn.
11. " Rolliers " — Calgidus, Bris-
son.
12. " Guepiers " — Merops, Linn.
"Martins-Pecheurs" — Alcedo,
Linn.
" Calaos " — Buceros, Linn.
" Toucans " — Ramphastos,
Linn.
" Pies " — Picus, Linn.
" Epopsides " — Epopsides,
Vieillot.
13-
14.
15-
16.
17.
18.
" Passereaux " — Passeres,
Linn.
19-
" Pigeons " — Columba, Linn.
20.
" Gallinac6s " — Gallinacea.
21.
" Tinamous " — Tinamus,
Latham.
22.
" Foulques ou Poules d'eau "
— Fulica, Linn.
23-
" Grucs " — Grus, Pallas.
24.
" Herodions " — Ilerodii, llli-
25-
26.
27-
28.
29.
30.
31-
32-
33-
34-
ger.
No name given, but said to
include " les ibis et les
spatules."
" Gralles ou fichassiers " —
Grallae.
Mouettes " — Larus, Linn.
" Petrels" — ProceilariaXAnn.
" Pelicans" — Pelecanus, Linn.
Canards " — Anas, Linn.
"Grebes" — P odice ps,
Latham.
" Plongeons " — Colymbus,
Latham.
" Pingouins " — yl /fa, Latham.
" Manchots " — Aptenodytes,
Forster.
The preceding list is given to show the very marked agreement
of L'Herminier's results compared with those obtained fifty
years later by another investigator, who approached the subject
from an entirely different, though still osteological, basis. Many
of the excellencies of L'Herminier's method could not be pointed
out without too great a sacrifice of space, because of the details
into which it would be necessary to enter; but the trenchant
way in which he showed that the " Passereaux " — a group
of which Cuvier had said, " Son caractere semble d'abord
purement negatif," and had then failed to define the limits —
differed so completely from every other assemblage, while
maintaining among its own innumerable members an almost
perfect essential homogeneity, is very striking, and shows how
admirably he could grasp his subject. Not less conspicuous
are his merits in disposing of the groups of what are ordinarily
known as water-birds, his indicating the affinity of the rails
(No. 22) to the cranes (No. 2^), and the severing of the latter
from the herons (No. 24). His union of the snipes, sandpipers
and plovers into one group (No. 26) and the alliance, especially
dwelt upon, of that group with the gulls (No. 27) are steps
which, though indicated by Merrem, are here for the first time
clearly laid down; and the separation of the gulls from the
petrels (No. 28) — step in advance already taken, it is true,
by Illiger — is here placed on indefeasible ground. With aU this,
perhaps on account of all this, L'Herminier's efforts did not
^ Considerable doubts were at that time entertained in Paris as
to the existence of the Apteryx.
3H
ORNITHOLOGY
[TAXONOMY
find favour with his scientific superiors, and for the time things
remained as though his investigations had never been carried on.
Two years later Nitzsch, who was indefatigable in his endeavour
to discover the natural families of birds and had been pursuing
a series of researches into their vascular system,
NItzsch's .
grouplag. pubUshed the result, at HaLle in Saxony, in his Obscrva-
tioncs de avium arkria carotide cominuni, in which
is included a classification drawn up in accordance with the
variation of structure which that important vessel presented
in the several groups that he had opportunities of examining.
By this time he had visited several of the principal museums
on the Continent, among others Leyden (where Temminck
resided) and Paris (where he had frequent intercourse with
Cuvier), thus becoming acquainted with a considerable number
of exotic forms that had hitherto been inaccessible to him. Con-
sequently his labours had attained to a certain degree of complete-
ness in this direction, and it may therefore be expedient here
to name the different groups which he thus thought himself
entitled to consider estabUshed. They are as follows: —
I. AvES Carinatae [L'H. " Oiseaux normaux "].
A. Aves Carinatae aereae.
I. Accipitrinae [L'H. i, 2 partirn, 3I; 2. Passerinae [L'H. 18]; 3.
Macrockires [L'H. 6, /[; 4. Cuculinae [L'H. 8, 9, 10 (qu. 11,
I2?)|; 5. Picinae [L'H. 15, 16]; 6. Psittacinae [L'H. 5]; 7.
Lipoglossae [L'H. 13, 14, 17]; 8. Amphibolae [L'H. 4].
B. Aves Carinatae terrestres.
I. Columbinae [L'H. 19I; 2. Gallinaceae [L'H. 20].
C. Aves Carinatae aquaticae.
Grallae.
I. Alectorides { = Dicholophus+Otis) [L'H. 2 partim, 26 partim];
2. Gruinae [L'H. 23]; 3. Ftdicariae [L'H. 22I; 4. Herodiae
[L'H. 24 partiml; 5. Pelargi [L'H. 24 partim, 25]; 6. Odonto-
glossi { = Phoemcopterus) [L'H. 26 partim]; 7. Limicolae [L'H.
26 paene omnes].
Palmatae.
8. Longipennes [L'H. 27]; 9. Nasulae [L'H. 28]; 10. Unguirostres
[L'H. 30]; II. Steganopodes [L'H. 29]; 12. Pygopodes [L'H.
31. 32. 33. 34l-
n. Aves Ratitae [L'H. " Oiseaux anomaux "].
To enable the reader to compare the several groups of Nitzsch
with the families of L'Herminier, the numbers applied by the
latter to his families are suffixed in square brackets to the
names of the former; and, disregarding the order of sequence,
which is here immaterial, the essential correspondence of the
two systems is worthy of all attention, for it obviously means
that these two investigators, starting from different points,
must have been on the right track, when they so often coincided
as to the limits of what they considered to be, and what we
are now almost justified in calling, natural groups.' But it
must be observed that the classification of Nitzsch, just given,
rests much more on characters furnished by the general structure
than on those furnished by the carotid artery only. Among
all the species (188, he tells us, in number) of which he examined
specimens, he found only four variations in the structure of that
vessel, namely: —
1. That in which both a right carotid artery and a left are
present. This is the most usual fashion among the various groups
of birds, including all the "aerial " forms excepting Passerinae,
Macrockires and Picinae.
2. That in which there is but a single carotid artery, springing
from both right and left trunk, but the branches soon coalescing,
to take a midway course, and again dividing near the head. This
form Nitzsch was only able to find in the bittern (Ardca stellaris).
' Whether Nitzsch was cognizant of L'Herminier's views is in no
way apparent. The latter's name seems not to be even mentioned by
him, but Nitzsch was in Paris in the summer of 1827, and it is almost
impossible that he should not have heard of L'Herminier's labours,
unless the relations between the followers of Cuvier to whom Nitzsch
attached himself, and those of De Blainville, whose pupil J^'Hermi-
nier was, were such as to forbid any communication between the
rival schools. Yet we have L'Herminier's evidence that Cuvier gave
him every assistance. Nitzsch's silence, both on this occasion and
afterwards, is very curious; but he cannot be accused of plagiarism,
for the scheme given above is only an amplification of that fore-
shadowed by him (as already mentioned) in 1820 — a scheme which
seems to have been equally unknown to L'Herminier, perhaps
through linguistic difficulty.
3. That in which the right carotid artery alone is present,,
of which, according to our author's experience, the flamingo
{Phocnicoptcrus) was the sole example.,
4. That in which the left carotid artery alone exists, as found
in all other birds examined by Nitzsch, and therefore as regards
species and individuals much the most common — since into
this category come the countless thousands of the passerine
birds — a group which outnumbers all the rest put together.
Considering the enormous stride in advance made by L'Herminier,
it is very disappointing for the historian to have to record that the
next inquirer into the osteology of bird? achieved a nerthoU
disastrous failure in his attempt to throw light on their
arrangement by means of a comparison of their sternum. This
was Berthold, who devoted a long chapter of his Beitrdge zur Ana-
tomie, published at Gcittingen in 1831, to a consideration of the
subject. So far as his introductory chapter went — the development
of the sternum — he was, for his time, right enough and somewhat
instructive. It was only when, after a close examination of the
sternal apparatus of one hundred and thirty species, which he
carefully described, that he arrived (pp. 177-183) at the conclusion —
astonishing to us who know of L'Herminier's previous results — that
the sternum of birds cannot be used as a help to their classification
on account of the egregious anomalies that would follow the pro-
ceeding — such anomalies, for instance, as the separation of Cypselus
from Hirundo and its alliance with Trochilus, and the grouping of
Hirundo and Fringilla together.
At the very beginning of the year 1832 Cuvier laid before the
Academy of Sciences of Paris a memoir on the progress of ossifi-
cation in the sternum of birds, of which memoir an
abstract will be found in the Annates dcs sciences and
naturellcs (xxv. pp. 260-272). Herein he traced in Oeoffroy.
detail, illustrating his statements by the preparations
he exhibited, the progress of ossification in the sternum of the
fowl and of the duck, pointing out how it differed in each, and
giving his interpretation of the differences. It had hitherto been
generally believed that the mode of ossification in the fowl was
that which obtained in all birds — the ostrich and its allies
(as L'Herminier, we have seen, had already shown) excepted.
But it was now made to appear that the struthious birds in this
respect resembled, not only the duck, but a great many other
groups — waders, birds-of-prey, pigeons, passerines and perhaps all
birds not gallinaceous — so that, according to Cuvier's view, the five
points of ossification observed in the Gallinae, instead of exhibiting
the normal process, exhibited one quite exceptional, and that in
all other birds, so far as he had been enabled to investigate the
matter, ossification of the sternum began at two points only,
situated near the anterior upper margin of the side of the sternum,
and graduaOy crept towards the keel, into which it presently
extended; and, though he allowed the appearance of detached
portions of calcareous matter at the base of the stdl cartilaginous
keel in ducks at a certain age, he seemed to consider this an
individual peculiarity. This fact was fastened upon by Geoffroy
in his reply, which was a week later presented to the Academy,
but was not published in full until the foUowng year, when
it appeared in the Annates du Museum (ser. 3, ii. pp. 1-22).
Geoffroy here maintained that the five centres of ossification
existed in the duck just as in the fowl, and that the real difference
of the process lay in the period at which they made their appear-
ance, a circumstance which, though virtually proved by the
preparations Cuvier had used, had been by him overlooked or
misinterpreted. The fowl possesses all five ossifications at birth,
and for a long while the middle piece forming the keel is by far
the largest. They all grow slowly, and it is not until the animal
is about six months old that they are united into one firm bone.
The duck, on the other hand, when newly hatched, and for nearly
a month after, has the sternum whoUy cartilaginous. Then, it is
true, two lateral points of ossification appear at the margin,
but subsequently the remaining three are developed, and when
once formed they grow with much greater rapidity than in the
fowl, so that by the time the young duck is quite independent of
its parents, and can shift for itself, the whole sternum is com-
pletely bony. Nor, argued Geoffroy, was it true to say, as
Cuvier had said, that the like occurred in the pigeons and true
passerines. In their case the sternum begins to ossify from three
very distinct points — one of which is the centre of ossification of
TAXONOMY]
ORNITHOLOGY
315
the keel. As regards the struthious birds, they could not be
likened to the duck, for in them at no age was there any indica-
tion of a single median centre of ossification, as Geoffroy had
satisfied himself by his own observations made in Egypt many
years before. Cuvier seems to have acquiesced in the corrections
of his views made by Geoffroy, and attempted no rejoinder; but
the attentive and impartial student of the discussion will see that
a good deal was really wanting to make the latter's reply effective,
though, as events have shown, the former was hasty in the con-
clusions at which he arrived, having trusted too much to the
first appearance of centres of ossification, for, had his observa-
tions in regard to other birds been carried on with the same
attention to detail as in regard to the fowl, he would certainly
have reached some very different results.
In 1834 C. W. L. Gloger brought out at Breslau the first (and
unfortunately the only) part of a Vollsldndiges Handbuch der Nalur-
. geschichie der Vogel Europa's, treating of the land-birds.
Uoger. |j^ jj^p Introduction to this book (p. xxxviii., note) he
expressed his regret at not being able to use as fully as he could
wish the excellent researches of Nitzsch which were then appearing
(as has been above said) in the successive parts of Naumann's great
work. Notwithstanding this, to Gloger seems to belong the credit
of being the first author to avail himself in a book intended for
practical ornithologists of the new light that had already been shed
on Systematic Ornithology; and accordingly we have the second
order of his arrangement, the Aves Passerinae, divided into two
suborders: singing passerines (melodusae) , and passerines without
an apparatus of song-muscles (anomalae) — the latter including what
some later writers called Picariae. For the rest his classification
demands no particular remark; but that in a work of this kind he
had the courage to recognize, for instance, such a fact as the essential
difference between swallows and swifts lifts him considerably above
the crowd of other ornithological writers of his time.
An improvement on the old method of classification by purely
external characters was introduced to the Academy of Sciences of
Stockholm byC. J. Sundevall in 1835, and was published
Suadevall. j]^^ following year in its Uandlingar (pp. 43-130). This
was the foundation of a more extensive work of which, from
the influence it still exerts, it will be necessary to treat later at
some length, and there will be no need now to enter much into
details respecting the earlier performance. It is sufficient here to
remark that the author, even then a man of great erudition, must
have been aware of the turn which taxonomy was taking; but, not
being able to divest himself of the older notion that external
characters were superior to those furnished by the study of
internal structure, and that Comparative Anatomy, instead of being
a part of zoology, was something distinct from it, he seems to have
endeavoured to form a scheme which, while not running wholly
counter to the teachings of Comparative Anatomists, should yet
rest ostensibly on external characters. With this view he studied
the latter most laboriously, and in some measure certainly not
without success, for he brought into prominence several points that
had hitherto escaped the notice of his predecessors. He also ad-
mitted among his characteristics a physiological consideration
(apparently derived from Oken ') dividing the class Aves into two
sections Allrices and Praecoces, according as the young were fed by
their parents or, from the first, fed themselves. But at this time he
was encumbered with the hazy doctrine of analogies, which, if it
did not act to his detriment, was assuredly of no service to him.
He prefixed an " Idea Systcmatis " to his " Expositio "; and the
former, which appears to represent his real opinion, differs in arrange-
ment very considerably from the latter. Like Gloger, Sundevall
in his ideal system separated the true passerines from all other birds,
calling them Volucres; but he took a step further, for he assigned
to them the highest rank, wherein nearly every recent authority
agrees with him; out of them, however, he chose the thrushes and
warblers to stand first as his ideal " Centrum " — a selection which,
though in the opinion of the present writer erroneous, is still largely
followed.
The points at issue between Cuvier and fitienne Geoffroy
St-Hilaire before mentioned naturally attracted the attention
L'Her- "^ L'Herminier, who in 1836 presented to the French
mlaler anil Academy the results of his researches into the mode
Isidore of growth of that bone which in the adult bird he had
Geoffroy already studied to such good purpose. Unfortunately
* • the full account of his diligent investigations was
never published. We can best judge of his labours from an
abstract reprinted in the Cmnptes rcndus (iii. pp. 12-20) and
reprinted in the Annates des sciences naturelles (ser. 2, vol. vi. pp.
107-115), and from the report upon them by Isidore Geoffroy
' He says from Oken's Nalurgeschichte fiir Schulen, published in
182 1, but the division is to be found in that author's earlier Lehrbuch
der Zoologie (ii. p. 371), which appeared in 1816.
St-Hilaire, to whom with others they were referred. This report
is contained in the Comptes rcndus for the following year (iv. pp.
565-574), and is very critical in its character.
L'Herminier arrived at the conclusion that, so far from there
being only two or three different modes by which the process of
ossification in the sternum is carried out, the number of different
modes is very considerable — almost citch natural group of birds
having its own. The principal theory which he hence conceived
himself justified in propounding was that instead of five being (as
had been stated) the maximum number of centres of ossification in
the sternum, there are no fewer than nine entering into the com-
]josition of the perfect sternum of birds in general, though in every
siiucics some of these nine are wanting, whatever be the con<lition
of development at the time of examination. These nine theoretical
centres or " pieces " L'Herminier deemed to be disposed in three
transverse series {rangees), namely the anterior or " prosternal,"
the middle or " mesosternal " and the posterior or " metasternal "
— each series consisting of three portions, one median piece and two
side-pieces. At the same time he seems, according to the abstract
of his memoir, to have made the somewhat contradictory assertion
that sometimes there are more than three pieces in each series, and
in certain groups of birds as many as six.- It would occupy more
space than can here be allowed to give even the briefest abstract of
the numerous observations which follow the statement of his theory
and on which it professedly rests. They extend to more than a
score of natural groups of birds, and nearly each of them presents
some peculiar characters. Thus of the first series of pieces he says
that when all exist they may be developed simultaneously, or that
the two side-pieces may precede the median, or again that the
median may precede the side-pieces — according to the group of
birds, but that the second mode is much the commonest. The same
variations are observable in the second or middle series, but its
side-pieces are said to exist in all groups of birds without exception.
As to the third or posterior series, when it is complete the three
constituent pieces are developed almost simultaneously; but its
median piece is said often to originate in two, which soon unite,
especially when the side-pieces are wanting. By way of examples
of L'Herminier's observations, what he says of the two groups that
had been the subject of Cuvier's and the elder Geoffrey's contest
may be mentioned. In the Gallinae the five well-known pieces or
centres of ossification are said to consist of the two side-pieces of
the second or middle series, and the three of the posterior. On two
occasions, however, there was found in addition, what may be
taken for a representation of the first series, a little " noyau " situated
between the coracoids — forming the only instance of all three series
being present in the same bird. As regards the ducks, L'Herminier
agreed with Cuvier that there are commonly only two centres of
ossification — the side-pieces of the middle series; but as these grow
to meet one another a distinct median " noyau," also of the same
series, sometimes appears, which soon forms a connexion with each
of them. In the ostrich and its allies no trace of this median centre
of ossification ever occurs; but with these exceptions its existence
is invariable in all other birds. Here the matter must be left; but
it is undoubtedly a subject which demands further investigation,
and naturally any future investigator of it should consult the
abstract of L'Herminier's memoir and the criticisms upon it of the
younger Geoffroy.
Hitherto our attention has been given wholly to Germany and
France, for the chief ornithologists of Britain were occupying
themselves at this time in a very useless way — not
but that there were several distinguished men who were ^^^
paying due heed at this time to the internal structure
of birds, and some excellent descriptive memoirs on special forms
had appeared from their pens, to say nothing of more than one
general treatise on ornithic anatomy.' Yet no one in Britain
' We shall perhaps be justified in assuming that this apparent
inconsistency, and others which present themselves, would be
explicable if the whole memoir with the necessary illustrations had
been published.
' Sir Richard Owen's celebrated article " Aves," in Todd's
Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology (i. pp. 265-358), appeared in
1836, and. as giving a general view of the structure of birds, needs
no praise here; but its object was not to establish a classification,
or throw light especially on systematic arrangement. So far from
that being the case, its distinguished author was content to adopt,
as he tells us, the arrangement proposed by Kirby in the Sr^'enth
Bridgewater Treatise (ii. pp. 445-474), being that, it is true, of an
estimable zoologist, but of one who had no special knowledge of
ornithology. Indeed it is, as the latter says, that of Linnaeus,
improved by Cuvier, with an additional modification of Illiger's —
all these three authors having totally ignored any but external
characters. Yet it was regarded " as being the one which facilitates
the expression of the leading anatomical differences which obtain
in the class of birds, and which therefore may be considered as the
most natural."
3i6
ORNITHOLOGY
[TAXONOMY
seems to have attempted to found any scientific arrangement of
birds on other than external characters until, in 1837, William
Macgillivray issued the first volume of his History of British
Birds, wherein, though professing (p. 19) " not to add a new
system to the many already in partial use, or that have passed
away like their authors," he propounded (pp. 16-18) a scheme for
classifying the birds of Europe at least founded on a " considera-
tion of the digestive organs, which merit special attention, on
account, not so much of their great importance in the economy
of birds, as the nervous, vascular and other systems are not
behind them in this respect; but because, exhibiting great
diversity of form and structure, in accordance with the nature
of the food, they are more obviously qualified to afford a basis
for the classification of the numerous species of birds " (p. 52).
Fuller knowledge has shown that Macgillivray was ill-advised in
laying stress on the systematic value of adaptive characters, but
his contributions to anatomy were valuable, and later investi-
gators, in particular H. Gadow and P. Chalmers Mitchell, have
shown that useful systematic information can be obtained from
the study of the alimentary canal. Macgillivray himself it was,
apparently, who first detected the essential difference of the
organs of voice presented by some of the New-World Passerines
(subsequently known as C/araa/orci), and the earliest intimation
of this seems to be given in his anatomical description of the
Arkansas Flycatcher, Tyrannus verticalis, which was published
in 1838 (Ornithol. Biography, iv. p. 425), though it must be
admitted that he did not — because he then could not — perceive
the bearing of their difference, which was reserved to be shown by
the investigation of a still greater anatomist, and of one who had
fuller facilities for research, and thereby almost revolutionized,
as will presently be mentioned, the views of systematists as to
this order of birds. There is only space here to say that the
second volume of Macgillivray's work was published in 1839,
and the third in 1840; but it was not until 1S52 that the author,
in broken health, found an opportunity of issuing the fourth and
fifth. His scheme of classification, being as before stated partial,
need not be given in detail. Its great merit is that it proved
the necessity of combining another and hitherto much-neglected
factor in any natural arrangement, though vitiated as so many
other schemes have been by being based wholly on one class of
characters.
But a bolder attempt at classification was that made in 1838
by Blyth in the New Series (Charlesworth's) of the Magazine of
Natural History (ii. pp. 256-268, 314-319, 351-361,
^ ' 420-426, 589-601; iii. pp. 76-84). It was limited,
however, to what he called Insessores, being the group upon
which that name had been conferred by Vigors (Trans. Linn.
Society, xiv. p. 405) in 1823, with the addition, however, of his
Raptorcs, and it will be unnecessary to enter into particulars
concerning it, though it is as equally remarkable for the insight
shown by the author into the structure of birds as for the philo-
soohical breadth of his view, which comprehends almost every
kind of character that had been at that time brought forward.
It is plain that Blyth saw, and perhaps he was the first to see it,
that geographical distribution was not unimportant in suggesting
the affinities and differences of natural groups (pp. 258, 259);
and, undeterred by the precepts and practice of the hitherto
dominant English school of Ornithologists, he declared that
" anatomy, when aided by every character which the manner of
propagation, the progressive changes, and other physiological
data supply, is the only sure basis of classification." He was
quite aware of the taxonomic value of the vocal organs of some
groups of birds, presently to be especially mentioned, and he had
himself ascertained the presence and absence of caeca in a not
inconsiderable number of groups, drawing thence very justifiable
inferences. He knew at least the earlier investigations of
L'Herminier, and, though the work of Nitzsch, even if he had
ever heard of it, must (through ignorance of the language in
which it was written) have been to him a sealed book, he had
followed out and extended the hints already given by Temminck
as to the differences which various groups of birds display in their
moult. With all this it is not surprising to find, though the fact has
Bartlett.
been generally overlooked, that Blyth's proposed arrangement
in many points anticipated conclusions that were subsequently
reached, and were then regarded as fresh discoveries. It is proper
to add that at this time the greater part of his work was
carried on in conjunction with A. Bartlett, the superin-
tendent of the London Zoological Society's Gardens, and that,
without his assistance, Blyth'sopportunities,slenderasthey were
compared with those which others have enjoyed, must have been
still smaller. Considering the extent of their materials, which was
limited to the bodies of such animals as they could obtain from
dealers and the several menageries that then existed in or near
London, the progress made in what has since proved to be the
right direction is very wonderful. It is obvious that both these
investigators had the genius for recognizing and interpreting the
value of characters; but their labours do not seem to have met
with much encouragement ; and a general arrangement of the class
laid by Blyth before the Zoological Society at this time ' does not
appear in its publications. The scheme could hardly fail to be
a crude performance — a fact which nobody would know better
than its author; but it must have presented much that was
objectionable to the opinions then generally prevalent. Its line
to some extent may be partly made out — very clearly, for the
matter of that, so far as its details have been pubhshed in the
series of papers to which reference has been given — and some
traces of its features are probably preserved in his Catalogue of
the specimens of birds in the museum of the Asiatic Society
of Bengal, which, after several years of severe labour, made its
appearance at Calcutta in 1849; but, from the time of his
arrival in India, the onerous duties imposed upon Blyth, together
with the want of sufficient books of reference, seem to have
hindered him from seriously continuing his former researches,
which, interrupted as they were, and born out of due time, had
no appreciable effect on the views of systematisers generally.
Next must be noticed a series of short treatises communicated
by Johann Friedrich Brandt, between the years 1836 and 1839, to
the Academy of Sciences of St Petersburg, and published _ .
in its Memoires. In the year last mentioned the greater '"*" '
part of these was separately issued under the title of Beitrdge zur
Kenntniss der Naturgeschichte der Vogel. Herein the author first
assigned anatomical reasons for rearranging the order Anseres of
Linnaeus and Natatores of lUiger, who, so long before as 181 1, had
proposed a new distribution of it into six families, the definitions of
which, as was his wont, he had drawn from external characters only.
Brandt now retained very nearly the same arrangement as his
predecessor; but, notwithstanding that he could trust to the
firmer foundation of internal framework, he took at least two retro-
grade steps. First he failed to see the great structural difference
between the penguins (which Illiger had placed as a group, Impennes,
of equal rank to his other families) and the auks, divers and grebes,
Pygopodes — combining all of them to form a " Typus " (to use his
term) Urinalores; and secondly he admitted among the Natatores,
though as a distinct " Typus " Podoidae, the genera Podoa and
Fulica, which are now known to belong to the Rallidae — the latter
indeed (see Coot) being but very slightly removed from the moor-
hen (q.v.). At the same time he corrected the error made by Illiger in
associating the Phalaropes with these forms, rightly declaring
their relationship to Tringa (see Sandpiper), a point of order which
other systematists were long in admitting. On the whole Brandt's
labours were of no small service in asserting the principle that con-
sideration must be paid to osteology; for his position was such as
to gain more attention to his views than some of his less favourably
placed brethren had succeeded in doing.
In the same year (1839) another slight advance was made in the
classification of the true Passerines. Keyserling and Blasius briefly
pointed out in the Archiv fiir Naturgeschichte (v. pp. 332-
334) that, while all the other birds provided with pcrtect
song-muscles had the " planta " or hind part of the
" tarsus " covered with two long and undivided horny
plates, the larks {q.v.) had this part divided by many transverse
sutures, so as to be scutellated behind as well as in front; just as
is the case in many of the passerines which have not the singing-
apparatus, and also in the hoopoe (q.v.). The importance of this
singular but superficial departure from the normal structure has
been so needlessly exaggerated as a character that at the present
time its value is apt to be unduly depreciated. In so large and so
homogeneous a group as that of the true I^asserines, a constant
' An abstract is contained in the Minute-book of the Scientific
Meetings of the Zoological Society, 26th June and loth July 1838.
The class was to contain fifteen orders, but only three were dealt
with in any detail.
KeyserllBg
and
Bfaslus.
TAXONOMY]
ORNITHOLOGY
317
NItzsch.
Bur-
melster.
character of this kind is not to be despised as a practical mode of
separating the birds which possess it; and, more than this, it would
appear that the discovery thus announced was the immediate means
of leading to a series of investigations of a much more important
and lasting nature — those of Johannes MuUer to be presently
mentioned.
Again we must recur to that indefatigable and most original
investigator Nitzsch, who, having never intermitted his study of
the particular subject of his first contribution to
science, long ago noticed, in 1833 brought out at
Halle, where he was professor of Zoology, an essay with the title
Pterylographiae Avium Pars prior. It seems that this was
issued as much with the object of inviting assistance from others
in view of future labours, since the materials at his disposal were
comparatively scanty, as with that of making known the results
to which his researches had already led him. Indeed, he only
communicated copies of this essay to a few friends, and examples
of it are comparatively scarce. Moreover, he stated subsequently
that he thereby hoped to excite other naturalists to share with him
the investigations he was making on a subject which had hitherto
escaped notice or had been wholly neglected, since he considered
that he had proved the disposition of the feathered tracts in the
plumage of birds to be the means of furnishing characters for the
discrimination of the various natural groups as significant and
important as they were new and unexpected. There was no need
for us here to quote this essay in its chronological place, since it
dealt only with the generalities of the subject, and did not enter
upon any systematic details. These the author reserved for a
second treatise which he was destined never to complete. He
kept on diligenlly collecting materials, and as he did so was con-
strained to modify some of the statements he had published.
He consequently fell into a state of doubt, and before he could
make up his mind on some questions which he deemed important
he was overtaken by death.' Then his papers were handed over
to his friend and successor Professor Burmeister, now
and for many years past of Buenos Aires, who, with
much skill, elaborated from them the excellent work
known asNitzsch's Ptcrylograpliie, which was published at Halle
in 1840, and translated into English for the Ray Society in 1867.
There can be no doubt that Professor Burmeister discharged his
editorial duty with the most conscientious scrupulosity; but,
from what has been just said, it is certain that there were im-
portant points on which Nitzsch was as yet undecided — some of
them perhaps of which no trace appeared in his manuscripts,
and therefore as in every case of works posthumously published,
unless (as rarely happens) they have received their author's
" imprimatur," they cannot be implicitly trusted as the expression
of his final views. It would consequently be unsafe to ascribe
positively all that appears in this volume to the result of Nitzsch's
mature consideration. JMoreover, as Professor Burmeister
states in his preface, Nitzsch by no means regarded the natural
sequence of groups as the highest problem of the systematist,
but rather their correct limitation. Again, the arrangement
followed in the Ptcrylographie was of course based on pterylo-
graphical considerations, and we have its author's own word for
it that he was persuaded that the limitation of natural groups
could only be attained by the most assiduous research into the
ispecies of which they are composed from every point of view.
The combination of these three facts will of itself explain some
defects, or even retrogressions, observable in Nitzsch's later
systematic work when compared with that which he had
formerly done. On the other hand, some manifest improvements
are introduced, and the abundance of details into which he
enters in his Ptcrylographie render it far more instructive and
valuable than the older performance. As an abstract of that
has already been given, it may be sufficient here to point out the
chief changes made in his newer arrangement. To begin with,
^ Though not relating exactly to our present theme, it would be
improper to dismiss Nitzsch's name without reference to his extra-
ordinary labours in investigating the insect and other external
parasites of birds, a subject which as regards British species was
subsequently elaborated by Denny in his Monographia Anaplurornm
Britanniae (1842) and in his list of the specimens of British Anopliira
in the collection of the British Museum.
the three great sections of aerial, terrestrial, and aquatic birds
are abolished. The " Accipitres" are divided into two groups,
Diurnal and Nocturnal; but the first of these divisions is separated
into three sections: (i) the Vultures of the New World, (2)
those of the Old World, and (3) the genus Falco of Linnaeus.
The " Passcrinac,'' that is to say, the true Passcres, are split into
eight famihes, not wholly with judgment,- but of their taxonomy
more is to be said presently. Then a new order " Picariae " is
instituted for the reception of the Macrvchircs, Ciiculinae,
Picinae Psiltacinae and Amphiholae of his old arrangement, to
which are added three ' others — Caprimulginae, Todidae and
Lipoglossae — the last consisting of the genera Buccros, U pupa and
Alcedo. The association of Alccdo with the other two is no doubt a
misplacement, but the alliance of Buccros to U pupa, already sug-
gested by Gould and Blyth in 1838'' {Mag. Nat. History, ser. 2,
ii. pp. 422 and 589), though apparently unnatural, has been corro-
borated by many later systematisers; and taken as a whole the
establishment of the Picariae was certainly a commendaljle
proceeding. For the rest there is only one considerable change,
and that forms the greatest blot on the whole scheme. Instead of
recognizing, as before, a subclass in the Ratitae of Mcrrem , Nitzsch
now reduced them to the rank of an order under the name
" Platysternae," placing them between the " Callinaceae " and
" Grallae," though admitting that in their pterylosis they differ
from all other birds, in wa)'s that he is at great pains to describe,
in each of the four genera examined by him — Struthio, Rhea,
Dromacus a.nACasiiarius.^ It is significant that notwithstanding
this he did not figure the pterylosis of any one of them, and the
thought suggests itself that, though his editor assures us he had
convinced himself that the group must be here shoved in
{eingcschoben is the word used), the intrusion is rather due to the
necessity which Nitzsch, in common with most men of his time
(the Quinarians excepted), felt for deploying the whole scries of
birds into line, in which case the proceeding may be defensible on
the score of convenience. The extraordinary merits of this book,
and the admirable fidelity to his principles which Professor
Burmeister showed in the difficult task of editing it, were un-
fortunately overlooked for many years, and perhaps are not
sufficiently recognised now. Even in Germany, the author's
own country, there were few to notice seriously what is certainly
one of the most remarkable works ever published on the science,
much less to pursue theinvestigationsthat had been so laboriously
begun.*" Andreas Wagner, in his report on the progress of
" A short essay by Nitzsch on the general structure of the Passerines,
written, it is said, in 1836, was published in 1862 (Zeitschr. Ges.,
Natiirwissenschaft, xi.x. pp. 389-408). It is probably to this essay
that Professor Burmeister refers in the Ptcrylographie (p. 102, note;
Eng. trans., p. 72, note) as forming the basis of the article
" Passerinae " which he contributed to Ersch and Gruber's Encyklo-
pddie (sect. iii. bd. xiii. pp. 139-144), and published before the
Pterylographie.
' By the numbers prefixed it would look as if there should he four
new members of this order; but that seems to be due rather to a
slip of the pen or to a printer's error.
■* This association is one of the most remarkable in the whole
series of Blyth's remarkable papers on classification in the volume
cited above. He states that Gould suspected the alliance of these
two forms " from external structure and habits alone "; otherwise
one might suppose that he had obtained an intimation to that
effect on one of his Continental journeys. Blyth " arrived at the
same conclusion, however, by a different train of investigation,"
and this is beyond doubt.
^ He does not mention Apteryx,3,\.thdLt time so little known on the
Continent.
^ Some excuse is to be made for this neglect. Nitzsch had of
course exhausted all the forms of birds commonly to be obtained,
and specimens of the less common forms were too valuable from the
curator's or collector's point of view to be subjected to a treatment
that might end in their destruction. Yet it is said, on good authority,
that Nitzsch had the patience so to manipulate the skins of many
rare species that he was able to ascertain the characters of their
pterylosis by the inspection of their inside only, without in any way
damaging them for the ordinary purpose of a museum. Nor is this
surprising when we consider the mar\'ellous skill of Continental and
especially German taxidermists, many of whom have elevated their
profession to a height of art inconceivable to most Englishmen,
who are only acquainted with the miserable mockery of Nature
which is the most sublime result of all but a few " bird-stuffers."
3i8
ORNITHOLOGY
[TAXONOMY
ornithology, as might be expected from such a man as he was,
placed the Ptcrylo graphic at the summit of those pubhcations
the appearance of which he had to record for the years 1839 and
1840, stating that for" Systematik." it was of the greatest import-
ance.' On the other hand Oken (Isis, 1842, pp. 391-394), though
giving a summary of Nitzsch's results and classification, was more
sparing of his praise, and prefaced his remarks by asserting that
he could not refrain from laughter when he looked at the plates
in Nitzsch's work, since they reminded him of the plucked fowls
hanging in a poulterer's shop, and goes on to say that, as the
author always had the luck to engage in researches of which
nobody thought, so had he the luck to print them where
nobody sought them. In Sweden Sundevall, without accepting
Nitzsch's viev/s, accorded them a far more appreciative greeting
in his annual reports for 1840-1842 (i. pp. 152-160); but, of
course, in England and France^ nothing was known of them
beyond the scantiest notice, generally taken at second hand, in
two or three publications. Thanks to Mr Sclater, the Ray
Society was induced to publish, in 1867, an excellent translation
by Mr Dallas of Nitzsch's Plcrylography, and thereby, however
tardOy, justice was at length rendered by British ornithologists to
one of their greatest foreign brethren.' Nitzsch's work on
feathers has been carried farther by many later observers, and
its value is now generally accepted (see Feather).
The treatise of Kessler on the osteology of birds' feet, published
in the Bulletin of the Moscow Society of Naturalists for 1841, next
claims a few words, though its scope is rather to show
ess er. differences than affinities; but treatment of that kind is
undoubtedly useful at times in indicating that alliances generally
admitted are unnatural; and this is the case here, for, following
Calvier's method, the author's researches prove the artificial character
of some of its associations. While furnishing — almost uncon-
sciously, however — additional evidence for overthrowing that
classification, there is, nevertheless, no attempt made to construct
a better one; and the elaborate tables of dimensions, both absolute
and proportional, suggestive as is the whole tendency of the author's
observations, seem not to lead to any ver>' practical result, though
the systematist's need to look beneath the integument, even in
parts that are so comparatively little hidden as birds' feet, is once
more made beyond all question apparent.
It has already been mentioned that Macgillivray contributed
to Audubon's Ornithological Biography a series of descriptions of
j^^^ some parts of the anatomy of American birds, from
giillvray subjects supplied to him by that enthusiastic naturalist,
aad whose zeal and prescience, it may be called, in this
Auduboa. j-ggpgf-f merits all praise. Thus he (prompted very
likely by Macgillivray) wrote: " I believe the time to
be approaching when much of the results obtained from
the inspection of the exterior alone will be laid aside; when
museums filled with stuffed skins will be considered insufficient
to afford a knowledge of birds; and when the student will go
forth, not only to observe the habits and haunts of animals, but
to preserve specimens of them to be carefully dissected" {Ornitli.
Biography, iv.. Introduction, p. -xxiv). As has been stated, the
first of this series of anatomical descriptions appeared in the fourth
volume of his work, published in 1838, but they were continued
until its completion with the fifth volume in the following year,
and the whole was incorporated into what may be termed its
second edition, The Birds of America, which appeared between
1840 and 1844. Among the many species whose anatomy Mac-
gillivray thus partly described from autopsy were at least half a
dozen "* of those now referred to the family Tyrannidae (see King-
' Archiv fiir Naturgeschichte, vii. 2, pp. 60, 61.
^ In 1836 Jacquemin communicated to the French Academy
{Comptes rendus, ii. pp. 374, 375 and 472) some observations on
the order in which feathers are disposed on the body of birds; but,
however general may have been the scope of his investigations, the
portion of them published refers only to the crow, and there is no
mention made of Nitzsch's former work.
' The Ray Society had the good fortune to obtain the ten original
copper-plates, all but one drawn by the author himself, wherewith
the work was illustrated. It is only to be regretted that the Society
did not also adopt the quarto size in which it appeared, for by
issuing their English version in folio they needlessly put an impedi-
ment in the way of its common and convenient use.
* These are, according to modern nomenclature, Tyrannus caroli-
nensis and (as before mentioned) T. verlicalis, Myiarchus crinitus,
Sayornis fuscus, Contopus virens and Empidonax acadicus.
Bird), but then included, with many others, according to the
irrational, vague and rudimentary notions of classification of
the time, in what was termed the family " Muscicapinae." In all
these species he found the vocal organs to differ essentially in
structure from those of other birds of the Old World, which we
now call Passerine, or, to be still more precise, Oscinian. But by
him these last were most arbitrarily severed, dissociated from
their allies, and wrongly combined with other forms by no means
nearly related to them {Brit. Birds, i. pp. 17, 18) which he also
examined; and he practically, though not literally,^ asserted the
truth, when he said that the general structure, but especially
the muscular appendages, of the lower larynx was " similarly
formed in all other birds of this family" described in Audubon's
work. Macgillivray did not, however, assign to this essential
difference any systematic value. Indeed he was so much pre-
possessed in favour of a classification based on the structure of the
digestive organs that he could not bring himself to consider
vocal muscles to be of much taxonomic use, and it was reserved
to Johannes Miiller to point out that the contrary was
the fact. This the great German comparative anato- Mmigr
mist did in two communications to the Academy of
Sciences of Berlin, one on the 26th June 1845 and the other on the
14th May 1846, which, having been first briefly published in the
Academy's Monatsbericht, were afterwards printed in full, and
illustrated by numerous figures, in its Abhandliingen, though in
this latter and complete form they did not appear in public until
1847. This very remarkable treatise forms the groundwork of
almost all later or recent researches in the comparative anatomy
and consequent arrangement of the Passeres, and, though it is
certainly not free from inperfections, many of them, it must be
said, arise from want of material, notwithstanding that its
author had command of a much more abundant supply than was
at the disposal of Nitzsch. Carrying on the work from the
anatomical point at which he had left it, correcting his errors, and
utilizing to the fullest extent the observations of Keyserling and
Blasius, to which reference has already been made, Miiller,
though hampered by mistaken notions of which he seems to have
been unable to rid himself, propounded a scheme for the classifica-
tion of this group, the general truth of which has been admitted
by all his successors, based, as the title of his treatise expressed,
on the hitherto unknown different types of the vocal organs in the
Passerines. He freely recognized the prior discoveries of, as he
thought, Audubon, though really, as has since been ascertained,
of Macgillivray; but Miiller was able to perceive their systematic
value, which Macgillivray did not, and taught others to know it.
At the same time Miiller showed himself, his power of discrimina-
tion notwithstanding, to fall behind Nitzsch in one very crucial
point, for he refused to the latter's Picariae the rank that had
been claimed for them, and imagined that the groups associated
under that name formed but a third " tribe" — Picarii — of a
great order Inscssorcs, the others being (i) the Oscines or Poly-
myodi — the singing birds by emphasis, whose inferior larynx
was endowed with the full number of five pairs of song-muscles,
and (2) the Tracheophones, composed of some South-American
families. Looking on Miiller's labours as we now can, we see
that such errors as he committed are chiefly due to his want of
special knowledge of ornithology, combined with the absence
in several instances of sufficient materials for investigation.
Nothing whatever is to be said against the composition of his
first and second " tribes" ; but the third is an assemblage still
more heterogeneous than that which Nitzsch brought together
under a name so like that of Miiller — for the fact must never be
allowed to go out of sight that the extent of the Picarii of the
latter is not at all that of the Picariae of the former.* For
' Not literally, because a few other forms such as the genera Polio-
ptila and Ptilogonys, now known to have no relation to the Tyranni-
dae, were included, though these forms, it would seem, had never
been dissected by him. On the other hand, he declares that the
American rodstart, Muscicapa, or, as it now stands, Selophaga
ruticilla, when young, has its vocal organs like the rest — an extra-
ordinary statement which is worthy the attention of the many able
American ornithologists.
' It is not needless to point out this fine distinction, for more than
one modern author would seem to have overlooked it.
TAXONOMY]
ORNITHOLOGY
319
YarreU.
instance, Miiller places in his third "tribe" the group which he
called Ampelidae, meaning thereby the peculiar forms of South
America that are now considered to be more properly named
Cotingidae, and herein he was clearly right, while Nitzsch, who
(misled by their supposed afifinity to the genus Ampelis — peculiar
to the Northern Hemisphere, and a purely Passerine form) had kept
them among hisPasscrinac, was as clearly wrong. But again M uller
made his third " tribe " Picarii also to contain the Tyrannidac, of
which mention has just been made, though it is so obvious as now
to be generally admitted that they have no very intimate relation-
ship to the other families with which they are there associated.
There is no need here to criticise more minutely this projected
arrangement, and it must be said that, notwithstanding his
researches, he seems to have had some misgivings that, after all,
the separation of the Inscs:iorcs into those " tribes " might not be
justifiable. At any rate he wavered in his estimate of their
taxonomic value, for he gave an alternative proposal, arranging
all the genera in a single series, a proceeding in those days thought
not only defensible and possible, but desirable or even requisite,
though now utterly abandoned. Just as Nitzsch had laboured
under the disadvantage of never having any example of the
abnormal Passeres of the New World to dissect, and, therefore, was
wholly ignorant of their abnormality, so Miiller never succeeded
in getting hold of an example of the genus Pitta for the same
purpose, and yet, acting on the clue furnished by Keyserling and
Blasius, he did not hesitate to predict that it would be found to
fill one of the gaps he had to leave, and this to some extent it has
been since proved to do.
It must not be supposed that the vocal muscles were first
discovered by Miiller; on the contrary, they had been described
long before, and by many writers on the anatomy of
birds. To say nothing of foreigners, or the authors
of general works on the subject, an excellent account of them
had been given to the Linnean Society by W. YarreU in 1829,
and published with elaborate figures in its Transactions (xvi.
305-321, pis. 17, 18), an abstract of which was subsequently
given in the article " Raven" in his History of British Birds,
and MacgiUivray also described and figured them with the greatest
accuracy ten years later in his work with the same title (ii.
21-37, pis. x.-xii.), while Blyth and Nitzsch had (as already
mentioned) seen some of their value in classification. But
Miiller has the merit of clearly outstriding his predecessors,
and with his accustomed perspicuity made the way even plainer
for his successors to see than he himself was able to see it. What
remains to add is that the extraordinary celebrity of its author
actually procured for the first portion of his researches notice
in England {Ann. Nat. History, xvii. 499), though it must be
confessed not then to any practical purpose; but more than
thirty years after there appeared an English translation of his
treatise by F. Jeffrey Bell, with an appendix by Garrod contain-
ing a summary of the latter's own continuation of the same line
of research.'
It is now necessary to revert to the year 1842, in \vhlch Dr Cornay
of Rochefort communicated to the French Academy of Sciences a
memoir on a new classification of birds, of which, however,
Cornay. nothing but a notice has been preserved {Comptes rendus,
xiv. p. 164). Two years later this was followed by a second contri-
bution from him on the same subject, and of this only an extract
appeared in the official organ of the Academy (ut supra, xvi. pp.
94. 95). though an abstract was inserted in one scientific journal
(L'Institut, xii. p. 21), and its first portion in another {Journal des
Decouvertes, i. p. 250). The Revue Zoologique for 1847 (pp. 360-369)
contained the whole, and enabled naturalists to consider the merits
of the author's project, which was to found a new classification of
birds on the form of the anterior palatal bones, which he declared
to be subjected more evidently than any other to certain fixed laws.
These laws, as formulated by him, are that (i) there is a coincidence
of form of the anterior palatal and of the cranium in birds of the
same order; (2) there is a likeness between the anterior palatal
bones in birds of the same order; (3) there are relations of likeness
' The title of the English translation is Johannes Miiller on Certain
Variations in the Vocal Organs of the Passeres that have hitherto
escaped notice. It was published at Oxford in 1878. By some
unaccountable accident, the date of the original communication to
the Academy of Berlin is wrongly printed. It has been rightly
given above.
between the anterior palatal bones in groups of birds which are
near to one another. These laws, he added, exist in regard to all
parts that offer characters fit for the methodical arrangement of
ijirds, but it is in regard to the anterior palatal bone that they
unquestionably offer the most evidence. In the evolution of these
laws Dr Cornay had most laudably studied, as his observations
prove, a vast number of different types, and the upshot of his whole
labours, though not very clearly stated, was such as to wholly sub-
vert the classification at that time generally adopted by French
ornithologists. He of course knew the investigations of L'Herminier
and De Blainville on sternal formation, and he also seems to have
been aware of some pterylological differences exhibited by birds —
whether those of Nitzsch or those of Jacquemin is not stated. True
it is the latter were never published in full, but it is quite conceiv-
able that Dr Cornay may have known their drift. Be that as it
may, he declares that characters drawn from the sternum or the
pelvis — hitherto deemed to be, next to the bones of the head, the
most important portions of the bird's framework — are scarcely
W(jrth more, from a classificatory point of view, than characters
drawn from the bill or the legs; while pterylological considerations,
together with many others to which some systematists had attached
more or less importance, can only assist, and apparently must never
be taken to control, the force of evidence furnished by this bone of
all bones — the anterior palatal.
That Dr Cornay was on the brink of making a discovery of con-
siderable merit will by and by appear, but, with every disposition
to regard his investigations favourably, it cannot be said that he
accomplished it. Whatever proofs Dr Cornay may have had to
satisfy himself of his being on the right track, these proofs were not
adduced in sufficient number nor arranged with sufficient skill to
persuade a somewhat stiff-necked generation of the truth of his
views — for it was a generation whose leaders, in France at any
rate, looked with suspicion upon any one who professed to go beyond
the bounds which the genius of Cuvier had been unable to overpass,
and regarded the notion of upsetting any of the positions maintained
by him as verging almost upon profanity. Moreover, Dr Cornay's
scheme was not given to the world with any of those adjuncts that
not merely please the eye but are in many cases necessary, for,
though on a subject which required for its proper comprehension a
scries of plates, it made even its final appearance unadorned by a
single explanatory figure, and in a journal, respectable and well-
known indeed, but one not of the highest scientific rank.
The same year which saw the promulgation of the crude scheme
just described, as well as the publication of the final researches of
Miiller, witnessed also another attempt at the classifica-
tion of birds, much more limited indeed in scope, but, so Cabaals.
far as it went, regarded by most ornithologists of the time as almost
final in its operation. Under the vague title of " Ornithologische
Notizen "Professor Cabanis of Berlin contributed to the Archiv far
Naturgeschichte (xiii. I, pp. 186-256, 308-352) an essay in two parts,
wherein, following the researches of Miiller ^ on the syrinx, in the
course of which a correlation had been shown to exist between the
whole or divided condition of the planta or hind part of the " tarsus,"
first noticed, as has been said, by Keyserling and Blasius, and the
presence or absence of the perfect song-apparatus, the younger
author found an agreement which seemed almost invariable in this
respect, and he also pointed out that the planta of the different
groups of birds in which it is divided is divided in different modes,
the mode of division being generally characteristic of the group.
Such a coincidence of the interna! and external features of birds
was naturally deemed a discovery of the greatest value by those
ornithologists who thought most highly of the latter, and it was
unquestionably of no little practical utility. Further examination
also revealed the fact^ that in certain groups the number of
" primaries," or quill-feathers growing from the manus or distal
segment of the wing, formed another characteristic easy of observa-
tion. In the Oscines or Polymyodi of Miiller the number was either
nine or ten — and if the latter the outermost of them was generally
very small. In two of the other groups of which Professor Cabanis
especially treated — groups which had been hitherto more or less
confounded with the Oscines — the number of primaries was in-
variably ten, and the outermost of them was comparatively large.
This observation was also hailed as the discovery of a fact of extra-
ordinary importance; and, from the results of these investigations,
taken altogether, ornithology was declared by Sundevall, un-
doubtedly a man who had a right to speak with authority, to have
made greater progress than had been achieved since the days of
Cuvier. The final disposition of the " Sub-class Insessores " — all the
' On the other hand, Miiller makes several references to the labours
of Professor Cabanis. The investigations of both authors must have
been proceeding simultaneously, and it matters little which actually
appeared first.
^ This seems to have been made known by Professor Cabanis the
preceding year to the Gesellschaft der Naturforschender Freunde
(cf. Miiller, Stimmorganen der Passerinen, p. 65). Of course the
variation to which the number of primaries was subject had not
escaped the observation of Nitzsch, but he had scarcely used it as a
classificatory character.
320
ORNITHOLOGY
[TAXONOMY
perching birds, that is to say, which are neither birds of prey nor
pigeons — proposed by Professor Cabanis, was into four " Orders,"
as follows ; —
1. Oscines, equal to Miiller's group of the same name;
2. Clamatores, being a majority of that division of the Picariae
of Nitzsch, so called by Andreas Wagner, in 1841,^ which have
their feet normally constructed;
3. Strisores, a group now separated from the Clamatores of
Wagner, and containing those forms which have their feet abnor-
mally constructed ; and
4. Scansores, being the Grimpcurs of Cuvier, the Zygodactyli of
several other systematists.
The first of these four " Orders " had been already indefeasibly
established as one perfectly natural, but respecting its details more
must presently be said. The remaining three are now seen to be
obviously artificial associations, and the second of them, Clamatores,
in particular, containing a very heterogeneous assemblage of forms ;
but it must be borne in mind that the internal structure of some of
them was at that time still more imperfectly known than now.
This will perhaps be the most convenient place to mention another
kind of classification of birds, which, based on a principle wholly
difTerent from those that have just been explained,
Bona- requires a few words, though it has not been productive,
parte. j|q^ j^ likely, from all that appears, to be productive of
any great effect. So long ago as 1831, Prince C. L. Bonaparte, in
his Saggio di una dislribiizione metodica degli Animali Vertebrati,
published at Rome, and in 1837 communicated to the Linnean
Society of London, " A new Systematic Arrangement of Vertebrated
Animals," which was subsequently printed in that Society's Trans-
actions (xviii. pp. 247-304), though before it appeared there was
issued at Bologna, under the title of Synopsis Vertebratorum Systema-
tis, a Latin translation of it. Herein he divided the class Aves into
two subclasses, to which he applied the names of Insessores and
Grallalores (hitherto used by their inventors Vigors and Illiger in a
■different sense), in the latter work relying chiefly for this division
on characters which had not before been used by any systematist,
namely that in the former group monogamy generally prevailed
and the helpless nestlings were fed by their parents, while the latter
group were mostly polygamous, and the chicks at birth were active
and capable of feeding themselves. This method, which in process
of time was dignified by the title of a Physiological Arrangement,
was insisted upon with more or less pertinacity by the author
throughout a long series of publications, some of them separate
books, some of them contributed to the memoirs issued by many
scientific bodies of various European countries, ceasing only at his
death, which in July 1857 found him occupied upon a Conspectus
Generum Avium, that in consequence remains unfinished. In the
course of this series, however, he saw fit to alter the name of his two
subclasses, since those which he at first adopted were open to a
variety of meanings, and in acommunication to the French Academy
of Sciences in 1853 (Comptes rendus, xxxyii. pp. 641-647) the
denomination Insessores was changed to Altrices, and Grallatores to
Praecoces — the terms now preferred by him being taken from
Sundevall's treatise of 1835 already mentioned. The views of
Bonaparte were, it appears, also shared by an ornithological amateur
of some distinction, John Hogg, who propounded a scheme
nogZ- which, as he subsequently stated {Zoologist, 1850, p. 2797),
was founded strictly in accordance with them; but it would seem
that, allowing his convictions to be warped by other considerations,
he abandoned the original " physiological " basis of his system, so
that this, when published in 1846 (Edinb. N. Philosoph. Journal,
xli. pp. 50-71), was found to be established on a single character
of the feet only; though he was careful to point out, immediately
after formulating the definition of his subclasses Constricti pedes
and Inconstrictipedes, that the former " make, in general, compact
ind well-built nests, wherein they bring up their very weak, blind,
and mostly naked young, which they feed with care, by bringing
food to them for many days, until they are fledged and sufficiently
-Strong to leave their nest," observing also that they " are princi-
pally monogamous " (pp. 55, 56) ; while of the latter he says that
they " make either a poor and rude nest, in which they lay their
eggs, or else none, depositing them on the bare ground. The young
are generally born with their full sight, covered with down, strong,
and capable of running or swimming immediately after they leave
the egg-shell." He adds that the parents, which " are mostly
polygamous," attend their young and direct them where to find
their food (p. 63). The numerous errors in these assertions hardly
need pointing out. The herons, for instance, are much more
" Constrictipedes " than are the larks or the kingfishers, and, so far
from the majority of " Inconstrictipedes " being polygamous, there
is scarcely any evidence of polygamy obtaining as a habit among
birds in a state of nature except in certain of the Gallinae and a
very few others. Furthermore, the young of the goatsuckers are
^ Archiv fi'ir Natiirgeschichte, vii. 2, pp. 93, 94. The division
seems to have been instituted by this author a couple of years earlier
in the second edition of his Handbuch der Naturgeschichte (a work
not seen by the present writer), but not then to have received a scien-
tific name. It included all Picariae which had not " zygodactylous "
feet, that is to say, toes placed in pairs, two before and two behind.
at hatching far more developed than are those of the herons or the
cormorants; and, in a general way, nearly every one of the as-
serted peculiarities of the two subclasses breaks down under careful
examination. Yet the idea of a " physiological " arrangement on
the same kind of principle found another follower, or, as he thought,
inventor, in Edward Newman, who in 1850 communicated j^,
to the Zoological Society of London a plan published in l^^^"'^"'
its Proceedings for that year (pp. 46-48), and reprinted also in his
own journal The Zoologist (pp. 2780-2782), based on exactly the same
considerations, dividing birds into two groups, " Hesthogenous " —
a word so vicious in formation as to be incapable of amendment, but
intended to signify those that were hatched with a clothing of
down — and " Gymnogenous," or those that were hatched naked.
These three systems are essentially identical ; but, plausible as they
may be at the first aspect, they have been found to be practically
useless, though such of their characters as their upholders have
advanced with truth deserve attention. Physiology may one day
very likely assist the systematist; but it must be real physiology
and not a sham.
In 1856 Paul Gervais, who had already contributed to the Zoologie
of M. de Castelnau's Expedition dans les parlies centrales de I'Amerique
du Sud some important memoirs describing the anatomy of _
the hoactzin and certain other birds of doubtful or anomal- "*'^'' •
ous position, published some remarks on the characters which could be
drawn from the sternum of birds {Ann. Sc. Nat. Zoologie, ser. 4, vi. pp.
5-15). The-considerations are not very striking from a general point of
view ; but the author adds to the weight of evidence which some of
his predecessors had brought to bear on certain matters, particularly
in aiding to abolish the artificial groups " D6odactyls," "Syndactyls, '
and " Zygodactyls," on which so much reliance had been placed by
many of his countrymen; and it is with him a great merit that he
was the first apparently to recognize publicly that characters drawn
from the posterior part of the sternum, and particularly from the
" vchancrures," commonly called in English " notches " or " emar-
ginations," are of comparatively little importance, since their
number is apt to vary in forms that are most closely allied, and
even in species that are usually associated in the same genus or
unquestionably belong to the same family,^ while these " notches "
sometimes beccmie simple foramina, as in certain pigeons, or on
the other hand foramina may exceptionally change to " notches," 1
and not unfrequently disappear wholly. Among his chief systematic j
determinations we may mention that he refers the tinamous to the
rails, because apparently of their deep " notches," but otherwise
takes a view of that group more correct according to modern notions
than did most of his contemporaries. The bustards he would
place with the " Limicoles," as also Dramas and Chionis, the
sheath-bill {q.v.). Phaethon, the tropic-bird {q-v.), he would place
with the " Laridfis " and not with the " Pelecanides," which it only
resembles in its feet having all the toes connected by a web. Finally
divers, auks and penguins, according to him, form the last term in
the series, and it seems fit to him that they should be regarded as
forming a separate order. It is a curious fact that even at a date
so late as this, and by an investigator so well informed, doubt should
still have existed whether Apteryx (see Kiwi) should be referred to
the group containing the cassowary and the ostrich. On the whole
the remarks of this esteemed author do not go much beyond such as
might occur to any one who had made a study of a good series of
specimens; but many of them are published for the first time, and
the author is careful to insist on the necessity of not resting solely
on sternal characters, but associating with them those drawn^ from
other parts of the body.
Three years later in the same journal (xi. 11-145, pis. 2-4)
M. Blanchard published some Recherches sur les caracteres osteo-
logiques des oiseaux appliquees d- la classification naturelle
de ces animaux, strongly urging the superiority of such fc^rf
characters over those drawn from the bill or feet, which, ^
he remarks, though they may have sometimes given correct notions,
have mostly led to mistakes, and, if observations of habits and food
have sometimes afforded happy results, they have often been de-
ceptive; so that, should more be wanted than to draw up a mere J
inventory of creation or trace the distinctive outline of each species, |
zoology without anatomy would remain a barren study. At the
same time he states that authors who have occupied themselves with
the sternum alone have often produced uncertain results, especially
when they have neglected its anterior for its posterior part; forin
truth every bone of the skeleton ought to be studied in all its details.
Yet this distinguished zoologist selects the sternum as furnishing
the key to his primary groups or " Orders " of the class, adopting,
as Merrem had done long before, the same two divisions Carinatae
and Ratitae, naming, however, the former Tropidosternii and the
latter Homalosternii.' Some unkind fate has hitherto hindered
- Thus he cites the cases of Machetes pugnax and Scolopax rusti-
cola among the " Limicoles," and Larus cataractes among the
" Laridcs," as differing from their nearest allies by the possession
of only one " notch " on either side of the keel. Several additional
instances are cited in Philos. Transactions (T869), p. 337, note.
' These terms were explained in his great work V Organisation du
regne animal, oiseaux, begun in 1855, to mean exactly the sameas
those applied by Merrem to his two primary divisions.
TAXONOMY]
ORNITHOLOGY
321
him from making known to the world the rest of his researches in
regard to the other bones of the skeleton till he reached the head,
and in the memoir cited he treats of the sternum of only a portion
of his first " Order." This is the more to be regretted by all ornitho-
logists, since he intended to conclude with what to them would
have been a very great boon — the showing in what way external
characters coincided with those presented by osteology. It was also
within the scope of his plan to have continued on a more extended
scale the researches on ossification begun by L'Herminier, and thus
1\1. Blanchard's investigations, if completed, would obviously have
taken extraordinarily high rank among the highest contributions
to ornithology. As it is, so much of them as we have are of con-
siderable importance; for, in this unfortunately unfinished memoir,
he describes in some detail the several differences which the sternum
in a great many different groups of his Tropidosternii presents, and
to some extent makes a methodical disposition of them accordingly.
Thus he separates the birds of prey into three great groups — (i)
the ordinary Diurnal forms, including the Falconidae and Vulturidae
of the systematist of his time, but distinguishing the American
Vultures from those of the Old World; (2) Gypogeranus, the
secretary-bird (q.v.)\ and (3) the owls (q.v.). Ne.xt he places the
parrots (q.v.), and then the vast assemblage of " Passercaux " —
which he declares to be all of one type, even genera like Pipra
(manakin, q.v.) and Pitta — and concludes with the somewhat
heterogeneous conglomeration of forms, beginning with Cypselus
(swift, q.v.), that so many systematists have been accustomed to
call Picariae, though to them as a group he assigns no name. A
continuation of the treatise was promised in a succeeding part of
the Annates, but a quarter of a century has passed without its
appearance.'
Important as are the characters afforded by the sternum, that
bone even with the whole sternal apparatus should obviously not be
considered alone. To aid ornithologists in their studies
bytoa. jj^ ^j^jg ^ggpg(.|-_ -J- Q Eyton, who for many years had been
forming a collection of birds' skeletons, began the publication of a
series of plates representing them. The first part of this work,
Osteologia Avium, appeared early in 1859, and a volume was com-
pleted in 1867. A Supplement was issued in 1869, and a Second
Supplement, in three parts, between 1873 and 1875. The whole
work contains a great number of figures of birds' skeletons and
detached bones ; but they are not so drawn as to be of much practical
use, and the accompanying letterpress is too brief to be satisfactory.
That the eggs laid by birds should offer to some extent characters
of utility to systematists is only to be expected, when it is con-
sidered that those from the same nest generally bear an extraordinary
family likeness to one another, and also that in certain groups
the essential peculiarities of the egg-shell are constantly and dis-
tinctively characteristic. Thus no one who has ever examined the
egg of a duck or of a tinamou would ever be in danger of not referring
another tinamou's egg or another duck's, that he might see, to its
proper family, and so on with many others. But at the same time
many of the shortcomings of oology in this respect must be set down
to the defective information and observation of its votaries, among
whom some have been very lax, not to say incautious, in not ascer-
taining on due evidence the parentage of their specimens, and the
author next to be named is open to this charge. After several
minor notices that appeared in journals at various times, Des Murs
„ in i860 brought out at Paris his ambitious Traite general
es urs. d'ggigg^g ornithologique au point de vue de la classification,
which contains (pp. 529-538) a " Systema Oologicum " as the final
result of his labours. In this scheme birds are arranged' according
to what the author considered to be their natural method and
sequence; but the result exhibits some unions as ill-assorted as
can well be met with in the whole range of tentative arrangements
of the class, together with some very unjustifiable divorces. Its
basis is the classification of Cuvier, the modifications of which by
Des Murs will seldom commend themselves to systematists whose
opinion is generally deemed worth having. Few, if any, of the faults
of that classification are removed, and the improvements suggested,
if not established by his successors, those especially of other countries
than France, are ignored, or, as is the case with some of those of
L'Herminier, are only cited to be set aside. Oologists have no reason
to be thankful to Des Murs, notwithstanding his zeal in behalf of
their study. It is perfectly true that in several or even in many
instances he acknowledges and deplores the poverty of his informa-
tion, but this does not excuse him for making assertions (and such
assertions are not unfrequent) based on evidence that is either
wholly untrustworthy or needs further inquiry before it can be
accepted (Ibis, i860, pp. 331-335). This being the case, it would
seem useless to take up further space by analysing the several
proposed modifications of Cuvier's arrangement. The great merit
of the work is that the author shows the necessity of taking oology
into account when investigating the classification of birds; but it
also proves that in so doing the paramount consideration lies in
the thorough sifting of evidence as to the parentage of the eggs which
' M. Blanchard's animadversions on the employment of external
characters, and on trusting to observations on the habits of birds,
called forth a rejoinder from A. R. Wallace (Ibis, 1864, pp. 36-41),
who successfully showed that they are not altogether to be despised.
are to serve as the building stones of the fabric to be erected. The
attempt of Des Murs was praiseworthy, but in effect it has utterly
failed, notwithstanding the encomiums passed upon it by friendly
critics (Rev. deZoologie, i860, pp. 176-183, 313-325, 370-373).^
Until about this time systematists, almost without exception,
may be said to have been wandering with no definite purpose.
At least their purpose was indefinite compared with
that which they now have before them. No doubt ^"""^ "^
, ,, , . . ,1 . ,1 . Doctrlni: of
they all agreed in saying that they were prosecuting gyoiuUoa.
a search for what they called the true system of nature;
but that was nearly the end of their agreement, for in what
that true system consisted the opinions of scarcely any two
would coincide, unless to own that it was some shadowy idea
beyond the present power of mortals to reach or even compre-
hend. The Quinarians, who boldly asserted that they had
fathomed the mystery of creation, had been shown to be no
wiser than other men, if indeed they had not utterly befooled
themselves; for their theory at best could give no other explana-
tion of things than that they were because they were. The
conception of such a process as has now come to be called by
the name of evolution was certainly not novel; but except to
two men the way in which that process was or could be possible
had not been revealed.' Here there is no need to enter into
details of the history of evolution; but there was possibly no
branch of zoology in which so many of the best informed and
consequently the most advanced of its workers sooner accepted
the principles of evolution than ornithology, and of course the
effect upon its study was very marked. New spirit was given
to it. Ornithologists now felt they had something before them
that was really worth investigating. Questions of affinity, and
the details of geographical distribution, were endowed with a
real interest, in comparison with which any interest that had
hitherto been taken was a trifling pastime. Classification
assumed a wholly different aspect. It had up to this time been
little more than the shuffling of cards, the ingenious arrange-
ment of counters in a pretty pattern. Henceforward it was
to be the serious study of the workings of nature in producing
the beings we see around us from beings more or less unlike them,
that had existed in bygone ages and had been the parents of
a varied and varying offspring — our fellow-creatures of to-day.
Classification for the first time was something more than the
expression of a fancy, not that it had not also its imaginative
side. Men's minds began to figure to themselves the original
type of some well-marked genus or family of birds. They could
even discern dimly some generalized stock whence had descended
whole groups that now differed strangely in habits and appear-
ance — their discernment aided, may be, by some isolated form
which yet retained undeniable traces of a primitive structure.
More dimly still visions of what the first bird may have been
like could be reasonably entertained; and, passing even to
a higher antiquity, the reptilian parent whence all birds have
sprung was brought within reach of man's consciousness. But,
relieved as it may be by reflections of this kind — dreams some
may perhaps still call them — the study of ornithology has un-
questionably become harder and more serious; and a correspond-
ing change in the style of investigation, followed in the works
that remain to be considered, will be immediately perceptible.
That this was the case is undeniably shown by some remarks
of Canon Tristram, who, in treating of the Alaitdidac and
Saxicolinae of .-Mgeria (whence he had recently brought j-^^^^^
a large collection of specimens of his own making),
stated {Ibis, 1859, pp. 429-433) that he could " not help feeling
convinced of the truth of the views set forth by Messrs Darwin
and Wallace," adding that it was " hardly possible, I 'should
think, to illustrate this theory better than by the larks and
chats of North Africa." It is unnecessary to continue the
' In this historical sketch of the progress of ornitholog>- it has not
been thought necessary to mention other oological works, since they
have not a taxonomic bearing, and the chief of them have been
already named (see Birds).
' Neither Lamarck nor Robert Chambers (the now acknowledged
author of Vestiges of Creation), though thorough evolutionists,
rationally indicated any means whereby, to use the old phrase,
" the transmutation of species " could be effected.
XX. II
322
ORNITHOLOGY
[TAXOMONY
Wagner.
quotation; the few words just cited are enough to assure to
their author the credit of being (so far as is known) the first
ornithological specialist who had the courage publicly to recognize
and receive the new and at that time unpopular philosophy.
_^ . But greater work was at hand. In June i860 W. K.
Parker broke, as most will allow, entirely fresh ground
by communicating to the Zoological Society a memoir " On
the Osteology of Balaeniceps," subsequently published in that
Society's Transactions (iv. 269-351). Of this contribution to
science, as of all the rest which have since proceeded from him,
may be said in the words he himself has applied {ut supra,
p. 271) to the work of another labourer in a not distant field:
" This is a model paper for unbiassed observation, and freedom
from that pleasant mode of supposing instead of ascertaining
what is the true nature of an anatomical element."' Indeed,
the study of this memoir, limited though it be in scope, could not
fail to convince any one that it proceeded from the mind of one
who taught with the authority derived directly from original
knowledge, and not from association with the scribes — a con-
viction that has become strengthened as, in a series of successive
memoirs, the stores of more than twenty years' sOent observa-
tion and unremitting research were unfolded, and, more than that,
the hidden forces of the science of morphology were gradually
brought to bear upon almost each subject that came under
discussion. These different memoirs, being technically mono-
graphs, have strictly no right to be mentioned in this place;
but there is scarcely one of them, if one indeed there be, that
does not deal with the generalities of the study; and the in-
fluence they have had upon contemporary investigation is so
strong that it is impossible to refrain from noticing them here,
though want of space forbids us from enlarging on their contents.
For some time past rumours of a discovery of the highest
interest had been agitating the minds of zoologists, for in 1861
Andreas Wagner had sent to the Academy of Sciences
of Munich {Sitzungsberichte, pp. 146-154; Ann.
Nat. History, series 3, ix. 261-267) ^n account of what he con-
ceived to be a feathered reptile (assigning to it the name
Griphosaurus) , the remains of which had been found in the
lithographic beds of Solenhofen; but he himself, through failing
health, had been unable to see the fossil. In 1862 the slabs
containing the remains were acquired by the British Museum,
and towards the end of that year Sir R. Owen com-
municated a detailed description of them to the Philo-
sophical Transactions (1863, pp. 33-47), proving their bird-like
nature, and referring them to the genus Archaeoptcryx of Hermann
von Meyer, hitherto known only by the impression of a single
feather from the same geological beds. Wagner foresaw the use
that would be made of this discovery by the adherents of the
new philosophy, and, in the usual language of its opponents
at the time, strove toward off the "misinterpretations" that
they would put upon it. His protest, it is needless to say,
was unavailing, and all who respect his memory must regret
that the sunset of life faUed to give him that insight into the
future which is poetically ascribed to it. To Darwin and those
who believed with him scarcely any discovery could have been
more welcome; but that is beside our present business. It
was quickly seen — even by those who held Archaeoptcryx to
be a reptile — that it was a form intermediate between existing
birds and existing reptiles; while those who were convinced
by Sir R. Owen's researches of its ornithic affinity saw that it
must belong to a type of birds wholly unknown before, and one
that in any future for the arrangement of the class must have
a special rank reserved for it.^
It behoves us next to mention the " Outlines of a Systematic
Review of the Class of Birds," communicated by W. Lilljeborg
1 It is fair to state that some of Professor Parker's conclusions
respecting Balaeniceps were contested by the late Professor J. T.
Reinhardt {Overs. K. D. Vid. Selsk. Forhandlinger , 1861, pp. 135-
154; Ihis, 1862, pp. 158-175), and as it seems to the present writer
not ineffectually. Professor Parker replied to his critic {Ibis, 1862,
pp. 297-299).
^ This was done shortly afterwards by Professor Haeckel, who
proposed the name Saururae for the group containing it.
Owea.
to the Zoological Society in 1866, and published in its Proceedings
for that year (pp. 5-20J, since it was immediately after reprinted
by the Smithsonian Institution, and with that authoriza- .....
tion has exercised a great influence on the opinions of .
American ornithologists. Otherwise the scheme would '
hardly need notice here. This paper is indeed little more than an
English translation of one published by the author in the annual
volume {Arsskrijt) of the Scientific Society of Upsala for i860, and
belonging to the pre-Darwinian epoch should perhaps have been
more properly treated before, but that at the time of its original
appearance it failed to attract attention. The chief merit of the
scheme perhaps is that, contrary to nearly every precedent, it
begins with the lower and rises to the higher groups of birds, which
is of course the natural mode of proceeding, and one therefore to
be commended. Otherwise the " principles " on which it is founded
are not clear to the ordinary zoologist. One of them is said to be
" irritability," and, though this is explained to mean, not " muscular
strength alone, but vivacity and activity generally,"' it does not
seem to form a character that can be easily appreciated either as
to quantity or quality; in fact, most persons would deem it quite
immeasurable, and, as such, removed from practical consideration.
Moreover, Professor Lilljeborg's scheme, being actually an adaptation
of that of Sundevall, of which we shall have to speak at some length
almost immediately, may possibly be left for the present with these
remarks.
In the spring of the year 1867 Professor T. H. Huxley, to
the delight of an appreciative audience, delivered at the Royal
College of Surgeons of England a course of lectures „ .
on birds, and a few weeks after presented an abstract
of his researches to the Zoological Society, in whose Proceedings
for the same year it will be found printed (pp. 415-472) as a
paper " On the Classification of Birds, and on the taxonomic
value of the modifications of certain of the cranial bones observ-
able in that Class." Starting from the basis " that the phrase
'birds are greatly modified reptiles' would hardly be an exagger-
ated expression of the closeness " of the resemblance between
the two classes, which he had previously brigaded under the
name of Sauropsida (as he had brigaded the Pisces and Amphibia
as Ichthyopsida), he drew in bold outhne both their likenesses
and their differences, and then proceeded to inquire how the
Avcs could be most appropriately subdivided into orders, sub-
orders and families. In this course of lectures he had already
dwelt at some length on the insufficiency of the characters on
which such groups as had hitherto been thought to be established
were founded; but for the consideration of this part of his
subject there was no room in the present paper, and the reasons
why he arrived at the conclusion that new means of philosophi-
cally and successfully separating the class must be sought are
herein left to be inferred. The upshot, however, admits of no
uncertainty: the class Aves is held to be composed of three
" Orders" —
I. Saururae, Hackel;
II. Ratitae, Merrem; and
III. Carinatae, Merrem.
The Saururae have the metacarpals well developed and not ancy-
losed, and the caudal vertebrae are numerous and large, so that
the caudal region of the spine is longer than the body. The furcula
is complete and strong, the feet very passerine in appearance. The
skull and sternum were at the time unknown, and indeed the whole
order, without doubt entirely extinct, rested exclusively on the
celebrated fossil, then unique, Archaeopteryx.
The Ratitae comprehend the struthious birds, which differ from
all others now extant in the combination of several peculiarities,
some of which have been mentioned in the preceding pages. The
sternum has no keel, and ossifies from lateral and paired centres
only ; the axes of the scapula and coracoid have the same general
direction ; certain of the cranial bones have characters very unlike
those possessed by the next order — the vomer, for example, being
broad posteriorly and generally intervening between the basi-
sphenoidal rostrum and the palatals and pterygoids; the barbs of
the feathers are disconnected; there is no syrinx or inferior larynx;
and the diaphragm is better developed than in other birds.^
' On this ground it is stated that the Passeres should be placed
highest in the class. But those who know the habits and demeanour
of many of the Limicolae would no doubt rightly claim for them
much more " vivacity and activity " than is possessed by most
Passeres.
' This peculiarity had led some zoologists to consider the struthious
birds more nearly allied to the Mammalia than any others.
TAXONOMY]
ORNITHOLOGY
323
The Carinalae are divided, according to the formation of the
palate, into four " Suborders," and named (i.) Dromaeognathae,
(ii.) Schizognalhae, (iii.) Desmognathae, and (iv.) Acgithognathae}
The Dromaeognathae resemble the Ratilae, and especially the genus
Dromaeus, in their palatal structure, and are composed of the
Tinamous {q.v.). The Schizognalhae include a great many of the
forms belonging to the Linnaean Orders Gallinae, Grallae and
Anseres. In them the vomer, however variable, always tapers to a
point anteriorly, while behind it includes the basisphcnoidal rostrum
between the palatals; but neither these nor the pterygoids are
borne by its posterior divergent ends. The maxillo-palatals are
usually elongated and lamellar, uniting with the palatals, and,
bending backward along their inner edge, leave a cleft (whence the
name given to the " Suborder ") between the vomer and themselves.
In the Desmognathae, the vomer is either abortive or so small as to
disappear from the skeleton. When it exists it is always slender,
and tapers to a point anteriorly. The maxillo-palatals are bound
together (whence the name of the " Suborder ") across the middle
line, either directly or by the ossification of the nasal septum. The
posterior ends of the palatals and anterior of the pterygoids articulate
directly with the rostrum. The Aegithognalhae, the fourth and last
of the " Suborders," is characterized by a form of palate in some
respects intermediate between the two preceding. The vomer is
broad, abruptly truncated in front, and deeply cleft behind, so as
to embrace the rostrum of the sphenoid; the palatals have pro-
duced postero-external angles; the maxillo-palatals are slender at
their origin, and extend obliquely inwards and forwards over the
palatals, ending beneath the vomer in expanded extremities, not
united either with one another or with the vomer, nor does the
latter unite with the nasal septum, though that is frequently
ossified.
The above abstract shows the general drift of this very re-
markable contribution to ornithology, and it has to be added
that for by far the greater number of his minor groups Huxley
relied solely on the form of the palatal structure, the importance
of which Dr Cornay had before urged, though to so little purpose.
That the palatal structure must be taken into consideration
by taxonomers as affording hints of some utility there can no
longer be a doubt; but perhaps the characters drawn thence
owed more of their worth to the extraordinary perspicuity with
which they were presented by Huxley than to their own in-
trinsic value, and if the same power had been employed to eluci-
date in the same way other parts of the skeleton — say the bones
of the sternal apparatus or even of the pelvic girdle — either
set might have been made to appear quite as instructive and
perhaps more so. Adventitious value would therefore seem to
have been acquired by the bones of the palate through the fact
that so great a master of the art of exposition selected them
as fitting examples upon which to exercise his skill.^ At the
same time it must be stated this selection was not premeditated
by Huxley, but forced itself upon him as his investigations
proceeded.' In reply to some critical remarks {Ibis, 1868,
pp. 85-96), chiefly aimed at showing the inexpediency of relying
solely on one set of characters, especially when those afforded
by the palatal bones were not, even within the limits of families,
wholly diagnostic, the author {Ibis, 1868, pp. 357-362) announced
a slight modification of his original scheme, by introducing
three more groups into it, and concluded by indicating how its
bearings upon the great question of " genetic classification"
might be represented so far as the different groups of Carinatae
are concerned: —
' These names are compounded respectively of Dromaeus, the
generic name applied to the emeu, (TX'fi> a split or cleft, bkana, a
bond or tying, aiyiJBos, a finch, and, in each case, yvoBos, a jaw.
2 The notion of the superiority of the palatal bones to all others
for purposes of classification has pleased many persons, from the
fact that these bones are not unfrequently retained in the dried
skins of birds sent home by collectors in foreign countries, and arc
therefore available for study, while such bones as the sternum and
pelvis are rarely preserved. The common practice of ordinary'
collectors, until at least very recently, has been tersely described as
being to " shoot a bird, take off its skin, and throw away its char-
acters."
' Perhaps this may be partially explained by the fact that the
Museum of the College of Surgeons, in which these investigations
were chiefly carried on, like most other museums of the time, con-
tained a much larger series of the heads of birds than of their entire
skeletons, or of any other portion of the skeleton. Consequently
the materials available for the comparison of different forms con-
sisted in great part of heads only.
Tinamomorphae.
I
Turricomorphae.
Cbaradriomorphae.
I i
Cccomorphae. Geranomorphac.
Alectoromorpbae.
Sphcnisco-
morphae.
Actomorphae.
Psittaco-
Hetero-
inorpbae.
CoCCVRO-
I
I'tenjclo-
morphjf.
I
Peristero-
morphae.
/Egitho-
morphae. morphae. gnathae.
Palaniedea.
Cbenomorphae.
Ampbimorphae.
I
Pelargomorphae.
Dysporo-
morpbae.
Huxley regarded the above scheme as nearly representing
the affinities of the various Carinate groups — the great difficulty
being to determine the relations to the rest of the Coccygo-
morphae, Psittacomorphae a.n.d Aegilhognalhac, which he indicated
" only in the most doubtful and hypothetic fashion." Almost
simultaneously with this he expounded more particularly
before the Zoological Society, in whose Proceedings (1868, pp.
294-319) his results were soon after published, the groups of
which he believed the Alccloromorphac to be composed and the
relations to them of some outlying forms usually regarded as
Gallinaceous, the Turnicidae and Ptcroclidac, as well as the
singular hoactzin, for all three of which he had to institute
new groups — the last forming the sole representative of his
Hclcromorphae. More than this, he entered upon their geo-
graphical distribution, the facts of which important subject
are here, almost for the first time, since the attempt of Biyth
already mentioned,'' brought to bear practically on classification.
Here we must mention the intimate connexion between
classification and geographical distribution as revealed by the
palaeontologicalresearchesofAlphonse Milne-Edwards,
whose magnificent Oiseaux Fossiles de la France ^^wards.
began to appear in 1867, and was completed in 1871 —
the more so, since the exigencies of his undertaking compelled
him to use materials that had been almost wholly neglected
by other investigators. A large proportion of the fossil remains,
the determination and description of which was his object, were
what are very commonly called the " long bones," that is to say,
those of the limbs. The recognition of these, minute and
fragmentary as many were, and the referring them to their
proper place, rendered necessary an attentive study of the com-
parative osteology and myology of birds in general, that of the
" long bones," whose sole characters were often a few muscular
ridges or depressions, being especially obligatory. Hence it
became manifest that a very respectable classification can be
found in which characters drawn from these bones play a rather
important part. Limited by circumstances as is that foUowed
by Milne-Edwards, the details of his arrangement do not require
setting forth here. It is enough to point out that we have in
his work another proof of the multiplicity of the factors which
must be taken into consideration by the systematist, and another
proof of the fallacy of trusting to one set of characters alone.
But this is not the only way in which the author has rendered
service to the advanced student of ornithology. The unlooked-
for discovery in France of remains which he has referred to.
forms now existing it is true, but existing only in countries far
removed from Europe, forms such as Collocalia, Leptosomus,
Psittacus, Serpentariiis and Trogon, is perhaps even more sugges-
tive than the finding that France was once inhabited by forms
that are wholly extinct, of which in the older formations there
is abundance. Unfortunately none of these, however, can be
compared for singularity with Archaeopteryx or with some
American fossil forms next to be noticed, for their particular
■" It is true that from the time of Buffon, though he scorned any
regular classification, geographical distribution had been occasionally
held to have something to do with systematic arrangement ; but the
way in which the two were related was never clearly put forth, though
people who could read between the lines might have guessed the
secret from Darwin's Journal of Researches, as well as from his
introduction to the Zoology of the " Beagle " Voyage.
324
ORNITHOLOGY
[TAXONOMY
Marsh,
bearing on our knowledge of ornithology will be most con-
veniently treated here.
In November 1S70 O. C. Marsh, by finding the imperfect
fossUized tibia of a bird in the middle cretaceous shale of Kansas,
began a series of wonderful discoveries of great im-
portance to ornithology. Subsequent visits to the
same part of North America, often performed under circum-
stances of discomfort and occasionally of danger, brought to
this intrepid and energetic explorer the reward he had so fully
earned. Brief notices of his spoils appeared from time to time
in various volumes of the American Journal of Science and Arts
(Silliman's), but it is unnecessary here to refer to more than
a few of them. In that Journal for May 1872 (ser. 3, iii. p. 360)
the remains of a large swimming bird (nearly 6 ft. in length,
as afterwards appeared) having some affinity, it was thought,
to the Colymbidae were described under the name of Hesperornis
regalis, and a few months later (iv. p. 344) a second fossil bird
from the same locality was indicated as Ichthyornis dispar —
from the fish-like, biconcave form of its vertebrae. Further
examination of the enormous collections gathered by the author,
and preserved in the Museum of Yale University at New Haven,
Connecticut, showed him that this last bird, and another
to which he gave the name of Apatornis, had possessed well-
developed teeth implanted in sockets in both jaws, and induced
him to establish (v. pp. i6i, 162) for their reception a "sub-
class" Odontornithes and an order Ichthyornithes. Two years
more and the originally found Hesperornis was discovered also
to have teeth, but these were inserted in a groove. It was
accordingly regarded as the type of a distinct order Odontokac
(x. pp. 403-408), to which were assigned as other characters
vertebrae of a saddle-shape and not biconcave, a keelless ster-
num, and wings consisting only of the humerus. In 18S0
Marsh brought out Odontornithes, a monograph of the extinct
toothed birds of North America. Herein remains, attributed
to no fewer than a score of species, which were referred to eight
different genera, are fully described and sufficiently illustrated,
and, instead of the ordinal name Ichthyornithes previously used,
that of Odontotormae was proposed. In the author's concluding
summary he remarks on the fact that, while the Odontokac, as
exhibited in Hesperornis, had teeth inserted in a continuous
groove — a low and generalized character as shown by reptiles,
they had, however, the strongly differentiated saddle-shaped
vertebrae such as all modern birds possess. On the other hand
the Odontotormae, as exemplified in Ichthyornis, having the
primitive biconcave vertebrae, yet possessed the highly
specialized feature of teeth in distinct sockets. Hesperornis
too, with its keelless sternum, had aborted wings but strong
legs and feet adapted for swimming, while Ichthyornis had a
keeled sternum and powerful wings, but diminutive legs and
feet. These and other characters separate the two forms so
widely as quite to justify the establishment of as many orders
for their reception. Marsh states that he had fully satisfied
himself that Archacopteryx belonged to the Odontornithes, which
he thought it advisable for the present to regard as a subclass,
separated jnto three orders — Odontolcae, Odontotormae and
Saururae — all well marked, but evidently not of equal rank,
the last being clearly much more widely distinguished from
the first two than they are from one another. But that these
three oldest-known forms of birds should differ so greatly from
each other unmistakably points to a great antiquity for the class.
The former efforts at classification made by Sundevall have
already several times been mentioned, and a return to their con-
sideration was promised. In 1872 and 1873 he brought
Sua ev . ^^^ ^^ Stockholm a Mcthodi naturalis avium dis-
ponendarum tentamen, two portions of which (those relating to
the diurnal birds-of-prey and the Cichlontorphae, or forms related
to the thrushes) he found himself under the necessity of revising
and modifying in the course of 1874, in as many communications
to the Swedish Academy of Sciences {K. V.-Ak. Forhandlingar,
1874, No. 2, pp. 21-30; No. 3, pp. 27-30). This Tentamen,
containing his complete method of classifying birds in general,
naturally received much attention, the more so perhaps, since,
with its appendices, it was nearly the last labour of its respected
author, whose industrious life came to an end in the course of
the following year. From what has before been said of his works
it may be gathered that, while professedly basing his systematic
arrangement of the groups of birds on their external features,
he had hitherto striven to make his schemes harmonize if possible
with the dictates of internal structure as evinced by the science
of anatomy, though he uniformly and persistently protested
against the inside being better than the outside. In thus acting
he proved himself a true follower of his great countryman
Linnaeus; but, without disparagement of his efforts in this
respect, it must be said that when internal and external char-
acters appeared to be in conflict he gave, perhaps with unconscious
bias, a preference to the latter, for he belonged to a school of
zoologists whose natural instinct was to believe that such a
conflict always existed. Hence his efforts, praiseworthy as
they were from several points of view, and particularly so in
regard to some details, failed to satisfy the philosophic taxonomer
when generalizations and deeper principles were concerned, and
in his practice in respect of certain technicalities of classification
he was, in the eyes of the orthodox, a transgressor. Thus
instead of contenting himself with terms that had met with
pretty general approval, such as class, subclass, order, sub-
order, family, subfamily, and so on, he introduced into his final
scheme other designations, " agmen," " cohors," " phalanx," and
the like, which to the ordinary student of ornithology convey an
indefinite meaning, if any meaning at all. He also carried to a
very extreme limit his views of nomenclature, which were
certainly not in accordance with those held by most zoologists,
though this is a matter so trifling as to need no details in illustra-
tion. His Tentamen was translated into English by F. Nicholson
in 1889, and had a considerable influence on later writers,
especially in the arrangement of the smaller groups. In the
main it was an artificial system. Birds were divided into
Gymnopaedes and Dasypaedes, according as the young were
hatched naked or clothed. The Gymnopaedes are divided into
two " orders " — Oscines and Volucres — the former intended
to be identical with the group of the same name established
by older authors, and, in accordance with the observations of
Keyserling and Blasius already mentioned, divided into two
"series" — Laminiplantares, having the hinder part of the
" tarsus " covered with two horny plates, and Scutelliplanlares,
in which the same part is scutellated. These Laminiplantares
are composed of six cohorts as follows: —
Cohors I. Cichlontorphae.
Cohors 2. Conirostres.
Cohors 3. Coliomorphae.
Cohors 4. Certhiomorphae. — 3 families : tree-creepers, nut-hatches.
Cohors 5. Cinnyrimorphae. — 5 families: sun-birds, honey-suckers.
Cohors 6. Chelidonomorphae . — 1 family : swallows.
The Scutelliplanlares include a much smaller number of forms,
and, with the exception of the first " cohort " and a few groups of
the fourth and fifth, all are peculiar to America.
Cohors I. Holaspideae.
Cohors 2. Endaspideae.
Cohors 3. Exaspideae.
Cohors 4. Pycnaspideae.
Cohors 5. Taxaspideae.
We then arrive at the second order Volucres, which is divided
into two " series." Of these the first is made to contain, under the
name Zygodactyli,
Cohors I. Psittaci.
Cohors 2. Pici.
Cohors 3. Coccyges.
Cohors 4. Coenomorphae.
Cohors 5. Ampligulares.
Cohors 6. Longilingnes or Mellisugae.
Cohors 7. Syndactylae.
Cohors 8. Peristeroideae.
The Dasypaedes of Sundevall are separated into six " orders ";
but these will occupy us but a short while. The first of them,
Accipitres, comprehending all the birds-of-prey, were separated into
4 " cohorts " in his original work, but these were reduced in^ his
appendix to two — Nycthar pages or owls with 4 families divided into
2 series, and Hemerohar pages containing all the rest, and comprising
10 families (the last of which is the seriema, Dicholophus) divided
into 2 groups as Rapaces and Saprophagi — the latter including
the vultures. Next stands the order Callinae with 4 " cohorts ";
TAXONOMY]
ORNITHOLOGY
325
(i) Telraonomorphae, comprising 2 families, the sand-grouse (I'leroclcs)
and the grouse proper, among which the Central American Orcophasis
finds itself; (2) Phasianomorphae, with 4 families, pheasants pea-
cocks, turkeys, guinea fowls, partridges, quails, and hemipodes
(Turnix); (3) Macronyches, the raegapodes, with 2 families; (4) the
Duodecimpennalae, the curassows and guans, also with 2 families;
(5) the Struthionijormes, composed of the tinamous; and (6) the
Subgrallatores with 2 families, one consisting of the curious South
American genera Thinocorus and Allagis and the other of the shcath-
bill (Chionis). The fifth order (the third of the Dasypaedes) is formed
by the Crallatores, divided into 2 " series " — (i) AUinares, consisting
of 2 " cohorts," Herodii with i family, the herons, and Pelargi
with 4 families, spoonbills, ibises, storks, and the umbre (Scopus),
with Balaeiiiceps; (2) Hiimilinarcs, also consisting of 2 " cohorts,"
Limicolae with 2 families, sandpipers and snipes, stilts and avocets,
and Cursores with 8 families, including plovers, bustards, cranes,
rails, and all the other " waders." The sixth order, Natatores,
consists of all the birds that habitually swim and a few that do not,
containing 6 "cohorts": Longipennes and Pygopodes with 3
families each; Totipalmatae with i family; Tubinares with 3
families; Impennes with I family, penguins; and Lamellirostres
with 2 families, flamingoes and ducks. The seventh order, Proceres,
is divided into 2 "cohorts" — Veri with 2 families, ostriches and
emeus; and Subnobiles, consisting of the genus Apteryx. The
eighth order is formed by the Satirurae.
Later systems of classification owe much to anatomy, and
the pioneers in the modern advances in this respect were A. H.
Garrod and W. A. Forbes, two brilliant and short-
lived young men who occupied successively the post
of prosector to the Zoological Society of London, and
who made a rich use of the material provided by the collection
of that society. Garrod was the more skilled and ingenious
anatomist, Forbes had a greater acquaintance with the ornith-
ology of museums and collectors. Garrod founded his system
(1874) on muscular anatomy, making the two major divisions
of Aves (his Homalogoiialac and Anomalogonalae, depend in the
first instance on the presence or absence of a pecuhar muscular
slip in the leg, known as the ambicns, although indeed he e.xpressly
stated that this was not on account of the intrinsic importance
of the muscle in question, but because of its invariable association
with other pecuharities. The system of Forbes was reconstructed
after his death from notebook jottings, and neither Garrod
nor Forbes have left any permanent mark on the classification
of birds, although the material they furnished and the lines
they indicated have proved valuable in later hands. In 1880
Dr P. L. Sclater pubhshed in the Ibis a classification which was
mainly a revision of the system of Huxley, modified by the
investigations of Garrod and Forbes and by his own large
acquaintance with museum specimens.
Later
Systems,
In the article "Ornithology" in the ninth edition of this
encyclopaedia, A. Newton accepted the three subclasses of
Iiu.\ley, Saururac, Ralilac and Carinilae, and made a series of
cautious but critical observations on the minor divisions of
the Carinates. In 1882 A. Reichenow in Die Vogcl der zoolo-
gischcn Garten published a classification of birds with a phylo-
genetic tree. In this he departed considerably from the lines
that had been made familiar by English workers, and made
great use of natural characteristics. The next attempt of import-
ance appeared in the American Standard Natural History, pub-
lished in Boston in 1885. The volume on birds was written by
Dr L. Stejnegcr and was founded on Elliot Coues's Key to North
American Birds. Apart from its intrinsic merits as a learned
and valuable addition to classification, this work is interesting
in the history of ornithology because of the wholesale changes
of nomenclature it introduced as the result of much diligence
and zeal in the application of the strict rule of priority to the
names of birds.
In 1888 there was published the huge monograph by Max
Furbringer entitled Untcrsuchungen ztir Morphologie und
Systcmatik der Vogcl. In addition to an enormous body of new
information chiefly on the shoulder girdle, the alar muscles and
the nerve plexuses of birds, this work contained a critical and
descriptive summary of practically the whole pre-existing
literature on the structure of birds, and it is hardly necessary for
the student of ornithology to refer to earlier literature at first
hand. FUrbringer supposes that birds must have begun with
toothed forms of small or moderate size, with long tails and four
lizard-like feet and bodies clothed with a primitive kind of down.
To these succeeded forms where the down had developed into
body feathers for warmth, not flight, whilst the fore-limbs
had become organs of prehension, the hind-limbs of progression.
In such bipedal creatures the legs and pelvis became transformed
to a condition similar to that of Dinosaurian reptiles. Many of
them were climbing animals, and from these true birds with the
power of flight were developed. In the course of this evolution
there were many cases of arrest or degrad;ition, and one of the
most novel of the ideas of Ftirbringer, and one now accepted
by not a few anatomists, was that the ratites or ostrich-hke
birds were not a natural group but a set of stages of arrested
development or of partial degradation. It is impossible to
reproduce here Ftirbringer's elaborate details and phylogenetic
trees with their various horizontal sections, but the following
tables give the main outlines: —
Order.
Archornithes .
Struthiornithes
Rheornithes .
hippalectryornithes
Classis AvES
L Subclassis Saururae
Suborder. Gens.
Archaeoptcrygiformes .... Archaeopteryges
II. Subclassis Ornithurae
Struthioniformes Struthiones
Rheiformes Rheae
Casuariiformes Casuarii
Family.
Archaeoptcr^-gidae.
Struthionidae.
Rheidae.
( D romacidae -f Casuariidae + Dro-
mornithidae).
Acpyornithes Acpyornithidae.
Intermediate suborder: —
Aepyornithiformes .
Intermediate suborder: — .
Palamedeiformes .... Palamedae Palamedeidae.
r Anscriformes J Gastornithcs . . . . . Gastornithidae.
Anseres or Lamellirostres . Anatidac.
Enaliornithes Enaliornithidae.
Hesperornithes .... Hesperornithidae.
Colymbo-Podicipites . . . j g°'y'?b.Wae.
■^ ( rodicipidae.
Pelargornithes.
Podicipitiformes
Ciconiiformes
Phoenicopteri ] Pa'aeolodidae
^ ( rhoenicoptendae.
r Plataleidae or Hemiglottides.
Ciconiidae or Pelargi.
^ Scopidae.
Ardeidae or Herodii.
Balaenicipitidae.
r Gypogeranidae.
-j Cathartidae.
(^ Gypo-Falconidae.
{Phaetontidae.
Phalacrocoracidae.
Pelecanidae.
Fregatidae.
Pelargo-Herodii
Accipitres (Hemerohar pages,
Pelargoharpages)
326
ORODES
Order.
CHARADRIORMITHEs(Aegialor.
nithes)
Suborder.
Intermediate suborder:
Procellariiformes .
Intermediate suborder:
Aptenodytiformes
Intermediate suborder:-
Ichthyornithiformes
Charadriiformes
Gens.
Procellariae or Tubinares.
Aptenodytes or Impennes
Family.
Ichthyornithcs
Charadrii
Laro-Limicolae
Procellariidae.
Aptenodytidae.
Alectorornithes (Cliameor-
nithes)
CORACORNITHES (Dcndrorni-
thes)
Intermediate suborder: —
Gruiformes
Intermediate suborder: —
Ralliformes
Apterygiformes ....
Crj'pturiformes ....
Galliformes
Intermediate suborder: —
Columbiformes
Intermediate suborder: —
Psittaciformes .
Coccygiformes ....
Ichthyornithidae.
Apatornithidae.
r Charadriidae.
■i Glareolidae.
[ Dromadidae.
Chionididae.
Laridae.
Alcidae.
Thinocoridae.
Parrae Paridae.
Otides ^ Oedicnemidae.
( Otididae
r Eurypygidae.
■ Eurypygae J Rhinochetidae.
L Aptornithidae.
r Gruidae.
. Grues J Psophiidae.
I Cariamidae.
■pulicariae \ Heliornithidae.
j Ralhdae.
Hemipodii Mesitidae.
) Hemipodiidae.
Apterj'ges
{ Apterygidae.
I Dinornithidae.
Pico- Passerif ormes
Crypturi Cr>'pturidae.
Gallidae f Megapodiidae.
Opisthocomidae .... 1 y^"'^'^^- , ,
_ , I Gallidae or Alcctoropodes.
Pterocletes Pteroclidae.
Columbae ( Dididae.
( Columbidae.
Psittaci Psittacidae.
Coccyges \ Musophagidae.
) Cuculidae.
Intermediate gens: —
Galbulae \ ^""^T^^^'
} Galbulidae.
iCapitonidae.
Rhamphastidae.
Indicatoridae.
Picidae.
Passeres \ Pseudoscines.
I Passeridae or Passeres.
Cypselidae.
Trochilidae.
Coliidae.
Halcyoniformes
Coraciiformes
Whilst Fiirbringer was engaged on his gigantic task, Dr Hans
Gadow was preparing the ornithological volume of Bronn's
Thier-Reich. The two authors were in constant communication,
and the classifications they adopted had much in common. It
is unnecessary here to discuss the views of Gadow, as that
author himself has contributed the article Bird to this edition
of the Encyclopaedia Brilannica, and has there set forth his
revised scheme. (A. N.; P. C. M.)
ORODES (also called Hyrodes, Pers. Huraiida), the name of
two Parthian kings.
I. Orodes I., son of Phraates III., whom he murdered in
57 B.C., assisted by his brother Mithradates III. This Mithra-
dates was made king of Media, but soon afterwards was expelled
by Orodes and fled into Syria. Thence he invaded the Parthian
kingdom, but having reigned for a short time (55) was besieged
by Surenas, general of Orodes, in Seleucia, and after a prolonged
Makrochires ....
Colii
Intermediate gens: —
Trogones Trogonidae.
Halcyones \ Halcyonidae.
/ Alcedmidae.
B--°tes j Upupidae^^_
Meropes Meropidae.
Intermediate gens: —
Todi (Momotidae.
( 1 odidae.
Coraciae Coraciidae
t Leptosomidae.
f Caprimulgidae.
Caprimulgi J Steatornithidae.
[ Podargidae.
Striges Strigidae.
resistance was captured and slain. Meanwhile Crassus had
begun his attempt to conquer the east, but he was defeated
and killed in 53 at Carrhae by Surenas, while Orodes himself
invaded Armenia and forced King Artavasdes, the son of Ti-
granes, to abandon the Romans. By the victory of Carrhae
the countries east of the Euphrates were secured to the Parthians.
In the next year they invaded Syria, but with little success, for
Surenas, whose achievements had made him too dangerous,
was killed by Orodes (Plut. Crass. Zi), and Pacorus, the young
son of the king, was defeated by C. Cassius in 51. During the
civil war the Parthians sided first with Pompcy and then with
Brutus and Cassius, but took no action until 40 B.C., when
Pacorus, assisted by the Roman deserter Labienus, conquered
a great part of Syria and Asia Minor, but was defeated and killed
by Ventidius in 38 (see Pacorus). The old king, Orodes, who
was deeply afHicted by the death of his gallant son, appointed
OROGRAPHY— ORPHEUS
327
his son Phraates IV. successor, but was soon afterwards killed
by him (37 B.C.; Dio. Cass. 49.23; Justin 42.4; Plut. Crassus,
33). Plutarch relates that Orodes understood Greek very well;
after the death of Crassus the Bacchae of Euripides were repre-
sented at his court (Plut. Crass. 33).
2. Orodes II., raised to the throne by the magnates after
the death of Phraates V. about a.d. 5, was killed after a short
reign "on account of his extreme cruelty" (Joseph. Ant.
xviii. 2, 4). (Ed. M.)
OROGRAPHY (Gr. opos, mountain, ypa4>eiv, to write), that
part of physical geography which deals with the geological
formation, the surface features and description of mountains.
The terms " oreography," " orology " and "oreology" arc also
sometimes used.
ORONTES, the ancient name of the chief Syrian river, also
called Draco, Typhon and Axius, the last a native form, from
whose revival, or continuous employment in native speech, has
proceeded the modern name 'Asi ("rebel"), which is variously
interpreted by Arabs as referring to the stream's impetuosity,
to its unproductive channel, or to the fact that it flows away
from Mecca. The Orontes rises in the great springs of Labweh
on the east side of the Buka'a, or inter-Lebanon district, very
near the fountains of the southward-flowing Litani, and it runs
due north, parallel with the coast, falling 2000 ft. through a
rocky gorge. Leaving this it expands into the Lake of Homs,
having been dammed back in antiquity. The valley now widens
out into the rich district of Hamah {Hamath-Epiphaneia),
below which lie the broad meadow-lands of Ghab, containing
the sites of ancient Apamea and Larissa. This central Orontes
valley ends at the rocky barrier of Jisr al-Hadid, where the river
is diverted to the west, and the plain of Antioch opens. Two
large tributaries from the N., the Afrin and Kara Su, here reach
it through the former Lake of Antioch, which is now drained
through an artificial channel (Nahr al-Kowsit). Passing N.
of the modern Antakia (Antioch) the Orontes plunges S.W. into
a gorge (compared by the ancients to Tempe), and falls 150 ft.
in 10 m. to the sea just south of the httle port of Suedia (anc.
Sdeucia Picriae), after a total course of 170 m. Mainly un-
navigable and of little use for irrigation, the Orontes derives
its historical importance solely from the convenience of its
valley for traffic from N. to S. Roads from N. and N.E., con-
verging at Antioch, follow the course of the stream up to
Homs, where they fork to Damascus and to Coele-Syria and
the S.; and along its valley have passed the armies and
traffic bound to and from Egypt in all ages. (See Antioch
and Homs.) (D. G. H.)
OROPUS, a Greek seaport, on the Euripus, in the district
YlupdUi), opposite Eretria. It was a border city between
Boeotia and Attica, and its possession was a continual cause
of dispute between the two countries; but at last it came into
the final possession of Athens, and is always alluded to under
the Roman empire as an Attic town. The actual harbour,
which was called Delphinium, was at the mouth of the Asopus,
about a mile north of the city. A village still called Oropo
occupies the site of the ancient town. The famous oracle of
Amphiaraus was situated in the territory of Oropus, 12 stadia
from the city. The site has been excavated by the Greek
Archaeological Society; it contained a temple, a sacred spring,
into which coins were thrown by worshippers, altars and porti-
coes, and a small theatre, of which the proscenium is well pre-
served. Worshippers used to consult the oracle of Amphiaraus
by sleeping on the skin of a slaughtered ram within the sacred
building.
OROSIUS, PAULUS (fl. 415), historian and theologian, was
born in Spain (possibly at Braga in Galicia) towards the close
of the 4th century. Having entered the Christian priesthood,
he naturally took an interest in the Priscillianist controversy
then going on in his native country, and it may have been in
connexion with this that he went to consult Augustine at Hippo
in 413 or 414. After staying for some time in Africa as the dis-
ciple of Augustine, he was sent by him in 415 to Palestine with
a letter of introduction to Jerome, then at Bethlehem. The
ostensible purpose of his mission (apart, of course, from those
of pilgrimage and perhai)s relic-hunting) was that he might
gain further instruction from Jerome on the points raised by
the Priscillianists and Origenists; but in reality, it would seem,
his business was to stir up and assist Jerome and others against
Pelagius, who, since the synod of Carthage in 411, had been
living in Palestine, and finding some acceptance there. The
result of his arrival was that John, bishop of Jerusalem, was
induced to summon at his capital in June 415 a synod at which
Orosius communicated the decisions of Carthage and read such
of Augustine's writings against Pelagius as had at that time
appeared. Success, however, was scarcely to be hoped for
amongst Orientals who did not understand Latin, and whose
sense of reverence was unshocked by the question of Pelagius,
ct guis est mihi Augustinus? All that Orosius succeeded in
obtaining was John's consent to send letters and deputies to
Innocent of Rome; and, after having waited long enough to
learn the unfavourable decision of the synod of Diospolis or
Lydda in December of the same year, he returned to north
Africa, where he is believed to have died. According to Gcn-
nadius he carried with him recently discovered relics of the
protomartyr Stephen from Palestine to Minorca, where they
were efficacious in converting the Jews.
The earliest work of Orosius, Consullatio sive commonitorium ad
Augustinum de errore Priscillianistarum et Origenislarum, explains
its object by its title; it was written soon after his arrival in Africa,
and is usually printed in the works of Augustine along with the
reply of the latter, Contra ^Priscillianistas et Origenistas liber \ad
Orosium. His next treatise. Liber apologeticus de arbitrii libertate,
was written during his stay in Palestine, and in connexion with
the controversy which engaged him there. It is a keen but not
always fair criticism of the Pelagian position from that of Augustine.
The Historiae adversum Paganos was undertaken at the suggestion
of Augustine, to whom it is dedicated. When Augustine proposed
this task he had already planned and made some progress with his
own De civitate Dei; it is the same argument that is elaborated
by his disciple, namely, the evidence from history that the circum-
stances of the world had not really become worse since the intro-
duction of Christianity. The work, which is thus a pragmatical
chronicle of the calamities that have happened to mankind from the
fall down to the Gothic period, has little accuracy or learning, and
even less of literary charm to commend it; but it was the first
attempt to write the history of the world as a history of God guiding
humanity. Its purpose gave it value in the eyes of the orthodox,
and the Hormesta, Ormesta, or Ormista as it was called, no one knows
why (from Or[osii] M[undi] Hist[oria] or from de miseria ntundil
see Morner, p. 180, for list of guesses), speedily attained a wide
popularity. Nearly two hundred MSS. of it have survived. A free
abridged translation by King Alfred is still extant (Old English
text, with original in Latin, edited by H. Sweet, 1883). The editio
princeps of the original appeared at Augsburg (1471); that of
Haverkamp (Leiden, 1738 and 1767) has now been superseded by
C. Zangemeister, who has edited the Hist, and also the Lib. apol.
in vol. V. of the Corp. scr. eccl. Lat. (Vienna, 1882), as well as an
edit. min. (Leipzig, Teubner, 1889). The " sources " made use of by
Orosius have been investigated by T. de Morner {De Orosii vita ejiisque
hist. libr. vii. adversus Paganos, 1844); besides the Old and New
Testaments, he appears to have consulted Caesar, Li\'y, Justin,
Tacitus, Suetonius, Florus and a cosmography, attaching also great
value to Jerome's translation of the Chronicles of Eusebius.
ORPHAN, the term used of one who has lost both parents
by death, sometimes of one who has lost father or mother only.
In Law, an orphan is such a person who is under age. The Late
Lat. orphanus, from which the word, chiefly owing to its use in
the Vulgate, was adopted into English, is a transliteration of
6p4>av6s, in the same sense, the original meaning being " bereft
of," " destitute," classical Lat. orbus. The Old English word
for an orphan was sleopcild, stepchild. By the custom of the
city of London, the lord mayor and aldermen, in the Court of
Orphans, have the guardianship of the children still urtder age
of deceased freemen. Orphans' courts exist for the guardian-
ship of orphans and administration of their estates in Delaware,
Maryland, New Jersey and Pennsylvania in the Ignited States.
In other states these are performed by officers of the
Probate Court, known as " surrogates," or by other titles.
ORPHEUS, in Greek legend, the chief representative of the
art of song and playing on the lyre, and of great importance in
the religious history of Greece. The derivation of the name is
uncertain, the most probable being that which connects it with
328
ORPHEUS
6p<j)-{" dark," 6p4>v<uos, 6p<j}vr]). In accordance with this, Orpheus
may have been originally a god of darkness; or the liberator
from the power of darkness by his gift of song; or he may have
been so called because his rites were celebrated by night (cf.
Dionysus Nyctelius). It is possible, but very improbable, that
Orpheus was an historical personage; even in ancient times his
existence was denied. According to Maass, he was a chthonian
deity, the counterpart of Dionysus, with whom he is closely
connected; J. E. Harrison, however, regards him as a reHgious
reformer from Crete, who introduced the doctrine of ccstasis
without intoxication amongst the Thracians and was slain by
the votaries of the frenzied ritual. S. Reinach sees in him the fox
roaming " in the darkness," to the Thracians a personification of
the wine-god, torn in pieces by the Bassarae (fox-maidens).
Although by some he was held to be a Greek, the tradition of his
Thracian origin was most generally accepted. His name does
not occur in Homer or Hesiod, but he was known in the time
of Ibycus (f. 530 B.C.), and Pindar (522-442 B.C.) speaks of him
as " the father of songs." From the 6th century onwards he
was looked upon as one of the chief poets and musicians of
antiquity, the inventor or perfecter of the lyre, who by his music
and singing was able not only to charm the wild beasts, but even
to draw the trees and rocks from their places, and to arrest the
rivers in their course. As one of the pioneers of civilization,
he was supposed to have taught mankind the arts of medicine,
writing and agriculture. As closely connected with religious
life, he was an augur and seer; practised magical arts, especially
astrology; founded or rendered accessible many important
cults, such as those of Apollo and Dionysus; instituted mystic
rites, both pubUc and private; prescribed initiatory and puri-
ficatory ritual. He was said to have visited Egypt, and to have
become acquainted there with the writings of Moses and with
the doctrine of a future life.
According to the best-known tradition, Orpheus was the son of
Oeagrus, king of Thrace, and the muse Calliope. During his
residence in Thrace he joined the expedition of the Argonauts,
whose leader Jason had been informed by Chiron that only by the
aid of Orpheus would they be able to pass by the Sirens un-
scathed. His numerous services during the journey are described
in the Argonautica that goes under his name. But the most
famous story in which he figures is that of his wife Eurydice.
While fleeing from Aristaeus, she was bitten by a serpent and
died. Orpheus went down to the lower world and by his music
softened the heart of Pluto and Persephone, who allowed Eurydice
to return v.'ith him to earth. But the condition was attached
that he should walk in front of her and not look back until he had
reached the upper world. In his anxiety he broke his promise,
and Eurydice vanished again from his sight. The story in this
form belongs to the time of Virgil, who first introduces the name
of Aristaeus. Other ancient writers, however, speak of his visit
to the underworld; according to Plato, the infernal gods only
" presented an apparition" of Eurydice to him.
After the death of Eurydice, Orpheus rejected the advances
of the Thracian women, who, jealous of his faithfulness to the
memory of his lost wife, tore him to pieces during the frenzy of
the Bacchic orgies. His head and lyre floated " down the swift
Hebrus to the Lesbian shore," where the inhabitants buried
his head and a shrine Vv'as built in his honour near Antissa. The
lyre was carried to hea/en by the Muses, and was placed amongst
the stars. The Muses also gathered up the fragments of his
body and buried them at Leibethra below Olympus, where the
nightingales sang over his grave, while yet another legend
places his tomb at Dium, near Pydna in Macedonia. Other
accounts of his death are: that he killed himself from grief at
the failure of his journey to Hades; that he was struck with
lightning by Zeus for having revealed the mysteries of the gods
to men; or he was torn to pieces by the Maenads for having
abandoned the cult of Dionysus for that of Apollo.
According to Gruppe, the legend of the death of Orpheus is a
late imitation of the Adonis-Osiris myth. Osiris, like Orpheus, is
torn in pieces, and his head floats down every year from Egypt to
Byblus; the body of Attis, the Phrygian counterpart of Adonis,
like that of Orpheus, does not suffer decay. The story is repeated
of Dionysus; he is torn in pieces, and his head is carried down to
Lesbos. Without going so far as to assert that Orpheus is a hypo-
stasis of Dionysus, there is no doubt that a close conne.xion existed
between them from very early times. According to Frazer, these
traditions may be " distorted reminiscences " of the practice of
human sacrifice, especially of divine kings, the object of which was
to ensure fertiUty in the animal and vegetable worlds. Orpheus,
in the manner of his death, was considered to personate the god
Dionysus, and was thus the representative of the god torn to pieces
every year, a ceremony enacted by the Bacchae in the earliest
times with a human victim, afterwards with a bull to represent the
bull-formed god. A distinct feature of this ritual was u>iio(t>a-Yia
(eating the flesh of the victim raw), whereby the communicants
imagined that they consumed and assimilated the god represented
by the victim, and thus became filled with the divine ecstasy.
A. W. Bather {Journ. Hell. Studies, xiv. p. 254) sees in the myth an
allusion to a ritual, the object of which is the expulsion of death or
winter. It is possible that the floating of the head of Orpheus to
Lesbos has reference to the fact that the island was the first home of
lyric poetry, and may be symbolical of the route taken by the Aeolian
emigrants from Thessaly on their way to their new home in Asia
Minor.
The name of Orpheus is equaUy important in the religious
history of Greece. He was the mythic founder of a religious
school or sect, with a code of rules of life, a mystic eclectic theo-
logy, a system of purificatory and expiatory rites, and peculiar
mysteries. This school is first observable under the rule of
Peisistratus at Athens in the 6th century B.C. Its doctrines are
founded on two elements: the Thraco- Phrygian religion of
Dionysus with its erthusiastic orgies, its mysteries and its
purifications, and the tendency to philosophic speculation on
the nature and mutual relations of the numerous gods, developed
at this time by intercourse with Egypt and the East, and by the
quickened intercourse between different tribes and different
rehgions in Greece itself. These causes produced similar results
in different parts of Greece. The close analogy between Pytha-
goreanism and Orphism has been recognized from Herodotus
(ii, 81) to the latest modern writers. Both inculcated a peculiar
kind of ascetic life; both had a mystical speculative theory
of religion, with purificatory rites, abstinence from beans, &c.;
but Orphism was more especially religious, while Pythagoreanism,
at least originally, inclined more to be a political and philosophical
creed.
The rules of the Orphic life prescribed abstinence from beans,
flesh, certain kinds of fish, &c., the wearing of a special kind of
clothes, and numerous other practices and abstinences. The
ritual of worship was peculiar, not admitting bloody sacrifices.
The belief was taught in the homogeneity of all living things,
in the doctrine of original sin, in the transmigration of souls, in
the view that the soul is entombed in the body {ffoi/io aijua),
and that it may gradually attain perfection during connexion
with a series of bodies. When completely purified, it will be
freed from this "circle of generation" {kvicXos yevecews), and
will again become divine, as it was before its entrance into a
mortal body.
The chief ceremonies of the nightly ritual were sacrifice and
libation; prayer and purification; the representation of sacred
legends (e.g. the myth of Zagreus, the chief object of worship,
who was identified with most of the numerous gods of the
Orphic pantheon); the rape of Persephone; and the descent
into Hades. These were introduced as a " sacred explanation"
(lepos X670S) of the rules and prescriptions. To these also belong
the rite of a)/iO(^o7ta,and the communication of liturgical formulae
for the guidance of the soul of the dead man on his way to the
underworld, which also served as credentials to the gods below.
Some of the so-called " Orphic tablets," metrical inscriptions
engraved on small plates of gold, chiefly dating from the 4th and
3rd centuries B.C., have been discovered in tombs in southern
Italy, Crete and Rome.
It does not appear, however, that a regularly organized or numerous
Orphic sect ever existed, nor that Orphism ever became popular;
it was too abstract, too full of symbolism. On the other hand, the
genuine Orphics, a fraternity of religious ascetics, found unscrupulous
imitators and impostors, who preyed upon the credulous and
ignorant. Such were the Orpheotelcstae or Metrag>'rtac, wandering
priests who went round the country- with an ass carrying the sacred
properties (.'\ristophanes. Frogs, 159) and a bundle of sacred books.
' They promised an easy expiation for crimes to both living and
ORPHREY— ORRERY, EARL OF
329
dead on payment of a fee, undertook to punish the enemies of their
clients, and held out to them the prospect of perpetual banqueting
and drinking-bouts in Paradise.
A large number of writings in the tone of the Orphic religion
were ascribed to Orpheus. They dealt with such subjects as the
origin of the gods, the creation of the world, the ritual of purification
and initiation, and oracular responses. These poems were recited
at rhapsodic contests together with those of Homer and Hesiod,
and Orphic hymns were used in the Eleusinian mysteries.' The best-
known name in connexion with them is that of Onomacritus (q.v.),
who, in the time of the Peisistratidae, made a collection (including
forgeries of his own) of Orphic songs and legends. In later times
Orphic theology engaged the attention of Greek philosophers —
Eudemus the Peripatetic, Chrysippus the Stoic, and Proclus the
Neoplatonist, but it was an especially favourite study of the
grammarians of Alexandria, where it became so intermixed with
Egyptian elements that Orpheus came to be looked upon as the
founder of mysticism. The " rhapsodic theogony " in particular
exercised great influence on Neoplatonism. The Orphic literature
(of which only fragments remain) was united in a corpus, called
rd 'Op0«d, the chief poem in which was ij rod 'Op^ews OeoXoyia. It
also inclucied a collection of Orphic hymns, liturgic songs, practical
treatises, and poems on various subjects. The so-called Orphic
Poems, still extant, are of much later date, probably belonging to
the 4th century A.d. ; they consist of: (i) an Argonautka, glorify-
ing the deeds of Orpheus on the " Argo," (2) a didactic poem on the
magic powers of stones, called Lithica, (3) eighty-seven hymns on
various divinities and personified forces of nature. Some of these
hymns are probably earlier (ist and 2nd centuries). The Orphic
poems also played an important part in the controversies between
Christian and pagan writers in the 3rd and 4th centuries after
Christ; pagan writers quoted them to show the real meaning of
the multitude of gods, while Christians retorted by reference to the
obscene and disgraceful fictions by which the former degraded their
gods.
Bibliography. — C. A. Lobeck's Aglaophamus (1829) is still
indispensable. Of more modern writings on Orpheus and Orphism
the following may be consulted. The articles by O. Gruppe in
Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie and by P. Monceaux in Daremberg
and Saglio's DUtionnaire des antiquites; " Orphica " in Smith's
Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (3rd ed., 1891), by L. C.
Purser; J. E. Harrison, Prolegomena to the Study of Creek Religion
(2nd ed., 1908, with a critical appendix by Gilbert Murray on the
Orphic tablets); E. Rohde, Psyche, ii. (1907), and article in Heidel-
berger Jahrbikher (1896); E. W. Maass, Orpheus (1895); S. Reinach,
" La mort d'Orph^e " in Cidtes, mythes, et religions, ii. (1906) ;
O. Gruppe, Griechische Mythologie, ii. (1906), pp. 1028-1041; T.
Gomperz, Greek Thinkers, i. (Eng. trans., 1901), pp. 84-90, 123-147;
E. Gerhard, tjber Orpheus und die Orphiker (1861); A. Dieterich,
Nekyia (1893), pp. 72-108, 136-162, 225-232; O. Kern, De Orphei,
Epimenidis, Pherecydis theogoniis (1888); O. Gruppe, Die rhap-
sodische Theogonie (1890); A. Dieterich, De hymnis Orphicis (1891);
G. F. Schomann, Griechische Alterthiimer, ii. (ed. J. H. Lipsius,
1902), p. 378; P. Stengel, Die griechischen Kultiisaltertilmer (1898),
There is an edition of the Orphic Fragments and of the poems by
E. Abel (1885). The Argonautica has been edited separately by
J. W. Schneider (1803), the Lithica by T. Tyrwhitt (1791), and
there is an English translation of the Hymns by T. Taylor (re-
printed, 1896).
On the representations of Orpheus in heathen and Christian art
(in which he is finally transformed into the Good Shepherd with his
sheep), see A. Baumcister, Denkmdler des classischen Altertums,
ii. p. 1120; P. Knapp, Uher Orpheusdarstetlungen (Tubingen,
1895); F. X. Kraus, Realencyklopadie des christlichen Alterthums,
ii. (1886); J. A. Martigny, Dictionnaire des antiquites chretiennes
(1889); A. Heussner, Die altchristlichen Orpheusdarstellungen
(Leipzig, 1893); and the articles in Roscher's and Daremberg and
Saglio's Lexicons.
The story of Orpheus, as was to be expected of a legend told
both by Ovid and Boetius, retained its popularity throughout the
middle ages and was transformed into the likeness of a northern
fairy tale. In English medieval literature it appears in three some-
what different versions: Sir Orpheo, a " lay of Brittany " printed
from the Harleian MS. in J. Ritson's Ancient English Metrical
Romances, vol. ii. (1802); Orpheo and Heurodis from the Auchinleck
MS. in David Laing's Select Remains of the Ancient Popular Poetry
of Scotland (new ed., 1885); and Kyng Orfew from the Ashmolean
MS. in J.O. Halliwell's Illustrations of Fairy Mythology (Shakespeare
Soc, 1842). The poems show traces of French influence.
G-H. F.; X.)
ORPHREY, gold or other richly ornamented embroidery,
particularly an embroidered border on an ecclesiastical vestment
(see Vestments). The word is from O. Fr. orfreis, mod. orfroi.
from med. Lat. aurijrisium, aiirijrigium, &c., for aiiriphrygiiim,
' For Orphism in relation to the Eleusinian and other mysteries
see Mystery.
aitrum, gold, and phrygium, Phrygian; a name given to gold-
embroidcrcd tissues, also known as vcstes Phrygiae, the Phrygians
being famous for their skill in embroidering in gold.
ORPIMENT {auripigmenlum), arsenic trisulphide, AsjSj,
or yellow realgar {q.v.), occurring in small quantities as a mineral
crystallizing in the rhombic system and of a brilliant golden-
yellow colour in Bohemia, Peru, &c. For industrial purposes
aH artificial orpiment is manufactured by subliming one part
of sulphur with two of arsenic Irioxide. The sublimate varies
in colour from yellow to red, according to the intimacy of the
combination of the ingredients; and by varying the relative
quantities used many intermediate tones may be obtained.
Tliese artificial preparations are highly poisonous. Formerly,
under the name of " king's yellow," a preparation of orpiment
was in considerable use as a pigment, but now it has been largely
superseded by chrome-yellow. It was also at one time used
in dyeing and calico-printing, and for the unhairing of skins,
&c.; but safer and equally efficient substitutes have been
found.
ORPINGTON, a town in the Dartford parliamentary division
of Kent, England, 13J m. S.E. of London, and 25 m. S. by E.
of Chisk'hurst, on the South-Eastern & Chatham railway.
Pop. (igoi), 4259. The church (Early English) contains some
carved woodwork and ancient brasses. An old mansion called
the Priory dates in part from 1393. The oak-panelled hall
and the principal rooms are of the 15th century. In 1873
John Ruskin set up at Orpington a private publishing house
for his works, in the hands of his friend George Allen. Fruit
and hops are extensively grown in the neighbourhood. From its
pleasant situation in a hilly, wooded district near the headwaters
of the Cray stream, Orpington has become in modern times a
favourite residential locality for those whose business lies in
London. A line of populous villages extends down the vaUey
between Orpington and Bexley — St Mary Cray (pop. 1894),
St Paul's Cray (1207), Foots Cray (an urban district, 5817),
and North Cray.
ORRERY,"- CHARLES BOYLE, 4TH Earl of (1676-1731),
the second son of Roger, 2nd earl, was born at Chelsea in 1676.
He was educated at Christ Church, Oxford, and soon distin-
guished himself by his learning and abilities. Like the first
earl, he was an author, soldier and statesman. He translated
Plutarch's life of Lysander, and published an edition of the epistles
of Phalaris, which engaged him in the famous controversy with
Bentley. He was three times member for the town of Hunting-
don; and on the death of his brother, Lionel, 3rd earl, in 1703,
he succeeded to the title. He entered the army, and in 1709
was raised to the rank of major-general, and sworn one of her
Majesty's privy council. At the battle of the Wood he acted
with distinguished bravery. He was appointed queen's envoy
to the states of Brabant and Flanders; and having discharged
this trust with ability, he was created an English peer, as Baron
Boyle of Marston, in Somersetshire. He received several
additional honours in the reign of George I.; but having had
the misfortune to fall under the suspicion of the government
he was committed to the Tower, where he remained six months,
and was then admitted to bail. On a subsequent inquiry it
was found impossible to criminate him, and he was discharged.
He died on the 28th of August 1731. Among the works of Roger,
earl of Orrery, will be found a comedy, entitled As you find it,
written by Charles Boyle. His son John (see Cork, Earls of),
the 5th earl of Orrery, succeeded to the earldom of Cork on the
failure of the elder branch of the Boyle family, as earl of Cork
and Orrery.
ORRERY, ROGER BOYLE, ist Earl of (1621-1670), British
soldier, statesman and dramatist, 3rd surviving son of Richard
Boyle, 1st earl of Cork, was born on the 25th of April 1621,
created baron of Broghill on the 28th of February 1627, and
educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and, according to Wood,
-The orren,-, an astronomical instrument — consisting of an
apparatus which illustrates the motions of the solar system by means
of the revolution of balls moved by whcelwork — invented, or at least
constructed, by Graham, was named after the earl.
330
ORRIS-ROOT— ORSEOLE
also at Oxford. He travelled in France and Italy, and coming
home took part in the expedition against the Scots. He returned
to Ireland on the outbreak of the rebellion in 1641 and fought
with his brothers at the battle of Liscarrol in September 1642.
On the resignation of the marquis of Ormonde, Lord Broghill
consented to serve under the parliamentary commissioners till
the execution of the king, when he retired altogether from public
affairs and took up his residence at Marston in Somersetshire.
Subsequently he originated a scheme to bring about the Restora-
tion, but when on his way abroad to concert measures with Charles
he was unexpectedly visited by Cromwell in London, who, after
informing him that his plans were well known to the council,
and warning him of the consequence of persisting in them,
offered him a command in Ireland against the rebels, which,
as it entailed no obligations except faithful service, was accepted.
His assistance in Ireland proved invaluable. Appointed master
of the ordnance, he soon assembled a body of infantry and horse,
and drove the rebels into Kilkenny, where they surrendered.
On the 10th of May 1650 he completely defeated at Macroom
a force of Irish advancing to the relief of Clonmell, and joining
Cromwell assisted in taking the latter place. On Cromwell's
departure for Scotland he co-operated with Ireton, whom he
joined at the siege of Limerick, and defeated the force marching
to its relief under Lord Muskerry, thus effecting the capture of
the town. By this time BroghiU had become the fast friend and
follower of CromweU, whose stern measures in Ireland and sup-
port of the English and Protestants were welcomed after the
policy of concession to the Irish initiated by Charles I. He was
returned to Cromwell's parliaments of 1654 and 1656 as member
for the county of Cork, and also in the latter assembly for
Edinburgh, for which he elected to sit. He served this year as
lord president of the council in Scotland, where he won much
popularity; and when he returned to England he was included
in the inner cabinet of Cromwell's council, and was nominated
in 1657 a member of the new house of Lords. He was one of
those most in favour of Cromwell's assumption of the royal
title, and proposed a union between the Protector's daughter
Frances and Charles II. On Cromwell's death he gave his support
to Richard; but as he saw no possibihty of maintaining the
government he left for Ireland, where by resuming his command
in Munster he secured the island for Charles and anticipated
Monk's overtures by inviting him to land at Cork. He sat for
Arundel in the Convention and in the parliament of 1661, and
at the Restoration was taken into great favour. On the 5th of
September 1660 he was created earl of Orrery. The same year
he was appointed a lord justice of Ireland and drew up the Act
of Settlement. He continued to exercise his office as lord-
president of Munster till 1668, when he resigned it on account of
disputes with the duke of Ormonde, the lord-lieutenant. On
the 25th of November he was impeached by the House of
Commons for " raising of money by his own authority upon his
majesty's subjects," but the prorogation of parliament by the
king interrupted the proceedings, which were not afterwards
renewed. He died on the 26th of October 1679. He married
Lady Margaret Howard, 3rd daughter of Theophilus, 2nd earl
of Suffolk, whose charms were celebrated by Suckling in his
poem " The Bride." By her he had besides five daughters,
two sons, of whom the eldest, Roger (1646-1681 or 16S2),
succeeded as 2nd earl of Orrery.
In addition to Lord Orrery's achievements as a statesman and
administrator, he gained some reputation as a writer and a dramatist.
He was the author of An Answer to a Scandalous Letter . . . A Full
Discovery 0} the Treachery of the Irish Rebels (1662), printed with the
letter itself in his State Letters (1742), another answer to the same
letter entitled Irish Colours Displayed . . . being also ascribed to
him; Parthenissa, a novel (1654); English Adventures by a Person
of Honour (1676), whence Otway drew his tragedy of the Orphan;
Treatise of the Art of War (1677), a work of considerable historical
value ; poems, of little interest, including verses On His Majesty's
Happy Restoration (unprinted), On the Death of Abraham Cowley
(1677), The Dream (unprinted). Poems on most of the Festivals of the
Church (1681); plays in verse, of some literary but no dramatic
merit, of which Henry V. (1664), Mustapha (1665), Tryphon (acted
1668), The Black Prince (1669), Herod the Great (published 1694), and
Altemira (1702) were tragedies, and Guzman (1669) and Mr Anthony
comedies. A collected edition was published in 1737, to which was
added the comedy As you find it. The General is also attributed to
him.
Authorities. — State Letters of Roger Boyle, ist Earl of Orrery,
ed. with his life by Th. Morrice (1742); Add. MSS. (Brit. Mus'),
25,287 (letter-book when governor of Munster), and 32,095 sqq.
109-188 (letters); article in the Diet, of Nat. Biog. and authorities
there collected; Wood's Alhenae Oxonienses, iii. 1200; Biographia
Britannica (Kippis) ; Orrery Papers, ed. by Lady Cork and Orrery
(1903) (Preface); Contemporary Hist, of Affairs in Ireland, ed. by
John T. Gilbert (1879-1880) ; Cal. of State Pap., Irish and Domestic.
ORRIS-ROOT (apparently a corruption of " iris root "), the
rhizomes or underground stems of three species of Iris, I. ger-
manica, I. florcntina and /. pallida, closely allied plants growing
in subtropical and temperate latitudes, but principally identified
with North Italy. The three plants are indiscriminately culti-
vated in the neighbourhood of Florence as an agricultural
product under the name of " ghiaggiuolo." The rhizomes are
in August dug up and freed of the rootlets and brown outer
bark; they are then dried and packed in casks for sale. In
drying they acquire a delicate but distinct odour of violets.
As it comes into the market, orris-root is in the form of contorted
sticks and irregular knobby pieces up to 4 in. in length, of a
compact chalky appearance. It is principally powdered for use
in dentifrices and other scented dry preparations.
ORSEOLE, the name of a Venetian family, three members
of which filled the office of doge.
PiETRO Orseole I. (c. 928-997) acted as ambassador to the
emperor Otto I. before he was elected doge in August 976.
Just previous to this event part of Venice had been burned
down and Pietro began the rebuilding of St Mark's church and
the ducal palace. He is chiefly celebrated, however, for his
piety and his generosity, and after holding office for two years
he left Venice secretly and retired to a monastery in Aquitaine,
where he passed his remaining days. He was canonized in 1731.
Pietro Orseole II. (d. 1009), a son of the previous doge,
was himself elected to this office in 991. He was a great builder,
but his chief work was to crush the pirates of the Adriatic Sea
and to bring a long stretch of the Dalmatian coast under the
rule of Venice, thus relieving the commerce of the republic
from a great and pressing danger. The fleet which achieved
this result was led by the doge in person; it sailed on Ascension
Day, the oth of May 1000, and its progress was attended with
uninterrupted success. In honour of this victory the Venetians
instituted the ceremony which afterwards grew into the sposa-
lizio del mar, or marriage of the sea, and which was celebrated
each year on Ascension Day, while the doge added to his title
that of duke of Dalmatia. In many other ways Pietro 's services
to the state were considerable, and he may be said to be one of
the chief founders of the commercial greatness of Venice. The
doge was on very friendly terms with the emperor Otto III.
and also with the emperors at Constantinople, and in 1003 he
sailed against the Saracens and compelled them to raise the
siege of Bari. In 1003 his son Giovanni was associated with
him in the dogeship, and on Giovanni's death in 1007 another
son, Ottone, succeeded to this position.
Ottone Orseole (d. 1032), whose godfather was the emperor
Otto III., became sole doge on his father's death in 1009. He
married a sister of St Stephen, king of Hungary, and under
his rule Venice was powerful and prosperous. One of his
brothers, Orso, was patriarch of Grado, another, Vitalis, was
bishop of Torcello, but the growing wealth and influence of the
Orseole family soon filled the Venetians with alarm. About 1024
Ottone and Orso were driven from Venice, but when Orso's
rival, Poppo, patriarch of Aquileia, seized Grado, the exiled
doge and his brother was recalled and Grado was recovered.
In 1026 Ottone was banished; he found a refuge in Constanti-
nople, where he remained until his death, although in 1030 an
embassy invited him to return to Venice, where his brother
Orso acted as agent for fourteen months. Orso remained patri-
arch of Grado until his death in 1045, and another member of
the Orseole family, Domenico, was doge for a single day in 103 1.
After the fall of the Orseoli the Venetians decreed that no doge
should name his successor, or associate any one with him in the
ORSHA— ORTELIUS
331
dogeship. Ottone's son, Pietro, was king of Hungary for some
time after the death of his uncle, St Stephen, in lojS.
See Kohlschiitter, Venedig unter dem Herzog Peter II. Orseole
(Gottingen, 1868); H. F. Brown, Venice (1895}; F. C. Hodgson,
The Early History of Venice (1901) ; and W. C. Hazlitt, The Venetian
Republic (1900).
ORSHA (Polish Orsza), a town of Russia, in the government
of Mogilev, 74 m. by rail W.S.W. of Smolensk on the Moscow-
Warsaw railway, and on the Dnieper. Pop. (1807), 13,161. It
is an important entrepot for grain, seeds and timber. It is a
very old town, mentioned in the annals under the name of Rsha
in 1067. In the 13th century it was taken by the Lithuanians,
who fortified it. In 1604 the Poles founded there a Jesuit college.
The Russians besieged Orsha more than once in the i6th and
17th centuries, and finally annexed it in 1772.
ORSINI, the name of a Roman princely family of great anti-
quity, whose perpetual feuds with the Colonna are one of the
dominant features of the history of medieval Rome. According
to tradition the popes Paul I. (757) and Eugenius II. (824) were
of the Orsini family, but the probable founder of the house was
a certain Ursus (the Bear), about whom very Uttle is known,
and the first authentic Orsini pope was Giacinto Orsini, son of
Petrus Bobo, who assumed the name of Celestin III. (1191).
The latter endowed his nephews with church lands and founded
the fortunes of the family, which alone of the Guelf houses
was able to confront the GhibeUine Colonna. " Orsini for the
Church " was their war-cry in opposition to " Colonna for the
people." In the 13th century the " Sons of the Bear " were
already powerful and rich, and under Innocent III. they waged
incessant war against other families, including that of the pope
himself (Conti). In 1241 Matteo Orsini was elected senator of
Rome, and sided with Pope Gregory IX. against the Colonna
and the Emperor Frederick II., saving Rome for the Guelfic
cause. In 1266 the family acquired Marino, and in 1277 Gio-
vanni Orsini was elected pope as Nicholas III. When Boniface
VIII. proclaimed a crusade against the Colonna in 1297, the
Orsini played a conspicuous part in the expedition and captured
Nepi, which the pope granted them as a fief. On the death of
Benedict XL (1304) fierce civil warfare broke out in Rome
and the Campagna for the election of his successor, and Cardinal
Napoleone Orsini appears as the leader of the French faction
at the conclave. The Campagna was laid waste by the feuds
of the Orsinis, the Colonnas and the Caetanis. At this time
the Orsini held the castle of S. Angelo, and a number of palaces
on the Monte Giordano, which formed a fortified and walled
quarter. In 1332, during the absence of the popes at Avignon,
the feuds between Orsini and Colonna, in which even Giovanni
Orsini, although cardinal legate, took part, reduced Rome to
a state of complete anarchy. We find the Orsini again at war
with the Colonna at the time of Rienzi. In 1435 Francesco
Orsini was appointed prefect of Rome, and created duke of
Gravina by Pope Eugenius IV. In 1484 war between the Orsini
and the Colonna broke out once more, the former supporting
the pope (Sixtus IV.). Virginio Orsini led his faction against
the rival house's strongholds, which were stormed, the Colonna
being thereby completely defeated. The Orsini fortunes waxed
and waned many times, and their property was often con-
fiscated, but they always remained a powerful family and gave
many soldiers, statesmen and prelates to the church. The
title of prince of Solofra was conferred on them in 1620, and that
of prince of the Holy Roman Empire in 1629. In 1724 Vincenzo
Maria Orsini was elected pope (Benedict XIII.) and gave his
family the title of Roman princes.
Authorities. — F. Sansovino, Storiadi casa Orsina (Venice, 1565) ;
F. Gregorovius, Ceschichte der Stadt Rom (Stuttgart, 1872); A. von
Reumont, Geschichte der Stadt Rom (Berlin, 1868); Almanack de
Gotha.
ORSINI, FELICE (1819-1858), Itahan revolutionist, was born
at Meldola in Romagna. He was destined for an ecclesiastical
career, but he soon abandoned that prospect, and became an
ardent liberal, joining the Giovane Italia, a society founded by
Giuseppe Mazzini. Implicated together with his father in
revolutionary plots, he was arrested in 1844 and condemned to
imprisonment for Ufe. The new pope, Pius IX., however, set
him free, and he led a company of young Romagnols in the first
war of Itahan independence (1848), distinguishing himself in
the engagements at Treviso and Vicenza. He was elected
member of the Roman Constituent Assembly in 1849, and after
the fall of the republic he conspired against the papal autocracy
once more in the interest of the Mazzinian party. Mazzini sent
him on a secret mission to Hungary, but he was arrested in
1854 and imprisoned at Mantua, escaping a few months later. In
1857 he published an account of his prison experiences in English
under the title of Austrian Dungeons in Italy, which led to a
rupture between him and Mazzini. He then entered into negotia-
tions with Ausonio Franchi, editor of the Ragione of Turin,
which he proposed to make the organ of the pure republicans.
But having become convinced that Napoleon III. was the chief
obstacle to Italian independence and the principal cause of the
anti-Hberal reaction throughout Europe, he went to Paris in
1857 to conspire against him. On the evening of the 14th of
January 1858, while the emperor and empress were on their way
to the theatre, Orsini and his accomplices threw three bombs
at the imperial carriage. The intended victims were unhurt,
but several other persons were killed or wounded. Orsini
himself was wounded, and at once arrested; on the nth of
February he wrote his famous letter to Napoleon, in which he
exhorted him to take up the cause of Italian freedom. He
addressed another letter to the youth of Italy, stigmatizing
political assassination. He was condemned to death and
executed on the 13th of March 1858, meeting his fate with great
calmness and bravery. Of his accomplices Fieri also was
executed, Rudio was condemned to death but obtained a com-
mutation of sentence, and Gomez was condemned to hard
labour for life. The importance of Orsini's attempt lies in the
fact that it terrified Napoleon, who came to believe that unless
he took up the Itahan cause other attempts would follow and
that sooner or later he would be assassinated. This fear con-
tributed not a httle to the emperor's subsequent Italian policy.
Bibliography. — Memoirs and Adventures of Felice Orsini written
by himself (Edinburgh, 1857, 2nd ed., edited by Ausonio Franchi,
Turin, 1858); Letlere edite e inedite di F. 0. (Milan, 1861); Enrico
Montazio, / contemporanei Italiani- Felice Orsini (Turin, 1862);
La verile stir Orsini, par un ancien proscrit (1879); Angelo Arboit,
Tojin e la fuga di Felice Orsini (Cagliari, 1893).
ORTA, LAKE OF, in N. Italy, W. of Lago Maggiore. It has
been so named since the i6th century, but was previously called
the Lago di San Giidio, the patron of the region — Cusio is a
merely poetical name. Its southern end is about 22 m. by rail
N.W. of Novara on the main Turin-Milan Une, whUe its north
end is about 4 m. by rail S. of the Gravellona-Toce railway
station, half-way between Ornavasso and Omegna. It has an
area of about 6j sq. m., it is about 8 m. in length, its greatest
depth is 482 ft., and the surface is 951 ft. above sea-level, while
its width varies from \ to ij m. Its scenery is characteristically
Italian, while the large island of San Giulio (just W. of the
village of Orta) has some very picturesque buildings, and takes
its name from the local saint, who lived in the 4th century.
The chief place is Orta, built on a peninsula projecting from the
east shore of the lake, while Omegna is at its northern extremity.
It is supposed that the lake is the remnant of a much larger sheet
of water by which originally the waters of the Toce or Tosa
flowed south towards Novara. As the glaciers retreated the
waters flowing from them sank, and were gradually diverted
into Lago Maggiore. This explains why no considerable stream
feeds the Lake of Orta, while at its north end the Nigoglia torrent
flows out of it, but in about 5 m. it falls into the Strona, which in
turn soon joins the Toce or Tosa, a short distance before this
river flows into Lago Maggiore. (W. A. B. C.)
ORTELIUS (Ortels, Wortels), ABRAHAM, next to Mercator
the greatest geographer of his age, was born at Antwerp on
the 14th of April 1527, and died in the same city on the 4th of
July 1598. He was of German origin, his family coming from
Augsburg. He travelled extensively in western Europe, especi-
ally in the Netherlands ; south and west Germany {e.g. 1560,
1575. 1578); France (1559-1560, &c.); England and Ireland
332
ORTHEZ— ORTHOCLASE
(1577), and Italy (1378, and perhaps twice or thrice between
1550 and 1558). Beginning as a map-engraver (in 1547 he
enters the Antwerp gild of St Luke as af seller van Kartell), his
early career is that of a business man, and most of his journeys
before 1560 are for commercial purposes (such as his yearly
visits to the Frankfort fair). In 1560, however, when travelling
with Gerhard Kremer (Mercator) to Trier, Lorraine and Poitiers,
he seems to have been attracted, largely by Mercator's influence,
towards the career of a scientific geographer; in particular
he now devoted himself, at his friend's suggestion, to the com-
pilation of that atlas or Thcalre of the World by which he became
famous. In 1564 he completed a mappemonde, which afterwards
appeared in the Thcalriim. He also published a map of Egypt
in 1565 a plan of Britenburg Castle on the coast of Holland, and
perhaps a map of Asia, before the appearance of his great work.
In 1570 (May 20) was issued, by Gilles Coppens de Diest at
Antwerp, Ortelius' Theatrum Orhis Terrarum, the " first modern
atlas " (of 53 maps). Three Latin editions of this (besides a
Flemish, a French and a German) appeared before the end
of 1572; twenty-five editions came out before Ortelius' death
in 1598; and several others were pubhshed subsequently, for
the vogue continued till about 161 2. Most of the maps were
admittedly reproductions (a list of 87 authors is given by Ortelius
himself), and many discrepancies of delineation or nomenclature
occur. Errors, of course, abound, both in general conceptions
and in detail; thus South America is very faulty in outline,
and in Scotland the Grampians lie between the Forth and the
Clyde; but, taken as a whole, this atlas with its accompanying
text was a monument of rare erudition and industry. Its
immediate precursor and prototype was a collection of thirty-
eight maps of European lands, and of Asia, Africa, Tartary and
Egypt, gathered together by the wealth and enterprise, and
through the agents, of Ortehus' friend and patron, Gilles Hooft-
man, lord of Cleydael and Aertselaer: most of these were printed
in Rome, eight or nine only in Belgium. In 1573 Ortelius pub-
lished seventeen supplementary maps under the title of Addita-
mentum TIteatri Orhis Terrarum. By this time he had formed
a fine collection of coins, medals and antiques, and this produced
(also in 1573, published by Philippe Galle of Antwerp) his
Deorum dearumque capita . . . ex Musco Ortelii (reprinted in
Gronovius, Thes. Gr. Ant. vol. vii.). In 1575 he was appointed
geographer to the king of Spain, Philip II., on the recommenda-
tion of Arius Montanus, who vouched for his orthodoxy (his
family, as early as 1535, had fallen under suspicion of Protestant-
ism). In 1 57S he laid the basis of a critical treatment of ancient
geography by his Synonyma geographica (issued by the Plantin
press at Antwerp and republished as Thesaurus geographicus
in 1596). In 1584 he brought out his Nomcnclator Plolemaicus,
his Parergon (a series of maps illustrating ancient history, sacred
and secular), and his Itinerarium per nonnullas Galliae Bclgicae
partes (published at the Plantin press, and reprinted in Hegenitius,
Ilin. Frisio-HoU.), a record of a journey in Belgium and the
Rhineland made in 1575. Among his last works were an edition
of Caesar (C. I. Caesaris omnia quae extant, Leiden, Raphelingen,
15Q3), and the Aurei saeculi imago, sive Germanorum veterum
vita (Phihppe Galle, Antwerp, 1 596). He also aided Welser in his
edition of the Peutinger Table in 1598. In 1596 he received a
presentation from Antwerp city, similar to that afterwards
bestowed on Rubens; his death and burial (in St Michael's
Abbey church) in 1 598 were marked by public mourning.
See Emmanuel van Meteren, Historia Belgica (Amsterdam,
1670) ; General Wauwermans, Histoire de I'kole carlographique
beige et anversoise (Antwerp, 1895), and article " Ortelius " in
Biographie nalionale (Belgian), vol. xvi. (Brussels, 1901); J. H.
Hessels, Abrahami Ortelii epistulae (Cambridge, England, 1887);
Max Rooses, Ortelius et Plantin (1880); Canard, " G6nealogie
d'Ortelius," in the Bulletin de la Soc. roy. de Geog. d'Anvers (1880
and 1881). (C. R. B.)
ORTHEZ, a town of south-western France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Basses- Pyrenees, 25 m.
N.W. of Pau on the Southern railway to Bayonne. Pop. (1906)
town 4159; commune 6254. It is finely situated on the right
bank of the Gave de Pau which is crossed at this point by a
bridge of the 14th century, having four arches and surmounted
at its centre by a tower. Several old houses, and a church of the
1 2th, 14th and 15th centuries are of some interest, but the most
remarkable building is the Tour de Moncade, a pentagonal
tower of the 13th century, once the keep of a castle of the vis-
counts of Beam, and now used as a meteorological observatory.
A building of the i6th century is all that remains of the old
Calvinist university (see below). The hotel de ville is a modern
building containing the library.
Orthez has a tribunal of first instance and is the seat of a sub-
prefect. The spinning and weaving of cotton, especially of the
fabric called toile de Beam, flour-milling, the manufacture of
paper and of leather, and the preparation of hams known as
jamhons de Bayonne and of other delicacies are among its in-
dustries. There are quarries of stone and marble in the neigh-
bourhood, and the town has a thriving trade in leather, hams
and lime.
At the end of the 12th century Orthez passed from the posses-
sion of the viscounts of Dax to that of the viscounts of Beam,
whose chief place of residence it became in the 13th century.
Froissart records the splendour of the court of Orthez under
Gaston Phoebus in the latter half of the 14th century. Jeanne
d'Albret founded a Calvinist university in the town and Theodore
Beza taught there for some time. An envoy sent in 1569 by
Charles IX. to revive the Catholic faith had to stand a siege in
Orthez which was eventually taken by assault by the Protestant
captain, Gabriel, count of Montgomery. In 1684 Nicholas
Foucault, intendant under Louis XIV., was more successful, as
the inhabitants, ostensibly at least, renounced Protestantism,
which is nevertheless still strong in the town. In 1814 the
duke of Wellington defeated Marshal Soult on the hiUs to the
north of Orthez.
ORTHOCLASE, an important rock -forming mineral belonging
to the felspar group (see Felspar). It is a potash-felspar,
KAlSiaOs, and crystallizes in the monoclinic system. Large
and distinctly developed crystals are frequently found in the
drusy cavities of granites and pegmatites. Crystals differ
somewhat in habit; for example, they may be prismatic with an
orthorhombic aspect (fig. 1), as in the variety adularia (from the
Adular Mountains in the St Gotthard region); or tabular (fig. 2),
being flattened parallel to the clino-pinacoid or plane of sym-
metry J (010), as in the variety sanidine (traws, (TaviSoi, a board);
or again the crystals may be elongated in the direction of the
edge between b and the basal plane c (001), which is a character-
istic habit of orthoclase from the granite quarries at Baveno in
Italy. Twinning is frequent, and there are three well-defined
twin-laws: (i) Carlsbad twins (fig. 4). Here the two individuals
of the twin interpenetrate or are united parallel to the clino-
\
'^xf
Ttt
m I
J
.-'\
Fig. I..
Fig. 2.
Fig. 3.
pinacoid: one individual may be brought into the position of
the other by a rotation of 180° about the vertical crystallographic
axis or prism-edge. Such twinned crystals are found at Carlsbad
in Bohemia and many other places. (2) Baveno twins (fig. 5).
These twins, in which n (021) is the twin-plane, are common at
Baveno. i^) Manebach twins (dg. 6). The twin-plane here is c
(001); examples of this rarer twin were first found at Manebach
in Thuringia.
An important character of orthoclase is the cleavage. There
is a direction of perfect cleavage parallel to the basal plane c,
on which plane the lustre is consequently often pearly; and one
less highly developed parallel to the plane of symmetry b.
ORTHODOX EASTERN CHURCH
333
The angle between these two cleavages is 90°, hence the name
orthoclase (from the Gr. opSos, right, and k\S.v, to break),
given by A. Breithaupt in 1823, who was the first to distinguish
orthoclase from the other felspars. There are also imperfect
cleavages parallel to the faces of the prism m (no).
The hardness is 6, and the sp. gr. 2-56. Crystals are some-
times colourless and transparent with a glassy aspect, as in the
varieties adularia, sanidine and the rhyacolite of Monte Somma,
\'esuvius.
The optical characters are somewhat variable, the plane of the
optic axes being perpendicular to the plane of symmetry in
Fig. 4. Fig. 5.
Twinned Crystals of Orthoclase.
Fig. 6.
some crystals and parallel to it in others: further, when some
crystals are heated, the optic axes gradually change from one
position to the other. In all cases, however, the acute negative
bisectrix of the optic axes lies in the plane of symmetry and is
inclined to the edge 6/c at 3-7°, or, in varieties rich in soda, at
10-12°. The mean refractive index is 1-524, and the double
refraction is weak (o-oo6).
Analyses of orthoclase usually prove the presence of small
amounts of soda and lime in addition to potash. These con-
stituents are, however, probably present as plagioclase (albite
and oligoclase) intergrown with the orthoclase. The two minerals
are interlaminated parallel to the ortho-pinacoid (100) or the
pinacoid (801) , and they may readily be distinguished in the flesh-
red aventurine-felspar, known as perthite, from Perth in Lanark
county, Ontario. Frequently, however, as in microperthite and
cryptoperthite, this is on a microscopic scale or so minute as to
be no longer recognizable. These directions (100) and (801) are
planes of parting in orthoclase, and along them alteration fre-
quently takes place, giving rise to schilkr effects. Moon-stone
iq.v.) shows a pearly opalescent reflection on these planes; and
brilliant coloured reflections in the same directions are exhibited
by the labradorescent orthoclase from the augite-syenite of
Fredriksvarn and Laurvik in southern Norway, which is much
used as an ornamental stone. The same effect is shown to a lesser
degree by murchisonite, named in honour of Sir R.I. Murchison,
from the Triassic conglomerate of Heavitree near Exeter.
Orthoclase forms an essential constituent of many acidic igneous
rocks (granite, syenite, porphyry, trachyte, phonolite, &c.) and of
crystalline schists and gneisses. In porphyries and in some granites
(e.g. those of Shap in Westmorland, Cornwall, &c.) it occurs as em-
bedded crystals with well-defined outlines, but usually it presents
no crystalline form. In the trachyte of the Drachenfels and the
Laacher See in Rhenish Prussia there are large porphyritic crystals
of glassy sanidine. The best crystals are those found in the crystal-
lined cavities and veins of granites, pegmatites and gneis.ses, for
example, at Baveno and Elba in Italy, Alabashka near Mursinka
i_n the Urals, Hirschberg in Silesia, Tanokami-yama in the province
Omi, Japan, and the Mourne Mountains in Ireland. As a mineral
of secondary origin orthoclase is sometimes found in cavities in
basaltic rocks, and its occurrence in metalliferous mineral-veins
has been observed. It has been formed artificially in the laboratory
and is sometimes met with in furnace products.
The commonest alteration product of orthoclase is kaolin (q.v.)\
the frequent cloudiness or opacity of crystals is often due to partial
alteration to kaolin. Mica and epidote also result by the alteration
of orthoclase. (L. J. S.)
ORTHODOX EASTERN CHURCH (frequently spoken of as " the
Greek Church," and described officially as " The Holy Orthodox'
' The Orthodox Eastern Church has always laid especial stress
upon the unchanging tradition of the faith, and has claimed ortho-
doxy as its especial characteristic. The " Feast of Orthodoxy "
{■fl KvpiaK-q TTji opdodo^ias), celebrated annually on the first Sunday
of the Greek Lent, was founded in honour of the restoration of the
Catholic Apostolic Eastern Church "), the historical repre-
sentative of the churches of the ancient East. It consists
of (a) those churches which have accepted all the orlglas of
decrees of the first seven general councils, and have the Greek
remained in full communion with one another, {b) such or Eastern
churches as have derived their origin from these by " '
missionary activity, or by abscission without loss of communion.
The Eastern Church is both the source and background of the
Western. Christianity arose in the East, and Greek was the
language of the Scriptures and early services of the church,
but when Latin Christianity established itself in Europe and
Africa, and when the old Roman empire fell in two, and the
eastern half became separate in government, interests and ideas
from the western, the term Greek or Eastern Church acquired
gradually a fixed meaning. It denoted the church which included
the patriarchates of Antioch, Alexandria, Jerusalem and
Constantinople, and their dependencies. The ecclesiastical
division of the early church, at least within the empire, was based
upon the civil. Constantine introduced a new partition of the
empire into dioceses, and the church adopted a similar division.
The bishop of the chief city in each diocese naturally rose to a
pre-eminence, and was commonly called exarch — a title borrowed
from the civil jurisdiction. In process of time the common title
patriarch was restricted to the most eminent of these exarchs,
and councils decided who were worthy of the dignity. The council
of Nicaea recognized three patriarchs — the bishops of Rome,
Alexandria and Antioch. To these were afterwards added the
bishops of Constantinople and Jerusalem. When the empire
was divided, there was one patriarch in the West, the bishop of
Rome, while in the East there were at first two, then four
and latterly five. This geographical fact has had a great deal
to do in determining the character of the Eastern Church.
It is not a despotic monarchy governed from one centre and by
a monarch in whom plenitude of power resides. It is an oligarchy
of patriarchs. It is based, of course, on the great body of bishops ;
but episcopal rule, through the various grades of metropolitan,
primate, exarch, attains to sovereignty only in the five patriarchal
thrones. Each patriarch is, within his diocese, what the
Galilean theory makes the pope in the universal church. He is
supreme, and not amenable to any of his brother patriarchs,
but is within the jurisdiction of an oecumenical synod. This
makes the Eastern Church quite distinct in government and
traditions of polity from the Western. It has ever been the
policy of Rome to efface national distinctions, but under the
shadow of the Eastern Church national churches have grown
and flourished. Revolts against Rome have always implied
a repudiation of the ruling principles of the papal system;
but the schismatic churches of the East have always reproduced
the ecclesiastical polity of the church' from which they seceded.
The Greek Church, like the Roman, soon spread far beyond
the imperial dioceses which at first fixed its boundaries, but it
was far less successful than the Roman in preserving ^^^ ^^^
its conquests for Christianity. This was due in the tariaa in-
main to the differing quality of the forces by which vasioas in
the area covered by the two churches was respectively Wesiand
invaded. The northern barbarians by whom the
Western empire was overrun had long stood in awe of the power
and the civilization of Rome, which they recognized as superior;
the conquerors were thus predisposed to enter into the heritage
of the law and the religion of the conquered empire and, whether
they were pagans or Arian heretics, became in the end Catholic
Christians. In the East it was otherwise. The empire maintained
itself long, and died hard; but its decline and fall meant not
only the overthrow of the emperors of the East, but largely
that of the civilization and Christianity which they represented.
The Arabs, and after them the Turks, attacked the empire as
the armed missionaries of what they regarded as a superior
rehgion; Christianity survived in the vast territories they
Holy Images to the churches after the downfall of Iconoclasm (Feb-
ruary 19, 842) ; but it has gradually assumed a wider significance as
the celebration of victor\' over all heresies, and is now one of the
most characteristic festivals of the Eastern Church.
334
ORTHODOX EASTERN CHURCH
conquered only as a despised and tolerated superstition, its
ecclesiastical organization only as a convenient mechanism for
governing a subject and tributary population. It is true that
the Eastern Church made up in some sort for her losses by
missionary conquests elsewhere. Greek Christianity became the
religion of the Slavs as Latin Christianity became that of the
Germans; but the Orthodox Church never conquered her
conquerors, and the historian is too apt to enlarge on her past
glories and forget her present strength.
Early History. — The early history of the Eastern Church
is outlined in the article Church History. Here it is proposed
only to give in somewhat more detail the causes of division which
led (i) to the formation of the schismatic churches of the East,
and (2) to the open rupture with Latin Christianity.
The great dogmatic work of the Eastern Church was the
definition of that portion of the creed of Christendom which
Coatro- concerns theology proper — the doctrines of the essential
versies nature of the Godhead, and the doctrine of the God-
'""' head in relation with manhood in the incarnation,
schisms, ^j^jg ji^ fgjj jp jjjg Western Church to define anthro-
pology, or the doctrine of man's nature and needs. The contro-
versies which concern us are all related to the person of Christ,
the Theanthropos, for they alone are represented in the schismatic
churches of the East. These controversies will be best described
by reference to the oecumenical councils of the ancient and
undivided church.
All the churches of the East, schismatic as well as orthodox,
accept unreservedly the decrees of the first two councils. The
schismatic churches protest against the additions made to the
creeds of Nicaea and Constantinople by succeeding councils.
The Nicaeo-Constantinopolitan creed declared that Christ
was consubstantial {ofioovmos) with the Father, and that He
had become man (tvavdpoJTr-qaas). Disputes arose when theo-
logians tried to explain the latter phrase. These differences
took two separate and extreme types, the one of which forcibly
separated the two natures so as to deny anything like a real
union, while the other insisted upon a mixture of the two, or
an absorption of the human in the divine. The former was
the creed of Chaldaea and the latter the creed of Egypt ; Chaldaea
was the home of Nestorianism, Egypt the land of Monophysitism.
The Nestorians accept the decisions of the first two councils,
and reject the decrees of all the rest as unwarranted alterations
of the creed of Nicaea. The Monophysites accept the first
three councils, but reject the decree of Chalcedon and all that
come after it.
The council of Ephesus (a.d. 431), the third oecumenical,
had insisted upon applying the term Theotokos to the Virgin
Mary, and this was repeated in the symbol of Chalcedon, which
says that Christ was born of the Virgin Mary, the Theotokos,
" according to the manhood." The same symbol also declares
that Christ is " to be acknowledged in two natures . . . in-
divisibly and inseparably." Hence the Nestorians, who insisted
upon the duality of the natures to such a degree as to lose sight
of the unity of the person, and who rejected the term Theotokos,
repudiated the decrees both of Ephesus and of Chalcedon, and
upon the promulgation of the decrees of Chalcedon formally
separated from the church. Nestorianism had sprung from an
exaggeration of the theology of the school of Antioch, and the
schism weakened that patriarchate and its dependencies. It
took root in Chaldaea, and became very powerful. No small
part of the literature and science of the Mahommedan Arabs
came from Nestorian teachers, and Nestorian Christianity spread
far and wide through Asia (see Nestorius and Nestorians).
The council of Chalcedon (451), the fourth oecumenical,
declared that Christ is to be acknowledged " in two natures —
unconfusedly, unchangeably," and therefore decided against
the opinions of all who either believed that the divinity is the
sole nature of Christ, or who, rejecting this, taught only one
composite nature of Christ (one nature and one person, instead
of two natures and one person). The advocates of the one
nature theory were called Monophysites (?.»•), and they gave
rise to numerous sects, and to at least three separate national
churches — the Jacobites of Syria, the Copts of Egypt and the
Abyssinian Church, which are treated under separate headings.
The decisions of Chalcedon, which were the occasion of the
formation of aU these sects outside, did not put an end to Christo-
logical controversy inside the Orthodox Greek Church. The
most prominent question which emerged in attempting to define
further the person of Christ was whether the will belonged to
the nature or the person, or, as it came to be stated, whether
Christ had two wills or only one. The church in the sixth
oecumenical council at Constantinople (680) declared that
Christ had two wills. The Monothelites (g.v.) refused to submit,
and the result was the formation of another schismatic church —
the Maronite Church of the Lebanon range. The Maronites,
however, were reconciled to Rome in the 12th century, and
are reckoned as Roman Catholics of the Oriental Rite.
Later History. — The relation of the Byzantine Church to the
Roman may be described as one of growing estrangement from
the 5th to the nth century, and a series of abortive
attempts at reconciliation since the latter date. The ^"uh'"*
estrangement and final rupture may be traced to the Rome.
increasing claims of the Roman bishops and to Western
innovations in practice and in the doctrine of the Holy Spirit,
accompanied by an alteration of creed. In the early church
three bishops stood forth prominently, principally from the
political eminence of the cities in which they ruled — the bishops
of Rome, Alexandria and Antioch. The transfer of the seat
of empire from Rome to Constantinople gave the bishops of
Rome a possible rival in the patriarch of Constantinople, but
the absence of an overawing court and of meddling statesmen
did more than recoup the loss to the head of the Roman Church.
The theological calmness of the West, amid the violent theo-
logical disputes which troubled the Eastern patriarchates, and
the statesmanlike wisdom of Rome's greater bishops, combined
to give a unique position to the pope, which councils in vain
strove to shake, and which in time of difificulty the Eastern
patriarchs were fain to acknowledge and make use of, however
they might protest against it and the conclusions deduced
from it. But this pre-eminence, or rather the Roman idea of
what was involved in it, was never acknowledged in the East;
to press it upon the Eastern patriarchs was to prepare the way
for separation, to insist upon it in times of irritation was to cause
a schism. The theological genius of the East was different from
that of the West. The Eastern theology had its roots in Greek
philosophy, while a great deal of Western theology was based
on Roman law. The Greek fathers succeeded the Sophists,
the Latin theologians succeeded the Roman advocates (Stanley's
Eastern Church, ch. i.). This gave rise to misunderstandings, and
at last led to two widely separate ways of regarding and defining
one important doctrine — the procession of the Holy Spirit from
the Father or from the Father and the Son. Pohtical jealousies
and interests intensified the disputes, and at last, after many
premonitory symptoms, the final break came in 1054, when
Pope Leo IX. smote Michael Cerularius and the whole of the
Eastern Church with an excommunication. There had been
mutual excommunications before, but they had not resulted
in permanent schisms. Now, however, the separation was final,
and the ostensible cause of its finality was the introduction by
the Latins of two words Filioque into the creed.^ It is this
addition which was and which stiU remains the permanent cause
of separation. Ffoulkes has pointed out in his second volume
(ch. 1-3) that there was a resumption of intercourse more than
once between Rome and Constantinople after 1054, and that
the overbearing character of the Norman crusaders, and finally
the horrors of the sack of Constantinople in the fourth crusade
1 After the words " and in the Holy Ghost " of the Apostles'
Creed the Constantinopolitan creed added " who proceedeth from
the Father." The Roman Church, without the sanction of an
oecumenical council and without consulting the Easterns, added
" and the Son." The addition was first made at Toledo (589) in I
opposition to Arianism. The Easterns also resented the Roman \
enforcement of clerical celibacy, the limitation of the right of con-
firmation to the bishop and the use of unleavened bread in the
Eucharist.
ORTHODOX EASTERN CHURCH
335
cootro'
versy.
(i 204), were the real causes of the permanent estrangement. It is
undeniable, however, that the Filioquc question has always come
Tifg up to bar the way in any subsequent attempts at inter-
FlUoque" Communion. The theological question involved is a
very small one, but it brings out clearly the opposing
characteristics of Eastern and Western theology,
and so has acquired an importance far beyond its own worth.
The question is really one about the relations subsisting between
the persons of the Trinity and their hypostatical properties.
The Western Church affirms that the Holy Spirit " proceeds
from " the Father and from the Son. It believes that the
Spirit of the Father must be the Spirit of the Son also. Such
a theory seems alone able to satisfy the practical instincts of
the West, which did not concern itself with the metaphysical
aspect of the Trinity, but with Godhead in its relation to re-
deemed humanity. The Eastern Church affirms that the Holy
Spirit proceeds from the Father only, and takes its stand on
John XV. 26. The Eastern theologian thinks that the Western
double procession degrades the Deity and destroys the perfec-
tion of the Trinity. The double procession, in his eyes, means
two active principles (amai) in the Deity, and it means also that
there is a confusion between the hypostatical properties; a
property possessed by the Father and distinctive of the First
Person is attributed also to the Second. This is the theological,
and there is conjoined with it an historical and moral dispute.
The Easterns aUege that the addition of the words Filioque was
made, not only without authority, and therefore unwarrantably,
but also for the purpose of forcing a rupture between East and
West in the interests of the barbarian empire of the West.
Attempts at reconciliation were made from time to time
afterwards, but were always wrecked on the two points of papal
supremacy, when it meant the right to impose Western
Attempts usages upon the East, and of the addition to the creed.
reuBioa First there was the negotiation between Pope Gregory
IX. (i 227-1 241) and Germanus, patriarch of Con-
stantinople. The Roman conditions were practically recogni-
tion of papal jurisdiction, the use of unleavened bread and
permission to omit Filioque if all books written against the
Western doctrine were burnt. The patriarch refused the terms.
Then, later in the 13th century, came negotiations under Innocent
IV. and Clement IV., in which the popes proposed the same
conditions as Gregory IX., with additions. These proposals
were rejected by the Easterns, who regarded them as attempts
to enforce new creeds on their church.
The negotiations at the council of Lyons (1274) were, strictly
speaking, between the pope and the Byzantine emperor, and
were more pohtical than ecclesiastical. Michael Palaeologus
ruled in Constantinople while Baldwin II., the last of the Latin
emperors, was an exile in Europe. Palaeologus wished the pope
to acknowledge his title to be emperor of the East, and in return
promised submission to the papal supremacy and the union
of the two churches on the pope's own terms. This enforced
union lasted only during the lifetime of the emperor. The only
other attempt at union which requires to be mentioned is that
made at the council of Florence. It was really suggested by
the political weakness of the Byzantine empire and the dread
of the approach of the Turks. John Palaeologus the emperor,
Joseph the patriarch of Constantinople, and several Eastern
bishops came to Italy and appeared at the councU of Florence —
the papal council, the rival of the council of Basel. As on
former occasions the representatives of the East were at first
deceived by false representations; they were betrayed into
recognition of papal supremacy, and tricked into signing what
could afterwards be represented as a submission to Western
doctrine. The natural consequences followed — a repudiation
of what had been done; and the Eastern bishops on their way
home took care to make emphatic their ritualistic differences
from Rome. Soon after came the fall of Constantinople, and
with this event an end to the political reasons for the sub-
mission of the Orthodox clergy. Rome's schemes for a union
which meant an unconditional submission on the part of the
Orthodox Church did not cease, however, but they were no
longer attempted on a grand scale. Jesuit missionaries after
the Reformation stirred up schisms in some parts of the Eastern
Church, and in Austria, Poland and elsewhere large numbers of
Orthodox Christians submitted, either wilhngly or under com-
pulsion to the see of Rome (see Roman Catholic Church,
section Uniat Oriental Churches).
Doctrines and Creeds.— The Eastern Church has no creeds in
the modern Western use of the word, no normative summaries
of what must be believed. It has preserved the older idea
that a creed is an adoring confession of the church engaged
in worship; and, when occasion called for more, the belief
of the church was expressed more by way of public testimony
than in symbolical books. Still the doctrines of the church
can be gathered from these confessions of faith. The Eastern
creeds may thus be roughly placed in two classes— the
oecumenical creeds of the early undivided church, and later
testimonies defining the position of the Orthodox Church of the
East with regard to the belief of the Roman Catholic and of
Protestant Churches. These testimonies were called forth
mainly by the protest of Greek theologians against Jesuitism
on the one hand, and against the reforming tendencies of the
patriarch Cyril Lucaris on the other. The Orthodox Greek Church
adopts the doctrinal decisions of the seven oecumenical councils,
together with the canons of the Concilium Quinisextum or
second TruUan council (692); and they further hold that all
these definitions and canons are simply explanations and en-
forcements of the Nicaeo-Constantinopolitan creed and the
decrees of the first council of Nicaea. The first four councils
settled the orthodox faith on the doctrines of the Trinity and of the
Incarnation; the fifth supplemented the decisions of the first
four. The sixth declared against Monothelitism; the seventh
sanctioned the worship {dovXtla, not aXridivri Xarpeia) of
images; the council held in the TruUus (a saloon in the palace
at Constantinople) supplemented by canons of discipline the
doctrinal decrees of the fifth and sixth councils.
The Reformation of the i6th century was not without effect
on the Eastern Church. Some of the Reformers, notably
Melanchthon, expected to effect a reunion of Christen-
dom by means of the Easterns, cherishing the same J"** "*"
hopes as the modern Old Catholic divines and their and the
English sympathizers. Melanchthon himself sent a Orthodox
Greek translation of the Augsburg Confession to ^*"«^*-
Joasaph, patriarch of Constantinople, and some years afterwards
Jacob Andreae and Martin Crusius began a correspondence with
Jeremiah, patriarch of Constantinople, in which they asked
an official expression of his opinions about Lutheran doctrine.
The result was that Jeremiah answered in his Censura Orientalis
Ecclcsiac condemning the distinctive principles of Lutheranism.
The reformatory movement of Cyrillos Lucaris (q.v.), patriarch
of Constantinople (1621), brought the Greek Church face to face
with Reformation theology. Cyril conceived the plan of reform-
ing the Eastern Church by bringing its doctrines into harmony
with those of Calvinism, and by sending able young Greek
theologians to Switzerland, Holland and England to study
Protestant theology. His scheme of reform was opposed chiefly
by the intrigues of the Jesuits, who in the end brought about
his death. The church anathematized his doctrines, and in
its later testimonies repudiated his confession on the one hand
and Jesuit ideas on the other. The most important of these testi-
monies are (1) the Orthodox confession or catechism of Peter
Mogilas, confirmed by the Eastern patriarchs and by the synod of
Jerusalem (1643), and (2) the decree of the synod of Jerusalem
or the confession of Dositheus (1672). Besides these, the cate-
chisms of the Russian Church should be consulted, especially the
catechism of Philaret, which since 1839 has been used in all the
churches and schools in Russia. Founding on-these doctrinal
sources the teaching of the Orthodox Eastern Church is ■: —
' This summary has been taken, with corrections, from G. B.
Winer, Comparative Darstellung des Lehrbegriffs der verschiedenen
Kirchenparteien (Leipzig, 1824, Eng. tr., Edin., 1873). Small
capitals denote differences from Roman Catholic, italics differences
from Protestant doctrine.
Christianity is a Divine revelation communicated to mankind
through Christ; its saving truths are to be learned froni the
Bible and tradition, the former having been written,
Comparl- q.„^ ^/jg latter maintained uncorrupted through the influ-
soa of pj^j,g Qj- jjjg Holv Spirit; the interpretation of the Bible
*^'^'""""'' belongs to tlie Church, which is taught by the Holy Spirit,
Komaaaaa^^^ even,' believer may read the Scriptures.
dariae" According to the Christian revelation, God is a Trinity,
" ' ' thatis, the Divine Essenceexists in Three Persons, perfectly
equal in nature and dignity, the Father, the Son and the Holy Ghost;
THE Holy Ghost proceeds from the Father only. Besides the
Triune God there is no other object of divine worship, but homage
{vTr(p5ov\ia) may be paid to the Virgin Mary, and reverence (SouXia) to
the saints and to tlieir pictures and relics.
Man is born with a corrupt bias which was not his at creation;
the first man, when created, possessed immortality, perfect
wisdom, and a will regulated by reason. Through the first sin
Adam and hcs posterity lost immortality, and his will received
A BIAS towards EVIL. In this natural state man, who even before
he actually sins is a sinner before God by original or inherited
sin, commits manifold actual transgressions; but he is not absolutely
■without power of will towards good, and is not always doing evil.
Christ, the Son of God, became man in two natures, which in-
ternally and inseparably united make One Person, and, according
to the eternal purpose of God, has obtained for man reconciliation
with God, and eternal life, inasmuch as He by His vicarious death
has made satisfaction to God for the world's sins, and this satisfac-
tion was perfectly commensurate with the sins of the WORLD.
Man is made partaker of reconciliation in spiritual regeneration,
which he attains to, being led and kept by the Holy Ghost. This
divine help is offered to all men without distinction, and may be
rejected. In order to attain to salvation, man is justified, and when
so justified CAN DO NO more than the commands of God. He may
fall from a state of grace through mortal sin.
Regeneration is offered by the word of God and in the sacraments,
which under visible signs communicate God's invisible grace to Christians
when administered cum intentione. There are seven mysteries or
sacraments. Baptism entirely destroys original sin. In the Eucharist
the true body and blood of Christ are substantially present, and the
elements are changed into the substance of Christ, whose body and
blood are corporeally pqrtaken of by communicants. All Christians
should receive the bread and the wine. Tlie Eucharist is also an
expiatory sacrifice. The new birth when lost may be restored through
repentance, which is not merely (l) sincere sorrow, but also (2)
confession of each individual sin to the priest, and (3) the discharge
of penances imposed by the priest for the removal of the temporal
punishment which may b^ve been imposed by God and the Church.
Penance accompanied by the judicial absolution of the priest makes a
trHf sacrament.
The Church of Christ is the fellowship of all those who accept
and profess all the articles of faith transmitted by the
Apostles and approved by General Synods. Without this
visible Church there is no salvation. It is under the abiding influence
of the Holy Ghost, and therefore cannot err in matters of faith.
Specially appointed persons are necessary in the service of the
Church, and they form a threefold order, distinct jure divino from
other Christians, of Bishops, Priests and Deacons. The four
Patriarchs, of equal dignity, have the highest rank among
the bishops, and the bishops united in a General Council repre-
sent the Church and infallibly decide, under the guidance of the
Holy Ghost, all matters of faith and ecclesiastical life. All ministers
of Christ must be regularly called and appointed to their office, and
are consecrated by the sacrament of orders. Bishops must be un-
married, and PRIESTS and deacons must not contract a second
marriage. To all priests in common belongs, besides the preaching
of the word, the administration of the six sacraments — baptism,
confirmation, penance, EUCHARIST, MATRIMONY, UNCTION OF
THE SICK. The bishops alone can administer the sacrament of orders.
Ecclesiastical ceremonies are part of the divine service: most of
them have apostolic origin; and those connected with the sacrament
must not be omitted by priests under pain of mortal sin.
Liturgy and Worship. — The ancient liturgies of the Eastern
Church were very numerous, and have been frequently classified.
J. M. Neale makes three divisions — the Hturgy of Jerusalem
or of St James, that of Alexandria or of St Mark, and that of
Edessa or of St Thaddaeus; and Daniel substantially agrees
with him. The same passion for uniformity which suppressed
the Gallican and Mozarabic liturgies in the West led to the
almost exclusive use of the liturgy of St James in the East.
It is used in two forms, a shorter revised by Chrysostom, and a
longer called the liturgy of St Basil. This liturgy and the service
generally are either in Old Greek or in Old Slavonic, and
frequent disputes have arisen in particular districts about
the language to be employed. Both sacred languages differ
from the language of the people, but it cannot be said that in
ORTHODOX EASTERN CHURCH
the Eastern Church worship is conducted in an unknown tongue
— " the actual difference," says Neale, " may be about that
between Chaucer's English and our own." There are eleven
chief service books, and no such compendium as the Roman
breviary. Fasting is frequent and severe. Besides Wednesdays
and Fridays, there are four fasting seasons, Lsnt, Pentecost
to SS. Peter and Paul, August 1-15 preceding the Feast of '
the Sleep of the Theotokos, and the six weeks before Christ-
mas. Indulgences are not recognized; an intermediate and
purificatory state of the detd is held but not systematized into
a doctrine of purgatory. The Virgin receives homage, but
the dogma of her Immaculate Conception is not admitted.
While ikons of the saints are found in the churches there is no
" graven image " apart from the crucifix. There is plenty of
singing but no instrumental music. Prayer is ofTered standing
towards the East; at Pentecost, kneeling. The celebration
of the Eucharist is an elaborate symbolical representation of
the Passion. The consecrated bread is broken into the wine,
and both elements are given together in a spoon.
The ritual generally is as magnificent as in the West, but of a
more archaic type. (For the hturgical dress see Vestments
and subsidiary articles.)
Monastic Life. — Monasticism is, as it has always been, an
important feature in the Eastern Church. An Orthodox
monastery is perhaps the most perfect extant relic of the 4th
century. The simple idea that possesses the monks is that
of fleeing the world; they have no distinctions of orders, and
though they follow the rule of St Basil object to being called
Basilians. A few monasteries (Mt Sinai and some on Lebanon)
follow the rule of St Anthony. K. Lake in Early Days of
Monasticism on Mount Athos (1909) traces the development
through three well-defined stages in the 9th and loth centuries —
(a) the hermit period, (h) the loose organization of hermits in
lauras, (c) the stricter rule of the monastery, with definite
buildings and fixed rules under an riyovnevos or abbot. The
monasteries now have taken over the name lauras. They are
under the jurisdiction of the metropohtan; a few of the most
important deal direct with the patriarch and are called Stauropegia.
The convent on Mt Sinai is absolutely independent. Apart
from hermits there are (i) Koifo)3(.aKot, monks who possess
nothing, live and eat together, and have definite tasks given
them by their superiors; (2) iiLopvOtiaKol, monks who live
apart from each other, each receiving from the monastery fuel,
vegetables, cheese, wine and a little money. They only meet
for the Divine Office and on great feasts, and are the real suc-
cessors of the laura system. The most famous monasteries
are those on Mount Athos; in 1902 there were twenty lauras
with many dependent houses and 7522 monks there, mainly
Russian and Greek. The monks are, for the most part, ignorant
and unlettered, though in the dark days of Mahommedan persecu-
tion it was in the monasteries that Greek learning and the Greek
nationality were largely preserved. Since priests must be married
and bishops must not, only monks are ehgible for appointment
to bishoprics in the Eastern Church. See further, Monasticism.
The Branches of the Church. — In addition to the ancient
churches which have separated themselves from the Orthodox
faith, many have ceased to have an independent existence,
owing either to the conquests of Islam or to their absorption by
other churches. For example, the church of Mount Sinai may
be regarded as all that survives of the ancient church of northern
Arabia; the autocephalous Slavonic churches of Ipek and
Okhrida, which derived their ultimate origin from the missions of
Cyril and Methodius, were absorbed in the patriarchate of
Constantinople in 1766 and 1767 respectively; and the Church
of Georgia has been part of the Russian Church since 1801-1802.
At the present day, then, the Orthodox Eastern Church consists
of twelve mutually independent churches (or thirteen if we
reckon the Bulgarian Church), using their own language in divine
service (or some ancient form of it, as in Russia) and varying not
a little in points of detail, but standing in full communion with
one another, and united as equals in what has been described as
one great ecclesiastical federation. However, in using such
ORTHODOX EASTERN CHURCH
337
language it must be remembered that we are not dealing with
bodies which were originally separated from one another and
have now entered into fellowship, but with bodies which have
grown naturally from a single origin and have not become
estranged.
A. The Four Ancient Patriarchates
I. The Patriarchate of Constantinople or Neiv Rome. — The ancient
patriarchate of Constantinople included the imperial dioceses of
Pontus, Asia, Thrace and Eastern Illyricum — i.e. speaking roughly,
the greater part of Asia Minor, European Turkey, and Greece, with
a small portion of Austria. The imperial diocese of Pontus was
governed by the e.xarch of Caesarea, who ruled over thirteen metro-
politans with more than lOO suffragans. Asia was governed by the
exarch of Ephesus, who ruled over twelve metropolitans with more
than 350 suffragan bishops. In Asia Minor the church maintains
but a small remnant of her former greatness; in Europe it is other-
wise. The old outlines, however, are effaced wherever the Christian
races have emancipated themselves from the Turkish rule, and
the national churches of Greece, Servia and Rumania have re-
organized themselves on a new basis. Where the Turkish rule still
prevails the church retains her old organization, but greatly im-
paired. Still, the Oecumenical Patriarch, as he has been called since
early in the 6th century, is the most exalted ecclesiastic of the
Eastern churches, and his influence reaches far outside the lands of
the patriarchate. His jurisdiction extends over the dominions of
the Sultan in Turkey, together with Asia Minor and the Turkish
islands of the Aegean; there are eighty-two metropolitans under
him, and the " monastic republic " of Mount Athos. He has great
privileges and responsibilities as the recognized head of the Greek
community in Turkey, and enjoys also many personal honours
which have survived from the days of the Eastern emperors.
The patriarch under the old Ottoman system had his own court
at Phanar, and his own prison, with a large civil jurisdiction over,
and responsibility for, the Greek community. In ecclesiastical
affairs he acts with two governing bodies — (o) a permanent Holy
Synod ("lepa "Lvvohos rris 'EKKXTjtrtas Kwfarai^rtl'OUTroXeajs), consist-
ing of twelve metropolitans, six of whom are re-elected every
year from the whole number of metropolitans, arranged in three
classes according to a fixed cycle; (i) the Permanent National
Mixed Council (Aiapxis 'ESvikw Miktov 2um/3ouXioi'), a remarkable
assembly, which is at once the source of great power by introducing
a strong lay element into the administration, and of a certain
amount of weakness by its liability to sudden changes of popular
feeling. It consists of four metropolitans, members of the Holy
Synod, and eight laymen. All of these are cho.sen by an electoral
body, consisting of all the members of the Holy Synod and the
National Mixed Council, and twenty-five representatives of the
parishes of Constantinople. The election of the patriarch is also,
to a considerable extent, popular. An electoral assembly is formed
for the purpose consisting ' of the twelve members of the Holy
Synod, the eight lay members of the National M !,\ed Council, twenty-
eight representatives of as many dioceses (the remaining dioceses
having only the right to nominate a candidate by letter), ten repre-
sentatives of the parishes of Constantinople, ten representatives of
all persons who possess political rank, ten representatives of the
Christian trades of Constantinople, the two representatives of the
secretariat of the patriarchate, and such metropolitans, to the
number of ten but no more, as happen to be in Constantinople at
the time for some canonical reason (irapeiri6»)no0vTcs). On the death
or deposition of the patriarch, the Holy Synod and the National
Mixed Council at once meet and elect a temporary substitute for
the patriarch (ToiroTTjpjjTvt). Forty days afterwards the electoral
assembly meets, under his presidency, and proceeds to make a list
of twenty candidates (at the present day they must be metropolitans),
who may be proposed either by the members of the electoral as-
sembly or by any of the metropolitans of the patriarchate by letter.
This list is sent to the sultan, who has by prescription the right to
strike out five names. From the fifteen which remain the electoral
assembly chooses three. These names are then submitted to the
clerical members of the assembly, i.e. to the members of the Holy
Synod and the Tvaptiri5-i]iiovvTt$, who meet in church, and, after the
usual service, make the final selection. The patriarch-elect is pre-
sented to the Porte, which thereupon grants the berat or diploma
of investiture and several customary presents; after which the new
ruler is enthroned. The patriarch has the assistance and support
of a large household, a survival from Byzantine times. Amongst
them, actually or potentially, are the grand steward {ii.kya% ombvoixo^) ,
who serves him as deacon in the liturgy and presents candidates
for orders; the grand visitor (ii'tya's aaKtKKapms), who superintends
the monasteries; the sacristan {aKtvo<t>ii'Kai); the chancellor
(xapT0(#>uXa5), who superintends ecclesiastical causes; the deputy-
visitor (6 Tov crcLKtWiov), who visits the nunneries; the protonotary
(ttp^jtototApios) ; the logothete (XoyoBerris) , a most important lay
officer, who represents the patriarch at the Porte and elsewhere
outside; the censer-bearer, who seems to be also a kind of captain
of the guard (KavcrrpLaios or Kav(TTpfivcrioi) ; the referendary {peifxptv-
Sdpios) ; the secretan,' ({nrotmrmo-Y pa.(t>uiv) ; the chief syndic (TrptoTticSiKO!),
' The numbers have varied from time to time.
who is a judge of lesser causes; the recorder (Upoij.vijp.uv); and so
on, down to the cleaners of the lamps CKaixTrahapioL), the attendant
of the lights {iripuiatpxantvo^), and the bearc-r of the images
(^0(7ra7apio5 ) and of the holy ointment {pvpo&inr)%).
2. The Patriarchate of Alexandria, consisting of Egypt and its
dependencies, was at one time the most powerful, as it was the
most centralized, of all, and the patriarch still preserves his ancient
titles of " pope " and " father of fathers, pastor of pastors, arch-
priest of archpriests, thirteenth apostle, and oecumenical judge."
But the secession of the greater part of his church to Monophysitisra
[Coptic Church], and the Mahomniedan conquest of Egypt, have
left him but the .shadow of his former greatness; and at the present
time he has only the bishop of Libya under him, and rules over
some 20,000 people at the outside, most of whom arc settlers from
elsewhere.
3. The Patriarchate of Antioch has undergone most changes in
extent of jurisdiction, arising from the transfer of sees to Jerusalem,
from the progress of the schismatic churches of the, East and from
the conquests of the Mahommedans. At the height of his power
the patriarch of Antioch ruled over 12 metropolitans and 250
suffragan bishops. In the time of the first cru,sade 153 still survived;
now there are scarcely 20, 14 of which are metropolitan sees. The
patriarch, though he is " father of fathers and pastor of pastors,"
thus retains little of his old importance. His jurisdiction includes
Cilicia, Syria (except Palestine) and Mesopotamia. Cyprus has
been independent of Antioch since the council of Ephesus.
4. The Patriarchate of Jerusalem. — In the earlier period of the
church, ecclesiastical followed civil divisions so closely that Jeru-
salem, in spite of the sacred associations connected with it, was
merely an ordinary bishopric dependent on the metropolitan of
Caesarea. Ambitious prelates had from time to time endeavoured
to advance the pretensions of their see, but it was not until the
council of Chalcedon, in 451, that Jerusalem was made a patriarchate
with jurisdiction over Palestine. From this time on to the inroad of
the Saracens the patriarchate of Jerusalem was highly prosperous.
It ruled over three metropolitans with eighty suffragans. The
modern patriarch has under his jurisdiction 5 archbishops and 5
bishops. The chief importance of the patriarchate is derived from
the position of Jerusalem as a place of pilgrimage.
B. The Nine National Churches
G. Finlay, in his History of Greece, has shown that there has been
always a very close relation between the church and national life.
Christianity from the first connected itself with the social organiza-
tion of the people, and therefore in every province assumed the
language and the usages of the locality. In this way it was able to
command at once individual attachment and universal power.
This feeling died down to some extent when Constantine made use
of the church to consolidate his empire. But it revived under the
persecution of the Arian emperors. The struggle against Arianism
was not merely a struggle for orthodoxy. Athanasius was really
at the head of a national Greek party resisting the domination of a
Latin-speaking court. From this time onwards Greek patriotism
and Greek orthodo.xy have been almost convertible terms, and this
led naturally to revolts against Greek supremacy in the days of
Justinian and other emperors. Dean Stanley was probably correct
when he described the heretical churches of the East as the ancient
national churches of Egypt, Syria, and Armenia in revolt against
supposed innovations in the earlier faith imposed on them by Greek
supremacy. In the East, as in Scotland, the histor>' of the church
is the key to the history of the nation, and in the freedom of the
church the Greek saw the freedom and supremacy of his race. For
this very reason Orthodox Eastern Christians of alien race felt
compelled to resist Greek domination by means of independent
ecclesiastical organization, and the structure of the church rather
favoured than interfered with the coexistence of separate national
churches professing the same faith. Another circumstance favoured
the creation of separate national churches. While the Greek empire
lasted the emperors had a right of investiture on the election of a
new patriarch, and this right was retained by the Turkish sultans
after the conquest of Constantinople. The Russian people, for
example, could not contemplate with calmness as the head of their
church a bishop appointed by the hereditary' enemy of their country.
In this way the jealousies of race and the necessities of nations
have produced various national churches which are independent or
autocephalous and yet are one in doctrine.
1. The ancient Church of Cyprus (see Cyprus, Church of).
2. The Church of Mount Sinai, consisting of little more than the
famous monastery of St Catherine, under an archbishop who fre-
quently resides in Egypt. It has, however, a few branch houses
{p.tTbxi-0-) in Turkey and Greece. The archbishop is chosen, from
a list of candidates submitted by the monks of St Catherine, by the
patriarch of Jerusalem and his Synod ; and the patriarch consecrates
him.
3. The Hellenic Church. — The constitution of the Church of
Modern Greece is the result of the peculiar position of the patriarch
of Constantinople. The war of liberati *n was s>mpathized in, not
merely by the inhabitants of Greece, but by all the Greek-speaking
Christians in the East. But the patriarch was in the hands of the
Turks; he had been appointed by the sultan, and he was compelled
338
ORTHODOX EASTERN CHURCH
by the Turkish authorities to ban the movement for freedom.
When the Greeks achieved independence they refused to be subject
ecclesiastically to a patriarch who was nominated by the sultan
(June 9, 1828); and, to add to their difficulties, there were in the
country twenty-two bishops who had been consecrated by the
patriarch, twelve bishops who had been consecrated irregularly
during the war, and about twenty bishops who had been deprived
of their sees during the troubles — i.e. fifty-three bishops claimed to
be provided for. In these circumstances the government and people
resolved that there should be ten diocesan bishops and forty ad-
ditional provisional sees. They also resolved that the church should
be governed after the fashion of the Russian Church by a synod;
and they decreed that the king of Greece was to be head of the
church. All these ideas were carried out with some modifications,
and gradually. The patriarch of Constantinople in 1850 acknow-
ledged the independence of the church, which gradually grew to
be more independent of the state. By the Greek constitution of
i6th/28th November 1864 " the Orthodo.x Church of Greece remains
indissolubly united, as regards dogmas, to the great Church of
Constantinople, and to every other church professing the same
doctrines, and, like these churches, it preserves in their integrity
the apostolical constitutions and those of the councils of the Church,
together with the holy traditions; it is a6To«0aXos, it exercises
its sovereign rights independently of every other church, and it is
governed by a synod of bishops."
4. The Servian Church. — After the suppression of the Church of
Ipek in 1766 Servia became ecclesiastically subject to Constanti-
nople; but in 1830 the sultan permitted the Serbs to elect a patriarch
(as a matter of fact he is merely styled metropolitan), subject to
the confirmation of the patriarch of Constantinople. Eight years
later the seat of ecclesiastical government was fixed at Belgrade;
and when Servia gained its independence its church became auto-
cephalous.
5. The Rumanian Church. — The fall of the church of Okhrida in
1767 had made Moldavia and Wallachia ecclesiastically subject to
Constantinople. On the union of the two principalities under
Alexander Couza (December 1861) the Church was declared auto-
cephalous under a metropolitan at Bucharest; and the fact was
recognized by the patriarchs, as it was in the case of Servia, after the
treaty of Berlin had guaranteed their independence.
6. The Church 0} Montenegro has from early times been inde-
pendent under its bishops, who from 1516 to 1 851 were also the
temporal rulers, under the title of Vladikas, or prince-bishops.
7. The Orthodox Church in Austria-Hungary, which, however,
really consists of four independent sections: the Servians of Hungary
and Croatia, under the patriarch of Karlowitz; the Rumanians
of Transylvania, under the archbishop of Hermannstadt; the
Ruthenians of IJukovina, under the metropolitan of Czernowitz;
and the Serbs of Bosnia-Herzogovina, where there are four sees, that
of Sarajevo holding the primacy.
8. The Russian Church dates from 992, when Prince Vladimir and
his people accepted Christianity. The metropolitan, who was
subject to the patriarch of Constantinople, resided at Kiev on the
Dnieper. During the Tatar invasion the metropolis was destroyed,
and Vladimir became the ecclesiastical capital. In 1320 the metro-
politans fixed their seat at Moscow. In 1582 Jeremiah, patriarch
of Constantinople, raised Job, 46th metropolitan, to the patriarchal
dignity; and the act was afterwards confirmed by a general council
of the East. In this way the Russian Church became autocephalous,
and its patriarch had immense power. In 1700 Peter the Great
forbade the election of a new patriarch, and in 1721 he established
the Holy Governing Synod to supply the place of the patriarch.
This body now governs the Russian Church, and consists of a
procurator representing the emperor, the metropolitans of Kiev,
Moscow and St Petersburg, the e.xarch of Georgia and five or six
other bishops appointed by the emperor. There are altogether
some 90 bishops and about 40 auxiliary bishops called vicars. There
are 481 monasteries for men and 249 convents of nuns. The Church
of Georgia, which has existed from a very early period, and was
dependent first on the patriarch of Antioch and then on the
patriarch of Constantinople, has since 1802 been incorporated in
the Russian Church. Its head, the archbishop of Tifiis, bears the
title of exarch of Georgia, and has under him four suffragans.
A petition was presented to the emperor by the Georgians in 1904
asking for the restoration of their church and their language, but
nothing came of it.
9. The Bulgarian Church, unless indeed it be classed with the
separated churches. It differs from the national churches already
mentioned in that it had its origin in a revolt of Turkish subjects
against the patriarchal authority. From the earliest times the
Bulgarians had occup'ed an anomalous position on the borders of
Eastern and Western Christendom, but they had ultimately become
subject to Constantinople. The revival of Bulgarian national feeling
near the middle of the 19th century led to a movement for religious
independence, the leaders of which were the archimandrite Neophit
Bozveli and the bishop Ilarion Mikhailovsky. The Porte espoused
the cause of the Bulgarians, partly to pacify them, but still more
to strengthen its hold on all the Christians of Turkey by fostering
their differences. Ultimately, on 28th February 1870, the sultan
issued a firman constituting a new church, including all Bulgarians
who desired to join it within the vilayet of the Danube (i.e. the
subsequently-formed principality of Bulgaria), and those of Adrian-
ople, Salonica, Kossovo and Monastir (i.e. part of Macedonia,
Eastern Rumelia and a tract farther south). The members of this
Church were to constitute a millet or community, enjoying equal
rights with the Greeks and Armenians; and its head, the Bulgarian
exarch, was to reside at Constantinople. Naturally, this was re-
sented by the patriarch Anthimus, who stigmatized the racial basis
of the Bulgarian Church as the heresy of Phyletism. A local synod
at Constantinople, in August 1872, pronounced it schismatical ;
Antioch, Alexandria and Greece followed suit; Jerusalem pro-
nounced a modified condemnation; and the Servian and Rumanian
churches avoided any definite expression of opinion. Russia was
more favourable. It never actually acknowledged the Bulgarian
Church, and Bulgarian prelates may not officiate publicly in Russian
churches; on the other hand, the Holy Synod of Moscow refused to
recognize the patriarch's condemnation, and Russian ecclesiastics
have secretly supplied the Bulgarians with the holy oil. Above all,
when Prince Boris, the heir-apparent of the principality, was re-
ceived into the Bulgarian Church on 14th February 1896, the
emperor of Russia was his godfather. The position is further com-
plicated by the fact that many Bulgarians, both within and without
the kingdom of Bulgaria, still remain subject to the patriarch.
Nevertheless, the Bulgarian Church has made great headway both
in Bulgaria itself and in Macedonia. The curious thing is that the
Russian Church is in communion with both sides. The patriarch
of Constantinople dares not excommunicate Russia, but the chief of
its many grievances against that country is its patronage of the
Bulgarian e.xarchate. The Bulgarians of course say they are not
schismatics, but a national branch of the Church Catholic, using
their sacred right to manage their own affairs in their own way.
They have never excommunicated the Patriarchists. On the whole
it seems likely that the patriarch will ultimately have to yield, in
spite of the strong Greek feeling against the Bulgars.'
Present Position of the Orthodox Church. — Although the signs of
weakness which have characterized the past are still present,
there are some indications of improvement. The encychcal on
unity of Pope Leo XIII. (1895) called forth a reply from the
patriarch Anthimus V. of Constantinople and his Synod, which
was eminently learned, dignified and charitable." The theo-
logical school of the patriarchate, at Halke, is not undistinguished,
and the university of Athens has a good record. Whilst the
parochial clergy are still as unlearned as ever, there are not a
few amongst the higher clergy who are distinguished for their
learning beyond the Umits of their own communion: for ex-
ample, the metropoUtan Ph. Bryennios, who discovered and
edited the Didache; the archbishop N. Kalogeras, who dis-
covered and edited the second part of the commentary of
Euthymius Zigabenus (d. c. 11 18) on the New Testament; the
archimandrite D. Latas, author of a valuable work on Christian
archaeology (Athens, 1883); and the logothete S. Aristarchi,
who edited a valuable collection of 83 newly discovered
homilies of the patriarch Photius. This was published in 1900
at the Phanar press, erected as a memorial to Theodore of Tarsus,
archbishop of Canterbury, by Greek and English churchmen,
which was set up by the patriarch Constantine V. in 1890- An
authorized version of the Scriptures in ancient Greek is also one
of the works undertaken by this institution. On the other hand,
the attempt made in 1901 by the Holy Synod at Athens, with
the co-operation of Queen Olga of Greece (a Russian princess),
to circulate a modern Greek version of the Gospels was resented
as a symptom of a Pan-Slavist conspiracy, and led to an ebullition
of popular feeling which could only be pacified by the withdrawal
of the obnoxious version and the abdication of the metropolitan
of Athens. The patriarch Constantine V. was deposed on the
1 2th of April 1901, and was succeeded on the 28th of May by
Joachim III. (and V.), who had previously occupied the patri-
archal throne from 1878 to 1884, when he was deposed through
the ill-wiU of the Porte and banished to Mount Athos. His
re-election had therefore no little importance. His progressive
sympathies, illustrated by his proposals to reform the monasteries
and the calendar, to modify the four long fasts and to treat
for union (especially with the Old Catholics), were not very well
received, and in IQ05 an attempt was made to depose him.
The sultan .\bd-ul-Hamid, to whom the different parties appealed,
' H. Brailsford in Macedonia (London, 1906) brings a crushing
indictment against the Patriarchist party.
- For a different opinion see A. Fortescue, The Orthodox Eastern
Church, 435 sqq.
ORTHOGRAPHY— ORTHOPTERA
339
lectured them on chanty and concord! The patriarch's great
rival was Joachim of Ephesus. Undoubtedly the question of
the most pressing importance with regard to the future of
Eastern Christendom is the relation between Russia and Con-
stantinople. The Oecumenical Patriarch is, of course, officially
the superior; but the Russian Church is numerically by far the
greatest, and the tendency to regard Russia as the head, not only
of the Slav races, but of all orthodox nations, inevitably reacts
upon the church in the form of what has been called pan-Ortho-
doxy. The Russian Church is the only one which is in a position
to display any missionary activity. It has been a powerful
factor in the development of several of the churches already
spoken of, especially those of Servia and Montenegro, which are
usually very much subject to Russian influences ('Pcoo-cr6(/)poces or
"Pojtro-ax^tXot). It has taken great interest in non-orthodox
churches, such as those of Assyria, Abyssinia and Egypt.
Above all, it has shown an increasing tendency to intervene
in the affairs of the three lesser patriarchates.
In America the Russian archbishop, who resides in New York,
has (on behalf of the Holy Synod) the oversight of some 152
churches and chapels in the United States, Alaska
Orthodox ^^^ Canada. He is assisted by two bishops, one for
i^hitwvh in
America. Alaska residing at Sitka, one for Orthodox Syrians
residing in Brooklyn. There are 75 priests and
46,000 registered parishioners. The English language is in-
creasingly used in the services. The increase of Orthodox
communities has been very marked since 1888 owing to the
immigration of Austrian Slavonians. Those of Greek nationality
have churches in New Orleans, Chicago, New York, Boston, Lowell
(Massachusetts) and other places. If, as seemed likely in 19 10,
in addition to the Russian and Syrian bishops, Greek and Servian
ones were appointed, an independent synod could be formed, and
the bishops could elect their own metropolitan. The total
number of " Orthodox " Christians in North America is estimated
at 300,000. Many of them were Austrian and Hungarian Uniats,
who, after emigrating, have shown a tendency to separate
from Rome and return to the Eastern Confession. One reason
for this tendency is the attempt of the Roman Church to deprive
the Uniats in America of their married priests.
The Catholic reaction represented by the Oxford movement
in the Church of England early raised the question of a possible
j.^^ union between the Anglican and Eastern Orthodox
question of Churches. Into the history of the efforts to promote
Anglican this end, which have never had any official sanction on
reun on. j.j^g ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^-^^ Other, it is impossible to enter
here. The obstacles would seem, indeed, to be insurmountable.
From the point of view of Orthodoxy the English Church is
schismatical, since it has seceded from the Roman patriarchate
of the West, and doubly heretical, since it retains the obnoxious
Filioque clause in the creed while rejecting many of the doctrines
and practices held in common by Rome and the East; moreover,
the Orthodox Church had never admitted the validity of AngUcan
orders, while not denying it. Union would clearly only be
possible in the improbable event of the English Church surrender-
ing most of the characteristic gains of the Reformation in order
to ally herself with a body, the traditions of which are almost
wholly alien to her own. At the same time, especially as against
the universal claims of the papacy, the two churches have many
interests and principles in common, and efforts to find a modus
viwndi have not been wanting on either side. The question of
union was, for instance, more than once discussed at the un-
official conferences connected with the Old Catholic movement
(see Old Catholics). These and other discussions could have
no definite result, but they led to an increase of good feeling
and of personal intercourse. Thus, on the coronation of the
emperor Nicholas II. of Russia in 1895, Dr Creighton, bishop of
Peterborough, as representative of the English Church, was
treated with pecuHar distinction, and the compliment of his visit
was returned by the presence of a high dignitary of the Russian
Church at the service at St Paul's in London on the occasion of
Queen Victoria's " diamond " jubilee in 1897. In 1899 there
was further an interchange of courtesies between the archbishop
of Canterbury and Constantino V., patriarch of Constantinoi)le.
To promote the " brotherly feeling between the members of the
two churches," for which the patriarch expressed a desire, a
committee was formed under the presidency of the Anglican
bishop of Gibraltar.
On this question of reunion see A. Fortcscue, The Orthodox
Eastern Church, 257 sqc^., 429 sqq.
Authorities. — For the origins of the Eastern Church and the
early controversies see the authorities cited in the article Church
History. For the Filioque controversy, J. G. VValch, Ilisloria
controversiae de Processu Spiritus Sancti (Jena, 1751) ; E. S. Foulkes,
Historical Account oj the Addition 0} Filioque to the Creed (London,
1867); C. Adams, Filioque (Edinburgh, 1884J; W. Nonlen, Das
Papsltum und Byzanz (Berlin, 1903) ; also P. Schaff's History of the
Creeds of Christendom. The following are devoted specially to the
history and condition of the Eastern Church: M. le Quicn, Oriens
Christianus (Paris, 1740); J. S. Assemani, Bihliotheca Orientalis
(Rome, 1719-1728); A. P. Stanley's Eastern Church (1861); J. M.
Neale, The Holy Eastern Church {General hitroduclion, 2 vols. ;
Patriarchate of Alexandria, 2 vols.; and, published posthumously
in 1873, Patriarchate of Aniioch). For liturgy, see H. A. Daniel,
Codex Liiurgicus Ecc.l. Univ. in epitomen redactvs (4 vols., 1847-
1855); Leo Allatius, De libris et rebus Eccles. Graecarum disserla-
tiones; F. E. Brightman, Eastern Liturgies (Oxford, 1896}. For
hymnology see Daniel, Thesaurus Hymnologicus (4 vols.); Neale's
translations of Eastern Hymns; B. Pick, Hymns and Poetry of the
Eastern Church (New York, 1908).
See also J. Pargoire, L'^glise Byzantine de 527 d, 847 (Paris,
1905); I. Silbernagl, Vcrfassung u. gegenwdrtiger Bestand sdmtlicher
Kirchen des Orients (1865; 2nd cd., Rcgcnsburg, 1904); W. F.
Adeney, The Creels and Eastern Churches (Edinburgh, 1908) ; Adrian
Fortescue, The Orthodox Eastern Church (London, 1907), with a full
bibliography; F. G. Cole, Mother of All Churches (London, 1908);
and M. Tamarati, L'J^glise Georgienne, des origines jusqu'd, nos jours.
An interesting estimate of the Orthodox Church is given by
A. Harnack in What is Christianity? For the festivals of the Greek
Church see Mary Hamilton, Greek Saints and their Festivals (1910).
ORTHOGRAPHY (from Or. opfloj, correct, right or straight,
and ■ypa.4>uv, to write), spelling which is correct according to
accepted use. The word is also applied, in architecture, to the
geometrical elevation of a building or of any part of one in
which all the details are shown in correct relative proportion and
drawn to scale. When the representation is taken through a
building it is known as a section, and when portions of the
structure only are drawn to a large scale they are caUed details.
ORTHONYX, the scientific name given in 1820, by C. J.
Temminck, to a little bird, which, from the straightness of its
claws — a character somewhat exaggerated by him — its large
feet and spiny tail, he judged to be generically distinct from
any other form. The typical species, O. spinicauda, is from south-
eastern Australia, where it is very local in its distribution,
and strictly terrestrial in its habits. It is rather larger than a
skylark, coloured above not unlike a hedge-sparrow. The
wings are, however, barred with white, and the chin, throat
and breast are in the male pure white, but of a bright reddish-
orange in the female. The remiges are very short, rounded and
much incurved, showing a bird of weak flight. The rectrices are
very broad, the shafts stiff, and towards the tip divested of
barbs. O. spaldingi from Queensland is of much greater size
than the type, and with a jet-black plumage, the throat being
white in the male and orange-rufous in the female.
Orthonyx is a semi-terrestrial bird of weak flight, building a
domed nest on or near the ground. Insects and larvae are its
chief food, and the males are described as performing dancing
antics like those of the lyre-bird [q.v.). Orthonyx belongs to the
Oscines division of the Passeres and is placed in the family
TimcUidae. (A. N.)
ORTHOPTERA (Gr. bpdb%, straight, and TTepov, a wing), a
term used in zoological classification for a large and important
order of the class Hcxapoda. The cockroaches, grasshoppers,
crickets and other insects that are included in this order were
first placed by C. Linne (1735) among the Coleoptera (beetles),
and were later removed by him to the Hemiptera (bugs, &c.).
J. C. Fabricius (1775) was the first to recognize the unnaturalness
of these arrangements, and founded for the reception of the group
an order Ulonata. In 1806 C. de Geer applied to these insects
the name Dermaptera {8fpfji.a, a skin, and Trrepoc); and A. G.
340
ORTHOPTERA
Olivier subsequently used for the assemblage the name Orthop-
tera, which is now much better known than the earlier terms.
W. Kirby (1815) founded an order Dermaptera for the earwigs,
which had formed part of de Geer's Dermaptera, accepting
Olivier's term Orthoptera for the rest of the assemblage, and as
modern research has shown that the earwigs undoubtedly deserve
original separation from the cockroaches, grasshoppers, crickets,
&c., this terminology will probably become established. W E.
Erichson and other writers added to the Orthoptera a number of
families which Linne had included in his order Neuroptera.
These families are described and their afilnities discussed in the
articles Neuroptera and Hexapoda {qg.v.). In the present
article a short account of the characters of the Dermaptera and
Orthoptera is given, while for details the reader is referred to
special articles on the more interesting families or groups.
The Dermaptera and the Orthoptera agree in having well-
developed mandibles, so that the jaws are adapted for biting;
in the incomplete fusion of the second maxillae (which form the
labium) so that the parts of a typical maxilla can be easily made
out (see the description and figures of the cockroach's jaws
under Hexapoda) ; in the presence of a large number of excretory
(Malpighian) tubes; in the firm texture of the forewings; in the
presence of appendages (cerci) on the tenth abdominal segment;
and in the absence of a metamorphosis, the young insect after
hatching closely resembling the parent.
Order Dermaptera.
In addition to the characters just enumerated, the Dermaptera
are distinguished by the presence of small but distinct maxillulae
(fig. 2, see Hexapoda, Aptera) in association with the tongue
(hypopharynx) ; by the forewings when present being modified into
short quadrangular elytra without nervuration, the complex hind-
wings (fig. i) being folded beneath these both longitudinally and
transversely so that nearly the whole abdomen is left uncovered;
and by the entirely mesodermal nature of the genital ducts, which,
according to the ob-
servations of F.
Meinert, open to the
exterior by a median
aperture, the terminal
part of the duct being
single, either by the
fusion of the primi-
tive paired ducts or
by the suppression of
one of them. In the
vast majority of
winged insects the
J, „ terminal part of the
hiG. 2. Hypo- genital system (vagina
pharynx and j ductus ejacula-
Maxillulae (w) of jQ^ius) is unpaired
common earwig 3j,d ectodermal.
{Forficula auric ul- -j-hus the condition
aria). Magnified ;„ tj,e Dermaptera is
about twenty- ^^^^ primitive than
seven times. ;„ ^ny other Pter>-
gote order except the
Ephemeroptera (Mayflies) which are still more generalized, the
primitive mesodermal ducts (oviducts and vasa deferentia) opening
by paired apertures as in the Crustacea. In the vast majority of
the Dermaptera the cerci are — in the adult insect at least — stout,
unjointed appendages forming a strong forceps (fig. l) which the
insect uses in arranging the hindwings beneath the elytra. In at
least one genus the unjointed pincers of the forceps are preceded, in
the youngest instar by jointed cerci. Very many members of the
order are entirely wingless.
There are two families of Dermaptera. The Hemimeridae include
the single genus Hemimerus (q.v.), which contains only two species
of curious wingless insects with long, jointed cerci, found among
the hair of certain West African rodents. The other family is that
of the Forficulidae or earwigs {q.v.), all of which have the cerci
modified as a forceps, while wings of thecharacteristicform described
above are present in many of the species.
Order Orthoptera.
The bulk of de Geor's " Dermaptera " form the order Orthoptera
of modern systematists, which includes some 10,000 described
species. The insects comprised in it are distinguished from the
earwigs by their elongate, rather narrow forewings, which usually
cover, or nearly cover, the abdomen when at rest, and which are
firmer in texture than the hindwings. The hindwings have a firm
costal area, and a more delicate anal area which folds fanwise,
From Carpenter's Insects.
Dent & Co.
Fig. I. — Common
Earwig [Forficula auri-
cularia). Male. Magni-
fied.
so that they are completely covered by the forewings when the
insect rests. Rarely (in certain cockroaches) the hindwing undergoes
transverse folding also. Wingless forms are fairly frequent in the
order, but their relationship to the allied winged species is evident.
The female of the common cockroach (fig. 3a) shows an interesting
vestigial condition of the wings, which are but poorly developed in
the male (fig. 3i). More important characters of the Orthoptera
than the nature of the wmgs — characters in which they diff'er from
After Marlatt, Ent. Bull. 4, n. s. U.S. Dept. Agr.
Fig. 3. — Common Cockroach (Blatta orientalis) ; a, female
b, male; c, female (side view) ; d, young. Natural size.
the Dermaptera and agree with the vast majority of winged insects —
are the absence of distinct maxillulae and the presence of an unpaired
ectodermal tube as the terminal region of the genital system in both
se.xes. The cerci are nearly always joined, and a typical insectan
ovipositor with its three pairs of processes is present in connexion
with the vagina of the female. In many Orthoptera this ovipositor
is very long and conspicuous (fig. 5). Information as to the internal
structure of a typical orthopteron — the cockroach — will be found
under Hexapoda.
Classification. — Six families of Orthoptera are here recognized,
but most special students of the order consider that these should
be rather regarded as super-families, and the number of families
greatly multiplied. Those who wish to foUow out the classifica-
tion in detail should refer to some of the recent monographs men-
tioned below in the bibliography. There is general agreement
as to the division of the Orthoptera into three sub-orders or
tribes.
I. Phasmodea. — This division includes the single family of the
Phasmidae whose members, generally known as " stick-insects "
(q.v.) and " leaf-insects " (q.v.), are among the best-known examples
of " protective resemblance " to be found in the whole animal
kingdom. The prothorax is short and the mesothorax very long,
the three pairs of legs closely similar, the wings often highly modified
or absent, and the cerci short and unjointed. Each egg is contained
in a separate, curiously formed, seed-like capsule, provided with a
lid which is raised to allow the escape of the newly-hatched insect.
II. Oothecaria. — In this tribe are included Orthoptera with a large
prothorax, whose eggs are enclosed in a common purse or capsule
formed by the hardening of a maternal secretion. The Mantidae
or " praying insects " have the prothorax elongate and the fore-
legs powerful and raptorial, while the large, broad head is prominent.
The eggs are enclosed
in a case attached to a apir*"',^™™^* ^ L
twig or stone and con- ^^^'^'■*'" '*■"'■■
taining many chambers.
From thiscurious habita-
tion the young mantids
hang by threads till after
their first moult (see After Howard, £»i/. Su^/. 4, n. s. U.S. Dept. Agr.
Mantis). The Blattidae PiG. 4.— Egg-purse of American Cock-
(fig. 3) or cockroaches roach [Periplatieta aniericana). Magnified.
(q.v.) form the second a, Side view; b, end view; the outline
family of this division, c shows natural size.
They are readily dis-
tinguished by the somewhat rounded prothorax beneath which the
head is usually concealed, while the forelegs are unmodified.
Sixteen eggs are enclosed together in a compact capsule or " purse "
(fig. 4)-
III. Saltatoria. — The three families included in this tribe are
distinguished by their elongate and powerful hindlegs (fig. 5) which
enable them to leap far and high. They are remarkable for the
possession of complex ears (described in the article Hexapoda) arii
ORTHOSTATAE— ORTOLAN
341
stridulating organs which produce chirping notes (see Cricket).
The families are the Acridiidae and Locustidae — including the insects
familiarly known as locusts and grasshoppers (q.v.) and the Cryllidae
or crickets {q.v.). The Acridiidae have the feelers and the ovipositor
relatively short, and possess only three tarsal segments; their
ears are situated on the first abdominal segment and the males
stridulate by scraping rows of pegs on the inner aspect of the hind
thigh, over the sharp edges of the forewing nervures. The Locustidae
(see Grasshopper,
Katydid) have the
feelers and often also
the ovipositor very
elongate; the foot is
four-segmented ; the
ears are placed at the
base of the foreshin
and the stridulation is
due to the friction of a
transverse " file " be-
neath the base of the
left forewing over a
sharp ridge on the
upper aspect of the
right. In some of these
insects the wings are
so small as to be useless
for flight, being modi-
fied altogether for
stridulation. TheGryl-
After Marlatt, Ent. Bull. 4, n. s. U.S. Dept. Agr. lidae (fig. 5) are nearly
Fig. 5. — House Cricket (Gryllus domesticus) ; related to the Locust-
(J*, male; 9. female. Natural size. idae, having long
feelers and ovipositors,
and agreeing with the latter family in the position of the ears. The
forewings are curiously arranged when at rest, the anal region of
the wing lying dorsal to the insect and the rest of the wing being
turned downwards at the sides (see Cricket).
Fossil History. — The Orthoptera are an exceedingly interesting
order of insects as regards their past history. In Palaeozoic rocks
of Carboniferous age the researches of S. H. Scudder have revealed
insects with the general aspect of cockroaches and phasmids, but
with the two pairs of wings similar to each other in texture and
form. In the Mesozoic rocks (Trias and Lias) there have been dis-
covered remains of insects intermediate between those ancient
forms and our modern cockroaches, the differentiation between
forewings and hindwings having begun. The Orthopteroid type of
wings appears therefore to have arisen from a primitive Isopteroid
condition.
Bibliography. — A description and enumeration of all known
Dermaptera has been lately published by A. dc Bormans and
H. Kraus, Das Tierreich, xi. (Berlin, 1900). See also W. F. Kirby,
Synomymic Calalonue of Orthoptera, pt. i. (London, Brit. Mus., 1904).
See also, for earwigs, Kirby, Journ. Linn. Soc. ZooL, xxiii. (1890);
E. E. Green, Trans. Entom. Soc. (1898); K. W. Verhocff, Ahhandl.
K. Leopold-Carol. Akad., Ixxxiv. (1905); and M. Burr, Science
Gossip, iv. (N.S., 1897); for Hemimerus, see H. J. Hansen, Entom.
Tidsk., XV. (1894). For Orthoptera generally, see C. Brunner von
Wattenwyl, Prodromus der europdischen Orthopteren (Leipzig, 1882),
and Ann. Mus.Genov. xiii. (1892), &c. R. Ttimpel, Die Geradfliigler
Mitteleuropas (Eisenbach, 1901). The Orthoptera have been largely
used for anatomical and cmbryological researches, the more im-
portant of which are mentioned under Hexapoda (q.v.). Of memoirs
on special groups of Orthoptera may be mentioned here — J. O.
Westwood, Catalogue of Phasmidae (London, Brit. Mus., 1859), and
Rivisio Familiae Mantidarum (London, 1889); L. C. Miall and A.
Denny, The Cockroach (London, 1886); E. B. Poulton, Trans. Ent.
Soc. (1896); A. S. Packard, "Report on the Rocky Mountain
Locust " in Qth Rep. U.S. Survey of Territories (1875). For our
native species see M. Burr, British Orthoptera (Huddersficld, 1897);
D. Sharp's chapters (viii.-xiv.) Cambridge Nat. History, vol. v.
{1895), give an excellent summary of our knowledge. (G. H. C.)
^^ ORTHOSTATAE (Or. opdoaTaTT]^, standing upright), the term
in Greek architecture given to the lowest course of masonry of
the external walls of the naos or cella, consisting of vertical
slabs of stone or marble equal in height to two or three of the
horizontal courses which constitute the inner part of the wall.
ORTHOSTYLE (Gr. opSos, straight, and ottDXos, a column),
in architecture, a range of columns placed in a straight row, as
for instance those of the portico or flanks of a classic temple.
ORTIGUEIRA, a seaport of north-western Spain, in the province
of Corunna; on the northern slope of the Sierra de la Faladoira,
on the river Nera and on the eastern shore of the Ria de Santa
Marta — a winding, rock-bound and much indented inlet of the
Bay of Biscay, between Capes Ortegal and Vares, the northern-
most headlands of the Peninsula. The official total of the in-
habitants of Ortigueira (18,426 in 1900) includes many families
which dwell at some distance; the actual urban population docs
not exceed 2000. The industries are fishing and farming.
Owing to the shallowness of the harbour large vessels cannot
enter, but there is an important coasting trade, despite the
dangerous character of the coast-line and the prevalence of fogs
and gales. The sea-bathing and magnifircnl scenery attract
visitors in summer even to this remote district, which has no
railway and few good roads.
ORTLER, the highest point (12,802 ft.) in Tirol, and so in the
whole of the Eastern Alps. It is a great snow-clad mass, which
rises E. of the Stelvio Pass, and a little S. of the upper valley of
the Adige (whence it is very conspicuous) between the valleys of
Trafoi (N.W.) and of Sulden (N.E.). It was long considered to be
wholly inaccessible, but was first conquered in 1S04 by three
Tirolese peasants, of whom the chief was Josef Pichler. The
first traveller to make the climb was Herr Gebhard in 1805
(sixth ascent). In 1826 Herr Schebelka, and in 1834 P. K. T.
Thurwieser attained the summit, but it was only after the
discovery of easier routes in 1864 by F. F. Tuckett, E. N. and
H. E. Buxton, and in 1S65 by Herr E. von Mojsisovics that the
expedition became popular. Many routes to the summit are
now known, but that usually taken (from the Payer Club hut,
easily accessible from cither Sulden or Trafoi) from the north is
daily traversed in summer and offers no difficulties to moderatelj-
experienced walkers. (W. A. B. C.)
ORTNIT, or Otnit, German hero of romance, was originally
Hertnit or Hartnit, the elder of two brothers known as the
Hartungs, who correspond in German mythology to the Dioscuri.
His seat was at Holmgard (Novgorod), according to the Thidrcks-
saga (chapter 45), and he was related to the Russian saga heroes.
Later on his city of Holmgard became Garda, and in ordinary
German legend he ruled in Lombardy. Hartnit won his bride,
a Valkyrie, by hard fighting against the giant Isungs, but was
killed in a later fight by a dragon. His younger brother, Hardhcri
(replaced in later German legend by Wolfdietrich), avenged
Ortnit by killing the dragon, and then married his brother's
widow. Ortnit 's wooing was corrupted by the popular interest
in the crusades to an Oriental Brautfahrtsaga, bearing a very
close resemblance to the French romance of Huon of Bordeaux.
Both heroes receive similar assistance from Alberich (Oberon),
who supplanted the Russian Ilya as Ortnit's epic father in
middle high German romance. Neumann maintained that the
Russian Ortnit and the Lombard king were originally two
different persons, and that the incoherence of the tale is due to
the welding of the two legends into one.
See editions of the Heldenhuch and one of Ortnit and Wolfdietrich
by Ur. J. L. Edlen von Lindhausen (Tubingen, 1906); articles in the
Zeitschrift ftir deutsches Altertum by K. Miillenhoff (xii. pp. 344-354,
1865; xiii. pp. 185-192, 1867), by J. Seemiillcr (xxvi. 201-211, 1882),
and by E. H. Meyer (xxxviii. pp. 85-87, 1S94), and in Germania by
F. Neumann (vol. xxvii. pp. 191-219, Vienna, 1882). See also the
literature dealing with Huon of Bordeaux.
ORTOLAN. JOSEPH LOUIS ELZ6AR (1802-1873), French
jurist, was born at Toulon, on the 21st of August 1802. He
studied law at Aix and Paris, and early made his name by two
volumes, Explication hisloriquc des institutes de Justinien (1827),
and Histoire de la legislation romainc (1S28), the first of which
has been frequently republished. He was made assistant
librarian to the court of cassation, and w'as promoted after
the Revolution of 1830 to be secretary-general. He was also
commissioned to give a course of lectures at the Sorbonne on
constitutional law, and in 1836 was appointed to the chair of
comparative criminal law at the university of Paris. He pub-
lished many works on constitutional and comparative law, of
which the following may be mentioned: Histoire du droit
constituiionncl en Europe pendant Ic moyen dge (1831) ; Introduction
hislorique au cours de legislation penale coinparee (1S41); he was
the author of a volume of poetry Les cnfantincs (1845). He
died in Paris, on the 27th of March 1S73.
ORTOLAN (Fr. ortolan, Lat. horlulanus, the gardener bird,
from hortus, a garden), the Emberiza hortulana of Linnaeus, a
bird celebrated for the delicate flavour of its flesh, and a member
342
ORTON— ORVIETO
of the Emberisidae, a Passerine family not separated by most
modern authors from the FringilUdae. A native of most
European countries — the British Islands (in which it occurs
but rarely) excepted — as well as of western Asia, it emigrates
in autumn presumably to the southward of the Mediterranean,
though its winter quarters cannot be said to be accurately
known, and returns about the end of AprU or beginning of May.
Its distribution throughout its breeding-range seems to be very
local, and for this no reason can be assigned. It was long ago
said in France, and apparently with truth, to prefer wine-growing
districts; but it certainly does r>ot feed upon grapes, and is
found equally in countries where vineyards are unknown — reach-
ing in Scandinavia even beyond the arctic circle — and then
generally frequents corn-fields and their neighbourhood. In
appearance and habits it much resembles its congener the
yellow-hammer, but wants the bright colouring of that species,
its head for instance being of a greenish-grey, instead of a Uvely
yellow. The somewhat monotonous song of the cock is also
much of the same kind; and, where the bird is a familiar object
to the country people, who usually associate its arrival with the
return of fair weather, they commonly apply various syllabic
interpretations to its notes, just as our boys do to those of the
yellow-hammer. The nest is placed on or near the ground,
but the eggs seldom show the hair-like markings so characteristic
of those of most buntings. Its natural food consists of beetles,
other insects and seeds. Ortolans are netted in great numbers,
kept aUve in an artificially lighted or darkened room, and fed
with oats and millet. In a very short time they become enor-
mously fat and are then killed for the table. If, as is supposed,
the ortolan be the Miliaria of Varro, the practice of artificially
fattening birds of this species is very ancient. In French the
word Ortolan is used so as to be almost synonymous with the
English " bunting " — thus the Ortolan-de-ncigc is the snow-
bunting {Plectrophanes nivalis), the Orlolan-dc-riz is the rice-bird
or " bobolink " of North America {Dolichonyx oryzivorus), so
justly celebrated for its delicious flavour; but the name is also
appUed to other birds much more distantly related, for the
Ortolan of some of the Antilles, where French is spoken, is a
little ground-dove of the genus ChamaepcVut.
In Europe the Beccafico (fig-eater) shares with the ortolan
the highest honours of the dish, and this may be a convenient
place to point out that the former is a name of equally elastic
signification. The true Beccafico is said to be what is known
in England as the garden-warbler (the Motacilla salicaria of
Linnaeus, the Sylvia liortensis of modern writers); but in Italy
any soft-billed small bird that can be snared or netted in its
autumnal emigration passes under the name in the markets
and cook-shops. The " beccafico," however, is not as a rule
artificially fattened, and on this account is preferred by some
sensitive tastes to the Ortolan. (A. N.)
ORTON, JOB (17 1 7-1 783), English dissenting minister, was
born at Shrewsbury on the 4th of September 1717. He entered
the academy of Dr Philip Doddridge at Northampton (q.v.),
became minister of a congregation formed by a fusion of Presby-
terians and Independents at High Street Chapel, Shrewsbury
(1741), received Presbyterian ordination there (1745), resigned
in 1766 owing to ill-health, and lived in retirement at Kidder-
minster until his death. He exerted great influence both among
dissenting ministers and among clergy of the established church.
He was deeply read in Puritan divinity, and adopted Sabellian
doctrines on the Trinity. Old-fashioned in most of his views,
he disliked the tendencies alike of the Methodists and other
revivalists and of the rationalizing dissenters, yet he had a
good word for Priestley and Theophilus Lindsey.
Among his numerous works are Letters to Dissenting Ministers
(ed. by S. Palmer, 2 vols., 1806), and Practical Works (2 vols., with
letters and memoir, 1842).
ORTONA A MARE, a small seaport and episcopal see of the
Abruzzi, Italy, in the province of Chieti, 12 m. direct E. of that
town and 105 m. by rail S.S.E. of Ancona. Pop. (1901) 8667
(town); 15,523 (commune). It is situated on a promontory
230 ft. above sea-level, and connected with the port below by
a wire-rope railway. From the ruined castle magnificent views
to the south as far as the Punta di Penna can be obtained.
The cathedral has been restored at various timeSj but preserves
a fine portal of 131 2 by a local artist, Nicolo Mancini. At one
side of it is the Palazzo de Pirris with five pointed windows.
The town occupies the site of the ancient Ortona, a seaport
of the Frentani; it lay on the Roman coast-road, which here
turned inland to Anxanum (Lanciano), 10 m. to the S. The
town suffered much from the ravages of the Turks, who laid
it in ruins in 1566, and also from frequent earthquakes.
For discoveries in the neighbourhood see A. de Nino in Notizie
degli Scavi (1888), 646. (T. As.}
ORTZEN, GEORG, BARON VON (1829- ), German poet
and prose-writer, was born at Brunn in Mecklenburg-Schwerin.
He served as an officer of Prussian hussars (1850-1855), entered
the consular service and after employment at New York (1879)
and Constantinople (18S0) was appointed to Marseilles (1881), and
then to Christiania (1889), retiring in 1892. He pubUshed
about thirty volumes, mostly of lyrics and aphorisms, including
Gedichte (3rd ed. 1861), Aus den Kdmpfcn des Lebens (186S),
Deutsche Trdiime, dcutsche Siege (1876), Epigramme und Epiloge
in Prosa (1880), Es war ein Traum (1902). His Erlebnisse mid
Studien in der Gegenwart (Leipzig, 1875) appeared under the
pseudonym Ludwig Robert, and Nacht (Stuttgart, 1899), a
collection of sonnets, under that of Stephen Ervesy.
ORURO, a department and town of Bolivia. The department
is bounded N. by La Paz, E. by Cochabamba and Potosi, S. by
Potosi, and W. by Chile; it forms a part of the ancient Titicaca
lacustrine basin, and has an area of 19,127 sq. m., the greater
part of which is semi-arid and covered with extensive saline
deposits. It is bordered by Cordilleras on the E. and W., and
by transverse ridges and detached groups of elevations on the
N. and S. The slope and drainage is toward the S., but many
of the streams are waterless in the dry season. The outlet of
Lake Titicaca, the Desaguadero river, flows southward into
Lake Pampa-AuUaguas, or Poopo, on the eastern side of the
department near the Cordillera de los Frailes. Lake Poopo is
12,139 ft- above sea-level, or 506 ft. lower than Titicaca, and its
waters discharge through a comparatively small outlet, called
the Lacahahuira, into the lagoon and saline morasses of Coipasa
(12,057 ft. elevation) in the S.W. corner of the department.
Oruro is almost exclusively a mining department, the country
being too arid for agriculture, with the exception of a narrow
strip in the foothills of the Cordillera de los Frailes, where a few
cattle, mules and Oamas, and a considerable num.ber of sheep
are reared. The mineral wealth has not been fully developed
except in the vicinity of the capital, in the north-east part of the
department, where there are large deposits of tin, silver and
copper, Oruro being the second largest producer of tin in the
republic. There are borax deposits in the western part of the
department, but the output is small.
The capital of the department is Oruro, 115 m. S.S.E. (direct)
of La Paz; it is an old mining town dating from the 17th century,
when it is said to have had a population of 70,000. The census
of igoo gave it a population of 13,575, the greater part of whom
are Indians. A considerable number of foreigners are interested
in the neighbouring mines. The elevation of Oruro is 12,250 ft.
above sea-level, and its climate is characterized by a short cool
summer and a cold rainy winter, with severe frosts and occasional
snow-storms. The mean annual temperature is about 43° F.
Oruro is the Bolivian terminus of the Antofagasta railway
(0-75 metre gauge), 574m.long, the first constructed in BoHvia. A
law of the 27th of November igo6 provided for the construction
of other hnes, of metre gauge, from La Paz (Viacha) to Oruro,
from Oruro to Cochabamba, and from Oruro to Tupiza, making
Oruro the most important railway centre in Bolivia. Oruro
enjoys the nominal distinction of being one of the four capitals
of the republic, an anomaly which was practically ended by the
revolution of 1898, since which time the government has remained
at La Paz.
ORVIETO (anc. Volsinii {q.v.), later Urbs Veins, whence the
modern name), a town and episcopal see of the province of
Perugia, Italy, on the Paglia, 78 m. by rail N. by W. of Rome.
Pop. (1901) 8820 (town); 18,208 (commune). It crowns an
isolated rock, 1033 ft. above sea-level, 640 ft. above the plain,
ORYX— ORZESZKO J
343
commanding splendid views, and is approached on the east by a
funicular railway from the station. The town is very picturesque,
both from its magnificent position and also from the unusually
large number of fine 13th-century houses and palaces which still
exist in its streets. The chief glory of the place is its splendid
cathedral, dedicated to the Virgin; it was begun before 1285,
perhaps by Arnolfo di Cambio, on the site of an older church; and
from the 13th till the i6th century was enriched by the labours
of a whole succession of great Italian painters and sculptors.
The exterior is covered with black and white marble; the interior
is of grey limestone with bands of a dark basaltic stone. The
plan consists of a large rectangular nave, with semicircular
recesses for altars, opening out of the aisles, north and south.
There are two transeptal chapels and a short choir. The most
magnificent part of the exterior and indeed the finest polychrome
monument in existence is the west facade, built of richly-
sculptured marble from the designs of Lorenzo Maitani of Siena,
and divided into three gables with intervening pinnacles, closely
resembling the front of Siena cathedral, of which it is a reproduc-
tion, with some improvements. With the splendour of the whole,
the beauty of the composition is marvellous, and it may rank as
the highest achievement of Italian Gothic. It was begun in
1310, but the upper part was not completed till the i6th century.
The mosaics are modern, and the whole church has suffered
greatly from recent restoration. The four waU-surfaces that
flank the three western doorways are decorated with very
beautiful sculpture in relief, once ornamented with colour, the
designs for which, according to Burckhardt, must be ascribed to
the architect of the whole, though executed by other (but still
Sienese, not Pisan) hands. The Madonna above the principal
portal falls into the same category. The subjects are scenes
from the Old and New Testaments, and the Last Judgment, with
Heaven and Hell. In the interior on the north, the Cappella del
Corporale possesses a large silver shrine, resembling in form the
cathedral fafade, enriched with countless figures in relief and
subjects in translucent coloured enamels — one of the most
important specimens of early silversmith's work that yet exists
in Italy. It was begun by Ugolino Vieri of Siena in 1337, and
was made to contain the Holy Corporal from Bolsena, which,
according to the legend, became miraculously stained with blood
during the celebration of mass to convince a sceptical priest of
the truth of the doctrine of transubstantiation. This is supposed
to have happened in 1263, while Urban IV. was residing at
Orvieto; and it was to commemorate this miracle that the
existing cathedral was built. On the south side is the chapel of
S. Brizio, separated from the nave by a fine 14th-century wrought-
iron screen. The walls and vault of this chapel are covered with
some of the best-preserved and finest frescoes in Italy — amongthe
noblest works of Fra Angelico and Luca Signorelli, mainly
painted between 1450 and 1501 — the latter being of especial
importance in the history of art owing to their great influence
on Michelangelo in his early days. The choir stalls are fine and
elaborate specimens of tarsia and rich wood-carving — the work
of Antonio and Pietro della MineUa (1431-1441). In 16th-
century sculpture the cathedral is especially rich, containing
many statues, groups and altar-reliefs by Simone Mosca and
Ippolito Scalza. Close by are two Gothic buildings, the bishop's
palace (1264) and the Palazzo dei Papi (begun in 1296), the
latter with a huge hall now containing the Museo Civico, with
various medieval works of art, and also objects from the Etruscan
necropolis of the ancient Volsinii (q.v.). The Palazzo Faina
has another interesting Etruscan collection. The Palazzo del
Comunel is Romanesque (12th century), but has been restored.
S. Andrea and S. Giovenale are also Romanesque churches of the
nth century; both contain later frescoes. To the 12th century
belongs the ruined abbey of S. Severo, i m. south of the town. The
church of S. Domenico contains one of the finest works in
sculpture by Arnolfo del Cambio. This is the tomb with re-
cumbent efSgy of the Cardinal Brago or De Braye (1282), with
much beautiful sculpture and mosaic. It is signed HOC OPVS
FECIT ARNVLFVS. It was imitated by Giovanni Pisano in his
monument to Pope Benedict XL at Perugia. Among the later
buildings, a few may be noted by Sanmicheli of Verona, who
was employed as chief architect of the cathedral from 1509
to 1528. The fortress built in 1364 by Cardinal Albornoz has
been converted into a public garden. The well, now disused,
called II pozzo di S. Patrizio, is one of the chief curiosities of
Orvieto. It is 200 ft. deep to the water-level and 42 ft. in
diameter, cut in the rock, with a double winding inclined plane,
so that asses could ascend and descend to carry the water from
the bottom. It was begun by the architect Antonio da San
Gallo the younger in 1527 for Clement VII., who tied to Orvieto
after the sack of Rome, and was finished by Simone Mosca under
Paul III.
The town appears under the name Oup/St'^evrds in Procopius
(Bell. Goth. ii. 11, &c.), who gives a somewhat exaggerated
description of the site, and as Urbs Vctus elsewhere after his
time. Belisarius starved out Vitiges in 539, and became master
of it. In 606 it fell to the Lombards, and was recovered by
Charlemagne. It formed part of the donation of the Countess
Matilda to the papacy. Communal independence had probably
been acquired as early as the end of the loth century, but the
first of the popes to reside in Orvieto and to recognize its com-
munal administration was Hadrian IV. in 1157. It was then
governed by consuls, but various changes of constitution super-
vened in the direction of enlarging the governing body. Its
sympathies were always Guclphic, and it was closely allied with
Florence, which it assisted in the battle of Monteaperto (1260),
and its constitution owed much to her model. In 11 99 the first
podestd was elected, and in 12 51 the first capitano del popolo.
There were considerable Guelph and Ghibelline struggles even at
Orvieto, the latter party being finally destroyed in 1313, and the
representatives of the former, the Monaldeschi, obtaining the
supreme power. The territory of Orvieto extended from Chiusi
to the coast at Orbetello, to the Lake of Bolsena and the Tiber.
The various branches of the Monaldeschi continually fought
among themselves, however, and the quarrels of two of them
divided the city into two factions under the names of Muffati
and Mercorini, whose struggles lasted until 1460, when peace was
finally made between them. After this period Orvieto was
peaceably ruled by papal governors, and had practically no
history. Owing to the strong Guelphic sympathies of the in-
habitants, and the inaccessible nature of the site, Orvieto was
constantly used as a place of refuge by the popes. In 1814 it
became the chief town of a district, in 1831 of a province, and in
i860 with Umbria became part of the kingdom of Italy, and
became a subprefecture.
See L. Furai, // Duomo d' Orvieto e i suoi restauri (Rome, 1891);
Orvieto, note storiche e biografiche (Citta di Castello, 1891), and other
works. (T. As.)
ORYX (Gr. opo?, a pickaxe, hence applied to the animal), the
scientific name of a group of African antelopes of relatively large
size with long straight or scimitar-shaped horns, which are
present in both sexes, and long tufted tails. They are all desert
animals. The true oryx of classical writers was probably the
East and North-east African beisa-oryx (Oryx bcisa), which is
replaced in South Africa by the gemsbuck {oryx gazella). In
Northern Africa the group is represented by the scimitar-horned
O. leucoryx or O. algazal, and in Arabia by the small white oryx
(O. bcatrix) . See Antelope.
ORZESZKO or Orszeszko, ELIZA (1842- ), Polish
novelist, was born near Grodno, of the noble famOy of
Pawlowski. In her sixteenth year she married Piotr Orzeszko,
a Polish nobleman, who was exiled to Siberia after the insur-
rection of 1863. She wrote a series of powerful novels and
sketches, dealing with the social conditions of her country-.
Eli Makower (1875) describes the relations between the Jews
arid the Polish nobility, and Mcir Ezofow-ics (1878) the conflict
between Jewish orthodoxy and modern liberalism. On the
Nicmen (1888), perhaps her best work, deals with the Polish
aristocracy, and Lost Souls (1886) and Cham (1888) with rural
life in White Russia. Her study on Patriotism and Cosmo-
politanism appeared in 1880. A imiform edition of her works
appeared in Warsaw, 1 884-1 888.
344
OSAKA— OSCA LINGUA
OSAKA, or Ozaka, a city of Japan in the province of Settsu.
Pop. (1908) 1,226,590. It lies in a plain bounded, except
westward, where it opens on Osaka Bay, by hills of considerable
height, on both sides of the Yodogawa, or rather its headwater
the Aji (the outlet of Lake Biwa), and is so intersected by river-
branches and canals as to suggest a comparison with a Dutch
town. Steamers ply between Osaka and Kobe-Hiogo or Kobe,
and Osaka is an important railway centre. The opening of the
railway (1873) drew foreign trade to Kobe, but a harbour for
ocean-steamers has been constructed at Osaka. The houses are
mainly built of wood, and on the 31st of July 1909 some 12,000
houses and other buildings were destroyed by fire. Shin-sai
Bashi Suji, the principal thoroughfare, leads from Kitahama,
the district lying on the south side of the Tosabori, to the iron
suspension bridge (Shin-sai Bashi) over the Dotom-bori. The
foreign settlement is at Kawaguchi at the junction of the
Shirinashi and the Aji. It is the seat of a number of European
mission stations. Buddhist and Shinto temples are numerous.
The principal secular buildings are the castle, the mint and the
arsenal. The castle was founded in 1583 by Hideyoshi; the
enclosed palace, probably the finest building in Japan, survived
the capture of the castle by lyeyasu (1615), and in 1867 and 1868
witnessed the reception of the foreign legations by the Tokugawa
shoguns; but in the latter year it was fired by the Tokugawa
party. It now provides military headquarters, containing a
garrison and an arsenal. The whole castle is protected by high
and massive walls and broad moats. Huge blocks of granite
measuring 40 ft. by 10 ft. or more occur in the masonry. The
mint, erected and organized by Europeans, was opened in 187 1.
Osaka possesses iron-works, sugar refineries, cotton spinning
mills, ship-yards and a great variety of other manufactures. The
trade shows an increase commensurate with that of the popula-
tion, which in 1877 was only 284,105.
Osaka owes its origin to Rennio Shonin, the eighth head of the
Shin-Shu sect, who in 1495-1496 built, on the site now occupied
by the castle, a temple which afterwards became the principal
residence of his successors. In 1580, after ten years' successful
defence of his position, Kenryo, the eleventh " abbot," was
obliged to surrender; and in 1583 the victorious Hideyoshi
made Osaka his capital. The town was opened to foreign
trade in 1868.
OSAWATOMIE, a city of Miami county, Kansas, U.S.A.,
about 45 m. S. by W. of Kansas City, on the Missouri Pacific
railway. Pop. (1900) 4191, of whom 227 were negroes; (1905,
state census) 4857. A state hospital for the insane (1866) is
about I m. N.E. of the city. The region is a good one for general
farming, and natural gas and petroleum are found in abundance
in the vicinity. Osawatomie was settled about 1854 by colonists
sent by the Emigrant Aid Company, and was platted in 1855;
its name was coined from parts of the words " Osage " and
" Pottawatomie." It was the scene of two of the " battles "
of the " Border War," and of much of the political violence
resulting from the clashes between the "pro-slavery " and the
" free-state " factions of Missouri and Kansas. On the 7th
of June 1856 it was plundered by about 170 pro-slavery men
from Missouri. On the 30th of August 1856 General John W.
Reid, commanding about 400 Missourians, attacked the town.
The attack was resisted by Captain John Brown (who had come
to Osawatomie in the autumn of 1855) at the head of about
40 men, who were soon overpowered. Of Captain Brown's
men, four were killed and two were executed. The town was
looted and practically destroyed. A park commemorating the
battle was dedicated here on the 31st of August 1910.
OSBORN, SHERARD (1822-1875), English admiral and
Arctic explorer, the son of an Indian army officer, was born on the
25th of April 1822. Entering the navy as a first-class volunteer
in 1837, he was entrusted in 1838 with the command of a gunboat
at the attack on Kedah in the Malay Peninsula, and was present
at the reduction of Canton in 1841, and at the capture of the
batteriesof Woosung in 1842. From 1844 till 1848 he was gunnery
mate and lieutenant in the flag-ship of Sir George Seymour
in the Pacific. He took a prominent part in 1849 in advocating
a new search expedition for Sir John Franklin, and in 1850
was appointed to the command of the steam-tender " Pioneer "
in the Arctic expedition under Captain Austin, in the course
of which he performed (1851) a remarkable sledge-journey to
the western extremity of Prince of Wales Island. He published
an account of this voyage, entitled Stray Leaves from an Arctic
Journal (1852), and was promoted to the rank of commander
shortly afterwards. In the new expedition (1852-1854) under
Sir Edward Belcher he again took part as commander of the
" Pioneer." In 1856 he published the journals of Captain
Robert M'Clure, giving a narrative of the discovery of the
North-West Passage. Early in 1855 he was called to active
service in connexion with the Crimean War, and being promoted
to post-rank in August of that year was appointed to the
" Medusa," in which he commanded the Sea of Azoff squadron
until the conclusion of the war. For these services he received
the C.B., the Cross of the Legion of Honour, and the Medjidie
of the fourth class. As commander of the " Furious " he took
a prominent part in the operations of the second Chinese War, and
performed a piece of diflicult and intricate navigation in taking
his ship 600 m. up the Yangtse-kiang to Hankow (1858). He
returned to England in broken health in 1859, and at this time
contributed a number of articles on naval and Chinese topics
to Blackwood's Magazine, and wrote The Career, Last Voyage
and Fate of Sir John Franklin (i860). In 1861 he commanded
the "Donegal" in the Gulf of Mexico during the trouble there,
and in 1862 undertook the command of a squadron fitted out
by the Chinese government for the suppression of piracy on the
coast of China; but owing to the non-fulfilment of the condition
that he should receive orders from the imperial government
only, he threw up the appointment. In 1864 he was appointed
to the command of the " Royal Sovereign " in order to test
the turret system of ship-building, to which this vessel had
been adapted. In 1865 he became agent to the Great Indian
Peninsula Railway Company, and two years later managing di-
rector of the Telegraph Construction and Maintenance Company.
In 1873 he attained flag-rank. His interest in Arctic exploration
had never ceased, and in 1873 he induced Commander Albert
Markham to undertake a summer voyage for the purpose of
testing the conditions of ice-navigation with the aid of steam,
with the result that a new Arctic expedition, under Sir George
Nares, was determined upon. He was a member of the committee
which made the preparations for this expedition, and died a
few days after it had sailed.
OSBORNE, a mansion and estate in the Isle of Wight, England,
S.E. of the town of East Cowes. The name of the manor in
early times is quoted as Austerborne or Oysterborne, and the
estate comprised about 2000 acres when, in 1845, it was purchased
from Lady Isabella Blackford by Queen Victoria. The queen
subsequently extended the estate to nearly 3000 acres, and a
mansion, in simple Palladian style, was built from designs of
Mr T. Cubitt. Here the queen died in 1901, and by a letter,
dated Coronation Day 1902, King Edward VTI. presented the
property to the nation. By his desire part of the house was
transformed into a convalescent home for oflicers of the navy
and army, opened in 1904.
In 1903 there was opened on the Osborne estate a Royal
Naval College. The principal buildings lie near the Prince of
Wales's Gate, the former royal stables being adapted to use
as class-rooms, a mess-room, and other apartments, while certain
adjacent buildings were also adapted, and a gymnasium and a
series of bungalows to serve as dormitories, each accommodating
thirty boys, were erected, together with quarters for officers,
and for an attached body of marines. By the river Medina, on
the Kingsdown portion of the estate, a machine shop and
facilities for boating are provided.
At the church of St Mildred, Whippingham, li m. S.S.E. of
East Cowes, there are memorials to various members of the royal
family.
OSCA LINGUA, or Oscan, the name given by the Romans
to the language of (i) the Samnite tribes, and (2) theinhabitants
of Campania (excluding the Greek colonies) from the 4th century
OSCA LINGUA
345
B.C. onwards. We know from inscriptions that it extended
southwards over the whole of the Peninsula, except its two
extreme projections (see Bruttii and Messapii) covering the
districts known as Lucania and Frcntanum, and the greater
part of Apulia (see Lucania, Frentani, Apulia). Northward,
a very similar dialect was spoken in the Central Apennine
region by the Paeligni, Vestini (q.v.) and others. But there
is some probability that both in the North and in the South
the dialect spoken varied slightly from what we may call the
standard or central Oscan of Samnium. There can also be
no reasonable doubt, though doubt has strangely been raised,
that the popular farces at Rome called Atellanae were acted
in Oscan; Strabo (v. p. 233) records this most exphcitly as a
curious survival.
This name, for what ought probably to be called the Samnite
or Safine speech, is due to historical causes, but is, in fact,
incorrect. The Osci proper were not Samnites, but the Italic,
Pre-Tuscan and Pre-(".reek inhabitants of Campania. This is
the sense in which Strabo regularly uses the name "Oc/cot
(of. V. 247), so that it is quite possible that we should con-
nect them with the other tribes whose Ethnica were formed
with the -co- suffix and with the plebs of Rome (see Volsci
and Rome).
For further evidence as to the history of the names Osci, Opsci,
Opici, see R. S. Conway, The Italic Dialects, p. 149. -''■' "•
The chief monuments of the language, as spoken in Campania,
come Irom Pompeii, Nola, Capua and Cumae {q.v.). From the
two towns last mentioned we have the interesting group of
heraldic inscriptions known as lovilae {q.v.), and two interesting
curses inscribed on lead plates and, so to speak, posted in graves,
for conveyance to the deities of the Underworld. One of these
may be quoted as a typical specimen of the Oscan of Campania:
From the memnim -Curse: —
luvikis uhtavis
' '• siaiiis gaviis nep fathim nep delkum putlans;
"" lnvkis uhtavis nuvellum velliam
nep delkum nep fatluni puttad,
nep memnim nep iilam slfel heriiad.
" (Lucius Octauius, Statius Gauius ncue memorare neue indicare
possint. Lucius Octauius Nouellum Velliam neue memorare neue
indicare possit, neue monumentum neue sepulcrum (?) sibi adipis-
catur.")
The language as spoken in Samnium may be illustrated by a few
sentences from the Tabula Agnonensis, now in the British
Museum: —
statils pits set hurthi kerrhm;
diuvel verehasiiil stalif, diiivei regaturel stat'f,
hereklul kerriiiil staltf, patanai pihtiai stattf,
delval genetal stat'if. aasal purasiai saahtum
lefuriim alttrel pidere'ip'id akenei sakahiter.
fluusasials az hurtuni sakarater;
pernat kerr'iiai stat'f, amma'i kerrliai stattf,
fluusal kerrliai statlf, evklin paterel statlf.
(" Qui erecti sunt in horto Cereali. loui uigiliarum patrono (?)
statua, loui Rectori statua, Herculi Cereali statua, Pandae HiaTiq.
(?) statua, Diuae Genetae statua. In ara ignea crematio sancta
altero quoque festo (an 'anno'?) sancitur (an ' sanciatur ' ?).
Deabus Floralibus iuxta hortum sacratur (an ' sacrantur ' ?) :
Anteuortae (?) Cereali statua, Nutrici Cereali statua. Florae
Cereali statua, Mercurio patri statua.")
It remains to notice briefly (i) the chief characteristics which
mark off the Osco-Umbrian, or, as they might more conveniently
be termed, the Safine group of dialects, from the Latinian, and
(2) the features which distinguish Oscan and the dialects most
closely aUied to it, e.g. North-Oscan (see Paeligni), from the
Umbrianor(more strictly) Iguvine dialect (see Iguvium).
(A.) Phonology. — i. The conversion of the Indo-European
velars mto labials, e.g. Oscan and Umbrian />ii = Lat. quis, Osc. Umb.
^od = Lat. quod.
Umb. petiir-pursus = Lat. quadrupedibus ; Osc. kombened -Lat.
convenit, from the Indo-European root *g"em-, Eng. come, Sanskrit
gam-; Umb. accusative bum = Sa.nskntgdm, Eng. cow, the Lat. bos,
bouts having been borrowed frorn some Safine dialect, since the pure
Latin form would have been *uos.
2. The extrusion or syncope (a) of short vowels in the second
syllalile of a word, e.g. Oscan opsa-, Umbrian osa-, from an Italic
stem *opesa-, " to work, build," cf. Lat. opera, " work," and operari
(although this verb appears in Latin tu have been invented only at a
late period); Osc. actud, Umb. az/« = Lat. agito; Umb. mersto-,
from Italic *medesto-, " iustus," beside Lat. modestus. (b) Of shon
vowels before final s, Osc. hitrz (pronounced horts) = Lat. horlus;
Uml). ikuvins = Lat. Iguuinus; Osc. nom. pi. humuns, O. Lat.
homones; Umb. abl. pi. avis for *avifos = La\.. auibus.
3. The preservation of i before n, m and / (whereas in Latin it is
lost with " compensatory lengthening " of the previous vowel when
the change is medial): Umb. ahesnes, abl. pl. = Lat. akenis;
Paelignian prismu (nom. sing, fern.) = Lat. prima; Osc. Slabiis =
Lat. Labius.
4. Instead of Lat. -nd- we have in Osco-Umbrian ««— which
the Umbrian poet Plautus reproduces as a vulgarism in the well-
known line {Miles Glor., v. 14, I. 1399), distennite Iwminem, el dis-
pennite; hence the gerundives, Osc. opsannam = Lat. operandam.
So Umbrian pihaner, from pihanneis (gen. sing, masc), equivalent to
Lat. piandi. It is not certain what the original group of sounds was
which appears in the shape of -nn- in Osco-Umbrian and -nd- in
Latin, nor whether this group of sounds, whatever it was (possibly
-«j-), became -nd- before it became -nn-.
5. Final a became in both Oscan (i5) and Umbrian (often written
u), e.g. Oscan Dl!i = Lat. uia; Umb. adro (nom. pi. neut.)=Lat. alra.
6. Italic e became closer in Osco-Umbrian; in the Oscan alphabet
it is denoted by a special sign h, which is best reproduced by !
(although the misleading symbol i with an accent upon it is fre-
quently used). In the Umbrian alphabet (see Iguvium) it is variously
written e and i, and in the Latin alphabet, when used to write Oscan
and Umbrian, we have e, i, and occasionally even ei, e.g. Osc. ligatuls =
Lat. legatis, but ligis (in Latin alphabet) = Lat. legibus; Umb. Iref
and /ri/=Lat. tres; N. Osc. sefei = Lat. sibi.
7. An original short i in Osco-Umbrian became identical in quality,
though not in quantity, with the vowel just described, and is written
with just the same symbols in all the alphabets, e.g. Osc. pld. Umb.
ped- = Lat. quid.
8. Precisely analogous changes happened with Italic and ic;
the resulting vowel being denoted in Oscan alphabet both by u and
by It (V), in Umbrian alphabet by u, in Latin alphabet by o.
It is well to add here one or two other characteristics In which
Oscan alone is more primitive, not merely than Latin, but even
than Umbrian.
(a) Oscan retains s between vowels, whereas in both Latin and
Umbrian it became r. In Oscan it seems to have become voiced,
as it is represented by z in Latin alphabet, e.g. gen. pi. fem. egmazum^
" rerum " ; ezum, in Oscan alphabet esom, pres. infin. " esse."
(6) Oscan retains the diphthongs ai, ei, oi, ou (representing both
original eu and ou) and au even in unaccented syllables, e.g. abl. pi.
felhins, "muris"; dat. pi. diumpais, "lymphis"; infin. deicum
" dicere."
(c) Oscan retains final, d, e.g. abl. masc. sing, dolud = 'Lat. dolo.
(B.) Morphology. — I. In nouns, (a) Considerable levelling has
taken place between the consonantal and the -0- stems; thus the
gen. sing. masc. of Osc. teerom (neut. =Lat. " terra ") is teereis, just
like that of the consonantal stem tangin-, gen. tanginels. Conversely
we have the abl. tanginud on the pattern of 0- stem ablatives, like
dolud. (b) In the d-stems and the e-stems we have several primitive
forms which are obscured in Latin, e.g. gen. sing. fem. eituas, " pecu-
niae "; gen. pi. masc. Niivlaniim, " Nolanorum "; and the locative
is still a living case in both declensions, e.g. Osc. terel " in terra,"
vtai " in via." ■
II. In verbs, (a) The formation of the infinitive in -um-, e.g.
Osc. ezum, Umb. erom, "esse"; opsaum, "operari, facere " (cf.
art Latin Language, § 32). (J) The formation of the future, and
future perfect indicative respectively, with stems in -es- and -us-;
Oscan didest, " dahit" ;deivast, " iurabit]" ; censaze (n)l, " censebunt ";
Umb. ferest, " feret "; fut. perf. Osc. fefacust, " fecerit "; Osc. and
Umb. /;(j/, "fuerit"; Vmb. fakust, " ieccrit," fakurcnt, "fecerint";
furent, " fuerint." (<") Several new methods of forming the perfect
from vowel stems, e.g. the Oscan and Umlirian -/- perfects. Osc. 1st
sing. perf. mavafum, " mandaui ";3rd sing, aamanaffed, " mandauit,
imperauit"; 3rd pi. Osc. fufens, " fuerunt " (cf. Umb. perf. subj.
passive impersonal pihafei, " piatum sit "). One other formation
occurs frequently in Oscan (from a- verbs), whose origin is obscure,
in this the perfect characteristic is -«-, e.g. prufatted, " probauit."
{d) The peculiar and interesting impersonal or semi-persona! forms
which ultimately developed into a full passive, e.g. Osc. sakraflr,
" sacrauerit aliquis " governing an accusative; \]mh. ferar, " ferat
aliquis " (see the section on the passive under Latin Language).
(C.) Syntax. — It may be said generally that there are verj' few if
any peculiarities in the syntax of the Oscan and Umbrian inscrip-
tions as compared with Latin usage, though a large number of
familiar Latin idioms appear, such as the abl. absolute; the abl.
346
OSCAR I.— OSCEOLA
of circumstance, the genitive in judicial phrases, the use of the neut.
adj. as an abstract substantive, e.g. Oscan ualaemom toulkom, " opti-
mum publicum," i.e. " optima rei publicae ratio." In verbal forms
the same use of the gerundive combined with the noun to represent
the total verbal action, e.g. Umb. ocrer pehaner paca, " arcis piandae
causa"; the usual sequence of tenses, e.g. the imperfect subj. in
Oratio Obliqua representing the fut. indie, in Oratio Recta (see
Cippus Abellamus b 23, 25); and finally the use of the perf. subj.
in Oscan in prohibitions {nep fefacid, " neue fecerit "), but also in
positive commands (Osc. sakraflr, see above).
Fuller accounts of the dialects in all these aspects will be found
most exhaustively in Von Planta, Grammatik der Oskisch-umbrischen
Dialekte (Strassburg, 1892-1897). Less fully, but very clearly and
acutely in C. D. Buck's Oscan and Umbrian Grammar (Boston,
U.S.A., 1904). R. S. Conway, The Italic Dialects, vol. ii. (Cambridge,
1897), gives a fuller account of the alphabets and their history, a
Conspectus of the Accidence and an account of the Syntax at some
length. (R. S. C.)
OSCAR I. (1799-1859), king of Sweden and Norway, was the
son of General Bernadotte, afterwards King Charles XIV. of
Sweden, and his wife, Eugenie Desiree Clary, afterwards Queen
Desideria. When, in August 1810, Bernadotte was elected
crown prince of Sweden, Oscar and his mother removed from
Paris to Stockholm (June 181 1). From Charles XIII. the lad
received the title of duke of Sodermanland (Sudermania). He
quickly acquired the Swedish language, and, by the time he
reached manhood, had become a general favourite. His very
considerable native talents were developed by an excellent
education, and he soon came to be regarded as an authority on
all social-political questions. In 1839 he wrote a series of articles
on popular education, and (in 1841) an anonymous work, Oin
Strajf och strafanstaltcr, advocating prison reforms. Twice
during his father's lifetime he was viceroy of Norway. On the
19th of June 1823 he married the princess Josephine, daughter
of Eugene de Beauharnais, duke of Leuchtenberg, and grand-
daughter of the empress Josephine. In 1838 the king began to
suspect his heir of plotting with the Liberal party to bring about
a change of ministry, or even his own abdication. If Oscar
did not actively assist the Opposition on this occasion, his dis-
approbation of his father's despotic behaviour was notorious,
though he avoided an actual rupture. Yet his Hberalism was
of the most cautious and moderate character, as the Opposition,
shortly after his accession (March 8th, 1844), discovered to their
great chagrin. He would not hear of any radical reform of the
cumbrous and obsolete constitution. But one of his earhest
measures was to establish freedom of the press. Most of the
legislation during Oscar I.'s reign aimed at improving the economic
position of Sweden, and the riksdag, in its address to him in 1857,
rightly declared that he had promoted the material prosperity
of the kingdom more than any of his predecessors. In foreign
affairs Oscar I. was a friend of the principle of nationahty. In
1848 he supported Denmark against Germany; placed Swedish
and Norwegian troops in cantonments in FUnen and North
Schleswig (1849-1850); and mediated the truce of Malmo
(August 26th, 1848). He was also one of the guarantors of the
integrity of Denmark (London protocol, May 8th, 1852). As
early as 1850 Oscar I. had conceived the plan of a dynastic
union of the three northern kingdoms, but such difficulties
presented themselves that the scheme had to be abandoned.
He succeeded, however, in reversing his father's obsequious
policy towards Russia. His fear lest Russia should demand a
stretch of coast along the Varanger Fjord induced him to remain
neutral during the Crimean War, and, subsequently, to conclude
an alliance with Great Britain and France (November 25th,
185s) for preserving the territorial integrity of Scandinavia.
Oscar I. left four sons, of whom two, Carl (Charles XV.) and
Oskar Fredrik (Oscar II.), succeeded to his throne.
See T. Alm^n, Atten Bernadotte (Stockholm, 1896); and C. E.
Akrell, Minnen frdn Carts XIV., Oscars I. och Carls XV. Lagar
(Stockholm, 1884, 1885). Also Norway {history) and Sweden
{history) .
OSCAR II. (1829-1907), king of Sweden and Norway, son
of Oscar I., was born at Stockholm on the 21st of January 1820.
He entered the navy at the age of eleven, and was appointed
junior lieutenant in July 1845. Later he studied at the univer-
sity of Upsala, where he distinguished himself in mathematics.
In 1857 he married Princess Sophia Wilhelmina, youngest
daughter of Duke William of Nassau. He succeeded his brother
Charles XV. on the i8th of September 1872, and was crowned
in the Norwegian cathedral of Drontheim on the i8th of July
1873. At his accession he adopted as his motto Brddrafolkeiis
Vdl, " the welfare of the brother folk," and from the first he
realized the essential difficidties in the maintenance of the union
between Sweden and Norway. The poUtical events which led
up to the final crisis in 1905, by which the thrones were separated,
are dealt with in the historical articles under Norway and
Sweden. But it may be said that the peacefiU solution eventu-
ally adopted could hardly have been attained but for the tact
and patience of the king himself. He declined, indeed, to permit
any prince of his house to become king of Norway, but better
relations between the two countries were restored before his
death, which took place at Stockholm on the 8th of December
1907. His acute intelligence and his aloofness from the dynastic
considerations affecting most European sovereigns gave the
king considerable weight as an arbitrator in international
questions. At the request of Great Britain, Germany and the
United States in 1889 he appointed the chief justice of Samoa,
and he was again called in to arbitrate in Samoan affairs in 1899.
In 1897 he was empowered to appoint a fifth arbitrator if neces-
sary in the Venezuelan dispute, and he was called in to act as
umpire in the Anglo-American arbitration treaty that was
quashed by the senate. He won many friends in England by
his outspoken and generous support of Great Britain at the time
of the Boer War (1899-1902), expressed in a declaration printed
in The Times of the 2nd of May 1900, when continental opinion
was almost universally hostile.
Himself a distinguished writer and musical amateur, King
Oscar proved a generous friend of learning, and did much to
encourage the development of education throughout his
dominions. In 1858 a collection of his lyrical and narrative
poems. Memorials of the Swedish Fleet, pubhshed anonymously,
obtained the second prize of the Swedish Academy. His " Con-
tributions to the Military History of Sweden in the Years 1711,
1712, 1713," originally appeared in the Annals of the Academy,
and were printed separately in 1865. His works, which in-
cluded his speeches, translations of Herder's Cid and Goethe's
Torquato Tasso, and a play. Castle Cronberg, were coUected in
two volumes in 1875-1876, and a larger edition, in three volumes,
appeared in 1885-1888. His Easter hymn and some other
of his poems are famihar throughout the Scandinavian countries.
His Memoirs of Charles XII. were translated into English in
1879. In 1885 he pubhshed his Address to the Academy of Music,
and a translation of one of his essays on music appeared in
Literature on the 19th of May 1900. He had a valuable coOection
of printed and MS. music, which was readily accessible to the
historical student of music.
His eldest son, Oscar Gustavus Adolphus, duke of Warmland
(b. 1858), succeeded him as Gustavus V. His second son, Oscar
(b. 1859), resigned his royal rights on his marriage in 1888
with a lady-in-waiting, Froken Ebba Munck, when he assumed
the title of Prince Bernadotte. From 1892 he was known as
Count Wisborg. The king's other sons were Charles, duke of
Westergotland (b. 1861), who married Princess Ingeborg of
Denmark; and Eugene, duke of Nerike (b. 1865), well known
as an artist.
OSCEOLA (a corruption of the Seminole As-se-he-ho-lar,
meaning black drink) {c. 1804-1838), a Seminole American
Indian, leader in the second Seminole War, was bom in Georgia,
near the Chattahoochee river. His father was an Englishman
named William Powell; his mother a Creek of the Red Stick
or Mikasuki division. In 1808 he removed with his mother
into northern Florida. When the United States commissioners
negotiated with the Seminole chiefs the treaties of Payne's
Landing (9th of May 1832) and Fort Gibson (28th of March
1833) for the removal of the Seminoles to Arkansas, Osceola
seized the opportunity to lead the opposition of the young
warriors, and declared to the U.S. agent, General Wiley Thomp-
OSCHATZ— OSCILLOGRAPH
347
son, that any chief who prepared to remove would be killed.
At the Agency (Fort King, in Marion county) he became more
violent, and in the summer of 1835 Thompson put him in irons.
From this confinement he obtained his release by a profession
of penitence and of willingness to emigrate. Late in November
1835 he murdered Charley Emathla (or Emartla), a chief who
was preparing to emigrate with his people, and on the 28lh of
December he and a few companions shot and killed General
Thompson. On the same day two companies of infantry under
Major Francis L. Dade were massacred at the Wahoo Swamp
near the Withlacoochee river, while marching from Fort Brooke
on Tampa Bay to the relief of Fort King. In a battle fought
three days later at a ford of the Withlacoochee, Osceola was
at the head of a negro detachment, and although the Indians
and negroes were repulsed by troops under General Duncan L.
Clinch (1787-1849), they continued, with Osceola as their most
crafty and determined leader, to murder and devastate, and
occasionally to engage the troops. In February 1836 General
Edmund P. Gaines (1777-1849), with about iioo men from
New Orleans, marched from Fort Brooke to Fort King. When
he attempted to return to Fort Brooke, because there were not
the necessary provisions at Fort King, the Indians disputed
his passage across the Withlacoochee. In the same year Generals
Winfield Scott and Richard K. Call (1791-1862) conducted
campaigns against them with little effect, and the year closed
with General Thomas Sidney Jesup (1788-1860) in command
with 8000 troops at his disposal. With mounted troops General
Jesup drove the enemy from the Withlacoochee country and
was pursuing them southward toward the Everglades when
several chiefs expressed a readiness to treat for peace. In a
conference at Fort Dade on the Withlacoochee on the 6th of
March 1837 they agreed to cease hostilities, to withdraw south
of the HiUsborough river, and to prepare for emigration to
Arkansas, and gave hostages to bind them to their agreement.
But on the 2nd of June Osceola came to the camp at the head
of about 200 Mikasuki (Miccosukees) and effected the flight of
all the Indians th?re, about 700 including the hostages, to the
Everglades. Hostilities were then resumed, but in September
Brigadier General Joseph M. Hernandez captured several chiefs,
and a few days later there came from Osceola a request for an
interview. This was granted, and by command of General
Jesup he was taken captive at a given signal and carried to
Fort Moultrie, at Charleston, South Carolina, where he died
in January 1838. The war continued until 1842, but after
Osceola's death the Indians sought to avoid battle with the
regular troops and did little but attack the unarmed inhabitants.
See J. T. Sprague, The Origin, Progress and Conclusion of the
Florida War (New York, 1848).
OSCHATZ, a town in the kingdom of Saxony, in the valley
of the DoUnitz, 36 m. N.W. of Dresden, on the trunk railway
to Leipzig. Pop. (1905) 10,854. One of its three Evangelical
churches is the handsome Gothic church of St Aegidius, with
twin spires. Sugar, felt, woollens, cloth and leather are manu-
factured, and there is considerable trade in agricultural produce.
Four miles west lies the Kolmberg, the highest eminence in the
north of Saxony.
See C. Hoffmann, Historische Beschreibung der Sladt Oschatz
(Oschatz, 1873-1874); and Gurlitt, Ban- und Kunstdenkmaler der
Amtsmannschafl Oschatz (Dresden, 1905).
OSCHERSLEBEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Saxony, on the Bode, 24 m. by rail S.W. of Magdeburg, and
at the junction of Ones to Halberstadt and Jerxheim. Pop.
(1905) 13,271. Among its industrial establishments are sugar-
refineries, iron-foundries, breweries, machine-shops and brick
works. Oschersleben is first mentioned in 803, and belonged
in the later middle ages to the bishops of Halberstadt.
OSCILLA, a word applied in Latin usage to small figures,
most commonly masks or faces, which were hung up as offerings
to various deities, either for propitiation or expiation, and in
connexion with festivals and other ceremonies. It is usually
taken as the plural of osciUum (dimin. of os), a little face. As the
oscilla swung in the wind, oscillare came to mean to swing, hence
in English " oscillation," the act of swinging backwards and
forwards, periodic motion to and fro, hence any variation or
fluctuation, actual or figurative. For the scientific problems
connected with oscillation see Mechanics and Oscillograph.
Many oscilla or masks, representing the head of Bacchus
or of different rustic deities, are still preserved. There is a marble
oscillum of Bacchus in the British Museum. Others still in
existence are made of earthenware, but it seems probable that
wax and wood were the ordinary materials. Small rudely shaped
figures of wool, known as pilae, were also hung up in the same
wa.y as the oscilla.
The festivals at which the hanging of oscilla to<jk place were:
(i) The Sementivae Feriae, or sowing festivals, and the Paganalia,
the country festivals of the tutelary deities of the pagi; both took
place in January. Here the oscilla were hung on trees, such as the
vine and the olive, oak and the pine, and represented the faces of
Liber, Bacchus or other deity connected with the cultivation of the
soil (Virg. Ceorg. ii. 382-396). (2) The Feriae Lalinae; in this
case games were played, among them swinging (oscillatio); cf. the
Greek festival of Aeora (see Erigone). Festus {s.v. Oscillum, ed.
Miiller, p. 194) says that this swinging was called oscillatio because
the swingers masked their faces [os celare) out of shame. (3) At the
Compitalia, Festus says {Paul, ex Fest. ed. Miiller, p. 239) that pilae
and effigies viriles et muliebres made of wool were hung at the cross-
roads to the Lares, the number of pilae equalling that of the slaves
of the family, the effigies that of the children; the purpose being
to induce the Lares to spare the living, and to be content with vhe
pilae and images. This has led to the generally accepted conclusion
that the custom of hanging these oscilla represents an older practice
of expiating human sacrifice. There is also no doubt a connexion
with lustration by the purifying with air.
OSCILLOGRAPH. In connexion with the study of alternating
or varying electric current, appliances are required for determin-
ing the mode in which the current varies. An instrument for
exhibiting optically or graphically these variations is called an
oscillograph, or sometimes an ondograph. Several methods have
been employed for making observations of the form of alternating
current curves — (i) the point-by-point method, ascribed generally
to Jules Joubert; (2) the stroboscopic methods, of which
the wave transmitter of H. L. Callendar, E. B. Rosa, and E.
Hospitaller are examples; (3) methods employing a high-fre-
quency galvanometer or oscillograph, which originated with A. E.
Blondel, and are exemplified by his oscillograph and that of W.
Duddell; and (4) purely optical methods, such as those of I.
Frohlich and K. F. Braun.
In the point-by-point method the shaft of an alternator, or an
alternating current motor driven in step with it, is furnished with
an insulating disk having a metallic slip inserted in its edge. Against
this disk press two springs which are connected together at each
revolution by the contact of the slip at an assigned instant during
the phase of the alternating current. This contact may be made
to close the circuit of a suitable voltmeter, or to charge a condenser
in connexion with it, and the reading of the voltmeter will therefore
not be the average or effective voltage of the alternator, but the
instantaneous value of the electromotive force corresponding to
that instant during the phase, determined by the position of the
rotating contact slip with reference to the poles of the alternator.
If the contact springs can be moved round the disk so as to vary the
instant of contact, we can plot out the value of the observed in-
stantaneous voltage of the machine or circuit in a wa\'>' curve,
showing the wave form of the electromotive force of the alternator.
This process is a tedious one, and necessarily only gives the average
form of thousands of different alternations.
In the Hospitaller ondograph,^ a synchronous electric motor
driven in step with the periodic current in the circuit being tested
drives a cylinder of insulating material having a metallic slip let into
its edge. This cylinder is driven at a slightly lower speed than that
of synchronism. Three springs press against the cylinder and make
contact for a short time during each revolution, so that a condenser
is charged by the circuit at an assigned instant during the alternating
current phase, and then subsequently connected to a voltmeter.
This process, so to speak, samples or tests the varying electromotive
force of the alternating current at one particular instant during the
phase and measures it on a voltmeter. Owing to the fact that the
cylinder is losing or gaining slightly in speed on the circuit periodicity,
the voltmeter goes slowly, say in one minute, through all the phases
1 E. Hospitaller, " The Slow Registration of Rapid Phenomena
by Stroboscopic Methods," Journ. Inst. Elec. Eng. (London, 1904),
33, 175. In this paper the author describes the " Ondographe " and
" Puissancegraphe." See also a description of the ondograph in
the Electrical Review, (1902), 50, 969.
348
UJC
I A>i OSCILLOGRAPH
O
of voltage which are performed rapidly during each period by the
alternating current. The voltmeter needle may then be made to
record its variations graphically on a drum covered with paper and
so to delineate the wave form of the current. The process is analo-
gous to the optical experiment of looking at a quickly rotating wheel
or engine through slits in a disk, rotating slightly faster or slower
than the object observed. We then see the engine going through all
its motions but much more slowly, and can follow them easily. In
another form devised by Callendar,' a revolving contact disk is
placed on the shaft of an alternator, or of a synchronous motor
driven by the alternating current under test. A pair of contact
springs are slowly shifted over so as to close the circuit at successive
assigned instants during a complete phase. The electromotive
force so selected is balanced against the steady potential difference
produced between a fi.xed and a sliding contact on a wire traversed
by another steady current, and if there is any difference between
this last, the potential difference, and the instantaneous potential
difference balanced against it, a relay is operated and sets in action
a motor which shifts the contact point along the potentiometer
wire and so restores the balance. This contact point also carries a
pen which moves over a rotating drum covered with paper. As
the brushes are slowly shifted over on the revolving contact so as
to select different phases of the alternating electromotive force,
the pen follows and draws a curve delineating the wave form of that
electromotive force or current. An instrument devised by E. B.
Rosa is not very different in construction.^ A commutator method
has also been devised by T. R. Lyle {Phil. Mag., November
1903, 6. 517) in which at an assigned instant during the phase a
selection is made from the periodic current and measured on a
galvanometer.
The oscillographs of A. E. BlondeP and VV. Duddell operate on a
different principle. They consist essentially of a galvanometer of
which the needle or coil has such a short natural periodic time that
it can follow all the variations of a current which runs through its
cycle in say j^th second. This needle or coil must be so damped
that when the current is cut off it returns to zero at once without
overshooting the mark. By means of an attached mirror and
reflected ray of light the motion of the movable system can be indi-
cated on a screen. This ray is also given a periodic motion of the
same frequency by reflection from a separate oscillating mirror
so as to make the two motions at right angles to one another, and
thus we have depicted on the screen a bright line having the same
form as the periodic current being tested. In W. Duddell's oscillo-
graph* (fig. i) the galvanometer part consists of an electromagnet
in the field of which is stretched a loop of ver>- fine wire. To this is
attached a mirror; hence, if a current goes up one side of a loop and
down another, the wires are oppositely displaced in the field. The
loop and mirror move in a cavity full of oil to render the system
dead-beat. A ray of light is reflected from this mirror and from
another mirror which is rocked by a small motor driven off the same
circuit, so that the ray has two vibrator)' motions imparted to it
at right angles, one a simple harmonic motion and the other a motion
imitating the variation of the current or electromotive force under
test. This ray can be received on a screen or photographic plate,
and thus the wave form of the current is recorded. In the Duddell
oscillograph it is usual to place a pair of loops in the magnetic field,
each with its own mirror, so that a pair of curves can be delineated
at the same time, and if there is any difference in phase between
them, it will be detected. Thus we can take two cun'es, one showing
the potential difference at the end of an inductive circuit, and the
other the current flowing through the circuit. In one form of
Blondel's oscillograph, the vibrating system is a small magnetic
needle carrying a mirror, but the principle on which it operates
is the same as that of the instrument above described. The oscillo-
graph can be made to exhibit optically the form of the current curve
in non-cyclical phenomena, such as the discharge of a condenser.
In this case the large vibrating mirror must be oscillated by a
current from an alternator, on the shaft of which is a disk of non-
conducting material with brass slips let into it and so arranged with
contact brushes that in each period of the alternator a contact is
made, charging say a condenser and discharging it through the
oscillograph. In this way an optical representation is obtained of
the oscillatory discharge of the condenser. A form of thermal
oscillograph has been devised by J. T. Irwin (Jour. Inst. Elec. Eng.
Land. 1907. 39- 617). In this instrument the periodic current, the
time variation of which is being studied, passes through a pair of fine
wires or strips, going up one wire and down the other. These wires
are also traversed in the same direction by a constant current from
a battery. The two currents are therefore added in one wire and
subtracted in the other, and produce a differential heating effect
which causes unequal expansion, and this in turn is made to tilt a
' H. L. Callendar, " An Alternating Cycle Curve Recorder,"
Electrician, 41. 582.
- E. B. Rosa, " An Electric Curve Tracer," Electrician, 40. 126.
'See Assoc. Franq. pour VAvanc. des Sciences (1898), for a paper
on oscillographs describing Blondel's original invention of the
oscillograph in 1 89 1.
* Electrician (1897). 39. 636.
mirror which reflects a ray of light on to a screen or photographic
plate as in the Duddell oscillograph.
Finally, purely optical methods have been employed. Braun'
devised a form of cathode ray tube, consisting of a vacuum tube
having a narrow tubular portion and a bulbous end. The cathode
terminal is connected to the negative pole of an electrostatic machine,
such as a Wimshurst or Voss machine, giving a steady pressure.
A cathode discharge is projected through two small holes in plates
in the narrow part of the tube on a fluorescent screen at the end of
the enlarged end, and the cathode ray or pencil depicts on it a
small bright greenish patch of light. If a pair of coils of wire through
which an alternating current is passing are placed on either side of
the tube, just beyond one of the plates with a hole in it, the field
o
:i
Fig. I.
causes a periodic displacement of the cathode ray and elongates the
patch of light into a bright line. If this patch is also given a dis-
placement in the direction of right angles by examining it in a
steadily vibrating mirror, we see a wavy or oscillatory line of light
which is an optical representation of the wave form of a current in
the coils embracing the Braun tube.
References. — See J. A. Fleming, A Handbook for the Electrical
Laboratory and Testing Room, vol. i. (London, 1901), which contains
a list of original papers on the oscillograph; Id., The Principles of
Electric Wave Telegraphy (London, 1906), which gives illustrations
of the use of the oscillograph and the Braun cathode ray tube in
depicting condenser discharges; also, for the development of the
oscillograph, A. E. Blondel, " Oscillographs : New Apparatus for
registering Electrical Oscillations " (a short description of the
bifilar and soft iron oscillographs), Comptes rendus (1893), 116. 502;
Id., " On the Determination and Photographic Registration of
Periodic Curves," La Lumicre electrique (August 29th, 1901); Id.,
'See K. F. Braun, Wied. Ann. (1897), 60. 552; H. M. Varley,
Phil. Mag. (1902), 3500; and J. M. Varley and VV. H. F. Murdock,
" On some Applications of the Braun Cathode Ray Tube," Electrician
(1905), 55- 335-
OSH— OSHKOSH
349
"New Oscillographs," L'&dairage eleclrique (May 1902); Id.,
" Theory of Oscillographs," L'£claira^e eleclrique (October 28th,
1902). " Hot Wire Wattmeters and Oscillographs," J. T. Irwin,
Jour. Inst. Elec. Eng. (1907), 39. 617. (J. A. K.)
OSH, a town of Russian Turkestan, in the government of
Ferghana, 31m. S.E. of Andijan railway terminus, at an altitude
of 4030 ft. Pop. (1900) 37,397. It consists of two parts, native
and Russian. Here begins a good road up to the Pamirs, practic-
able for artillery. The trade with China is considerable.
O'SHANASSY, SIR JOHN (1818-1883), British colonial states-
man, was born in 1818 at Holycross Abbey, near Thurles,
Tipperary, his father being a land surveyor. He married in
1839, and the same year emigrated to the Port Phillip district
of New South Wales, where he was for some time engaged in
farming, and subsequently commenced business in Melbourne.
Dr Geoghegan, afterwards Roman Catholic bishop of Adelaide,
induced him to take part in public ailairs. He was one of the
founders, and later the president, of the St Patrick's Society of
Melbourne, and represented the Roman Catholic body on the
denominational board of education. When Port Phillip was
separated from New South Wales in 1851 and became the
colony of Victoria, O'Shanassy was returned to the Legislative
Council as one of the members for Melbourne. A few weeks after
the new colony began its independent e.xistence gold was dis-
covered, and the local government had to solve a number of
difficult problems. The legislature was composed partly of
elected representatives, and partly of nominees appointed by
the governor in council. The great natural ability of O'Shanassy
forced him to the front, and for some time the policy of the
country was virtually shaped by him and by Mr (afterwards Sir)
W. F. Stawell, the attorney -general. It was very much owing
to the strong position taken by O'Shanassy that the Legislative
Council was allowed to control not only the ordinary revenue
raised by taxation, but also the territorial revenue derived from
the sale and occupation of crown lands. From that date the
Legislative Council, led by O'Shanassy, became virtually
supreme. After the Ballarat riots in 1854, O'Shanassy was one
of the members of a commission appointed to inquire into the con-
dition of the gold-fields. The commission's report was the founda-
tion of the mining legislation which, initiated in Victoria, was
gradually followed by all the Australasian colonies. O'Shanassy,
together with Sir Andrew Clarke, was one of the framers of the
responsible government constitution. Under this constitution
O'Shanassy was returned in 1856 to the Legislative Assembly for
Melbourne and Kilmore, but took his seat for the latter con-
stituency. Early in 1857 the Haines ministry, the first formed
after the concession of responsible government, was defeated, and
O'Shanassy formed a ministry of which he became the premier.
But he was defeated after holding office for little more than six-
weeks. He returned to power in 1858 as chief secretary and
premier. One of the first duties of the new ministry was to
inaugurate the system of railways, and to raise the necessary
funds for their construction. O'Shanassy decided to float a loan
of eight millions sterling through the instrumentality of six of
the Melbourne banks, and he began the series of borrowings by
the Australian governments which subsequently attained such
large proportions. In 1859 the ministry resigned, but in August
1861 O'Shanassy formed his third administration. During
the two years that it held office the government passed an
Education, a Local government, a Civil Service and a Land Act.
The object of this last act was to abolish the system of selling the
crown lands by auction, and to substitute another which insisted
rather upon residence and cultivation than upon obtaining the
highest possible price. The act did not carry out all the inten-
tions of its framers, but it was a step in the right direction.
The O'Shanassy government was defeated in June 1863, and its
chief never again succeeded in regaining office. He did not stand
at the general election of 1866, and paid a visit to Europe. In
1867 he returned to Victoria, and was elected to the Legislative
Council. In 1870 he was created C.M.G., and in 1874 K.C.M.G.
In the latter year he resigned his seat in the council, and did not
re-enter public life until 1877, when he was returned to the
Assembly for Belfast. His strongly expressed Conservative
opinions and his devotion to the interests of the Roman Catholic
church impaired his influence in the legislature, which had become
extremely democratic during the eleven years that he had been
absent from it; and although Sir John was a fearless critic of the
policy of the government, he never succeeded in defeating it.
He had a singularly comprehensive grasp of all constitutional
questions, was an eloquent speaker and an ardent free-trader.
He retired from parliament in 1880, and died in 1883.
O'SHAUGHNESSY. ARTHUR WILLIAM EDGAR (1844-
18S1), English poet, was born in London on the J4th of March
1844, and at the age of seventeen obtained through the first
Lord Lytton, who took a peculiar interest in him, the post
of transcriber in the library of the British Museum. Two
years later he was appointed to be an assistant in the natural
history department, where he specialized in ichthyology.
But his natural bent was towards hterature. He published
his Epic of Women in 1870, Lays of France, a free version of the
Lais of Marie de France, in 1872, and Music and Moonlight
in 1874. In his thirtieth year he married a daughter of John
Westland Marston, and during the last seven years of his life
printed no volume of poetry. Songs of a Worker was published
posthum.ously in 1881, O'Shaughnessy dying on the 30th of
January in that year from the effects of a chill upon a delicate
constitution. O'Shaughnessy was a true singer; but his poems
lack importance in theme and dignity in thought. His melodies
are often magnificent; and, as in The Fountain of Tears, the
richness of his imagery conceals a certain vagueness and indecision
of the creative faculty. He was very felicitous in bold uses of
repetition and echo, by which he secured effects which for
haunting melody are almost inimitable. His spirit is that of a
mild melancholy, drifting helplessly through the realities of
life and spending itself in song. By some critics he has been
disparaged, but reparation was done to his memory by Francis
Turner Palgrave, who, in the second scries of the Golden Treasury,
said with some exaggeration that his metrical gift was the finest,
after Tennyson, of any of the later poets, and that he had " a
haunting music all fiis own."
OSHAWA, a manufacturing town and port of entry of Ontario
county, Ontario, Canada, on Lake Ontario and the Grand
Trunk railway, 30 m. E.N.E. of Toronto. Pop. (1901) 4304.
It contains flour, woollen and grist-mifls, piano, farm implement
and carriage factories, foundries, tanneries, canning factories, &c.
There are a ladies' college and good schools.
OSHIMA, a group of three small islands belonging to Japan,
lying southwards of Kiushiu, in 30° 50' N. and 130° E. Their
names, from west to east, are Kuroshima, Iwo-shima and Taka-
shima. Kuro-shima rises to a height of 2475 ft., and Iwo-shima
has an active volcano 2480 ft. high. These islands are not to
be confounded with Oshima, the most northerly island of the
Izu-noshichito, or with the northern group of the Luchu Islands.
There are several other islands of the same name in Japan,
Oshima signifying " big island." One of the best known lies
off the Kii promontory, and has been the scene of many maritime
disasters.
OSHKOSH, a city and the county-seat of Winnebago county,
Wisconsin, U.S.A., about 75 m. N.N.W. of Milwaukee, on the
W. shore of Lake Winnebago at the mouth of the Upper Fox
river. Pop. (1900) 28,284, of whom 7356 were foreign-born
(including 4500 from Germany), and 16,942 of foreign parentage
(including 10,655 of German and 1015 of Bohemian parentage);
(iQio census) 33,062. Oshkosh is served by the Chicago.
Milwaukee & St Paul, the Chicago & Northwestern and the
Minneapolis, St Paul & Sault Ste. ALirie railways, by river steam-
boat lines connecting with other Fox River Valley cities, with the
Wisconsin river at Portage, and with the Great Lakes at Green
Bay, and by interurban electric lines connecting with Fond du
Lac on the S., Green Bay on the N. and Omro on the W. The
city lies on both sides of the Fox river, here spanned by six
steel bridges, and stretches back to Lake Butte des Morts, an
expansion of the Fox. North Park (60 acres), on the lake front,
350
OSIANDER— OSIER
is the most noteworthy of its parks; and there are Chautauqua
grounds on the lake front. Yacht races take place annually
on Lake Winnebago. Among the public buildings are the City
Hall, Post Office, Winnebago County Court House, Public
Library (22,000 volumes). Oshkosh is the seat of a State Normal
School (1871), the largest in the state. The principal industries
are the manufacture of lumber and of lumber products, although
the former, which was once of paramount importance, has declined
with the cutting of neighbouring forests. In 1905 the value
of the city's factory product was $8,796,705, the lumber, timber
and planing mill products being valued at $4,671,003, the
furniture at $751,511 and the waggons and carriages at $475,935.
Oshkosh is an important wholesale distributing centre for a
large part of central Wisconsin. Farming and dairying are
important industries in the vicinity.
Under the French regime the site of Oshkosh was on the
natural route of travel for those who crossed the Fox-Wisconsin
portage, and was visited by Marquette, Joliet and La Salle
on their way to the Mississippi. There were temporary trading
posts here in the i8th century. About 1827 the first
permanent settlers came, and in 1830 there were a tavern, a
store and a ferry across the river to Algoma, as the S. side of
the river was at first called. The settlement was first known
as Saukeer, but in 1840 its name was changed to Oshkosh in
honour of a Menominee chief who had befriended the early settlers
and who lived in the vicinity until his death in 1856. The real
prosperity of the place began about 1845 with the erection
of two saw mUls; in 1850 Oshkosh had 1400 inhabitants, and
between i860 and 1870 the population increased from 6086 to
12,663. In July 1874 and April 1S75 the city was greatly
damaged by fire.
OSIANDER, ANDREAS (1498-1552), German reformer,
was born at Gunzenhausen, near Nuremberg, on the 19th of
December 1498. His German name was Heiligmann, or, accord-
ing to others, Hosemann. After studying at Leipzig, Altenburg
and Ingolstadt, he was ordained priest in 1520 and appointed
Hebrew tutor in the Augustinian convent at Nuremberg. Two
years afterwards he was appointed preacher in the St Lorenz
Kirche, and about the same time he publicly joined the Lutheran
party, taking a prominent part in the discussion which ultimately
led to the adoption of the Reformation by the city. He married
in 1525. He was present at the Marburg conference in 1529,
at the Augsburg diet in 1530 and at the signing of the Schmalkald
articles in 1537, and took part in other public transactions of
importance in the history of the Reformation; that he had an
exceptionally large number of personal enemies was due to his
vehemence, coarseness and arrogance in controversy. The
introduction of the Augsburg Interim in 1548 necessitated his
departure from Nuremberg; he went first to Breslau, and
afterwards settled at Konigsberg as professor in its new university
at the call of Duke Albert of Prussia. Here in 1 550 he published
two disputations, the one De lege ct evangdio and the other
De jiislijicatione, which aroused a controversy still unclosed
at his death on the 17th of October 1552. While he was funda-
ment.illy at one with Luther in opposing both Romanism and
Calvinism, his mysticism led him to interpret justification by
faith as not an imputation but an infusion of the essential
righteousness or divine nature of Christ. His party was after-
wards led by his son-in-law Johann Funck, iDut disappeared
after the latter's execution for high treason in 1566. Osiander's
son Lukas (1534-1604), and grandsons Andreas (1562-1617)
and Lukas (1571-1638), were well-known theologians.
Osiander, besides a number of controversial writings, published a
corrected edition of the Vulgate, with notes, in 1522, and a Harmony
of the Gospels — the first work of its kind — in 1537. The best-known
work of his son Lukas was an Epitome of the Magdeburg Centuries.
See the Life by W. Mollcr (Elberfeld, 1870).
OSIER (through Fr. from Late Lat. osaria, anxaria, a bundle
of osier or willow twigs), the common term under which are
included the various species, varieties and hybrids of the genus
Salix, used in the manufacture of baskets. The chief species
in cultivation are: Salix viminalis (the common osier) and
5. triandra, S. amygdalina, S. purpurea and S. fragilis, which
botanically are willows and not osiers. The first named with
some forty of its varieties, formed until recent times the staple
basket-making material in England. It is an abundant cropper,
sometimes attaining on low-lying soils 13 ft. in height. Full-
topped and smooth, it is by reason of its pithy nature mainly
cultivated for coarse work and is generally used as brown stuff.
Some harder varieties, known as stone osiers and raised on drier
upland soils, are peeled and used for fine work. S. fragilis,
with some half-score varieties, is almost exclusively used by
market gardeners for bunching greens, turnips and other produce.
Owing to the increased demand for finer work much attention
has been given (see Basket) in recent years to the cultivation of
the more hgneous and tougher species, S. triandra, S. purpurea
and 5. amygdalina with their many varieties and hybrids.
It is commonly supposed that osiers or willows will prove
remunerative and flourish with little attention on any poor,
wet, marshy soil. This is, however, not the case. No crop
responds more readily to careful husbandry and skilful cultiva-
tion. For the successful raising of the finer sorts of willows
good, well-drained, loamy upland soil is desirable, which before
planting should be deeply trenched and cleared of weeds. J. A.
Krabe of Prummern near Aachen, the most scientific and
practical of German cultivators, the results of whose experiments
have been published in his admirable Lchrbuch der raiionellen
Wcidenkiiltur (Aix-la-Chapelle, 1886, et seq.) went so far as to
assert that willows prefer a dry to a wet soil. T. Selby of Otford,
Kent, in a report dated the 18th of November 1800 (see Jour.
Soc. Arts, 1801, xix., 75) stated that all kinds of willows
invariably throve best on the driest spots of some wet land
planted by him. Krabe found that in addition to loam, wiUows
did well on dry ferrugineous, sandy ground with a good top
soil of about 6 in. in depth; on poor loamy clay, and even on
peaty moors.
At any time, from late winter to early spring, the ground may be
planted with " sets," i.e. cuttings of about 9 to 16 in. in length,
taken from clean, well-ripened rods. These are firmly set to within
3 to 6 in. of the top in rows, 16 to 20 in. apart and spaced at intervals
of 8 to 12 in. Yearling sets are largely planted, but the experiments
of Krabe tend to prove, and the practice of the best Midland and
West of England growers confirms, the superior productiveness of
sets cut from two yearling rods. W. P. Ellmore of Leicester, the
most experienced and enterprising of Midland cultivators, preferred
to plant his sets in squares, 18 to 20 in. apart, in order to admit of
the use of the horse hoe in both directions and a freer play of sun
and air. Great care should be exercised in planting lest the bark be
fractured, loosened or removed from the wood. The ground should
be kept free of weeds by frequent hoeing and, if not subject to
periodical alluvial floods, manured yearly. The coarser 5. viminalis
may be raised on lowland soil if not water-logged or marshy, but
the same attention to trenching and weeding is imperative. Ap-
proved varieties of willows cost from 5s. to 17s. 6d. per 1000 sets.
The more valuable kinds are known as: New kind. Black mauls,
Spaniards, Glibskins, Long-bud, Long-skin, Lancashire red-bud,
French, Italians, Pomeranians and Councillors and scores of other
local names. A hybrid of 5. viminalis and S. triandra, known as
Black-top and introduced by Ellmore has been found to produce
the heaviest crops on the best Leicestershire grounds.
Cutting and binding take place in early winter after the fall of the
leaf, the crop being known as green whole stuff. The coarser kinds
are sorted, cured (dried in the sun and wind) and stacked ready for
market. These are known as brown rods. The finer kinds, after
the more shrubby or ill-grown rods, termed Ragged, have been re-
jected, are peeled or buffed. Two methods of stripping are chiefly
practised: from the heads (sets) and from the pit. By the former
method the rods are left on the ground until spring advances, when
a rapid growth of the cork cambium begins. They are then cut
direct from the head and the bark is easily removed by drawing the
rods through a bifurcated hand-brake of smooth, well-rounded steel,
framed in wood. Improved brakes worked by a treadle strip two
rods at a time. For the smaller sizes, rubber brakes are sometimes
used and, for the very smallest, the fingers either bare or protected
by linen bands. This method ensures a clean-butted unfractured
rod, but unless great judgment is exercised in selecting the proper
time for cutting, the rods will remain double-skinned and the head
may bleed. By the " pit " process the green rods are stood upright
in shallow pits of water at a depth of about 6 to 9 in. until the sap
rises and growth begins, when they are ready for the brake. The
defects of this method are that the tops are liable to split in the
brake and the butts to remain foul. A third, known as the " pie "
system enables the grower to bridge over the interval, and to
keep his hands employed, between the end of the " head " and the
I
OSIMO— OSMAN
351
per annum. After 12
and should be grubbed
maiden " crop, is of small
beginning of the " pit " strippings. The willows are cut at the first
indication of the sap rising and " couched " in rotten peelings and
soil at a slight angle, the butts being on the ground, which should
be strewn with damp straw from a manure heap. The tops are
covered lightly with rotted peelings and by periodical application
of water, fermentation is induced at the bottom, heat is engendered,
the leaves force their way through the covering and peeling may
begin. Peeling is chiefly done by women and lasts from early May
to the middle of July. After stripping, the rods are bleached in the
sun and stored for sale as White. If the rods are to be buffed they
are immersed in large tanks of boiling water from 4 to 6 hours.
They are then allowed to cool and mellow, are stripped and caiefully
dried in sun and air and remain dyed a rich tawny brown or buff
colour. Brown rods may also be buffed by sinking them in cold
water which is heated to boiling point, and maintained at that
temperature for the requisite period. Sticks (two or three yearling
osiers) are also grown for whitening and buffing: the less ligneous
varieties of S. viminalis are best adapted for this purpose. Osiers
or willows when tied for market vary locally in girth. In the west of
England, the Thames valley, Cambridgeshire and Norfolk a " bolt "
of green stuff measures 42 to 45 in. in circumference at 10 in. from
the butt; a bolt of white or brown, 40 in. In the northern and
midland counties the stuff is invariably sold by weight. On the
continent of Europe osiers or willows are bunched in sizes of one
metre in girth at the butts and (except in Belgium) are also sold by
weight.
The cost of planting an acre of fine willows varies greatly ; it was
estimated by R. L. and R. Cotterell of Ruscombe, Berks, as follows :
trenching and cleaning ground, £12; sets, 20,000 at 5s.
per 1000, £5; planting and levelling £1. Hoeing, first year,
£2; succeeding years about £3, 15s
to 15 years the heads become " tired,'
up. The first year's crop, known as the '
value but should be cut and the ensuing years of maturity will
yield crops of about 130 bolts, green, per acre, worth £9, 15s.
If whitened, the loss in bulk and in rejection being two-thirds, this
would produce about 44 bolts, which at £30 per load of 80 bolts,
the appreciated market value of 1907, would be worth £16, los. The
cost of whitening is is. 6d. per bolt, but against this the value
of the rejected Ragged, sold as Brown, should be set off. In years
of abundant crops and short demand, prices have fallen to £24
per load.
The cost of planting and the outlay for manuring and weeding
during the years of maturity of the crop, are higher in the Midlands
and the yield was estimated by EUmore at 6 to 10 tons per acre,
green, worth from £3, los. to £6, per ton. White rods, costing
from £3, to £3, 7s. 6d. per ton for extra labour, will realize from
£22 to £24 per ton. Buff rods costing (with coal at los. per ton)
£5 per ton extra, will realize from £22 to £32 per ton. From 2 J
to 3 tons of green are required to produce one ton white or
buff. Wm. Scaling of Notts estimated the entire cost of an osier
plantacion at £33, 12s. per acre for the first year and the outlay
for the next two years at £7, 5s. and £6, 15s. respectively.
The maiden crop he valued at £8, 12s. and the second and third
years' crop at £17 and £22.
A table given by Krabe, based on results obtained for 12 planta-
tions amounting to 20 hectares (50 English acres) during 20 years
showed the value of produce per Prussian acre (-2553 of an hectare)
to be in the 1st year, £3, 6s. In the 2nd year the value of the
produce was £8, 19s; in the 3rd year, £9, 15s. ;_in the 4th year,
£8, IDS.; in the 5th year, £8, is.; in the 6th' year, £7, 6s.; in
the 7th year, £5, 19s.; in the 8th year, £8, 9s.; in the 9th year,
£5,53.; in the loth year, £6, los.; in the nth year, £5, lis.;
in the 12th year, £4; in the 13th year, £6, is.; in the 14th year,
£2, 9s.; in the 15th year, £2, 8s.; in the i6th year, £1, i8s. ; in
the 17th year, £2, 7s.; in the i8th year, £2, 2s. ; in the 19th year,
£3. 13s.; and in the 20th year, £1, lis.
The cultivation of osiers is attended with many disturbing causes —
winter floods, spring frosts, ground vermin and insect pests of
various kinds, sometimes working great havoc to the crop.
The best comprehensive work on the subject is that by Krabe,
which has passed through several editions. A pamphlet on the
cultivation of osiers in the Fen districts is issued in England by the
Board of Agriculture. (T. O.)
OSIMO (anc. Auximum, q.v.), a town and episcopal see of the
Marches, Italy, in the province of Ancona, 10 m. S. of that town
by rail. Pop. (1901) 6404 (town); 18,475 (commune). It is
situated on the top of a hill 870 ft. above sea-level, whence there
is a beautiful view, and it retains a portion of its ancient town
wall (2nd century B.C.). The restored cathedral has a portal with
sculptures of the 13th century, an old crypt, a fine bronze font
of the 1 6th century and a series of portraits of all the bishops
of the see; the town hall contains a number of statues found on
the site of the ancient forum and also a few good pictures. The
castle (1489) was built by Baccio Pontelli. Silk-spinning and
the raising of cocoons are carried on.
OSIRIS, one of the principal gods of the ancient Egyptians.
See Egypt, section Egyptian Religion.
OSKALOOSA, a city and the county-seat of Mahaska county,
Iowa, U.S.A., about 62 m. S.E. of Des Moines. Pop. (1900)
9212, of whom 649 were foreign-born and 344 were negroes;
l(iQio U.S. census) 9466. It is served by the Chicago, Burling-
ton & Quincy, the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, and the Iowa
Central railways, and by interurban electric lines. The city
is built on a fertile prairie in one of the principal coal-producing
regions of the state. At Oskaloosa is held the Iowa yearly
meeting of the Society of Friends; and the city is the seat of
Penn College (opened 1873), a Friends' institution, and of the
Iowa Christian College (incorporated as Oskaloosa College in
1856 and reincorporated under its present name in 1902). At
the village of University Park (incorporated in 1909), a suburb
adjoining the city on the E., is the Central Holiness University
(1906; coeducational), where the annual camp meeting of the
National and Iowa Holiness Associations is held. Coal-mining
is the most important industry in the surrounding region. There
are deposits of clay and limestone in the vicinity, and among the
city's manufactures are drain and sewer tile, paving and building
bricks, cement blocks, and warm-air furnaces; in 1905 the
factory products were valued at $779,894. Oskaloosa was first
settled in 1843; it was selected in 1844 by the county com-
missioners as a site for the county-seat, and was chartered as
a city in 1853. It is said to have been named in honour of the
wife of the Indian chief Mahaska (of the Iowa tribe), in whose
honour the county was named; a bronze statue of Mahaska
(by Sherry E. Fry, an Iowa sculptor) was erected here in 1909.
See W. A. Hunter, " History of Mahaska County," in Annals of
Iowa, vols, vi.-vii. (Davenport, Iowa, 1868-1869), published by the
Iowa State Historical Society.
OSMAN ("Usman), the usual form of the Arabic name
"Othman, as representing the Turkish and Persian pronunciation
of the name. It is used, therefore, for (i) the founder of the
Osmanli or Ottoman dynasty, Osman I., who took the title of
sultan, ruled in Asia Minor, and died in 1326, and (2) the sixteenth
sultan Osman II., who reigned 1616-1621 (see Turkey: History).
For the third Mahommedan caliph see Othman and Caliphate.
OSMAN (1832-1900), Turkish pashaandmushir(field marshal),
was born at Tokat, in Asia Minor, in 1832. Educated at the
military academy at Constantinople, he entered the cavalry
in 1853, and served under Omar Pasha in the Russian War of
1853-56, in Wallachia and the Crimea. Appointed a captain,
in the Imperial Guard, he went through the campaigns of the
Lebanon in i860 and of Crete in 1867 to 1869, under Mustapha
Pasha, when he distinguished himself at the capture of the
convent of Hagia Georgia, and was promoted lieut. -colonel.
He served under Redif Pasha in suppressing an insurrection
in Yemen in 1871, was promoted major-general in 1874, and
general of division in 1875. Appointed to command the army
corps at Widin in 1876 on the declaration of war by Servia,
he defeated Tchnernaieff at Saitschar and again at Yavor in
July, invaded Servia and captured Alexinatz and Dehgrad in
October, when the war ended. Osman was promoted to be
mushir, and continued in the command of the army corps at
Widin. When the Russians crossed the Danube in July 1877,
Osman moved his force to Plevna, and, with the assistance of
his engineer,. Tewfik Pasha, entrenched himself there on the
right flank of the Russian line of communication, and gradually
made the position a most formidable one. He repulsed the
three general assaults of the Russians on the 20th and 30th
July and the nth September, inflicting on them great loss —
some 30,000 men in the three battles. He held the position,
after being closely invested, until the 9th December, when,
compelled by want to cut his way out, he was severely wounded
and forced to capitulate. This famous improvised defence of
a position delayed the Russians for five months, and entailed
their crossing the Balkan range in the depth of winter after the
third battle of Plevna. The sultan conferred on Osman the
Grand Cross of the Osmanie in brilliants and the title of " Ghazi "
(victorious), and, when be returned from imprisonment in Russia,
352
OSMIUM— OSNABRUCK
made him commandant of the Imperial Guard, grand-master of
the artillery and marshal of the palace. In December 1878
he became war minister, and held the post, with a small break,
until 1885. He died at Constantinople, in the palace built
for him by the sultan near Yildiz Kiosk, on the 14th of April
1900, and his body was buried with great pomp in the Sultan
Muhammad Mosque.
OSMIUM [symbol Os., atomic weight 190-9 (0=i6)], in
chemistry, a metallic element, found in platinum ore in small
particles, consisting essentially of an alloy of osmium and
iridium and known as osmiridium. It was first obtained in
1803 by Smithson Tennant {Phil. Trans., 1804, 94, p. 411). It
may be prepared from osmiridium by fusing the aUoy with
zinc, the zinc being afterwards removed by distillation. The
residue so obtained is then powdered and ignited with barium
nitrate, which converts the iridium into its oxide and the osmium
into barium osmiate. The barium salt is extracted by water
and boiled with nitric acid, when the osmium volatilizes in the
form of its tetroxide. As an alternative the osmiridium is fused
with zinc, the regulus treated with hydrochloric acid, and then
heated with barium nitrate and barium peroxide. After fusion,
the mass is finely powdered and treated with cold dilute hydro-
chloric acid; and when action has finished, nitric and sulphuric
acids are added, the precipitated barium sulphate removed,
the liquid distilled and the osmium precipitated as sulphide.
The sulphide is converted into sodium osmichloride by fusion
with salt, in a current of chlorine, the sodium salt transformed
into ammonium salt by precipitation with ammonium chloride,
and the ammonium salt finally heated strongly (H. Sainte-
Claire-DevOle and H. J. Debray, An. min., 1859 [5], 16, 74;
see also C. E. Claus, Jour, prakt. Chcm., 1862, 85, p. 142; F.
Wohler, Pogg. 31, p. 161; E. Leidie and L. Quenessen, BuU.
soc. ciiim., 1903 (8), 29, p. 801). The tetroxide, OSO4, can be
easily reduced to the metal by dissolving it in hydrochloric
acid and adding zinc, mercury, or an alkaline formate to the
liquid, or by passing its vapour, mixed with carbon dioxide
and monoxide, through a red-hot porcelain tube. The metal
has a blue-grey colour, and may be obtained in the crystalline
state by solution in tin. Its specific gravity is 2 1-3-2 2 -48
(Deville and Debray) and its specific heat is 0-03x13 (Regnault).
It can be distilled in the electric furnace. In the massive state
it is insoluble in all acids, but when freshly precipitated from
solutions it dissolves in fuming nitric acid. On fusion with
caustic potash it yields potassium osmiate. It combines with
fluorine at 100° C, and when heated with chlorine it forms
a mixture of chlorides. A colloidal variety was obtained by
A. Gutbier and G. Hofmeier {Jour, prakt. Cliem., 1905 (2), 71,
p. 452) by reducing osmium compounds with hydrazine hydrate
in the presence of gum arable.
Several oxides of osmium are known. The protoxide, OsO, is
obtained as a dark grey insoluble powder when osmium sulphite is
heated with sodium carbonate in a current of carbon dioxide. The
sesquioxide, Os203, results on heating osmium with an excess of the
tetroxide. The dioxide, OsOo, is formed when potassium osmi-
chloride is heated with sodium carbonate in a current of carbon
dioxide, or by electrolysis of a solution of the tetroxide in the
presence of alkali. It is insoluble in acids and exists in several
hydrated forms. The osmiates, corresponding to the unknown
trioxide OsOs, are red or green coloured salts; the solutions are
only stable in the presence of excess of caustic alkali; on boiling an
aqueous solution of the potassium salt it decomposes readily, forming
a black precipitate of osmic acid, H2OSO4. Potassium osmiate,
K20s042H20, formed when an alkaline solution of the tetroxide is
decomposed by alcohol, or by potassium nitrite, crystallizes in red
octahedra. It is stable in dry air, but in moist air rapidly decom-
poses. The tetroxide, OSO4, is formed when osmium compounds are
heated in air, or with aqua regia, or fused with caustic alkali and
nitre. It is obtained as a yellowish coloured mass and can be
sublimed in the form of needles which melt at 40° C. It possesses
an unpleasant smell and its vapour is extremely poisonous. It
dissolves slowly in water, and the aqueous solution is reduced by
most metals with precipitation of osmium. It acts as an oxidizing
agent, liberating iodine from potassium iodide, converting alcohol
into acetaldehyde, &c.
Osmium dichtoride, OsClo, is obtained as a dark coloured powder
when the metal is heated in a current of chlorine. Its solution
in water is deep blue in colour, but the colour changes rapidly to
green and yellow. The trichloride, OsCU, is only known in solution
and is formed by the reducing action of mercury on ammonia-
cal solutions of the tetroxide. A hydrated form of composition
OsCU . 3H2O has been described. The tetrachloride, OsCU, is obtained
as a dark red sublimate (mixed with the dichloride) when osmium is
heated in dry chlorine. It is soluble in water, but the dilute solution
readily decomposes on standing. It combines with the chlorides of
the alkali metals to form characteristic double salts of the type
OSCI4.2MCI (osmichlorides). Potassium osmichloride, K20sCl6, is
formed when a mixture of osmium and potassium chloride is heated
in a current of chlorine, or on adding potassium chloride and alcohol
to a solution of the tetroxide in hydrochloric acid. It crystallizes
in dark red octahedra which are almost insoluble in cold water.
The aqueous solution decomposes rapidly on boiling. Iodine has no
action on osmium, but on warming the tetro.xide with a mixture
of potassium iodide and hydrochloric acid a deep emerald green ,
colour is produced, due to the formation of a compound Osl2.2HI;' I
this reaction is a delicate test for osmium (E. Pinerua Alvarez, 1
Comptes rendus, 1905, 140, p. 1254). Osmium disnlphide, OSS2, is
obtained as a dark brown precipitate, insoluble in water, by passing
sulphuretted hydrogen into a solution of an osmichloride. The
tetrasulphide, OSS4, is similarly prepared when sulphuretted hydrogen
is passed into acid solutions of the tetroxide. It is a brownish black
solid, insoluble in solutions of the alkaline sulphides. The atomic,
weight of the metal has been determined by K. Seubert {Ber., 1888,;
21, p. 1839) from the analysis of potassium and ammonium osmi-
chlorides, the values obtained being appro.ximately 191.
OSNABRUCK, a town and episcopal see of Germany, in the
Prussian province of Hanover, situated on the Hase, 70 m.
VV. of the city of Hanover, 31 m. by rail N.E. of Mtinster, and
at the junction of the lines Hamburg-Cologne and Berlin-
Amsterdam. Pop. (1905) 59,580. The older streets contain'
many interesting examples of Gothic and Renaissance domestic
architecture, while the substantial houses of the modern quarters ,
testify to the present prosperity of the town. The old fortifica-
tions have been converted into promenades. The Roman
Catholic cathedral, with its three towers, is a spacious building
of the 13th century, partly in the Romanesque and partly in
the Transitional style; but it is inferior in architectural interest
to the Marienkirche, a fine Gothic structure of the 14th and 15th
centuries. The town hall, a 15th-century Gothic building,
contains portraits of some of the plenipotentiaries engaged in
concluding the peace of Westphalia, the negotiations for which
were partly carried on here from 1644 to 1648. Other im-
portant buildings are the museum, erected in 1888-1889 and
containing scientific and historical collections; the episcopal
palace and the law courts. The lunatic asylum on the Ger--
trudenberg occupies the site of an ancient nunnery. The town
has an equestrian statue of the emperor William I., a statue of
Justus Moser (i 720-1 794) and a memorial of the war of 1S70-1871.
Linen was formerly the staple product, but it no longer retains
that position. The manufactures include machinery, paper,
chemicals, tobacco and cigars, pianos and beer. Other in-
dustries are spinfiing and weaving. The town has large iron
and steel works and there are coal mines in the neighbourhood.
A brisk trade is carried on in grain and wood, textiles, iron goods
and Westphalian hams, while important cattle and horse fairs
are held here.
Osnabriick is an ancient place and in 888 received the right
to establish a mint, a market and a toll-house. Surrounded
with walls towards the close of the nth century, it maintained
an independent attitude towards its nominal ruler, the bishop,
and joined the Hanseatic League, reaching the height of its
prosperity in the 15th century. The decay inaugurated by
the dissensions of the Reformation was accelerated by the
ravages of the Thirty Years' War, but a new period of prosperity
began about the middle of the i8th century. The bishopric
of Osnabriick was founded by Charlemagne about 800, after
he had subdued the Saxons. It embraced the district between
the Ems and the Hunte, and was included in the archbishopric
of Cologne. By the peace of Westphalia it was decreed that
it should be held by a Roman Catholic and a Protestant bishop
alternately, and this state of affairs lasted until the seculariza-
tion of the see in 1803. In 1815 the bishopric was given to
Hanover. The last bishop was Frederick, duke of York, a son
of the English king George III. Since 1857 Osnabriick has been
the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop.
OSNABURG— OSROENE
See Friederici and Stieve, Geschichle der Stadt Osnabriick (Osna-
briick, 1816-1826); Wurm, Osnabriick, seine Ceschichte seine Bau-
und Kiinstdenkmdler (Osnabriick, 1906); and Hoffmeyer, Ce-
schichte der Stadt und des Regierungsbezirks Osnabriick (Osnabriick,
1904). See also the Osnabriicker CeschichtsquclUn (Osnabriick,
1891 fol.); the Osnabriicker Urkundenbuch, edited by F. Philippi
and M. IBar (Osnabriick, 1892-1902); and the pubHcations of the
Verein fiir Ceschichte und Landeskunde von OsnabrUck (Osnabriick,
1882 (ol.). For the history of the bishopric see J. C. Moller, Ceschichte
der Weihbischofe von Osnabriick (Lingcn, 1887); and C. Sttive,
Ceschichte des Ilochstifts Osnabriick (Jena, 1872-1882).
OSNABURG, the name given to a coarsish type of plain fabric,
originally made from flax yarns. It is now made from either
flax, tow or jute yarns — sometimes flax or tow warp with mixed
or jute weft, and often entirely of jute. The finer and better
qualities form a kind of common sheeting, and the various
kinds may contain from 20 to 36 threads per inch and 10 to 15
picks per inch.
OSORIO. JERONYMO (1506-1580), Portuguese historian, was
a native of Lisbon and son of the Guvidor Geral of India. In
1519 his mother sent him to Salamanca to study civil law. and
in 1525 he went on to Paris to study philosophy, and there
became intimate with Peter Fabre, one of the founders of the
Society of Jesus. Returning to Portugal, Osorio next proceeded
for theology to Bologna, where he made such a name that King
John III. invited him in 1536-1537 to lecture on scripture in
the reorganized university of Coimbra. He returned to Lisbon
in 1540, and acted as secretary to Prince Luiz, and as tutor
to his son, the prior of Crato, obtaining also two benefices in the
diocese of Vizeu. In 1542 he printed in Lisbon his treatise
De nobilitale. After the death of Prince Luiz in 1553, he with-
drew from court to his churches. He was named archdeacon
of Evora in 1560, and much against his will became bishop of
Silves in 1564. The Cardinal Prince Henry, who had bestowed
these honours, desired to employ him at Lisbon in state business
when King Sebastian took up the reins of power in 1568, but
Osorio excused himself on the ground of his pastoral duties,
though he showed his zeal for the commonwealth by writing
two letters, one in which he dissuaded the king from going to
Africa, the other sent during the latter's first expedition there
(1574), in which he called on him to return to his kingdom.
Sebastian looked with disfavour on opponents of his African
adventure, and Osorio found it prudent to leave Portugal for
Parma and Rome on the pretext of a visit ad limina. His
scruples regarding residence, and the appeals of the king and
the Cardinal Prince, prevented him enjoying for long the hospi-
tality of Pope Gregory XIII., and he returned to his diocese and
died at Tavira on the 20th of August 1580. An exemplary
prelate, a learned scholar and an able critic, Osorio gained a
European reputation by writing in Latin, then the lingua
franca of the studious throughout Christendom, and the per-
fection of his prose style caused him to be named by contem-
poraries " the Portuguese Cicero." His well-stocked library
was carried off from Faro when the earl of Essex captured the
town in 1596, and many of the books were bestowed on the
Bodleian at Oxford.
His principal works written in Latin include: (l) De gloria et
nobilitate civile et Christiana, an English version of which by W.
Blandie appeared in London in 1576. (2) De justitia. (3) De
regis institutione et disciplina. (4) De vera sapientia. (5) De
rebus Emmanuelis (1586), a history of the reign of King Emanuel
which is little more than a translation of the chronicle on the same
subject by Damiao de Goes. Osorio's book was turned into Portu-
guese by F. M. do Nascimento (g.f.), into French by J. Crispin
(2 vols., Geneva, 1610), and an English paraphrase in 2 vols, by
J. Gibbs came out in London in 1752. His Opera omnia were
published by his nephew (4 vols., Rome, 1592). Two of his polemical
treatises have been translated into English, his Epistle to Elizabeth
Queue of England by R. Shacklock (Antwerp, 1565), and his Con-
futation of M. W. Haddon by J. Fen (Louvain, 1568). His Portuguese
epistles, including the two before mentioned, were printed in Lisbon
in two editions in 1818 and 1819, and in Paris in 1859. For his
biography see Ohras de D. F. A. Lobo, bishop of Vizeu, i. 293-301
(Lisbon, 1848). (E. Pr.)
OSPREY, or Ospray, a word said to be corrupted from
" Ossifrage," Lat. ossifraga, bone-breaker. The Ossifraga of
Pliny {H.N. x. 3) and some other classical writers seems to have
353
been the Lammergeyer (q.v.); but the name, not inapplicable
in that case, has been transferred to another bird which is no
breaker of bones, save incidentally those of the fishes it devours."
The osprey is a rapacious bird, of middling size and of conspicu-
ously-marked plumage, the white of its lower parts, and often of
its head, contrasting sharply with the dark brown of the back and
most of its upper parts when the bird is seen on the wing. It is
the Falco haliaetus of Linnaeus, but was, in 1810, established by
J. C. Savigny {Ois. de I'Egyptc, p. 35) as the type of a new genus
Pandion. It is closely related to the family Falconidae, but is
the representative of a separate family, Pandionidac. Pandion
differs from the Falconidae not only pterylologically, as observed
by C. L. Nitzsch, but also osteologically, as pointed out by
A. Milne-Edwards {Ois. foss. France, ii. pp. 413, 419). In some
of the characters in which it differs structurally from the
Falconidae, it agrees with certain of the owls; but the most
important parts of its internal structure, as well as of its pterylosis,
forbid a belief that there is any near alliance of the two groups.
The special characters of the family are the presence of a revers-
ible outer toe, the absence of an aftershaft and the feathering of
the tibiae.
The osprey is one of the most cosmopolitan birds-of-prey.
From Alaska to Brazil, from Lapland to Natal, from Japan to
Tasmania, and in some of the islands of the Pacific, it occurs
as a winter-visitant or as a resident. Though migratory in
Europe at least, it is generally independent of climate. It breeds
equally on the half-thawed shores of Hudson's Bay and on the
cays of Honduras, in the dense forests of Finland and on the
barren rocks of the Red Sea, in Kamchatka and in West Australia.
Among the countries it does not frequent are Iceland and New
Zealand. Where, through abundance of food, it is numerous —
as in former days was the case in the eastern part of the United
States — the nests of the fish-hawk (to use its American name)
may be placed on trees to the number of three hundred close
together. Where food is scarcer and the species accordingly less
plentiful, a single pair will occupy an isolated rock, and jealously
expel all intruders of their kind, as happens in Scotland.^ Few
birds lay eggs so beautiful or so rich in colouring: their white
or pale ground is spotted, blotched or marbled with almost every
shade of purple, orange and red — passing from the most delicate
lilac, buff and peach-blossom, through violet, chestnut and
crimson, to a nearly absolute black. The fierceness with which
ospreys defend their eggs and young, in addition to the dangerous
situation not infrequently chosen for the eyry, make the task
of robbing the nests difficult.
The term " osprey," applied to the nuptial plumes of the egrets
in the feather trade, is derived from the French esprit; it has
nothing to do with the osprey bird, and its use has been supposed
to be due to a confusion with " spray." (A. N.)
OSROENE, or Osrhoene, a district of north-western Mesopo-
tamia, in the hill country on the upper Bilechas (Belichus; mod.
Nahr Belik, Bilikh), the tributary of the Euphrates, with its
capital at Edessa {q.v.), founded by Seleucus I. About 130 B.C.
Edessa was occupied by a nomadic Arabic tribe, the Orrhoei (Plin.
V. 85; vi. 25, 117, 129), who founded a small state ruled by their
chieftains with the title of kings. After them the district was
called Orrhoene (thus in the inscriptions, in Pliny and Die
Cassius), which occasionally has been changed into Osroene, in
assimilation to the Parthian name Osroes or Chosroes (Khosrau).
The founder of the dynasty is therefore called Osroes by Procop.
Bell Pers. i. 17; but Orhai or Urhai, son of Hewya {i.e. " the
•Another supposed old form of the name is "Orfraie"; but
that is said by M. Rolland {Faune popiil. France, ii. p. 9, note),
quoting M. Suchier {Zeitschr. r6m. Philol. i. p. 432), to arise from
a Imingling of two wholly different sources; (i) Oripelargus,
Oriperagus, Orprais and (2) Ossifraga. " Orfraie " again is occasion-
ally interchanged with Effraie (which, through such dialectical
forms as Fresaie, Fressaia, is said to come from the Latin praesaga),
the ordinary French name for the barn-owl, Aluco flammeus (see
Owl). According to Skcat's Dictionary (i. p. 408), " Asprey " is
the oldest English form; but " Osprey " is given by Cotgrave, and
is found as early as the 15th century.
^ Two good examples of the different localities chosen by this
bird for its nest are illustrated in Ootheca Wolleyana, pis. B. & H.
354
OSROES— OSSORY, EARL OF
snake "), in the chronicle of Dionysius of Tellmahre; he is no
historical personality, but the eponym of the tribe. In the
Syrian Doctrine oj Addal (ed. Philipps 1876, p. 46) he is called
Arjaw, i.e. " the lion." The kings soon became dependants of
the Parthians; their names are mostly Arabic (Bekr, Abgar,
Ma'nu), but among them occur some Iranian (Parthian) names,
as Pacorus and Phratamaspates. Under Tigranes of Armenia
they became his vassals, and after the victories of Lucullus and
Pompey, vassals of the Romans. Their names occur in all wars
between Romans and Parthians, when they generaUy inclined
to the Parthian side, e.g. in the wars of Crassus and Trajan.
Trajan deposed the dynasty, but Hadrian restored it. The
kings generally used Greek inscriptions on their coins, but
when they sided with the Parthians, as in the war of Marcus
Aurelius and Verus (a.d. 161-165), an Aramaic legend appears
instead. Hellenism soon disappeared and the Arabs adopted
the language and civilization of the Aramaeans. This develop-
ment was hastened by the introduction of Christianity, which
is said to have been brought here by the apostle Judas, the
brother of James, whose tomb was shown in Edessa. In 190 and
201 we hear of Christian churches in Edessa. King Abgar IX.
(or VIII.) (179-214) himself became a Christian and abolished
the pagan cults, especially the rite of castration in the service of
Atargatis, which was now punished by the loss of the hands (see
Bardesanes, " Book of the Laws of Countries," in Cureton,
Spicilcgium Syriacum, p. 31). His conversion has by the legend
been transferred to his ancestor Abgar V. in the time of Christ
himself, with whom he is said to have exchanged letters and who
sent him his miraculous image, which afterwards was fixed over
the principal gate of the city (see Abgar; Lipsius, Die edesse-
nische Abgarsagc (1880); Dobschiitz, Christusbilder (1896)).
Edessa now became the principal seat of Aramaic-Christian
(Syriac) language and literature; the literary dialect of Syriac
is the dialect of Edessa.
Caracalla in 216 abolished the kingdom of Osroene (Dio Cass.
77, 12. 14) and Edessa became a Roman colony. The list of the
kings of Osroene is preserved in the Syrian chronicle of Dionysius
of Tellmahre, which is checked by the coins and the data of the
Greek and Roman authors; it has been reconstructed by A. v.
Gutschmid, " Untersuchungen iiber die Geschichte des Konig-
reichs Osroene," in Memoires de I'Acad. de St Pelersbourg, t.
XXXV. (1887). Edessa remained Roman till it was taken by
Chosroes II. in 608; but in 625 Heraclius conquered it again.
In 638 it was taken by the Arabs. (Ed. M.)
OSROES (also Osdroes or Chosroes), the Greek form of the
Persian name Khosrau (see Chosroes). The form Osroes is
generally used for a Parthian king who from his coins appears
to have reigned from about a.d. 106-129, as successor of
his brother Pacorus. But during all this time another king,
Vologaeses II. (77-147) maintained himself in a part of the
kingdom. Osroes occupied Armenia, and placed Exedares, a
son of Pacorus, and afterwards his brother Parthamasiris on the
throne. This encroachment on the Roman sphere led to the
Parthian war of Trajan. In 114 Parthamasiris surrendered to
Trajan and was killed. In Mesopotamia a brother of Osroes,
Meherdates (Mithradates IV.), and his son Sanatruces II. took
the diadem and tried to withstand the Romans. Against them
Trajan united with Parthamaspates, whom he placed on the
throne, when he had advanced to Ctesiphon (116). But after the
death of Trajan (117) Hadrian acknowledged Osroes and made
Parthamaspates king of Edessa (Osroene); he also gave back
to Osroes his daughter who had been taken prisoner by Trajan
(Dio Cass. 68, 17, 22. ^y, Malalas, p. 270 ff.; Spartian, Vita
Hadr. 5. 13; Pausan. v. 12, 6). But meanwhile Vologaeses II.
had regained a dominant position; his coins begin again in 122
and go on to 146, whereas after 121 we have no coins of Osroes
except in 128.
By Procopius, Pers. i. 17, 24, the name of the territory of Osroene
is derived from a dynast Osroes, but this is a false etymology (see
Osroene). ' (Ed. M.)
OSSA (mod. Kissovo or Kissavo), a mountain in the district of
Magnesia in Thessaly, between Pelion and Olympus, from which
it is separated by the valley of Tempe. Height about 6400 ft.
The Giants are said to have piled Pelion upon it in their attempt
to scale Olympus.
OSSETT, a municipal borough in the Morley parliamentary
division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 3 m. W. of
Wakefield, on the Great Northern and (Horbury and Ossett
station) the Lancashire and Yorkshire railways. Pop. (1901)
12,903. It includes the contiguous townships of Ossett, South
Ossett and Gawthorpe. The church of the Holy Trinity, a fine
cruciform structure in the Early Decorated style, was erected in
1865. Woollen cloth mills, and extensive collieries in the
neighbourhood, employ the large industrial population. There
are medicinal springs simOar in their properties to those of
Cheltenham. The municipal borough, incorporated in 1890, is
under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area 3238 acres.
OSSIAN, OssiN or Oisin, the legendary Irish 3rd-century hero
of Celtic literature, son of Finn. According to the legend
embodied in the Ossianic or Ossinic poems and prose romances
which early spread over Ireland and Scotland, Ossian and his
Fenian followers were defeated in 283 at the battle of Gabhra by
the Irish king Carbery, and Ossian spent many years in fairy-
land, eventually being baptized by St Patrick. As Oisin he was
long celebrated in Irish song and legend, and in recent years the
Irish literary revival has repopularized the Fenian hero. In
Scotland the Ossianic revival is associated with the name of
James Macpherson (q.v).
See Celt: Literature; also Nutt's Ossian and the Ossianic
Literature (1899).
OSSINGTON, JOHN EVELYN DENISON, Viscount (i8oc^-
1873), English statesman, was the eldest son of John Denison
(d. 1820) of Ossington, Nottinghamshire, where he was born on
the 27th of January 1800. Educated at Eton and Christ Church,
Oxford, he became member of parliament for Newcastle-under-
Lyme Ln 1823, being returned for Hastings three years later, and
holding for a short time a subordinate position in Canning's
ministry. Defeated in 1830 both at Newcastle-under-Lyme and
then at Liverpool, Denison secured a seat as one of the members
for Nottinghamshire in 1831; and after the great Reform Act
he represented the southern division of that county from 1832
until the general election of 1837. He represented Malton from
1841 to 1857, and North Nottinghamshire from 1857 to 1872. In
April 1857 Denison was chosen Speaker of theHouse of Commons.
Re-elected at the beginning of three successive parliaments he
retained this position until February 1872, when he resigned and
was created Viscount Ossington. He refused, however, to accept
the pension usually given to retiring Speakers. In 1827 he had
married Charlotte (d. 1889), daughter of William, 4th duke of
Portland, but he left no children. He died on the 7th of March
1873, and his title became extinct.
OSSINING, a village of Westchester county, New York, U.S.A.,
30 m. N. of New York city, on the E. bank of the Hudson river.
Pop. (1900) 7939, of whom 1642 were foreign-born; (1910, U.S.
census) 11,480. It is served by the New York Central & Hudson
River railway, and by river steamboats. It is finely situated
overlooking the Tappan Zee, an expansion of the Hudson river,
and has excellent facOities for boating, sailing and yachting. The
village is the seat of Mount Pleasant Academy (18 14), Holbrook
School (1866) and St John's School (1843), all for boys, and has
a fine public library. The Croton Aqueduct is here carried over
a stone arch with an eighty-foot span. At Ossining, near the
river front, is the Sing Sing Prison, the best-known penitentiary
in the United States. In 1906 a law was enacted providing
for a new prison in the eastern part of the state in place
of Sing Sing. The site of Ossining, originally a part of the
Phillipse Manor, was first settled about 1700, taking the name
of Sing Sing from the Sin Sinck Indians. The village was in-
corporated in 1 8 13, and was reincorporated, with enlarged
boundaries and a considerably increased population, in 1906,
the name being changed from Sing Sing to Ossining in 1901.
OSSORY, THOMAS BUTLER, Earl of (1634-1680), eldest son
of James Butler, 1st duke of Ormonde, was born at Kilkenny
on the 8th or 9th of July 1634. His early years were spent in
/
OSSORY— OSTADE
355
Ireland and France, and he became an accomplished athlete and
by no means an indifferent scholar. Having come to London
in 1652 he was rightly suspected of sympathizing with the
exiled royalists, and in 1655 was put into prison by Cromwell;
after his release about a year later he went to Holland and
married a Dutch lady of good family, accompanying Charles II.
to England in 1660. In 1661 Butler became a member of both
the English and the Irish Houses of Commons, representing
Bristol in the former and Dublin University in the latter House;
and in 1662 was made an Irish peer as earl of Ossory. He held
several military appointments, in 1665 was made lieutenant-
general of the army in Ireland, and in 1666 was created an
English peer as Lord Butler; but almost as soon as he appeared
in the House of Lords he was imprisoned for two days for chal-
lenging the duke of Buckingham. In 1665 a fortunate accident
had allowed Ossory to take part in a big naval fight with the
Dutch, and in May 1672, being now in command of a ship, he
fought against the same enemies in Southwold Bay, serving
with great distinction on both occasions. The earl was partly
responsible for this latter struggle, as in March 1672 before war
was declared he had attacked the Dutch Smyrna fleet, an action
which he is said to have greatly regretted later in life. Whilst
visiting France in 1672 he rejected the hberal offers made by
Louis XIV. to induce him to enter the service of France, and
returning to England he added to his high reputation by his
conduct during a sea-fight in August 1673. The earl was intimate
with William, prince of Orange, and in 1677 he joined the allied
army in the Netherlands, commanding the British section and
winning great fame at the siege of Mons in 1678. He acted as
deputy for his father, who was lord-lieutenant of Ireland, and in
parliament he defended Ormonde's Irish administration with
great vigour. In 1680 he was appointed governor of Tangier, but
his death on the 30th of July 1680 prevented him from taking up
his new duties. One of his most intimate friends was John
Evelyn, who eulogizes him in his Diary. Ossory had eleven
children, and his eldest son James became duke of Ormonde in
1688.
See T. Carte, Life of James, duke of Ormonde (1851); and J.
Evelyn, Diary, edited by W. Bray (1890).
OSSORY (Osraighe), an ancient kingdom of Ireland, in the
south-west of Leinster. The name is preserved by dioceses
of the Church of Ireland and the Roman Catholic Church. The
kingdom of Ossory was founded in the 2nd century A.D., and its
kings maintained their position until mo.
OSTADE, the name of two Dutch painters whose ancestors
were settled at Eyndhoven, near the village of Ostaden. Early
in the 17th century Jan Hendricx, a weaver, moved from
Eyndhoven to Haarlem, where he married and founded a large
family. The eldest and youngest of his sons became celebrated
artists.
I. Adrian Ostade (1610-1685), the eldest of Jan Hendricx's
sons, was born and died at Haarlem. According to Houbraken
he was taught by Frans Hals, at that time master of Adrian
Brouwer. At twenty-six he joined a company of the civic
guard at Haarlem, and at twenty-eight he married. His wife
died in 1640 and he speedily re-married, but again became a
widower in 1666. He took the highest honours of his profession,
the presidency of the painters' gild at Haarlem, in 1662. Among
the treasuresof the Louvre collection, a striking picture represents
the father of a large family sitting in state with his wife at his
side in a handsomely furnished room, surrounded by his son
and five daughters, and a young married couple. It is an old
tradition that Ostade here painted himself and his children in
holiday attire; yet the style is much too refined for the painter
of boors, and Ostade had but one daughter. The number
of Ostade's pictures is given by Smith at three hundred and
eighty-five, but by Hofstede de Groot (igio) at over 900. At his
death the stock of his unsold pieces was over two hundred. His
engraved plates were put up to auction, with the pictures, and
fifty etched plates — most of them dated 1647-1648 — were dis-
posed of in 1686. Two hundred and twenty of his pictures
are in public and private collections, of which one hundred
and four are signed and dated, while seventeen are signed with
the name but not with the date.
Adrian Ostade was the contemporary of David Teniers and
Adrian Brouwer. Like them he spent his life in the delineation
of the homeliest subjects — tavern scenes, village fairs and country
quarters. Between Teniers and Ostade the contrast lies in the
different condition of the agricultural classes of Brabant and
Holland, and the atmosphere and dwellings that were peculiar
to each region. Brabant has more sun, more comfort and a
higher type of humanity; Teniers, in consequence, is silvery
and sparkling; the [jeople he paints are fair sjjccimens of a well-
built race. Holland, in the vicinity of Haarlem seems to have
suffered much from war; the air is moist and hazy, and the
people, as depicted by Ostade, are short, ill-favoured and marked
with thestampofadvcrsityon theirfcatures and dress. Brouwer,
who painted the Dutch boor in his frolics and pa.ssion, imported
more of the spirit of Frans Hals into his delineations than his
colleague; but the type is the same as Ostade's. During the
first years of his career Ostade displayed the same tendency
to exaggeration and frolic as his comrade, but he is to be dis-
tinguished from his rival by a more general use of the principles
of light and shade, and especially by a greater concentration
of light on a small surface in contrast with a broad expanse of
gloom. The key of his harmonies remains for a time in the
scale of greys. But his treatment is dry and careful, and in
this style he shuns no difliculties of detail, representing cottages
inside and out, with the vine leaves covering the poorness of the
outer walls, and nothing inside to deck the patchwork of rafters
and thatch, or tumble-down chimneys and ladder staircases,
that make up the sordid interior of the Dutch rustic of those
days. The greatness of Ostade Hes in the fact that he often
caught the poetic side of the life of the peasant class, in spile
of its ugliness, and stunted form and misshapen features. He
did so by giving their vulgar sports, their quarrels, even their
quieter moods of enjoyment, the magic light of the sungleam,
and by clothing the wreck of cottages with gay vegetation.
It was natural that, with the tendency to effect which marked
Ostade from the first, he should have been fired by emulation to
rival the masterpieces of Rembrandt. His early pictures are not so
rare but that we can trace how he glided out of one period into the
other. Before the dispersion of the Gsell collection at Vienna in
1872, it was easy to study the steel-grey harmonics and exaggerated
caricature of his early works in the period intervening between
1632 and 1638. There is a picture of a " Countrj-man having his
Tooth Drawn," in the Vienna Gallery, unsigned, and painted about
1632; a "Bagpiper" of 1635 in the Liechtenstein Gallery at
Vienna; cottage scenes of 1635 and 1636, in the museums of Karls-
ruhe, Darmstadt and Dresden; and " Card Players " of 1637 in the
Liechtenstein palace at Vienna, which make up for the loss of the
Gsell collection. The same style marks most of those pieces. About
1638 or 1640 the influence of Rembrandt suddenly changed his
style, and hejpainted the/' Annunciation "of the Brunswick museum,
where the angels appearing in the sky to Dutch boors half asleep
amidst their cattle, sheep and dogs, in front of a cottage, at once
recall the similar subject by Rembrandt and his effective mode of
lighting the principal groups by rays propelled to the earth out of a
murky sky. But Ostade was not successful in this effort to vulgarize
Scripture. He might have been pardoned had he given dramatic
force and expression to his picture; but his shepherds were only
boors without much emotion, passion or surprise. His picture was
an effect of light, as such masterly, in its sketchy rubbings, of dark
brown tone relieved by strongly impasted lights, but without the
very qualities which made his usual subjects attractive. When, in
1642, he painted the beautiful interior at the Louvre, in which a
mother tends her child in a cradle at the side of a great chimney
near which her husband is sitting, the darkness of a country loft is
dimly illumined by a beam from the sun that shines on the case-
ment; and one might think the painter intended to depict the
Nativity, but that there is nothing holy in all the surroundings,
nothing attractive indeed except the wonderful Rembrandtesque
transparency, the brown tone, and the admirable keeping of the
minutest parts. Ostade was more at home in a similar effect applied
to the commonplace incident of the " Slaughtering of a Pig," one
of the masterpieces of 1643, once in the Gsell collection. In this
and similar subjects of previous and succeeding years, he returned
to the homely subjects in which his power and wonderful obser\-a-
tion made him a master. He does not seem to have gone back to
gospel illustrations till 1667, when he produced an admirable
" Nativity." whicli is only surpassed as regards arrangement and
I colour by Rembrandt's " Carpenter's Family " at the Louvre, or the
356
OSTASHKOV— OSTEND COMPANY
" Woodcutter and Children ' in the gallery of Cassel. Innumerable
almost are the more familiar themes to which he devoted his brush
during this interval, from small single figures, representing smokers
or drinkers, to vulgarized allegories of the five senses (Hermitage
and Brunswick galleries), half-lengths of fishmongers and bakers
and cottage brawls, or scenes of gambling, or itinerant players and
quacks, and nine-pin players in the open air. The humour in some
of these pieces is contagious, as in the " Tavern Scene " of the
Lacaze collection (Louvre, 1653). His art may be studied in the
large series of dated pieces which adorn every European capital,
from St Petersburg to London. Buckingham Palace has a large
number, and many a good specimen lies hidden in the private
collections of England. But if we should select a few as peculiarly
worthy of attention, we might point to the " Rustics in a Tavern "
of 1662 at the Hague, the " Village School " of the same year at
the Louvre, the " Tavern Court-yard " of 1670 at Cassel, the
" Sportsmen's Rest " of 1671 at Amsterdam and the " Fiddler and
his Audience " of 1673 at the Hague. At Amsterdam we have the
likeness of a painter, sitting with his back to the spectator, at his
easel. The colour-grinder is at work in a corner, a pupil prepares a
palette and a black dog sleeps on the ground. A replica of this
picture, with the date of 1666, is in the Dresden gallery. Both
specimens are supposed to represent Ostade himself. But un-
fortunately we see the artist's back and not his face. In his etching
(Barlsch, 32) the painter shows himself in profile, at work on a
canvas. Two of his latest dated works, the " Village Street " and
" Skittle Players," which were noteworthy items in the Ashburton
and EUesmere collections, were executed in 1676 without any sign
of declining powers. The prices which Ostade received are not
known, but pictures which were worth £40 in 1750 were worth
£1000 a century later, and Earl Dudley gave £4120 for a cottage
interior in 1876. The signatures of Ostade vary at different periods.
But the first two letters are generally interlaced. LTp to 1635
Ostade writes himself Ostaden, e.g. in the " Bagpiper " of 1635 in
the Liechtenstein collection at Vienna. Later on he uses the long s
(t), and occasionally he signs in capital letters. His pupils are his
own brother Isaac, Cornells Bega, Cornells Dusart and Richard
Brakenburg.
2. Isaac Ostade (1621-1649) was born in Haarlem, and began
his studies under Adrian, with whom he remained till 164 1,
when he started on his own account. At an early period he
felt the influence of Rembrandt, and this is apparent in a
" Slaughtered Pig " of 1639, in the gallery of Augsburg. But he
soon reverted to a style more suited to his brush. He produced
pictures in 1641-1642 on the Hnes of his brother — amongst these,
the " Five Senses," which Adrian afterwards represented by
a " Man reading a Paper," a " Peasant tasting Beer," a " Rustic
smearing his Sores with Ointment " and a " Countryman
sniffing at a Snufif-box." A specimen of Isaac's work at this
period may be seen in the " Laughing Boor with a Pot of Beer,"
in the museum of Amsterdam; the cottage interior, with two
peasants and three children near a fire, in the Berlin museum;
a " Concert," with people listening to singers accompanied by
a piper and flute player, and a " Boor stealing a Kiss from a
Woman," in the Lacaze collection at the Louvre. The interior
at Berlin is Ughted from a casement in the same Rembrandtesque
style as Adrian's interior of 1643 at the Louvre. The low
price he received for his pictures of this character — in which he
could only hope to remain a satellite of Adrian — induced him
gradually to abandon the cottage subjects of his brother for
landscapes in the fashion of Esaias Van de Velde and Salomon
Ruisdael. Once only, in 1645, he seems to have fallen into
the old groove, when he produced the " Slaughtered Pig,"
with the boy puffing out a bladder, in the museum of Lille.
But this was an exception. Isaac's progress in his new path
was greatly facilitated by his previous experience as a figure
painter; and, although he now selected his subjects either
from village high streets or frozen canals, he gave fresh hfe
to the scenes he depicted by groups of people full of movement
and animation, which he relieved in their coarse humours and
sordid appearance by a refined and searching study of picturesque
contrasts. He did not hve long enough to bring his art to
the highest perfection. He died on the i6th October 1649
having painted about 400 pictures (see H. de Groot, 1910).
The first manifestation of Isaac's surrender of Adrian's style is
apparent in 1644 when the skating and sledging scenes were executed
which we see in the Lacaze collection and the galleries of the Her-
mitage, Antwerp and Lille. Three of these examples bear the
artist's name, spelt Isack van Ostade, and the dates of 1644 and
1645. The roadside inns, with halts of travellers, form a compact
series from 1646 to 1649. In this, the last form of his art, Isaac has
very distinct peculiarities. The air which pervades his composition
is warm and sunny, yet mellow and hazy, as if the sky were veiled
with a vapour coloured by moor smoke. The trees are rubbings of
umber, in which the prominent foliage is tipped with touches
hardened in a hquid state by amber varnish mediums. The same
principle applied to details such as glazed bricks or rents in the mud
lining of cottages gives an unreal and conventional stamp to those
particular parts. But these blemishes are forgotten when one looks
at the broad contrasts of light and shade and the masterly figures
of horses and riders, and travellers and rustics, or quarrelling children
and dogs, poultry and cattle, amongst which a favourite place is
always given to the white horse, which seems as invariable an accom-
paniment as the grey in the skirmishes and fairs of Wouverman.
But it is in winter scenes that Isaac displays the best qualities. The
absence of foliage, the crisp atmosphere, the calm air of cold January
days, unsullied by smoke or vapour, preclude the use of the brown
tinge, and leave the painter no choice but to ring the changes on
opal tints of great variety, upon which the figures emerge with
masterly effect on the light background upon which they are thrown.
Amongst the roadside inns which will best repay attention we »
should notice those of Buckingham Palace, the National Gallery, I
the Wallace and Holford collections in England, and those of the *
Louvre, Berlin, Hermitage and Rotterdam museums and the
Rothschild collection at Vienna on the Continent. The finest of
the ice scenes is the famous one at the Louvre.
For paintings and etchings see Les Frhres Ostade, by Marguerite
van de Wiele (Paris, 1893). For his etchings sceL'CEuvre d'Ostade,
cu description des eanx-fortes de ce mattre, &c., by Auguste d'Orange
(i860); and Catalogue raisonne de loutes les estampes qui fornient
I'wuvre grave d' Adrian van Ostade, by L. E. Faucheux (Paris,
1862). (J.A. C; P. G. K.)
OSTASHKOV, a town of Russia, in the government of Tver,
on Lake Seliger, 108 m. W.N.W. of the city of Tver; pop.
10,457. The climate is damp and unhealthy. The town has
tanneries, and is a centre for the making of boots and shoes,
for agricultural implements, fishing-nets and the building of
boats. The advantageous site, the proximity of the Smolenskiy
Zhitnyi monastery, a pilgrim resort on an island of the lake
and the early development of certain petty trades combined
to bring prosperity to Ostashkov. Its cathedral (1672-16S5)
contains valuable offerings, as also do two other churches of
the same century.
OSTEND (Flemish and French Ostende), a town of Belgium
in the province of West Flanders. Pop. (1904) 41,181. It is
the most fashionable seaside resort and the second port of the
kingdom. Situated on the North Sea it forms almost the central
point on the 42 m. of sea-coast that belong to Belgium. In the
middle ages it was strongly fortified and underwent several
sieges; the most notable was that of 1601-1604, when it only
surrendered by order of the states to Spinola. In 1865 the
last vestiges of its ramparts were removed, and since that date,
but more especially since 1898, a new town has been created.
The digue or parade, constructed of solid granite, extends for
over 2 m. along the shore in a southerly direction from the long
jetty which protects the entrance to the port. A fine casino
and the royal chalet are prominent objects along the sea front,
and the sea-bathing is unsurpassed. In the rear of the town is
a fine park to which a race-course has been added. Extensive
works were begun in 1900 for the purpose of carrying the harbour
back 2 m. , and a series of large docks were excavated and extensive
quays constructed. The docks accommodate ships of large
tonnage. Apart from these docks Ostend has a very considerable
passenger and provision traffic with England, and is the head-
quarters of the Belgian fishing fleet, estimated to employ 400
boats and 1600 men and boys. Ostend is in direct railway
communication with Brussels, Cologne and Berhn. It is also
the starting point of several fight railways along the coast and
to the southern towns of Flanders.
OSTEND COMPANY. The success of the Dutch, Enghsh and
French East India Companies led the merchants and shipowners
of Ostend to desire to estabUsh direct commercial relations with
the Indies. A private company was accordingly formed in
1 717 and some ships sent to the East. The emperor Charles
VI. encouraged his subjects to raise subscriptions for the new
enterprise, but did not grant a charter or letters patent. Some
success attended these early efforts, but the jealousy of the
neighbouring nations was shown by the seizure of an Ostend
OSTEOLOGY— OSTERODE
357
merchantman with its rich cargo by the Dutch in lyig off the
coast of Africa, and of another by the English near Madagascar.
The Ostenders, however, despite these losses, persevered in
their project. The opposition of the Dutch made Charles VI.
hesitate for some time to grant their requests, but on the 19th
of December 1722 letters patent were granted by which the
company of Ostend received for the period of thirty years the
privilege of trading in the East and West Indies and along the
coasts of Africa on this side and on that of the Cape of Good Hope.
Si.x directors were nominated by the emperor, and subscriptions
to the company flowed in so rapidly that the shares were at the
end of August 1723 at 12 to 15% premium. Two factories
were estabhshed, one at Coblom on the coast of Coromandel
near Madras, the other at Bankibazar on the Ganges. At the
outset the prospects of the company appeared to be most
encouraging, but its promoters had not reckoned with the jealousy
and hostility of the Dutch and Enghsh. The Dutch appealed
to the treaty of Westphalia (1648) by which the king of Spain
had prohibited the inhabitants of the southern Netherlands
from trading with the Spanish colonies. The transference of
the southern Netherlands to Austria by the peace of Utrecht
(1713) did not, said the Dutch, remove this disabihty. The
Spanish government, however, after some hesitation concluded
a treaty of commerce with Austria and recognized the company
of Ostend. The reply to this was a defensive league concluded
at Herrenhausen in 1725 by England, the United Provinces and
Prussia. Confronted with such formidable opposition the court
of Vienna judged it best to yield. By the terms of a treaty
signed at Paris on the 31st of May 1727 the emperor suspended
the charter of the company for seven years, and the powers in
return guaranteed the Pragmatic Sanction. The company, after
nominally existing for a short time in this state of suspended
animation, became extinct. The Austrian Netherlands were con-
demned to remain excluded from maritime commerce with the
Indies until their union with Holland in 181 5. (G. E.)
OSTEOLOGY (Gr. ocrtov, bone), that part or branch of the
science of anatomy which has for its subject the bony framework
of the body (see Bone, Skeleton, Anatomy, &c.).
OSTERMAN, ANDREI IVANOVICH, Count (1686-1747),
Russian statesman, was born at Bochum in Westphalia, of
middle-class parents, his name being originally Heinrich Johann
Friedrich Ostermann. He became secretary to Vice-Admiral
Cornelis Kruse, who had a standing commission from Peter the
(ireat to pick up promising young men, and in 1767 entered the
tsar's service. His knowledge of the principal European languages
made him the right hand of Vice-Chancellor Shafirov, whom he
materially assisted during the troublesome negotiations which
terminated in the peace of the Pruth (17 11). Osterman, together
with General Bruce, represented Russia at the Aland peace
congress of 1718. Shrewdly guessing that Sweden was at
exhaustion point, and that Gortz, the Swedish plenipotentiary,
was acting ultra vires, he advised Peter to put additional pressure
on Sweden to force a peace. In 1721 Osterman concluded the
peace of Nystad with Sweden, and was created a baron for his
services. In 1723 he was made vice-president of the ministry
of foreign affairs for bringing about a very advantageous com-
mercial treaty with Persia. Peter also constantly consulted
him in domestic affairs, and he introduced many administrative
novelties, e.g. " the table of degrees," and the reconstruction
of the College of Foreign Affairs on more modern lines. During
the reign of Catherine I. (1725-1727) Osterman's authority
still further increased. The conduct of foreign affairs was left
entirely in his hands, and he held also the posts of minister of
commerce and postmaster-general. On the accession of Peter
II. Osterman was appointed governor to the young emperor,
and on his death (1730) he refused to participate in the attempt
of Demetrius Golitsuin and the Dolgorukis to convert Russia
into a limited constitutional monarchy. He held aloof till the
empress Anne was firmly estabhshed on the throne as autocrat.
Then he got his reward. His unique knowledge of foreign affairs
made him ind.ispensable to the empress and her counsellors,
and even as to home affairs his advice was almost invariably
followed. It was at his suggestion that the cabinet system was
introduced into Russia. All the useful reforms introduced
between 1730 and 1740 are to be attributed to his initiative.
He improved the state of trade, lowered taxation, encouraged
industry and promoted education, ameliorated the judicature
and materially raised the credit of Russia. As foreign minister
he was cautious and circumspect, but when war was necessary
he prosecuted it vigorously and left nothing to chance. The
successful conclusions of the War of the Polisii Succession (1733-
1735) and of the war with Turkey (1736-39) were entirely due
to his diplomacy. During the brief regency of Anna Leopoldovna
(October 1 740-December 1741) Osterman stood at the height of
his power, and the French ambassador, La Chetardie, reported
to his court that " it is not too much to say that he is tsar of
all Russia." Osterman's foreign policy was based upon the
Austrian alliance. He had, therefore, guaranteed the Pragmatic
Sanction with the dehberate intention of defending it. Hence
the determination of France to remove him at any cost. Russia,
as the natural ally of Austria, was very obnoxious to P'rance;
indeed it was only the accident of the Russian aUiance which,
in 1 74 1, seemed to stand between Maria Theresa and absolute
ruin. The most obvious method of rendering the Russian
alliance unserviceable to the queen of Hungary was by imphcat-
ing Russia in hostilities with her ancient rival, Sweden, and
this was brought about, by French influence and French money,
when in August 1741 the Swedish government, on the most
frivolous pretexts, declared war against Russia. The dispositions
previously made by Osterman enabled him, however, to counter
the blow, and all danger from Sweden was over when, early in
September, Field-Marshal Lacy routed the Swedish general
Wrangel under the walls of the frontier-fortress of ViUmanstrand,
which was carried by assault. It now became evident to La
Chetardie that only a revolution would overthrow Osterman,
and this he proposed to promote by elevating to the throne the
tsesarevna Elizabeth, who hated the vice-chancellor because,
though he owed everything to her father, he had systematically
neglected her. Osterman was' therefore the first and the most
illustrious victim of the coup d'etat of the 6th of December 1741.
Accused, among other things, of contributing to the elevation of
the empress Anne by his cabals and of suppressing a supposed
will of Catherine I. made in favour of her daughter Elizabeth,
he threw himself on the clemency of the new empress. He was
condemned first to be broken on the wheel and then beheaded;
but, reprieved on the scaffold, his sentence was commuted to
lifelong banishment, with his whole family, to Berezov in Siberia,
where he died six years later.
See S. Shubinsky, " Count A. I. Osterman " (Rus.) in Syevernoye
Siyanie, vol. ii. (St Petersburg, 1863); D. Korsakov, From the
Lives of Russian Statesmen of the XVIIIth Century (Rus.) (Kazan,
1891); A. N. Filippov, " Documents relating to the Cabinet Ministers
of the Empress Anne " (Rus.) (St Petersburg, 1898) in the collections
of the Russ. Hist. Soc. vol. 104; A. A. Kochubinsky, Count A. I.
Osterman and the proposed Partition of Turkey (Rus.) (Odessa, 1889) ;
Hon. C. Finch, Diplomatic Despatches from Russia, 1740-1/42
(St Petersburg, 1893-1894) in the collections of the Russ. Hist.
Soc. vols. 85 and 91 ; R. Nisbet Bain, The Pupils of Peter the Great
(London, 1897) ; and The Daughter of Peter the Great (London,
1899), chapters 1-3. (R. N. B.)
OSTERODE, a town in the Prussian province of East Prussia,
75 m. by rail N.E. of Thorn, on Lake Drewenz, and at the
junction of lines to Memel, Elbing and Schonsee. Pop. (1905)
13,957. It has a castle built by the Teutonic knights in 1270,
to whom the town owes its birth. Its principal manufactures
are railway plant, machinery, beer, spirits and bricks, while
it has several saw-mills. Osterode has a lively trade in cattle,
grain and timber.
See J. MiiUer, Osterode und Ostpreussen (Osterode, 1905).
OSTERODE, a town in the Prussian province of Hanover,
at the south foot of the Harz Mountains, 34 m. N.W. of Nord-
hausen by rail. Pop. (1905) 7467. The church of St Aegidius
(EvangeHcal) , founded in 724 and rebuilt after a fire in 1578,
contains some fine tombs of the dukes of Brunswick-Grubenhagen,
who made Osterode their residence from 1361 to 1452. Other
buildings are the fine town-hall and the hospital. There are
358
OSTERSUND— OSTIA
manufactures of cotton and woollen goods, cigars and leather,
and tanneries, dyeworks and gypsum quarries. In recent years
Osterode has become celebrated as a health resort.
OSTERSUND, a town of Sweden, capital of the district (Ian)
of Jemtland, on the east shore of Storsjo (Great Lake), 364 m.
N. by W. of Stockholm by rail. Pop. (iqoo) 6866. It lies at
an elevation of about 1000 ft. and is the metropolis of a moun-
tainous and beautiful district. Immediately facing the town
is the lofty island of Fros, with which it is connected by a bridge
1148 ft. long. A runic stone commemorates the building of a
bridge here by a Christian missionary, Austmader, son of Gudfast.
Ostersund was founded in 1786. It has a considerable trade in
timber, and a local trade by steamers on Storsjo. Electricity
is obtained for lighting and other purposes by utilizing the
abundant water-power in the district.
OSTERVALD, JEAN FR6d6RIC (1663-1747), Swiss Pro-
testant divine, was born at Neuchatel on the 25th of November
1663. He was educated at Ziirich and at Saumur (where he gradu-
ated), studied theology at Orleans under Claude Pajon, at Paris
under Jean Claude and at Geneva under Louis Tronchin, and
was ordained to the ministry in his native place in 1683. As
preacher, pastor, lecturer and author, he attained a position of
great influence in his day, he and his friends, J. A. Turretin of
Geneva and S. Werenfels (1657-1740) of Basel, forming what
was once caUed the " Swiss triumvirate." He was thought to
show a leaning towards Socinianism and Arminianism. He died
on the 14th of April 1747.
His principal works are Traite des sources de la corruption qui
r'egne aujourd'hui parmi les Chretiens (1700), translated into English,
Dutch and German, practically a plea for a more ethical and less
doctrinal type of Christianity; Catcchisme ou instruction dans la
religion chrciienne (1702), also translated into English, Dutch and
German; Traite contre Vimpurete (1707); Sermons sur divers textes
(1722-1724); Theologiae compendium (1739); and Traduction
de la Bible (1724). All his writings attained great popularity
among French Protestants; many were translated into various
languages; and " Ostervald's Bible," a revision of the French
translation, in particular, was long well known and much valued
in Britain.
OSTIA, an ancient town and harbour of Latium, Italy, at
the mouth of the river Tiber on its left bank. It lies 14 m. S.W.
from Rome by the Via Ostiensis, a road of very ancient origin
still followed by a modem road which preserves some traces of
the old pavement and remains of several ancient bridges. It
was the first colony ever founded by Rome — according to the
Romans themselves, by Ancus Martius — and took its name
from its position at the mouth {ostium) of the river. Its origin
is connected with the establishment of the salt-marshes (salinae — ■
see Salaria, Via) which only ceased to exist in 1875, though it
acquired importance as a harbour in very early times. When
it began to have magistrates of its own is not known: nor indeed
have we any inscriptions from Ostia that can be certainly attri-
buted to the Republican period. Under the empire, on the other
hand, it had the ordinary magistrates of a colony, the chief
being diwviri, charged with the administration of justice, whose
place was taken every fifth year by duoviri censoria potestate
quinqiiennales, then quaestores (or financial officials) and then
acdilcs (building officials). There were also the usual decuriones
(town councillors) and Augustales. We learn much as to these
magistrates from the large number of inscriptions that have been
found (over 2000 in Ostia and Portus taken together) and also
as to the cults. Vulcan was the most important — perhaps in
early times the only — deity worshipped at Ostia, and the priest-
hood of Vulcan was held sometimes by Roman senators. The
Dioscuri too, as patrons of mariners, were held in honour. Later
we find the worship of Isis and of Cybele,the latter being especially
flourishing, with large corporations of dendrophori (priests who
carried branches of trees in procession) and cannofori (basket-
carriers); the worship of Mithras, too, had a large number of
followers. There was a temple of Serapis at Portus. No traces
of Jewish worship have been found at Ostia, but at Portus
a considerable number of Jewish inscriptions in Greek have
come to light.
Of the church in Ostia there is no authentic record before the
4th century A.D., though there are several Christian inscriptions
of an earlier date; but the first bishop of Ostia of whom we have
any certain knowledge dates from a.d. 313. The see still
continues, and is indeed held by the dean of the sacred college of
cardinals. A large number of the inscriptions are also connected
with the various guDds — firemen {cenlonarii), carpenters and
metal workers (fabri), boatmen, lightermen and others (see J. P.
Waltzing, Les Corporations projessionelles, Brussels and Liege) .
Until Trajan formed the port of Centumcellae (Civitavecchia)
Ostia was the best harbour along the low sandy coast of central
Italy between Monte Argentario and Monte Circeo. It is
mentioned in 354 B.C. as a trading port, and became important
as a naval harbour during the Punic Wars. Its commerce
increased with the growth of Rome, and this, and the decay of
agriculture in Italy, which obliged the capital to rely almost
entirely on imported corn (the importation of which was, from
267 B.C. onwards, under the charge of a special quaestor
stationed at Ostia), rendered the possession of Ostia the key
to the situation on more than one occasion (87 B.C., a.d. 409
and 537). The inhabitants of the colony were thus regarded
as a permanent garrison, and at first freed from the obligations
of ordinary military service, until they were later on obliged
to serve in the fleet. Ostia, however, was by no means an ideal
harbour; the mouth of the Tiber is exposed to the south-west
wind, which often did damage in the harbour itself; in a.d. 62
no less than 200 ships with their cargoes were sunk, and there
was an important guild of divers {uritiatorcs) at Ostia. The
difficulties of the harbour were increased by the continued
silting up, produced by the enormous amount of solid material
brought down by the river. Even in Strabo's time (v. 3. 5,
p. 231) the harbour of Ostia had become dangerous: he speaks
of it as a " city without a harbour owing to the silting up brought
about by the Tiber . . . : the ships anchor at considerable risk
in the roads, but the love of gain prevails: for the large number of
lighters which receive the cargoes and reload them renders the
time short before they can enter the river, and having lightened
a part of their cargoes they sail in and ascend to Rome."
Caesar had projected remedial measures, but (as in so many
cases) had never been able to carry them out, and it was not
until the time of Claudius that the problem was approached.
That emperor constructed a large new harbour on the right
bank, 25 m. N. of Ostia, with an area of 170 acres enclosed by
two curving moles, with an artiflcial island, supporting a lofty
lighthouse, in the centre of the space between them. This
was connected with the Tiber by an artiflcial channel, and by
this work Claudius, according to the inscriptions which he
erected in a.d. 46, freed the city of Rome from the danger of
inundation. The harbour was named by Nero, Portus Augusti.
Trajan found himself obliged in a.d. 103, owing to the silting
up of the Claudian harbour, and the increase of trade, to con-
struct another port further inland — a hexagonal basin enclosing
an area of 97 acres with enormous warehouses — communicating
with the harbour of Claudius and with the Tiber by means of
the channel already constructed by Claudius, this channel being
prolonged so as to give also direct access to the sea. This became
blocked in the middle ages, but was reopened by Paul V. in 1612,
and is stiU in use. Indeed it forms the right arm of the Tiber,
by which navigation is carried on at the present day, and is
known as the P'ossa Trajana. The island between the two arms
acquired the name of Insula Sacra (still called Isola Sacra) by
which Procopius mentions it.
Ostia thus lost a considerable amount of its trade, but its
importance still continued to be great. The 2nd and 3rd
centuries, indeed, are the high-water mark of its prosperity:
and it still possessed a mint in the 4th century a.d. During the
Gothic wars, however, trade was confined to Portus, and the
ravages of pirates led to its gradual abandonment. Gregory IV.
constructed in 830 a fortified enceinte, called Gregoriopohs, in
the eastern portion of the ancient city, and the Saracens were
signally defeated here under Leo IV. (847-856). The battle is
represented in Giulio Romano's fresco from Raphael's design
in the Stanza deU' Incendio in the Vatican.
OSTIAKS
359
In the middle ages Ostia regained something of its importance,
owing to the silting up of the right arm of the Tiber. In i4iS3-
1486 Giuliano della Rovere (nephew of Pope Sixtus IV., and
afterwards himself Pope Julius II.) caused the castle to be
erected by Baccio Pontelli, a little to the east of the ancient
city. It is built of brick and is one of the finest specimens of
Renaissance fortification, and exemplifies especially the transition
from the old girdle walls to the system of bastions; it still
has round corner towers, not polygonal bastions (Burckhardt).
Under the shelter of the castle lies the modern village. The
small cathedral of St Aurea, also an early Renaissance structure,
with Gothic windows, is by some ascribed to Meo del Caprina
(1430-1501). Hitherto Ostia does not seem to have been very
unhealthy. In 1557, however, a great flood caused the Tiber
to change its course, so that it no longer flowed under the wails
of the castle, but some half a mile farther west; and its old
bed (Fiume Morto) has ever since then served as a breeding
ground for the malarial mosquito {Anopheles claviger). An
agricultural colony, founded at Ostia after 1875, and consisting
mainly of cultivators from the neighbourhood of Ravenna,
has produced a great change for the better in the condition of
the place. The modern village is a part of the commune of
Rome. The marshes have been drained, and a pumping station
erected near Castel Fusano. An electric tramway has been
constructed from Rome to Ostia and theijce to the seashore,
now some 2 m, distant, where sea-bathing is carried on.
Excavations on the site of Ostia were only begun towards
the close of the i8th century, and no systematic work was done
until 1854, when under Pius IX. a considerable amount was
done (the objects are now in the Lateran museum). The Italian
government, to whom the greater part of it now belongs, laid
bare many of the more important buildings in 1880-1889; but
much was left undone. Owing to the fact that the site is largely
covered with sand and to the absence of any later alterations,
the preservation of the buildings excavated is very good, and
Ostia is, with the exception of Pompeii, the best example in
Italy of a town of the Roman period. On the east the
site is approached by an ancient road, flanked by tombs. On
the right (N.) are some small well-preserved thermae, and the
barracks of the firemen {vigiles),a. special cohort of whom was
stationed here. On one side of the central courtyard of the
latter building is a chapel with inscribed pedestals for imperial
statues (2nd and 3rd century a.d.) and a well-preserved black
and white mosaic representing a sacrifice (see J. Carcopino in
Melanges de V Ecole FranQaise, 1907).
To the south-west is the Forum, an area 265 ft. square sur-
rounded by colonnades, in which were placed the offices of the
various collegia or guilds of boatmen, raftmcn and others, which
had a special importance at Ostia; the names of the guilds
may still be read in inscriptions in the mosaic pavements of the
chambers. In the centre of the area are the substructions of
a temple, and on the south-east side are the remains of the
theatre, built in the early imperial period, restored by Septi-
mius Severus in 196-197 and again in the 4th or 5th century.
To the south-west of the Forum are the remains of three small
temples, one dedicated to Venus, and a well-preserved Mith-
raeum, with mosaics representing the seven planets, &c. To
the south-west again is the conspicuous brick cella of a lofty
temple, on arched substructures, generally supposed to be that
of Vulcan, with a threshold block of africano (Euboean) marble
over 15 ft. long: from it a street over 20 ft. wide leads north-
west to the river. It is flanked on each side by weU-preserved
warehouses, another group of which, surrounding a large court,
lies to the south-west. The brick and opus retiadalum facing
of the walls is especially fine. Hence an ancient road, leading
between warehouses (into which the Tiber is encroaching), in
one room of which a number of weU-preserved large jars may
be seen embedded in the floor, runs close to the river to a large
private house with thermae, in which five mosaics were found:
it (groundlessly) bears the name of " imperial palace." Farther
to the south-west are remains of other warehouses, and (possibly)
of the docks — long narrow chambers, which may have served
to containships. Hereare remainsof (earlier) structures in opiis
qiiadralum whereas the great bulk of the ruins are in brickwork
and belong to the imperial period. The medieval Torre Boacciana
marks approximately the mouth of the river in Roman times.
The south-eastern portion of the city has been excavated only
very partially. To the south-west of the conspicuous temple
alluded to are the remains of a temple of Cybele, with a portico.
This lay close to the commencement of the Via Severiana (sec
Sevekiana, Via), and the line of tombs which flanked it soon
begins. Farther south-east, a line of sand dunes, covering the
ruins of ancient villas, marks the coastline of the Roman period.
.Some 2 m. to the south-east is the pine forest of Castel Fusano,
taking its name from a castle erected by the marchese Sacchetli
in the 16th century. It is now the property of the Chigi and
is leased to the king (see Laurentina, Via). Here Drs Lowe and
Sambon made the decisive experiments which proved that the pro-
pagation of malaria was due to the mosquito .lMo/)/if/Mc/(;:'/^fr.
See Notizie dcgli scavi, passim: H. Dessau in Corp. inscript.
Latin, xiv. (Berlin, 1887), pp. i sqq., and the works of M. Jerome
Carcopino. (T. As.)
OSTIAKS, or Ostyaks, a tribe who inhabit the basin of the
Ob in western Siberia belonging to the Finno-Ugric group and
related to the Voguls. The so-called Ostyaks of the Yenisei
speak an entirely different language. The best investigators
(Castren, Lerberg, A. Schrenck) consider the trans-Uralian
Ostiaks and Samoyedes as identical with the Yugra of the
Russian annals. During the Russian conquest their abodes
extended much farther south than now, forty-one of their
fortified places having been destroyed by the Cossacks in 1501,
in the region of Obdorsk alone. Remains of these " towns " are
still to be seen at the Kunovat river, on the Ob 20 m. below
Obdorsk and elsewhere. The total number of the Ostiaks may
be estimated at 27,000. Those on the Irtysh are mostly settled,
and have adopted the manner of life of Russians and Tatars.
Those on the Ob are mostly nomads; along with 8000 Samoyedes
in the districts of Berezov and Surgut, they own large herds of
reindeer. The Ob Ostiaks are russified to a great extent. They
live almost exclusively by fishing, buying from Russian merchants
corn for bread, the use of which has become widely diffused.
The Ostiaks call themselves As-yakh (people of the Ob), and it is
supposed that their present designation is a corruption of this name.
By language they belong (Gastrin, Reiseberichte , Reisebriefe \ Ahl-
qvist, Ofvers. af Finska Vet.-Soc. Fork, xxi.) to the Ugrian branch of
the eastern Finnish stem. All the Ostiaks speak the same language,
mixed to some extent with foreign elements; but three or four lead-
ing dialects can be distinguished.
The Ostiaks are middle-sized, or of low stature, mostly meagre,
and not ill made, however clumsy their appearance in winter in
their thick fur-clothes. The extremities are fine, and the feet are
usually small. The skull is brachycephalic, mostly of moderate
size and height. The hair is dark and soft for the most part, fair
and reddish individuals being rare; the eyes are dark, generally
narrow; the nose is flat and broad; the mouth is large and with
thick lips; the beard is scanty. The Mongolian type is more
strongly pronounced in the women than in the men. On the whole,
the Ostiaks are not a pure race ; the purest type is found among the
fishers on the Ob, the reindeer-breeders of the tundra being largely
intermixed with Samoyedes. Investigators describe them as kind,
gentle and honest; rioting is almost unknown among them, as
also theft, this last occurring only in the vicinity of Russian settle-
ments, and the only penalty enforced being the restitution twofold
of the property stolen.
They are very skilful in the arts they practice, especially in
carving wood and bone, tanning (with egg-yolk and brains), pre-
paration of implements from birch-bark, &c. Some of their carved
or decorated bark implements (like those figured in Middcndorff's
Sibirische Reise, iv. 2) show considerable artistic skill.
Their folk-lore, like that of other Finnish stems, is imbued with
a feeling of natural poetry, and reflects also the sadness, or even the
despair, which has been noticed among them. Christianity has
made some progress among them and St Nicholas is a popular saint,
but their ancient pagan observances are still retained.
For the language see Ahlqvist, tfber die Sprache der Nord-Ostyaken
(1880) and for customs, religion, &c., the Journal de la Societe Finno-
Ougrieiine, particularly papers by Sirelius and Karjalainen, and the
papers by Munkacsi, Gennep, Fuchs and others in the Revue orientate
pour les etudes Ouralo-Alta'iques. Patkanov, Die Iriysch-Ostiaken
und Hire Volkspoesie (Petersburg, 1900); Patkanov, Irtirsch-
Osljaken und ihre Volkspoesie (1897-1900); Papay, Sammlung
ostjakischer Volksdichtungen (1906).
360
OSTRA— OSTRACODERMS
OSTRA, an ancient town of Umbria, Italy, near the modern
Montenovo, S.E. of Sena Gallica (Sinigaglia). It is hardly
mentioned by ancient authors, but excavations have brought to
light remains of various buildings and some inscriptions exist.
Pliny mentions with it another ancient town, Suasa, 5 m. W.,
which also did not survive the classical period.
OSTRACISM, a political device instituted, probably by Cleis-
thenes in 508 B.C., as a constitutional safeguard for the Athenian
democracy. Its effect was to remove from Athens for a period
of ten years any person who threatened the harmony and
tranquillity of the body politic. A similar device existed at
various times in Argos, Miletus, Syracuse and Megara, but in
these cities it appears to have been introduced under Athenian
influence. In Athens in the sixth prytany of each year the
representatives of the Boule asked the Ecclesia whether it was
for the welfare of the state that ostracism should take place.
If the answer was in the alErmative, a day was fixed for the voting
in the eighth prytany. No names were mentioned, but it is clear
that two or three names at the most could have been under
consideration. The people met, not as usual in the Pnyx, but
in the Agora, in the presence of the Archons, and recorded their
votes by placing in urns small fragments of pottery (which in the
ancient world served the purpose of waste-paper) {ostraca) on
which they wrote the name of the person whom they wished to
banish. As in the case of other privilegia, ostracism did not
take effect unless six thousand votes in all were recorded. Grote
and others hold that six thousand had to be given against one
person before he was ostracized, but it seems unlikely that the
attendance at the Ecclesia ever admitted of so large a vote against
one man, and the view is contradicted by Plut. Arist. c. 7. The
ostracized person was compelled to leave Athens for ten years,
but he was not regarded as a traitor or criminal. When he
returned, he resumed possession of his property and his civic
status was unimpaired. The adverse vote simply implied that
his power was so great as to be injurious to the state. Ostracism
must therefore be carefully distinguished from exile in the Roman
sense, which involved loss of property and status, and was for an
indefinite period (i.e. generally for life). Certain writers have
even spoken cf the " honour " of ostracism. At the same time
it was strictly unjust to the victim, and a heavy punishment to
a cultured citizen for whom Athens contained all that made life
worth living. Its political importance really was that it trans-
ferred the protection of the constitution from the Areopagus to
the Ecclesia. Its place was afterwards taken by the Graphe
Paranomon. -^^ -'st:...„^ (,•• •
There is no doubt that Cleisthenes' object was primarily
to get rid of the Peisistratid faction without perpetual recourse
to armed resistance (so Androtion, Alh. Pol. 22, Ephorus,
Theopompus, Aristotle, Pol. iii. 13, 1284 a 17 and 36; viii. (v.),
3, 1302 b 15). \x\iX<i\\€ 'i, Constitution oj Athens (c. 22) gives a
list of ostracized persons, the first of whom was a certain
Hipparchus of the Peisistratid family (488 B.C.). It is an extra-
ordinary fact that, if ostracism was introduced in 508 B.C. for
the purpose of expelling Hipparchus it was not till twenty years
later that he was condemned. This has led some critics (see
Lugebil in Das Wescn . . . der Ostrakismos, who arrives at the
conclusion that ostracism could not have been introduced till
after 496 B.C.) to suspect the unanimous evidence of antiquity
that Cleisthenes was the inventor of ostracism. The problem
is difiicult, and no satisfactory answer has been given. Aelian's
story that Cleisthenes himself was the first to be ostracized is
attractive in view of his overtures to Persia (see Cleisthenes),
but it has little historical value and conflicts with the chapter in
Aristotle's Constitution — which, however, may conceivably be
simply the list of those recalled from ostracism at the time of
Xerxes' Invasion, all of whom must have been ostracized less
than ten years before 481 {i.e. since Marathon). With the end
of the Persian Wars, the original object of ostracism was removed,
but it continued in use for forty years and was revived in 417 B.C.
It now became a mere party weapon and the farcical result of its
use in 417 in the case of Hyperbolus led to its abolition either at
once, or, as Lugebil seeks to prove, in the archonship of Euclides
(403 B.C.). Such a device inevitably lent itself to abuse (see
Aristotle, Pol. 38, 1284 b 22 o-TacriacmKcos expoJvro).
Grote maintains that ostracism was a useful device, on the
grounds that it removed the danger of tyranny, and was better
than the perpetual civil strife of the previous century. The
second reason is strictly beside the point, and the first has no
force after the Persian Wars. As a factor in party politics it was
both unnecessary and injurious to the state. Thus in the
Persian Wars, it deprived Athens of the wisdom of Xanthippus
and Aristides, while at the battle of Tanagra and perhaps at
the time of the Egyptian expedition the assistance of Cimon
was lacking. Further, it was a blow to the fair-play of party
politics; the defeated party, having no leader, was reduced to
desperate measures, such as the assassination of Ephialtes.
To defend it on the ground that it created and stimulated the
national consciousness is hardly reconcilable with the historic
remark of the voter who voted against Aristides because he
wished to hear no more of his incorruptible integrity; moreover
in democratic Athens the " national consciousness " was, if
anything, too frequently stimulated in the ordinary course
of government. Aristotle, admitting its usefulness, rightly
describes ostracism as in theory tyrannical; Montesquieu
{Esprit des Ids, xii. cc. 19, 29, &c.) defends it as a mild and
reasonable institution. On the whole, the history of its effect in
Athens, Argos, Miletus, Megara and Syracuse (where it was
called Petalismus), furnishes no sufficient defence against its
admitted disadvantages. The following is a list of persons
who suffered ostracism: — Hipparchus (488); Megacles (487),
Xanthippus (485), Aristides (483), Themistocles (471?); Cimon
(461?) Thucydides, son of Melesias (444), Damon, Hyperbolus
(417) and possibly Cleisthenes himself {q.v.).
Authorities. — For the procedure in O. see Appendix Photii
(Person, p. 675) ; see also, besides authorities quoted above, Busolt,
i. 620; Miiller's Handbuch, iv. i, 121; Gilbert, Cr. St. i. 446-466
and Greek Constitutional Antiquities (Eng. trans., 1895); A. H. J.
Greenidge, Handbook of Greek Constitutional Antiquities (1896);
histories of Greece in general. The view maintained in the text as
to the number of votes necessary is supported by Duruy (H. of C.
ii. I, 36), Boeckh, Wachsmuth, &c.; opposed by Grote, Oman and
(on the whole) by Evelyn Abbott. On the danger of privilegia in
general see Cicero, de Legibus, iii. 4, and note that in Athens, ostra-
cism gratuitously anticipated a crime which, if committed, would
have been punishable in the popular Heliaea. Cf. also article
Exile. (J. M. M.)
OSTRACODERMS or Osteacophores, the earliest and most
primitive group of fish-like animals, foimd as fossils in Upper
From the Trans. Roy. Soc, Edinburgh.
Fig. I. — Thelodus scoticus, from the Upper Silurian of Lanarkshire,
restored by Dr R. H. Traquair; about one-half nat. size.
From the Proc. Geol. Assoc.
Fig. 2. — Cephalaspis murchisoni, from the Lower Old Red Sand-
stone of Herefordshire, restored by Dr A. S. Woodward ; about one-
half nat. size.
Silurian and Devonian formations both in Europe and in North
I
OSTRAU— OSTRICH
3t
America. They are so named (Gr. shell-skins or shell-bearers)
in allusion to the nacreous shell-like appearance of the inner
face of the plates of armour which cover the more common
From British Museum, Catalogue of Fossil Fishes, by permission of the Trustees.
Fig. 3. — Pteraspis roslrata, from the Lower Old Red Sandstone of
Herefordshire, restored by Dr A. S. Woodward; about one-third
nat. size.
members of the group. The Ostracoderms are, indeed, known
only by the hard armature of the skin, but this sometimes bears
impressions of certain internal soft parts which have perished
A B
From the Monogr. FalaeorU. Soc. ^
Fig. 4. — Pierichthys milleri, from the Middle Old Red Sandstone
of Scotland, restored by Dr R. H. Traquair; upper (A), lower (B),
and left-side view (C), about one-half nat. size.
m.occ, Median occipital.
m.v.. Median ventral.
ag., Angular.
a.d.l.. Anterior dorso-lateral.
a.m.d., Anterior median dorsal.
a.v.l., Anterior ventro-lateral.
c, Central.
d.a., Dorsal anconeal.
d.ar., Dorsal articular.
e.L, Extra lateral.
e.m., External marginal.
i.m.. Internal marginal.
I., Lateral.
l.occ, Lateral occipital.
m.. Median.
m.m., Marginals of lower limb.
mx., Maxilla.
o., Ocular.
p.d.l., Posterior dorso-lateral.
p.m., Pre-median.
/>.OT.d.,Post erior median
dorsal.
p.v.l., Posterior ventro-lateral.
pt.m., Post-median.
S.I., Semilunar.
t.. Terminal.
v.a.. Ventral anconeal.
v.ar., Ventral articular.
during fossilization. They agree with fishes in the possession of
median fins, and resemble the large majority of early fishes in their
unequal-lobed (heterocercal) tail, but they have no ordinary
paired fins. They must also have been provided with the usual
gill-apparatus, but there is reason to believe that their lower
jaw was not on the fish plan. They are, therefore, at least as
low in the zoological scale as the existing lampreys, with
which Cope, Smith, Woodward and others have associated
them. They arc all small animals, many of them only a few
centimetres in length.
The oldest and lowest family of Ostracoderms, that of
Coclolepidae, is known by nearly complete skeletons of Thelodus
(fig. l) and Lanarkia from the Upper Silurian mudstones of
Lanarkshire, Scotland. The Ixjdy is comiiletely and uniformly
covered with minute granules which resemble the shagreen
of sharks, and were erroneously ascribed to sharks when they
were first discovered in the Upper Silurian bone-bed at
Ludluw, Shropshire. The head and anterior part of the trunk
are depressed and shown from above or below in the fossils,
and this region sharply contracts behind into the slender tail,
which is generally seen in side view, with one small dorsal fin
and a forked heterocercal tail. The eyes are far forwards and
wide apart. In another family, that of the Ccphalaspidae (fig. 2),
the animals resemble the Coelolepids in shape, but their skin-
granules are fused into small plates, which are polj'gonal where
there must have been much flexibilitv, and in rings round the
' ■■' where the underlying successive plates of muscle necessitated
tail
this arrangement. The eyes are close together. At the opening of
the gill-cavity on each side at the back of the head, there is a flexible
liap, which is sometimes interpreted as a paired limb. Part of the
armour of the Cephalaspidians contains bone-cells, but the dermal
plates of two other families, the Pteraspidae (fig. 3) and Drepanas-
pidae, consist merely of fused shagreen granules without any
advance towards bone. The Pteraspidae are interesting as showing
on the inner side of the dorsal shield impressions which suggest that
the gill-cavities extended unusually far forwardj. m the front of the
head. Another family, knov/n only by nearly complete skeletons
from the Upper Silurian mudstones of Lanarkshire, is that of the
Birkeniidae, comprising small fusiform species which are covered
with granules disposed in curiously-arranged rows. The highest
Ostracoderms are the Asterolepidae, which occur only in Devonian
rocks and include the familiar Pierichthys (fig. 4) from the Middle
Old Red Sandstone of Scotland. In this family the primitive skin-
tubercles seem to have fused, not into polygonal plates, but along
the lines of the slime-canals. The Asterolepid armour consists of
symmetrically arranged, overlapping plates on the top of the head
and round the body, with a pair of flippers similarly armoured and
appended to the latter. The tail resembles that of other Ostraco-
derms and is sometimes covered with scales.
See E. Ray Lankester, The Ccphalaspidae (Monogr. Palaeont. Soc.
1868, 1870); R. H. Traquair, Tlie Asterolepidae (Monogr. Palaeont.
Soc. 1894, 1904, iqo6) and papers in Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinb.
vol. xx.xix. No. 32 U899), vol. xl. Nos. 30, 33 (1903, 1905); A. S.
Woodward, Catal. Foss. Fishes, B.M. pt. ii. (1891); W. H. Gaskell,
Origin of Vertebrates (London, 1908). , (A. S. Wo.)
OSTRAU, the name of two Austrian towns in the Ostrau-
Karwiu coal-mining district, (i) Miihrisch-Gstrau (Moravian
Ostrau), a town in Moravia, 95 m. N.E. of Briinn by rail. Pop.
(1900) 30,125. It is situated on the right bank of the Ostrawitza,
near its confluence with the Oder, and it derives its importance
from the neighbouring coal mines, and the blast furnaces and
iron-works which they have called into existence. The manu-
factures comprise sheet-iron, boilers, zinc, brick and tiles,
parafiin, petroleum, soap and candles. The Rothschild iron-works
at Witkowitz are in the vicinity. (2) Polnisch-Ostrau (Polish
Gstrau), a mining town in Austrian Silesia, opposite Miihrisch-
Ostrau. Pop. (1900) 18,761, mostly Czech. It has large
coal mines, which form the south-western portion of the extensive
Upper Silesian coal fields, the largest Austrian deposit.
OSTRICH (O. Eng. estridge; Fr. autruche; Span, aveslruz;
Lat. avis struthio; Gr. crpovduiiv or 6 /neyas arpovdbs);
the Struthio camelus of Linnaeus, and the largest of living birds,
an adult male standing nearly 8 ft. high and weighing 300 lb.
The genus Struthio forms, the type of the group of Ratite
birds, characterized chiefly by large size, breast-bone w^ithout
a keel, strong running legs, rudimentary wings and simple
feathers (see Bird). The most obvious distinctive character
presented by the ostrich is the presence of two toes only,
the third and fourth, on each foot — a character absolutely
peculiar to the genus Struthio. In South America another
large Ratite bird, the rhea, is called ostrich; it can be dis-
tinguished at once from the true ostrich by its possession of
three toes.
XX. 12a
362
OSTROG— OSTROVSKIY
The wild ostrich' is disappearing before the persecution of
man, and there are many districts, some of wide extent, frequented
by the ostrich in the 19th century — especially towards the
extremities of its African range — in which it no longer occurs,
while in Asia there is evidence, more or less trustworthy, of its
former existence in most parts of the south-western desert-
tracts, in few of which it is now to be found. Xenophon's notice
of its abundance in Assyria (Anabasis, i. 5) is well known.
It is probable that it still hngers in the wastes of Kirwan in
eastern Persia, whence examples may occasionally stray north-
ward to those of Turkestan,^ even near the Lower Oxus; but
the assertion, often repeated, as to its former occurrence in
Baluchistan or Sind seems to rest on testimonv too slender
Ostrich.
for acceptance. Apparently the most northerly hmit of the
ostrich's ordinary range at the present day is that portion of
the Syrian Desert lying directly eastward of Damascus; and,
within the limits of what may be called Palestine, H. B. Tristram
[Fauna and Flora of Palestine, p. 139) regards it as but a straggler
from central Arabia, though we have little information as to
its distribution in that country.
Africa is still, as in ancient days, the continent in which the
ostrich chiefly flourishes. There it appears to inhabit every
waste sufficiently extensive to afford it the solitude it loves.
Yet even there it has to contend with the many species of
carnivora which prey upon its eggs and young — the latter
especially, and H. Lichtenstein long ago remarked^ that if it
' A good summary of the present distribution is contained in the
Ostriches and Ostrich Farming of De Mosenthal and Harting, from
which the accompanying figure is, with permission, taken. Von
Hcuglin, in his Ornillwlogie Nordost-Afrikas (pp. 925-935), and A.
Reicheuow in Die Vogel Afrikas, have given more particular details
of the ostrich's distribution in x^frica.
2 Drs Finsch and Hartlaub quote a passage from Remusat's
Reniarques sur I'extension de I'empire chinoise, stating that in
about the 7th century of our era a live " camel-bird " was sent as a
present with an embassy from Turkestan to China.
' H. Lichtenstein, Reise im siidlichen Africa, ii. 42-45 (Berlin,
I8I2). :
were not for its numerous enemies " the multiplication of
ostriches would be quite unexampled."
Though sometimes assembling in troops of from thirty to fifty,
and then generally associating with zebras or with some of the larger
antelopes, ostriches commonly, and especially in the breeding
season, live in companies of not more than four or five, one of which
is a cock and the rest are hens. The latter lay their eggs in one and
the same nest, a shallow pit scraped out by their feet, with the earth
heaped around to form a kind of wall against which the outermost
circle of eggs rest. As soon as ten or a dozen eggs are laid, the cock
begins to brood, always taking his place on them at nightfall sur-
rounded by the hens, while by day they relieve one another, more
it would seem to guard their common treasure from jackals and
small beasts of prey than directly to forward the process of hatching,
for that is often left wholly to the sun.* Some thirty eggs are laid
in the nest, and round it are scattered perhaps as many more.
These last are said to be broken by the old birds to serve as nourish-
ment for the newly-hatched chicks, whose stomachs cannot bear
the hard food on which their parents thrive. The greatest care is
taken to place the nest where it may not be discovered, and the birds
avoid being seen when going to or from it, while they display great
solicitude for their young. C. J. Andersson in his Lake N'gami
(PP- 253-269) has given a lively account of the pursuit by himself
and Francis Galton of a brood of ostriches, in the course of which
the male bird feigned being wounded to distract their attention from
his (jffspring. Though the ostrich ordinarily inhabits the most arid
districts, it requires water to drink; more than that, it will fre-
quently bathe, and sometimes even, according to Von Heuglin, in
the sea.
The question whether to recognize more than one species of
ostrich has been continually discussed without leading to a satis-
factory solution. While eggs from North Africa present a perfectly
smooth surface, those from South Africa are pitted. Moreover
northern birds have the skin of the parts not covered with feathers
flesh-coloured, while this skin is bluish in southern birds, and hence
the latter have been thought to need specific designation as 5.
australis. Examples from the Somali country have been described as
forming a distinct species under the name of 5. molybdophanes from
the leaden colour of their naked parts.
The great mercantile value of ostrich-feathers, and the increas-
ing difficulty, due to the causes already mentioned, of procuring
them from wild birds, has led to the formation in Cape Colony,
Egypt, the French Riviera and elsewhere of numerous " ostrich-
farms," on which these birds are kept in confinement, and at
regular intervals deprived of their plumes. In favourable
localities and with judicious management these establishments
yield very considerable profit (see Feather).
See, besides the works mentioned, E. D'Alton, Die Skelete der
Straussartigen Vogel abgebildet und beschrieben (Bonn, 1827): P. L.
Sclater, " On the Struthious Birds living in the Zoological Society's
Menagerie, " Transactions, iv. p. 353, containing a fine representation
(pi. 67), by J. Wolf, of the male Struthio camelus; J. Forest, L'Au-
trttche (Paris, 1894); A. Douglass, Ostrich Farming in South Africa
(London, 1881); modern anatomical work on the group is referred
to in the article Birds. (A. N.)
OSTROG, a town of Russia, in the government of Volhynia,
95 m. W. of Zhitomir, at the confluence of the VOya with the
Goryn. Pop. (1897) 14,530. It is an episcopal see of the
Orthodox Greek Church, and in the i6th century had a classical
academy, converted later into a Jesuit college. Here was made
and printed in 1581 the first translation of the Bible into old
Slav. In the lown is a brotherhood of Cyril and Methodius,
which maintains schools of its own. The tanning of hght leather
is an active domestic trade; other industries are potteries,
oil-works, soap, candle and tobacco factories. After being
plundered by the Cossack chieftain Khmelnitski in 1648, and
conquered by the Russians seven years later, the town fell into
decay.
OSTROGOTHS, or East Goths, one of the two main branches
into which the Goths were divided, the other being the Visigoths,
or West Goths. See Goths.
OSTROVSKIY, ALEXANDER NIKOLAIVICH (1823-1886),
Russian dramatic author, was born on the 12th of April 1823 in
Moscow, where his father was an oflicial of the senate. He studied
' By those whose experience is derived from the observation of
captive ostriches this fact has been often disputed. But, the differ-
ence of circumstances under which they find themselves, and in
particular their removal from the heat-retaining sands of the desert
and its burning sunshine, is quite enough to account for the change
of habit. Von iHeuglin also (p. 933) is explicit on this point.
OSTUNI— OSUNA
363
law in the university of that city, which he quitted without
having submitted to the final examination. He was then
employed as a clerk in the ofiice of the " Court of Conscience,"
and subsequently in that of the Commercial Court at Moscow.
Both tribunals were called upon to settle disputes chiefly among
the Russian merchant class, from which Ostrovskiy was thus
enabled to draw the chief characters for his earliest comedies.
Among these are Byednaya Nivesta (" The Poor Bride "),
Bycdnost ne Porok (" Poverty not a Vice "), and Nc v'svoi sani
lie sadis (literally " Don't put yourself in another's sledge,"
meaning " Don't put yourself in a position for which you are not
suited "). Of this last Nicholas I. said, " it was not a play, but
a lesson." The uncultured, self-satisfied Moscow merchants are
strikingly portrayed in Grozd (" The Tempest ") and Svoyi
lyudi soclityomsya (" Between near relatives no accounts are
needed "), which was originally called " The Bankrupt." The
last-mentioned comedy was prohibited for ten years, until the
accession of Alexander II., and Ostrovskiy was dismissed the
government service and placed under the supervision of the
poUce. The Liberal tendencies of the new reign, however, soon
brought relief, Ostrovskiy was one of several well-known htcrary
men who were sent into the provinces to report on the condition
of the people. Ostrovskiy's field of inquiry lay along the upper
Volga, a part of the country memorable for some of the most
important events in Russian history. This mission induced him
to write several historical dramas of great merit, such as Kiizma
Zakharich Minin Soiikhoroiik (the full name of the famous
butcher who saved Moscow from the Poles); "The False
Demetrius" and " Vassily Shuisky "; Vassilisa Mclenticva (the
name of a favourite court lady of Ivan the Terrible), and the
comedy, VoivodaccliSonna Volgc (" The Military Commander,"
or " A dream on the Volga "). Many of his later works treat of
the Russian nobility, and include Bycshani Dengi (literally " Mad
Money "), Vospcdiniisa (" A Girl brought up in a Stranger's
Family"), and Volki e Ovtsi ("Wolves and Sheep"); others
relate to the world of actors, such as Liess (" Forest "), Bcz
vini vinovaliya (" Guiltlessly guilty "), and Talenli e Pokloniki
(" Talents and their Admirers "). Ostrovskiy enjoyed the
patronage of Alexander III., and received a pension of 3000
roubles a year. With the help of Moscow capitalists he established
in that city a model theatre and school of dramatic art, of
which he became the first director. He also founded the Society
of Russian Dramatic Art and Opera Composers. His death
took place on the 24th of June 1886, while travelling to his
estate in Kostroma.
OSTUNI, a picturesque walled city of Apulia, Italy, in the
province of Lecce, 23 m. by rail N.W. of Brindisi. Pop. (1901)
7734 (town); 22,811 (commune). It has a cathedral of the 15th
century with a fine Romanesque fafade, and a municipal library
with a collection of antiquities. The see has been amalgamated
with that of Brindisi.
OSUNA, PEDRO TELLEZ GIRON, 3rd duke of (1575-1624),
Spanish viceroy of Sicily and Naples, was born at Osuna, and
baptized on the i8th of January 1575. He was the son of Juan
TeUez Giron, the 2nd duke, and of his wife Ana Maria de Velasco,
a daughter of the constable of Castile. When a boy he
accompanied his grandfather, the ist duke, to Naples, where he
was viceroy. He saw service at the age of fourteen with the
troops sent by Phihp II. to put down a revolt in Aragon, and
was married while still young to Doria Catarina Enriquez de
Ribera, a grand-daughter on her mother's side of Hernan
Cortes, the conqueror of Mexico. In 1598 he inherited the
dukedom. Before and after his marriage he was known for the
reckless dissipation of his hfe. The scandals to which his
excesses gave rise led to his imprisonment at Arevalo in 1600.
This sharp lesson had a wholesome effect on the duke, and in the
same year he left for Flanders, with a body of soldiers raised at
his own expense. His appearance in Flanders as a grandee with
a following of his own caused some embarrassment to the king's
oflicers. But Osuna displayed unexpected docility and good
sense in the field. He was content to serve as a subordinate, and
took a full share of work and fighting both by land and sea.
When peace was made with England in 1604 he is said to have
visited London. He is said also to have paid a visit to Holland
during the armistice arranged to allow of the negotiations for the
twelve years' truce of 1609; but, as he was back in Spain by that
year, he cannot have seen much of the country. His services
had purged his early offences, and he had been decorated with
the Golden Fleece. On the i8th of September 1610 he was
named viceroy of Sicily, and he took possession of his post at
Mclazzo on the 9th of March 161 1. In i6i6 he was promoted
to the viceroyally of Naples, and held the office till he was
recalled on the 28th of March 1620. The internal government
of Osuna in both provinces was vigorous and just. During his
Sicilian viceroyalty he organized a good squadron of galleys
with which he freed the coast for a time from the raids of the
Mahommedan pirates of the Barbary States and the Levant.
After his transfer to Naples Osuna continued his energetic wars
with the pirates, but he became concerned in some of the most
obscure political intrigues of the time. He entered into a policy
of unmeasured hostility to Venice, which he openly attacked
in the Adriatic. The princes of the Spanish branch of the
Habsburgs were at all times anxious to secure safe communica-
tion with the German possessions of their family. Hence their
anxiety to dominate all northern Italy and secure possession
of the Alpine passes. It would have suited them very well
if they could have reduced Venice to the same state of servitude
as Genoa. Osuna threw himself into this policy with a whole
heart. There can be no reasonable doubt that he was engaged
with the Spanish ambassador, and the viceroy of MUan, in the
mysterious conspiracy against Venice in 16 18. As usual, the
Spanish government had miscalculated its resources, and was
compelled to draw back. It then found extreme difficulty
in controlling its fiery viceroy. Osuna continued to act against
Venice in an almost piratical fashion, and treated orders from
home wiih scant respect. Serious fears began to be entertained
that he meant to declare himself independent in Naples, and
had he tried he could have brought about a revolt which the
enfeebled Spanish government could hardly have suppressed.
It is, however, unlikely that he had treasonable intentions.
He allowed his naval forces to be gradually reduced by drafts,
and when superseded returned obediently to Madrid. After his
return he was imprisoned on a long string of charges, and largely
at the instigation of the Venetians. No judgment was issued
against him, as he died in prison on the 24th of September 1624.
The " great duke of Osuna," as he is always called by the
Spaniards, impressed the imagination of his countrymen pro-
foundly as a vigorous, domineering and patriotic leader of the
stamp of the i6th century, and he was no less admired by the
Itahans. His ability was infinitely superior to that of the ordinary
politicians and courtiers of the time, but he was more energetic
than really wise, and he was an intolerable subordinate to the
bureaucratic despotism of Madrid.
The Vita di Don Pieiro Giron, duca d' Ossuna, vicere di Napoli e
di Sicilia of Gregorio Lc-ti (Amsterdam, 1699) is full of irrelevances,
and contains much gossip, as well as speeches which are manifestly
the invention of the author. But it is founded on good documents,
and Leti, an Italian who detested the Spanish rule, knew the state
of his own country well. See also Don C. Fernandez Duro, El Gran
Duque de Osuna y su Marina (Madrid, 1885), and Documcntos
incditos para la historia de Espana (Madrid, 1842, &c.), vols, xliv.-
xlvii.
OSUNA, a town of southern Spain, in the province of Seville;
57 m. by rail E.S.E. of Seville. Pop. (1900) 18,072. Osuna
is built on a hill, overlooking the fertile plain watered by the
Salado, a sub-tributary of the Guadalquivir. On the top of the
hill stands the collegiate church, dating from 1534 and con-
taining interesting Spanish and early German paintings. These,
however, as well as the sculptures over the portal, suffered
considerably during the occupation of the place by the French
under Soult. The vaults, which are supported by jMoorish
arches, contain the tombs of the Giron family, by one of whom,
Don Juan Tellez, the church was founded in 1534. The univer-
sity of Osuna, founded also by him in 1549, was suppressed in
1S20; but its large building is still used as a secondary school.
3^4
OSWALD— OSWESTRY
The industries are agriculture and the making of esparto mats,
pottery, bricks, oil, soap, cloth, linen and hats.
Osuna, the Urso of Hirtius, famous in the ist century B.C.
for its long resistance to the troops of Caesar, and its fidelity
to the Pompeians, was subsequently called by the Romans
Orsona and Gemina Urbanorum, the last name being due,
it is said, to the presence of two urban legions here. Osuna
was taken from the Moors in 1239, and given by Alphonso X.
to the knights of Calatrava in 1264. Don Pedro Giron appro-
priated it to himself in 1445. One of his descendants, Don
Pedro Tellez, was the first holder of the title duke of Osuna,
conferred on him by Philip II. in 1562.
Estepa (pop. 8591), a town 6 m. E.N.E. is the Iberian and
Carthaginian Astepa or Ostipo, famous for its siege in 207 B.C.
by the Romans under Publius Cornelius Scipio. When further
resistance became impossible, the people of Astepa set fire to
their town, and all perished in the flames.
OSWALD (c. 605-642), king of Northumbria, was one of the
sons of ^-Ethelfrith and was expelled from Northumbria on
the accession of Edwin, though he himself was a son of Edwin's
sister Acha. He appears to have spent some of his exile in
lona, where he was instructed in the principles of Christianity.
In 634 he defeated and slew the British king Ceadwalla at a
place called by Bede Denisesburn, near Hefenfelth, which has
been identified with St Oswald's Cocklaw, near ChoOerford,
Northumberland. By this he avenged his brother Eanfrith,
who had succeeded Edwin in Bernicia, and became king of
Northumbria. Oswald reunited Deira and Bernicia, and soon
raised his kingdom to a position equal to that which it had
occupied in the time of Edwin, with whom he is classed by Bede
as one of the seven great Anglo-Saxon kings. His close alliance
with the Celtic church is the characteristic feature of his reign.
In 635 he sent to the elders of the Scots for a bishop. On the
arrival of Aidan in answer to this request he assigned to him
the island of Lindisfarne as his see, near the royal city of Bam-
borough. He also completed the minster of St Peter at York
which had been begun by Paulinus under Edwin. Bede declares
that Oswald ruled over " all the peoples and provinces of Britain,
which includes four languages, those of the Britons, Picts,
Scots and Angles." His relationship to Ed'ttin may have helped
him to consoUdate Deira and Bernicia. Early in his reign he
was sponsor to the West Saxon king Cynegils, whose daughter
he married. In 642 he was defeated and slain at a place called
Maserfeld, probably Oswestry in Shropshire, by Penda of
Mercia.
See Bede, Historia EcdesiasUca, ed. C. Plummsr (Oxford, 1896),
ii. 5, 14, 20; iii. 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 9-14: Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, ed. J.
Earle and C. Plummer (Oxford, 1899), i.a., 617, 634, 635, 642, 654.
OSWALD (d. 902), archbishop of York, was a nephew of
Oda, archbishop of Canterbury, and at an early age became,
by purchase, head of the Old Minster at Winchester. Desiring
to become a monk, he went with Oda's approval to the monastery
of Fleury on the Loire — at that time the great centre of reviving
Benedictinism. Here he soon distinguished himself by the
monastic austerity of his Ufe. In 959 he returned to England
at the request of Oda, who, however, died before his arrival.
He now went to York to his kinsman the Archbishop Oskytel,
who took him with him on a pilgrimage to Rome. Soon after
his return he was appointed bishop of Worcester at the re-
commendation of Dunstan, his predecessor in the see (961).
As bishop he took a prominent part in that revival of monastic
discipline on Benedictine lines of which Aethelwold, bishop
of Winchester, was the most ardent leader. His methods, how-
ever, were less violent than those of Aethelwold. Among other
reUgious houses he founded that of Ramsey in conjunction with
Aethelwine, Ealdorman of East Anglia. In 97 2 he was translated
(again at Dunstan's recommendation) to the archbishopric of
York, with which he continued to hold the see of Worcester.
He died on the 29th of February 992 and was buried at
Worcester.
See Memorials oj Si Dunstan, edited by W. Stubbs, Rolls series
(London, 1874).
OSWALDTWISTLE, an urban district in the Accrington
parhamentary division of Lancashire, England, on the Leeds
and Liverpool Canal, 3I m. E.S.E. of Blackburn. Pop. (1901)
14,192. It possesses cotton-miUs, printworks, bleachworks and
chemical works, and in the neighbourhood are collieries, stone
quarries and potteries. At Peelfold, in the township, was born
(1750) Sir Robert Peel, first baronet, who, as a factory-owner
effected wide developments in the cotton industry.
OSWEGO, a city, port of entry, and the county-seat of Oswego
county. New York, U.S.A., on the S.E. shore of Lake Ontario,
at the mouth of the Oswego river, about 35 m. N.W. of Syracuse.
Pop. (1900) 22,199, of whom 3989 were foreign born; (1910
census) 23,368. It is served by the New York Central &
Hudson River, the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western, and the
New York, Ontario & Western railways, by several lines of lake
steamboats, and by the Oswego Canal, which connects Lake
Ontario with the Erie Canal at Syracuse. There is an inner
harbour of 9-35 acres and an outer harbour of 140 acres, which
are defended by Fort Ontario. The city hes at an altitude of
300 ft., and is divided into two parts by the Oswego river.
Oswego is the seat of a state Normal and Training School (founded
as the City Training School in 1861, and a state school since
1S67), a state armoury, and a United States life-saving station;
among the public buildings are the City Library (about 14,000
volumes in 1909), founded by Gerrit Smith in 1855, the Federal
Building and Custom House, the City Hall, the City Hospital,
the County Court House, an Orphan Asylum, and a business
college. The Oswego river has here a fall of 34 ft. and furnishes
excellent water power. Among the principal manufactures are
starch (the city has one of the largest starch factories in the
world), knit goods, railway car springs, shade-cloth, boilers and
engines, wooden-ware, matches, paper-cutting machines, and
eau de cologne. The factory products were valued in 1905 at
$7,592,123. Oswego has a considerable trade with Canada;
in igoS its exports were valued at $2,880,553 and its imports at
$999,164. Lake commerce with other American Great Lake
ports is also of some importance, the principal articles of trade
being lumber, grain and coal.
The site of Oswego was visited by Samuel de Champlain in
1616. Subsequently it was a station for the Jesuit missionaries
and the coitreurs des hois. In 1722 a regular trading post was
established here by English traders, and in 1727 Governor
William Burnet of New York erected the first Fort Oswego
(sometimes called Fort Burnet, Chouaguen or Pepperrell). It
was an important base of operations during King George's War
and the French and Indian War. In the years 1755-1756 the
British erected two new forts at the mouth of the river. Fort
Oswego (an enlargement of the earlier fort) on the east and Fort
Ontario on the west. In August 1756 Montcalm, marching
rapidly from Ticonderoga with a force of 3000 French and
Indians, appeared before the forts, then garrisoned by 1000
British and colonial troops, and on the 14th of August forced
the abandonment of Fort Ontario. On the following day he
stormed and captured Fort Oswego, and, dismanthng both,
returned to Ticonderoga. The British restored Fort Ontario
in 1759, and maintained a garrison here until 1796, when, with
other posts on the lakes, they were, in accordance with the terms
of Jay's Treaty, made over to the United States. It was here
in 1766 that Pontiac formally made to Sir William Johnson his
acknowledgment of Great Britain's authority. On the 6th of
May 1814 Sir James Yeo, with a superior force of British and
Canadians, captured the fort, but soon afterwards withdrew.
In 1839 the fort was rebuilt and occupied by United States
troops; it was abandoned in 1899, but, after having been recon-
structed, was again garrisoned in 1905. The modem city may
be said to date from 1796. Oswego became the county-seat in
1816, was incorporated as a village in 1828 (when the Oswego
Canal was completed), and was first chartered as a city in 1848.
See Churchill, Smith and Child, Landmarks of Oswego County
(Syracuse, 1895).
OSWESTRY, a market town and municipal borough in the
Oswestry parhamentary division of Shropshire, England, on
OSWIO— OTHO
36:
the borders of Wales, 18 m. N.W. from Shrewsbury. Pop.
(1901) 9579. It is on a branch from the Chester line of the Great
Western railway, and on the Cambrian main line. The situation
is pleasant and the neighbouring district well wooded and hilly.
The church of St Oswald, originally conventual, is Early English
and Decorated, but has been greatly altered by restoration. There
is a Roman Catholic chapel with presbytery, convent aKd school.
The grammar school, founded in the reign of Henry IV., occupies
modern buildings. The municipal buildings (1893) include a
library, and a school of science and art. On a hill W. of the
town are the castle grounds, laid out in 1890, but of the castle
itself only slight remains are seen. The Cambrian railway
engine and carriage works are here; and there arc tanneries,
malting works, machinery works and iron foundries. Frequent
agricultural fairs are held. The town is governed by a mayor,
6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 1887 acres.
Old Oswestry, also called Old Fort (Welsh Hen Dinas), is a
British earthwork about a mile from the modern town. There
are various unsatisfactory accounts of the early history of
Oswestry (Blaneminster, or Album Monasterium), as that it
was caUcd Trer Cadeirau by the Britons and Osweiling after
Cunelda Wledig, prince of North Wales, had granted it to his
son Osweil. It derives its present name from Oswald, king of
Northumbria, who is said to have been killed here in 642, although
it was not definitely known as Oswestry until the 13th century.
In the Domesday Survey it is included in the manor of Maesbury,
which Rainald, sheriff of Shropshire, held of Roger, earl of Shrews-
bury; but Rainald or his predecessor Warin had already raised
a fortification at Oswestry called Louvre. The manor passed
in the reign of Henry I. to Alan Fitz-Flaad, in whose family it
continued until the death of Henry Fitzalan, earl of Arundel,
without male issue in 1580. The first charter, of which a copy
only is preserved among the corporation records, is one given
in 1262 by John Fitzalan granting the burgesses self-government.
Richard II. by a charter dated 1398 granted all the privileges
which belonged to Shrewsbury, and a similar charter was
obtained from Thomas, earl of Arundel in 1407. The town was
incorporated by Eliz.abeth in 1582 under the government of
two bailiffs and a common council of 24 burgesses, and her
charter was confirmed by James I. in 1616. A charter granted
by Charles II. in 1672 appointed a mayor, 12 aldermen and 15
common councilmen, and remained the governing charter until
the Municipal Corporations Act of 1835 changed the corporation.
In 1228 John Fitzalan obtained the right of holding a market
every week on Monday instead of Thursday. The market
rights were held by the lord of the manor until 1819, when Earl
Powis sold them to the corporation. In the 15th and i6th
centuries a weekly market was held at Oswestry for the sale
of woollen goods manufactured in North Wales, but in the 17 th
century the drapers of Shrewsbury determined to get the trade
into their own town, and although an Order in the Privy Council
was passed to restrain it to Oswestry they agreed in 1621 to buy
no more cloth there. The town was walled by the time of Edward
I., but was several times burnt during Welsh invasions. In 1642
it was garrisoned for Charles I., but two years later surrendered
to the parliamentary forces.
See William Cathrall, The History of Oswestry (1855); William
Price, The History of Oswestry from the Earliest Period (1815);
Victoria County History, Shropshire.
OSWIO (c. 612-670), king of Northumbria, son of /Ethelfrith
and brother of Oswald, whom he succeeded in Bernicia in 642
after the battle of Maserfeld, was the seventh of the great
English kings enumerated by Bede. He succeeded in making
the majority of the Britons, Picts and Scots tributary to him.
At Gilling in 651 he caused the murder of Oswine, a relative
of Edwin, who had become king of Deira, and a few years
later took possession of that kingdom. He appears to have
consolidated his power by the aid of the Church and by a series
of judicious matrimonial alliances. It was probably in 642 that
he married Eanfied, daughter of Edwin, thus uniting the two
rival dynasties of Northumbria. His daughter Alhfled he
married to Peada, son of Penda, king of Mercia, while another
daughter, Osthryth, became the wife of j^thelred, third son of
the same king. Oswio was chiefly responsible for the recon-
version of the East Saxons. He is said to have convinced their
king Sigeberht of the truth of Christianity by his arguments,
and at his request sent Cedd, a brother of Ceadda, on a mission
to Essex. In 655 he was attacked by Penda, and, after an
unsuccessful attempt to buy him off, defeated and slew the
Mercian king at the battle of the Winwaed. He then took
possession of part of Mercia, giving the rest to Peada. As a
thank-offering he dedicated his daughter i^illled to the Church,
and founded the monastery of Whitby. About this time he is
thought by many to have obtained some footing in the kingdom
of the Picts in succession to their king Talorcan, the son of his
brother Eanfrid. In 660 he married his son Ecgfrith to
/Ethelthryth, daughter of the East Anglian king Anna. In
664 at the synod of Whitby, Oswio accepted the usages of the
Roman Church, which led to the departure of Colman and the
appointment of Wilfrid as bishop of York. Oswio died in 670
and was succeeded by his son Ecgfrith.
See Bede, Historia Ecdesiastica, ii., iii., iv., v., edited by C.
Plummer (Oxford, i8g6); Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, edited by Earle
and Plummer (0.\ford, 1899).
OTHMAN (c. 574-656), in full Othman ibn "Affan, the
third of the Mahommedan caliphs, a kinsman and son-in-law
of Mahomet and cousin of Abu Sofian, whose son Moawiya
became the first of the Omayyad dynasty. He was elected
caliph in succession to Omar in 644, but owing to his alternate
weakness and cruelty and his preference of the Koreish for all
responsible positions irrespective of their capacity, he produced
strife throughout the empire which culminated in his assassina-
tion by Mahommed, son of Abu Bekr. He was succeeded by
Ah iq.v.). See Caliphate, A. § 3.
OTHNIEL, in the Bible, a clan settled at Debir or Kirjath-
sepher in S. Palestine (Judg. i. 12 sqq.. Josh. xv. 16 sqq., contrast
Josh. x. 38 seq.), described as the " brother" of Caleb. The
name appears in Judg. iii. 7-11 (see Judges), as that of a hero
who delivered Israel from a North Syrian king. That a king
from the Euphrates who had subjugated Canaan should have
been defeated by a clan of the south of Palestine has been
doubted. There is no evidence of such a situation, and it has
been conjectured that Cushan-Rishathaim (the name suggests
" C. of double wickedness"!) of Aram (mx) has arisen from
some king (cp. Husham, Gen. xxxvi. 34) or clan (cp. Cush, Num.
xii. 1; Cushan, Hab. iii. 7) of Edom (mn) to the south or
south-east of Palestine. Othniel recurs in i Chron. iv. 13.
See A. Klostermann, Gesch. d. Volkes Israel (i8g6), p. 122 ; Cheyne,
Ency. Bib. col. 969 seq. and references; also the literature to JiUGES.
OTHO, MARCUS SALVIUS (32-69), Roman emperor from the
15th of January to the 15th of April a.d. 69, was born on the
28th of April A.D. 32. He belonged to an ancient and noble
Etruscan family settled at Ferentinum in Etruria. He appears
first as one of the most reckless and extravagant of the young
nobles who surrounded Nero. But his friendship with Nero was
brought to an abrupt close in 58, when Otho refused to divorce
his beautiful wife Poppea Sabina at the bidding of Nero, who at
once appointed him governor of the remote province of Lusitania.
Here Otho remained ten years, and his administration was
marked by a moderation unusual at the time. When in 68 his
neighbour Galba, the governor of Hispania Tarraconensis, rose
in revolt against Nero, Otho accompanied him to Rome. Resent-
ment at the treatment he had received from Nero may have
impelled him to this course, but to this motive was added before
long that of personal ambition. Galba was far advanced in
years, and Otho, encouraged by the predictions of astrologers,
aspired to succeed him. But in January 69 his hopes were
dissipated by Galba's formal adoption of L. Calpurnius Piso as the
fittest man to succeed him. Nothing remained for Otho but to
strike a bold blow. Desperate as was the state of his finances,
thanks to his previous extravagance, he found money to purchase
the services of some three-and-twenty soldiers of the praetorian
guard. On the morning of January 15, five days only after the
adoption of Piso, Otho attended as usual to pay his respects to
366
OTIS, H. G.— OTIS, J.
the emperor, and then hastily excusing himself on the score
of private business hurried from the Palatine to meet his accom-
plices. By them he was escorted to the praetorian camp, where,
after a few moments of surprise and indecision, he was saluted
imperator. With an imposing force he returned to the Forum,
and at the foot of the Capitol encountered Galba, who, alarmed
by vague rumours of treachery, was making his way through a
dense crowd of wondering citizens towards the barracks of the
guard. The cohort on duty at the Palatine, which had accom-
panied the emperor, instantly deserted him; Galba, Piso and
others were brutally murdered by the praetorians. The brief
struggle over, Otho returned in triumph to the camp, and on the
same day was duly invested by the senators with the name of
Augustus, the tribunician power and the other dignities belonging
to the principate. Otho had owed his success, not only to the
resentment felt by the praetorian guards at Galba's well-meant
attempts to curtail their privileges in the interests of discipline,
but also largely to the attachment felt in Rome for the memory
of Nero; and his first acts as emperor showed that he was not
unmindful of the fact. He accepted,or appeared to accept, the cog-
nomen of Nero conferred upon him by the shouts of the populace,
whom his comparative youth and the effeminacy of his appearance
reminded of their lost favourite. Nero's statues were again set
up, his freedmen and household officers reinstalled, and the
intended completion of the Golden House announced. At the
same time the fears of the more sober and respectable citizens
were allayed by Otho's liberal professions of his intention to
govern equitably, and by his judicious clemency towards Marius
Celsus, consul-designate, a devoted adherent of Galba.
But any further development of Otho's policy was checked by
the news which reached Rome shortly after his accession, that
the army in Germany had declared for ViteUius, the commander
of the legions on the lower Rhine, and was already advancing
upon Italy. After in vain attempting to conciliate ViteUius by
the offer of a share in the empire, Otho, with unexpected vigour,
prepared for war. From the remoter provinces, which had
acquiesced in his accession, little help was to be expected; but
the legions of Dalmatia, Pannonia and Moesia were eager in his
cause, the praetorian cohorts were in themselves a formidable force
and an efficient fleet gave him the mastery of the Italian seas. The
fleet was at once despatched to secure Liguria, and on the 14th of
March Otho, undismayed by omens and prodigies, started north-
wards at the head of his troops in the hopes of preventing the
entry of the Vitellian troops into Italy. But for this he was too
late, and all that could be done was to throw troops into Placentia
and hold the line of the Po. Otho's advanced guard successfully
defended Placentia against Alienus Caecina, and compelled that
general to fall back on Cremona. But the arrival of Fabius
Valens altered the aspect of affairs. The Vitellian commanders
now resolved to bring on a decisive battle, and their designs were
assisted by the divided and irresolute counsels which prevailed
in Otho's camp. The more experienced officers urged the im-
portance of avoiding a battle, until at least the legions from
Dalmatia had arrived. But the rashness of the emperor's brother
Titianus and of Proculus, prefect of the praetorian guards, added
to Otho's feverish impatience, overruled aU opposition, and an
immediate advance was decided upon, Otho himself remaining
behind with a considerable reserve force at BrixeUum, on the
southern bank of the Po. When this decision was taken the
Othonian forces had already crossed the Po and were encamped
at Bedriacum (or Betriacum), a small village on the ViaPostumia,
and on the route by which the legions from Dalmatia would
naturally arrive. Leaving a strong detachment to hold the
camp at Bedriacum, the Othonian forces advanced along the Via
Postumia in the direction of Cremona. At a short distance from
that city they unexpectedly encountered the Vitellian troops.
The Othonians, though taken at a disadvantage, fought desper-
ately, but were finally forced to fall back in disorder upon their
camp at Bedriacum. Thither on the next day the victorious
Vitellians followed them, but only to come to terms at once with
their disheartened enemy, and to be welcomed into the camp as
friends. More unexpected still was the effect produced at
Brixcllum by the news of the battle. Otho was still in command
of a formidable force — the Dalmatian legions had already reached
Aquileia; and the spirit of his soldiers and their officers was un-
broken. But he was resolved to accept the verdict of the battle
which his own impatience had hastened. In a dignified speech
he bade farewell to those about him, and then retiring to rest slept
soundly for some hours. Early in the morning he stabbed him-
self to the heart with a dagger which he had concealed under his
pillow, and died as his attendants entered the tent. His funeral
was celebrated at once, as he had wished, and not a few of his
soldiers followed their master's example by killing themselves
at his pyre. A plain tomb was erected in his honour at BrixeUum,
with the simple inscription " Diis Manibus Marci Othonis."
At the time of his death (the 15th of April 69) he was in his
thirty-eighth year, and had reigned just three months. In aU his
hfe nothing became him so weU as his manner of leaving it; but
the fortitude he then showed, even if it was not merely the courage
of despair, cannot blind us to the fact that he was httle better than
a reckless and vicious spendthrift, who was not the less dangerous
because his fiercer passions were concealed beneath an affectation
of effeminate dandyism. (H. F. P.)
See Tacitus, Histories, i. 12-50, 71-90, ii. 11-51 ; Lives by Suetonius
and Plutarch ; Die Cassius Ixiv. ; Merivale, History 0/ the Romans
under the Empire, ch. 56: H. Schiller, Geschichte der romischen
Kaiserzeit (1883); L. Paul, " Kaiser M. Salvius Othoj" in Rhein.
Mus. Ivii. (1902) ; W. A. Spooner, On the Characters of Galba, Otho,
and Vitellitis, in Introd. to his edition (1891) of the Histories ol
Tacitus; B. W. Henderson, Civil War and Rebellion in the Roman
Empire, A.D. 6g-7o (1908J.
OTIS, HARRISON GRAY (1765-1848), American politician,
was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on the 8th of October 1765.
He was a nephew of James Otis, and the son of Samuel AUyne
Otis (1740-1814), who was a member of the Confederation
Congress in 1787-1788 and secretary of the United States
Senate from its first session in 1789 untU his death. Young Otis
graduated from Harvard College in 1783, was admitted to the
bar in 1786, and soon became prominent as a Federalist in
politics. He served in the Massachusetts House of Repre-
sentatives in 1 796-1 797, in the National House of Representa-
tives in 1797-1801, as district-attorney for Massachusetts in
1801, as speaker of the state House of Representatives in 1803-
1805, as a member of the state Senate from 1805 to 1811, and as
president of that body in 1805-1806 and 1808-1811, as a member
of the United States Senate from 1817 to 1822, and as mayor of
Boston in 1829-1832. He was strongly opposed to the War of
1812, and was a leader in the movement culminating in the
Hartford Convention, which he defended in a series of open
letters pubhshed in 1824, and in his inaugural address as mayor
of Boston. A man of refinement and education, a member of an
influential family, a popular social leader and an eloquent
speaker — at the age of twenty-three he was chosen by the town
authorities of Boston to deliver the Independence Day oration —
Otis yet lacked conspicuous ability as a statesman. He died in
Boston on the 28th of October 1848.
OTIS, JAMES (1725-1783), American patriot, was born at
West Barnstable, Massachusetts, on the 5th of February 1725.
He was the eldest son of James Otis (1702-1778), fourth in
descent from John Otis (1581-1657), a native of Barnstaple,
Devon, and one of the first settlers (in 1635) of Hingham, Mass.
The elder James Otis was elected to the provincial General Court
in 1758, was its speaker in 1760-1762, and was chief justice of
the Court of Common Pleas from 1764 until 1776; he was a
prominent patriot in the colony of Massachusetts. The son
graduated at Harvard in 1743; and after studying law in the
office of Jeremiah Gridley (1702-1767), a weU-known lawyer
with Whig sympathies, rose to great distinction at the bar,
practising first at Plymouth and after 1 7 50 at Boston. In 1 760 he
published Rudiments of Latin Prosody, a book of authority in its
time. He wrote a similar treatise upon Greek prosody; but
this was never published, because, as he said, there was not a
font of Greek letters in the country, nor, if there were, a printer
who could have set them up. Soon after the accession of George
III. to the throne of England in 1760, the British governnient
AW OTLEY— OTTAKAR
367
decided upon a rigid enforcement of the navigation acts, which
had long bean disregarded Ijy the colonists and had been almost
wholly evaded during the French and Indian War. The Writs of
Assistance issued in 1755 were about to expire, and it was decided
to issue new ones, which would empower custom house officers
to search any house for smuggled goods, though neither the house
nor the goods had to be specifically mentioned in the writs.
Much opposition was aroused in Massachusetts, the legality of the
writs was questioned, and the Superior Court consented to hear
argument. Otis held the office of advocate-general at the time,
and it was his duty to appear on behalf of the government.
He refused, resigned his otTice, and appeared for the people against
the issue of the writs, Gridley appearing on the opposite side.
The case was argued in the Old Town House of Boston in February
1761, and the chief speech was made by Otis. His plea was fervid
in its eloquence and fearless in its assertion of the rights of the
colonists. Going beyond the question at issue, he dealt with the
more fundamental question of the relation between the English
in America and the home government, and argued that even if
authorized by act of parliament such writs were null and void.
The young orator was elected in May of the same year a repre-
sentative from Boston to the Massachusetts General Court.
To that position he was re-elected nearly every year of the re-
maining active years of his life, serving there with his father.
In 1 766 he was chosen Speaker of the House of Representatives,
but the choice was negatived. In September 1762 the younger
Otis published A Vindication of the Conduct of the House of
Representatives of the Province of Massachusetts Bay, in defence
of the action of that body in sending to the governor a message
(drafted by Otis) rebuking him for asking the assembly to pay
for ships he had (with authorization of the Council and not of the
representatives) sent to protect New England fisheries against
French privateers; according to this message " it would be of
little consequence to the people whether they were subject to
George or Louis, the king of Great Britain or the French king, if
both were as arbitrary as both would be if both could levy ta.xes
without parliament." He also wrote various state papers
addressed to the colonies to enlist them in the common cause,
or sent to the government in England to uphold the rights or
set forth the grievances of the colonists. His influence at home
in controlling and directing the movement of events which led to
the War of Independence was universally felt and acknowledged;
and abroad no American was so frequently quoted, denounced,
or applauded in parliament and the English press before 1769
as the recognized head and chief of the rebellious spirit of the
New England colonists. In 1765 Massachusetts sent him as one
of her representatives to the Stamp Act Congress at New York,
which had been called by a Committee of the Massachusetts
General Court, of which he was a member; and here he was a
conspicuous figure, serving on the committee which prepared
the address sent by that body to the British House of Commons.
In 1769 he denounced m the Boston Gazette certain customs
commissioners who had charged him with treason. Thereupon
he became involved in an altercation in a public-house with
Robinson, one of the commissioners; the altercation grew into an
affray, and Otis received a sword cut on the head, which is
considered to have caused his subsequent insanity. Robinson
was mulcted in £2000 damages, but in view of his having made
a written apology, Otis declined to take this sum from him.
From 1769 almost continuously until his death Otis was harm-
lessly insane, though he had occasional lucid intervals, serving as
a volunteer in the battle of Bunker Hill in 1775 and arguing a case
in 1778. He was killed by lightning (it is said that he had often
expressed a wish that he might die in this way) at Andover,
Mass., on the 23rd of May 1783.
Otis's political writings were chiefly controversial and exercised
an enormous influence, his pamphlets being among the most effective
presentations of the arguments of the colonists against the arbitrary
measures of the British ministry. His more important pamphlets
were A Vindication of the Conduct of the House of Represcnlalives
of the Province of Massachusetts Bav (1762); The Ri^^hts of llie
British Colonies Asserted and Proved (1764); A Vindication of the
British Colonies against the Aspersions of the Halifax Gentleman in
his Letter to a Rhode Island Friend — a letter known at the time as
the " Halifax Libel" (1765); and Considerations on Behalf of the
Colonists in a Letter to a Noble Lord (1765).
The best biography is that by William Tudor (Boston, 1823);'
there is a shorter one by Francis Bowen (Boston, 1847). The best
account of Otis's characteristics and influence as a writer may be
found in M. C. Tyler's Literary History of the American Revolution
(New York, 1897). See also the notes on the Writs of Assistance
l)y Horace Gray, Jr., in Quincy's Massachusetts Reports, 1761-1772
(Boston, 1865). Otis's speech on the writs, reprinted from rough
notes taken by John Adams, appears in Appendix A of vol. ii. of
C. F. Adams's edition of the Works of John Adams (Boston, 1850).
OTLE'y, a market town in the Otiey parliamentary division
of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 13 m. N.W. of Leeds
on the Midland and the North-Eastern railways. Pop. of urban
district (1901) 9230. It is picturesquely situated on the south
bank of the Wharfe, at the foot of the precipitous Che\in Hill,
925 ft. in height. In this neighbourhood excellent building-stone
is quarried, which was used for the foundations of the Houses
of Parliament in London, and is despatched to all jjarts of
England. The church of All Saints has Norman portions, and
a cross and other remains of pre-Norman date were discovered in
restoring the building. There are interesting monuments of
members of the Fairfax family and others. Worsted spinning
and weaving, tanning and leather-dressing, paper-making and
the making of printing-machines are the principal industries.
The scenery of 'VVharfedale is very pleasant. In the dale, 7 m.
below Otley, are the fine ruins of Harewood Castle, of the 14th
century. The neighbouring church contains a noteworthy series
of monuments of the 15th century in alabaster.
OTRANTO, a seaport and archiepiscopal see of Apulia, Italy,
in the province of Lecce, from which it is 29! m. S.E. by rail,
49 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 2295. It is beautifully
situated on the east coast of the peninsula of the ancient Calabria
(q.v.). The castle was erected by Alphonso of Aragon; the
cathedral, consecrated in 1088, has a rose window and side
portal of 1481. The interior, a basilica with nave and two aisles,
contains columns said to come from a temple of Minerva
and a fine mosaic pavement of 1166, with interesting representa-
tions of the months. Old Testament subjects, &c. It has a crypt
supported by forty-two marble columns. The church of S.
Pietro has Byzantine frescoes. Two submarine cables start
from Otranto, one for Valona, the other for Corfu. The harbour
is small and has little trade.
Otranto occupies the site of the ancient Hydrus or Hydruntum,
a town of Greek origin. In Roman limes it was less important
than Brundusium as a point of embarkation for the East, though
the distance to Apollonia was less than from Brundusium.
It remained in the hands of the Byzantine emperors until it
was taken by Robert Guiscard in 1068. In 1480 it was utterly
destroyed by the Turkish fleet, and has never since recovered
its importance. About 30 m. S.E. lies the promontory of S.
Maria di Leuca (so called since ancient times from its white
cliffs), the S.E. extremity of Italy, the ancient Promontorium
lapygium or Sallentinum. The district between this promontory
and Otranto is thickly populated, and very fertile. (T. As.)
OTTAKAR I, (d. 1230), king of Bohemia, was a younger
son of King Vladislav II. (d. 1174) and a member of the Premy-
slide family, hence he is often referred to as Premysl Ottakar I.
His early years were passed amid the anarchy which prevailed
everywhere in his native land; after several struggles, in which
he took part, he was recognized as ruler of Bohemia by the
emperor Henry VL in 1192. He was, however, soon overthrown,
but renewing the fight in 1196 he forced his brother. King
Vladislav III., to abandon Bohemia to him and to content
himself with Moravia. Although confirmed in the possession of
his kingdom by the German king, Philip, duke of Swabia,
Ottakar soon deserted Philip, who thereupon declared him
deposed. He then joined the rival German king. Otto of
Brunswick, afterwards the emperor Otto IV., being recognized
as king of Bohemia both by Otto and by his ally. Pope Innocent
III. Phihp's consequent invasion of Bohemia was a great
success. Ottakar, having been compelled to pay a fine, again
ranged himself among Philip's partisans and still later was
368
OTTAVA RIMA— OTTAWA
among the supporters of the young king, Frederick II. He
united Moravia with Bohemia in 1222, and when he died in
December 1230 he left to his son, Wenceslaus I., a kingdom
united and comparatively peaceable.
Ottakar II., or Premysl Ottakar II. (c. 1 230-1 278), king
of Bohemia, was a son of King Wenceslaus I., and through his
mother, Kunigunde, was related to the Hohenstaufen family,
being a grandson of the German king, Philip, duke of Swabia.
During his father's lifetime he ruled Moravia, but when in 1 248
some discontented Bohemian nobles acknowledged him as their
sovereign, trouble arose between him and his father, and for a
short time Ottakar was imprisoned. However, in 1251 the young
prince secured his election as duke of Austria, where he
strengthened his position by marrying Margaret (d. 1267),
sister of Duke Frederick II., the last of the Babenberg rulers
of the duchy and widow of the German king, Henry VII. Some
years later he repudiated this lady and married a Hungarian
princess. Both before and after he became king of Bohemia in
succession to his father in September 1253 Ottakar was involved
in a dispute with Bela IV., king of Hungary, over the possession
of Styria, which duchy had formerly been united with Austria.
By an arrangement made in 1254 he surrendered part of it to
Bela, but when the dispute was renewed he defeated the
Hungarians in July 1260 and secured the whole of Styria for
himself, owing his formal investiture with Austria and Styria
to the German king, Richard, earl of Cornwall. The Bohemian
king also led two expeditions against the Prussians. In 1260
he inherited Carinthia and part of Carniola; and having made
good his claim, contested by the Hungarians, on the field of
battle, he was the most powerful prince in Germany when an
election for the Germ_an throne took place in 1273. But Ottakar
was not the successful candidate. He refused to acknowledge
his victorious rival, Rudolph of Habsburg, and urged the pope
to adopt a simOar attitude, while the new king claimed the
Austrian duchies. Matters reached a climax in 1276. Placing
Ottakar under the ban of the empire, Rudolph besieged Vienna
and compelled Ottakar in November 1276 to sign a treaty by
which he gave up Austria and the neighbouring duchies, retaining
for himself only Bohemia and Moravia. Two years later the
Bohemian king tried to recover his lost lands; he found allies
and collected a large army, but he was defeated by Rudolph
and killed at Diirnkrut on the March on the 26th of August 1278.
Ottakar was a founder of towns and a friend of law and order,
while he assisted trade and welcomed German immigrants.
Clever, strong and handsome, he is a famous figure both in history
and in legend, and is the subject of a tragedy by F. Grillparzer,
Konig Ottokars Gliick und Ende. His son and successor was
Wenceslaus II.
See O. Lorenz, Geschichte Konig Oltokars, ii. (Vienna, 1866) ;
A. Huber, Geschichte Oesterreichs, Band i. (Gotha, 1885); and F.
Palacky, Geschichte von Bohmen, Band i. (Prague, 1844).
OTTAVA RIMA, a stanza of eight iambic lines, containing
three rhymes, invariably arranged as follows:— a b a b a b a c.
It is an Italian invention, and we find the earliest specimens
of its use in the poetry of the fourteenth century. Boccaccio
employed it for the Teseide, which he wrote in Florence in 1340,
and for the Filoslrato, which he wrote at Naples some seven
years later. These remarkable epics gave to otlava rima its
classic character. In the succeeding century it was employed
by Politiani, and by Boiardo for his famous Orlando Innamorato
(14S6). It was Pulci, however, in the Morgante Maggiore (1487),
who invented the peculiar mock-heroic, or rather half-serious,
half-burlesque, style with which otiava rima has been most
commonly identified ever since and in connexion with which it
was introduced into England by Frere and Byron. The measure,
which was now recognized as the normal one for all Italian
epic poetry, was presently wielded with extraordinary charm
and variety by Berni, Ariosto and Tasso. The merits of it
were not perceived by the English poets of the i6th and
'17th centuries, although the versions of Tasso by Carew
(1594) and Fairfax (1600) and of Ariosto by Harington (15Q1)
preserve its external construction. The stanzaic forms invented
by Spenser and by the Fletchers have less real relation to ottava
rima than is commonly asserted, and it is quite incorrect to say
that the author of the Fairy Queen adopted ottava rima and added
a ninth line to prevent the sound from being monotonously
iterative. A portion of Browne's Britannia's Pastorals is
composed in pure ottava rima, but this is the only important
specimen in original Elizabethan hterature. Two centuries
later a very successful attempt was made to introduce in English
poetry the flexibility and gaiety of ottava rima by John Hookham
Frere, who had studied Pulci and Casti, and had caught the
very movement of their diverting measure. His Whistlecraft
appeared in 181 7. This is a specimen of the ottava rima of
Frere: —
But chiefly, when the shadowy moon had shed
O'er woods and waters her mysterious hue,
Their passive hearts and vacant fancies fed
With thoughts and aspirations strange and new,
Till their brute souls with inward working bred
Dark hints that in the depths of instinct grew
Subjection — not from Locke's associations,
Nor David Hartley's doctrine of vibrations.
Byron was greatly impressed by the opportunities for satire
involved in Frere's experiment, and in October 1817, in imitation
of Whistlecraft, but keeping still closer to Pulci, he wrote Beppo.
By far the greatest monument in ottava rima which exists in
English literature is Don Juan (1818-1821). Byron also employed
this measure, which was peculiarly adaptable to the purposes of
his genius, in The Vision of Judgment (1822). Meanwhile Shelley
also became attracted by it, and Ln 1820 translated the Hymns
of Homer into ottava rityia. The curious burlesque epic of
William Tennant (1 784-1848), ^«i<erfa«> (181 2), which preceded
all these, is written in what would be ottava rima if the eighth
line were not an alexandrine. The form has been little used
in other languages than Italian and English. It was employed
by Boscna (1490-1542), who imitated Bembo vigorously in
Spanish, and the very fine Araucana of Ercilla y Ziiniga (1533-
1 595) is in the same measure. Lope de Vega Carpio wrote plenti-
fully in ottava rima. In Portuguese poetry of the i6th and 17th
centuries this measure obtained the sanction of Camoens, who
wrote in it his immortal Lusiads (1572). Ottava rima has been
attempted in German poetry by Uhland and others, but not for
pieces of any considerable length. (E. G.)
OTTAWA, a tribe of North American Indians of Algonquian
stock, originally settled on the Ottawa river, Canada, and later
on the north shore of the upper peninsula of Michigan. They
were driven in 1650 by the Iroquois beyond the Mississippi,
only to be forced back by the Dakotas. Then they settled on
Manitoulin Island, Lake Huron, and joined the French against
the English. During the War of Independence, however, they
fought for the latter. Some were moved to Indian Territory
(Oklahoma), but the majority live to-day in scattered commu-
nities throughout lower Michigan and Ontario.
OTTAWA, the largest tributary of the river St Lawrence;
ranking ninth in length among the rivers of Canada, being 685 m.
long. It flows first westward to Lake Temiscaming; thence
south-east and east. The principal tributaries on the left bank
are the Rouge (11 5 m.), North Nation (6o),Lievre (205), Gatineau
(240), Coulonge (135), Dumoine (80); and on the right bank,
the South Nation (90), Mississippi (105), Madawaska (130) and
Petawawa (95). Canals at Ste Anne, Carillon and GrenvDle
permit the passage of vessels drawing 9 ft., from Montreal up to
the city of Ottawa. At Ottawa the river is connected with Lake
Ontario by the Rideau Canal. The Chaudiere Falls, and the
Chats and other rapids, prevent continuous navigation above
the capital, but small steamers ply on the larger navigable
stretches. The Montreal, Ottawa and Georgian Bay Canal is
designed to surmount these obstructions and provide a navigable
channel from Georgian Bay up French river, through Lake
Nipissing and over the height of land to the Ottawa, thence down
to Montreal, of sufficient depth to enable vessels drawing 20 or
21 ft. to carry cargo from Chicago, Duluth. Fort William, &c.
to Montreal, or, if necessary, to Europe, without breaking bulk.
Except the suggested Hudson Bay route, this canal would form
OTTAWA
369
the shortest route to the Atlantic seaboard from the great grain-
producing areas of western America.
The Ottawa was first explored by Samuel de Champlain in
16 13. Champlain describes many of its tributaries, the Chaudiere
and Rideau Falls, the Long Sault, Chats and other rapids, as
well as the character of the river and its banks, with minuteness
and reasonable accuracy. He places the Chaudiere Falls in
45° 38', the true position being 45° 27'. The Long Sault Rapids
on the Ottawa, about midway between Montreal and the capital,
were the scene of one of the noblest exploits in Canadian history,
when in 1661 the young Sieur des Ormeaux with sixteen
comrades and a handful of Indian allies deliberately gave their
lives to save New France from an invasion of the Iroquois. They
intercepted the war party at the Long Sault, and for nearly a
week held them at bay. When finally the last Frenchman fell
under a shower of arrows, the Iroquois were thoroughly dis-
heartened and returned crestfallen to their own country. For
a hundred and fifty years thereafter the Ottawa was the great
highway from Montreal to the west for explorers and fur-traders.
The portage paths around its cataracts and rapids were worn
smooth by the moccasined feet of countless voyageurs ; and its
wooded banks rang with the inimitable chansons of Old Canada,
as the canoe brigades swept swiftly up and down its broad
stream. Throughout the 19th century the Ottawa was the
thoroughfare of the lumbermen, whose immense rafts were
carried down from its upper waters to Montreal and Quebec.
OTTAWA, a city of Carleton county, province of Ontario, and
the capital of the Dominion of Canada, on the right bank of the
Ottawa river, loi m. W. of Montreal and 217m. N.E. of Toronto.
The main tower of the parliament building is in 45° 25' 28" N.,
and 75° 42' 03" W.
The city stands for the most part on a cluster of hills, 60 to
155 ft. above the river. It is on the main line of the Canadian
Pacific railway, which affords direct communication with
Montreal by two routes, the North Shore and the Short Line,
one on either side of the Ottawa river. Branches of the same
railway lead to Brockville, on the St Lawrence river, passing
through the town of Smith's Falls where connexion is made with
the direct line from Montreal to Toronto ; to Prescott, also on the
St Lawrence ; northward through the Gatineau valley to
Maniwaki, in the heart of a famous sporting country, and
westward to Waltham, on the north side of the Ottawa. The
Grand Trunk offers a third route to Montreal, and another line
of the same railway leads to Parry Sound, on Georgian Bay.
The Ottawa and New York (New York Central) runs to Cornwall,
on the St Lawrence, thence to New York. Electric railways
afford communication with all parts of the city and extend
eastward to Rockliffe Park and the rifle ranges, westward to
Britannia on Lake Deschenes, and through the neighbouring
town of Hull to Aylmer and Victoria Park. During the summer
months steamers ply down the Ottawa to Montreal, and by way
of the Rideau canal and lakes to Kingston on the St Lawrence.
A road bridge, partially destroyed in the great fire of igoo,
connects Ottawa with Hull ; a railway bridge spans the river
above the Chaudiere Falls ; and the Royal Alexandra Bridge,
below the falls, carries both steam and electric railway tracks,
as well as roadways for vehicular and pedestrian traflic. The
site of the city is exceedingly picturesque. For 3 m. it follows
the high southern bank of the Ottawa, from the Chaudiere Falls,
whose mist-crowned cauldron is clearly visible from the summit
of Parliament Hill, to and beyond the Rideau Falls, so named
by early French explorers because of their curtain-like appear-
ance. The Rideau, a southern tributary of the Ottawa, once
formed the eastern boundary of the city, which, however, is now
absorbing a string of suburbs that lie along its eastern banks.
The Rideau Canal cuts the city in two, the western portion being
known as Upper Town and the eastern as Lower Town. Roughly
speaking the canal divides the two sections of the population,
the Enghsh occupying Upper Town and the French Lower Town,
though Sandy Hill, a fashionable residential district east of the
canal, is mainly occupied by the English. Opposite and a little
below the mouth of the Rideau, the Gatineau flows into the
Ottawa from the north. Above the Chaudiere Falls the river is
broken by the Deschenes Rapids, and beyond these again it
expands into Lake Deschenes, a favourite summer resort for the
people of the city. To the north lie the Laurentian Hills, broken
by the picturesque Gatineau Valley.
The crowning architectural feature of the city is the splendid
group of Gothic buildings on the summit of Parliament Hill,
whose limestone bluffs rise 150 ft. sheer from the river. The
three blocks of these buildings form sides of a great quadrangle,
the fourth side remaining open. The main front of the central
or Parliament building is 470 ft. long and 40 ft. high, the Victoria
Tower (180 ft. high) rising over the principal entrance. Behind
and connected with the Parliament building is an admirably
proportioned polygonal hall, go ft. in diameter, in which the
library of parliament is housed. The corner stone of the main
building was laid by the then prince of Wales in i860. The
buildings forming the eastern and western sides of the quadrangle
are devoted to departments of the Dominion government. To
the south, but outside the grounds of Parliament) Hill, stands
the Langevin Block, a massive structure in brown sandstone,
also used for departmental purposes. The increasing needs of the
government have made necessary the erection of several other
buildings and an effort has been made to bring as many of these
as possible into a harmonious group. The Archives building and
the Royal Mint stand on the commanding eminence of Nepean
Point, to the eastward of Parliament Hill, |the Rideau Canal
lying between. Two large departmental buildings occupy ground
south of the Archives building and facing Parliament Hill, one
containing the Supreme Court as well as the Federal Department
of Justice. At the foot of Metcalfe Street, south of Parliament
Hill, stands the Victoria Museum, with the department of mines,
with the splendid collections of the Geological and Natural
History Museum, the departmental Ubrary, and the National Art
Gallery. The Dominion Observatory stands outside the city,
in the grounds of the Central Experimental Farm. Plans were
approved in igog by the government for a union railway station
east of the canal, and immediately south of Rideau Street, and
a large hotel (Grand Trunk Railway), the Chateau Laurier, at
the southern end of Major's Hill Park. Other prominent
buildings are the city hall, post oflfice, Carnegie library, normal
and model schools, government printing bureau, county court
house, the Basihca or Roman Catholic cathedral, and Christ
Church cathedral (Church of England), the Roman Catholic
university of Ottawa and the collegiate institute.
The city charities include four large general hospitals, two of
which are under Protestant auspices; one is controlled by Roman
Catholics; the fourth is devoted to contagious diseases. Ottawa
is the seat of the Church of England bishop of Ottawa, and of
the Roman Catholic archbishop of Ottawa. Several of the
philanthropic and educational orders of the latter church are
estabUshed here, in nunneries, convents or monasteries. As
elsewhere in Ontario, the educational system is divided into
public schools (undenominational), and separate schools (Roman
Cathohc), the latter supported by Roman Cathohc taxpayers, the
former by all other members of the community. The collegiate
institute is common to both, and is used as a preparatory school
for the universities.
Ottawa has been a great seat of the lumber trade, and the
manufacture of lumber still forms an important part of the
industrial life of the city, but the magnificent waterpowers of
the Chaudiere and Rideau Falls are now utilized for match-
works, flour-mills, foundries, carbide factories and many other
flourishing industries, as well as for the development of electric
light and power, for the lighting of the city and the running of
the electric railways.
The people of Ottawa possess a number of pubhc parks, both
within and outside the city, partly the result of their own fore-
sight, and partly due to the labours of the Government Improve-
ment Commission. Parliament Hill itself constitutes a park of
no mean proportions, one of the noted features of which is the
beautiful Lover's Walk, cut out of the side of the chff half way
between the river and the summit. The grounds above contain
370
OTTAWA
statues of Queen Victoria, as well as of Sir John Macdonald,
Alexander Mackenzie, Sir George Cartier and other Canadian
political leaders. On the eastern side of the canal is Major's
HOI Park, maintained by the government. Below Sandy Hill,
on the banks of the Rideau, lies Strathcona Park, an admirable
piece of landscape gardening constructed out of what was once
an unsightly swamp. Crossing the bridges above the Rideau
Falls, and passing the heavily wooded grounds of Rideau Hall,
the official residence of the governor-general, we come to Rock-
liffe Park, beyond which lies the government rifle ranges. Rock-
liffe Park is the easternmost point of an ambitious scheme of
landscape gardening planned by the Improvement Commission.
From here a driveway extends to Rideau Hall; thence it crosses
the Rideau river to a noble thoroughfare cut through the heart
of Lower Town, and known as King Edward Avenue. Crossing
the canal by the Laurier bridge, the driveway turns south and
follows the west bank of the canal for 4 m. to the Central Ex-
perimental Farm, an extensive tract of land upon which experi-
ments in model farming are carried out by government specialists,
for the benefit of Canadian farmers. From the Experimental
Farm the driveway will be carried around the western side of the
city to the banks of the Ottawa, connecting by light bridges with a
group of islands above the Chaudiere Falls which are to be con-
verted into a park reserve.
Ottawa is governed by a mayor, elected by the city at large; a
board of control consisting of four members, similarly elected
and a board of 16 aldermen, 2 elected by each of the 8 wards.
The city returns 2 members to the Dominion House of Commons
and two to the provincial legislature.
The population, of which one-third is French-speaking, the
remainder English (with the exception of a small German
element), has increased rapidly since the incorporation of the
city in 1S54. It was 50,028 in 1901; 67,572 in IQ06; and in
1907, including the suburbs and the neighbouring town of Hull,
over 100,000.
The earliest description of the site of Ottawa is that of Samuel
de Champlain, in his Voyages. In June 1613, on his way up the
river, he came to a tributary on the south side, " at the mouth of
which is a marvellous fall. For it descends a height of twenty
or twenty-five fathoms with such impetuosity that it makes an
arch nearly four hundred paces broad. The savages take
pleasure in passing under it, not wetting themselves, except from
the spray that is thrown off." This was the Rideau Falls, but
a good deal of allowance must be made for exaggeration in
Champlain's account. Continuing up the river, " we passed," he
says, " a fall, a league from there, which is half a league broad
and has a descent of six or seven fathoms. There are many little
islands. The water falls in one place with such force upon a rock
that it has hollowed out in course of time a large and deep basin,
in which the water has a circular motion and forms large eddies
in the middle, so that the savages caU it Asticou, which signifies
boiler. This cataract produces such a noise in this basin that
it is heard for more than two leagues." The present name,
Chaudiere, is the French equivalent of the old Indian name.
For two hundred years and more after Champlain's first visit
the Chaudiere portage was the main thoroughfare from Montreal
to the great western fur country; but it was not until 1800 that
any permanent settlement was made in the vicinity. In that
year Philemon Wright, of Woburn, Massachusetts, built a home
for himself at the foot of the portage, on the Quebec side of the
river, where the city of HuU now stands; but for some time the
precipitous cliffs on the south side seem to have discouraged
settlement there. Finally about 1820 one Nicholas Sparks
moved over the river and cleared a farm in what is now the heart
of Ottawa. Seven years later Colonel John By, R.E., was sent
out to bmld a canal from a point below the Chaudiere Falls to
Kingston on Lake Ontario. The canal, completed at a cost of
$2,500,000, has never been of any great commercial importance;
it has never been called upon to fulfil its primary object, as a
mihtary work to enable gun-boats and military supplies to reach
the lakes from Montreal without being exposed to attack along
the St Lawrence frontier. The building of the canal created a fair-
sized settlement at its Ottawa end, which came to be known
as Bytown. As the lumber trade developed Bytown rapidly
increased in wealth and importance. In 1854 it was incorporated
as a city, the name being changed to Ottawa; and four years
later Queen Victoria selected Ottawa as the capital of Canada.
Ottawa was admirably situated for a capital from a pohtical and
military point of view; but there is reason to believe that the
deciding factor was the pressure exerted by the four other rival
claimants, Montreal, Quebec, Toronto and Kingston, any three
of which would have fiercely resented the selection of the fourth.
The first session of parUament in the new capital was opened
in 1865.
Bibliography. — J. D. Edgar, Canada and its Capital (Toronto,
1898); A. S. Bradley, Canada in tlie Twetitielh Century (London,
1903), pp. 130-140; F. Gertrude Kenny, "Some account of By-
town," Transactions, vol. i., Women's Canadian Historical Society
of Ottawa; Mrs H. J. Friel, "The Rideau Canal and theFounder of
Bytown," ibid.; M. Jamieson, " A glimpse of our city fifty years
ago," ibid. ; J. M. Oxicy, " The Capital of Canada," New England
Magazine, N.S., 22, 315-323; Godfrey T. Vigne, Six Months in
.imerica (London, 1832), pp. 191-198; Andrew Wilson, History of
Old Bytown (Ottawa, 1876); Chas. Pope, Incidents connected with
Ottawa (Ottawa, 1868); Wm. P. Lett, Recollections of Bytown
(Ottawa, 1874); Wm. S. Hunter, Ottawa Scenery (Ottawa, 1855);
Joseph Tasse, Vallee de I'Outaouais (Montreal, 1873). (L. J. B.)
OTTAWA, a city and the county-seat of La Salle county,
Illinois, U.S.A., on the Illinois river, at the mouth of the Fox,
about 84 m. S.W. of Chicago. Pop. (1900) 10,588, of whom
1804 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 9535. It is served
by the Chicago, BurHngton & Quincy, and the Chicago, Rock
Island & Pacific railways, by interurban electric railways, and
by the Illinois & Michigan Canal. There is a monument at
Ottawa to the 1400 soldiers from La Salle county who died in the
Civil War, and among the public buildings are the County Court
House, the Court House for the second district of the Illinois
Appellate Court, and Reddick's Library, founded by WiUiam
Reddick. Ottawa is the seat of the Pleasant View Luther
College (co-educational), founded in 1896 by the Norwegian
Lutherans of Northern lUinois. There is a medicinal spring,
the water of which is called "' Sanicula " water. The water
supply of the city is derived from eight deep wells. There are
about 150 privately owned artesian wells. In the vicinity are
large deposits of coal, of glass-sand, and of clay suitable for
brick and tile. The city's manufactures include glass, brick,
tile, carriages and wagons, agricultural implements, pianos and
organs and cigars. The value of the factory products increased
from $1,737,884 in 1900 to $2,078,139 in 1905, or i9'6%.
The mouth of the Fox was early visited by French explorers,
and Father Hennepin is said to have discovered here in 1680
the first deposit of coal found in America. On Starved Rock,
a bold hillock about r25 ft. high, on the southern bank of the
Illinois, about midway between Ottawa and La Salle, the French
explorer La Salle, assisted by his lieutenant Henri de Tonty
and a few Canadian voyageurs and Illinois Indians, established
(in December 1682) Fort St Louis, about which he gathered
nearly 20,000 Indians, who v.ere seeking protection from the
Iroquois. The plateau-like summit, which originally could
be reached only from the south by a steep and narrow path,
was rendered almost impregnable to Indian attack by a sheer
cliff on the river side of the hiU, a deep ravine along its eastern
base and steep declivities on the other sides. On the summit
La Salle built store-houses and log huts, which he surrounded
by intrenchments and a log palisade. The post was used by
fur traders as late as 17 18. The hill has borne its present name
since about 1770, when it became the last refuge of a small
band of lUinois flying before a large force of Pottawattomies,
who believed that an Illinois had assassinated Pontiac, in whose
conspiracy the Pottawattomies had taken part. Unable to
dislodge the Illinois, the Pottawattomies cut off their escapej
and let them die of starvation. Ottawa was laid out in 1830,^
incorporated as a village in 183S and chartered as a city in 1853.
On the 21st of August 1858 the first of the series of political
debates between Abraham Lincoln and Stephen A. Douglas,
in their contest for the United States senatorship, was held at
OTTAWA— OTTERY ST MARY
371
Ottawa. The semi-centennial of this debate was celebrated in
igo8, when the lUini Chapter, Daughters of the American
Revolution, caused a suitably inscribed boulder weighing 23
tons to be set up in Washington Park as a memorial.
OTTAWA, a city and the county-seat of Franklin county,
eastern Kansas, U.S.A., situated on the Osage (Marais des
Cygnes) river, about 5& m. (by rail) S.W. of Kansas City. Pop.
(1900) 6934, of whom 333 were foreign born; (1905, state census)
7727. It is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe (which
has large repair shops here) and the Missouri Pacific railways.
There is a Carnegie library, and Forest Park, within the city
limits, is a popular meeting place of conventions and summer
gatherings, including the annual Ottawa Chautauqua Assembly.
Ottawa University (Baptist) was established here in 1865, as
the outgrowth of Roger Williams University, which had beci\
chartered in i860 for the education of Indians on the Ottawa
Reservation, and had received a grant of 20,000 acres from
the Federal government in 1862. The university comprises
an academy, a college, a school of fine arts and a commercial
college, and in 1909 had 406 students. Ottawa has an important
trade in grain and live-stock; soft coal and natural gas are
found in the vicinity; the manufactures include flour, wind-
mills, wire-fences, furniture, bricks, brooms and foundry products.
Ottawa was settled in 1854, and was first chartered as a city
in 1866.
OTTER (O. Eng. ote, otor, a common Teutonic word, cf.
Dutch and Ger. Otter, Dan. odder, Swed. utter; it is to be referred
to the root seen in Gr. viup, water), a name properly given to the
well-known European carnivorous aquatic mammal {Lutra
vulgaris, or L. lutra), but also applicable to all the members of
the lutrine section of the family Mustdidae (see Carnivora).
The otter has an elongated, low body, short Umbs, short broad
feet, with five toes on each, connected together by webs, and
all with short, moderately strong, compressed, curved, pointed
claws. Head rather small, broad and flat; muzzle very broad;
whiskers thick and strong; eyes small and black; ears short
and rounded. Tail a little more than half the length of the body
and head together, broad and strong at the base, and gradually
tapering to the end, somewhat flattened horizontally. The
fur is of fine quality, consisting of a short soft whitish grey
under-fur, brown at the tips, interspersed with longer, stiffer
and thicker hairs, shining, greyish at the base, bright rich brown
at the points, especially on the upper-parts and outer surface
of the legs; the throat, cheeks, under-parts and inner surface of
the legs brownish grey throughout. Individual otters vary in size.
The total length from the nose to the end of the tail averages about
35 ft., of which the tail occupies i ft. 3 or 4 in. The weight of a
full-sized male is from 18 to 24 ft, that of a female about 4 ft less.
As the otter hves almost exclusively on fish, it is rarely met
■with far from water, and usually frequents the shores of brooks,
rivers, lakes and, in some localities, the sea itself. It is a most
expert swimmer and diver, easily overtaking and seizing fish
in the water; but when it has captured its prey it brings it to
shore to devour. When lying upon the bank, it holds the fish
between its fore-paws, commences at the head and then eats
gradually towards the tail, which it is said to leave. The female
produces three to five young ones in March or April, and brings
them up in a nest formed of grass or other herbage, usually
placed in a hollow place in the bank of a river, or under the
shelter of the roots of some overhanging tree. The otter is
found in localities suitable to its habits throughout Great Britain
and Ireland, though less abundantly than formerly, for, being
destructive to fish, it is rarely allowed to live in peace when
its haunts are discovered. Otter-hunting with packs of hounds
of a special breed, and trained for the purpose, is a pastime in
many parts of the country. It was formerly the practice to
kill the otter with long spears, which the huntsmen carried;
now the quarry is picked up and " tailed," or run into by the
pack.
The otter ranges throuphnut the greater part of Europe and
Asia; and a closely allied but larger species, L. canadensis, is
extensively distributed throughout North America, where it is
pursued for its fur. An Indian species, L. nair, is trained by the
natives of some parts of Bengal to assist in fishing, by driving the
fish into the nets. In China otters are taught to catch fish, being
let into the water for the purpose attached to a long cord.
Otters are widely distributed, and, as they are much alike in size
anil coloration, their specific distinctions are by no means well
defined. Besides those mentioned above, the following have been
described, L. califnrnica, North America; L.felina, Central America,
Peru, and Chili; L. brasiliensis, Brazil; L. maculicoUis, South
Africa; L. whiteleyi, Japan; L. chinensis, China and Formosa, and
other species. Some, with the feet only slightly webbed, and
the claws exceedingly small or altogether wanting on some of the
toes, and also with some difference in dental characters, have been
srparated as a distinct genus, Aonyx. These arc /.. inunguis from
South Africa and L. cinerea from India, Java, and Sumatra.
More distinct still is the sea-otter {Latax, or Enhydra, lutris).
The entire length of the animal from nose to end of tail is about
4 ft., so that the body is considerably larger and more massive
than that of the English otter. The skin is peculiarly loose,
and stretches when removed from the animal. The fur is
remarkable for the preponderance of the beautifully soft woolly
under-fur, the longer stiffer hairs being scanty. The general
colour is deep fiver-brown, silvered or frosted with the hoary
tips of the longer stiff hairs. These are, however, removed
when the skin is dressed for commercial purposes.
Sea-otters are only found upon the rocky shores of certain
parts of the North Pacific Ocean, especially the Aleutian Islands
and Alaska, extending as far south on the American coast as
The Sea-Otter (Latax, or Enhydra, lutris). From Wolf.
Oregon; but, owing to the persecution to which they are
subjected for the sake of their valuable skins, their numbers
are greatly diminishing. The otters are captured by spearing,
clubbing, nets and bullets. They do not feed on fish, like
true otters, but on clams, mussels, sea-urchins and crabs; and
the female brings forth but a single young one at a time, appar-
ently at any season of the year. They are excessively shy and
wary; young cubs are often captured by the hunters who have
killed the dam, but all attempts to rear them have hitherto
failed.
See Elliott Coucs, Monograph on North American Fur-bearing
Animals {1877). (W. H. F.; R. L.*)
OTTERY ST MARY, a market town in the Honiton parha-
mentary division of Devonshire, England, 15 m. E. by N. of
E,xeter,, on a branch of the London & South-Western railway.
Pop. of urban district (1901) 3495. It is pleasantly situated
in the rich valley of the small river Otter. The parish church,
the finest in the county, is cruciform, and has the unique
feature of transeptal towers, imitated from Exeter Cathedral.
The northern has a low spire. The church, which is Early
English, with Decorated and Perpendicular additions, contains
several ancient tombs. The manor of Ottery belonged to the
abbey of Rouen in the time of Edward the Confessor. The
church was dedicated in 1260 by Walter Bronescombe, bishop
of Exeter; and c. 1335 Bishop John Grandisson, on founding
372
OTTIGNIES— OTTO I.
a secular college here, greatly enlarged the church; it has been
thought that, by copying the Early English style, he is responsible
for more of the building than is apparent. The town has a
large agricultural trade. It is the birthplace of Samuel Taylor
Coleridge (1772); and W. M. Thackeray stayed in the vicinity
in youth, his knowledge of the locality appearing in Pcndcnnis.
OTTIGNIES, a town of Belgium, in the province of Brabant.
It is an important station on the main line from Brussels to
Namur, and forms the point of junction with several cross lines.
It has extensive modern flower and vegetable gardens. Pop.
(1004) 2405.
OTTO, king of Greece (1815-1867), was the second son of
Louis I., king of Bavaria, and his wife Teresa of Saxe-Altenburg.
He was born at Salzburg on the ist of June 181 5, and was
educated at Munich. In 1832 he was chosen by the conference
of London to occupy the newly-erected throne of Greece, and on
the 6th of February 1833 he landed at Nauplia, then the capital
of independent Greece. Otto, who was not yet eighteen, was
accompanied by a councU of regency composed of Bavarians
under the presidency of Count Josef Ludwig von Armansperg
(i 787-1853), who as minister of finance in Bavaria had succeeded
in restoring the credit of the state at the cost of his popularity.
The task of governing a semi-barbarous people, but recently
emancipated, divided into bitter factions, and filled with an
exaggerated sense of their national destiny, would in no case
have been easy; it was not facihtated by the bureaucratic
methods introduced by the regents. Though Armansperg and
his colleagues did a good deal to introduce system and order
into the infant state, they contrived to make themselves hated
by the Greeks, and with sufficient reason. That the regency
refused to respond to the demand for a constitution was perhaps
natural, for the experience of constitutional experiments in
emancipated Greece had not been encouraging. The result,
however, was perpetual unrest; the regency, too, was divided
into a French and a Russian party, and distracted by personal
quarrels, which led in 1834 to the recall by King Louis of
G. L. von Maurer and Karl von Abel, who had been in bitter
opposition to Armansperg. Soon afterwards the Mainotes were
in open revolt, and the money obtained from foreign loans
kad to be spent in organizing a force to preserve order. On
the ist of June 1835 Otto came of age, but, on the advice
of his father and under pressure of Great Britain and of the
house of Rothschild, who all believed that a capable finance
minister was the supreme need of Greece, he retained Armansperg
as chancellor of state. The wisdom of this course was more than
doubtful; for the expenses of government, of which the con-
version of Athens into a dignified capital was not the least,
exceeded the resources of the exchequer, and the state was only
saved from bankruptcy by the continual intervention of the
powers. Though King Louis, as the most exalted of PhiUiellenes,
received an enthusiastic welcome when he visited Greece in the
winter of 1835, his son's government grew increasingly unpopular.
The Greeks were more heavUy taxed than under Turkish rule;
they had exchanged government by the sword, which they
understood, for government by official regulations, which
they hated; they had escaped from the sovereignty of the
Mussulman to fall under that of a devout Catholic, to them a
heretic. Otto was well intentioned, honest and inspired with
a genuine affection for his adopted country; but it needed
more than mere amiable qualities to reconcile the Greeks to his
rule.
In 1837 Otto visited Germany and married the beautiful
and talented Princess Amalie of Oldenburg. The union was
unfruitful, and the new queen made herself unpopular by
interfering in the government. Meanwhile, at the instance of
the Swiss PhilheUene Eynard, Armansperg had been dismissed
by the king immediately on his return, but a Greek minister
was not put in his place, and the granting of a constitution
was stiD postponed. The attempts of Otto to conciliate Greek
sentiment by eilorts to enlarge the frontiers of his kingdom,
e.g. by the suggested acquisition of Crete in 1841, failed of their
object and only succeeded in embroiling him with the powers.
His power rested whoUy on Bavarian bayonets; and when,
in 1843, the last of the German troops were withdrawn, he
was forced by the outbreak of a revolutionary movement in
Athens to grant a constitution and to appoint a ministry of
native Greeks.
With the grant of the constitution Otto's troubles increased.
The Greek parliament, like its predecessors during the War of
Liberation, was the battleground of factions divided, not by
national issues, but by their adherence to one or other of the
great powers who made Greece the arena of their rivalry for
the control of the Mediterranean. Otto thought to counteract
the effects of political corruption and incompetence by overriding
the constitution to which he had sworn. The attempt would
have been perilous even for a strong man, a native ruler and an
Orthodox believer; and Otto was none of these. His prestige,
moreover, suffered from the " Pacifico incident " in 1850, when
Palmerston caused the British fleet to blockade the Peiraeus,
to exact reparation for injustice done to a Levantine Jew who
happened also to be a British subject. For the ill-advised inter- J
vention in the Crimean War, which led to a second occupation \
of the Peiraeus, Otto was not responsible; his consent had been
given under protest as a concession to popular clamour. His
position in Greece was, however, becoming untenable. In 1861 I
a student named Drusios attempted to murder the queen, 1
and was hailed by the populace as a modern Harmodios. In
October 1862 the troops in Acarnania under General Theodore
Srivas declared for the king's deposition; those in Athens
followed suit; a provisional government was set up and sum-
moned a national convention. The king and queen, who were at
sea, took refuge on a British war-ship, and returned to Bavaria,
where they were lodged by King Louis in the palace of the former
bishops of Bamberg. Here, on the 26th of July 1867, Otto
died. He had become strangely persuaded that he held the
throne of Greece by divine right; and, though he made no effort
to regain it, he refused to acknowledge the validity of the election
of Prince George of Denmark,
See E. A. Thouvenel, La Gr'ece du roi Othon (Paris, 1890); G. L.
von Maurer, Das griechisclie Volk, &c. (1836) ; C. W. P. Mendelssohn-
Bartholdy, " Die Verwaltung Konig Ottos von Griechenland und
sein Sturz " (in Preuss. Jahrbiiclier, iv. 365) ; K. T. v. Heigel,
Ludwig /., Konig von Baiern, pp. 149 et seq. (Leipzig, 1872); H. H.
Parish, The Diplomatic History of the Monarchy of Greece from the Year
1830 (London, 1838), the author of which was attached to the
British Legation at Athens. '
OTTO I. (912-973), surnamed the Great, Roman emperor,
eldest son of King Henry I. the Fowler by his second wife Matilda,
said to be a descendant of the Saxon hero Widukind, was born on
the 23rd of November 912. Little is known of his early years, but
he probably shared in some of his father's campaigns. In 929
he married Edith, daughter of Edward the Elder, king of the
English, and sister of the reigning sovereign yEthelstan. It is
said that Matilda wished her second son Henry to succeed his
father, as this prince, unhke his elder brother, was born the
son of a king. However this maj' be, Henry named Otto his
successor, and after his death in July 936 Otto was chosen r
German king and crowned by Hildebert, archbishop of Mainz. 9
This ceremony, according to the historian Widukind, was
followed by a banquet at which the new king was waited
upon by the dukes of Lorraine, Bavaria, Franconia and Swabia.
Otto soon showed his intention of breaking with the policy of his
father, who had been content with a nominal superiority over the
duchies; in 937 he punished Eberhard, duke of Franconia, for
an alleged infringement of the royal authority; and in 938
deposed Eberhard, who had recently become duke of Bavaria.
During these years the Bohemians and other Slavonic tribes
ravaged the eastern frontier of Germany, but although one expe-
dition against them was led by the king in person, the defence
of this district was left principally to agents. Trouble soon
arose in Saxony, probably owing to Otto's refusal to give
certain lands to his half-brother, Thankmar, who, although
the king's senior, had been passed over in the succession
as illegitimate. Thankmar, aided by an influential Sa.xon
noble named Wichmann, and by Eberhard of F'ranconia, seized
OTTO I.
373
the fortress of Eresburg and took Otto's brother Henry prisoner;
but soon afterwards he was defeated by the king and killed
whilst taking sanctuary. The other conspirators were pardoned,
liut in 939 a fresh revolt broke out under the leadership of Henry,
and Giselbert, duke of Lorraine. Otto gained a victory near
Xanten, which was followed by the surrender of the fortresses
held by his brother's adherents in Saxony, but the rebels, joined
by Eberhard of Franconia and Archbishop Frederick of Mainz
continued the struggle, and Giselbert of Lorraine transferred his
allegiance to Louis IV., kingof France. Otto's precarious position
was saved by a victory near Andernach when Eberhard was
killed, and Giselbert drowned in the subsequent flight. Henry
took refuge with Louis of France, but was soon restored to favour
and entrusted with the duchy of Lorraine, where, however, he was
unable to restore order. Otto therefore crossed the Rhine and
deprived his brother of authority. Henry then became involved
in a plot to murder the king, which was discovered in time, and
the good offices of his mother secured for him a pardon at
Christmas 941. The deaths of Giselbert of Lorraine and of
Eberhard of Franconia, quickly followed by those of two other
dukes, enabled Otto to unite the stem-duchies more closely with
the royal house. In 944 Lorraine was given to Conrad, surnamed
the Red, who in 947 married the king's daughter Liutgard;
Franconia was retained by Otto in his own hands; Henry
married a daughter of Arnulf,duke of Bavaria, and received that
duchy in 947; and Swabia came in 949 to the king's son Ludolf,
who had married Ida, a daughter of the late duke, Hermann.
During these years the tribes living between the Elbe and the
Oder were made tributary, bishoprics were founded in this
district, and in 950 the king himself marched against the
Bohemians and reduced them to dependence. Strife between
Otto and Louis IV. of France had arisen when the French king
sought to obtain authority over Lorraine and aided the German
rebels in 939; but after the German king had undertaken an
expedition into France, peace was made in 942. Afterwards,
when Louis became a prisoner in the hands of his powerful
vassal Hugh the Great, duke of France, Otto attacked the duke,
who, like the king, was his brother-in-law, captured Reims, and
negotiated a peace between the two princes; and in subsequent
struggles between them his authority was several times invoked.
In 945 Berengar I., margrave of Ivrea, left the court of Otto and
returned to Italy, where he soon obtained a mastery over the
country. After the death in 950 of Lothair, king of Italy, Berengar
sought the hand of his widow Adelaide for his son Adalbert ; and
Henry of Bavaria and Ludolf of Swabia had already been meddling
independently of each other in the affairs of northern Italy. In
response to an appeal from Adelaide, Otto crossed the Alps in 951.
He assumed the title of king of the Lombards, and having been
a widower since 946, married Adelaide and negotiated with pope
Agapetus II. about his reception in Rome. The influence of
Alberic, prince and senator of the Romans, prevented the pope
returning a favourable answer to the king's request. But when
Otto returned to Germany in 952 he was followed by Berengar,
who did homage for Italy at Augsburg. The chief advisers of
Otto at this time were his wife and his brother Henry. Henry's
influence seems to have been resented by Ludolf, who in 946
had been formally designated as his father's successor. Whien
Adelaide bore a son, and a report gained currency that Otto
intended to make this child his heir, Ludolf rose in revolt and
was joined by Conrad of Lorraine and Frederick of Mainz. Otto
fell into the power of the rebels at Mainz and was compelled to
agree to demands made by them, which, however, he promptly
revoked on his return to Saxony. Ludolf and Conrad were
declared deposed, and in 953 war broke out in Lorraine and
Swabia, and afterwards in Saxony and Bavaria. Otto failed to
take Mainz and Augsburg; but an attempt on the part of Conrad
and Ludolf to gain support from the Magyars, who had seized
the opportunity to invade Bavaria, alienated many of their
supporters. Otto's brother Bruno, archbishop of Cologne, was
successful in restoring the royal authority in Lorraine, so that
when Conrad and Frederick soon afterwards submitted to Otto,
the struggle was confined to Bavaria. Ludolf was not long in
following the example of Conrad; and with the capture of
Regcnsburg in 955 the rising ended. Conrad and Ludolf retained
their estates, but their duchies were not restored to them. Mean-
while the Magyars had renewed their ravages and were attacking
Augsburg. Otto marched against them, and in a battle fought
on the Lechfeld on the loth of August 955 the king's troops
gained a brilliant victory which completely freed Germany
from these invaders; while in the same year Otto also defeated
the Slavs who had been ravaging the Saxon frontier.
About this time the king seems to have perceived the necessity
of living and ruling in closer union with the church, a change
of policy due perhaps to the influence of his brother Bruno, or
forced upon him when his plans for uniting the duchies with the
royal house brought rebellion in their train. Lands and privileges
were granted to prelates, additional bishoprics were founded,
and some years later Magdeburg was made the seat of an arch-
bishop. In 960 Otto was invited to come to Italy by Pope John
XII., who was hard pressed by Berengar, and he began to make
preparations for the journey. As Ludolf had died in 957 and
Otto, his only son by Adelaide, had been chosen king at Worms,
the government was entrusted to Bruno of Cologne, and Arch-
bishop William of Mainz, a natural son of the king. Reaching
Pavia at Christmas 961, the king promised to defend and respect
the church. He then proceeded to Rome, where he was crowned
emperor on the 2nd of February 962. After the ceremony he
confirmed the rights and privileges which had been conferred on
the papacy, while the Romans promised obedience, and Pope
John took an oath of fidelity to the emperor. But as he did not
long observe his oath he was deposed at a synod held in St Peter's,
after Otto had compelled the Romans to swear they would elect
no pope without the imperial consent; and a nominee of the
emperor, who took the name of Leo VIII., was chosen in his stead.
A pestilence drove Otto to Germany in 965, and finding the
Romans again in arms on his return in 966, he allowed his soldiers
to sack the city, and severely punished the leaders of the rebellion.
His next move was against the Greeks and Saracens of southern
Italy, but seeking to attain his objects by negotiation, sent
Liudprand, bishop of Cremona, to the eastern emperor Nicephorus
II. to arrange for a marriage treaty between the two empires.
Nicephorus refused to admit the validity of Otto's title, and the
bishop was roughly repulsed; but the succeeding emperor,
John Zimisces, was more reasonable, and Theophano, daughter
of the emperor Romanus II., was married to the younger Otto
in 972. The same year witnessed the restoration of peace in
Italy and the return of the emperor to Germany, where he
received the homage of the rulers of Poland, Bohemia and
Denmark; but he died suddenly at Memleben on the 7th of May
973, and was buried at Magdeburg.
Otto was a man of untiring perseverance and relentless energy,
with a high idea of his position. His policy was to crush all
tendencies to independence in Germany, and this led him to
grant the stem-duchies to his relatives, and afterwards to ally
himself with the church. Indeed the necessity for obtaining
complete control over the church was one reason which induced
him to obtain the imperial crown. By this step the pope became
his vassal, and a divided allegiance was rendered impossible for
the German clergy. The Roman empire of the German nation
was indeed less universal and less theocratic under Otto, its
restorer, than under Charlemagne, but what it lacked in splendour
it gained in stability. His object was not to make the state
religious but the church political, and the clergy must first be
officials of the king, and secondly members of an ecclesiastical
order. He shared the piety and superstition of the age, and did
much for the spread of Christianity. Although himself a stranger
to letters he welcomed scholars to his court and eagerly seconded
the efforts of his brother Bruno to encourage learning; and while
he neither feared nor shirked battle, he was always ready to
secure his ends by peaceable means. Otto was of tall and com-
manding presence, and although subject to violent bursts of
passion, was liberal to his friends and just to his enemies.
Bibliography. — See VVidukind, Res gestae Saxonicae; Liudprand
of Cremona, Historia Oltonis; Flodoard of Rheims, Annales;
374
OTTO II.— OTTO III.
Hrotsuit of Gandersheim, Carmen de gestis Oddonis — all in the
Monumenta Germaniae hislorica. Scriptores, Biinde iii. and iv. (Han-
over and Berlin, 1826 fol.) ; Die Urkunden des Kaisers Ottos I., edited
by Th. von Sickel in the Monumenta Germaniae historica. Diplomata
(Hanover, 1879); W. von Giesebrecht, Geschichte der deutschen
Kaiserzeit (Leipzig, 1881); R. Kopke and E. DUmmler, Jahrbiicher
des deutschen Reichs unter Otto I. (Leipzig, 1876); Th. von Sickel,
Das Privilegium Otto I. fiir die romische Kirclie (Innsbruck, 1883);
H. von Sybel, Die deutsche Nation und das Kaiserreich (Diisseldorf,
1862) ; O. von VVydenbrugk, Die deutsche Nation und das Kaiserreich
(Munich, 1862); J. Fickcr, Das deutsclie Kaiserreich in seinen
universalen und nalionalen Beziehungen (Innsbruck, 1861); and
Deutsches Konigthum und Kaiserthum (Innsbruck, 1862) ; G. Maurcn-
brecher, " Die Kaiserpolitik Otto I." in the Historische Zeitschrifl
(Munich, 1859); G. VVaitz, Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte (Kiel,
1844); J. Ficker, Forschungen zur Reichs- und Rechtsgeschichte
Italiens (Innsbruck, 1868-1874); F. Fischer, Uber Ottos I. Zug in
die Lombardei vom Jahre Q^i (Eisenberg, 1891); and K. Kotler, Die
Ungarnschlacht auf detn Lechfelde (Augsburg, 1884).
OTTO II. (955-983), Roman emperor, was the son of the
emperor Otto the Great, by his second wife Adelaide. He
received a good education under the care of his uncle, Bruno,
archbishop of Cologne, and his illegitimate half-brother, William,
archbishop of Mainz. He was chosen German king at Worms in
961, crowned at Ai.x-la-Chapelle on the 26th of May 961, and on
the 25th of December 967 was crowned joint emperor at Rome
by Pope John XIII. On the 14th of April 972 he married
Theophano, daughter of the eastern emperor Romanus II., and
after sharing in various campaigns in Italy, returned to Germany
and became sole emperor on the death of his father in May 973.
After suppressing a rising in Lorraine, difficulties arose in
southern Germany, probably owing to Otto's refusal to grant
the duchy of Swabia to Henry II., the Quarrelsome, duke of
Bavaria. The first conspiracy was easily suppressed, and in 974
an attempt on the part of Harold III., king of the Danes, to
throw off the German yoke was also successfully resisted; but
an expedition against the Bohemians led by the king in person
in 975 was a partial failure owing to the outbreak of further
trouble in Bavaria. In 976 Otto deposed Duke Henry, restored
order for the second time in Lorraine, and made another expedi-
tion into Bohemia in 977, when King Boleslaus II. promised to
return to his earlier allegiance. Having crushed an attempt
made by Henry to regain Bavaria, Otto was suddenly attacked
by Lothair, king of France, who held Aix in his possession for
a few days; but when the emperor retaliated by invading France
he met with little resistance. He was, however, compelled by
sickness among his troops to raise the siege of Paris, and on the
return journey the rearguard of his army was destroyed and the
baggage seized by the French. An expedition against the Poles
was followed by peace with France, when Lothair renounced
his claim on Lorraine. The emperor then prepared for a journey
to Italy. In Rome, where he restored Pope Benedict VII., he
held a splendid court, attended by princes and nobles from
all parts of western Europe. He was next required to punish
inroads of the Saracens on the Italian mainland, and in September
981 he marched into Apulia, where he met at first with consider-
able success; but an alliance between the Arabs and ihe Eastern
Empire, whose hostility had been provoked by the invasion of
Apulia, resulted in a severe defeat on Otto's troops near Stilo
in July 982. Without revealing his identity, the emperor
escaped on a Greek vessel to Rossano. At a diet held at Verona,
largely attended by German and Italian princes, a fresh campaign
was arranged against the Saracens. Proceeding to Rome, Otto
secured the election of Peter of Pavia as Pope John XIV. Just
as the news reached him of a general rising of the tribes on the
eastern frontier of Germany, he died in his palace in Rome on
the 7th of December 983. He left a son, afterwards the emperor
Otto III., and three daughters. He was buried in the atrium
of St Peter's, and when the church was rebuilt his remains were
removed to the crypt, where his tomb may still be seen. Otto,
who is sometimes called the " Red," was a man of small stature,
by nature brave and impulsive, and by training an accomplished
knight. He was generous to the church and aided the spread of
Christianity in many ways.
See Die Urkunden des Kaisers Otto II., edited by Th. von Sickel,
in the Monumenta Germaniae historica. Diplomata (Hanover, 1879) ;
L. von Ranke, Weltgeschichle, Part vii. (Leipzig, 1886); W. von
Giesebrecht, Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit (Leipzig, 1881-
1890); and Jahrbiicher des deutsclien Reichs unter Kaiser Otto II.
(Berlin, 1837-1840); H. Detmer, Otto II. bis zum Tode seines
Voters (Leipzig, 1878); J. Moltmann, Theophano die Gemahtin
Ottos II. iti ihrer Bedeulung fiir die Politik Ottos I. und Ottos II.
(Gottingen, 1878) ; and A. Matthaei, Die Handel Ottos II. mit Lothar
von Frankreich (Halle, 1882).
OTTO III. (980-1002), Roman emperor, son of the emperor
Otto II. and Theophano, daughter of the eastern emperor Romanus
II., was born in July 980, chosen as his father's successor at
Verona in June 983 and crowned German king at Aix-la-Chapelle
on the 25th of the following December. Otto II. had died a
few days before this ceremony, but the news did not reach
Germany until after the coronation. Early in 984 the king
was seized by Henry II., the Quarrelsome, the deposed duke of
Bavaria, who claimed the regency as a member of the reigning
house, and probably entertained the idea of obtaining the
kingly dignity himself. A strong opposition was quickly aroused,
and when Theophano and Adelaide, widow of the emperor
Otto the Great, appeared in Germany, Henry was compelled to
hand over the young king to his mother. Otto's mental gifts
were considerable, and were so carefully cultivated by Bernward,
afterwards bishop of Hildesheim, and by Gerbert of AuriUac,
archbishop of Reims, that he was called " the wonder of the
world." The government of Germany during his minority
was in the hands of Theophano, and after her death in June
991 passed to a council in which the chief influence was exercised
by Adelaide and Willigis, archbishop of Mainz. Having accom-
panied his troops in expeditions against the Bohemians and the
Wends, Otto was declared of age in 995. In 996 he crossed the
Alps and was recognized as king of the Lombards at Pavia.
Before he reached Rome, Pope John XV., who had invited
him to Italy, had died, whereupon he raised his own cousin
Bruno, son of Otto duke of Carinthia, to the papal chair as
Pope Gregory V., and by this pontiff Otto was crowned emperor
on the 2ist of May 996. On his return to Germany, the emperor
learned that Gregory had been driven from Rome, which was
again in the power of John Crescentius, patrician of the Romans,
and that a new pope, John XVI., had been elected. Leaving
his aunt, Matilda, abbess of Quedlinburg, as regent of Germany,
Otto, in February 998, led Gregory back to Rome, took the
castle of St Angelo by storm and put Crescentius to death.
A visit to southern Italy, where many of the princes did homage
to the emperor, was cut short by the death of the pope, to whose
chair Otto then appointed his former tutor Gerbert, who took
the name of Sylvester II. In the palace which he built on the
Aventine, Otto sought to surround himself with the splendour
and ceremonial of the older emperors of Rome, and dreamed of
making Rome once more the centre of a universal empire. Many
names and customs were introduced into his court from that
of Constantinople; he proposed to restore the Roman senate
and consulate, revived the office of patrician, called himself
" consul of the Roman senate and people " and issued a seal
with the inscription, " restoration of the Roman empire."
Passing from pride to humility he added " servant of the apostle,"
and " servant of Jesus Christ " to the imperial title, spent a
fortnight in prayer in the grotto of St Clement and did penance
in various Italian monasteries. Leaving Italy in the summer
preceding the year 1000, when it was popularly believed that the
end of the world was to come. Otto made a pilgrimage to the
tomb of his old friend Adalbert, bishop of Prague, at Gnesen,
and raised the city to the dignity of an archbishopric. He then
went to Aix, and opened the tomb of Charlemagne, where,
according to a legendary tale, he found the body of the great
emperor sitting upright upon a throne, wearing the crown and
holding the sceptre. Returning to Rome, trouble soon arose
between Otto and the citizens, and for three days the emperor
was besieged in his palace. After a temporary peace, he fled to
the monastery of Classe near Ravenna. Troops were coUected,
but whilst conducting a campaign against the Romans, Otto
died at Paterno near Viterbo on the 23rd of January 1002,
and was buried in the cathedral at Aix-la-Chape!le. Tradition
OTTO IV.— OTTO OF FREISING
375
says he was ensnared and poisoned by Stephania, the widow of
Crescentius. The mystic erratic temperament of Otto, alternat-
ing between the most magnificent schemes of empire and the
lowest depths of self-debasement, was not conducive to the
welfare of his dominions, and during his reign the conditions of
Germany deteriorated. He was liberal to the papacy, and was
greatly influenced by the eminent clerics with whom he eagerly
associated.
See Thangmar, Vita Bernwardi episcopi Hildcslieimensis in
the Monumenta Germaniae historica. Scriptnres, Band iv. (Hanover
and Berlin, i«26 fol.); Lettres de Gerbert, edited by J. Havet (I^aris,
1889); Die Urkunden Kaisers Ottos III., edited by Th. von
Sickel in the Monumenta Germaniae historica. Diplomata (Hanover,
1879); R. Wilmans, Jahrbiicher des deutschen Reichs tinier Kaiser
Otto III. (Berlin, 1837-1840); P. Kehr, Die Urkunden Olio III.
(Innsbruck, 1890).
OTTOIV.(c. 1182-121S), Roman emperor, second son of Henry
the Lion, duke of Saxony, and Matilda, daughter of Henry II.,
king of England, was most probably born at Argenton in central
France. His father died when he was still young, and he was
educated at the court of his uncle Richard I., king of England,
under whose leadership he gained valuable experience in war,
being appointed duke of Aquitaine, count of Poitou and earl
of Yorkshire. When the emperor Henry VI. died in September
1197, some of the princes under the leadership of Adolph,
archbishop of Cologne, were anxious to find a rival to Philip,
duke of Swabia, who had been elected German king. After
some delay their choice fell upon Otto, who was chosen king
at Cologne on the gth of June 1198. Hostilities broke out at
once, and Otto, who drew his main support from his hereditary
possessions in the Rhineland and Saxony, seized Aix-la-Chapelle,
and was crowned there on the 12th of July 1198. The earlier
course of the war was unfavourable to Otto, whose position
was weakened by the death of Richard of England in April
iigg; but his cause began to improve when Pope Innocent
III. declared for him and placed his rival under the ban in April
1201. This support vvas purchased by a capitulation signed
by Otto at Neuss, which ratified the independence and decided
the boundaries of the States of the Church, and was the first
authentic basis for the practical authority of the pope in central
Italy. In 1200 an attack made by Philip on Brunswick was
beaten oR, the city of Worms was taken, and subsequently
the aid of Ottakar I., king of Bohemia, was won for Otto. The
papal legate Guide worked energetically on his behalf, several
princes were persuaded to desert Philip and by the end of
1203 his success seemed assured. But after a period of reverses,
Otto was wounded during a fight in July 1206 and compelled
to take refuge in Cologne. Retiring to Denmark, he obtained
military assistance from King Waldemar II., and a visit to England
procured monetary aid from King John, after which he managed
to maintain his position in Brunswick. Preparations were made
to drive him from his last refuge, when he was saved by the
murder of Philip in June 1 20S. Many of the supporters of Philip
now made overtures to Otto, and an attempt to set up Henry I.
duke of Brabant having failed, Otto submitted to a fresh election
and was chosen German king at Frankfort on the nth of
November 1208 in the presence of a large gathering of princes.
A general reconciliation followed, which was assisted by the
betrothal of Otto to Philip's eldest daughter Beatrix, but as
she was only ten years old, the marriage was deferred until the
22nd of July 1 21 2. The pope who had previously recognized
the victorious Philip, hastened to return to the side of Otto;
the capitulation of Neuss was renewed and large concessions
were made to the church.
In August 1209 the king set out for Italy. Meeting with
no opposition, he was received at Viterbo by Innocent, but
refused the papal demand that he should concede to the church
all the territories which, previous to 1197, had been in dispute
between the Empire and the Papacy, consenting, however, not
to claim supremacy over Sicily. He was crowned emperor at
Rome on the 4th of October 1 209, a ceremony which was followed
by fighting between the Romans and the Gern'san soldiers.
The pope then requested the emperor to leave Roman territory;
but he remained near Rome for some days, demanding satisfaction
for the losses suffered by his troops. The breach with Innocent
soon widened, and in violation of the treaty made with the
pope Otto attempted to recover for the Em[)ire all the property
which Innocent had annexed to the Church, and rewarded his
supporters with large estates in the disputed territories. Having
occupied Tuscany he marched into Apulia, part of the kingdom
of Frederick of Hohenstaufen, afterwards the emperor Frederick
II., and on the i8th of November 1210 was excommunicated
by the pope. Regardless of this sentence Otto completed the
conquest of southern Italy, but the efforts of Innocent had
succeeded in arousing considerable opposition in Germany,
where the rebels were also supported by Philip Augustus, king
of France. A number of princes assembled at Nuremberg
declared Otto deposed, and invited Frederick to fill the vacant
throne. Returning to Germany in March 121 2, Otto made
some headway against his enemies until the arrival of Frederick
towards the close of the year. The death of his wife in August
1212 had weakened his hold on the southern duchies, and he
was soon confined to the district of the lower Rhine, although
supported by money from his uncle King John of England.
The final blow to his fortunes came when he was decisively
defeated by the French at Bouvines in July 12 14. He escaped
with difficulty from the fight and took refuge in Cologne. His
former supporters hastened to recognize Frederick; and in
1 216 he left Cologne for Brunswick, which he had received in
1 202 by arrangement wil h his elder brother Henry. The conquest
of Hamburg by the Danes, and the death of John of England,
were further blows to his cause. On the 19th of May 1218
he died at the Harzburg after being loosed from the ban by a
Cistercian monk, and was buried in the church of St Blasius
at Brunswick. He married for his second wife in May 1214
Marie, daughter of Henry I., duke of Brabant, but left no children.
See Regesta imperii V., edited by J. Ficker (Innsbruck, 1881);
L. von Ranke, Weltgeschichte, Part viii. (Leipzig, 1887-1888J;
W. von Giesebrecht, Geschichle der deutschen Kaiserzeit, Band v.
(Leipzig, 1888); O. Abel, Kaiser Otto IV. und Kiinig Friedrich II.
(Berlin, 1856); E. Winkelmann, Philipp von Schwaben und Otto IV.
von Braunschweig (Leipzig, 1873-1878); G. Langerfeldt, Kaiser
Olio der Vierte (Hanover, 1872) ; R. Schwemer, Innocenz III. und
die deutsche Kirche wdlirend des Thronstreiles (Strassburg, 1882);
and A. Luchaire, Innocent III., la papautc et Vempire (Paris, 1906) ;
and Innocent III., la question d'Orient (Paris, 1906).
OTTO OF FREISING (c. 1114-1158), German bishop and
chronicler, was the fifth son of Leopold III., margrave of Austria,
by his wife Agnes, daughter of the emperor Henry IV. By her
first husband, Frederick I. of Hohenstaufen, duke of Swabia,
Agnes was the mother of the German king Conrad III., and
grandmother of the emperor Frederick I.; and Otto was thus
related to the most powerful families in Germany. The notices
of his life are scanty and the dates somewhat uncertain. He
studied in Paris, where he took an especial interest in philosophy,
is said to have been one of the first to introduce the philosophy
of Aristotle into Germany, and he served as provost of a
new foundation in Austria. Having entered the Cistercian order.
Otto became abbot of the Cistercian monastery of Morimond
in Burgundy about 1136, and soon afterwards was elected bishop
of Freising. This diocese, and indeed the whole of Bavaria, was
then disturbed by the feud between the Welfs and the Hohen-
staufen, and the church was in a deplorable condition; but a
great improvement was brought about by the new bishop in
both ecclesiastical and secular matters. In 1147 he took part in
the disastrous crusade of Conrad III. The section of the crusad-
ing army led by the bishop was decimated, but Otto reached
Jerusalem, and returned to Bavaria in 1 148 or 1149. He enjoyed
the favour of Conrad's successor, Frederick I.; was probably
instrumental in settling the dispute over the duchy of Bavaria
in 1156; was present at the famous diet at Besanfon in 11 57,
and, still retaining the dress of a Cistercian monk, died at
Morimond on the 22nd of September 1158. In 1857 a statue of
the bishop was erected at Freising.
Otto wrote a Chronicon, sometimes called De duahus civilalihus,
an historical and philosophical work in eight books, which follows
to some extent the lines laid down by Augustine and Orosius.
37^
OTTO OF NORDHEIM— OTVV^AY
Written during the time of the civil war in Germany, it contrasts
Jerusalem and Babel, the heavenly and the earthly kingdoms, but
also contains much valuable information about the history of the
time. The chronicle, which was held in very high regard by con-
temporaries, goes down to 1 146, and from this date until 1209 has
laeen continued by Otto, abbot of St Blasius (d. 1223). Better
known is Otto's Uesta Friderici imperatoris, written at the request
of Frederick I., and prefaced by a letter from the emperor to the
author. The Gesta is in four books, the first two of which were
written by Otto, and the remaining two, or part of them, by his
pupil Ragewin, or Rahewin; it has been argued that the third
book and the early part of the fourth were also the work of Otto.
Beginning with the quarrel between Pope Gregory VII. and the
emperor Henry IV., the first book takes the history down to the
death of Conrad III. in 1152. It is not confined to German affairs,
as the author digresses to tell of the preaching of Bernard of Clair-
vaux, of his zeal against the heretics, and of the condemnation of
Abelard; and discourses on philosophy and theology. The second
book opens with the election of Frederick I. in 1152, and deals
with the history of the first five years of his reign, especially in
Italy, in some detail. From this point (1156) the work is continued
by Ragewin. Otto's Latin is excellent, and in spite of a slight
partiality for the Hohenstaufen, and some minor inaccuracies, the
Gesta has been rightly described as a " model of historical com-
position." First printed by John Cuspinian at Strassburg in 1515,
Otto's writings are now found in the Monumenla Germaniae historica.
Band .xx. (Hanover, 1868), and have been translated into German
by H. Kohl (Leipzig, 1881-1886). The Gesla Friderici has been
published separately with introduction by G. Waitz. Otto is also
said to have written a history of Austria (Historia Austriaca).
See J. Hashagen, Otlo von Freising als Geschichtsphilosoph und
Kirchenpolitiker (Leipzig, 1900) ; J. Schmidlin, Die geschichlsphilo-
sophische und kirckenpolitische Weltanschauung Otto von Freising
(Freiburg, 1906) ; W. Wattenbach, Deutschlands Geschichtsquelten,
Band ii. (Berlin, 1894); and for full bibliography, A. Potthast,
Bibliotheca historica (Berlin, 1896). (A. W. H.*)
OTTO OF NORDHEIM (d. 1083), duke of Bavaria, belonged
to the rich and influential Saxon family of the counts of Nordheim,
and having distinguished himself in war and peace alike, received
the duchy of Bavaria from Agnes, widow of the emperor Henry
III., in 1061. In 1062 he assisted Anno, archbishop of Cologne,
to seize the person of the German king, Henry IV.; led a success-
ful expedition into Hungary in 1063; and took a prominent part
in the government during the king's minority. In 1064 he went
to Italy to settle a papal schism, was largely instrumental in
securing the banishment from court of Adalbert, archbishop of
Bremen, and crossed the Alps in the royal interests on two other
occasions. He neglected his duchy, but added to his personal
possessions, and in 1069 shared in two expeditions in the east of
Germany. In 1070 Otto was accused by a certain Egino of
being privy to a plot to murder the king, and it was decided he
should submit to the ordeal of battle with his accuser. The duke
asked for a safe-conduct to and from the place of meeting, and
when this was refused he declined to appear, and was con-
sequently deprived of Bavaria, whUe his Saxon estates were
plundered. He obtained no support in Bavaria, but raised an
army among the Saxons and carried on a campaign of plunder
against Henry until 107 1, when he submitted; in the following
year he received back his private estates. When the Saxon
revolt broke out in 1073 Otto is represented by Bruno, the
author of De bello Saxonico, as delivering an inspiring speech
to the assembled Saxons at Wormsleben, after which he took
command of the insurgents. By the peace of Gerstungen in
1074 Bavaria was restored to him; he shared in the Saxon rising
of 1075, after which he was again pardoned and made adminis-
trator of Saxony. After the excommunication of Henry IV.
in 1076 Otto attempted to mediate between Henry and the
Saxons, but when these efforts failed he again placed himself
at their head. He assented to the election of Rudolph, count of
Rheinfelden, as German king, when his restoration to Bavaria
was assured, and by his skill and bravery inflicted defeats on
Henry's forces at Mellrichstadt, Flarchheim and Hohenmolsen.
He remained in arms against the king until his death on the nth
of January 1083. Otto is described as a noble, prudent and
warlike man, and he possessed great abilities. His repeated
pardon showed that Henry could not afford to neglect such a
powerful personality, and his military talents were repeatedly
displayed. By his wife Richenza, widow of Hermann, count of
Werla, he left three sons and three daughters.
See W. von Giesebrecht, Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit,
Band iii. (Leipzig, 1881-1890); H. Mehmel, Otto von Nordheim,
Herzog von Bayern (Gottingen, 1870); E. Neumann, De Ottone de
Nordheim (Breslau, 1871); S. Riezler, Geschichte Bayerns (Gotha,
1878); and A. Vogeler, Otto von Nordheim (Gottingen, 1880).
OTTOMAN, a form of couch which usuaUy has a head but no
back, though sometimes it has neither. It may have square or
semicircular ends, and as a rule it is what upholsterers call
" stuffed over " — that is to say no wood is visible. It belongs to
the same order of ideas as the divan {q.v.); its name indeed
betokens its Oriental origin. It was one of the luxurious appoint-
ments which Europe imported from the East in the i8th century;
the first mention that has been found of it is in France in 1729.
In the course of a generation it made its way into every boudoir,
but it appears originally to have been much larger than at present.
The word is also applied to a small foot-stool covered with
carpet, embroidery or beadwork.
OTTUMWA, a city and the county-seat of Wapello county,
Iowa, U.S. .A.., on both sides of the Des Moines river, in the S.E.
part of the state, about 85 m. S.E. of Des Moines. Pop. (1900)
18,197, of whom 1759 were foreign-born; (1910 census)
122,012. It is served by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the I
Chicago, Milwaukee & Saint Paul, the Chicago, Rock Island & "
Pacific, and the Wabash railways. The site on which it is built
forms a succession of terraces receding farther and farther from
the river. In the city are a Carnegie library, a city hospital and
St Joseph's Academy. Ottumwa is the headquarters of the
Ottumwa Division of the Southern Federal Judicial District
of Iowa, and terms of United States District and Circuit courts
are held there. The city is in one of the richest coal regions of the
state, and ranks high as a manufacturing centre, pork-packing,
and the manufacture of iron and steel, machinery and agricultural
and mining implements being the leading industries. The value
of the factory product in 1905 was $10,374,183, an increase of
19-5% since 1900. Ottumwa was first settled in 1843, was
incorporated as a town in 1851, and first chartered as a city in
1857-
OTWAY, THOMAS (1652-1685), English dramatist, was born
at Trotton, near Midhurst, Sussex, on the 3rd of March 1652.
His father, Humphrey Otway, was at that time curate of Trotton,
but Otway's childhood was spent at Woolbeding, a parish 3 m.
distant, of which his father had become rector. He was educated
at Winchester College, and in 1669 entered Christ Church, Oxford,
as a commoner, but left the university without a degree in the
autumn of 1672. At Oxford he made the acquaintance of
Anthony Cary, 5th viscount Falkland, through whom, he says
in the dedication to Caius Marius, he first learned to love books.
In London he made acquaintance with Mrs Aphra Behn, who
in 1672 cast him for the part of the old king in her Forc'd Marriage,
or The Jealous Bridegroom, at the Dorset Garden Theatre, but
he had a bad attack of stage fright, and never made a second
appearance. In 1675 Thomas Betterton produced at the same
theatre Otway's first dramatic attempt, Alcibiades, which was
printed in the same year. It is a poor tragedy, written in heroic
verse, but was saved from absolute failure by the actors. Mrs
Barry took the part of Draxilla, and her lover, the earl of
Rochester, recommended the author of the piece to the notice
of the duke of York. He made a great advance on this first
work in Don Carlos, Prince of Spain (licensed June 15, 1676;
an undated edition probably belongs to the same year). The
material for this rhymed tragedy Otway took from the novel
of the same name, written in 1672 by the Abbe de Saint-Real,
the source from which Schiller also drew his tragedy of Don
Carlos. In it the two characters familiar throughout his plays
make their appearance. Don Carlos is the impetuous, unstable
youth, who seems to be drawn from Otway himself, while the
queen's part is the gentle pathetic character repeated in his more
celebrated heroines, Monimia and Belvidera. " It got more
money," says John Downes (Roscius Anglicanus, 1708) of this
play, " than any preceding modern tragedy." In 1677 Betterton
produced two adaptations from the French by Otway, Titas
and Berenice (from Racine's Berenice), and the Cheats of Sea pin
(from Moliere's Fourberies de Scapin). These were printed
OUBLIETTE— OUDENARDE
377
together, with a dedication to Lord Rochester. In 1678 he
produced an original comedy, Friendship in Fashion, popular at
the moment, though it was hissed off the stage for its gross
indecency when it was revived at Drury Lane in 1749. Mean-
while he had conceived an overwhelming passion for Mrs Barry,
who filled many of the leading parts in his plays. Six of his
letters to her survive, the last of them referring to a broken
appointment in the Mall. Mrs Barry seems to have coquetted
with Otway, but she had no intention of permanently offending
Rochester. In 1678, driven to desperation by Mrs Barry,
Otway obtained a commission through Charles, earl of Plymouth,
a natural son of Charles II., in a regiment serving in the Nether-
lands. The English troops were disbanded in 1679, but were
left to find their way home as best they could. They were also
paid with depreciated paper, and Otway arrived in London late
in the year, ragged and dirty, a circumstance utilized by Rochester
in his " Sessions of the Poets," which contains a scurrilous attack
on his former protege. Early in the next year (February 1680)
was produced at Dorset Garden the first of Otway's two tragic
masterpieces. The Orphan, or The Unhappy Marriage, Mrs Barry
playing the part of Monimia. Written in blank verse, which
shows a study of Shakespeare, its success was due to the tragic
pathos, of which Otway was a master, in the characters of Castalio
and Monimia. The History and Fall of Caius Marius, produced in
the same year, and printed in 1692, is a curious grafting of Shake-
speare's Romeo and Juliet on the story of Marius as related in
Plutarch's Lives. In 1680 Otway also published The Poet's
Complaint of his Muse, or A Satyr against Libells, in which
he retaliated on his literary enemies. An indifferent comedy.
The Soldier's Fortune (1681), was followed in February 1682 by
Venice Preserved, or A Plot Discovcr'd. The story is founded on
the Histoire de la conjuration des Espagnols contre la Vcnise en
1618, by the Abbe de Saint-Real, but Otway modified the story
considerably. The character of Belvidera is his own, and the
leading part in the conspiracy, taken by Bedamor, the Spanish
ambassador, is given in the play to the historically insignificant
Pierre and Jaffier. The piece has a political meaning, enforced
in the prologue. The Popish Plot was in Otway's mind, and
Anthony, ist earl of Shaftesbury, is caricatured in Antonio.
The play won instant success. It was translated into almost every
modern European language, and even Dryden said of it:
" Nature is there, which is the greatest beauty." The Orphan
and Venice Preserved remained stock pieces on the stage until
the 19th century, and the leading actresses of the period played
Monimia and Belvidera. One or two prefaces, another weak
comedy. The Atheist (1684), and two posthumous pieces, a poem,
Windsor Castle (1685), a panegyric of Charles II., and a
History of the Triumvirates (1686), translated from the French,
complete the list of Otway's works. He apparently ceased to
struggle against his poverty and misfortunes. The generally
accepted story regarding the manner of his death was first given
in Theophilus Cibber's Lives of the Poets. He is said to have
emerged from his retreat at the Bull on Tower Hill to beg
for bread. A passer-by, learning who he was, gave him a
guinea, with which Otway hastened to a baker's shop. He began
too hastily to satisfy his ravenous hunger, and choked with the
first mouthful. Whether this account of his death be true or not,
it is certain that he died in the utmost poverty, and was buried on
the i6th of April 1685 in the churchyard of St Clement Danes.
A tragedy entitled Heroick Friendship was printed in 1686 as
Otway's work, but the ascription is unhkely.
The Works of Mr Thomas Otway with some account of Ms life and
writings, published in 1712, was followed by other editions (1757,
1768, 1812). The standard edition is that by T. Thornton (1813).
A selection of his plays was edited for the Mermaid series (1891 and
1903) by Roden Noel. See also E. Gosse, Seventeenth Century
Studies (1883) ; and Genest, History of the Stage.
OUBLIETTE, a French architectural term (from oiihUer, to
forget), used in two senses of a dungeon or cell in a prison or
castle which could only be reached by a trap-door from another
dungeon, and of a concealed opening or passage leading from a
dungeon to the moat or river, into which bodies of prisoners who
■were to be secretly disposed of might be dropped. VioUet le
Due {Diet, de l' architecture) gives a diagram of such an oubliette
at the castle of Pierrefonds, France. Many so-called " oubli-
ettes " in medieval castles were probably outlets for the disposal
of drainage, refuse, &c., which at times may have served for the
getting rid of prisoners.
OUCH, a brooch, clasp or buckle, especially one ornamented
with jewels, enamels, &c., and used to clasp a cope or other
ecclesiastical vestment. It is also used, as in Exod. xxxix. 6, of
the gold or sOver setting of jewels. The word is an example of the
misdivision of a substantive and the indefinite article, being
properly " nouche," " a nouche " being divided into " an ouchc,"
as a napron into an apron, a nadder into an adder, and, reversely,
an ewt, i.e. eft, into a newt. " Nouche " was adapted into O. Fr.,
whence English took the word, from the Late Lat. nusca, brooch;
probably the original is Celtic, cf. O.j Irish nasc, ring, nasgaim,
fasten.
OUDENARDE (Flemish Oiidenaerdc), a town of Belgium in
the province of East Flanders, 18 m. S. of Ghent. Pop. (1904)
6572. While it is best known for the great victory gained by
Marlborough and Eugene over the French under Vend6mc in 1708,
Oudenarde has many features of interest. The town hall, which
took ten years to build (1525-1535), has after that of Louvain
the most elaborately decorated fagade in Belgium. It was
designed by H. van Peede and G. de Ronde, and is in tertiary
Gothic style. The belfry tower of five storeys with three terraces,
surmounted by a golden figure, is a striking feature. The council
chamber contains a fine oak door and Gothic chimney-piece,
both c. 1530. There are also two interesting old churches, St
Walburga, partly of the 12th and partly of the 14th century,
and Notre Dame, dating from the 13th century. The former
contains several fine pictures by Craeyer and other old Flemish
masters.
The Battle of Oudenarde (June 3oth-July irth 1708) was fought
on the ground north-west and north of the town, which was then
regularly fortified and was garrisoned by a force of the Allies.
The French army under the duke of Burgundy and Marshal
Vend6me, after an abortive attempt to invest Oudenarde, took
up a defensive position north of the town when Marlborough
and Eugene, after a forced march, arrived with the main Allied
army. The advanced guard of the Allies under General (Lord)
Cadogan promptly crossed the Scheldt and annihilated an out-
lying body of French t/oops, and Cadogan established himself
on the ground he had won in front of the French centre. But
the Allied main army took a long time to defile over the Scheldt
and could form up (on the left of Cadogan's detachment) only
slowly and by degrees. Observing this. Burgundy resolved to
throw forward his right towards Oudenarde to engage and hold
the main body of the Allies before their line of battle could be
formed. This effected, it was hoped that the remainder of the
French army could isolate and destroy Cadogan's detachment,
which was already closely engaged with the French centre.
But he miscalculated both the endurance of Cadogan's men
(amongst whom fhe Prussians were conspicuous for their tenacity)
and the rapidity with which in Marlborough's and Eugene's
hands the wearied troops of the Allies could be made to move.
Marlborough, who personally directed the operations on his
left wing, not only formed his line of battle successfully, but also
began seriously to press the forces that had been sent to check
his deployment. Before long, while the hostile left wing still
remained inactive, the unfortunate troops of the French centre
and right were gradually hemmed in by the whole force of the
Allies. The decisive blow was delivered by the Dutch marshal,
Overkirk, who was sent by Marlborough with a large force (the
last reserve of the Allies) to make a wide turning movement
round the extreme right of the French, and at the proper time
attacked them in rear. A belated attempt of the French left
to intervene was checked by the British cavalry, and the pressure
on the centre and right, which were now practically surrounded,
continued even after nightfall. A few scattered units managed
to escape, and the left wing retreated unmolested, but at the
cost of about 3000 casualties the Allies inflicted a loss of 6000
killed and wounded and qooo prisoners on the enemy, who were.
378
OUDINE— OUIDA
moreover, so shaken that they never recovered their confidence
to the end of the campaign. The battle of Oudenarde was not
the greatest of Marlborough's victories, but it affords almost
the best illustration of his military character. Contrary to all the
rules of war then in vogue, he fought a piecemeal and unpre-
meditated battle, with his back to a river, and with wearied
troops, and the event justified him. An ordinary commander
would have avoided fighting altogether, but Marlborough saw
beyond the material conditions and risked all on his estimate
of the moral superiority of his army and of the weakness of the
French leading. His conduct of the battle, once it had opened,
was a model of the " partial " victory — the destruction of a part
of the enemy's forces under the eyes of the rest — which was in
the 1 7th and iSth centuries the tactician's ideal, and was sufficient
to ensure him the reputation of being the best general of his age.
But it is in virtue of having fought at all that he passes beyond
the criteria of the time and becomes one of the great captains
of history.
0UDIN6, EUGENE ANDRfi (1810-1887), French sculptor
and medallist, was born in Paris in 1810, and devoted himself
from the beginning to the medallist's branch of sculpture,
although he also excelled in monumental sculpture and portrait
busts. Having carried off the grand prize for medal engraving
in 1 83 1, he had a sensational success with his " Wounded
Gladiator," which he exhibited in the same year. He subse-
quently occupied official posts as designer, first to the Inland
Revenue Office, and then to the Mint. Among his most famous
medals are that struck in commemoration of the annexation of
Savoy by France, and that on the occasion of the peace of
Villafranca. Other remarkable pieces are " The Apotheosis of
Napoleon I.," " The Amnesty," " Le Due d'Orleans," " Ber-
tholet," " The Universal Exposition," " The Second of December,
1851," " The Establishment of the Republic," " The Battle of
Inkermann," and " Napoleon's Tomb at the Invalides." For
the Hotel de Ville in Paris he executed fourteen bas-reliefs,
which were destroyed in 187 1. Of his monumental works, many
are to be seen in public places in and near Paris. In the Tuileries
gardens is his group of " Daphnis and Hebe " ; in the Luxembourg
gardens the " Queen Bertha "; at the Louvre the " Bufifon ";
and in the courtyard of the same palace the " Bathsheba." A
monument to General Espagne is at the Invalides, and a King
Louis VIII. at Versailles. Oudine, who may be considered the
father of the modern medal, died in Paris in 1887.
OUDINOT, CHARLES NICOLAS (1767-1847), duke of Reggio,
marshal of France, came of a bourgeois family in Lorraine, and
was born at Bar-le-duc on the 25th of April 1767. He had a
passion for a military career, and served in the regiment of
Medoc from 1784 to 1787, when, having no hope of promotion
on account of his non-noble birth, he retired with the rank of
sergeant. The Revolution changed his fortunes, and in 1792,
on the outbreak of war, he was elected lieutenant-colonel of the
3rd battalion of the volunteers of the Meuse. His gallant defence
of the little fort of Bitsch in the Vosges in 1792 drew attention to
him; he was transferred to the regular army in November 1793,
and after serving in numerous actions on the Belgian frontier
he was promoted general of brigade in June 1794 for his conduct
at the battle of Kaiserslautern. He continued to serve with the
greatest distinction on the German frontier under Hoche,
Pichegru and Moreau, and was repeatedly wounded and once
(in 1795) made prisoner. He was Massena's right hand all
through the great Swiss campaign of 1799 — first as a general of
division, to which grade he was promoted in April, and then as
chief of the staff — and won extraordinary distinction at the
battle of Zurich. He was present under Massena at the defence
of Genoa, and so distinguished himself at the combat of Monzam-
bano that Napoleon presented him with a sword of honour. He
was made inspector-general of infantry, and, on the establish-
ment of the empire, given the Grand Cross of the Legion of
Honour, but was not included in the first creation of marshals.
He was at this time elected a member of the chamber of deputies,
but he had little time to devote to politics. He took a conspicu-
ous part in the war of 1S05 in command of the famous division
of the " grenadiers Oudinot," formed of picked troops and
organized by him, with which he seized the Vienna bridges,
received a wound at Hollabriinn, and delivered the decisive blow
at Austerlitz. In 1806 he won the battle of Ostrolenka, and
fought with resolution and success at Friedland. In 1808 he was
made governor of Erfurt and count of the Empire, and in 1S09,
after displaying brilliant courage at Wagram, he was promoted
to the rank of marshal. He was made duke of Reggio, and
received a large money grant in April 1810. Oudinot admin-
istered the government of Holland from 1810 to 181 2, and
commanded the II. corps of the Grande Armee in the Russian
campaign. He was present at Liitzen and Bautzen, and when
holding the independent command of the corps directed to take
Berlin was defeated at Gross Beeren (see Napoleonic Cam-
paigns). He was then superseded by Ney, but the mischief was
too great to be repaired, and Ney was defeated at Dennewitz.
Oudinot was not disgraced, however, holding important com-
mands at Leipzig and in the campaign of 1814. On the abdica-
tion of Napoleon he rallied to the new government, and was
made a peer by Louis XVIII., and, unhke many of his old
comrades, he did not desert to his old master in 1815. His last
active service was in the French invasion of Spain in 1823, in
which he commanded a corps and was for a time governor of
Madrid. He died as governor of the Invalides on the 13th of
September 1847. Oudinot was not, and made no pretence of
being, a great commander, but he was a great general of division.
He was the beau-ideal of an infantry general, energetic,
thoroughly conversant with detail, and in battle as resolute and
skilful as any of the marshals of Napoleon.
Oudinot's eldest son, Charles Nicolas Victor, 2nd duke
of Reggio (1791-1863), lieutenant-general, served through the
later campaigns of Napoleon from 1809 to 1814, being in the
latter year promoted major for gallant conduct. Unlike his
father he was a cavalryman, and as such held command of the
cavalry school at Saumur (1822-1830), and the inspector-
generalcy of cavalry (i 836-1 848). He is chiefly known as the
commander of the French expedition which besieged and took
Rome in 1840 and re-established the temporal power of the pope.
After the coup d'elat of the 2nd of December 1851, in resistance
to which he took a prominent part, he retired from military and
political life, dying at Paris on the 7th of June 1863.
The 2nd duke wrote Aper^u historique sur la dignite de marechal
de France (1833); Considerations sur les ordres militaires de Saint
Louis, &'c. (1833); L'Emploi des troupes aux grands travaux d'utiliti
publique (1839); De la Cavalerie et du casernement des troupes d
cheval (1840); Des Remontes de l' armee (1840); and a brief account
of his Italian operations of 1849.
OUGHTRED, WILLIAM (fl. 1575-1660), English mathe-
matician, was born at Eton, and educated there and at King's
College, Cambridge, of which he became fellow. Being admitted
to holy orders, he left the university about 1603, and was pre-
sented to the rectory of Aldbury, near Guildford in Surrey;
and about 1628 he was appointed by the earl of Arundel to
instruct his son in mathematics. He corresponded with some
of the most eminent scholars of his time on mathematical
subjects; and his house was generally full of pupils from all
quarters. It is said that he expired in a sudden transport of joy
upon hearing the news of the vote at Westminster for the restora-
tion of Charles II.
He published, among other mathematical works, Clavis Mathe-
matical in 1631, in which he introduced new signs for certain mathe-
matical operations (see Algebra) ; a treatise on navigation entitled
Circles of Proportion, in 1632; works on trigonometry and dialling,
and his Opuscida Mathematica, published posthumously in 1676.
OUIDA, the pen name — derived from a childish attempt to
pronounce " Louisa " — of Maria Louise [de la] Ramee (1839-
1908), English novelist, born at Bury St Edmunds, where her
birth was registered on the 7th of January 1839. Her father,
Louis Ramee, was French, and her mother, Susan Sutton, English.
At an early age she went to live in London, and there began
to contribute to the New Monthly and Bentley's Magazine.
In i860 her first story, afterwards republished as Held in Bondage
(1863), appeared in the Nev Monthly under the title of Granville
de Vigne, and this was followed in quick succession by Stralhmore
OUNCE— OURO PRETO
379
(i86s), Chandos (1866) and Under Two Flags (1867). The list
of Ouida's subsequent works is a very long one; but it is sufticient
to say that, together with Moths (1880), those already named
are not only the most characteristic, but also the best. In a
less dramatic genre, her Bimbi: Stories for Children (1882)
may also be mentioned; but it was by her more flamboyant
stories, such as Under Two Flags and Moths, that her popular
success was achieved. By purely literary critics and on grounds
of morality or taste Ouida's novels may be condemned. They
are generaUy flashy, and frequently unwholesome. It is im-
possible, however, to dismiss books like Chandos and Under
Two Flags merely on such grounds. The emphasis given by
Ouida to motives of sensual passion was combined in her with
an original gift for situation and plot, and also with genuine
descriptive powers which, though disfigured by inaccurate
observation, literary solecisms and tawdry extravagance,
enabled her at her best to construct a picturesque and powerful
story. The character of " Cigarette " in Under Two Flags is
full of fine touches, and this is not an isolated instance. In
1874 Ouida made her home in Florence, and many of her later
novels have an Italian setting. She contributed from time to
time to the magazines, and wrote vigorously on behalf of anti-
vivisection and on Italian politics; but her views on these
subjects were marked by characteristic violence and lack of
judgment. She had made a great deal of money by her earlier
books, but had spent it without thought for the morrow; and
though in 1907 she was awarded a Civil List pension, she died
at Viareggio in poverty on the 25th of January 1908.
OUNCE, (i) (Through O. Fr. unce, modern onee, from Lat.
uncia, twelfth part, of weight, of a pound, of measure, of a foot,
in which sense it gives the O.Eng. ynce, inch), a unit of weight,
being the twelfth part of a pound troy, =480 grains; in
avoirdupois = 437 -5 grains, iV of a pound. The fluid ounce \s
a measure of capacity; in the United Kingdom it is equivalent
to an avoirdupois ounce of distilled water at 62° F.; in the
United States of America it is the 128th part of the gallon,
= 1 giU> =456-033 grains of distilled water at its maximum
density (see Weights and Measures). (2) A name properly
applied to the Fclis uncia or snow leopard (q.v.). It appears to
have been originally used of various species of lynx, and is still
sometimes the name of the Canada lynx. The word appears in
O. Fr. and Ital. as once and lonce, onza and lonza respectively,
and it is usually explained as being due to the confusion of the
/ with the article, lonce and lonza being changed to Vonce or
Vonza, and the /' subsequently dropped. If this be so the word
is the same as "lynx," from the popular Lat. luncia = lyncia,
Gr. XuT?. On the other hand once and onza may be nasalized
forms of yilz, the Persian name of the panther.
OUNDLE, a market-town in the Northern parliamentary
division of Northamptonshire, England, 305 m. N.E. of North-
ampton by a branch of the London & North- Western railway.
Pop. of urban district (1901) 2404. It is picturesquely situated
on an eminence, two sides of which are touched by the river
Nene, which here makes a deep bend. The church of St Peter
is a fine building with Early English, Decorated and Perpendicular
porticos, with a western tower and lofty spire. Oundle School,
one of the English public schools, was founded under the will of
Sir William Laxton, Lord Mayor of London (d. 1556). There
are about 200 boys. The school is divided into classical and
modern sides, and has exhibitions to Oxford and Cambridge
universities. A second-grade school was instituted out of the
foundation in 1878. Oundle has a considerable agricultural
trade.
Wilfrid, archbishop of York, is said to have been buried in
711 at a monastery in Oundle (Undele) which appears to have
been destroyed shortly afterwards, and was certainly not in
existence at the time of the Conquest. The manor, with a
market and tolls, was among the possessions confirmed in 072
by King Edgar to the abbot of Peterborough, to whom it still
belonged in 10S6. The market was then worth 20s. yearly and
is shown by the quo warranto rolls to have been held on Saturday,
tiie day being changed to Thursday in 1835. After the Dissolu-
tion the market was granted with the manor to John, earl of
Bedford, and still belongs to the lord of the manor. The abbot
of Peterborough about the i3lh century confirmed to his
men of Oundle freedom from tallage, " saving to himself pleas
of portmanmoot and all customs pertaining to the market,"
and they agreed to pay 8 marks, 12s. iid., yearly for their
privileges. The town was evidently governed by bailiffs in
1401, when the " bailiffs and good men " received a grant of
pontage for the repair of the bridge called " Assheconbrigge,"
but the town was never incorporated and never sent members
to parliament.
OURO PRETO (" Black Gold "), a city of the state of Minas
Geraes, Brazil, 336 m. by rail N. by W. of Rio de Janeiro, and
about 300 m. W. of Victoria, Espirito Santo, on the eastern slope
of the Serra de Espinhafo and within the drainage basin of the
Rio Doce. Pop. (i8go) 17,860; (igoo) 11,116. Ouro Preto is
connected with Miguel Burnier, on the Central of Brazil railway,
by a metre-gauge line 31 m. in length. The city is built upon the
lower slope of the Serra do Ouro Preto, a spur of the Espinhafo,
deeply cut by ravines and divided into a number of irregular
hills, up which the narrow, crooked streets are built and upon
which groups of low, old-fashioned houses form each a separate
nucleus. From a mining settlement the city grew as the in-
equalities of the site permitted. R. F. Burton {Highlands of
Brazil, London, 1869) says that its shape " is that of a huge
serpent, whose biggest end is about the Prafa. . . . The extremities
stretch two good miles, with raised convolutions. . . . The
' streeting ' of both upper and lower town is very tangled, and
the old thoroughfares, mere ' wynds "... show how valuable
once was building ground." The rough streets are too steep and
narrow for vehicles, and even riding on horseback is often difficult.
Several rivulets follow the ravines and drain into the Ribeirao
do Carmo, a sub-tributary of the Rio Doce. The climate is
sub-tropical and humid, though the elevation (3700-3800 ft.)
gives a temperate climate in winter. The days are usually hot
and the nights cold, the variations in temperature being a
fruitful cause of bronchial and pulmonary diseases. Ouro
Preto has several historic buildings; they are of antiquated
appearance and built of the simplest materials — broken stone
and mortar, with an exterior covering of plaster. The more
noteworthy are the old government house (now occupied by the
school of mines), the legislative chambers, municipal hall and
jail — all fronting on the Prafa da Independencia — and elsewhere
the old Casa dos Contos (afterwards the public treasury), a
theatre (the oldest in Brazil, restored in 1861-1862) and a
hospital. There are 15 churches in the city, some occupying
the most conspicuous sites on the hills, all dating from the more
prosperous days of the city's history, but all devoid of archi-
tectural taste. Ouro Preto is the seat of the best mining school
in Brazil.
The city dates from 1701, when a gold-mining settlement was
established in its ravines by Antonio Dias of Taubate. The
circumstance that the gold turned black on exposure to the
humid air (owing to the presence of silver) gave the name of
Ouro Preto to the mountain spur and the settlement. In 171 1
it became a city with the name of Villa Rica, a title justified
by its size and wealth. At one period of its prosperity its
population was estimated at 25,000 to 30,000. In 1720 Villa
Rica became the capital of the newly created captaincy of
Minas Geraes, and in 1823 the capital of the province of the
same name under the empire of Dom Pedro I. When the empire
was overthrown in i88g and Minas Geraes was reorganized
as a republican state, it was decided to remove the capital to a
more favourable site and Bello Horizonte was chosen, but
Ouro Preto remained the capital until 1898, when the new
town (also called Cidade de Minas) became the seat of govern-
ment. With the decay of her mining industries, Ouro Preto
had become merely the political centre of the state. The removal
of the capital was a serious blow, as the city has no industries
to support its population and no trade of importance. The
event most prominent in the history of the city was the conspiracy
of 1789, in which several leading citizens were concerned, and for
38o
OUSE— OUSELEY, SIR F. A. G.
which one of its less influential members, an alferes (ensign)
of cavalry named Joaquim Jose da SUva Xavier, nicknamed
" Tira-dentes " (teeth-puUer), was executed in Rio de Janeiro
in 1792. The conspiracy originated in a belief that the Portuguese
crown was about to enforce payment of certain arrears in the
mining tax known as the " royal fifths," and its object was to
set up a republic in Brazil. Although a minor figure in the
conspiracy, Tira-dentes was made the scapegoat of the thirty-
two men arrested and sent to Rio de Janeiro for trial, and
posterity has made him the proto-martyr of republicanism in
Brazil.
OUSE, the name of several EngUsh rivers.
(i) The Great Ouse rises in Northamptonshire, in the slight
hills between Banbury and Brackley, and falls only about
500 ft. in a course of 160 m. (excluding lesser windings) to its
mouth in the Wash (North Sea). With an easterly direction
it flows past Brackley and Buckingham and then turns N.E.
to Stony Stratford, where the Roman WatUng Street forded it.
It receives the Tove from the N.W., and the Ouzel from the S.
at Newport PagneU. It then follows an extremely sinuous
course past Olney to Sharnbrook, where it turns abruptly S.
to Bedford. A north-easterly direction is then resumed past
St Neot's to Godmanchester and Huntingdon, when the river
trends easterly to St Ives. Hitherto the Ouse has watered
an open fertile valley, and there are many beautiful wooded
reaches between Bedford and St Ives, while the river abounds
in coarse fish. Below St Ives the river debouches suddenly
upon the Fens; its fall from this point to the mouth, a distance
of ss m. by the old course, is little more than 20 ft. (the extensive
system of artificial drainage cuts connected with the river is
considered under Fens). From Earith to Denver the waters
of the Ouse flow almost wholly in two straight artificial channels
called the Bedford Rivers, only a small head passing, under
ordinary conditions, along the old course, called the Old West
River. This is joined by the Cam from the S. 4 m. above Ely.
In its northward course from this point the river receives from
the E. the Lark, the Little Ouse, or Brandon river, and the
Wissey. Below Denver sluice, 16 m. from the mouth, the Ouse
is tidal. It flows past King's Lynn, and enters the Wash near
the S.E. corner. The river is locked up to Bedford, a distance
of 745 m. by the direct course. In the lower part it bears a
considerable traffic, but above St Ives it is Uttle used, and
above St Neot's navigation has ceased. The drainage area
of the Great Ouse is 2607 sq. m.
(2) A river of Yorkshire. The river Ure, rising near the N.W.
boundary of the county in the heart of the Pennines, and travers-
ing the lovely valley famous under the name Wensleydale,
unites with the river Swale to form the Ouse near the small
town of Boroughbridge, which lies in the rich central plain of
Yorkshire. The course of the Swale, which rises in the north
of the county on the eastern flank of the Pennines, is mostly
through this plain, and that of the Ouse is whoUy so. It flows
S.E. to York, thence for a short distance S. by W., then mainly
S.E. again past Selby and Goole to the junction with the Trent;
the great estuary so formed being known as the Humber. The
course of the Ouse proper, thus defined, is 61 m. The Swale
and Ure are each about 60 m. long. Goole is a large and growing
port, and the river bears a considerable traffic up to York. There
is also some traffic up to Boroughbridge, from which the Ure
Navigation (partly a canal) continues up to Ripon. The
Swale is not navigable. The chief tributaries are the Nidd,
the Wharfe, the Don and the Aire from the W., and the Derwent
from the N.E., but the detailed consideration of these involves
that of the hydrography of the greater part of Yorkshire (q.v.).
AU, especially the western tributaries, traverse beautiful vaUeys,
and the Aire and Don, with canals, are of importance as affording
communications between the manufacturing district of south
Yorkshire and the Humber ports. The Derwent is also navigable.
The drainage area of the Ouse is 4133 sq. m. It is tidal up to
Naburn locks, a distance of 37 m. from the junction with the
Trent, and the total fall from Boroughbridge is about 40 ft.
(3) A river of Sussex, rising in the Forest Ridges between
Horsham and Cuckfield, and draining an area of about 200 sq. m.,
mostly in the Weald. Like other streams of this locality, it
breaches the South Downs, and reaches the English Channel
at Newhaven after a course of 30 m. The eastward drift of
beach-building material formerly diverted the mouth of this
river from its present place to a point to the east near Seaford.
The Ouse is navigable for small vessels to Lewes, and Newhaven
is an important harbour.
OUSEL, or Ouzel, Anglo-Saxon dsle, equivalent of the German
Amsel (a form of the word found in several old English books),
apparently the ancient name for what is now more commonly
known as the blackbird (q.v.), Turdus merula, but at the present
day not often apphed to that species, though used in a compound
form for birds belonging to another genus and family.
The water-ousel, or water-crow, is now commonly named
the " dipper " — a term apparently invented and bestowed in the
first edition of T. Bewick's British Birds (ii. 16, 17) — not, as is
commonly supposed, from the bird's habit of entering the water
in pursuit of its
prey, but because
"it may be seen
perched on the top
of a stone in the
midst of the
torrent, in a con-
tinual dipping
motion, or short
courtesy often re-
peated." The '
English dipper,
Cinclus aquaticus,
is the type of a
small family, the
Cinclidae, prob-
ably more nearly
akin to the wrens
Cinclus mexicanus.
(q.v.) than to the thrushes, and with
examples throughout the more temperate portions of Europe
and Asia, as well as North and South America. The dipper
haunts rocky streams, into which it boldly enters, generally
by deliberately wading, and then by the strenuous com-
bined action of its wings and feet makes its way along the
bottom in quest of its Uving prey — fresh-water moUuscs and
aquatic insects in their larval or mature condition. Com-
plaints of its attacks on the spawn of fish have not been
justified by examination of the stomachs of captured specimens.
Short and squat of stature, active and restless in its movements,
dusky above, with a pure white throat and upper part of the
breast, to which succeeds a broad band of dark bay, it is a familiar
figure to most fishermen on the streams it frequents. The
water-ousel's nest is a very curious structure — outwardly
resembling a wren's, but built on a wholly different principle — an
ordinary cup-shaped nest of grass lined with dead leaves, placed
in some convenient niche, but encased with moss so as to form
a large mass that covers it completely except a small hole for
the bird's passage. The eggs laid within are from four to seven in
number, and are of a pure white. The young are able to swim
before they are fuUy fledged. (A. N.)
OUSELEY, SIR FREDERICK ARTHUR GORE (1825-1889),
English composer, was the son of Sir Gore Ouseley, ambassador
to Persia, and nephew to Sir WiUiam Ouseley, the Oriental
scholar. He was born on the 12th of August 1S25 in London, and
manifested an extraordinary precocity in music, composing an
opera at the age of eight years. In 1844, having succeeded to the
baronetcy, he entered at Christ Church, and graduated B.A. in
1846 and M.A. in 1849. He was ordained in the latter year, and,
as curate of St Paul's, Knightsbridge, served the parish of St
Barnabas, Pimlico, until 1851. In 1850 he took the degree of
Mus.B. at Oxford, and four years afterwards that of Mus.D.,
his exercise being the oratorio St Polycarp. In 1855 he succeeded
Sir Henry Bishop as professor of music in the University of
Oxford, was ordained priest and appointed precentor of Hereford.
In 1856 he became vicar of St Michael's, Tenbury, and warden
OUSELEY, SIR W.— OUTRAM
381
of St Michael's College, which under him became an important
educational institution both in music and general subjects. His
works include a second oratorio, Hagar (Hereford, 1873), a great
number of services and anthems, chamber music, songs, &c.,
and theoretical works of great importance, such as Harmony
(1S68) and Counlcrpoini (i86g) and Musical Form (1875). One
of his most useful works is a series of chapters on English music
added to the translation of Emil Naumann's History of Music,
the subject having been practically ignored in the German
treatise. A profoundly learned musician, and a man of great
general culture, Ouseley's influence on younger men was wholly
for good, and he helped forward the cause of musical progress in
England perhaps more effectually than if he himself had been
among the more enthusiastic supporters of " advanced " music.
The work by which he is best known, SI Polycarp, shows, like
most compositions of its date, the strong influence of Mendels-
sohn, at least in its plan and scope; but if Ouseley had little
individuality of expression, his models in other works were the
English church writers of the noblest school. He died at Here-
ford on the 6th of April 1889.
OUSELEY, SIR WILLIAM (1769-1842), British Orientalist,
eldest son of Captain Ralph Ouseley, of an old Irish family, was
born in Monmouthshire. After a private education he went to
Paris, in 1787, to learn French, and there laid the foundation
of his interest in Persian literature. In 1788 he became a cornet
in the 8th regiment of dragoons. At the end of 1794 he sold his
commission and went to Leiden to study Persian. In 1795 he
pubUshed Persian Miscellanies; in 1797-1799, Oriental Collec-
tions; in 1799, Epitome of the Ancient History of Persia; in 1800,
The Oriental Geography of Ehn Haukal; and in 1801, a translation
of the Bakhtiydr Nama and Observations on Some Medals and
Gems. He received the degree of LL.D. from the university of
Dublin in 1797, and in 1800 he was knighted. When his brother.
Sir Gore Ouseley, was sent, in 1810, as ambassador to Persia,
Sir WilUam accompanied him as secretary. He returned to
England in 1813, and in 1819-1823 published, in three volumes.
Travels in Various Countries of the East, especially Persia, in
1810, 1811 and 1812. He also published editions of the Travels
and Arabian Proverbs of Burckhardt. He contributed a number
of important papers to the Transactions of the Royal Society of
Literature. He died at Boulogne in September 1842.
OUSTER (from Anglo-Fr. ouster, to remove, take away, O. Fr.
aster, mod. Fr. oter, Eng. " oust," to eject, exclude; the deriva-
tion is not known; Lat. ohstare, to stand in the way of, resist,
would give the form but does not suit the sense; a more probable
suggestion connects with a supposed haustare, from hour ire, to
draw water; cf. " exhaust "), a legal term signifying disposses-
sion, especially the wrong or injury suffered by a person dis-
possessed of freeholds or chattels real. The wrong-doer by getting
into occupation forces the real owner to take legal steps to regain
his rights. Ouster of the freehold may be effected by abatement;
i.e. by entry on the death of the person seized before the entry of
the heir, or devisee, by intrusion, entry after the death of the
tenant for life before the entry of the reversioner or remainder-
man, by disseisin, the forcible or fraudulent expulsion of the
occupier or person seized of the property. Ouster of chattels
real is effected by disseisin, the turning out by force or fraud of
the legal proprietor before his estate is determined- In feudal
law, the term ouster-le-main (Lat. amovere manum, to take away
the hand) was applied to a writ or judgment granting the livery
of land out of the sovereign's hand on the plea that he has no
title to it, and also to the delivery by a guardian of land to a
ward on his coming of age.
OUTLAWRY, the process of putting a person out of the
protection of the law; a punishment for contemptuously
refusing to appear when called in court, or evading justice by
disappearing. It was an offence of very early existence in
England, and was the punishment of those who could not pay
the were or blood-money to the relatives of the deceased. By the
Saxon law, an outlaw, or laughlesman, lost his libera lex and had
no protection from the frank-pledge in the decennary in which
he was sworn. He was, too, a. frendlesman, because he forfeited
his friends; for if any of them rendered him any assistance, they
became liable to the same punishment. He was, at one time,
said to be caput lupinum, or to have a wolf's head, from the fact
that he might be knocked on the head like a wolf by any one that
should meet him; but so early as the time of Bracton an outlaw
might only be killed if he defended himself or ran away; once
taken, his life was in the king's hands, and any one killing him had
to answer for it as for any other homicide. The party guilty of
outlawry suffered forfeiture of chattels in all cases, and in cases
of treason or murder forfeiture of real property: for other
offences the profits of land during his lifetime. In cases of
treason or felony, outlawry was followed also by corruption of
blood. An outlaw was civiliter mortuus. He could not sue in any
court, nor had he any legal rights which could be enforced, but
he was personally liable upon all causes of action. An outlawry
might be reversed by proceedings in error, or by application to a
court. It was finally abolished in civil proceedings in 1879,
while in criminal proceedings it has practically become obsolete,
being unnecessary through the general adoption of extradition
treaties. A woman was said to be waived rather than outlawed.
In Scotland outlawry or fugitation may be pronounced by the
supreme criminal court in the absence of the panel on the day of
trial. In the United States outlawry never existed in civil cases,
and in the few cases where it existed in criminal proceedings it
has become obsolete.
OUTRAGE (through O. Fr. ultrage, oltrage, oidtrage, from
Lat. ultra, beyond, exceeding, cf. Ital. oltraggio; the meaning
has been influenced by connexion with " rage," anger), originally
extravagance, violence of behaviour, language, action, &c.,
hence especially a violent injury done to another.
OUTRAM, SIR JAMES (1803-1863), English general, and
one of the heroes of the Indian Mutiny, was the son of Benjamin
Outram of Butterley Hall, Derbyshire, civil engineer, and was
born on the 29th of January 1803. His father died in 1805,
and his mother, a daughter of Dr James Anderson, the Scottish
writer on agriculture, removed in 1810 to Aberdeenshire. From
Udny school the boy went in 1818 to the Marischal College,
Aberdeen; and in 1819 an Indian cadetship was given him.
Soon after his arrival at Bombay his remarkable energy attracted
notice, and in July 1820 he became acting adjutant to the first
battalion of the 12th regiment on its embodiment at Poona,
an experience which he found to be of immense advantage to
him in his after career. In 1825 he was sent to Khandesh, where
he trained a Ught infantry corps, formed of the wild robber
Bhils, gaining over them a marveUous personal influence, and
employing them with great success in checking outrages and
plunder. Their loyalty to him had its principal source in their
boundless admiration of his hunting achievements, which in
cool daring and hairbreadth escapes have perhaps never been
equalled. Originally a " puny lad," and for many years after
his arrival in India subject to constant attacks of sickness,
Outram seemed to win strength by every new illness, acquiring
a constitution of iron, " nerves of steel, shoulders and muscles
worthy of a six-foot Highlander." In 1835 he was sent to
Gujarat to make a report on the Mahi Kantha district, and for
some time he remained there as political agent. On the outbreak
of the first Afghan War in 1838 he was appointed extra aide-de-
camp on the staff of Sir John Keane, and besides many other
brilliant deeds performed an extraordinary exploit in capturing
a banner of the enemy before Ghazni. After conducting various
raids against Afghan tribes, he was in 1839 promoted major,
and appointed political agent in Lower Sind, and later in Upper
Sind. Here he strongly opposed the policy of his superior.
Sir Charles Napier, which led to the annexation of Sind. But
when war broke out he heroically defended the residency at
Hyderabad against 8000 Baluchis; and it was Sir C. Napier
who then described him as " the Bayard of India." On his
return from a short visit to England in 1843, he was, with the
rank of brevet lieutenant-colonel, appointed to a command
in the Mahratta country, and in 1847 he was transferred from
Satara to Baroda, where he incurred the resentment of the
Bombay government by his fearless exposure of corruption.
382
OVAL— OVARIOTOMY
In 1854 he was appointed resident at Lucknow, in which capacity
two years hater he carried out the annexation of Oudh and
became the first chief commissioner of that province. Appointed
in 1857, with the rank of heutenant-general, to command an
expedition against Persia, he defeated the enemy with great
slaughter at Khushab, and conducted the campaign with such
rapid decision that peace was shortly afterwards concluded, his
services being rewarded by the grand cross of the Bath.
From Persia he was summoned in June to India, with the
brief explanation — " We want all our best men here." It was
said of him at this time that " a fox is a fool and a lion a coward
by the side of Sir J. Outram." Immediately on his arrival
in Calcutta he was appointed to command the two divisions
of the Bengal army occupying the country from Calcutta to
Cawnpore; and to the mihtary control was also joined the
commissionership of Oudh. Already the mutiny had assumed
such proportions as to compel Havelock to fall back on Cawnpore,
which he only held with difliculty, although a speedy advance
was necessary to save the garrison at Lucknow. On arriving
at Cawnpore with reinforcements, Outram, " in admiration
of the briUiant deeds of General Havelock," conceded to him the
glory of reheving Lucknow, and, waiving his rank, tendered
his services to him as a volunteer. During the advance he
commanded a troop of volunteer cavalry, and performed exploits
of great brilhancy at Mangalwar, and in the attack at the
Alambagh; and in the final conflict he led the way, charging
through a very tempest of fire. The volunteer cavalry unani-
mously voted him the Victoria Cross, but he refused the choice
on the ground that he was inehgible as the general under whom
they served. Resuming supreme command, he then held the
town till the arrival of Sir Colin Campbell, after which he con-
ducted the evacuation of the residency so as completely to
deceive the enemy. In the second capture of Lucknow, on the
commander-in-chief's return, Outram was entrusted with the
attack on the side of the Gumti.and afterwards, having recrossed
the river, he advanced " through the Chattar Manzil to take
the residency," thus, in the words of Sir Colin Campbell, " putting
the finishing stroke on the enemy." After the capture of
Lucknow he was gazetted lieutenant-general. In February
1858 he received the special thanks of both houses of parhament,
and in the same year the dignity of baronet with an annuity
of £1000. When, on account of shattered health, he returned
finally to England in i860, a movement was set on foot to mark
the sense entertained, not only of his military achievements,
but of his constant exertions on behalf of the natives of India,
whose " weal," in his own words, " he made his first object."
The movement resulted in the presentation of a public testimonial
and the erection of statues in London and Calcutta. He died
on the nth of March 1863, and was buried in Westminster
Abbey, where the marble slab on his grave bears the pregnant
epitaph " The Bayard of India."
See Sir F. J. Goldsmid, James Outram, a Biography (2 vols., 1880),
and L. J. Trotter, The Bayard of India (1903).
OVAL (Lat. ovum, egg), in geometry, a closed curve, generally
more or less egg-like in form. The simplest oval is the ellipse;
more complicated forms are represented in the notation of
analytical geometry by equations of the 4th, 6th, 8th . . .
degrees. Those of the 4th degree, known as bicircular quartics,
are the most important, and of these the special forms named
after Descartes and Cassini are of most interest. The Cartesian
ovals presented themselves in an investigation of the section of
a surface which would refract rays proceeding from a point
in a medium of one refractive index into a point in a
medium of a different refractive index. The most convenient
equation is Ir^mr' =n, where r,/ are the distances of a point on
the curve from two fixed and given points, termed the foci, and
I, m, n are constants. The curve is obviously symmetrical about
the line joining the foci, and has the important property that the
normal at any point divides the angle between the radii into
segments whose sines are in the ratio / : m. The Cassinian oval
has the equation r/ = a^, where r,r' are the radii of a point on the
curve from two given foci, and o is a constant. This curve is
symmetrical about two perpendicular axes. It may consist of
a single closed curve or of two curves, according to the value of 12;
the transition between the two types being a figure of 8, better
known as Bernoulli's lemniscate {q.v.).
See Curve; also Salmon, Higher Plane Curves.
OVAR, a town of Portugal, in the district of Aveiro and at the
northern extremity of the Lagoon of Aveiro (q.v.); 21 m. S. of
Oporto by the Lisbon-Oporto railway. Pop. (1900) 10,462.
Ovar is the centre of important fisheries and has some trade in
wine and timber. It is visited by small coasting vessels which
ply to and from north-west Africa. Millet, wheat and vegetables
— especially onions — are the chief products of the low-lying
and unhealthy region, in which Ovar is situated.
OVARIOTOMY, the operation for removal of one or of both
of the female ovaries (for anatomy see Reproductive System).
The progress of modern surgery has been conspicuously successful
in this department. From 1701, the date when Houston of
Carluke, Lanarkshire, carried out his successful partial extirpation ,
progress was arrested for some time, although the Hunters (1780)
indicated the practicability of the operation. In 1809 Ephraim
M'Dowell of Kentucky, inspired by the lectures of John Bell,
his teacher in Edinburgh, performed ovariotomy, and, con-
tinuing to operate with success, established the possibility of
surgical interference. He was followed by others in the United
States. The cases brought forward by Lizars of Edinburgh
were not suiSciently encouraging; the operation met with great
opposition; and it was not until Charles Clay, Spencer Wells,
Baker Brown and Thomas Keith began work that the procedure
was placed on a firm basis and was regarded as justifiable.
Improved methods were introduced, and surgeons vied with one
another in trying to obtain good results. EventuaOy, by the
introduction of the antiseptic system of treating wounds, this
operation, formerly regarded as one of the most grave and anxious
in the domain of surgery, came to be attended with a lower
mortality than any other of a major character.
To give an idea of the terrible record associated with the opera-
tion in the third quarter of the 19th century, a passage may be
quoted from the English translation of the Life of Pasteur:
" As it was supposed that the infected air of the hospitals might
be the cause of the invariably fatal results of the operation,
the Assistance Publique hired an isolated house in the Avenue
de Meudon, near Paris, a salubrious spot. In 1863, ten women
in succession were sent to that house; the neighbouring inhabit-
ants watched those ten patients entering the house, and a short
time afterwards their ten coffins being taken away." But as time
went on, the published statistics showed an increasing success
in the practice of almost every operator. Spencer Wells states
that in his first five years one patient in three died; in his second
andthirdfive years one in four; in his fourth five years one in five;
in 1876-1877, one in ten. After the introduction of antiseptics
(1S78-1884) he lost only io-o% of his operation cases, but this
series showing a marked absence of septic complications. These
figures have been greatly improved upon in later years, and at the
present time the mortahty may be taken at somewhere about
S, 7 or 9%.
Removal of the ovaries is performed when the ovaries are the seat
of cystic and other morbid changes; for fibroid tumours of the
womb, in which case, by operating, one hastens the menopause and
causes the tumours to grow smaller; and in cases where dysmenor-
rhoea is wearing out and rendering useless the life of the patient —
less severe treatment having proved ineffectual. Oophorectomy, by
which is meant removal of the ovaries with the view of producing
a curative effect upon some other part, was introduced in 1872 by
Robert Battcy of Georgia (1828-1895). The operation is sometimes
followed by loss of sexual feeling, and has been said to unsex the
patient, hence strong objections have been urged against it. The
patient and her friends should clearly understand the object of the
operation and the results likely to be gained by it. Lastly, the ovaries
are sometimes removed with the hope of checking the progress of
inoperable cancer of the breast.
From the time that the operation of ovariotomy was first estab-
lished as a recognized and lawful surgical procedure, there has been
much disputation as to how the pedicle of the ovary, which consists
of a fold of peritoneum (the broad ligament) with included blood-
vessels, should be treated. Some operators were in favour of tying
it with strong silk, and bringing the ends of the ligatures outside
OVATION— OVERBECK
3«3
the abdomen. Others were in favour of having a strong metal
clamp upon those structures, or of scaring them with the actual
cautery, whilst others claimed that the best results were to be
obtained by firmly tying the pedicle, cutting the ligatures short,
dropping the pedicle into the abdomen and closing the wound.
This last method is now almost universally adopted. (E. O.*)
OVATION (Lat. ovatio), a minor form of Roman " triumph."
It was awarded either when the campaign, though victorious, had
not been important enough for the higher honour; when the war
was not entirely put an end to; when it had been waged with
unworthy foes; or when the general was not of rank sufficient
to give him the right to a triumph. The ceremonial was on the
whole similar in the two cases, but in an ovation the general
walked or more commonly rode on horseback, wore a simple
magisterial robe, carried no sceptre and wore a wreath of
myrtle instead of laurel. Instead of a bull, a sheep was sacrificed
at the conclusion of the ceremony. The word is not, however,
derived from ovis, sheep, but probably means " shouting "
(cp. ai5co) as a sign of rejoicing.
OVEN (O. Eng. o/«,Ger. Of en, cf .Gr. iirvos, oven) , a close chamber
or compartment which may be raised to a considerable tempera-
ture by heat generated either within or without it. In English
the term generally refers to a chamber for baking bread and other
food substances, but it is also used of certain appliances employed
in manufacturing operations, as in coking coal or making pottery.
See Heating.
OVERBECK, JOHANN FRIEDRICH (1789-1869), German
painter, the reviver of " Christian art " in the 19th century, was
born in Liibeck on the 4th of July 1789. His ancestors for three
generations had been Protestant pastors; his father was doctor of
laws, poet, mystic pietist and burgomaster of Liibeck. Within a
stone's throw of the family mansion in the Konigstrasse stood the
gymnasium, where the uncle, doctor of theology and a voluminous
writer, was the master; there the nephew became a classic
scholar and received instruction in art.
The young artist left Liibeck in March 1806, and entered as
student the academy of Vienna, then under the direction of
F. H. Fiiger, a painter of some renown, but of the pseudo-classic
school of the French David. Here was gained thorough knowledge,
but the teachings and associations proved unendurable to the
sensitive, spiritual-minded youth. Overbeck wrote to a friend
that he had fallen among a vulgar set, that every noble thought
was suppressed within the academy and that losing all faith in
humanity he turned inwardly on himself. These words are a
key to his future position and art. It seemed to him that in
Vienna, and indeed throughout Europe, the pure springs of
Christian art had been for centuries diverted and corrupted,
and so he sought out afresh the living source, and, casting on one
side his contemporaries, took for his guides the early and pre-
Raphaelite painters of Italy. At the end of four years, differences
had grown so irreconcilable that Overbeck and his band of
followers were e.xpelled from the academy. True art, he writes,
he had sought in Vienna in vain — " Oh! I was full of it; my
whole fancy was possessed by Madonnas and Christs, but nowhere
could I find response." Accordingly he left for Rome, carrying
his half-finished canvas " Christ's Entry into Jerusalem," as the
charter of his creed — " I will abide by the Bible; I elect it as my
standing-point."
Overbeck in 1810 entered Rome, which became for fifty-nine
years the centre of his unremitting labour. He was joined by a
goodly company, including Cornelius, Wilhelm Schadow and
Philip Veit, who took up their abode in the old Franciscan
convent of San Isidore on the Pincian Hill, and were known
among friends and enemies by the descriptive epithets — " the
Nazarites," " the pre-Raphaelites," " the new-old school,"
" the German-Roman artists," " the church-romantic painters,"
" the German patriotic and rehgious painters." Their precept
was hard and honest work and holy hving; they eschewed the
antique as pagan, the Renaissance as false, and built up a severe
revival on simple nature and on the serious art of Perugino,
Pinturicchio, Francia and the young Raphael. The character-
istics of the style thus educed were nobihty of idea, precision
and even hardness of outline, scholastic composition, with the
addition of light, shade and colour, not for allurement, but
chielly for perspicuity and completion of motive. Overbeck was
mentor in the movement; a fellow-labourer writes: " No one
who saw him or heard him speak could question his purity of
motive, his deep insight and abounding knowledge; he is a
treasury of art and poetry, and a saintly man." But the struggle
was hard and poverty its reward. IIel[)ful friends, however,
came in Nicbuhr, Bunsen and Frederick Schlegel. Overbeck in
1813 joined the Roman Catholic Church, and thereby he believed
that his art received Christian baptism.
Faith in a mission begat enthusiasm among kindred minds, and
timely commissions followed. The Prussian consul, Bartholdi,
had a house on the brow of the Pincian, and he engaged
Overbeck, Cornelius, Veit and Schadow to decorate a room 24 ft.
square with frescoes (now in the Berlin gallery) from the story
of Joseph and his Brethren. The subjects which fell to the lot
of Overbeck were the " Seven Years of Famine " and " Joseph
sold by his Brethren." These tentative wall-pictures, finished in
1818, produced so favourable an impression among the Itahans
that in the same year Prince Massimo commissioned Overbeck,
Cornelius, Veit and Schnorr to cover the walls and ceilings of his
garden pavilion, near St John Lateran, with frescoes illustrative of
Tasso, Dante and Ariosto. To Overbeck was assigned, in a room
15 ft. square, the illustration of Tasso 's Jerusalem Delivered;
and of eleven compositions^jhe largest and most noteworthy,
occupying one entire wall, isv'ne " Meeting of Godfrey de Bouillon
and Peter the Hermit." The completion of the frescoes — very
unequal in merit — after ten years' delay, the overtaxed and
enfeebled painter delegated to his friend Joseph Fiihrich.
The leisure thus gained was devoted to a thoroughly congenial
theme, the " Vision of St Francis," a wall-painting 20 ft. long,
figures life size, finished in 1830, for the church of Sta Maria degli
Angeli near Assist. Overbeck and the brethren set themselves
the task of recovering the neglected art of fresco and of monu-
mental painting; they adopted the old methods, and their success
led to memorable revivals throughout Europe.
Fifty years of the artist's laborious fife were given to oil and
easel paintings, of which the chief, for size and import, are the
following: " Christ's Entry into Jerusalem " (1824), in the
Marien Kirche, Liibeck; " Christ ;s Agony in the Garden "
(1835), in the great hospital, Hamburg; " Lo Spo= q^ (he
(1836), Raczynski gallery, Berlin; the " Triump'by hfflocks, and
the Arts" (1840), in the Stadel Institut, Fr.atches of wood and
(1S46), in the Marien Kirche, Liibeck; the Zee however west
Thomas" (1851), in the possession ofuuntry is low-lying and
London; the " Assumption of the Made pasture lands. Cattle-
Cathedral; "Christ delivered from tg are consequently the chief
on a ceiling in the Quirinal Palace— ny of the people are engaged
and a direct attack on the Italian ter river system of the province
now covered by a canvas adorned v of hills. The first of these
works are marked by religious fer\at Markelo to the Lemeler
study, with a dry, severe handling, a the Vecht and Regge, and
Overbeck belongs to eclectic schook-e and the Salland streams
ranks among thinkers, and his pen was 1 unite at Zwolle to form
pencil. He was a minor poet, an essa'Jls extends through the
letter-writer. His style is wordy and tec called Twente, from
borne down with emotion and possessed tasin of the Almelosche
" subjectivity." His pictures were didactiver Vecht crosses the
of propagandas for his artistic and rehgious f;te Water, which com-
of such compositions as the " Triumph of Rilsche Diep and with
ments " he enforced by rapturous hterary et-e along the streams
the issue of his life: his constant thoughts, riculture and cattle-
and chastened by prayer, he transposed into '-grounds. \ large ■
thus were evolved countless and much-priis waste. Forest '
cartoons, of which the most considerable are tally in the east,
cartoons (1852); Via Crucis, fourteen wate> Salland and the
(1857); the Seven Sacraments, seven cartoorhich is extracted
beck's compositions, with few exceptions, ar<y. Peat-digging
life-work he sums up in the words — " Art to mi an early period,
David, whereupon I would desire that psalnred the portion
times be sounded to the praise of the Lord." He neighbourhood
XX. 13
384
OVERBURY— OVERTURE
1869, aged eighty, and lies buried in San Bernardo, the church
wherein he worshipped.
There are biographies by J. Beavington Atkinson (1882) and
Howitt (1886). (J. B. A.)
OVERBURY, SIR THOMAS (1581-1613), English poet and
essayist, and the victim of one of the most sensational crimes
in English history, was the son of Nicholas Overbury, of Bourton-
on-the-Hill, and was born in 1581 at Compton Scorpion, near
Ilmington, in Warwickshire. In the autumn of 1595 he became
a gentleman commoner of Queen's College, Oxford, took his
degree of B.A. in 1598 and came to London to study law in the
Middle Temple. He found favour with Sir Robert Cecil, travelled
on the Continent and began to enjoy a reputation for an accom-
phshed mind and free manners. About the year 1601, being in
Edinburgh on a holiday, he met Robert Carr, then an obscure
page to the earl of Dunbar; and so great a friendship was struck
up between the two youths that they came up to London
together. The early history of Carr remains obscure, and it
is probable that Overbury secured an introduction to Court
before his young associate contrived to do so. At all events,
when Carr attracted the attention of James I., in 1606, by break-
ing his leg in the tilt-yard, Overbury had for some time been
servitor-in-ordinary to the king. He was knighted in June
1608, and in 1609 he travelled in France and the Low Countries.
He seems to have followed the fortunes of Carr very closely,
and "such was the warmth of thA friendship, that they were
inseparable, . . . nor could OverWury enjoy any felicity but
in the company of him he loved [Carr]." When the latter was
made Lord Rochester in 1610, the intimacy seems to have been
sustained. But it was now destroyed by a new element. Early
in 161 1 the Court became aware of the mutual attraction between
Rochester and the infamous and youthful countess of Essex,
who seemed to have bewitched the handsome Scots adventurer.
To this intrigue Overbury was from the first violently opposed,
pointing out to Rochester that an indulgence in it would be
hurtful to his preferment, and that the woman, even at this
early stage in her career, was already " noted for her injury
and immodesty." He went so far as to use, in describing her,
a word which was not more just than scandalous. But Rochester
was now infatuated, and he repeated to the countess what
Overbury had said. It was at this time, too, that Overbury
of £ioooind circulated widely in MS., the poem called " His
finally to Migiauog a picture of the virtues which a young man
the sense entertair^ woman before he has the rashness to marry
but of his constant tnted to Lady Essex that Overbury's object
whose " weal," in his ons to open the eyes of Rochester to her
The movement resulted in taw resolved itself into a deadly duel
and the erection of statues between the mistress and the friend.
on the nth of March i863,ead Overbury into such a trap as
Abbey, where the marble slarful to the king, and she succeeded
epitaph " The Bayard of Irhrown into the Tower on the 22nd
See Sir F. J. Croldsmid, Jamovm at the time, and it is not certain
and L. J. Trotter, The Sayo'-'icipated in this first crime, or whether
OVAL (Lat. ovum, egg), jt the queen, by a foolish phrase, had
more or less egg-like in 'the friends; she had called Overbury
more compHcated forr." It is, indeed, apparent that Overbury
analytical geometry bnth success, and was no longer a favourite
degrees. Those of thex, however, was not satisfied with having
are the most importarwas determined that " he should return no
after Descartes and Cf She had Sir WiOiam Wade, the honest
ovals presented themstr, removed to make way for a creature of
a surface which woie Elvis (or Helwys) ; and a gaoler, of whom
in a medium of od that he was " a man well acquainted with
medium of a differes," was set to attend on Overbury. This
equation is Ir^mr' =iided by Mrs Turner, the widow of a physician,
the curve from tw<cary called Franklin, plied the miserable poet
/, m. n are constanid in the form of copper vitrioL But his con-
the Hne joining thi.hstood the timid doses they gave him, and he
normal at any pdsite sufierings until the 15th of September
segments whose S) violent measures put an end to his existence.
has the equation rr Rochester, now earl of Somerset, married the
curve from two ( Lady Essex. More than a year passed before
suspicion was roused, and when it was, the king showed a hateful
disinclination to bring the oflfenders to justice. In the celebrated
trial which followed, however, the wicked plot was all discovered.
The four accomplices were hanged; the countess of Somerset
pleaded guilty but was spared, and Somerset himself was dis-
graced. Meanwhile, Overbury's poem, The Wife, was pubHshed
in 1614, and ran through six editions within a year, the scandal
connected with the murder of the author greatly aiding its success.
It was abundantly reprinted within the next sixty years, and
it continued to be one of the most widely popular books of the
17th century. Combined with later editions of The Wife, and
gradually adding to its bulk, were "Characters" (first printed
in the second of the 1614 editions), " The Remedy of Love "
(1620), and " Observations in Foreign Travels " (1626). Later,
much that must be spurious was added to the gathering snow-
ball of Overbury's Works. Posterity has found the praise of
his contemporaries for the sententious and graceful moral verse of
Overbury extravagantly expressed. The Wife is smooth and
elegant, but uninspired. There is no question that the horrible
death of the writer, and the extraordinary way in which his
murderers were brought to justice, gave an extraneous chaim
to his writings. Nor can we be quite sure that Overbury was
in fact such a " glorious constellation " of all the rehgious
virtues as the 17th century believed. He certainly kept very
bad company, and positive evidence of his goodness is wanting.
But no one was ever more transcendently canonized by becoming
the victim of conspirators whose crimes were equally detestable
and unpopular. (E. G.)
OVERDOOR, the name given to any ornamental moulding
placed over a door. The overdoor is usually architectural
in form, but is sometimes little more than a moulded shelf
for the reception of china or curiosities.
OVERMANTEL, the name given to decorative cabinet work,
or joinery, applied to the upper part of a fireplace. The over-
mantel is derived from the carved panelling formerly applied
to chimney-pieces of importance, but the word is now generally
restricted to a movable fitment, often consisting of a series of
shelves and niches for the reception of ornaments.
OVERSOUL (Ger. Uherseele), the name adopted by Emerson
to describe his conception of that transcendent unity which
embraces subject and object, mind and matter, and in which
all the differences in virtue of which particular things exist are
absorbed. The idea is analogous to the various doctrines of
the absolute, and to the ISta of Plato.
OVERSTONE, SAMUEL JONES LOYD, isT Baron (1796-
1883), English banker, the only son of the Rev. Lewis Loyd,
a Welsh dissenting minister, was born on the 25th of September
1 796. He was educated at Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge.
His father, who had married a daughter of John Jones, a banker
of Manchester, had given up the ministry to take a partnership
in his father-in-law 's bank, and had afterwards founded the
London branch of Jones, Loyd & Co., afterwards incorporated in
the London and Westminster Bank. Loyd, who had joined his
father in the banking business, succeeded to it on the latter's
retirement in 1844. He conducted the business so successfully
that on his death he left personal property of over £2,000,000.
He sat in parliament as hberal member for Hythe from 18 19
to 1826, and unsuccessfully contested Manchester in 1832. As
early as 1832 he was recognized as one of the foremost authorities
on banking, and he enjoyed much influence with successive
ministries and chancellors of the exchequer. He was created
Baron Overstone in 1850. He died in London on the 17th of
November 1883, leaving one daughter, who married Robert
James Loyd-Lindsay, afterwards Lord Wantage.
OVERT ACT (O. Fr. overt, from ouvrir, to open), in law, an open
act, one that can be clearly proved by evidence, and from
which criminal intent can be inferred, as opposed to a mere
intention in the mind to commit a crime (see Intent). The
term is more particularly employed in cases of treason (q.v.) , which
must be demonstrated by some overt or open act.
OVERTURE (Fr. ouverture, opening), in music, the instru-
mental introduction to a dramatic or choral composition. The
OVERYSEL
385
notion of an overture thus has no existence until the 17th century.
The toccata at the beginning of Monteverde's Orfco is a barbaric
flourish of every procurable instrument, alternating with a
melodious section entitled ritorncllo; and, in so far as this con-
stitutes the first instrumental movement prefitxed to an opera, it
may be called an overture. As an art-form the overture began
to exist in the works of J. B. LuUy. He devised a scheme which,
although he himself did not always adhere to it, conslitules
the typical French overture up to the time of Bach and Handel
(whose works have made it classical). This French overture
consists of a slow introduction in a marked " dotted rhythm "
(i.e. exaggerated iambic, if the first chord is disregarded), followed
by a lively movement in fugato style. The slow introduction
was always repeated, and sometimes the quick movement
concluded by returning to the slow tempo and material, and was
also repeated (see Bach's French Overture in the Klamcrilbung) .
The operatic French overture was frequently followed by
a series of dance tunes before the curtain rose. It thus naturally
became used as the prelude to a suite; and the Klavicriibiuig
French Overture of Bach is a case in point, the overture proper
being the introduction to a suite of seven dances. For the same
reason Bach's four orchestra;l suites are called overtures; and,
again, the prelude to the fourth partita in the Klavieriihung
is an overture.
Bach was able to use the French overture form for choruses,
and even for the treatment of chorales. Thus the overture,
properly so called, of his fourth orchestral suite became the
first chorus of the church cantata Unser Mund sei voll Lachcns;
the choruses of the cantatas Preise Jerusalem den Herrn and
H delist erwiinschtes Frendetifest are in overture form; and,
in the first of the two cantatas entitled Nun komm dcr Heidcn
Heiland, Bach has ingeniously adapted the overture form to the
treatment of a chorale.
With the rise of dramatic music and the sonata style, the French
overture became unsuitable for opera; and Gluck (whose remarks
on the function of overtures in the preface to Alccstc are
historic) based himself on Italian models, of loose texture, which
admit of a sweeping and massively contrasted technique (see
Symphony). By the time of Mozart's later works the overture
in the sonata style had clearly differentiated itself from strictly
symphonic music. It consists of a quick movement (with or
without a slow introduction), in sonata form, loose in texture,
without repeats, frequently without a development section,
but sometimes substituting for it a melodious episode in slow
time. Instances of this substitution are Mozart's " symphony "
in G (Kochel's catalogue 318), which is an overture to an unknown
opera, and his overtures to Die EntJUhrung and to Lo Sposo
deluso, in both of which cases the curtain rises at a point which
throws a remarkable dramatic light upon the peculiar form.
The overture to Figaro was at first intended to have a similar
slow middle section, which, however, Mozart struck out as soon
as he had begun it. In Beethoven's hands the overture style
and form increased its distinction from that of the symphony,
but it no longer remained inferior to it; and the final version
of the overture to Leonora (that known as No. 3) is the most
gigantic single orchestral movement ever based on the sonata
style.
Overtures to plays, such as Beethoven's to Collin's Coriolan,
naturally tend to become detached from their surroundings;
and hence arises the concert overture, second only to the
symphony in importance as a purely orchestral art-form. Its
derivation associates it almost inevitably with external poetic
ideas. These, if sufficiently broad, need in no way militate
against musical integrity of form; and Mendelssohn's Hebrides
overture is as perfect a masterpiece as can be found in any art.
The same applies to Brahms's Tragic Overture, one of his greatest
orchestral works, for which a more explanatory title would
be misleading as well as unnecessary. His Academic Festival
Overture is a highly organized working out of German student
songs.
In modern opera the overture, Vorspiel, Einleitung, Intro-
duction, or whatever else it may be called, is generally nothing
more definite than that portion of the music which takes place
before the curtain rises. TauHhaiiscr is the last case of high
importance in which the overture (as originally written) is a
really complete instrumental piece prefixed to an opera in tragic
and continuous dramatic style. In lighter opera, where sectional
forms are still possible, a separable overture is not out of place,
though even Ca/mcn is remarkable in the dramatic way in which
its overture foreshadows the tragic end and leads directly to
the rise of the curtain. Wagner's Vorspiel to Lohengrin is a
short self-contained movement founded on the music of the
Crail. With all its wonderful instrumentation, romantic beauty
and identity with subsequent music in the first and third acts,
it does not represent a further departure from the formal classical
overture than that shown fifty years earlier by Mehul's interesting
overtures to Ariodant and Uthal, in the latter of which a voice
is several times heard on the stage before the rise of the curtain.
The Vorspiel to Die Meistersinger, though very enjoyable by
itself and needing only an additional tonic chord to bring it
to an end, really loses incalculably in refinement by so ending
in a concert room. In its proper position its otherwise dis-
proportionate climax leads to the rise of the curtain and the
engaging of the listener's mind in a crowd of dramatic and
spectacular sensations amply adequate to account for that long
introductory instrumental crescendo. The Vorspiel to Tristan
has been very beautifully finished for concert use by Wagner
himself, and the considerable length and subtlety of the added
page shows how little calculated for independent existence
the original Vorspiel was. Lastly, the Parsifal Vorspiel is a
composition which, though finished for concert use by Wagner
in a few extra bars, asserts itself with the utmost lucidity
and force as a prelude to some vast design. The orchestral
preludes to the four dramas of the Ring owe their whole meaning
to their being mere preparations for the rise of the curtain;
and these works can no more be said to have overtures than
Verdi's Falstajf and Strauss's Salome, in which the curtain rises
at the first note of the music. (D. F. T.)
OVERYSEL, or Overyssel, a province of Holland, bounded
S. and S.W. by Gelderland, N.W. by the Zuider Zee, N. by
Friesland and Drente, and E. by the Prussian provinces of
Hanover and Westphalia respectively; area 1291 sq. m.; pop.
(1904) 359,443. It includes the island of Schokland in the
Zuider Zee. Like Drente on the north and Gelderland on the
south, Overysel consists of a sandy flat relieved by hillocks, and
is covered with waste stretches of heath and patches of wood and
high fen. Along the shores of the Zuider Zee, however, west
of the ZwoUe-Leeuwarden railway, the country is low-lying and
covered for the most part with fertile pasture lands. Cattle-
rearing and butter and cheese making are consequently the chief
occupations, while on the coast many of the people are engaged
in making mats and besoms. The river system of the province
is determined by two main ridges of hills. The first of these
extends from the southern border at Markelo to the Lemeler
hill (262 ft.) near the confluence of the Vecht and Regge, and
forms the watershed between the Regge and the Salland streams
(Sala, whence Sahs, Isala, Ysel), which unite at Zwolle to form
the Zwarte Water. The other ridge of hills extends through the
south-eastern division of the province called Twente, from
Enschede to Ootmarsum, and divides the basin of the Almelosche
Aa from the Dinkel and its streams. The river Vecht crosses the
province from E. to W. and joins the Zwarte Water, which com-
municates with the Zuider Zee by the Zwolsche Diep and with
the Ysel by the WiUemsvaart. Everywhere along the streams
is a strip of fertile grass-land, from which agriculture and cattle-
rearing have gradually spread over the sand-grounds. A large
proportion of the sand-grounds, however, is waste. Forest
culture is practised on parts of them, especially in the east,
and pigs are largely bred. The deposits of the Salland and the
Dinkel streams are found to contain iron ore, which is extracted
and forms an article of export to Germany. Peat-digging
and fen reclamation have been carried on from an early period,
and the area of high fen which formerly covered the portion
of the province to the north of the Vecht in the neighbourhood
XX. 13
386
OVID >
of Dedemsvaart has been mostly reclaimed. This industry is
now most active on the eastern borders between Almelo and
Hardenberg, Vriezenveen being the chief fen colony. Cotton-
spinning, together with bleaching-works, has come into promin-
ence in the 19th century in the district of Twente. The reason
of its isolated settlement here is to be found in the former general
practice of weaving as a home craft and its organization as an
industry by capitalist Baptist refugees who arrived in the 17th
and i8th centuries. The chief town of the province is Zwolle,
and other thriving industrial centres are Deventer, famous for
its carpets and cake, and Almelo, Enschede, Hengelo and
Oldenzaal in Twente. Kampen, Genemuiden, VoUenhove and
Blokzyl, on the Zuider Zee, carry on some fishing trade. Near
VoUenhove was the castle of Toutenburg, built in 1 502-1 533 by
the famous stadtholder of the emperor Charles V., George Schenk.
The castle was demolished in the beginning of the iqth century
and the remains are slight. The railway system of the province
is supplemented by steam tram-lines between ZwoDe, Dedems-
vaart and Hardenberg.
OVID [PuBLius OviDiTJS Naso] (43 B.c.-A.D. 1 7), Roman
poet, the last of the Augustan age, was born in 43 B.C., the last
year of the republic, the year of the death of Cicero. Thus the
only form of political life known to Ovid was that of the absolute
rule of Augustus and his successor. His character was neither
strengthened nor sobered, like that of his older contemporaries,
by personal recollection of the crisis through which the republic
passed into the empire. There is no sense of political freedom
in his writings. The spirit inherited from his ancestors was that
of the Italian country districts, not that of Rome. He was
born on the 20th of March (his self-consciousness has preserved
the exact day of the month)' at Sulmo, now Sulmona, a town of
the Paeligni, picturesquely situated among the mountains of the
Abruzzi: its wealth of waters and natural beauties seem to have
strongly affected the young poet's imagination (for he often
speaks of them with affectionate admiration) and to have
quickened in him that appreciative eye for the beauties of nature
which is one of the chief characteristics of his pwems. The
Paehgni were one of the four small mountain peoples whose
proudest memories were of the part they had played in the
Social War. But in spite of this they had no old race-hostility
with Rome, and their opposition to the senatorial aristocracy
in the Social War would predispose them to accept the empire.
Ovid, whose father was of equestrian family, belonged by birth
to the same social class as Tibullus and Propertius, that of old
hereditary landowners; but he was more fortunate than they
in the immunity which his native district enjoyed from the
confiscations made by the triumvirs. His vigorous vitality
was apparently a gift transmitted to him by heredity; for he
tells us that his father hved till the age of ninety, and that he
performed the funeral rites to his mother after his father's death.
While he mentions both with the piety characteristic of the old
Italian, he tells us httle more alaout them than that " their
thrift curtailed his youthful expenses,"^ and that his father
did what he could to dissuade him from poetry, and force him
into the more profitable career of the law. He and his brother
had been brought early to Rome for their education, where
they attended the lectures of two most eminent teachers of
rhetoric, AreUius Fuscus and Porcius Latro, to which influence
is due the strong rhetorical element in Ovid's style. He is
said to have attended these lectures eagerly, and to have
shown in his exercises that his gift was poetical rather than
-oratorical, and that he had a distaste for the severer processes
of thought.
Like Pope, "he hsped in numbers,"' and he wrote and
destroyed many verses before he published anything. The
earliest edition of the Amores, which first appeared in five books,
and the Heroides were given by him to the world at an early age.
" Virgil," he informs us, " he had only seen "; but Virgil's
friend and contemporary Aemilius Macer used to read his
didactic poems to him; and even the fastidious Horace some-
^ Trist. iv. 10. 13. ' Am. i. 3. 10.
^ Trisl. iv. 10. 26 " at quod temptabam scribere, versus erat."
times delighted his ears with the music of his verse. He had a
close bond of intimacy with the younger poets of the older
generation — Tibullus, whose death he laments in one of the few
pathetic pieces among his earlier writings, and Propertius, to
whom he describes himself as united in the close ties of comrade-
ship. The name of Maecenas he nowhere mentions. The time
of his influence was past when Ovid entered upon his poetical
career. But the veteran politician Messalla, the friend of
TibuUus, together with his powerful son Cotta Messalhnus and
Fabius Ma.ximus, who are mentioned together by Juvenal *
along with Maecenas as types of munificent patrons of letters,
and other influential persons whose names are preserved in the
Epistles from Pontus, encouraged his literary efTorts and extended
to him their support. He enjoyed also the intimacy of poets and
literary men, chiefly of the younger generation, whose names he
enumerates in Ex Ponto, iv. 16, though, with the exception of
Domitius Marsus and Grattius, they are scarcely more than
names to us. With the older poet, Macer, he traveDed for more
than a year. Whether this was immediately after the com-
pletion of his education, or in the interval between the publica-
tion of his earlier poems and that of the Medea and Ars amatoria
is unknown, but it is in his later works, the Fasli and Meta-
morphoses, that we chiefly recognize the impressions of the
scenes he visited. In one of the Epistles from Pontus (ii. 10)
to his fellow-traveller there is a vivid record of the pleasant time
they had passed together. Athens was to a Roman then what
Rome is to an educated Englishman of the present day. Ovid
speaks of having gone there under the influence of literary
enthusiasm, and a similar impulse induced him to visit the
supposed site of Troy. The two friends saw together the illustri-
ous cities of Asia, which had inspired the enthusiasm of travel
in Catullus, and had become familiar to Cicero and Horace during
the years they passed abroad. They spent nearly a year in
Sicily, which attracted him, as it had attracted Lucretius' and
Virgil,* by its manifold charm of climate, of sea-shore and
inland scenery, and of legendary and poetical association. He
recalls with a fresh sense of pleasure the incidents of their tour,
and the endless delight which they had in each other's conversa-
tion. We would gladly exchange the record of his life of pleasure
in Rome for more of these recollections. The highest type of
classic Roman culture shows its afiinity to that of modern times
by nothing more clearly than the enthusiasm for travel among
lands famous for their natural beauty, their monuments of art
and their historical associations.
When settled at Rome, although a public career leading to
senatorial position was open to him, and although he filled various
minor judicial posts and claims to have filled them well, he had
no ambition for such distinction, and looked upon pleasure
and poetry as the occupations of his life. He was three times
married; when little more than a boy to his first wife, whom
he naively describes as unworthy of himself:' but he was soon
separated from her and took a second wife, with whom his union,
although through no fault of hers, did not last long. She was
probably the mother of his one daughter. Later he was joined
to a third wife, of whom he always speaks with affection and
respect. She was a lady of the great Fabian house, and thus
connected with his powerful patron Fabius Ma.ximus, and was a
friend of the empress Livia. It therefore seems hkely that he
may have been admitted into the intimacy of the younger
society of the Palatine, although in the midst of his most fulsome \
flattery he does not claim ever to have enjoyed the favour of
Augustus. His liaison with his mistress Corinna, whom he
celebrates in the Amores, took place probably in the period
between his first and second, or between his second and third
marriages. It is doubtful whether Corinna was, like Catullus'
Lesbia, a lady of recognized position, or whether she belonged to
* Juv. vii. 95.
* Lucret. i. 726 —
" quae cum magna modis multis miranda videtur
gentibus humanis regio visendaque fertur."
' Sueton. (Donatus), Vita Virg. 13 " quamquam secessu Cam-
paniae Siciliaeque plurimum uteretur. '
' Trist. iv. 10. 69-70.
OVID
387
the same class as the Chloes and Lalages of Horace's artistic
fancy. If we can trust the poet's later apologies for his life,
in which he states that he had never given occasion for any
serious scandal, it is probable that she belonged to the class of
libertinae. However that may be, Ovid is not only a less constant
but he is a less serious lover than his great predecessors Catullus,
Tibullus and Propertius. His tone is that either of mere sensuous
feeling or of irony. In his complete emancipation from all
restraint he goes beyond them, and thus reflects the tastes and
spirit of fashionable Rome between the years 20 B.C. and the
beginning of our era. Society was then bent simply on amuse-
ment; and, as a result partly of the loss of political interests,
women came to play a more important and briUiant part in its
hfe than they had done before. Julia, the daughter of the
emperor, was by her position, her wit and beauty, and her reck-
less dissipation, the natural leader of such a society. But the
discovery of her intrigue (2 B.C.) with lulus Antonius, the son of
Mark Antony, was deeply resented by Augustus as being at
once a shock to his affections and a blow to his policy of moral
reform. Julia was banished and disinherited; Antonius and her
many lovers were punished; and the Roman world awoke from
its fool's paradise of pleasure. Nearly coincidently with this
scandal appeared Ovid's Ars amatoria, perhaps the most immoral
work ever written by a man of genius, though not the most
demoralizing, since it is entirely free from morbid sentiment.
By its brilliancy and heartlessness it appealed to the prevailing
taste of the fashionable world; but its appearance excited deep
resentment in the mind of the emperor, as is shown by his edict,
issued ten years later, against the book and its author. Augustus
had the art of dissembhng his anger; and Ovid appears to have
had no idea of the storm that was gathering over him. He still
continued to enjoy the society of the court and the fashionable
world; he passed before the emperor in the annual procession
among the ranks of the equites; and he developed a richer vein
of genius than he had shown in his youthful prime. But he was
aware that public opinion had been shocked, or professed to be
shocked, by his last work; and after writing a kind of apology for
it, called the Remedia amoris, he turned to other subjects, and
wrote during the next ten years the Metamorphoses and the Fasti.
He had already written the Heroides, in which he had imparted
a modern and romantic interest to the heroines of the old
mythology,' and a tragedy, the Medea, which must have afforded
greater scope for the dramatic and psychological treatment of the
passion with which he was most familiar. In the Fasti Ovid
assumes the position of a national poet^ by imparting poetical
hfe and interest to the ceremonial observances of the Roman
religion; but it is as the brilliant narrator of the romantic tales
that were so strangely blended with the realistic annals of Rome
that he succeeds in the part assumed by him. The Metamorphoses
is a narrative poem which recounts legends in which the miracul-
ous involved transformations of shape. Beginning with the
change from Chaos to Cosmos, legends first Greek and then
Roman are passed in review, concluding with the metamorphosis
of Julius Caesar into a star and a promise of immortality to
Augustus. The long series of stories, which consist to a large
extent of tales of the love adventures of the gods with nymphs
and the daughters of men, is strongly tinged with Alexandrine
influence, being in fact a succession of epyllia in the Alexandrine
manner. This work, which Ovid regards as his most serious
claim to immortahty, had not been finally revised at the time of
his disgrace, and in his despair he burnt it; but other copies
were in existence, and when he was at Tomi it was published at
Rome by one of his friends. He often regrets that it had not
received his final revision. The Fasti also was broken off by his
exile, after the publication of the first six books, treating of the
first six months of the year.
Ovid assigns two causes for his banishment, his Ars amatoria,
and an actual offence.^ What this was is not known, but his
' The essentially modern character of the work appears in his
making a heroine of the time of the Trojan war speak of visiting
" learned " Athens {Heroid. ii. 83).
^ " Animos ad publica carmina flexi " {Trisl. v. I. 23).
' rru(. ii. 207. ;., -I I .. n-.-itM < ',
frequent references to it enable us to conjecture its character.
He tells us that there was no breach of law on his part ; he
distinctly disclaims having been concerned in any treasonable
plot: his fault was a mistake of judgment {error), an unpre-
meditated act of folly. He had been an unintentional witness
of some culpable act committed by another or others — of some
act which nearly affected the emperor, and the mention of which
was Hkely to prove offensive to him. Ovid himself had reaped
no personal gain from his conduct. Though his original act was
a pardonable error, he had been prevented by timidity from
atoning for it subsequently by taking the straightforward course.
In a letter to an intimate friend, to whom he had been in the
habit of confiding all his secrets, he says that had he confided this
one he would have escaped condemnation.'' In writing to another
friend he warns him against the danger of courting too high
society. This offence, which excited the anger of Augustus, was
connected in some way with the publication of the Ars amatoria,
since that fact was recited by the emperor in his sentence. All
this points to his having been mixed up in a scandal affecting
the imperial family, and seems to connect him with one
event, coincident with the time of his disgrace (a.d. 9), the
intrigue of the younger Julia, granddaughter of Augustus, with
D. Silanus, mentioned by Tacitus.* Augustus deeply felt these
family scandals, looking upon them as acts of treason and
sacrilege. Julia was banished to the island of Trimerus, off the
coast of Apulia. Silanus withdrew into voluntary exile. The
chief punishment fell on Ovid, who was banished. The poet at
the worst could only have been a confidant of the intrigue; but
Augustus must have regarded him and his works as, if not the
corrupter of the age, at least the most typical representative
of that corruption which had tainted so direly even the imperial
family. Ovid's form of banishment was the mildest possible
(relegalio); it involved no deprivation of civic rights, and left
him the possession of his property. He was ordered to remove
to the half-Greek, half-barbaric town of Tomi, near the mouth
of the Danube. He recounts vividly the agony of his last night
in Rome, and the hardships of his November voyage down the
Adriatic and up the Gulf of Corinth to Lechaeum, where he
crossed the isthmus and took ship again from Cenchreae to
Samothrace, whence in the following spring he proceeded over-
land through Thrace to his destination. For eight years he
bore up in his dreary solitude, suffering from the unhealthiness
of the climate and the constant alarm of inroads of barbarians.
In the hope of procuring a remission of his punishment he wrote
poetical complaints, first in the series of the five books of the
Tristia, sent successively to Rome, addressed to friends whose
names he suppresses; afterwards in a number of poetical
epistles, the Epistiilae ex Ponto, addressed by name to friends
who were hkely to have influence at court. He believed that
Augustus had softened towards him before his death, but his
successor Tiberius was inexorable to his appeals. His chief
consolation was the exercise of his art, though as time goes on
he is painfully conscious of failure in power. But although the
works written by him in exile lack the finished art of his earlier
writings, their personal interest is greater. They have, hke
the letters of Cicero to Atticus, the fascination exercised by
those works which have been given to the world under the title
of Confessions; they are a sincere Uterary expression of the state
of mind produced by a unique experience — that of a man,
when well advanced in years but still retaining extraordinary
sensibihty to pleasure and pain, withdrawn from a brilliant
social and intellectual position, and cast upon his own resources
in a place and among people affording the dreariest contrast
to the brightness of his previous hfe. How far these confidences
are to be regarded as equally sincere expressions of his affection
or admiration for his correspondents is another question. Even
in those addressed to his wife, though he speaks of her with
affection and respect, there may perhaps be detected a certain
ring of insincerity in his conventional comparisons of her to the
Penelopes and Laodamias of ancient legend. Had she been a
Penelope or Laodamia she would have accompanied him in
* Trist. iii. 6. 11. ^ Ann. iii. 24.
388
OVID
his exile, as we learn from Tacitus was done by other wives'
in the more evil days of which he wrote the record. The letters,
which compose the Tristia and Epistulae ex Ponto, are addressed
either to his wife, the emperor, or the general reader, or to his
patrons and friends. To his patrons he writes in a vein of
supplication, beseeching them to use their influence on his
behalf. To his rather large circle of intimate acquaintances
he writes in the language of famiharity, and often of affectionate
regard; he seeks the sympathy of some, and speaks with bitter-
ness of the coldness of others, and in three poems^ he complains
of the relentless hostility of the enemy who had contributed to
procure his exile, and whom he attacked in the Ibis. There is
a note of true affection in the letter to the young lyric poetess
PeriUa, of whose genius and beauty he speaks with pride, and
whose poetic talents he had fostered by friendly criticism.'
He was evidently a man of gentle and genial manners; and, as
his active mind induced him to learn the language of the new
people among whom he was thrown, his active interest in hfe
enabled him to gain their regard and various marks of honour.
One of his last acts was to revise the Fasti, and re-edit it with
a dedication to Germanicus. The closing hnes of the Epistulae
ex Ponto sound hke the despairing sigh of a drowning man who
had long struggled alone v/ith the waves: —
" Omnia perdidimus: tantummodo vita rellcta est,
Praebeat ut sensum materiamque mali."
Shortly after these words were written he died in his sixty-first
year in a.d. 17, the fourth year of the reign of Tiberius.
The temperament of Ovid, as indicated in his writings, has
more in common with the suppleness of the later Itahan than
with the strength and force of the ancient Roman. That stamp
of her own character and understanding which Rome impressed
on the genius of those other races which she incorporated with
herself is fainter in Ovid than in any other great writer. He
ostentatiously disclaims the manliness which in the repubhcan
times was regarded as the birthright not of Romans only but
of the SabeUian races from which he sprang. He is as devoid of
dignity in his abandonment to pleasure as in the weakness with
which he meets calamity. He has no depth of serious conviction,
no vein of sober reflection, and is sustained by no great or elevat-
ing purpose. Although the beings of a supernatural world
fill a large place in his writings, they appear stripped of all
sanctity and mystery. It is difficult to say whether the tone
of his references to the gods and goddesses of mythology implies
a kind of half-beheving return to the most childish elements
of paganism, or is simply one of mocking unbelief. He has
absolutely no reverence, and consequently inspires no reverence
in his reader. With all a poet's feeling for the life, variety and
subtlety of nature, he has no sense of her mystery and majesty.
The love which he celebrates is sensual and superficial, a matter
of vanity as much as of passion. He prefers the piquant attrac-
tion of falsehood and fickleness to the charm of truth and con-
stancy. Even where he follows the Roman tendencies in his art
he perverts them. The Fasti is a work conceived in the prosaic
spirit of Roman antiquarianism. It is redeemed from being
prosaic by the picturesqueness and vivacity with which the
legends are told. But its conception might have been more
poetical if it had been penetrated by the religious and patriotic
spirit with which Virgil invests ancient ceremonies, and the
mysticism with which he accepts the revelations of science.
In this respect the contrast is great between the reverential
treatment which the trivialities of legend and science receive in
the Georgics and Aejieid, and the literal definiteness of the Fasti.
These defects in strength and gravity show a corresponding
result in Ovid's writings. Though possessing diligence, per-
severance and Uterary ambition, he seems incapable of conceiv-
' Tac. Hist. i. 3 " comitatae profugos liberos matres, secutae
maritos in exilia coniuges."
2 Trist. iii. 11, iv. 9, v. 8.
' Trist. iii. 7. PeriUa has by many been erroneously supposed
to have been the poet's own daughter; but this is impossible, since
she is described as young and still living under her mother's roof,
whereas at the time of Ovid's exile his daughter was already married
to her second husband.
ing a great and serious whole. Though a keen observer of the
superficial aspects of life, he has added few great thoughts to
the intellectual heritage of the world.'' But with aU the levity
of his character he must have had qualities which made him,
if not much esteemed, yet much liked in his own day, and which
are apparent in the genial amiability of his writings. He claims
for himself two virtues highly prized by the Romans, fides and
candor — the qualities of social honour and kindly sincerity.
There is no indication of anything base, ungenerous or morose
in his relations to others. Literary candor, the generous apprecia-
tion of all sorts of excellence, he possesses in a remarkable degree.
He heartily admires everything in hterature, Greek or Roman,
that had any merit. In him more than any of the Augustan
poets we find words of admiration applied to the rude genius
of Ennius and the majestic style of Accius. It is by him, not
by Virgil or Horace, that Lucretius is first named and his sub-
limity is first acknowledged.* The image of Catullus that most
haunts the imagination is that of the poet who died so early —
" hedera iuvenalia cinctus
Tempora,"
as he is represented by Ovid coming to meet the shade of the
young Tibullus in Elysium.^ To his own contemporaries, known
and unknown to fame, he is as liberal in his words of recognition.'
He enjoyed society too in a thoroughly amiable and unenvious
spirit. He lived on a friendly footing with a large circle of men
of letters, poets, critics, grammarians, &c., but he Showed none
of that sense of superiority which is manifest in Horace's estimate
of the " tribes of grammarians " and the poetasters of his day.
Like Horace too he courted the society of the great, though
probably not with equal independence; but unlike Horace he
expresses no contempt for the humbler world outside. With
his irony and knowledge of the world it might have been expected
that he would become the social satirist of his age. But he
lacked the censorious and critical temper, and the admixture
of gall necessary for a successful satirist. In his exile he did
retaliate on one enemy and persistent detractor in the Ibis, a
poem written in imitation of a similar work by CaUimachus;
but the Ibis is not a satire, but an invective remarkable rather
for recondite learning than for epigrammatic sting.
But Ovid's chief personal endowment was his vivacity, and
his keen interest in and enjoyment of life. He had no grain
of discontent in his composition; no regrets for an ideal past, or
longings for an imaginary future. The age in which he lived was,
as he tells us, that in which more than any other he would have
wished to live.* He is its most gifted representative, but he does
not rise above it. The great object of his art was to amuse and
delight it by the vivid picture he presented of its fashions and
pleasures, and by creating a literature of romance which reflected
them, and which could stimulate the curiosity and fascinate the
fancy of a society too idle and luxurious for serious intellectual
effort. The sympathy which he felt for the love adventures of
his contemporaries, to which he probably owed his fall, quickened
his creative power in the composition of the Heroides and the
romantic tales of the Metamorphoses. None of the Roman poets
can people a purely imaginary world with such spontaneous
fertihty of fancy as Ovid. In heart and mind he is inferior to
Lucretius and Catullus, to Virgil and Horace, perhaps to Tibullus
and Propertius; but in the power and range of imaginative
vision he is surpassed by no ancient and by few modern poets.
This power of vision is the counterpart of his Hvely sensuous
nature. He has a keener eye for the apprehension of outward
beauty, for the hfe and colour and forms of nature, than any
Roman or perhaps than any Greek poet. This power, acting upon
the wealth of his varied reading, gathered with eager curiosity
and received into a singularly retentive mind, has enabled him
to depict with consummate skill and sympathy legendary scenes
of the most varied and picturesque beauty. If his tragedy, the
* There are found in him some exceptionally fine expressions,
such as Her. iii. 106 " qui bene pro patria cum patriaque iacent ";
and Met. vii. 20 " video meliora proboque, deteriora sequor."
^ Am. i. 15. 19 flf. ' Am. iii. 9. 61.
' Ex Ponto, iv. 16. ' Ars amatoria, iii. 121 S.
OVID
389
Medea, highly praised by ancient critics, had been preserved,
we should have been able to judge whether Roman art was
capable of producing a great drama. In many of the Heroides,
and in several speeches scattered through his works, he gives
evidence of true dramatic creativeness. Unlike his great pre-
decessor Catullus, he has little of the idyllic in his art, or whatever
of idyllic there is in it is lost in the rapid movement of his narra-
tive. But he is one, among the poets of all times, who can imagine
a story with the most vivid inventiveness and tell it with the
most unflagging animation. The faults of his verse and diction
are those which arise from the vitality of his temperament — too
facile a flow, too great exuberance of illustration. He has as little
sense of the need of severe restraint in his art as in his life. He is
not without mannerism, but he is quite unaffected, and, however
far short he might fall of the highest excellence of verse or style,
it was not possible for him to be rough or harsh, dull or obscure.
As regards the school of art to which he belongs, he may
be described as the most brilliant representative of Roman
Alexandrinism. The latter half of the Augustan age was, in
its social and intellectual aspects, more like the Alexandrine
age than any other era of antiquity. The Alexandrine age was
like the Augustan, one of refinement and luxury, of outward
magnificence and literary dilettantism flourishing under the
fostering influence of an absolute monarchy. Poetry was the
most important branch of literature cultivated, and the chief
subjects of poetry were mythological tales, various phases of
the passion of love, the popular aspects of science and some
aspects of the beauty of nature. These two were the chief
subjects of the later Augustan poetry. The higher feeUngs and
ideas which found expression in the poetry of Virgil, Horace
and the writers of an older generation no longer acted on the
Roman world. It was to the private tastes and pleasures of
individuals and society that Roman Alexandrinism had appealed
both in the poetry of Catullus, Cinna, Calvus and their school,
and in that of Gallus, Tibullus and Propertius. Ovid was the
last of this class of writers.
His extant works faU naturally into three divisions, those of
his youth, of middle Hfe and of his later years. To the first
of these divisions belong the amatory poems: (i) the three
books of Amores (originally five, but reduced in a later recension
to three) relating to his amours with his mistress Corinna; (2)
the Medicamina formae, or, as it is sometimes called Medicamina
faciei, a fragment of a hundred lines on the use of cosmetics;
(3) the three books of the Ars amaioria, rules for men and
women by which they may gain the affections of the other
sex; (4) the Remedia amoris (one book), a kind of recantation
of the Ars amatoria. To the second division belong (5) the
fifteen books of the Metamorphoses, and (6) the six books of
the Fasti, which was originally intended to be in twelve books,
but which breaks off the account of the Roman calendar with
the month of June. To the third division belong (7) the five
books of the Trislia, (8) the Ibis, an invective against an enemy
who had assisted to procure his fall, written in elegiac couplets
probably soon after his exile; (g) the four books of Epislulae
ex Panto. Of these the first three were published soon after the
Trislia, while the fourth book is a collection of scattered poems
published by some friend soon after the author's death. The
Halietilica is a didactic fragment in hexameters on the natural
history of fishes, of doubtful genuineness, though it is certain
that Ovid did begin such a work at the close of his life.^
In his extant works Ovid confined himself to two metres —
the elegiac couplet and the hexameter. The great mass of his
poetry is written in the first; while the Metamorphoses and the
Halieutica are composed in the second. Of the elegiac couplet
he is the acknowledged master. By fixing it into a uniform,
mould he brought it to its highest perfection; and the fact that
the great mass of elegiac verse written subsequently has en-
deavoured merely to reproduce the echo of his rhythm is evidence
of his pre-eminence. In the direct expression and illustration
of feeling his elegiac metre has more ease, vivacity and sparkle
than that of any of his predecessors, while he alone has com-
' Plin. Hist. Nat. xxxii. 152.
municated to it, without altering its essential characteristic
of recurrent and regular pauses, a fluidity and rapidity of move-
ment which make it an admirable vehicle for pathetic and
picturesque narrative. It was impossible for him to give to
the hexameter greater perfection, but he imparted to it also a
new character, wanting indeed the weight and majesty and
intricate harmonics of Virgil, but rapid, varied, animated
in complete accord with the swift, versatile and fervid movement
of his imagination. One other proof he gave of his irrepressible
energy by composing during his exile a poem in the Getic (Gothic)
language in praise of Augustus, Tiberius and the imperial
family, the loss of which, whatever it may have been to literature,
is much to be reg-'etted in the interests of philology.
It was in Ovid's writings that the world of romance and wonder
created by Greek imagination was first revealed to modern limes.
The vivid fancy, the transparent lucidity, the liveliness, ease
and directness through which he reproduced his models made his
works the most accessible and among the most attractive of
the recovered treasures of antiquity. His influence was first
felt in the Uterature of the Italian Renaissance. But in the
most creative periods of English literature he seems to have been
read more than any other ancient poet, not even excepting
Virgil, and it was on minds such as those of Marlowe, Spenser,
Shakespeare,^ Milton and Drydenthat he acted most powerfully.
His influence is equaUy unmistakable during the classical era
of Addison and Pope. The most successful Latin verse of modern
times has been written in imitation of him; the faculty of
literary composition and feeling for ancient Roman culture
has been largely developed in the great schools of England and
France by the writing of Ovidian elegiacs. His works afforded
also abundant stimulus and materials to the great painters
who flourished during and immediately after the Renaissance.
Thus his first claim on the attention of modern readers is the
influence which he has exercised on the development of literature
and art; for this, if for no other reason, his works must always
retain an importance second only to those of Virgil and Horace.
He is interesting further as the sole contemporary exponent
of the last half of the Augustan age, the external aspects and
inner spirit of which is known from the works, not of contemporary
historians or prose-writers, but from its poets. The successive
phases of Roman feeling and experience during this critical
period are revealed in the poetry of Virgil, Horace and Ovid.
VirgO throws an idealizing and religious halo around the hopes
and aspirations of the nascent empire. Horace presents the
most complete image of its manifold aspects, realistic and ideal.
Ovid reflects the life of the world of wealth and fashion under
the influence of the new court, its material prosperity, its refine-
ment, its frivolity and its adulation. For the continuous
study of the Roman world in its social and moral relations his
place is important as marking the transition between the repre-
sentation of Horace, in which the life of pleasure and amusement
has its place, but is subordinate to the life of reflection and serious
purpose, and that life which reveals itself in the cynicism of
Martial and the scornful indignation of Juvenal. He is the
last true poet of the great age of Roman literature, which begins
with Lucretius and closes with him. No Roman poet writes
' with such vivacity and fertility of fancy; in respect of these
two qualities we recognize in him the countryman of Cicero
and Livy. But the type of genius of which he affords the best
example is more familiar in modern Italian than in ancient Roman
literature. While the serious spirit of Lucretius and Virgil
reappeared in Dante, it is Ariosto who may be said to reproduce
the light-hearted gaiety and brilliant fancy of Ovid.
Bibliography. — The life of Ovid was first treated systematically
by J. Masson, Ovidii vita ordine chronologico digesta (1780) (often
reprinted, e.g. in Burmann's edition). Modern literature on this
subject will be found in Teuffel's History of Roman Literature (Eng.
trans., ed. 2), § 247, and S. G. Owen's edition of Tristia, bk. i. The
very numerous manuscripts of Ovid are chiefly of late date, 13th
to 15th century. The earliest and best are: for the Heroides a
Paris MS. of the 9th, a Wolfenbuttel MS. of the 12th and an Eton
2 The influence of Ovid on Shakespeare is shown conclusively
by T. S. Baynes, Shakespeare Studies (1894), p. 195 ff.
390
OVIEDO
fragmentary MS. of the nth century (the Epistula Sapphus, found
in no early MS., is best preserved in a 13th-century Frankfort, and
a 15th-century Harleian MS.); for the Amores, Ars amatoria,
Remedia amoris, two Paris MSS. of the 9th and loth century re-
spectively; for the Medicamina formae a Florence MS. (Marcianus)
of the nth; for the Metamorphoses two Florence MSS. (Marcianus
and Laurentianus) and a Naples MS., all of the nth century; for
the Fasti two Vatican MSS. of the loth and nth century; for the
Tristia a Florence MS. of the nth; for the Epistulae ex Ponto a
fragmentary Wolfenbiittel MS. of the 6th and a Hamburg and
two Munich MSS. of the 12th; for the Ibis a Trinity College, Cam-
bridge, MS. of the 1 2th; for the Halieutica a Paris MS. of the gth
or loth, and a Vienna MS. of the 9th century. Important for the
text of the Heroides and Metamorphoses is the interesting paraphrase
written in Greek by the monk Maximus Planudes in the latter
half of the 13th centur\- at Constantinople; that of the Heroides is
printed in Palmer's edition of the Heroides (1898), that of the
Metamorphoses in Lemaire's edition of Ovid, vol. v., edited by
Boissonade. See also Gudeman, De Heroidum Ovidii codice Planudeo
(Berlin, 1888).
Two independent editiones principes of Ovid were published con-
temporaneously in 147 1, one at Rome, printed by Sweynheym and
Pannartz, and one at Bologna by Balthasar Azoguidius: these
present entirely different texts. See Owen's Trislium libri, v. p. Iv.
ff. The following are the most important editions: those marked
with an asterisk have explanatory notes. Of the whole works:
♦Heinsius-Burmann (1727); *Amar-Lemaire (1820-1824); Merkel-
Ehwald (1874-1888); Riese (1871-1889); Postgate's Corpus
poetarum Laiinorum, by various editors (i894),'reprinted separately
(1898). Of separate works: Amores, *Nemethy (1907); Heroides,
Sedlmayer (critical) (1886); *Palmer (1898); Epistula Sapphus
(separately), *De Vries (1888); Ars amatoria, *P. Brandt (1902);
Medicamina formae (critical), Kunz (1881); Metamorphoses, *]. C.
Jahn (1821); *Loers (1843); Korn (critical) (1880); *Magnus
(1885); *Haupt-Ehwald (1898-1903); Fasti, *Gierig (1812);
Mericel (1841) (critical, with learned prolegomena on the sources, the
Roman calendar, &c.); *Keightley (1848); *Paley (1854); *Peter
(1889); Tristia, *Loers (1839); S. G. Owen (1889) (critical)
*Bk. i. (1885), *Bk. iii. (1889); *Cocchia (1900); Epistulae ex
Ponto, Korn (1868) (critical), Bk.i. Keene (1887); *Ellis (1881);
Halieutica, "'Birt, De Halieuticis Ovidio poetae fatso adscriptis (1878).
The following verse translations in English deserve mention:
Amores, C. Marlowe (1600) (?); Heroides, Turbervile (1579);
Saltonstall (1639); Sherburne (1639), various hands, preface by
Dryden (3rd edition, 1683); Art of Love and Remedy of Love, Creed
(1600); Dryden and others (1709); Metamorphoses, Go\Am% (1567);
Sandys (1626); Dryden and others (1717); King (1871); Fasti,
Gower (1640); Rose (1866); Tristia, Saltonstall (1633); Catlin
(1639); Churchyarde (1816); Epistles from Pontus, Saltonstal
(1639); Jones (1658).
The special treatises on matters connected with Ovid are very
numerous; a fairly complete list up to the time of publication is
given in Owen's Tristia (critical edition), p. cviii. ff. ; in Teuffel's
History of Roman Literature (trans. byjWarr)and in Schanz's Geschichte
der romischen Litteratur; and in the excellent critical digests of
recent literature by Ehwald in the Jahresbericht iiber die Fortschritte
der classischen Altertumswissenschafl, xxxi. (1884) pp. 157 ff.,
lxx.x. (1894) pp. I, ff., cix. (1902) pp. 157 ff. The following deserve
special mention. On the history of the text: Ehwald, Ad historiam
carminum Ovidianorum symbolae (1889); Kritische Beitrdge zu
Ovids Epistulae ex Ponto (1896); Sedlmayer, Prolegomena ad
Heroidas (1878); Gruppe, Minos, pp. 441 ff. (on interpolations).
On style: Ovid's diction in connexion with other writers, — A.
Zingerle, Ovidius und sein Verhdltnis zu den Vorgdngern (1869-
1871); Martial's Ovid-Studien (1877); VV. Zingerle, Untersuchungen
zur Echtheitsfrage der Heroiden Ovids (1878); W. VoUgratf, Nikander
und Ovid (Groningen, 1909 foil.). Peculiarities of Ovid's style:
van Iddekinge, Ve Ovidii Romani iuris peritia (i8n); Washietl,
De similitudiiiibus imaginibusque Ovidianis (1883); M'Crea, On
Ovid's Use of Colour and Colour Terms (Classical studies in honour of
H. Drisler) (1894). Metre: the structure of the Ovidian pentameter
examined in relation to the textual criticism, — Hilberg, Gesetze der
Wortstellung im Pentameter des Ovid (1894) (fully reviewed by Ellis,
Classical Review, ix. 157). Literary appreciation: Sellar, Roman
Poets of the Augjistan Age; Lafaye, Les Metamorphoses d'Ovid et
leurs mod'cles grecs. Ovid's relation to works of art: Wunderer,
Ovids Werke in ihrem Verhdltnis zur antiken Kunst (1890-1891);
Engelmann, Bilder-Atlas zu Ovid's Metamorphosen (1890). Cause
of exile: the most interesting discussion is by Boissier in his L'Op-
position sous les Cesars. See also Nageotte, Ovide, sa vie, ses osuvres
(1872); Huber, Die Ursachen der Verbannung des Ovid (1888).
Influence of Ovid upon Shakespeare: T. S. Baynes, Shakespeare
Studies (1894), pp. 195 ff.; Constable, Shakespeare's "Venus und
Adonis " in Verhdltnis zu Ovid's Metamorphosen (1890). (S. G. O.)
OVIEDO, a maritime province of northern Spain, bounded on
the N. by the Bay of Biscay, E. by Santander, S. by Leon and
W. by Lugo. Pop. (1900) 627,069; area, 4205 sq. m. In
popular speech Oviedo is often called by its ancient name of
Asturias, which only ceased to be the oiScial title of the province
in 1833, when the Spanish system of local government was
reorganized. An account of the physical features, history and
inhabitants of this region is given under Asturias {q.v.). Oviedo
is rich in forests, coal, streams and waterfalls, which have
largely contributed to its modern industrial development. The
climate is generally mild, but overcharged with humidity, and
in the higher regions the winters are protracted and severe.
The broken character of the surface prevents anything hke
extensive agricultural industry, but abundant pasturage is found
in the valleys. The wheat crop frequently fails. Rye succeeds
better, and is often mixed with the maize which forms the
principal food of all but the higher classes. Chestnuts —
here, as elsewhere in Spain, an important article of diet —
are very abundant on the hills, and the trees supply valuable
timber. Apples are abundant, and cider forms the common
drink of the people; but little attention is paid to vines. The
horses of Oviedo rank among the best in Spain. Wild deer,
boars and bears were formerly common among the mountains;
and the sea-coasts, as well as the streams, abound with fish,
including salmon and lampreys, which are sent to the markets of
Madrid. Large quantities of sardines and tunny are also cured
and exported. Although no trace exists of the gold for which
Asturias was celebrated under its Roman rulers, Oviedo possesses
valuable coal measures, which are worked at Langreo, Mieres,
Santo Firme, Siero and elsewhere. More than 1,400,000 tons of
coal were produced in 1903, besides a considerable amount of
iron, mercury and cinnabar. The copper mines near Aviles and
Cangas de Onis, and the copper works which long supplied the
fairs of Leon and Castile with kettles, pots and similar utensils,
have lost their importance; but lead, magnesia, arsenic, cobalt,
lapis lazuli, alum, antimony, jet, marble and rock-crystal are
found in various parts of the province, while amber and coral
are gathered along the coast. There are manufactures of fine
textiles, coarse cloth and ribbons in Salas, Piloiia, Casas and
Aviles; of paper in Pianton; of porcelain and glass in Gijon,
Aviles and Pola de Surro; of arms in Oviedo and Trubia; while
foundries and works for the manufacture of agricultural imple-
ments, rails and pig-iron are numerous. An important highway
is the 16th-century Camino real, or royal road, leading from
Gijon to Leon and Madrid, which cost so much that the emperor
Charles V. inquired if it were paved with silver. A railway from
Madrid to Oviedo, Gijon and Aviles runs through some of the
most difficult parts of the Cantabrian chain. There are also
several branch railways, including numerous narrow-gauge hnes.
OVIEDO, an episcopal city and capital of the Spanish province
of Oviedo; 16 m. S. of the Bay of Biscay, on the river Nalon,
and on the Leon-Gijon Oviedo-Trubia and Oviedo-Infiesto
railways. Pop. (1900) 48,103. Oviedo is built on a hill rising
from a broad and picturesque valley, which is bounded on the
north-west by the Sierra de Naranco. The four main streets of
Oviedo, which meet in a central square called the Plaza Mayor
or Plaza de la Constitucion, are the roads connecting Gijon and
Leon (north and south) and Santander and Grado (east and west).
The streets are clean and well lighted; the projecting roofs of
the houses give a characteristic effect, and some portions of the
old Calle de la Plateria are highly picturesque. In the Plaza
Mayor is the handsome Casa Consistorial or town hall dating from
1662; the Jesuit church of San Isidro (1578), and some ancient
palaces of the Asturian nobiUty are architecturally interesting.
The university was founded by Philip III. in 1604; connected with
it are a line Kbrary and physical and chemical museums. The
Gothic cathedral, founded in 1388, occupies the site of a chapel
founded in the 8th century, of which only the Camara Santa
remains. The west front has a fine portico of ornamented
arches between the two towers. The interior contains some fine
stained glass, but has been much disfigured with modern rococo
additions. The Camara Santa (dating from 802) contains the
famous area of Oviedo, an nth-century Byzantine chest of
cedar, overlaid with silver reliefs of scenes in the lives of Christ,
the Virgin and the apostles. In it are preserved some highly
sacred rehcs, two crosses dating from the 8th and gth centuries
OVIEDO Y VALDES— OWEN, JOHN
and other valuable pieces of gold and silver plate. The cathedral
library has some curious old MSS., including a deed of gift made
by AlphonsoII.of Asturiasin8i2,anda collection of illuminated
documents of the 12th century, called the Libra golico. On the
Sierra de Naranco is the ancient Santa Maria de Naranco,
originally built by Ramiro I. of Asturias in 850 as a palace, and
afterwards turned into a church. Higher up the hill is San
Miguel de Lino, also of the gth century; and on the road to
Gijon, about a mile outside the town, is the SantuUano or church
of St Julian, also of very early date. Few towns in Spain have
better schools for primary and higher education, and there are
a literary and scientific institute, a meteorological observatory,
a school for teachers, a school of art, adult classes for artisans,
an archaeological museum and several public libraries. Oviedo
is the centre of a thriving trade in agricultural products; its
other industries are marble-quarrying, and the manufacture of
arms, cotton and woollen fabrics, iron goods, leather and matches.
Oviedo, founded in the reign of Fruela (762), became the fixed
residence of the kings of the Asturias in the time of Alphonso II.,
and continued to be so until about 024, when the advancing
reconquest of Spain from the Moors led them to remove their
capital to Leon. From that date the history of the city was
comparatively uneventful, until the Peninsular War, when it was
twice plundered by the French — under Ney in 1809 and under
Bonnet in iSio.
OVIEDO Y VALDiS, GONZALO FERNANDEZ DE (1478-
1557), Spanish historian, was born at Madrid in August 1478.
Educated at the court of Ferdinand and Isabella, in his thirteenth
year he became page to their son, the Infante Don John, was
present at the siege of Granada, and there saw Columbus previous
to his voyage to America. On the death of Prince John (4thof
October 1497), Oviedo went to Italy, and there acted as secretary
to Gonzalo Fernandez de Cordoba. In 1514 he was appointed
supervisor of gold-smelt ings at San Domingo, and on his return
to Spain in 1523 was appointed historiographer of the Indies.
He paid five more visits to America before his death, which took
place at Valladolid in 1557.
Besides a romance of chivalry entitled Claribalte (1519) Oviedo
wrote two extensive works of permanent value: La General y
natural historta de las Indias and Las Qiiinquagenas de la nobleza
de Espana. The former work was first issued at Toledo (1526) in
the form of a summary entitled La Natural hystoria de las Indias;
the first part of La Historia general de las Indias appeared at Seville
in 1535; but the complete work was not published till 1851-1855,
when it was edited by J. A. de los Rios for the Spanish Academy
of History. Though written in a diffuse style, it embodies a mass
of curious information collected at first hand, and the incomplete
Seville edition was widely read in the English and French versions
published by Eden and Poleur respectively in 1555 and 1556.
Las Casas describes it as " containing almost as many lies as pages,"
and Oviedo undoubtedly puts the most favourable interpretation
on the proceedings of his countrymen; but, apart from a patriotic
bias which is too obvious to be misleading, his narrative is both
trustworthy and interesting. In his Qiiinquagenas he indulges in
much lively gossip concerning eminent contemporaries; this col-
lection of quaint, moralizing anecdotes was first published at Madrid
in 1880, under the editorship of Vicente de la Fuente.
OVOLO (adapted from Ital. uovolo, diminutive of uovo, an
egg; other foreign equivalents are Fr. ove, echine, quart de rond;
Lat. echinus), in architecture, a convex moulding known also
as the echinus, which in Classic architecture was invariably
carved with the egg and tongue. In Roman and Italian work the
moulding is called by workmen a quarter round. It must not
be confounded with the echinus of the Greek Doric capital, as this
was of a more varied form and of much larger dimensions than
the ovolo, which was only a subordinate moulding.
OWATONNA, a city and the county-seat of Steele county,
Minnesota, U.S.A., on the Straight river, in the S.E. part of the
state, about 67 m. S. of Minneapolis and St Paul. Pop. (1900)
5561, of whom 1160 were foreign-born; (1905, state census)
5651. It is served by the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, the
Chicago & North-Wcstern, the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific
and the Minneapolis, Rochester & Dubuque (electric) railways.
Four fine steel bridges span the river at or near the city. Among
the public buildings are a handsome county court-house, a city
hall, an armoury, a city hospital and a public library. Owatonna
is the seat of the Pilisbury Academy (Baptist), the Sacred Heart
Academy (Roman Catholic) and the Canfield Commercial
School, and immediately west of the city is the State Public
School for Dependent and Neglected Children (1886). Thecity's
commercial importance is largely due to its situation in a rich
dairying and farming district, for which it is the shipping centre.
It has also various manufactures. There are valuable mineral
springs in the vicinity. The municipality owns and operates
the water-works. Owatonna was settled about 1855, was in-
corporated as a village in 1865, was chartered as a city in 1875
and received a new charter in 1909. Its name is a Sioux word
meaning " straight," the river having been previously named
Straight river.
OWEGO, a village and the county-seat of Tioga county.
New York, U.S.A., on the Owego Creek and on the N. side of the
Susquehanna river, 21 m. W. of Binghamton. Pop. (1910, U.S.
census) 4633. It is served by the I2rie, the Lehigh Valley and
the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western railways; a branch of
the last connects with Ithaca, N.Y. Owego occupies the site
of an Indian (probably Tuscarora) village named " Ah-wa-ga,"
which was destroyed by General James Clinton in 1779. The
name, of which " Owego " is a corruption, is said to mean
" where the valley widens." A white settlement and trading
post were set up here in 1785, and the village of Owego was
incorporated in 1827.
OWEN, SIR HUGH (i 804-1 881), Welsh educationist, was
born near Talyfoel Ferry, Anglesey, on the 14th of January 1804.
Educated at a private school at Carnarvon, he became clerk in
1825 to a barrister in London. In 1836 he entered the office of
the Poor Law Commission, eventually becoming chief clerk of
the Poor Law Board, and retiring in 1872 to devote himself
exclusively to educational work. As early as 1839 he had
become secretary for an association to start a National school
in Ishngton, and in 1843 he had published A Letter to the Welsh
People on the need of educational activity, which was widely
read. Successful in arousing the interest of the British and
Foreign School Society, he became in 1846 honorary secretary
of its newly-formed branch, the Cambrian School Society. He
was one of the founders of the Bangor Normal College, for the
training of teachers, and of the University College of Wales at
Aberystwith, of which for many years he was honorary secretary
and treasurer. He was for three years a member of the London
School Board. His scheme for secondary education, formulated
in 1881, was almost wholly adopted after his death in the Welsh
Intermediate Education Act of 1889. The revival of the Honour-
able Cymrodorion Society, the National Eisteddfod Association
and the Social Science Section of the National Eisteddfod was
due to Owen. He was knighted in recognition of his service to
Welsh education in August 1881, but died at Mentone on the
20th of November. A bronze statue was erected at Carnarvon in
1888 by public subscription.
OWEN, JOHN [OvENUS or Audoentjs] (c i 560-1622), Welsh
epigrammatist, was born at Plas Dhu, Carnarvonshire, about
1560. He was educated under Dr Bilson at Winchester School,
and at New College, Oxford. He was a fellow of his college from
1584 to 1591, when he became a schoolmaster, first at Trelleck,
near Monmouth, and then at Warwick, where he was master of
the school endowed by Henry VIII. He became distinguished
for his perfect mastery of the Latin language, and for the humour,
felicity and point of his epigrams. The Continental scholars and
wits of the day used to call him " the British Martial." He was
a staunch Protestant besides, and could not resist the temptation
of turning his wit against the Roman Catholic Church. This
practice caused his book to be placed on the Index prohibitoriits
in 1654, and led a rich old uncle of the Roman Catholic com-
munion to cut him out of his will. When the poet died in 1622,
his countryman and relative. Bishop Wilhams of Lincoln, who
is said to have supported him in his later years, erected a monu-
ment to his memory in St Paul's cathedral with a Latin epitaph.
Owen's Epigrammata are divided into twelve books, of which
the first four were published in 1606, and the rest at four different
Vl^Ol /T-T -OWEN, JOHN
392
times. Owen frequently adapts and alters to his own purpose the
lines of his predecessors in Latin verse, and one such borrowing
has become celebrated as a quotation, though few know where it is
to be found. It is the first line of this epigram : —
" Tempora mutantur, nos et mutamur in illis:
Quo mode? fit semper tempore pejor homo."
(Lib. I. ad Edoardum Noel, epig. 58.)
This first line is altered from an epigram by Matthew Borbonius,
one of a series of mottoes for various emperors, this one being for
Lothaire L
" Omnia mutantur, nos et mutamur in illis:
Ilia vices quasdam res habet, >lla vices."
There are editions of the Epigrammata by Elzevir and by Didot;
the best is that edited by Renouard (2 vols., I^aris, 1795). Transla-
tions into English, either in whole or in part, were made by Vicars
(1619); by Pecke, in his Parnassi Puerperium (1659); and by
Harvey in 1677, which is the most complete. La Torre, the Spanish
epigrammatist, owed much to Owen, and translated his works into
Spanish in 1674. French translations of the best of Owen's epigrams
were published by A. L. Lebrun (1709) and by Kerivalant (1819).
OWEN, JOHN (1616-1683), English Nonconformist divine, was
born at Stadham in Oxfordshire in 1616, and was educated at
Queen's College, Oxford (B.A. 1632, M.A. 1635), noted, as Fuller
tells us, tor its metaphysicians. A Puritan by training and
conviction, in 1637 Owen was driven from Oxford by Laud's new
statutes, and became chaplain and tutor in the family of Sir
Robert Dormer and then in that of Lord Lovelace. At the
outbreak of the civil troubles he sided with the parliament, and
thus lost both his place and the prospects of succeeding to his
Welsh royahst uncle's fortune. For a while he lived in Charter-
house Yard, in great unsettlement of mind on religious questions,
which was removed at length by a sermon preached by a stranger
in Aldermanbury Chapel whither he had gone to hear Edmund
Calamy. His first publication, The Display oj Arminianism
(1642), was a spirited defence of rigid Calvinism. It was dedi-
cated to the committee of religion, and gained him the living of
Fordham in Essex, from which a " scandalous minister " had
been ejected. At Fordham he remained engrossed in the work
of his parish and writing only The Duty of Pastors and People
Distinguished until 1646, when, the old incumbent dying, the
presentation lapsed to the patron, who gave it to some one else.
He was now, however, coming into notice, for on the 29th of
April he preached before the Long parliament. In this sermon,
and still more in his Country Essay for the Practice of Church
Government, which he appended to it, his tendency to break
away from Presbyteriauism to the more tolerant Independent or
Congregational system is plainly seen. Like Milton he saw
little to choose between " new presbyter " and " old priest," and
disliked a rigid and arbitrary polity by whatever name it was
called. He became pastor at Coggeshall in Essex, where a large
influx of Flemish tradesmen provided a congenial Independent
atmosphere. His adoption of Congregational principles did not
effect his theological position, and in 1647 he again attacked the
Arminians in The Death of Death in the Death of Christ, which
drew him into long debate with Richard Baxter. He made the
friendship of Fairfax while the latter was besieging Colchester,
and urgently addressed the army there against religious persecu-
tion. He was chosen to preach to parliament on the day after
the execution of Charles, and succeeded in fulfilling his delicate
task without directly mentioning that event. Another sermon
preached on the 19th of April, a vigorous plea for sincerity of
religion in high places, won not only the thanks of parhament
but the friendship of CromweU, who carried him off to Ireland as
his chaplain, that he might regulate the affairs of Trinity College.
He pleaded with the House of Commons for the religious needs of
Ireland as some years earlier he had pleaded for those of Wales.
In 1650 he accompanied Cromwell on his Scottish campaign. In
March 1651 Cromwell, as chancellor of Oxford, gave him the
deanery of Christ Church, and made him vice-chancellor in
September 1652; in both offices he succeeded the Presbyterian
Edward Reynolds.
During his eight years of official Oxford life Owen showed
himself a firm disciplinarian, and infused a new spirit of thorough-
ness into dons and undergraduates ahke, though, as John
Locie testifies, the Aristotelian traditions in education suffered
no change. With Philip Nye he unmasked the popular astro-
loger, William Lilly, and in spite of his share in condemning
two Quakeresses to be whipped for disturbing the peace, his
rule was not intolerant.' Anglican services were conducted
here and there, and at Christ Church itself the Anglican chaplain
remained in the college. While little encouragement was given
to a spirit of free inquiry,^ it is unhistorical to say that Puritanism .
at Oxford was simply " an attempt to force education and culture I
into the leaden moulds of Calvinistic theology." It must be
remembered, too, that Owen, unhke many of his contemporaries,
found his chief interest in the New Testament rather than the
Old. During his Oxford years he wrote Justitia Divina (1653),
an exposition of the dogma that God cannot forgive sin without
an atonement; Communion with God (1657), which has been
called a "piece of wire-drawn mysticism"; Doctrine of the
Saints' Perseverance (1654), his final attack on Arminianism;
Vindiciae Evangclicac, a treatise written by order of the Council
of State against Socinianism as expounded by John Bidle;
On the Mortification of Sin in Believers (1656), an introspective
and analytic work; Schism (1657), one of the most read-
able of all his writings; Of Temptation (1658), an attempt to
recall Puritanism to its cardinal spiritual attitude from the
jarring anarchy of sectarianism and the pharisaism which had
followed on popularity and threatened to destroy the early
simplicity.
Besides all his academic and literary concerns Owen was
continually in the midst of affairs of state. In 1651, on October
24 (after Worcester), he preached the thanksgiving sermon
before parliament. In 1652 he sat on a council to consider
the condition of Protestantism in Ireland. In October 1653
he was one of several ministers whom Cromwell summoned
to a consultation as to church union.' In December the degree
of D.D. was conferred upon him by his university. In the parlia-
ment of 1654 he sat, but only for a short time, as member for
Oxford university, and, with Baxter, was placed on the committee
for settling the " fundamentals " necessary for the toleration
promised in the Instrument of Government. In the same year
he was chairman of a committee on Scottish Church affairs.
He was, too, one of the Triers, and appears to have behaved
with kindness and moderation in that capacity. As vice-
chancellor he acted with readiness and spirit when a Royahst
rising in Wiltshire broke out in 1655; his adherence to Cromwell,
however, was by no means slavish, for he drew up, at the request
of Desborough and Pride, a petition against his receiving the
kingship. Thus, when Richard Cromwell succeeded his father
as chancellor, Owen lost his vice-chancellorship. In 1658 he
took a leading part in the conference of Independents which
drew up the Savoy Declaration.
On the death of Cromwell Owen joined the Wallingford House
party, and though he denied any share in the deposition of
Richard Cromwell, he threw all his weight on the side of a simple
republic as against a protectorate. He assisted in the restoration
of the Rump parliament, and, when Monk began his march
into England, Owen, in the name of the Independent churches,
to whom Monk was supposed to belong, and who were keenly
anxious as to his intentions, wrote to dissuade him from the
enterprise.
In March 1660, the Presbyterian party being uppermost,
Owen was further deprived of his deanery, which was given
back to Reynolds. He retired to Stadham, where he wrote
various controversial and theological works, in especial the
laborious Theologoumena Pantodapa, a history of the rise and
progress of theology. The respect in which many of the
authorities held his intellectual eminence won him an immunity
denied to other Nonconformists. In 1661 was published the
celebrated Fiat Lux, a work by the Franciscan monk John
• H. L. Thompson, Christ Church (" Oxford College Histories ")
pp. 70 seq.
^ Owen made a very unhappy attack on Brian Walton's Polyglot
Bible.
' Owen proba'oly drew up the scheme for a national church
surrounded by bodies of tolerated dissent which was presented to
parliament. See D. Masson, Afj7<o«, iv. 390, 566. . . _j j j..Ju,.
OWEN, SIR RICHARD
393
Vincent Cane, in which the oneness and beauty of Roman
Catholicism are contrasted with the confusion and multiplicity
of Protestant sects. At Clarendon's request Owen answered
this in 1662 in his Animadversions; and so great was its success
that he was offered preferment if he would conform. Owen's
condition for making terms was liberty to all who agree in doctrine
with the Church of England; nothing therefore came of the
negotiation.
In 1663 he was invited by the Congregational churches
in Boston, New England, to become their minister, but declined.
The Conventicle and Five Mile Acts drove him to London; and
in 1666, after the Fire, he, like other leading Nonconformist
ministers, fitted up a room for public service and gathered
a congregation, composed chiefly of the old Commonwealth
officers. Meanwhile he was incessantly writing; and in 1667
he published his Catechism, which led to a proposal, " more
acute than diplomatic," from Baxter for union. Various papers
passed, and after a year the attempt was closed by the following
laconical note from Owen: " I am still a well-wisher to these
mathematics." It was now, too, that he published the first
part of his vast work upon the Epistle to the Hebrews, together
with his exposition of Psalm 130 and his searching book on
Indwelling Sin.
In 1669 Owen wrote a spirited remonstrance to the Congrega-
tionalists in New England, who, under the influence of Presby-
terianism, had shown themselves persecutors. At home, too,
he was busy in the same cause. In 1670 Samuel Parker's
Ecclesiastical Polity attacked the Nonconformists in a style of
clumsy intolerance. Owen answered him {Truth and Innocence
Vindicated) ; Parker replied with personahties as to Owen's
connexion with Wallingford House. Then Andrew Marvell
with banter and satire finally disposed of Parker in The Rehearsal
Transposed. Owen himself produced a tract On the Trinity
(1669), and Christian Love and Peace (1672).
At the revival of the Conventicle Acts in 1670, Owen was
appointed to draw up a paper of reasons which was submitted
to the House of Lords in protest. In this or the following year
Harvard College invited him to become its president; he
received sim.ilar invitations from some of the Dutch uni-
versities.
When Charles issued his Declaration of Indulgence in 1672,
Owen drew up an address of thanks. This indulgence gave the
dissenters an opportunity for increasing their churches and
services, and Owen was one of the first preachers at the weekly
lectures which the Independents and Presbyterians jointly held
at Princes' Hall in Broad Street. He was held in high respect
by a large number of the nobility (one of the many things which
point to the fact that Congregationalism was by no means the
creed of the poor and insignificant), and during 1674 both
Charles and James held prolonged conversations with him in
which they assured him of their good wishes to the dissenters.
Charles gave him 1000 guineas to relieve those upon whom the
severe laws had chiefly pressed, and he was even able to procure
the release of John Bunyan, whose preaching he ardently
admired. In 1674 Owen was attacked by William Sherlock, dean
of St Paul's, whom he easily vanquished, and from this time until
1680 he was engaged upon his ministry and the writing of
religious works. The chief of these were On Apostasy (1676),
,a sad account of religion under the Restoration; On the Hnly
Spirit (1677-1678) and The Doctrine of Justification (1677).. In
1680, however, Stillingfleet having on May 11 preached his
sermon on " The Mischief of Separation," Owen defended the
Nonconformists from the charge of schism in his Brief Vindica-
tion. Baxter and Howe also answered Stillingfleet, who replied
in The Unreasonableness of Separation. Owen again answered
this, and then left the controversy to a swarm of eager com-
batants. From this time to his death he was occupied with
continual writing, disturbed only by suffering from stone and
asthma, and by an absurd charge of being concerned in the Rye
House Plot. His most important work was his Treatise on
Evangelical Churches, in which were contained his latest views
regarding church government. He died at Ealing on the 24th
of August 1683, just twenty-one years after he had gone out
with so many others on St Bartholomew's day in 1662, and was
buried on the 4th of September in Bunhill Fields.
F"or engraved portraits of Owen sec first edition of S. Palmer's
Nonconformists' Memorial and Vertue's Sermons and Tracts (1721).
The chief authorities for the life are Owen's Works; W. Ormc's
Memoirs of Owen; A. Wood's Alhenae Oxonienses; R. Baxter's
Life; D. Nleal's History of the Puritans; T. Edwards's Gangraena;
and the various histories of the Independents. See also The Golden
Book of John Owen, a collection of extracts prefaced by a study of
his life and age, by James Moffatt (London, 1904).
OWEN, SIR RICHARD (1804-1892), English biologist, was
born at Lancaster on the 20th of July 1804, and received his
early education at the grammar school of that town. In 1820
he was apprenticed to a local surgeon and apothecary, and in
1824 he proceeded as a medical student to the university of
Edinburgh. He left the university in the following year, and
completed his medical course in St Bartholomew's Hospital,
London, where he came under the influence of the eminent
surgeon, John Abernethy. He then contemplated the usual
professional career; but his bent was evidently in the direction
of anatomical research, and he was induced by Abernethy to
accept the position of assistant to William Clift, conservator
of the museum of the Royal College of Surgeons. This congenial
occupation soon led him to abandon his intention of medical
practice, and his life henceforth was devoted to purely scientific
labours. He prepared an important series of catalogues of the
Hunterian collection in the Royal College of Surgeons; and in
the course of this work he acquired the unrivalled knowledge
of comparative anatomy which enabled him to enrich all depart-
ments of the science, and specially facilitated his researches
on the remains of extinct animals. In 1836 he was appointed
Hunterian professor in the Royal College of Surgeons, and in
1849 he succeeded Clift as conservator. He held the latter
office until 1856, when he became superintendent of the natural
history department of the British Museum. He then devoted
much of his energies to a great scheme for a National Museum
of Natural History, which eventually resulted in the removal
of the natural history collections of the British Museum to
a new building at South Kensington, the British Museum
(Natural History). He retained office until the completion of
this work in 1884, when he received the distinction of K.C.B.,
and thenceforward lived quietly in retirement at Sheen
Lodge, Richmond Park, until his death on the i8th of December
1892.
While occupied with the cataloguing of the Hunterian collection,
Owen did not confine his attention to the preparations before
him, but also seized every opportunity of dissecting fresh subjects.
He was especiaUy favoured with the privilege of investigating
the animals which died in the Zoological Society's gardens;
and when that society began to publish scientific proceedings
in 1831, he was the most voluminous contributor of anatomical
papers. His first notable publication, however, was his Memoir
d^i the Pearly Nautilus (London, 1832), which was soon recognized
as a classic. Henceforth he continued to make important
contributions to every department of comparative anatomy and
zoology for a period of over fifty years. In the sponges Owen
was tlie first to describe the now well-known " Venus's flower
basket " or EuplectcUa (1841, 1857). Among Entozoa his most
noteworthy discovery was that of Trichina spiralis (1835),
the parasite infesting the muscles of man in the disease now
termed trichinosis (see also, however, the article on Paget, Sir
James). Of Brachiopoda he made very special studies, which
much advanced knowledge and settled the classification which
has long been adopted. Among MoUusca, he not only described
the pearly nautilus, but also Spirnla (1850) and other Cephalo-
poda, both living and extinct; and it was he who proposed
the universally-accepted subdivision of this class into the
two orders of Dibranchiata and Tetrabranchiata (1832). The
problematical Arthropod Limulus was also the subject of a
special memoir by him in 1873.
Owen's technical descriptions of the Vertebrata were still
more numerous and extensive than those of the invertebrate
XX. 13 a
394
OWEN, ROBERT u
animals. His Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of Verte-
brates (3 vols., London, 1866-1868) was indeed the result of more
personal research than any similar work since Cuvier's Leqons
d'anatomie comparee. He not only studied existing forms,
but also devoted great attention to the remains of extinct
groups, and immediately followed Cuvier as a pioneer in verte-
brate palaeontology. Early in his career he made exhaustive
studies of teeth, both of existing and extinct animals, and pub-
lished his profusely illustrated work on Odontography (1840-1845).
He discovered and described the remarkably complex structure
of the teeth of the extinct animals which he named Labyrintho-
donts. Among his writings on fishes, his memoir on the African
mud-fish, which he named Protopterus, laid the foundations for
the recognition of the Dipnoi by Johannes Miiller. He also
pointed out later the serial connexion between the teleostean
and ganoid fishes, grouping them in one sub-class, the Teleostomi.
Most of his work on reptiles related to the skeletons of extinct
forms, and his chief memoirs on British specimens were reprinted
in a connected series in his History of British Fossil Reptiles
(4 vols., London, 1849-18S4). He published the first important
general account of the great group of Mesozoic land-reptOes,
to which he gave the now familiar name of Dinosauria. He
also first recognized the curious early Mesozoic land-reptiles,
with atTinities both to amphibians and mammals, which he
termed Anomodontia. Most of these were obtained from
South Africa, beginning in 1843 (Dicynodon), and eventually
furnished materials for his Catalogue of the Fossil Reptilia of
South Africa, issued by the British Museum in 1876. Among
his writings on birds, his classical memoir on the Apteryx (1840-
1846), a long series of papers on the extinct Dinomithidae of
New Zealand, other memoirs on Aptornis, Notornis, the dodo,
and the great auk, may be specially mentioned. His monograph
on Archaeopteryx (1863), the long-tailed, toothed bird from the
Bavarian lithographic stone, is also an epoch-making work.
With regard to living mammals, the more striking of Owen's
contributions relate to the monotremes, marsupials, and the
anthropoid apes. He was also the first to recognize and name
the two natural groups of typical Ungulata, the odd-toed
(Perissodactyla) and the even-toed (Artiodactyla), while describ-
ing some fossil remains in 1848. Most of his writings on mammals,
however, deal with extinct forms, to which his attention seems
to have been first directed by the remarkable fossils collected
by Darwin in South America. Toxodon, from the pampas,
was then described, and gave the earliest clear evidence of an
extinct generalized hoof animal, a " pachyderm with affinities
to the Rodentia, Edentata, and Herbivorous Cetacea." Owen's
interest in South American extinct mammals then led to the
recognition of the giant armadillo, which he named Glyptodon
(1839), and to classic memoirs on the giant ground-sloths,
Mylodon (1842) and Megatherium (i860), besides other important
contributions. At the same time Sir Thomas Mitchell's dis-
covery of fossil bones in New South Wales provided material for
thefirst of Owen's long series of papers on the extinct mammals
of Australia, which were eventually reprinted in book-form
in 1877. He discovered Diprotodon and Thylacoleo, besides
extinct kangaroos and wombats of gigantic size. While occupied
with so much material from abroad, Owen was also busily
collecting facts for an exhaustive work on similar fossils from
the British Isles, and in 1844-1846 he published his History
of British Fossil Mammals and Birds, which was followed by
many later memoirs, notably his Monograph of the Fossil
Mammalia of the Mesozoic Formations (Palaeont. Soc, 1871).
One of his latest publications was a little work entitled Antiquity
of Man as deduced from the Discovery of a Human Skeleton
during Excavations of the Docks at Tilbury (London, 1884).
Owen's detailed memoirs and descriptions require laborious
attention in reading, on account of their nomenclature and
ambiguous modes of expression; and the circumstance that
very little of his terminology has found universal favour causes
them to be more generally neglected than they otherwise
would be. At the same time it must be remembered that he
was a pioneer in concise anatomical nomenclature; and, so far
at least as the vertebrate skeleton is concerned, his terms were
based on a carefully reasoned philosophical scheme, which first
clearly distinguished between the now familiar phenomena
of " analogy " and " homology." Owen's theory of the Arche-
type and Homologies of the Vertebrate Skeleton (1848) , subsequently
illustrated also by his little work On the Nature of Limbs (1849),
regarded the vertebrate frame as consisting of a series of funda-
mentally identical segments, each modified according to its
position and functions. Much of it was fanciful, and failed when
tested by the facts of embryology, which Owen systematically
ignored throughout his work. However, though an imperfect
and distorted view of certain great truths, it possessed a distinct
value at the time of its conception. To the discussion of the
deeper problems of biological philosophy he made scarcely
any direct and definite contributions. His generalities rarely
extended beyond strict comparative anatomy, the phenomena
of adaptation to function, and the facts of geographical or
geological distribution. His lecture on " virgin reproduction "
or parthenogenesis, however, published in 1849, contained the
essence of the theory of the germ-plasm elaborated later by
August Weismann; and he made several vague statements
concerning the geological succession of genera and species of
animals and their possible derivation one from another. He
referred especially to the changes exhibited by the successive
forerunners of the crocodiles (1884) and horses (1868); but it
has never become clear how much of the modern doctrines of
organic evolution he admitted. He contented himself with
the bare remark that " the inductive demonstration of the
nature and mode of operation " of the laws governing life
would " henceforth be the great aim of the philosophical
naturalist."
See The Life of Richard Owen, by his grandson, Rev. Richard
Owen (2 vols., London, 1894). (A. S. Wo.)
OWEN, ROBERT (1771-1858), English social reformer, was
born at Newtown, Montgomeryshire, in North Wales, on the
14th of May 1771. His father had a small business in Newtown
as saddler and ironmonger, and there young Owen received all
his school education, which terminated at the age of nine. After
serving in a draper's shop for some years he settled in Manchester.
His success was very rapid. When only nineteen years of age
he became manager of a cotton mill in which five hundred people
were employed, and by his administrative intelligence and energy
soon made it one of the best establishments of the kind in Great
Britain. In this factory Owen used the first bags of American
sea-island cotton ever imported into the country; it was the
first sea-island cotton from the Southern States. Owen also made
remarkable improvement in the quality of the cotton spun;
and indeed there is no reason to doubt that at this early age he
was the first cotton-spinner in England, a position entirely due
to his own capacity and knowledge of the trade. In 1794 or
1705 he became manager and one of the partners of the Chorlton
Twist Company at Manchester. During a visit to Glasgow he
had faUen in love with the daughter of the proprietor of the
New Lanark mills, David Dale. Owen induced his partners
to purchase New Lanark; and after his marriage with Miss Dale
he settled there, as manager and part owner of the mills (1800).
Encouraged by his great success in the management of cotton
factories in Manchester, he had already formed the intention of
conducting New Lanark on higher principles than the current ,
commercial ones.
The factory of New Lanark had been started in 1784 by Dale
and Arkwright, the water-power afforded by the falls of the Clyde
being the great attraction. Connected with the mills were about
two thousand people, five hundred of whom were children,
brought, most of them, at the age of five or six from the poor-
houses and charities of Edinburgh and Glasgow. The children
especially had been well treated by Dale, but the general condition
of the people was very unsatisfactory. Many of them were the
lowest of the population, the respectable country people refusing
to submit to the long hours and demoralizing drudgery of the
factories; theft, drunkenness, and other vices were common;
education and sanitation were alike neglected; most families
OWEN, ROBERT
395
lived only in one room. It was this population, thus committed
to his care, which Owen now set himself to elevate and ameliorate.
He greatly improved their houses, and by the unsparing and
benevolent exertion of his personal influence trained them to
habits of order, cleanliness and thrift. He opened a store,
where the people could buy goods of the soundest quality at
little more than cost price; and the sale of drink was placed
under the strictest supervision. His greatest success, however,
was in the education of the young, to which he devoted special
attention. He was the founder of infant schools in Great
Britain; and, though he was anticipated by reformers on the
continent of Europe, he seems to have been led to institute them
by his own views of what education ought to be, and without
hint from abroad. In all these plans Owen obtained the most
gratifying success. Though at first regarded with suspicion as a
stranger, he soon won the confidence of his people. The mills
continued to be a great commercial success, but it is needless
to say that some of Owen's schemes involved considerable
expense, which was displeasing to his partners. Tired at last of
the restrictions imposed on him by men who wished to conduct
the business on the ordinary principles, Owen formed a new firm,
who, content with 5% of return for their capital, were ready to
give freer scope to his philanthropy (1813). In this firm Jeremy
Bentham and the well-known Quaker, William Allen, were
partners. In the same year Owen first appeared as an author
of essays, in which he expounded the principles on which his
system of educational philanthropy was based. From an early
age he had lost all belief in the prevailing forms of religion, and
had thought out a creed for himself, which he considered an
entirely new and original discovery. The chief points in this
philosophy were that man's character is made not by him but
for him; that it has been formed by circumstances over which
he had no control ; that he is not a proper subject either of praise
or blame, — these principles leading up to the practical conclusion
that the great secret in the right formation of man's character
is to place him under the proper influences — physical, moral
and social — from his earliest years. These principles — of the
irresponsibility of man and of the effect of early influences — are
the keynote of Owen's whole system of education and social
amelioration. As we have said, they are embodied in his first
work, A New View of Society, or Essays on the Principle of the
Formation of the Human Character, the first of these essays (there
are four in all) being published in 1813. It is needless to say that
Owen's new views theoretically belong to a very old system of
philosophy, and that his originahty is to be found only in his
benevolent application of them. For the next few years Owen's
work at New Lanark continued to have a national and even a
European significance. His schemes for the education of his
workpeople attained to something like completion on the opening
of the institution at New Lanark in 1816. He was a zealous
supporter of the factory legislation resulting in the act of 18 19,
which, however, greatly disappointed him. He had interviews
and communications with the leading members of government,
including the premier. Lord Liverpool, and with many of the
rulers and leading statesmen of Europe. New Lanark itself
became a much-frequented place of pilgrimage for social reformers,
statesmen, and royal personages, including Nicholas, afterwards
emperor of Russia. According to the unanimous testimony of
all who visited it, the results achieved by Owen were singularly
good. The manners of the children, brought up under his
system, were beautifully graceful, genial and unconstrained;
health, plenty, and contentment prevailed; drunkenness was
almost unknown, and illegitimacy was extremely rare. The
most perfect good feeling subsisted between Owen and his
workpeople, and all the operations of the miU proceeded with
the utmost smoothness and regularity; and the business was
a great commercial success.
Hitherto Owen's work had been that of a philanthropist,
whose great distinction was the originality and unwearying
unselfishness of his methods. His first departure in socialism
took place in 181 7, and was embodied in a report communicated
to the committee of the House of Commons on the poor law.
The general misery and stagnation of trade consequent on the
termination of the great war was engrossing the attention of the
country. After clearly tracing the special causes connected with
the war which had led to such a deplorable state of things, Owen
pointed out that the permanent cause of distress was to be found
in the competition of human labour with machinery, and that
the only effective remedy was the united action of men, and the
subordination of machinery. His proposals for the treatment of
pauperism were based on these principles. He recommended that
communities of about twelve hundred persons each should be
settled on quantities of land from 1000 to 1500 acres, all living
in one large building in the form of a square, with public kitchen
and mess-rooms. Each family should have its own private apart-
ments, and the entire care of the children till the age of three,
after which they should be brought up by the community, their
parents having access to them at meals and all other proper times.
These communities might be established by individuals, by
parishes, by counties, or by the state; in every case there should
be effective supervision by duly qualified persons. Work, and
the enjoyment of its results, should be in common. The size of
his community was no doubt partly suggested by his village of
New Lanark; and he soon proceeded to advocate such a scheme
as the best form for the reorganization of society in general.
In its fully developed form — and it cannot be said to have changed
much during Owen's lifetime — it was as follows. He considered
an association of from 500 to 3000 as the fit number for a good
working community. While mainly agricultural, it should
possess all the best machinery, should offer every variety of
employment, and should, as far as possible, be self-contained.
" As these townships," as he also called them, " should increase in
number, unions of them federatively united shall be formed in
circles of tens, hundreds and thousands," till they should embrace
the whole world in a common interest.
His plans for the cure of pauperism were received with great
favour. The Times and the Morning Post and many of the lead-
ing men of the country countenanced them; one of his most
steadfast friends was the duke of Kent, father of Queen Victoria.
He had indeed gained the ear of the country, and had the prospect
before him of a great career as a social reformer, when he went out
of his way at a large meeting in London to declare his hostility
to all the received forms of religion. After this defiance to the
religious sentiment of the country, Owen's theories were in the
popular mind associated with infidehty, and were hencefor-
ward suspected and discredited. Owen's own confidence,
however, remained unshaken; and he was anxious that his
scheme for establishing a community should be tested. At last,
in 1825, such an experiment was attempted under the direction
of his disciple, Abram Combe, at Orbiston near Glasgow; and in
the next year Owen himself commenced another at New
Harmony (q.v.), Indiana, U.S.A. After a trial of about two years
both failed completely. Neither of them was a pauper experi-
ment; but it must be said that the members were of the most
motley description, many worthy people of the highest aims
being mixed with vagrants, adventurers, and crotchety, wrong-
headed enthusiasts. After a long period of friction with William
Allen and some of his other partners, Owen resigned all connexion
with New Lanark in 1828. On his return from America he made
London the centre of his activity. Most of his means having been
sunk in the New Harmony experiment, he was no longer a
flourishing capitalist, but the head of a vigorous propaganda,
in which socialism and secularism were combined. One of the
most interesting features of the movement at this period was the
establishment in 1832 of an equitable labour exchange system,
in which e.xchange was effected by means of labour notes, the
usual means of exchange and the usual middlemen being alike
superseded. The word " socialism " first became current in the
discussions of the Association of all Classes of all Nations, formed
by Owen in 1835. During these years also his secularistic
teaching gained such influence among the working classes as to
give occasion for the statement in the Westminster Review (1839)
that his principles were the actual creed of a great portion of
them. His views on marriage, which were certainly lax, gave
39^
OWENS— OWL
just ground for offence. At this period some more communistic
experiments were made, of which the most important were that
at Ralahine, in the county of Clare, Ireland, and that at Tytherly
in Hampshire. It is admitted that the former (1831) was a
remarkable success for three and a half years, till the proprietor,
having ruined himself by gambling, was obliged to sell out.
Tytherly, begun in 1839, was an absolute failure. By 1846 the
only permanent result of Owen's agitation, so zealously carried
on by public meetings, pamphlets, periodicals, and occasional
treatises, was the co-operative movement, and for the time even
that seemed to have utterly collapsed. In his later years Owen
became a firm believer in spiritualism. He died at his native
town on the 17th of November 1858.
Owen left four sons, Robert Dale, William, David Dale and
Richard, all of whom became citizens of the United States.
Robert Dale Owen, the eldest (1S01-1877), was for long an
able exponent in his adopted country of his father's doctrines.
In 1836-39 and 1851-52 he was a member of the Indiana House of
Representatives and in 1844-47 was a Representative in Congress,
where he drafted the bill for the founding of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution. He was elected a member of the Indiana Constitutional
Convention in 1850, and was instrumental in securing to widows
and married women control of their property, and the adoption
of a common free school system. He later succeeded in passing
a state law giving greater freedom in divorce. From 1853 to 1858
he was United States minister at Naples. He was a strong
believer in spiritualism and was the author of two well-known
books on the subject: Footfalls on the. Boundary of Another
World (1859) and The Dehatcable Land Between this World and the
Next (1872). Owen's third son, David Dale Owen (1807-1860),
was in 1839 appointed United States geologist, and made exten-
sive surveys of the north-west, which were published by order of
Congress. The youngest son, Richard Owen (1810-1890), was
a professor of natural science in Nashville University.
Of R. Owen's numerous works in e.xposiiion ot his system, the
most important are the Nezv Vie^o of Society; the Report communi-
cated to the Committee on the Poor Law; the Book of the New
Moral World; and Revolution in tlie Mind and Practice of the Human
Race. See Life of Robert Owen written by himself (London, 1857),
and Threading my Way, Twenty-seven Years of Autobiography, by
Robert Dale Owen (London, 1874). There are also Lives of Owen
by A. J. Booth (London, 1869), W. L. Sargant (London, i860),
Lloyd Jones (London, 1889), F. A. Packard (Philadelphia, 1866)
and F. Podmore (London, 1906). See also H. Simon, Robert Owen:
sein Leben und seine Bedeutung fiir die Gegenwart (Jena, 1905) ;
E. Dolleans, Robert Owen (Paris, 1905); G. J. Holyoake, History of
Co-operation in England (London, 1906) ; and the article Com-
munism.
OWENS, JOHN (1790-1846), English merchant, was born at
Manchester in 1790, the son of a prosperous merchant. Early
in life he became a partner in his father's business and was soon
noted for his ability as a cotton buyer. His business prospered,
and the firm traded with China, India, South America and the
United States, dealing in many other commodities. His large
fortune he suggested leaving to his friend and partner George
Faulkner (1790-1860), already a rich man. But by the latter's
advice he bequeathed it to trustees for the foundation of a
college (Owens College, Manchester, opened 1851, now part of
Victoria University), based upon his own ideas of education.
He died in Manchester on the 29th of July 1846. His bequests
to friends and charities amounted to some £52,000, while for the
college he left £96,654. Among the conditions for its foundation
the most important was that which discountenanced any sort of
religious test for students or teachers.
OWENSBORO, a city and the county-seat of Daviess county,
Kentucky, U.S.A., on the Ohio river, 112 m. by rail W.S.W. of
Louisville. Pop. (1890) 9837; (1900) 13,189, of whom 3061
were negroes; (igio census) 16,011. The city is served by the
Illinois Central, the Louisville & Nashville, and the Louisville,
Henderson & St Louis railways, and by steamboat lines to river
ports. At Owensboro are the Owensboro College for women (non-
sect.), opened in 1890, Saint Francis Academy, and a Roman
Catholic school for boys. Two miles S. of the city is Hickman
Park (20 acres), a pleasure resort, and E. of the city is a summer
Chautauqua park. Owensboro is situated in a good agricultural
region; coal, iron, building stone, clay, oil, lead and zinc abound
in the vicinity; and the city has a notably large trade in tobacco
(especially strip tobacco) and has various manufactures. The
value of the city's factory products increased from $1,740,128
in 1900 to $4,187,700 in 1905, or 140-6%. The municipality
owns and operates its electric-lighting plant and water-works.
Owensboro was settled about 1798, and for several years was
commonly known as Yellow Banks; in 1816 it was laid out as
a town and named Rossborough, and two years later the present
name was adopted in honour of Colonel Abraham Owen (1769-
1811), a Virginian who removed to Kentucky in 1785, served in
several Indian campaigns, and was killed in the battle of Tippe-
canoe. Owensboro was incorporated as a city in 1866.
OWEN SOUND, a town and port of entry in Ontario, Canada,
and capital of Grey county, situated 99 m. N.W. of Toronto,
on Georgian Bay. Pop. (1901) 8776. It is the terminus of
branches of the Canadian Pacific and Grand Trunk railways,
and of the Canadian Pacific and other steamship lines plying
to ports on Lakes Huron and Superior. Its harbour is one of the
best on Lake Huron, and navigable by lake vessels of the largest
size. It is a flourishing town, containing shipbuilding yards,
and manufactories of mill machinery, agricultural implements,
furniture and sewing-machines, flour-mills, saw-mills and large
grain elevators.
OWL (O. Eng. tJle, Swed. Uggla, Ger. Eule—sR aOied to
Lat. Uliila, and evidently of imitative origin), the general
English name for every nocturnal bird of prey, of which group
nearly two hundred species have been recognized. The owls
form a very natural assemblage, and one about the limits of
which no doubt has for a long while existed. They were
formerly placed with the Accipitres or diurnal birds of prey,
but are now known to belong to a different group of birds, and
are placed as a suborder Striges of Coraciiform birds, their nearest
allies being the goatsuckers. The subdivision of the group has
always been a fruitful matter of discussion, owing to the great
resemblance obtaining among all its members, and the existence
of safe characters for its division has only lately been at all
generally recognized. By the older naturalists, it is true, owls
were divided, as was first done by F. Willughby, into two
sections — one in which all the species exhibit tufts of feathers
on the head, the so-called " ears " or " horns, " and the second
in which the head is not tufted. The artificial and therefore
untrustworthy nature of this distinction was shown by Isidore
Geofiroy St-Hilaire {Ann. Sc. Naturelles, xxi. 194-203) in
1830. The later work of C. L. Nitzch on pterylography and of
A. Milne-Edwards on osteology has led to a division of the
family Strigidae into the sub-families Striginae, in which the
unnotched sternum has its broad keel joined to the furcula,
and Buboninae, in which the sternum is notched posteriorly,
the clavicles do not always meet to form a furcula, nor meet the
sternum. The Striginae contain the screech- or barn-owls (Strix)
and the partly intermediate Heliodilus of Madagascar, whilst
all the other genera are now placed with the Buboninae.
Among owls are found birds which vary in length from 5 in.
— as Glaucidium cobanense, which is therefore much smaller
than a skylark — to more than 2 ft., a size that is attained by
many species. Their plumage, none of the feathers of which
possesses an aftershaft, is of the softest kind, rendering their
flight almost noiseless. But one of the most characteristic
features of this whole group is the ruff, consisting of several
rows of small and much curved feathers with stiff shafts — •
originating from a fold of the skin, which begins on each side of
the base of the beak, runs above the eyes, and passing downwards '
round and behind the ears turns forward, and ends at the chin —
and serving to support the longer feathers of the " disk " or '
space immediately around the eyes, which extend over it. A j
considerable number of species of owls, belonging to various
genera, and natives of countries most widely separated, are
remarkable for exhibiting two phases of coloration — one in which
the prevalent browns have a more or less rusty-red ting«, and the ^
other in which they incline to grey. Another characteristic of j
OWL
397
owls is the reversible property of their outer toes, which are when
perching quite backwards. Many forms have the legs and toes
thickly clothed to the very claws; others have the toes, and even
the tarsi, bare, or only sparsely beset by bristles. Among the
bare-legged owls those of the Indian Ketupa are conspicuous,
and this feature is usually correlated with their fish-catching
habits; but certainly other owls that are not known to catch
fish present much the same character.
Among the multitude of owls there is only room here to make
further mention of a few of the more interesting. First must be
noticed the tawny owl — the Strix slridula of Linnaeus, the type,
as has been above said, of the whole group, and especially of the
Strigine section as here understood. This is the Syrnium aluco
of some authors, the cliat-huant of the French, the species whose
tremulous hooting " tu-whit, to-who," has been celebrated by
Shakespeare, and, as well as the plaintive call, " keewick,"
of the young after leaving the nest, will be familiar sounds to many
readers, for the bird is very generally distributed throughout
most parts of Europe, extending its range through Asia Minor
to Palestine, and also to Barbary — but not belonging to the
Ethiopian Region or to the eastern half of the Palaearctic. It
Fig. 1. — Strix occidentalis.j
is the largest of the species indigenous to Britain, and is strictly
a woodland bird, only occasionally choosing any other place for
its nest than a hoUow tree. Its food consists almost entirely
of small mammals, chiefly rodents; but, though on this account
most deserving of protection from all classes, it is subject to the
stupid persecution of the ignorant, and is rapidly declining in
numbers.^ Its nearest allies in North America are the 5. nebulosa,
with some kindred forms, one of which, the S. occidcntalis of
Cahfomia and Arizona, is figured above; but none of them seem
to have the " merry note " that is uttered by the European
species. Common to the most northerly forest-tracts of both
continents (for, though a slight difference of coloration is observ-
able between American examples and those from the Old World,
it is impossible to consider it specific) is the much larger 5.
cinerea or 5. lapponica, whose iron-grey plumage, delicately
mottled with dark brown, and the concentric circles of its facial
disks make it one of the most remarkable of the group. Then
may be noticed the genus Bubo — containing several species
' All owls have the habit of casting up the indigestible parts of
the food swallowed in the form of pellets, which may often be found
in abundance under the owl-roost, and reveal without any manner of
doubt what the prey of the birds has been. The result in nearly
every case shows the enormous service they render to man in destroy-
ing rats and mice. Details of many observations to this effect are
recorded in the Bericht iiber die XIV. Versammlung der Deutschen
Ornithologen-Gesellschaft (pp. 30-34)- , ilj^^ ^Ui io i.^ii K<.; ,0:.^
which from their size are usually known as eagle-owls. Here
the Nearctic and Palaearctic forms are sufficiently distinct —
the latter, B. ignavus,^ the due or grand due of the French,
ranging over the whole of Europe and Asia north of the
Himalayas, while the former, B. virginianus, extends over
the whole of North America. A contrast to the generally
sombre colour of these birds is shown by the snowy owl, Nyctea
seandiaea, a circumpolar species, and the only one of its genus,
which disdains the shelter of forests and braves the most rigorous
arctic climate, though compelled to migrate southward in winter
when no sustenance is left for it. Its large size and white
plumage, more or less mottled with black, distinguish this from
every other owl. Then may be mentioned the birds commonly
known in English as " horned " owls — the hibons of the French,
belonging to the genus Asia. One, A. olus (the Olus vulgaris
of some authors), inhabits woods, and, distinguished by its long
tufts, usually borne erected, would seem to be common to both
America and Europe — though experts profess their ability to
distinguish between examples from each country. Another
species, ,1. aeeipitrintis (the Olus braehyotus of many authors),
has much shorter tufts on its head, and they are frequently
carried depressed so as to escape observation. This is the
" woodcock-owl " of English sportsmen, for, though a good
many are bred in Great Britain, the majority arrive in autumn
from Scandinavia, just about the time that the immigration
of woodcocks occurs. This species frequents heaths, moors and
the open country generally, to the exclusion of woods, and has
an enormous geographical range, including not only all Europe,
North Africa and northern Asia, but the whole of America —
reaching also to the Falklands, the Galapagos and the Sandwich
Islands — for the attempt to separate specifically examples
from those localities only shows that they possess more or less
well-defined local races. Commonly placed near Asia, but
whether really akin to it cannot be stated, is the genus Scops,
of which nearly forty species, coming from different parts of
the world, have been described; but this number should probably
be reduced by one half. The type of the genus S. giu, the
petit due of the French, is a well-known bird in the south of
Europe, about as big as a thrush, with very delicately pencilled
plumage, occasionally visiting Britain, emigrating in autumn
across the Mediterranean, and ranging very far to the eastward.
Farther southward, both in Asia and Africa, it is represented
by other species of very similar size, and in the eastern part of
North America by .S. asio, of which there is a tolerably distinct
western form, S. kannieotti, besides several local races. S. asio
is one of the owls that especiaOy exhibits the dimorphism of
coloration above mentioned, and it was long before the true
state of the case ■wa.& understood. At first the two forms were
thought to be distinct, and then for some time the belief obtained
that the ruddy birds were the young of the greyer form which
was called 5. nacvia; but now the " red owl " and the " mottled
owl " of the older American ornithologists are known to be one
species.^ One of the most remarkable of American owls is
Speotylo cunicularia, the bird that in the northern part of the
continent inhabits the burrows of the prairie dog, and in the
southern those of the biscacha, where the latter occurs — making
holes for itself, says Darwin, where that is not the case — rattle-
snakes being often also joint tenants of the same abodes. The
odd association of these animals, interesting as it is, cannot
here be more than noticed, for a few words must be said, ere we
leave the owls of this section, on the species which has associations
of a very different kind — the bird of Pallas Athene, the emblem
of the city to which science and art were so welcome. There
can be no doubt, from the many representations on coins and
sculptures, as to their subject being the Carine noetua of modem
ornithologists, but those who know the grotesque actions and
ludicrous expression of this veritable buflfoon of birds can never
^ This species bears confinement very well, and propagates freely
therein. To it belong the historic owls of Arundel Castle.
' See the remarks of Mr Ridgway in the work before quoted
{B. N. America, iii. o, lo), where also response is made to the
observations of Mr Allen in the Harvard Bulletin (ii. 338, 339).
398
OWLING— OX
Fig
2. — Strix flammea.
cease to wonder at its having been seriously selected as the
symbol of learning, and can hardly divest themselves of a
suspicion that the choice must have been made in the spirit of
sarcasm. This little owl (for that is its only name — though it
is not even the smallest that appears in England), the chevUhe
of the French, is spread throughout the greater part of Europe,
but it is not a native of Britain. It has a congener in C. brama,
a bird well known to all residents in India.
Finally, we have owls of the second section, those allied to the
screech-owl, Strix flammea, the Effraie^ of the French. This,
with its discor-
dant scream, its
snoring, and its
hissing, is far too
well known to
need description,
for it is one of
the most widely-
spread of birds,
and is the owl
that has the
. greatest g e o-
graphical range,
inhabiting almost
every country in
the w o r 1 d —
> Sweden and Nor-
^ way, America
north of lat. 45°,
and New Zealand
being the prin-
cipal exceptions. It varies, however, not inconsiderably, both
in size and intensity of colour, and several ornithologists
have tried to found on these variations more than half-a-dozen
distinct species. Some, if not most of them, seem, however,
hardly worthy to be considered geographical races, for their
differences do not always depend on locahty. R. Bowdler
Sharpe, with much labour and in great detail, has given his
reasons {Cat. B. Brit. Museum, ii. 291-309; and Ornilh. Mis-
cellany, i. 269-298; ii. 1-21) for acknowledging four" subspecies "
of S. flammea, as well as five other species. Of these last,
S. tenebricosa is peculiar to Australia, while 5. novae-hollandiac
inhabits also New Guinea, and has a " subspecies," 5. caslanops,
found only in Tasmania; a third, 5. Candida, has a wide range
from Fiji and northern Australia through the Philippines and
Formosa to China, Burmah and India; a fourth, S. capensis , is
pecuUar to South Africa; while S.thomensis is said to be confined
to the African island of St Thomas. To these may perhaps have
to be added a species from New Britain, described by Count
Salvadori as Strix aurantia, but it may possibly prove on further
investigation not to be a strigine owl at all. (A. N.)
OWLING, in EngUsh law, the offence of transporting wool or
sheep out of the kingdom, to the detriment of the staple manu-
facture of wool. The name is said to owe its origin to the fact
that the offence was usually carried on at night-time, when the
owls were abroad. The offence was stringently regulated by
a statute of Edward III. (1336-7), while many subsequent
statutes also dealt with it. In 1 566 the offence was made punish-
able by the cutting off of the left hand and naiUng it in a pubHc
place. By a statute of 1660 the ship and cargo were to be
forfeited. In the reign of George I. (1717-1718) the penalty
was altered to transportation for seven years. The offence was
abohshed in 1824.
OWOSSO, a city of Shiawassee county, Michigan, U.S.A., on
Shiawassee river, about 79 m. N.W. of Detroit and 28 m. N.E. of
Lansing. Pop. (1900) 8696, of whom 1396 were foreign-born;
(1906 estimate) 9369. It is served by the Michigan Central,
the Grand Trunk, and the Ann Arbor railways, and is a division
' Through the dialectic forms Fresaie and Presaie, the origin of
the word is easily traced to the Latin praesaga — a bird of bad omen ;
but it has also been confounded with Orfraie, a name of the Osprey
(5-f.).
point of the last. It is situated in the coal area of Michigan,
and has various manufactures, including beet-sugar, for which
Owosso is an important centre. The value of the city's factory
products increased from $2,055,052 in 1900 to $3,109,232 in
1905, or 51-3%. The municipality owns and operates its
water-works. Owosso was settled about 1834 and chartered as
a city in 1859.
OX.strictlyspeaking, the Saxonname for the malesof domesti-
cated cattle {Bos tatirus), but in a zoological sense employed so
as to include not only the extinct wild ox of Europe but likewise
bovine animals of every description, that is to say true oxen,
bison and buffaloes. The characteristics of the sub-family
Bovinae, or typical section of the family Bovidae, are given
in the article Bovidae (q.v.); for the systematic position of that
family see Pecora.
In the typical oxen, as represented by the existing domesti-
cated breeds (see Cattle) and the extinct aurochs {q.v.), the
horns are cylindrical and placed on an elevated crest at the very
vertex of the skuU, which has the frontal region of great length.
The aurochs was a black animal, with a Ughter dorsal streak, and
horns directed upwards in the shape of a pitchfork, black at their
tips, but otherwise whitish. The fighting bulls of Spain, the
black Pembroke cattle of Wales, with their derivatives the white
park-cattle of Chillingham in Northumberland, are undoubtedly
the direct descendants of the aurochs. The black Kerry breed
and the black or brown Scotch cattle are also more or less nearly
related; and a similar kinship is claimed for the Siemental
cattle of Switzerland, although their colour is white and fawn.
Short-horns are a modern derivative from cattle of the same
general type. Among other British breeds may be mentioned
theDevonsand Herefords, both characterized by their red colour;
the long-horned and Sussex breeds, both with very large horns,
showing a tendency to grow downwards; and the Ayrshire.
Polled, or hornless, breeds, such as the polled Angus and polled
Suffolk, are of interest, as showing how easily the horns can be
eliminated, and thus indicating a hornless ancestry. The white
cattle formerly kept at Chartley Park, Staffordshire, exhibit signs
of affinity with the long-horn breed. The Channel Island cattle,
which are either black or fawn, would seem to be nearly allied
to the Spanish fighting breed, and thus to the aurochs. The great
white or cream coloured cattle of Italy, Austria, Hungary and
Poland, which have very long black-tipped horns, are also prob-
ably not far removed from the aurochs stock.
On the other hand, the great tawny draught cattle of Spain
seem to indicate mixture with a different stock, the horns having
a double curvature, quite different from the simple one of the
aurochs type. There are reports as to these cattle having been
formerly crossed with the humped eastern species; and their
characteristics are all in favour of such an origin. Humped cattle
are widely spread over Africa, Madagascar and India, and form
a distinct species, Bos indicus, characterized by the presence
of a fleshy hump on the shoulders, the convexity (instead of
concavity) of the first part of the curve of the horns, the very
large size of the dewlap, and the general presence of white rings
round the fetlocks, and light circles surrounding the eyes.
The voice and habits of these cattle are also markedly different
from those of European cattle. Whether humped cattle are of
Indian or African origin cannot be determined, and the species
is known only in the domesticated condition. The largest horns
are found in the GaUa cattle, in which they attain enormous dimen-
sions. In Europe the name zebu is generally applied to the Indian
breed, although no such designation is known in India itself.
A third type is apparently indicated by the ancient Egyptian
cattle, which were not humped, and for which the name Bos
aegyptiacus has been suggested. The cattle of Ankole, on the
Uganda frontier, which have immense horns, conform to this
type.
A second group of the genus Bos is represented by the Indo-
Malay cattle included in the sub-genus Bibos (see Bantin, Gaur
and Gayal) ; they are characterized by the more or less marked
flattening of the horns, the presence of a well-marked ridge on the
anterior half of the back, and the white legs.
3 OXALIC ACID— OXALIS
399
More distinct are the bisons, forming the sub-genus Bison,
represented by the European and the American species (see
Bison), the forehead of the skull being much shorter and wider,
and the horns not arising from a crest on the extreme vertex,
while the number of ribs is different (14 pairs in bisons, only
13 in oxen), and the hair on the head and neck is long and shaggy.
Very close to this group, if indeed reaUy separable, is the Tibetan
yak (q.v.), forming by itself the sub-genus Pocphagus.
The most widely different from the true oxen are, however,
the buffaloes (see Buffalo), which have consequently the most
claim to generic distinction. From all other Bovinae they differ
by the triangular section of their horns. They are divisible into
two groups, an African and an Asiatic, both of which are gener-
ally included in the sub-genus, or genus, Buhalus, although the
latter are sometimes separated as Bufclus. The smallest
member of the group is the anoa {q.v.) of Celebes.
As regards the origin of the ox-tribe we are still in the dark.
The structure of their molar teeth affiliates them to the antelopes
of the Oryx and Hippolragus groups; but the early bovines lack
horns in the female, whereas both sexes of these antelopes are
horned.
Remains of the wild ox or aurochs are abundant in the superficial
deposits of Europe, Western Asia, and Northern Africa; those
from the brick-earths of the Thames valley indicating animals of
immense proportions. Side by side with these are found remains of
a huge bison, generally regarded as specifically distinct from the
living European animal and termed Bos (Bison) priscus. In the
Pleistocene of India occurs a large o.\ (Bos tiatnadicus) , possibly
showing some affinity with the Bibos group, and in the same forma-
tion are found remains of a buffalo, allied to, but distinct from the
living Indian species. Large oxen also occur in the Lower Pliocene
of India, although not closely allied to the living kinds; while in
the same formation are found remains of bison (or [?] yak) and
buffaloes, some of the latter being nearly akin to the anoa, although
much larger. Perhaps, however, the most interesting are the
remains of certain oxen from the Lower Pliocene of Europe and
India, which have been described under the sub-generic (or generic)
title of Leptobos, and are characterized by the absence of horns
in the females. In other respects they appear to come nearest to
the bantin. Remains of extinct bisons, some of gigantic size, occur
in the superficial formations of North America as far south as Texas.
See R. Lydekker, Wild Oxen, Slieep and Goats (London, 1898).
(R. L.*)
OXALIC ACID, H2C2O4 -21120, one of the oldest known organic
acids. Scheele prepared it by oxidizing sugar with nitric acid,
and showed it to be identical with the acetosellic acid obtained
from wood-sorrel. It is found in the form of its acid potassium
salt in many plants, especially in wood-sorrel (Oxalis acctosclla)
and in varieties of Riimex; as ammonium salt in guano; as
calcium salt in rhubarb root, in various lichens and in plant
cells; as sodium salt in species of Salicornia and as free acid
in varieties of Boletus. It is also present in urine and in urinary
calculi. It is formed in the oxidation of many organic compounds
{e.g. sugar, starch and cellulose) by nitric acid, and also by the
fusion of many oxygen-holding compounds with caustic alkalis,
this latter method being employed for the manufacture of oxalic
acid. In this process cellulose (in the form of sawdust) is made
into a stiff paste with a mixture of strong caustic potash and soda
solution and heated in tlat iron pans to 200-250° C. The some-
what dark-coloured mass is lixiviated with a small amount of
warm water in order to remove excess of alkali, the residual
alkaline oxalates converted into insoluble calcium oxalate by
boiling with milk of lime, the lime salt separated, and decom-
posed by means of sulphuric acid. It is found that the sawdust
obtained from soft woods is the best material for use in this
process. It may be obtained synthetically by heating sodium
in a current of carbon dioxide to 360° C; by the oxidation of
ethylene glycol; by heating sodium formate to 400° C. (V. Merz
and W. Weith, Ber., 1882, 15, p. 1513), and by the spontaneous
hydrolysis of an aqueous solution of cyanogen gas.
The hydrated acid crystallizes in prisms which effloresce in
air, and are readily soluble in water. It loses its water of
crystallization at 100° C, and begins to sublime at about 150-
160° C, whilst on heating to a still higher temperature it
partially decomposes into carbon dioxide and formic acid, or
into carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and water; the latter
decomposition being also brought about by heating oxalic
acid with concentrated sulphuric acid. The anhydrous acid
melts at 189-5° C. (E. Bamberger, Ber., 1888, 21, p. 1901) and
is frequently used as a condensing agent. Phosphorus penta-
chloride decomposes it into carbon mono.xide and dioxide,
the reaction being the one generally applied for the purpose of
preparing phosphorus oxychloride. When heated with glycerin
to 100° C. it yields formic acid and carbon dio.xide; above this
temperature, aOyl alcohol is formed. Nascent hydrogen reduces
it to glycollic acid. Potassium permanganate in acid solution
oxidizes it to carbon dioxide and water; the manganese sulphate
formed has a catalytic accelerating effect on the decomposition.
Oxalic acid is very poisonous, and by reason of its great
similarity in appearance to Epsom salts, it has been very fre-
quently mistaken for this substance with, in many cases, fatal
results. The antidotes for oxalic acid poisoning are milk of
lime, chalk, whiting, or even wall-plaster, followed by evacua-
tion brought about by an enema or castor oil. Only the salts
of the alkali metals are soluble in water. Beside the ordinary
acid and neutral salts, a series of salts called quadroxalates is
known, these being salts containing one molecule of acid salt,
in combination with one molecule of acid, one of the most common
being "salt of sorrel," KHCoO, ■H..Co!04-2H20. The oxalates
arc readily decomposed onheating, leaving a residue of carbonate,
or o.xide of the metal. The silver salt decomposes with explosive
violence, leaving a residue of the metal.
Potassium ferrous oxalate, FeK2(C204)2-H20, is a strong reducing
agent and is used as a photographic developer. Potassium ferric
oxalate, FeK3(C204)3, is used in the preparation of platinotypes,
owing to the 'fact that its solution is rapidly decomposed by sun-
light, 2FeK3(C204)3 = 2FeK2(C204)2-i-K2C204-|-2C02. Ethyl oxalate ,
(CO-OC2Hs)2, prepared by boilmg anhydrous oxalic acid with
absolute alcohol, is a colourless liquid which boils at 186° C. Methyl
oxalate (CO-OCHs)!, which is prepared in a similar manner, is a
solid melting at 54° C. It is used in the preparation of pure methyl
alcohol. On treatment with zinc and alkyl iodides or with zinc
alkyls they are converted into esters of hydroxy-dialkyl acetic acids.
An impure oxalyl chloride, a liquid boiling at 70° C, has been ob-
tained by the action of phosphorus pentachlorido on ethyl o.xalate.
Oxamic acid, HO2C-CONH2, is obtained on heating acid ammonium
oxalate; by boiling oxamide with ammonia; and among the
products produced when amino-acids are oxidized with potassium
permanganate (J. T. Halscy, Zeit.f. physiol. Chem., 1898, 25, p. 325).
It is a crystalline powder difficultly soluble in water and melting at
210° C. (with decomposition). Its ethyl ester, known as oxamae-
thane, crystallizes in rhombic plates which melt at 114-115° C.
Phosphorus pentachloride converts it into cyan-carbonic ester, the
ethvl oxamine chloride first formed being unstable: ROOC-CONH2
^ROqC-C(Cl2)-NH2->CN-COOR. Oximide,[Cq].'H\\, produced by
the action of a mixture of phosphorus pentachloride and oxychloride
on oxamic acid (H. Ost and A. Mente, Ber., 1886, 19, p. 3229),
crystallizes in prisms, and when boiled with water is rapidly hydro-
lysed to oxamide and oxalic acid. Oxamide, (C0NH2)2, is best pre-
pared by the action of ammonia on the esters of oxalic acid. It is
also obtained by the action of hydrogen peroxide on hydrocyanic
acid, or of manganese dioxide and sulphuric acid on potassium
cyanide. It is a white cr>'stalline powder which is almost insoluble
in cold water. It melts at 417-419° C. (with decomposition) when
heated in a sealed tube (A. Michael, Ber., 1895, 28, p. 1632). When
heated with phosphorus pentoxide it yields cyanogen. It is readily
hydrolysed by hot solutions of the caustic alkalis. Substituted
oxamides are produced by the action of primary amines on ethyl
oxalate. Semioxamazide, H^N-CO-CO-NH-NHo, is prepared by the
action of hydrazine hydrate on oxamaethane (W. Kerp and K.
Unger, Ber. 1897, 30, p. 586). It crystallizes in plates which melt
at 220—221° C. (with decomposition). It is only slightly soluble in
water, but is readily soluble in acids and alkalis. It reduces silver
salts rapidly. It condenses with aldehydes and ketones to produce
semioxamazones.
OXALIS, in botany, a large genus of small herbaceous plants,
comprising, with a few small allied genera, the natural order
Oxalidaceae. The name is derived from Gr. o^vs, acid,
the plants being acid from presence of acid calcium oxalate.
It contains about 220 species, chiefly South African and tropical
and South American. It is represented in Britain by the wood-
sorrel, a small stemless plant with radical trefoU-Uke leaves
growing from a creeping scaly rootstock, and the flowers borne
singly on an axillary stalk; the flowers are regular with five
I sepals, five obovate, white, purple-veined, free petals, ten
I stamens and a central five-lobed, five-celled ovary with five
400
OXAZOLES— OXENBRIDGE
free styles. The fruit is a capsule, splitting by valves; the seeds
have a fleshy coat, which curls back elastically, ejecting the true
seed. The leaves, as in the other species of the genus, show
a" sleep-movement," becoming pendulous at night.
Oxalis crenala. Oca of the South Americans, is a tuberous-rooted
half-hardy perennial, native of Peru. Its tubers are comparatively
small, and somewhat acid; but if they be exposed in the sun from
six to ten days they become sweet and floury. In the climate ot
England they can only be grown by starting them in heat in March,
and planting out in June in a light soil and warm situation. They
grow freely enough, but few tubers are formed, and these of small
size. The fleshy stalks, which have the acid flavour of the family,
may, however, be used in the same way as rhubarb for tarts. The
leaves may be
eaten in salads. It
is easily propa-
gated by cuttings
of the stems or by
means of sets like
the potato.
Oxalis Deppei or
O. tetraphylla, a
bulbous perennial,
native of Mexico,
has scaly bulbs,
from which are
produced fleshy,
tapering, white,
semi-transparent
roots, about 4 in. in
length and 3 to 4 in.
in diameter. They
strike down into
the soil, which
should therefore be
made light and rich
with abundance of
decayed vegetable
matter. The bulbs
should be planted
about the end of
April, 6 in. apart,
in rows I ft. asun-
der, being only
just covered with
soil and having a
situation with a
southern aspect.
The roots should
be dug up before
they become affected by frost, but if protected they will continue
to increase in size till November. When taken up the bulbs should
be stored in a cool dry place for replanting and the roots for use.
The roots are gently boiled with salt and water, peeled and eaten
like asparagus with melted butter and the yolks of eggs, or served
up like salsafy and scorzonera with white sauce.
Many other species are known in cultivation for edgings, rockwork
or as pot-plants for the greenhouse, the best hardy and half-hardy
kinds being 0. arenaria, purple; O. Bcrwiei, crimson; 0. ennea-
phylla, white or pale rose; O. floribunda, rose; 0. lasiandra, pink;
O. luteola, creamy yellow; 0. variabilis, purple, white, red; and
O. violacea, violet.
OXAZOLES, a group of organic compounds containing a
ring complex (shown below) composed of three carbon atoms,
and one oxygen and one nitrogen atom; they are isomeric with
the isoxazoles {q.v.). They are obtained by condensing a
halogen derivatives of ketones with acid-amides (M. Lewy,
Ber. 1887, 20, p. 2576; 1888, 21, p. 2195)
'^■^■^OH^Br -CH '^OCH '
by the action of concentrated sulphuric acid on nitriles and
benzoin (F. Japp, Jour. Cliem. Soc. 1893, 63, p. 469); and by
passing hydrochloric acid gas into a mixture of aromatic alde-
hydes and their cyanhydrins (E. Fischer, Ber. 1896, 29, p. 205).
,CN , ^„^ T^ . T, ^ /.CH-N
-CR
Wood-sorrel {Oxalis Acetosella), f nat. size, i.
Fruit which has split open; the seeds are shot
out by the elastic contractions of their outer
coat, 5.
RGH<^j^-FOHC-R->RC<Q
They are weak bases, and the ring system is readily split by
evaporation with hydrochloric acid, or by the action of reducing
and o.xidizing agents.
The dihydro-oxazoles or oxazolines are similarly formed when
|8-halogen alkyl amides are condensed with alkali (S. Gabriel,
Ber. 1889, 22, p. 2220), or by the action of alkali on the compounds
formed by the interaction of ethylene chlorhydrin on nitriles. They
are strong bases characterized by a quinoline-like smell. The
amino-oxazolines are known as alkylene-^-areas and are formed
by the action of potassium cyanate on the hydrobromides of the
bromalkylamines (S. Gabriel, Ber. 1895, 28. p. 1899). They are
strong bases. Tetrahydro-oxazoles or oxazolidines result from the
action of aldehydes on amino-alcohols (L. Knorr, Ber. 1901, 34,
p. 3484). The above types of compounds may be represented by
the following formulae ; —
N = CH. N = CHv N = C(NH2k NH-CHj.
CH=CH/ ' CH2CH2/ ' CHj -CHj/ ' CH2-CH2/
oxazole oxazoline amino-oxazoline oxazolidines.
)
The benzoxazoles are formed when ortho-aminophenols are con-
densed with organic acids (A. Ladenburg, Ber. 1876, 9, p. 1524;
1877, 10, p. 1 1 13), or by heating aldehydes and ortho-aminophenols
to high temperature (G. Mazzara and A. Leonardi, Gazz. 1871, 21, •
p. 251). They are mostly crystalline solids which distil unchanged.!
When warmed with acids they split into their components. They
behave as weak bases. By the condensation of ortho-aminophenols
with phosgene or thiophosgene, oxy and thio-derivatives are
obtained, the (OH) and (SH) groups being situated in the ^ position,
and these compounds on treatment with amines yield amino de-
rivatives.
OXE, PEDER (1520-1575), Danish Finance Minister, was born
in 1520. At the age of twelve he was sent abroad to complete
his education, and resided at the principal universities of Germany,
Holland, France, Italy and Switzerland for seventeen years.
On his return he found both his parents dead, and was
appointed the guardian of his eleven young brothers and sisters||
in which capacity, profiting by the spoliation of the church,
he accumulated immense riches. His extraordinary financial
abilities and pronounced political capacity soon found ample
scope in pubL'c life. In 1552 he was raised to the dignity of
Rigsraad (councillor of state); in 1554 he successfully accom-
pUshed his first diplomatic mission, by adjusting the differences
between the elector of Saxony and the margrave of Brandenburg.
The same year he held the post of governor of Copenhagen and
shared with Byrge Trolle the control of the treasury. A few
years later he incurred the royal disfavour for gross malversation
in the administration of public property, and failing to com-
promise matters with the king, fled to Germany and engaged
in political intrigues with the adventurer Wilhelm von Grumbach
( 1 503-1 567) for the purpose of dethroning Frederick II. in favour
of Christina of Lorraine, the daughter of Christian II. But
the financial difficulties of Frederick II. during the stress of
the Scandinavian Seven Years' War compelled him, in 1566,
to recall the great financier, when his confiscated estates were
restored to him and he was reinstated in all his offices and
dignities. A change for the better immediately ensued. The
finances were speedily put on an excellent footing, means were
provided for carrying on the war to a successful issue (one of the
chief expedients being the raising of the Sound tolls) and on the
conclusion of peace Oxe, as lord treasurer, not only reduced
the national debt considerably, but redeemed a large portion of
the alienated crown-lands. He reformed the coinage, developed
trade and commerce and introduced numerous agricultural
reforms, especially on his own estates, which he was never weary
of enlarging, so that on his death he was the wealthiest land-
owner in Denmark. Oxe died on the 24th of October 1575,
after contributing, more than any other statesman of his day,
to raise Denmark for a brief period to the rank of a great power.
See P. Oxe's live og levnet (Copenhagen, 1675) ; Danmarks riges
historie, vol. 3 (Copenhagen, 1897-1905).
OXENBRIDGE, JOHN (1608-1674), English Nonconformist
divine, was born at Daventry, Northamptonshire, on the 30th
of January 1608, and was educated at Emmanuel College, J
Cambridge, and Magdalen Hall, Oxford (B.A. 1628, M.A. 1631). 1
As tutor of Magdalen Hall he drew up a new code of articles
referring to the government of the college. He was deprived
of his office in May 1634, and began to preach, with a similar
disregard for constituted authority. After his voyages to the
Bermudas he returned to England (1641), and after exercising
an itinerant and unattached ministry settled for some months
in Great Yarmouth and then at Beverley. He was minister
at Berwick-on-Tweed when in October 1652 he was appointed
a fellow of Eton College. There in 1658 he preached the funeral
I
OXENFORD— OXENSTJERNA
401
sermon of Francis Rous, the provost, and thence in 1660 he was
ejected. He returned to his preaching at Berwicli-on-Tweed,
but was expelled by the Act of Uniformity in 1662, and after
spending some time in the West Indies settled (1670) at Boston,
Massachusetts, where he was ordained minister of the First
Church. Hediedonthe28thof December 1674. A few sermons
are all that he published. His first wife (d. 1658) was " a scholar
beyond what was usual in her sex," and Andrew Marvell, who
was their friend, wrote an epitaph for her tomb at Eton which
was defaced at the Restoration; his second wife (d. 1659) was
Frances Woodward, daughter of the famous vicar of Bray;
his third was a widow whom he met at Barbados.
OXENFORD, JOHN (181 2-1877), English dramatist, was
born at Camberwell on the 12th of August 181 2. He began his
Uterary career by writing on finance. He was an excellent
linguist, and the author of many translations from the German,
notably of Goethe's Dichtung uiid Wahr licit (1846) and Ecker-
mann's Conversations of Goetlie (1850). He did much by his
writing to spread the fame of Schopenhauer in England. His
first play was My Fellow Clerk, produced at the Lyceum in
1835. This was followed by a long series of pieces, the most
famous of which was perhaps the Porter's Knot (1858) and
Twice Killed (1835). About 1850 he became dramatic critic of
The Times. He died in Southwark on the 21st of February 1877.
Many references to his pieces will be found in The Life and Re-
miniscences of E. L. Blanchard (ed. C. Scott and C. Howard, 1891).
OXENHAM, HENRY NUTCOMBE (1829-188S), English
ecclesiologist, son of a master at Harrow, was born there on the
15th of November 1829. From Harrow he went to Balliol
College, Oxford. He took Anglican orders in 1854, but became
a Roman Catholic in 1857. At first his thoughts turned towards
the priesthood, and he spent some time at the London Oratory
and at St Edmund's College, Ware; but being unable to sur-
render his behef in the validity of Anglican orders, he proceeded
no further than minor orders in the Roman Church. In 1863
he made a prolonged visit to Germany, where he studied the
language and literature, and formed a close friendship with
DoUinger, whose First Age of the Christian Church he translated
in 1866. O.xenham was a regular contributor to the Saturday
Review. A selection of his essays was pubhshed in Short Studies
in Ecclesiastical History and Biography (1884), and Short Studies,
Ethical and Religious (1885). He also translated in 1876 the
2nd vol. of Bishop Hefele's History of the Councils of the Church,
and published several pamphlets on the reunion of Christendom.
His Catholic Doctrine of the Atonement (1865) and Catholic
Eschatology and Universalism (1S76) are standard works.
Oxenham died at Kensington on the 23rd of March 1888.
See J. Gillow's Bibliographical Diclionary of English Catholics,
vol. v. An interesting obituary notice on Oxenham wps written by
Vicesimus, i.e. Dean John Oakley of Manchester, for the Manchester
Guardian, and published in pamphlet form (Manchester, 1888).
OXENSTJERNA, an ancient Swedish senatorial family, the
origin of which can be traced up to the middle of the 14th
century, which had vast estates in SodermanlandJ and Uppland,
and began to adopt its armorial designation of Oxenstjcrna
(" Ox-forehead ") as a personal name towards the end of the
i6th century. Its most notable members were the following.
I. Count Axel Gustafsson (1583-1654), chancellor of
Sweden, was born at Fono in Uppland, and was educated with
his brothers at the universities of Rostock, Jena and Wittenberg.
On returning home in 1603 he was appointed kammerjunker to
King Charles IX. In 1606 he was entrusted with his first
diplomatic mission, to Mecklenburg, was appointed a senator
during his absence, and henceforth became one of the king's
most trusted servants. In 1610 he was sent to Copenhagen to
prevent a war with Denmark, but was unsuccessful. This
embassy is important as being the beginning of Oxenstjerna's
long diplomatic struggle with Sweden's traditional rival in
the north, whose most formidable enemy he continued to be
throughout life. Oxenstjerna was appointed a member of
Gustavus Adolphus's council of regency. High aristocrat as
he was, he would at first willingly have limited the royal power.
An oligarchy guiding a limited monarchy was ever his ideal
government, but the genius of the young king was not to be
fettered, so Oxenstjcrna waS' content to be the colleague instead
of the master of his sovereign. On the 6th of January 1612 he
was appointed chancellor. His controlling, organizing hand was
speedily felt in every branch of the administration. For his
services as first Swedish plenipotentiary at the peace of Knilred,
1613, he was richly rewarded. During the frequent absences
of Gustavus in Livonia and Finland (1614-1616) Oxenstjerna
acted as his vice-regent, when he displayed manifold abilities
and an all-embracing activity. In 1620 he headed the brilliant
embassage despatched to Berlin to arrange the nuptial contract
between Gustavus and Mary Eleanora of Brandenburg. It was
his principal duty during the king's Russian and PoKsh wars
to supply the armies and the fleets with everything necessary,
including men and money. By this time he had become so
indispensable that Gustavus, in 1622, bade him accompany him
to Livonia, where Oxenstjerna was appointed governor-general
and commandant of Riga. His services in Livonia were
rewarded with four castles and the whole bishopric of Wenden.
He was entrusted with the peace negotiations which led to the
truce with Poland in 1623, and succeeded, by skilful diplomacy,
in averting a threatened rupture with Denmark in 1624. On
the 7th of October 1626 he was appointed governor-general of
the newly-acquired province of Prussia. In 1629 he concluded
the very advantageous truce of Altmark with Poland. Previ-
ously to this (September 1628) he arranged with Denmark a
joint occupation of Stralsund, to prevent that important fortress
from falling into the hands of the Imperiahsts. After the battle
of Breitenfeld (September 7th, 1631) he was summoned to assist
the king with his counsels and co-operation in Germany. During
the king's absence in Franconia and Bavaria in 1632 he was
appointed Icgatus in the Rhine lands, with plenipotentiary
authority over all the German generals and princes in the
Swedish service. Although he never fought a battle, he was a
born strategist, and frustrated all the efforts of the Spanish
troops by his wise regulations. His military capacity was
strikingly demonstrated by the skUl with which he conducted
large reinforcements to Gustavus through the heart of Germany
in the summer of 1632. But it was only after the death of the
king at Liitzen that Oxenstjerna's true greatness came to light.
He inspired the despairing Protestants both in Germany and
Sweden with fresh hopes. He reorganized the government both
at home and abroad. He united the estates of the four upper
circles into a fresh league against the common foe (1634), in
spite of the envious and foolish opposition of Saxony. By the
patent of the 12th of January 1633 he had already been ap-
pointed legate plenipotentiary of Sweden in Germany with
absolute control over all the territory already won by the Swedish
arms. No Swedish subject, either before or after, ever held such
an unrestricted and far-reaching authority. Yet he was more
than equal to the extraordinary difficulties of the situation.
To him both warriors and statesmen appealed invariably as
their natural and infallible arbiter. Richelieu himself declared
that the Swedish chancellor was " an inexhaustible source of
well-matured counsels." Less original but more sagacious than
the king, he had a firmer grasp of the realities of the situation.
Gustavus would not only have aggrandized Sweden, he would
have transformed the German empire. Oxenstjerna wisely
abandoned these vaulting ambitions. His country's welfare
was his sole object. All his efforts were directed towards pro-
curing for the Swedish crown adequate compensation for its
sacrifices. Simple to austerity in his own tastes, he nevertheless
recognized the poHtical necessity of impressing his allies and
confederates by an almost regal show of dignity; and at the
abortive congress of Frankfort-on-Main (March 1634), held for
the purpose of uniting all the German Protestants, Oxenstjerna
appeared in a carriage drawn by six horses, with German princes
attending him on foot. But from first to last his pohcy suffered
from the slenderness of Sweden's material resources, a cardinal
defect which all his craft and tact could not altogether conceal
from the vigilance of her enemies. The success of his system
402
/I'' ^OXFORD, EARLS OF^'O
postulated an uninterrupted series of triumphs, whereas a
single reverse was likely to be fatal to it. Thus the frightful
disaster of Nordlingen (September 6th, 1634; see Sweden:
History) brought him, for an instant, to the verge of ruin, and
compelled him, for the first time, so far to depart from his policy
of independence as to solicit direct assistance from France. But,
well aware that Richelieu needed the Swedish armies as much
as he himself needed money, he refused at the conference of
Compiegne (1635) to bind his hands in the future for the sake
of some shght present reUef. In 1636, however, he concluded
a fresh subsidy-treaty with France at Wismar. The same year
he returned to Sweden and took his seat in the Regency. His
presence, at home overawed all opposition, and such was the
general confidence inspired by his superior wisdom that for the
next nine years his voice, especially as regarded foreign affairs,
was omnipotent in the council of state. He drew up beforehand
the plan of the Danish War of 1643-1645, so brilliantly executed
by Lennart Torstensson, and had the satisfaction of severely
crippling Denmark by the peace of Bromsebro (1645). His
later years were embittered by the jealousy of the young Queen
Christina, who thwarted the old statesman in every direction.
He always attributed the exiguity of Sweden's gains by the peace
of Osnabriick to Christina's undue interference. Oxenstjerna
was opposed at first to the abdication of Christina, because he
feared mischief to Sweden from the unruly and adventurous
disposition of her appointed successor, Charles Gustavus. The
extraordinary consideration shown to him by the new king
ultimately, however, reconciled him to the change. He died
at Stockholm on the 28th of August 1654.
See Axel Oxenstjernas skriften och brefvexling (Stockholm, 1888
et seq.); A. de Marny, Oxenstjerna et Richelieu h Compiegne (Paris,
1878).
2. Count Johan Axelsson (1611-1657), son of the foregoing,
completed his studies at Upsala in 1631, and was sent by his
father on a grand tour through France, the Netherlands and
Great Britain. He served under Count Gustavus Horn in the
Thirty Years' War from 1632, and was subsequently employed
by his father in various diplomatic missions, though his instruc-
tions were always so precise and minute that he was httle more
than the executor of the chancellor's wishes. He was one of the
commissioners who signed the truce of 1635 with Poland, and
in 1639, much against his father's will, was made a senator.
Along with Salvius he represented Sweden at the great peace
congress of Osnabriick, but as he received his instructions direct
from his father, whereas Salvius was in the queen's confidence,
the two "legates" were constantly at variance. From 1650
to 1652 he was governor-general of Pomerania. Charles X.
made him earl marshal.
3. Gabriel Gustafsson (1587-1640), brother of (i), was
from 161 2 to 1618 the chief adviser of Duke John, son of
King John III., and Gustavus Adolphus's competitor for the
Swedish throne. After the duke's death he became, virtually,
the lociim-tencns of the chancellor (with whom he was always
on the most intimate terms) during Axel's frequent absences
from Sweden. He was also employed successfully on numerous
diplomatic missions. He was most usually the intermediary
between his brother and the riksdag and senate. In 1634 he
was created lord high steward. His special department, " Svea
Hofret," the supreme court of justice, was ever a model of
efficiency, and he frequently acted as chancellor and lord high
treasurer as well.
See Gabriel Gustafssons bref till Riks Konsler Axel Oxenstjerna,
161 1-1640 (Stockholm, 1890).
4. Count Bengt or Benedict Gabrielsson (1623-1702),
was the son of Axel Oxenst jerna's half-brother, Gabriel Bengtsson
(1586-1656). After a careful education and a long residence
abroad, he began his diplomatic career at the great peace con-
gress of Osnabriick. During his stay in Germany he made the
acquaintance of the count palatine, Charles Gustavus, after-
wards Charles X., whose confidence he completely won. Two
years after the king's accession (1654), Oxenstjerna was sent
to represent Sweden at the Kreistag of Lower Saxony. In
1655 he accompanied Charles to Poland and was made governor
of the conquered provinces of Kulm, Kujavia, Masovia and
Great Poland. The firmness and humanity which he displayed
in this new capacity won the affectionate gratitude of the
inhabitants, and induced the German portion of them, notably,
the city of Thorn, to side with the Swedes against the Poles.
During Charles's absence in Denmark (1657), Oxenstjerna, in
the most desperate circumstances, tenaciously defended Thorn
for ten months, and the terms of capitulation ultimately ob-
tained by him were so advantageous that they were made the
basis of the subsequent peace negotiations at Oliva, between
Poland and Sweden, when Oxenstjerna was one of the chief
plenipotentiaries of the Swedish regency. During the domina-
tion of Magnus de la Gardie he played but a subordinate part
in affairs. From 1662 to 1666 he was governor-general of Livonia.
In 1674 he was sent to Vienna to try and prevent the threatened
outbreak of war between France and the empire. The con-
nexions which he formed and the sympathies which he won here
had a considerable influence on his future career, and resulted
in his appointment as one of the Swedish envoys to the congress
of Nijmwegen (1676). His appointment was generally regarded
as an approximation on the part of Sweden to Austria anj
Holland. During the congress he laboured assiduously in an
anti-French direction; a well-justified distrust of France was,
indeed, henceforth the keynote of his policy, a policy diametric-
ally opposed to Sweden's former system. In 1680 Charles XI.
entrusted him absolutely with the conduct of foreign affairs,
on the sole condition that peace was to be preserved, an office
which he held for the next seventeen years to the very great
advantage of Sweden. His leading political principles were
friendship with the maritime powers (Great Britain and Holland)
and the emperor, and a close anti-Danish alliance with the
house of Holstein. Charles XI. appointed Oxenstjerna one
of the regents during the minority of Charles XII. The martial
proclivities of the new king filled the prudent old chancellor
with alarm and anxiety. His protests were frequent and
energetic, and he advised Charles in vain to accept the terms
of peace offered by the first anti-Swedish coalition. Oxenstjerna
has been described as " a shrewd and subtle little man, of gentle
disposition, but remarkable for his firmness and tenacity o£
character."
See F. F. Carlson, Sveriges historia under Konungarne af Pfalziska
hiiset (Stockholm, 1883, 1885); O. Sjogren, Karl den elfte och
Svenska folkel (Stockholm, 1897); and Negociations du comie
d'Avaux pendant les annees l6g3, i6Qy~i6Q8 (Utrecht, 1882, &c.).
(R. N. B.)
OXFORD, EARLS OF, an EngUsh title held successively by
the famihes of Vere and Harley. The three most important earls
of the Vere line (see Vere) are noticed separately below. The
Veres held the earldom from 1142 until March 1703, when it
became extinct on the death of Aubrey de Vere, the 20th earl.
In 1 71 1 the EngHsh statesman Robert Harley (see below) was
created earl of Oxford; but the title became extinct in this
family on the death of the 6th earl in 1853.
OXFORD, EDWARD DE VERE, 17TH Earl ■ or (1550-1604),
son of John de Vere, the i6th earl, was born on the 12th of April
1550. He matriculated at Queen's College, Cambridge, but
he removed later to St John's College, and was known as Lord
Bolebec or Bulbeck until he succeeded in 1562 to the earldom
and to the hereditary dignity of great chamberlain of England.
As one of the royal wards the boy came under the care of Lord
Burghley, at whose house in London he lived under the tutorship
of his maternal uncle, Arthur Golding, the translator of Ovid.
His violent temper and erratic doings were a constant source
of anxiety to Burghley, who nevertheless in 1571 gave him
his eldest daughter, Anne, in marriage. Oxford more than
once asked for a military or a naval command, but Burghley
hoped that his good looks together with his skill in dancing and
in feats of arms woiUd win for him a high position at court.
His accompHshments did indeed secure EUzabeth's favour, but
he offended her by going to Flanders without her consent in
1574, and more seriously in 1582 by a duel with one of her gentle-
men, Thomas Knyvet. Among his other escapades was a futile
' I.e. in the Vere line.
OXFORD, EARLS OF^
plot to rescue from the Tower Thomas Howard, 4th duke of
Norfolk, with whom he was distantly connected. In IS79 he
insulted Sir Philip Sidney by calling him a " puppy " on the
tennis-court at Whitehall. Sidney accordingly challenged
Oxford, but the queen forbade him to fight, and required him
to apologize on the ground of the difference of rank between
the disputants. On Sidney's refusal and consequent disgrace
Oxford is said to have schemed to murder him. The earl sat
on the special commission (1586) appointed for the trial of Mary
queen of Scots; in 1589 he was one of the peers who tried
Philip Howard, earl of Arundel, for high treason; and in 1601
he took part in the trial of Essex and Southampton. It has
been suggested that Oxford was the Italianated Englishman
ridiculed by Gabriel Harvey in his Speculum Tuscanismi. On
his return from a journey to Italy in 1575 he brought back various
inventions for the toilet, and his estate was rapidly dissipated
in satisfying his extravagant whims. His first wife died in 1588,
and from that time Burghley withdrew his support, Oxford
being reduced to the necessity of seeking help among the poor
men of letters whom he had at one time or another befriended.
He was himself a lyric poet of no small merit. His fortunes
were partially retrieved on his second marriage with Elizabeth
Trentham, by whom he had a son, Henry de Vere, i8th earl of
Oxford (1503-1625). He died at Newington, near London, on
the 24th of June 1604.
His poems, scattered in various anthologies — the Paradise of
Dainty Devices, England's Parnassus, Phoenix Nest, England's
Helicon — and elsewhere, were collected by Dr A. B. Grosart in
vol. iv. of the Fuller Worthies Library (1876).
OXFORD, JOHN DE VERE, 13TH Earl of (1443-1513), was
second son of John, the 12th carl, a prominent Lancastrian,
who, together with his eldest son Aubrey de Vere, was executed
in February 1462. John de Vere the younger was himself
attainted, but two years later was restored as 13th earl. But his
loyalty was suspected, and for a short time at the end of 1468
he was in the Tower. He sided with Warwick, the king-maker,
in the political movements of 1469, accompanied him in his
exile next year, and assisted in the Lancastrian restoration of
1470-1471. As constable he tried John Tiptoft, earl of Worcester,
who had condemned his father nine years before. At the
battle of Barnet, Oxford was victorious in command of the
Lancastrian right, but his men got out of hand, and before
they could be rallied Warwick was defeated. Oxford escaped
to France. In 1473 he organized a Lancastrian expedition,
which, after an attempted landing in Essex, sailed west and
seized St Michael's Mount in Cornwall. It was only after a
four months' siege that Oxford was forced to surrender in
February 1474. He was sent to Hammes near Calais, whence,
ten years later, in August 1484, he escaped and joined Henry
Tudor in Brittany. He fought for Henry in high command at
Bosworth, and was rewarded by restoration to his title, estates
and hereditary office of Lord Chamberlain. At Stoke on the
i6th of June i486 he led the van of the royal army. In 1492
he was in command in the expedition to Flanders, and in 1497
was foremost in the defeat of the Cornish rebels on Blackheath.
Bacon {Hist, of Henry VII. p. 192, ed. Lumby) has preserved
a story that when in the summer of 1498 Oxford entertained the
king at Castle Hedingham, he assembled a great number of his
retainers in livery; Henry thanked the earl for his reception,
but fined him 15,000 marks for the breach of the laws. Oxford
was high steward at the trial of the earl of Warwick, and one of
the commissioners for the trial of Sir James Tyrell and others
in May 1502. Partly through ill-health he took little part after-
wards in public affairs, and died on the loth of March 1513. He
was twice married, but left no children.
Oxford is frequently mentioned in the Paston Letters, which
include twenty written by him, mostly to Sir John Paston the
younger. See The Paston Letters, ed. J. Gairdner; Chronicles of
London, ed. C. L. Kingsford (1905); Sir James Ramsay, Lancaster
and York; and The Political History of England, vols. iv. and v.
(1906)- (C. L. K.)
OXFORD, ROBERT DE VERE, oth Earl of (1362-1302),
English courtier, was the only son of Thomas de Vere, 8th earl of
Oxford, and Maud (d. 1413), daughter of Sir Ralph de Utford
(d. 1346), and a descendant of King Henry III. He became
oth earl of Oxford on his father's death in 1371, and married
Philippa (d. 14 12), daughter of his guardian Ingelram de Couci,
carl of Bedford, a son-in-law of Edward III., quickly becoming
very intimate with Richard II. Already hereditary great
chamberlain of England, Oxford was made a member of the
privy council and a Knight of the Garter; while castles and
lands were bestowed upon him, and he was constantly in the
company of the young king. In 1385 Richard decided to send
his friend to govern Ireland, and Oxford was given extensive
rights in that country and was created marquess of Dublin for
life; but although preparations were made for his journey he
did not leave England. Meanwhile the discontent felt at
Richard's incompetence and extravagance was increasing, one
of the contributory causes thereto being the king's partiality
for Oxford, who was regarded with jealousy by the nobles and
who made powerful enemies about this time by divorcing his
wife, Philippa, and by marrying a Bohemian lady. The king
however, indifferent to the gathering storm, created Vere duke
of Ireland in October 1386, and gave him still more extensive
powers in that country, and at once matters reached a climax.
Richard was deprived of his authority for a short time, and
Vere was ordered in vain to proceed to Ireland. The latter was
then among those who were accused by the king's uncle Thomas
of Woodstock, duke of Gloucester, and his supporters in November
1387; and rushing into the north of England he gathered an
army to defend his royal master and himself. At Radcot Bridge
in Oxfordshire, however, his men fled before the troops of
Gloucester, and Oxford himself escaped in disguise to the Nether-
lands. In the parliament of 1388 he was found guilty of treason
and was condemned to death, but as he remained abroad the
sentence was never carried out. With another exile, Michael
de la Pole, duke of Suffolk, he appears to have lived in Paris
until after the treaty between England and France in June 1389,
when he took refuge at Louvain. He was killed by a boar whilst
hunting, and left no children. In 1395 his body was brought
from Louvain to England, and was buried in the priory at
Earl's Colne, Essex.
See T. Walsingham, Historia Anglicana, edited by H. T. Riley
(London, 1863-1864); J. Froissart, Chroniques, edited by S. Luce
and _G. Raynaud (Paris, 1869-1897); H. Wallon, Richard II.
(Paris, 1864) ; and W. Stubbs, Constitutional History, vol. ii. (Oxford,
i8q6).
OXFORD, ROBERT HARLEY. isr Earl' of (1661-1724),
English statesman, commonly known by his surname of Harley,
eldest son of Sir Edward Harley (1624-1700), a prominent land-
owner in Herefordshire, and grandson of the celebrated letter-
writer Lady Brilliana Harley (c. 1600-1643), was born in Bow
Street, Covent Garden, London, on the 5th of December 1661.
His school days were passed at Shilton, near Burford, in Oxford-
shire, in a small school which produced at the same time a lord
high treasurer (Harley), a lord high chancellor (Simon Harcourt)
and a lord chief justice of the common pleas (Thomas Trevor).
The principles of Whiggism and Nonconformity were instilled
into his mind at an early age, and if he changed the politics of
his ancestors he never formally abandoned their religious opinions.
At the Revolution of 1688 Sir Edward and his son raised a troop
of horse in support of the cause of William III., and took posses-
sion of the city of Worcester in his interest. This recommended
Robert Harley to the notice of the Boscawen family, and led
to his election, in April 1689, as the parliamentary representative
of Tregony, a borough under their control. He remained its
member for one parliament, when he was elected by the con-
stituency of New Radnor, and he continued to represent it until
his elevation to the peerage in 1711.
From the first Harley gave great attention to the conduct of
public business, bestowing especial care upon the study of the
forms and ceremonies of the House. His reputation marked
him out as a fitting person to preside over the debates of the
House, and from the general election of February 1701 until the
dissolution of 1705 he held with general approbation the ofiice
' I.e. in the Harley line.
404
OXFORD, 1ST EARL OF
of speaker. For a part of this period, from the i8th of May
1704, he combined with the speakership the duties of a principal
secretary of state for the northern department, displacing in that
office the Tory earl of Nottingham. In 1703 Harley first made
use of Defoe's talents as a political writer, and this alliance with
the press proved so successful that he afterwards called the genius
of Swift to his aid in many pamphlets against his opponents in
politics. While he was secretary of state the union with Scotland
was effected. At the time of his appointment as secretary of
state Harley had given no outward sign of dissatisfaction with
the Whigs, and it was mainly through Marlborough's good
opinion of his abilities that he was admitted to the ministry.
For some time, so long indeed as the victories of the great English
general cast a glamour over the policy of his friends, Harley
continued to act loyaUy with his colleagues. But in the summer of
1707 it became evident to Godolphin that some secret influence
behind the throne was shaking the confidence of the queen in her
ministers. The sovereign had resented the intrusion into the
administration of the impetuous earl of Sunderland, and had
persuaded herself that the safety of the church depended on the
fortunes of the Tories. These convictions were strengthened
in her mind by the new favourite Abigail Hill (a cousin of the
duchess of Marlborough through her mother, and of Harley on
her father's side), whose soft and silky ways contrasted only too
favourably in the eyes of the queen with the haughty manners
of her old friend, the duchess of Marlborough. Both the duchess
and Godolphin were convinced that this change in the disposition
of the queen was due to the sinister conduct of Harley and his
relatives; but he was for the present permitted to remain in his
office. Subsequent experience showed the necessity for his dis-
missal and an occurrence supplied an opportunity for carrying
out their wishes. An ill-paid and poverty-stricken clerk, William
Gregg, in Harley's office, was detected in furnishing the enemy
with copies of many documents which should have been kept
from the knowledge of all but the most trusted advisers of the
court, and it was found that through the carelessness of the head
of the department the contents of such papers became the
common property of all in his service. The queen was thereupon
informed that Godolphin and Marlborough could no longer serve
in concert with him. They did not attend her next council,
on the 8th of February 1708, and when Harley proposed to
proceed with the business of the day the duke of Somerset drew
attention to their absence, when the queen found herself forced
(February 11,) to accept the resignations of both Harley and
St John.
Harley went out of office, but his cousin, who had now become
Mrs Masham, remained by the side of the queen, and contrived
to convey to her mistress the views of the ejected minister.
Every device which the defeated ambition of a man whose
strength lay in his aptitude for intrigue could suggest for hasten-
ing the downfall of his adversaries was employed without scruple,
and not employed in vain. The cost of the protracted war with
France, and the danger to the national church, the chief proof of
which lay in the prosecution of Sacheverell, were the weapons
which he used to influence the masses of the people. Marlborough
himself could not be dispensed with, but his relations were dis-
missed from their posts in turn. When the greatest of these,
Lord Godolphin, was ejected from oflice, five commissioners to
the treasury were appointed (August 10, 17 10), and among
them figured Harley as chancellor of the exchequer. It was the
aim of the new chancellor to frame an administration from the
moderate members of both parties, and to adopt with but slight
changes the policy of his predecessors; but his efforts were
doomed to disappointment. The Whigs refused to join in an
affiance with the man whose rule began with the retirement from
the treasury of the finance minister idolized by the city merchants,
and the Tories, who were successful beyond their wildest hopes at
the polling booths, could not understand why their leaders did
not adopt a policy more favourable to the interests of their party.
The clamours of the wilder spirits, the country members who met
at the " Octobe'f Club," began to be re-echoed even by those
who were attached to the person of Harley, when, through an
unexpected event, his popularity was restored at a bound.
A French refugee, the ex-abbe de la Bourlie (better known by the
name of the marquis de Guiscard) , was being examined before the
privy council on a charge of treachery to the nation which had
befriended him, when he stabbed Harley in the breast with
a penknife (March 8, 1711). To a man in good health the
wounds would not have been serious, but the minister had been
for some time indisposed — a few days before the occurrence Swift
had penned the prayer " Pray God preserve his health, every-
thing depends upon it " — and the joy of the nation on his re-
covery knew no bounds. Both Houses presented an address to
the crown, suitable response came from the queen, and on
Harley's reappearance in the Lower House the speaker made an
oration which was spread broadcast through the country. On
the 23rd of May 1711 the minister became Baron Harley of
Wigmore and earl of Oxford and Mortimer; on the 29th of
May he was created lord treasurer, and on the 25th of October
1 71 2 became a Knight of the Garter. Well might his friends
exclaim that he had " grown by persecutions, turnings out, and
stabbings."
With the sympathy which this attempted assassination had
evoked, and with the skill which the lord treasurer possessed
for conciliating the calmer members of either political party,
he passed through several months of office without any loss of
reputation. He rearranged the nation's finances, and continued
to support her generals in the field with ample resources for
carrying on the campaign, though his emissaries were in com-
munication with the French king, and were settling the terms of
a peace independently of England's allies. After many weeks of
vacillation and intrigue, when the negotiations were frequently
on the point of being interrupted, the preliminary peace was
signed, and in spite of the opposition of the Whig majority in
the Upper House, which was met by the creation of twelve new
peers, the much-vexed treaty of Utrecht was brought to a con-
clusion on the 31st of March 1713. While these negotiations
were under discussion the friendship between Oxford and St
John, who had become secretary of state in September 17 10,
was fast changing into hatred. The latter had resented the rise
in fortune which the stabs of Guiscard had secured for his
colleague, and when he was raised to the peerage with the
title of Baron St John and Viscount Bolingbroke, instead of
with an earldom, his resentment knew no bounds. The royal
favourite, whose husband had been called to the Upper House
as Baron Masham, deserted her old friend and relation for his
more vivacious rival. The Jacobites found that, although the
lord treasurer v/as profuse in his expressions of good will for their
cause, no steps were taken to ensure its triumph, and they no
longer placed reliance in promises which were repeatedly made
and repeatedly broken. Even Oxford's friends began to com-
plain of his habitual dilatoriness, and to find some excuse for
his apathy in ill-health, aggravated by excess in the pleasures
of the table and by the loss of his favourite child. By slow
degrees the confidence of Queen Anne was transferred from
Oxford to Bolingbroke; on the 27th of July 1714 the former
surrendered his staff as lord treasurer, and on the ist August
the queen died.
On the accession of George I. the defeated minister retired
to Herefordshire, but a few months later his impeachment was
decided upon and he was committed to the Tower on the 16th
of July 1715. After an imprisonment of nearly two years the
prison doors were opened in July 171 7 and he was allowed to
resume his place among the peers, but he took little part in public
affairs, and died almost unnoticed in London on the 21st of May
1724. He married, in May 1685, Edith, daughter of Thomas
Foley, of Witley Court, Worcester. She died in November
i6ql. His second wife was Sarah, daughter of Simon Middleton,
of Edmonton. His son Edward (1689-1741), who succeeded
to the title, married Henrietta (d. 1755), daughter and heiress
of John Holies, duke of Newcastle; and his only child, a daughter
Margaret (1715-1785), married William Bentinck, 2nd duke of
Portland, to whom she brought Welbeck .\bbey and the London
property which she inherited from her mother. The earldom
OXFORD
405
then passed to a cousin, Edward, 3rd earl [c. 1699-1755), and
eventually became extinct with Alfred, the 6th earl (1809-1853).
Harley's statesmanship may seem but intrigue and finesse,
but his character is set forth in the brightest colours in the poems
of Pope and the prose of Swift. The Irish dean was his discrimin-
ating friend in the hours of prosperity, his unswerving advocate
in adversity. The books and manuscripts which the ist earl
of Oxford and his son collected were among the glories of their
age. The manuscripts became the property of the nation in
1753 and are now in the British Museum; the books were sold
to a bookseUer called Thomas Osborne in 1742 and described
in a printed catalogue of five volumes (1743-1745), Dr Johnson
writing an account of the library. A selection of the rarer pam-
phlets and tracts, which was made by William Oldys, was printed
in eight volumes (i 744-1 746), with a preface by Johnson. The
best edition is that of Thomas Park, ten volumes (1808-1813). In
the recollection of the Harleian manuscripts, the Harleian library
and the Harleian Miscellany,^ the family name will never die.
Bibliography. — The best life of Harley is by E. S. Roscoe (1902).
Articles relating to him are in Engl. Hist. Rev. xv. 238-250 (Defoe
and Harley by Thomas Bateson) ; Trans, of the Royal Hist. Soc.
xiv. N.S. 69-121 (development of political parties temp. Q. Anne
by W. Frewen Lord); Edinburgh Review, clxx.\vii. 151-178, cxciii.
457-488 (Harley papers). For his relations with St John see Walter
Sichel's Bolingbroke (1901-1902, 2 vols.); for those with Swift,
consult the Journal to Stella and Sir Henry Craik's Life of Swift
(2nd ed., 1894, 2 vols.). (W. P. C.)
OXFORD, a city, municipal and parliamentary borough,
the county town of Oxfordshire, England, and the seat of a
famous university.' Pop. (igoi) 49,336. It is situated on the
river Thames, 51 m. by road and 63I m. by rail W.N.W. of London.
It is served by the main northern line of the Great Western rail-
way, and by a branch from the London & North- Western system
at Bletchley; while the Tham^es, and the Oxford canal, running
north from it, afford water communications. The ancient nucleus
of the city stands on a low gravel ridge between the Thames and
its tributary the Cherwell, which here flow with meandering
courses and many branches and backwaters through flat meadows.
Modern extensions of Oxford cross both rivers, the suburbs of
Osney and Botley lying to the west, Grandpont to the south, and
St Clement's to the east beyond the Cherwell. To the north
is a large modern residential district. The low meadow land is
bounded east and west by well-wooded hills, rising rather
abruptly, though only to a shght elevation, seldom exceeding
SCO ft. Several points on these hills command celebrated views,
such as that from Bagley Hill to the S.W., or from Elsfield to
the N.E., from which only the inner Oxford is visible, with its
collegiate buildings, towers and spires — a peerless city.
Main roads from east to west and from north to south inter-
sect near the centre of ancient Oxford at a point called Carfax,-
and form four principal streets. High Street (east). Queen Street
(west), Cornmarket Street (north) and St Aldate's (south).'
Cornmarket Street is continued northward by Magdalen Street,
and near their point of junction Magdalen Street is intersected
by a thoroughfare formed, from west to east, by George Street,
Broad Street, Holywell Street and Long Wall Street, the last of
which sweeps south to join High Street not far from Magdalen
Bridge over the Cherwell. This thoroughfare is thus detailed,
because it approximately indicates the northern and north-
eastern confines of the ancient city. The old walls indeed (of
which there are many fragments, notably a very fine range in
New College garden) indicate a somewhat smaller area than that
defined by these streets. Their line, which slightly varied, as
excavations have shown, in different ages, bent south-westward
from Cornmarket Street, where stood the north gate, till it reached
the enceinte of the castle, which lies at the west of the old city,
' See also Universities.
2 This word, which occurs elsewhere in England, means a place
where four roads meet. Its ultimate origin is the Latin quadrifurcus,
four-forked. Earlier English forms are carfuks, carrefore. The
modern French is carrefour.
'In the common speech of the university some streets are never
spoken of as such, but, e.g., as " the High," •' the Corn " {i.e. Corn-
niarket), the Broad." St Aldate's is pronounced St Olds, and
the Cherwell (pronounced Charwell) is called " the Char."
flanked on one side by a branch of the Thames. From the castle
the southern wall ran east, along the modern Brewers' Street;
the south gate of the city was in St Aldate's Street, where it is
joined by this lane, and the walls then continued along the north
side of Christ Church meadow, and north-eastward to the east
gale, which stood in High Street near the junction of Long
Wall Street. Oxford had thus a strong position: the castle
and the Thames protected it on the cast; the two rivers, the
walls and the water-meadows between them on the south and
east; and on the north the wall and a deep ditch, of which
vestiges may be traced, as between Broad and Ship Streets.
An early rivalry between the universities of Oxford and
Cambridge led to the circulation of many groundless legends
respecting their foundation. For example, those which
connected Oxford with " Brute the Trojan," King "'^*'"y-
Mempric (1009 B.C.), and the Druids, are not found before the
14th century. The town is as a fact much older than the uni-
versity. The historian, John Richard Green, epitomizes the
relation between the two corporations when he shows ■• that
" Oxford had already seen five centuries of borough life before
a student appeared within its streets. . . . The university found
Oxford a busy, prosperous borough, and reduced it to a cluster
of lodging-houses. It found it among the first of English munici-
palities, and it so utterly crushed its freedom that the recovery
of some of the commonest rights of self-government has only been
brought about by recent legislation." A poor Romano-British
village may have existed on the peninsula between Thames and
Cherwell, but no Roman road of importance passed within
3 m. of it. In the 8th century an indication of the existence of
Oxford is found in the legend of St Frideswide, a holy woman
who is said to have died in 735, and to have founded a nunnery
on the site of the present cathedral. Coins of King Alfred have
been discovered (though not at Oxford) bearing the name Oksna-
forda or Orsnaforda, which seems to prove the existence of a mint
at Oxford. It is clear, at any rate, that Oxford was already
important as a frontier town between Mercia and Wessex when
the first unquestionable mention of it occurs, namely in the
English Chronicle under the year 912, when Edward the Elder
" took to himself " London and Oxford. The name points to a
ford for oxen across the Thames, though some have connected
the syllable " ox-" with a Celtic word meaning " water," com-
paring it with Ouse, Osney and Exford. The first mention of the
townsmen of Oxford is in the English Chronicle of 1013, and that
of its trade in the Abingdon Chronicle, which mentions the toll
paid from the nth century to the abbot of Abingdon by boats
passing that town. Notices during that century prove the
growing importance of Oxford. As the chief stronghold in the
upper Thames valley it sustained various attacks by the Danes,
being burned in 979, 1002 and 1010, while in 1013 Sweyn took
hostages from it. It had also a considerable politicalimportance,
and several gemots were held here, as in 1015, when the two
Danish thanes Sigfrith and Morkere were treacherously killed
by the Mercian Edric; in 1020, when Canute chose Oxford as
the scene of the confirmation of " Edgar's law " by Danes and
English; in 1036, when Harold I. was chosen king, and in 1065.
But Oxford must have suffered heavily about the time of the
Conquest, for according to the Domesday Sur\'ey (which for
Oxford is unusually complete) a great proportion of the " man-
sions" (106 out of 297) and houses (478 out of 721) were ruined
or unoccupied. The city, however, had already a market, and
under the strong hand of the Norman sheriff Robert d'Oih
(c. 1070-1119) it prospered steadily. He made heavy exactions
on the townsfolk, though it may be noted that they withheld
from him Port Meadow, the great meadow of 440 acres which is
still a feature of the low riverside tract north of Oxford. But
d'Oili did much for Oxford, and the strong tower of the castle
and possibly that of St Michael's church are extant relics of his
building activity. His nephew, another Robert, who held the
castle after him, founded in 11 29 the most notable building that
* In his essay on " The Early History of Oxford," reprinted from
Stray Studies, in Studies in Oxford History, by the Oxford Historical
Society (1901).
4o6
OXFORD
Oxford has lost. This was the priory (shortly afterwards the
abbey) of Osney, which was erected by the branch of the Thames
next west of that by which the castle stands. In its finished
state it had a splendid church, with two high towers and a great
range of buildings, but only slight fragments may now be traced.
About 1130 Henry I. built for himself Beaumont Palace, the
site of which is indicated by Beaumont Street, and the same king
gave Oxford its first known charter (not still extant), in which
mention is made of a gild merchant. This charter is alluded to
in another of Henry II., in which the citizens of Oxford and
London are associated in the possession of similar customs and
liberties. The most notable historical incident connected with
the city in this period is the escape of the empress Matilda from
the castle over the frozen river and through the snow to Abingdon,
when besieged by Stephen in 1142.
It is about this time that an indication is first given of organized
teaching in Oxford, for in 1133 one Robert Pullen is said to have
instituted theological lectures here. No earlier facts are known
concerning the origin of the university, though it may with
probability be associated with schools connected with the
ecclesiastical foundations of Osney and St Frideswide; and the
tendency for Oxford to become a centre of learning may have
been fostered by the frequent presence of the court at Beaumont.
A chancellor, appointed by the bishop of Lincoln, is mentioned
in 1 2 14, and an early instance of the subordination of the town
to the university is seen in the fact that the townsfolk were
required to take oaths of peace before this official and the arch-
deacon. It may be mentioned here that the present practice of
appointing a non-resident chancellor, with a resident vice-
chancellor, did not come into vogue till the end of the 15th
century. In the 13th century a number of religious orders,
which here as elsewhere exercised a profound influence on
education, became established in Oxford. In 12 21 came the
Dominicans, whose later settlement (c. 1260) is attested by
Blackfriars Street, Preacher's Bridge and Friars' Wharf. In
1224 the Franciscans settled near the present Paradise Square.
In the middle of the century the Carmelites occupied part of the
present site of Worcester College, but their place here was taken
by the Benedictines when, about 1315, they were given Beaumont
by Edward II., and removed there. The Austin Friars settled
near the site of Wadham College; for the Cistercians Rewley
Abbey, scanty remains of which may be traced near the present
railway stations, was founded c. 1280. During the same century
the pohtical importance of Oxford was maintained. Several
parhaments were held here, notablythe Mad Parliament of 1258,
which enforced the enactment of the Provisions of Oxford.
Again, the later decades of the 13th century saw the initiation
of the collegiate system. Merton, University and Balliol were
the earliest foundations under this system. The paragraphs
below, dealing with each college successively, give the dates and
circumstances of foundation for all. As to the relations between
the university and the city, in 1248 a charter of Henry III.
afforded students considerable privileges at the expense of
townsfolk, in the way of personal and financial protection.
Moreover, the chancellor already possessed juridical powers;
even over the townsfolk he shared jurisdiction with the mayor.
Not unnaturally these peculiar conditions engendered rivalry
between " town and gown ''; rivalry led to violence, and after
many lesser encounters a climax was reached in the riot on St
Scholastica's and the following day, February loth and nth,
1354/5. Its immediate cause was trivial, but the townsmen
gave rein to their long-standing animosity, severely handled the
scholars, killing many, and paying the penalty, for Edward III.
gave the university a new charter enhancing its privileges.
Others foUowed from Richard II. and Henry IV. A charter
given by Henry VIII. in 1523 at the instigation of Wolsey
conferred such power on the university that traders of any sort
might be given its privileges, so that the city had no jurisdiction
over them. In 1571 was passed the act of Elizabeth which
incorporated and reorganized the universities of Oxford and
Cambridge. In 1635 a charter of Charles I. confirmed its privi-
leges to the university of Oxford, of which William Laud had
become chancellor in 1630. Vestiges of these exaggerated
powers (as distinct from the more equable division of rights
between the two corporations which now obtains) long survived.
For example, it was only in 1825 that the ceremony of reparation
enforced on the municipality after the St Scholastica riots was
discontinued.
During the reign of Mary, in 1555, there took place, on a spot
in Broad Street, the famous martyrdom of Ridley and Latimer.
Cranmer followed them to the stake in 1556, and the three are
commemorated by the ornate modern cross, an early work of
Sir G. G. Scott (1841), in St Giles Street beside the church of
St Mary Magdalen. A period such as this must have been in
many ways harmful to the university, but it recovered prosperity
under the care of Elizabeth and Wolsey. During the civil war, .
however, Oxford, as a city, suddenly acquired a new prominence
as the headquarters of the Royalist party and the meeting-place
of Charles I.'s parliament. This importance is not incomparable
with that which Oxford possessed in the Mercian period. How-
ever the frontier shifted, between the districts held by the
king and by the parliament, Oxford was always close to it.
It was hither that the king retired after EdgehiU, the two battles
of Newbury and Naseby; from here Prince Rupert made his
dashing raids in 1643. In May 1644 the earl of Essex and Sir
William Waller first approached the city from the east and
south, but failed to enclose the king, who escaped to Worcester,
returning after the engagement at Copredy Bridge. The final
investment of the city, when Charles had lost every other
stronghold of importance, and had himself escaped in disguise,
was in May 1646, and on the 24th of June it surrendered to
Fairfax. Throughout the war the secret sympathies of the citizens
were Parliamentarian, but there was no conflict within the walls.
The disturbances of the war and the divisions of parties, however,
had bad effects on the university, being subversive of discipline
and inimical to study; nor were these effects wholly removed
during the Commonwealth, in spite of the care of Cromwell,
who was himself chancellor in 1651-1657. The Restoration
led to conflicts between students and citizens. Charles II. held
the last Oxford parliament in 1681. James II. 's action in forcing
his nominees into certain high offices at last brought the univer-
sity into temporary opposition to the crown. Later, however,
Oxford became strongly Jacobite. In the first year of George I.'s
reign there were serious Jacobite riots, but from that time the
city becomes Hanoverian in opposition to the university, the
feeling coming to a head in 1755 during a county election, which
was ultimately the subject of a parliamentary inquiry. But
George III., visiting Oxford in 1785, was well received by both
parties, and this visit may be taken as the termination of the
purely political history of Oxford. Details of the history of the
university may be gathered from the following description of
the colleges, the names of which are arranged alphabetically.
.1// Souls College was founded in 1437 by Henry Chicheley {q.v.),
archbishop of Canterbury, for a warden, 40 fellows, 2 chaplains,
and clerks. The charter was issued in the name of
Henry VI., and it has been held that Chicheley wished,
by founding the college, to expiate his own support of the
disastrous wars in France during the reign of Henry V. and the
ensuing regency. Fifty fellowships in aU were provided for by
the modern statutes, besides the honorary feUowships to which
men of eminence are sometimes elected. Some of the fellowships
are held in connexion with university offices; but the majority
are awarded on examination, and are among the highest honours
in the university offered by this method. The only under-
graduate members of the college are four bible-clerks,' so that
the college occupies a peculiar position as a society of graduates.
The college has its beautiful original front upon High Street;
the first quadrangle, practically unaltered since the foundation,
is one of the most characteristic in Oxford. The chapel has a
splendid reredos occupying the whole eastern wall, with tiers of
figures in niches. After the original figures had been destroyed
during the Reformation the reredos was plastered over, but
' Here and in some other colleges this title is connected with the
duties of reading the Bible in chapel and saying grace in hall.
Colleges.
OXFORD
40:
when the plaster was removed, Sir Gilbert Scott found enough
remains to render it possible to restore the whole. The second
quadrangle is divided from Radclifife Square by a stone screen
and cloister. From the eastern range of buildings twin towers
rise in graduated stages. On the north side is the library. The
whole is in a style partly Gothic, partly classical, fantastic, but
not without dignity. The architect was Sir Christopher Wren's
pupil, Nicholas Hawksmoor; the building was spread over the
first half of the i8th century. The fine library originated in a
bequest of Sir Christopher Codrington (d. 17 10), and bears his
name. One of the traditional customs surviving in Oxford is
found at All Souls. Legend states that a mallard was discovered
in a drain while the foundations were being dug. A song
(probably Elizabethan) on this story is still sung at college
gaudies, and later it is pretended to hunt the bird. With such a
foundation as .All Souls, a great number of eminent names are
naturally associated (see Montagu Burrows, Worthies of All
Souls, 1874).
Balliol College is one of the earliest foundations. About
1263 John de Baliol (see Baliol, family) began, as part of a
penance, to maintain certain scholars in O.xford. Dervorguila,
his wife, developed his work after his death in 126Q by founding
the college, whose statutes date from 1282, though not brought
into final form (apart from modern revision) untU 1504. There
are now twelve fellowships and fifteen scholarships on the old
foundation. Two fellowships, to be held by members already
holding fellowships of the college, were founded by James Hozier,
second Lord Newlands, in 1906, in commemoration of Benjamin
Jowett, master of the college. The buildings, which front upon
Broad Street, Magdalen Street and St Giles Street, are for the
most part modern, and mainly by Alfred Waterhouse, Anthony
Salvin and William Butterfield. The college has a high reputa-
tion for scholarship. Its master and fellows possess the unique
right of electing the visitor of the college. In 1887 Balliol
College absorbed New Inn Hall, one of the few old halls which
had survived till modern times. In the time of the civil wars
a royal mint was established in it.
Brascnosc College (commonly written and called B.N.C.)
was founded by William Smith, bishop of Lincoln, and Sir
Richard Sutton of Prestbury, Cheshire, in 1509. Its name,
however, perpetuates the fact that it took the place of a much
earlier community in the university. There were several small
halls on its site, all dependent on other colleges or religious
houses except one — Brasenose Hall. The origin of this hall is
not known, but it existed in the middle of the 12th century.
In 1334 certain students, wishing for peace from the faction-fights
which were then characteristic of their life in Oxford, migrated
to Stamford, where a doorway remains of the house then occupied
by them as Brasenose Hall. From this an ancient knocker in
the form of a nose, which may have belonged to the hall at
Oxford, was brought to the college in i8qo. It presumably
gave name to the hall, though a derivation from brasinium
(Latin for a brew-house) was formerly upheld. The original
foundation of the college was for a principal and twelve fellows.
This number is maintained, but supernumerary fellowships are
added. Of a number of scholarships founded by various bene-
factors several are confined to certain schools, notably Manchester
Grammar School. William Hulme (1691) established a founda-
tion which provides for twelve scholars and a varying number of
exhibitioners on entrance, and also for eight senior scholarships
open under certain conditions to members of the college already
in residence. The main front of the college faces Radcliffe
Square; the whole of this and the first quadrangle, excepting
the upper storey, is of the time of the foundation; and the
gateway tower is a specially fine example. The hall and the
chapel, with its fine fan-tracery roof, date from 1663 and 1666,
and are attributed to Sir Christopher Wren. In both is seen a
curious attempt to combine Gothic and Grecian styles. Modern
buildings (by T. G. Jackson) have a frontage upon High Street.
Robert Burton, author of The Anatomy of Melancholy, became
an undergraduate of the college in 1593; Reginald Heber in
1800; Walter Pater became a fellow in 1864.
Christ Church, in point of the number of its members the
largest collegiate foundation in Oxford, is also eminent owing
to its unique constitution, the history of which involves that
of the see of Oxford. Mention has been made of the priory
of St Frideswide and its very early foundation, also of the later
but more magnificent foundation of Osney Abbey. Both of
these were involved in the sweeping changes initiated by Wolsey
and carried on by Henry,VIII. Wolsey projected the foundation
of a college on an even grander scale than that of the present
house. In 1524-1525 he obtained authority from Pope Clement
VTI. to suppress certain religious houses for the purpose of
this new foundation. These included St Frideswide's, which
occupied part of the site which Wolsey intended to use. The
new college, under the name of Cardinal College, was licensed
by the king in 1525. Its erection began immediately. The
monastic buildings were in great part removed. Statutes were
issued and appointments were made to the new offices. But
in 1529 Wolsey fell from power. Cardinal College was sup-
pressed, and in 1532 Henry VIII. established in its place another
college, on a reduced foundation, called King Henry VIII. 's
College. Oxford had been, and was at this time, in the huge
diocese of Lincoln. But in 1542, on the suppression of Osney
Abbey, a new see was created, and the abbey church was made
its cathedral. This arrangement obtained only until 1545,
when both the new cathedral church and the new college which
took the place of Wolsey 's foundation were surrendered to the
king. In 1546 Henry established the composite foundation
which now (subject to certain modern alterations) exists. He
provided for a dean and eight canons and 100 students, to
which number one was added in 1664. The church of St Frides-
wide's foundation became both the cathedral of the diocese
and the college chapel. The establishment was thus at once
diocesan and collegiate,^ and it remains so, though now the
foundation consists of a dean, six canons, and the usual cathedral
staff, a reduced number of students (corresponding to the fellows
of other colleges) and scholars. Five of the canons are university
professors. The disciplinary administration of the collegiate
part of the foundation is under the immediate supervision of
two students who hold the office of censors. Queen Elizabeth
established the connexion with Westminster School by which
not more than three scholars are elected thence each year to
Christ Church. There is also a large number of valuable exhibi-
tia\is. The great number of eminent men associated with Christ
Church can only be indicated here by the statement that its
books have borne the names of several members of the British
and other royal families, including that of King Edward VII.
as prince of Wales and of Frederick VIII. of Denmark as crown
prince; also of ten prime ministers during the 19th century.
The stately front of Christ Church is upon St Aldate's Street.
The great gateway is surmounted by a tower begun by Wolsey,
but only completed in 1682 from designs of Sir Christopher Wren.
Though somewhat incongruous in detail, it is of singular and
beautiful form, being octagonal and surmounted by a cupola.
It contains the great bell " Tom " (dedicated to St Thomas of
Canterbury), which, though recast in 1680, formerly belonged
to Osney Abbey. A clock strikes the hours on it, and at five
minutes past nine o'clock in the evening it is rung loi times by
hand, to indicate the hour of closing college gates, the number
being that of the former body of students. The gate, the tower,
and the first quadrangle are all commonly named after this
bell. Tom Quadrangle is the largest in Oxford, and after
various restorations approximates to Wolsey's original design,
though the cloisters which he intended were never built. On
the south side lies the hall, entered by a staircase under a magnifi-
cent fan-tracery roof dating from 1640. The hall itself is one
of the finest refectories in England; its roof is of ornate timber-
work (1529) and a splendid series of portraits of eminent alumni
of the house adorn the walls, together with Holbein's portraits
' As a whole it is therefore properly to be spoken of as Christ
Church, not Christ Church College. In the common speech of the
university it has become known as The House, though all the
colleges are technically " houses."
4o8
OXFORD
of Henry VIII. and Wolsey. With the hall is connected the
great liitchen, the first building undertaken by Wolsey. An
entry through the eastern range of Tom Quadrangle forms the
west portal of the Cathedral Church of Christ.
The cathedral, of which the nave and choir serve also as the
college chapel, is the smallest English cathedral, but is of high
architectural interest. The plan is cruciform, with a northward
extension from the north choir aisle, comprising the Lady chapel
and the Latin chapel. It has been seen that probably in the 8th
century St Frideswide founded a religious house. In the east end
of the north choir aisle and Lady chapel may be seen two blocked
arches, rude, narrow and low. Excavations outside the wall in 1887
revealed the foundations of three apses corresponding with these
two arches and another which has been traced between them, and
in this wall, therefore, there is clearly a remnant of the small Saxon
church, with its eastward triple-apsidal termination. In 1002
there took place the massacre of the Danes on St Brice's day at
the order of /Ethelred II. Some Danes took refuge in the tower of
St Frideswide's church, which was fired to ensure their destruction.
In 1004 the king undertook the rebuilding of the church. There
is full reason to believe that he had assistance from his brother-in-
law, Richard II., duke of Normandy, and that much of his work
remains, notably in some of the remarkable capitals in the choir.
About 1 160, however, there was an extensive Norman restoration.
The arcades of the choir and of the nave, which was shortened by
Wolsey for the purpose of his collegiate building, have massive
pillars and round arches. Within these arches, not, as usual, above
them, a blind arcade forms the triforium, and below this a lower set
of arches springs from the outer side of the main pillars. The
Norman stone-vaulted aisles conform in height with these lower
arches. Over all is a clerestory with passage. The east end is a
striking Norman restoration by Sir Gilbert Scott, consisting of two
windows and a rose window above them, with an intervening arcade.
The choir has a Perpendicular fan-tracery roof in stone, one of the
finest extant, and the early clerestory is here altered to conform
with this style. The nave roof is woodwork of the i6th century,
and there is a fine Jacobean pulpit. The lower part of the tower,
with internal arcades in the lantern, is Norman; the upper stage is
Early English, as is the low spire, possibly the earliest built in
England. St Lucy's chapel in the south transept aisle contains a
rich flamboyant Decorated window. In the north choir aisle are
the fragments which have been discovered and roughly recon-
structed of St Frideswide's shrine, of marble, with foliage beautifully
carved, representing plants symbolical of the life of the saint. The
Latin chapel is of various dates, but mainly of the 14th century.
The north windows contain contemporary glass; the east window
is a rich early work of Sir E. Burne-Jones, set in stonework of an
inharmonious Venetian design. There are other beautiful windows
by Burne-Jones at the east ends of the aisles and Lady chapel, and
at the west end of the south nave aisle. The corresponding window
of the north aisle is a curious work by the Dutch artist Abraham
van Ling (1630). There are many fine ancient monuments, notaiily
those of Bishop Robert King (d. 1557), and of Lady Elizabeth
Montacute (d. 1355). The so-called watching-chamber for St
Frideswide's shrine is a rich structure in stone and wood dating
from c. 1500. The peculiar arrangement of the collegiate seats in
the cathedral, the nave and choir being occupied by modern carved
pews or stalls running east and west, and the position of the organ
on a screen at the west end, add to the distinctive interior appearance
of the building. Small cloisters adjoin the cathedral on the south,
and an ornate Norman doorway gives access from them to the
chapter-house, a beautiful Early English room. Above the cloisters
on the south rises the " old library," originally the monastic re-
fectory, which has suffered conversion into dwelling and lecture-
rooms.
To the north-east of Tom Quadrangle is Peckwater Quadrangle,
named from an ancient hall on the site, and built from the
design of the versatile Dean Henry Aldrich (1705) with the
exception of the Ubrary (1716-1761), which forms one side of
it. The whole is classical in style. The library contains some
fine pictures by Cimabue, Holbein, Van Dyck and others, and
sculpture by Rysbrack, Roubillac, Chantrey and others. The
small Canterbury Quadrangle, to the east, was built in 1773-
1783, and marks the site of Canterbury College or Hall, founded
by Archbishop Islip in 1363, and absorbed in Henry VIII. 's
foundation. To the south of the hall and old library are the
modern Meadow Buildings (1862-1865), overlooking the beautiful
Christ Church Meadows, whose avenues lead to the Thames and
Cherwell.
Corpus Chrisii College (commonly called Corpus) was founded
in 1516 by Richard Fox, bishop of Winchester (1500-1528).
He at first intended his foundation to be a seminary connected
with St Swithin's priory at Winchester, but Hugh Oldham,
bishop of Exeter, foresaw the dissolution of the monasteries
and advised against this. Fox had especially in view the object
of classical education, and his foundation, besides a president,
20 fellows and 20 scholars, included 3 professors — in Greek,
Latin and theology — whose lectures should be open to the
whole university. This arrangement fell into desuetude, but
was revived in 1854, when fellowships of the college were
annexed to the professorial chairs of Latin and jurisprudence.
The foundation now consists of a president, 16 fellows, 26
scholars and 3 exhibitioners. The college has its front
upon Merton Street. The first quadrangle, with its gateway
tower, is of the period of the foundation, and the gate-
way has a vaulted roof with beautiful tracery. In the centre of
the quadrangle is a curious cylindrical dial in the form of a
column surmounted by a pehcan (the college symbol), constructed
in 1 581 by Charles TurnbuU, a mathematician who entered the
college in 1573. The hall has a rich late Perpendicular roof of
timber; the chapel, dating from 1517, contains an altar-piece
ascribed to Rubens, and the small library includes a valuable
collection of rare printed books and MSS. The coUege retains
its founder's crozier, and a very fine coUection of old plate, for
the preservation of which it is probable that Corpus had to pay
a considerable sum in aid of the royaUst cause. Behind the
main quadrangle are the classical Turner buildings, erected during
the presidency of Thomas Turner (1706), from a design attributed
to Dean Aldrich. The picturesque college garden is bounded
by the line of the old city wall. There are modern buildings
(1885) by T. G. Jackson on the opposite side of Merton Street
from the main buildings. Among the famous names associated
with the college may be mentioned those of four eminent
theologians — Reginald Pole, afterwards cardinal (nominated
fellow in 1523), John Jewel, bishop of Salisbury (fellow 1542-
1553), Richard Hooker (scholar, 1573) and John Keble (scholar,
1806). Thomas Arnold, the famous headmaster of Rugby
school, was a scholar of the college (181 1).
Exeter College was founded, as Stapeldon HaU, by Walter
Stapeldon, bishop of Exeter, in 13 14, but by the middle of the
century it had become known as Exeter Hall. The foundation
was extended by Sir WiUiam Petre in 1565. Stapeldon's original
foundation for 12 scholars provided that 8 of them should
be from Devonshire and 4 from Cornwall. There are still
8 " Stapeldon " scholarships confined to persons born or
educated within the diocese of Exeter. The foundation
consists of a rector, 12 fellowships and 21 scholarships or
more. There are also a number of scholarships and exhibitions
on private foundations, several of which are hmited in various
ways, including 3 confined to persons born in the Channel
Islands or educated in Victoria College, Jersey, or Elizabeth
College, Guernsey. The college has its front, which is of great
length, upon Turl' Street. It has been extensively restored,
and its gateway tower was rebuilt in 1703, while the earliest
part of the quadrangle is Jacobean, the hall being an excellent
example dating from 1618. The chapel (1857-1858) is an ornate
structure by Sir Gilbert Scott; it is in Decorated style, of great
height, with an eastern apse, and has some resemblance to the
Sainte ChapeUe in Paris. The interior contains mosaics by
Antonio Salviati and tapestry by Sir E. Burne-Jones and William
Morris. Scott's work is also seen in the frontage towards
Broad Street, and in the library (1856). The college has a beauti-
ful secluded garden between its own buildings and those of the
divinity school or Bodleian library.
Hertford College, in its present form, is a modern foundation.
There were formerly several halls on the site, and some time
between 1283 and 1300 Elias of Hertford acquired one of them,
which became known as Hert or Hart Hall. In 13 12 it was sold
to Bishop Stapeldon, the founder of Exeter, and was occupied
by his scholars for a short time. Again, some of William of
Wykeham's scholars were lodged here while New College was
building. The dependence of the hall on Exeter College was
maintained until the second half of the i6th century. In 1710
' " The Turl " takes its name from a postern (Turl or Thorold
Gate) in the city wall, to which the street led.
OXFORD
409
Richard Newton, formerly a Westminster student of Ciirist
Church, became principal, and in 1740, in spite of opposition
from Exeter, he obtained a charter establishing Hertford as a
college. The foundation, however, did not prosper, and by an
inquisition of i8i6 it was declared to have lapsed in 1805. With
part of its property the university was able to endow the Hertford
scholarship in 1834. Magdalen Hall, which had become inde-
pendent of the college of that name in 1602, acquired the site and
buildings of the dissolved Hertford College and occupied them,
but was itself dissolved in 1874, when its principal and scholars
were incorporated as forming the new Hertford College. An
endowment was provided by Thomas Charles Baring, then M.P.
for South Essex, for 15 fellows and 30 scholars, 7 lecturers and
dean and bursar. The foundation now consists of a principal,
17 fellows and 40 scholars. Of the college buildings, which face
those of the Bodleian library and border each side of New
College Lane, no part is earlier than Newton's time. Modern
buildings by T. G. Jackson (1003) incorporate remains of the
little early Perpendicular chapel of Our Lady at Smith Gate
(incorrectly called St Catherine's), which probably stood on the
outer side of the town ditch. There is a striking modern chapel.
Jesus College has always had an intimate association with
Wales. Queen Elizabeth figures as its foundress in its charter
of 1571, but she was inspired by Hugh ap Rice (Price), a native
of Brecon, who endowed the college. The original foundation
was for a principal, 8 fellows and 8 scholars. It now consists of
a principal and not less than 8 or more than 14 fellows, and there
are 24 foundation scholarships, besides other scholarships and
exhibitions, mainly on the foundation of Edmund Meyricke, a
native of Merionethshire, who entered the college in 1656 and was
a fellow in 1662. Not only his scholarships but others also are
restricted (unless in default of suitable candidates) to persons
born or educated in Wales, or of Welsh parentage. At Jesus,
as at Exeter, there are also some " King Charles I." scholarships
for persons born or educated in the Channel Islands. The college
buildings face Turl Street; the front is an excellent reconstruc-
tion of 1856. The chapel dates from 1621, the hall from about
the same time, and the library from 1677, being erected at the
expense of the eminent principal (1661-1673) Sir Leoline Jenkins.
He and his predecessor, Sir Eubule ThelwaU (1621-1630), were
prominent in raising the college from an early period of depression.
Keble College is modern; it received its charter in 1870. It
was erected by subscription as a memorial to John Keble (g.v.).
Its stated object was to provide an academical education com-
bined with economical cost in living and a " training based upon
the principles of the Church of England." The college is governed
by a warden (who has full charge of the internal administration)
and a council. There is a staff of tutors, and a number of scholar-
ships and exhibitions on private foundations. The buildings lie
somewhat apart from other collegiate buildings towards the
north of the city, facing the university parks, which extend from
here down to the river Cherwell. They are from the designs
of William Butterfield, and are principally in variegated brick.
The chapel has an elaborate scheme of decoration in mosaic;
and the library contains a great number of books collected by
Keble, and Holman Hunt's picture, " The Light of the World."
Lincoln College was founded in 1427 by Richard Flemyng,
bishop of Lincoln. It was an outcome of the reaction against the
doctrines of Wycliffe, of which the founder of the college, once
their earnest supporter, was now an equally earnest opponent.
He died (1431) before his schemes were fully carried out, and the
college was strugghng for existence when Thomas Rotherham,
while bishop of Lincoln and visitor of the college, reconstituted
and re-endowed it in 1478. The foundation consists of a rector,
12 fellows and 14 scholars. The buildings face Turl Street. The
hall dates from 1436, but its wainscoting within was added in
1 701. The chapel, in the back quadrangle, is an interesting
example of Perpendicular work of very late date (1630). The
interior is wainscoted in cedar, and the windows are filled with
Flemish glass introduced at the time of the building. There is
a modern library building in a classic Jacobean style, com-
pleted in 1906; the collection of books was originated by Dean
John Forest, who also built the hall. Among the eminent
associates of this college was John Wesley, fellow 1726-1751.
Magdalen College (pronounced Maudlcn; in full, St Mary
Magdalen) was founded in 1458 hy William of Waynflete, bishop
of Winchester and lord chancellor of England. In 1448 he had
obtained the patent authorizing the foundation of Magdalen Hall.
In the college he provided for a president, 40 fellows, 30 demies,'
and, for the chapel, chaplains, clerks and choristers. To the
college he attached a grammar-school with a master and usher.
The foundation now consists of a president, from 30 to 40
fellowships, of which 5 are attached to the Waynflete pro-
fessorships in the university,^ senior demies up to 8 and
junior demies up to 35 in number. The choir, &c., are
maintained, and the choral singing is celebrated. In order to
found his college, Waynflete acquired the site and buildings of the
hospital of St John the Baptist, a foundation or refoundation
of Henry III. for a master and brethren, with sisters also, for
" the relief of poor scholars and other miserable persons." The
Magdalen buildings, which are among the most beautiful in
Oxford, have a long frontage on High Street, while one side rises
close to or directly above a branch of the river Cherwell. The
chief feature of the front is the bell-tower, a structure which for
grace and beauty of proportion is hardly surpassed by any other
of the Perpendicular period. It was begun in 1492, and com-
pleted in about thirteen years. From its summit a Latin hymn is
sung at five o'clock on May-day morning annually. Various sug-
gestions have been made as to the origin of this custom; it
may have been connected with the inauguration of the tower, but
nothing is certainly known. The college is entered by a modern
gateway, giving access to a small quadrangle, at one corner of
which is an open pulpit of stone. This was connected with the
chapel of St John's Hospital, which was incorporated in the front
range of buildings. Adjoining this is the west front of the college
chapel.' This chapel was begun in 1474, but has been much
altered, and the internal fittings are in the main excellent modern
work (1833 seq.). At the north-west corner of the entrance
quadrangle is a picturesque remnant of the later buildings of
Magdalen Hall. To the west is the modern St Swithun's quad-
rangle, the buildings of which were designed by G. F. Bodley
and T. Gamer, and begun in 1880, and to the west again a
Perpendicular building erected for Magdalen College school in
1840. To the east lies the main quadrangle, called the cloister
qualdrangle, from the cloisters which surround it. These have
been in great part reconstructed, but in accordance with the
plan of the time of the foundation. Above the west walk rises
the beautiful " founder's " tower, low and broad. On this side
also is the valuable library. The south walk is bounded by the
chapel and the hall, which He in line, adjoining each other. The
hall is a beautiful room, improved in 1906 by the substitution of
an open timber roof for one of plaster erected in the i8th century.
The panelling dates mainly from 1541; there is a tradition that
the part at the west end came from the dissolved Reading Abbey.
A curious series of figures which surmount the buttresses on
three sides of the cloisters date from 1 508-1 509. Some are
apparently symbolical, others scriptural, others again heraldic.
To the north of the cloister quadrangle (a garden with broad
lawns intervening) stand the so-called New Buildings, a massive
classical range (1733). To the north and west of these extends
the Grove or deer park, where the first deer were established
probably c. 1720; to the east, across a branch of the Cherwell,
is the meadow surrounded by Magdalen Walks, part of which
is called Addison's Walk after Joseph Addison (demy and
fellow). Perhaps the most notable period in the history of the
college is that of 1687-1688, when the fellows resisted James II. 's
attempt to force a president upon them, in place of their own
choice, John Hough (1651-1743), successively bishop of Oxford,
' Singular demy, the last syllable accented. They correspond
to the scholars of other colleges. The name is derived from the fact
that their allowance was originally half (demi-) that of fellows.
^ Waynflete himself had founded three readerships, in natural and
moral philosophy and in theology.
'It actually faces about N.W. ; the same deviation applies to
other buildings described.
4IO
OXFORD
Lichfield, and Worcester. Cardinal Wolsey was a fellow of the
college about the time when the bell-tower was building, but the
attribution of the design to him, or even of any active part in
the erection, is not borne out by evidence. Among alumni of
the coUege were William Camden, Sir Thomas Bodley, John
Hampden, at the time of whose matriculation (1610) Magdalen
was strongly Puritan, Joseph Addison, Dr SachevereU, and for
a short period Gibbon the historian. Mention should be made
of the eminent president, Martin Joseph Routh, who was elected
to the office in 1791, and held it till his death in his looth year in
1854. Magdalen CoUege school had new buildings opened for it
in 1894.
Merlon College is of peculiar interest as regards its foundation,
which is generally cited as the first on the present collegiate
model. At some time before 1264 Walter de Merton,^ a native
of Merton, Surrey, devoted estates in that county to the main-
tenance of scholars in Oxford. Thus far he followed an estab-
lished practice. In 1264 he founded at Maiden a " house of
scholars of Merton " for those who controlled the estates in the
interest of the scholars, who should study preferably at Oxford,
though any centre of learning was open to them. By 1268 the
Oxford community had acquired the present site of the college;
in 1270 new statutes laid down rules of living and study, and in
1274 the whole foundation was estabhshed under a final set of
statutes at Oxford — i.e. the society ceased to be administered
from the house in Surrey. The society was under a warden, and
certain other officers were established, but no Limit was set on the
number of scholars. The foundation now consists of a warden,
from 19 to 26 fellows, and 20 or more postmasterships. The
postmasters of Merton correspond to the scholars of other
colleges; they had their origin in the portionistae {i.e. founda-
tioners who had a smaller portion or emolument than fellows),
instituted in 1380 on the foundation of John Wyllyot (fellow
1334, chancellor 1349). The coUege is adjacent to Corpus, with
its front upon Merton Street, and some of its buildings are of
the highest interest, notably the chapel and library. The chapel
consists of a choir and transepts with a tower at the crossing;
but a nave, though intended, was never buUt. The choir is of
the purest Decorated workmanship (dating probably from the
last decade of the 13th century), with beautiful windows exhibit-
ing most deUcate tracery. The transepts show the appearance
of Perpendicular work, but there is also work of the earlier style
in them; the massive tower is whoUy of the later period (c. i4!So)-
The library, which lies on two sides of the so-caUed " mob "
quadrangle, dates from 13 7 7-13 78, and was mainly the gift of
WiUiam Rede, bishop of Chichester (1369-1386). It occupies
two beautiful rooms and is of great interest from its early founda-
tion and the preservation of its ancient character. The treasury
is a smaU room coeval with the foundation, with a curious high-
pitched ashlar roof. The other buildings, which are of various
dates, are mainly disposed about four quadrangles, including
that of St Alban's HaU, which, possibly dating from the early
part of the 15th century, was incorporated with Merton CoUege
in 1882. The coUege haU retains an original door with fine
ironwork, but the building is in great part modernized. A
beautiful garden hes east of the buildings, being separated from
the meadows to the south by part of the old city waU. Modern
buildings (1907) have a frontage upon Merton Street; others
(1864) overlook the meadows. TraditionaUy the names of
Roger Bacon, Duns Scotus and Wycliffe have been associated
with this coUege. Anthony Wood (1632-1695), the antiquary
and historian of the university, was a postmaster of the coUege.
New College was founded by WiUiam of Wykeham in 1379.
The founder's name for it, which it stiU bears in its corporate
title, is the CoUege of St Mary of Winchester. But there was
already a St Mary's College (Oriel). Wykeham 's house thus soon
became known as the New College, and the substantive is still
retained in the ordinary speech of the university, whereas in
mentioning the titles of other colleges it is generaUy omitted.
' He was chancellor of the kingdom in 1261-1263, and again in
1272-1274, justiciar in 1271 and bishop of Rochester in 1274. He
died in 1277.
Wykeham designed an exclusive connexion between his Oxford
college and his school at Winchester. This connexion is main-
tained in a modified form. Wykeham's foundation was for a
warden, and 70 feUows and scholars, with chaplains and a choir.
The present foundation consists of a warden, and not more than
36 fellows, whUe to the scholarships 6 elections are made
annually from Winchester and 4 from elsewhere. The choir is
maintained, as at Magdalen. Five of the feUowships were
attached to university professorships, of which three (logic,
ancient history and physics) are called Wykeham professorships.
The buildings of New CoUege remain in great measure as designed
by the founder, and iUustrate the magnificence of his scheme.
The main gateway tower fronts New CoUege Lane. The chapel
and haU stand in Une (as at Magdalen), on the north side of the
front quadrangle. The period of building was that of the develop-
ment of the Perpendicular style. In shape the chapel was the
prototype of a form common in Oxford, consisting of a choir,
with transepts forming an antechapel, but with no nave. The
remarkable west window in monochrome was erected, c. 1783,
from a design by Sir Joshua Reynolds. The reredos, with its
tiers of figures in niches, had a history similar to that at AU
Souls, being plastered over in 1567. In the same way, too, it
was restored c. 1890; but previously James Wyatt had dis-
covered traces of the original, and had unsuccessfully attempted
the restoration of the niches in plaster, carrying out also, as
elsewhere in Oxford, other extensive alterations of which the
obliteration was demanded by later taste. Portions of the old
woodwork were incorporated in the excellent new work of 1879
(Sir Gilbert Scott). In the chapel is preserved the beautiful
pastoral staff of the founder, and there is a fine series of memorial
brasses, mainly of the 15th century, in the antechapel. To the
west of the chapel are the cloisters, consecrated in 1400, and the
detached tower, a taU massive building on the line of the city waU.
As already mentioned, a fine remnant of this waU adds to the
picturesqueness of the coUege garden. The haU was completed
in 1368, and has a Tudor screen and wainscoting. The garden
quadrangle, the east side of which is open to the gardens, dates
from 1682-1708. On the north side of the coUege precincts,
facing HolyweU Street, are extensive modern buildings by Sir
G. G. Scott and B. Champneys. In 1642, when Oxford was play-
ing its prominent part in the Civil War, the tower and cloisters of
New CoUege became a royalist magazine.
Oriel College was founded by Edward II. in 1326. The
originator of the scheme and the prime mover in it was Adam
de Brome, the king's almoner, who in 1324 had obtained royal
licence to found a coUege; but in 1326 he surrendered his rights
to the king, who issued charter and statutes, and created Brome
the first provost. This foundation was for a provost and 10
fellows, but a number of bequests extending over nearly a century
from 144s enabled additional fellowships to be established.
The foundation, however, now consists of the provost, 12
feUows and 2 professorial fellows, with at least 12 scholars
and a number of exhibitioners. St Mary Hall, which had been
the manse of St Mary's church, was given with the church to
the coUege by the founder, and was opened as a haU with a
principal of its own. It was, however, incorporated with the
college in 1902. Oriel CoUege was dedicated to St Mary the
Virgin, and the name by which it is now known appears first
in 1349. It was derived from a tenement called La Oriole (but
the origin of this name is unknown), which had occupied part
of the coUege site, had belonged to Eleanor of Provence, wife of
Edward I., and had been given by her to her chaplain, James of
Spain (Jacobus de Ispania). The buildings of Oriel, which face
Oriel Street, are not coeval with the foundation. The first
quadrangle, with its elaborate battlements, dates from 1620-
1637. The inner quadrangle has buildings of 1719, 1729 and
later dates. The modern extension on CecU Rhodes's founda-
tion faces High Street. Early in the 19th century a number
of eminent men associated with Oriel gave the college its well-
known connexion with the " Oxford Movement." Edward
Copleston, elected fellow in 1795, became provost in 1814.
In 181 1 John Keble and Richard Whately were elected feUows,
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411
the one from Corpus; the other had been at Oriel. Again in
1815 Thomas Arnold, afterwards headmaster of Rugby, was
elected from Corpus, with Renn Dickson Hampden of Oriel.
Later feUows were John Henry Newman (1822) and Edward
Pusey (1823). James Anthony Froudc entered the college in
183s; Matthew Arnold became a fellow in 1845. Cecil John
Rhodes matriculated in 1873, and, besides his foundation of
Rhodes scholarships, made a large bequest to the college.
Pembroke College was founded in 1624. Thomas Tesdale
(1547-160Q) of Glympton, Oxfordshire, left money for the
support of scholars in Oxford, indicating Balliol College as his
preference, but not insisting on this. Richard Wightwick
(d. 1630), rector of East Ilsley, Berkshire, added to Tesdalc's
bequest, and though Balliol College desired to benefit by it,
James I. preferred to figure as the founder of a new college
with these moneys. Pembroke, which was named after William
Herbert, earl of Pembroke, then chancellor of the university,
was thus developed out of Broadgates Hall, which had long been
eminent as the residence of students in law. The original college
foundation was for a master, 10 fellows and 10 scholars, but
a number of scholarships and exhibitions has been added by
benefactors. Of the scholarships some are awarded by preference
to candidates possessing certain qualifications, notably that of
education at Abingdon school, which Tesdale intended to benefit
by his bequest. The buildings of Pembroke lie south and west
of St Aldate's Church, opposite Christ Church; they surround
two picturesque quadrangles, but are in great part modern.
The college preserves some relics of Samuel Johnson, who entered
it in 1728.
Queen's College was founded in 1340-1341 by Robert de
Eglesfield, chaplain of Philippa, queen-consort of Edward III.,
and was named in her honour. Her son, Edward the Black
Prince, was entered on the books of the college, and Henry V.
received education here. Several queens were among the
benefactors of the college — Henrietta Maria, CaroHne, Charlotte.
The queen-consort is always the patroness of the college.
The foundation consists of a provost, from 14 to 16 fellows,
and about 25 scholars. There was formerly an intimate
connexion between this coUege and the north of England.
Five scholarships, called Eglesfield scholarships, are now given
by preference to natives of Cumberland or Westmorland,
and the Hastings exhibitions founded by Lady Elizabeth
Hastings (1682-1739) are open only to candidates from various
schools in these counties and in Yorkshire. This connexion
dates from the foundation. Eglesfield (d. 1349) was probably
a native of Eaglesfield in Cumberland, and provided that the
12 fellows or scholars of his foundation were preferably to
be natives of this county or Westmorland. During the time of
Wycliffe, who while rector of Lutterworth resided for two years
in the college, the foundation was by a ruhng of the visitor
(the archbishop of York) actually confined to the two counties
mentioned, and so remained until 1854. The buildings date
mainly from the close of the 17th century and the beginning of
the i8th. They front High Street with a massive classical
screen, flanked by the ends of the east and west ranges of buildings
of the front quadrangle, and surmounted in the centre by a
statue of Queen CaroUne under a cupola. The buildings are the
work of Sir Christopher Wren and Nicholas Hawksmoor. The
library contains a valuable collection, especially of historical
works, and is fitted with wood-carving by Grinling Gibbons.
There is also here an interesting contemporary statue in wood of
Queen Philippa. The chapel retains several medieval windows
from the former Gothic chapel, and some stained glass painted
by Abraham van Ling (1635). The college preserves two early
customs — on Christmas day a dinner is held at which a boar's
head is carried in state into the hall, and an appropriate ancient
carol is sung; and on New Year's day a threaded needle, with
the motto " Take this and be thrifty," is presented I.0 members
in the college haU. The origin of this custom is traced to a
rebus on the founder's name — aiguille et fil (needle and thread).
St John's College was founded in 1555 by Sir Thomas White,
Kt., alderman of London (1492-1567). It occupied the site
of a house for Cistercian students in the university, founded by
Archbishop Chichcley in 1437 and dedicated to St Bernard of
Clairvaux. White's foundation was originally for a president,
50 fellows and scholars, and a chaplain, choir, &c., for the chapel.
White established the intimate connexion which still exists
between his college and the Merchant Taylors' school in
London, in the foundation of which, as a prominent officer in
the Merchant Taylors' Company, he had a share. The college
foundation now consists of a president, from 14 to 18
fellowships, not less than 28 scholarships, of which 15 are
appropriated to Merchant Taylors' school, and 4 senior
scholarships, similarly appropriated. The buildings incorporate
some of Chicheley's work, as in the front upon St Giles's Street,
with its fine gateway. Similarly, in the front quadrangle,
the hall and chapel belonged to the house of St Bernard, though
subsequently much altered. A passage with a rich fan-traceried
roof gives access from the front to the back quadrangle, on the
south and east sides of which is the library. The south wing
dates from 1596, the east from 163 1. The latter is of the greater
interest; it was built at the charge of William Laud, and the
designs have been commonly attributed to Inigo Jones. The
north and west sides of the quadrangle, of the same period, have
cloisters. The union of the classical style, which predominates
here, with the characteristic late Perpendicular of the period,
makes this quadrangle architecturally one of the most interesting
in Oxford, as the college gardens, which its east front overlooks,
are among the most picturesque. The most notable period of
the history of the college is associated with Laud, who entered
the college in 1589, was elected a fellow in 1593, became president
in 161 1 and chancellor of the university in 1629. Relics of him
are preserved in the library, and he is buried in the chapel,
together with White, the founder, and Wilham Juxon, president
1621-1633, and afterwards archbishop of Canterbury.
Trinity College was founded in 1555 by Sir Thomas Pope,
Kt. (d. 1559), of Tittenhanger, Hertfordshire. He acquired and
used for his college the ground and buildings of Durham College,
the Oxford house of Durham Abbey, originally founded in the
13th century (see Durham, city). Trinity is therefore one of
the instances of collegiate foundation forming a sequel to the
dissolution of the monasteries, for Durham had been surrendered
in 1540. Pope's foundation provided for a president, 12
fellows and 12 scholars. There are now 16 scholarships and
a number of exhibitions. There are also some scholarships
in natural science, on the foundation (1873) of Thomas Millard,
whose bequest also provides for a lecturer and laboratory. The
front quadrangle of Trinity lies open to Broad Street; on its
east side are modern buildings (by T. G. Jackson, 1887), on the
north, the president's house and the chapel in a classic style,
dating from 1694. It contains a rich alabaster tomb of Pope,
the founder, and his third wife, and has a fine carved screen and
altar-piece by Grinling Gibbons. The remainder of the buildings,
forming two small quadrangles north of the chapel, includes
parts of the old Durham college, but these have been much
altered. Gardens extend to the east. John Henry Newman
was a commoner of this college; Edward Augustus Freeman,
the historian, and WiOiam Stubbs, bishop of Oxford, were
among its fellows.
University College (commonly abbreviated Univ.) has claimed
to find its origin in a period far earlier than that to which the
earliest historical notice of the university itself can be assigned.
In a petition to Richard II., respecting a dispute as to property
the members of the " mickel univcrsitie hall in Oxford " quote
King Alfred as the founder of the house, for 26 divines. The
date of 872 was claimed, and in 1872 a millenary celebration
was held by the college. Moreover, in 1727 a dispute as to the
mastership of the college led to an appeal to the Court of King's
Bench to determine the right of visitation, and it was found
that this right rested with the crown (as it now does) on the
ground of the foundation by Alfred. Leaving tradition, however,
it is found that William of Durham, archdeacon of Durham,
dying in 1249, bequeathed money to the university to supf)ort
masters at Oxford. In 1253 the university acquired its first
412
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tenement on this bequest; further acquisitions followed; and
in 1280 an inquiry was held as to the disposition of the bequest,
and statutes were issued to the society on Durham's foundation,
the university finding it necessary to make provision for its
individual governance. This intimate connexion between the
university and the early development of a college has no parallel,
and to it the college owes its name. The college, as it may now
be called, developed slowly, further statutes being found neces-
sary in 1292 and 1311; imlike other foundations which were
established, with a definite code of statutes from the outset, by
individual founders. It is possible, however, to maintain that
the founders of Merton and Balliol were influenced in their
work by that of William of Durham. The foundation consists
of a master, 13 fellows and 16 scholars, and there are a
large number of exhibitions. The buildings have a long front-
age upon High Street. The oldest part of the buildings was
begun in 1634. The chapel, built not long after, was altered in
Decorated style by Sir Gilbert Scott, but contains fine wood-
work of 1694, and windows by Abraham van Ling (1641). The
old library dates from 166S-1670, but a new library was built
by Scott, in Decorated style, and contains great statues of Lord
Eldon and Lord Stowell, members of the college, the design of
which was by Sir Francis Chantrey. The hall dates from 1657,
but has been greatly altered. The extension of the college has
necessitated that of its buildings in modern times. A chamber
built for the purpose contains a statue, by Onslow Ford, of
Percy Bysshe Shelley, presenting him lying drowned. The
poet entered the college in 1810.
Wadham College was founded in 161 2 ' by Nicholas Wadham
(d. 1609) of Merifield, near Ilminster, Somersetshire, and Dorothy
his wife, who as his executrix carried out his plans. The
original foundation consisted of a warden, 15 fellows, 15 scholars,
with 2 chaplains and 2 clerks. It now consists of a warden,
8 to 10 fellows and 18 scholars. The college, which has
its frontage upon Parks Road, occupies the site of the
house of the Austin Friars. No part of their buildings is re-
tained. The erection of the college occupied the years 1610-
1613, and while the buildings are in the main an excellent
example of their period, the chapel (as distinct from the ante-
chapel) is of peculiar interest. This appears and was long held
to be pure Perpendicular work of the isth century, but the
record of its building in 161 1 is preserved, and as the majority
of the builders seem to have been natives of Somersetshire it is
supposed that in the chapel they closely imitated the style
which is so finely developed in that county. The buildings of
Wadham have remained practically unchanged since the founda-
tion, either by alteration of the existing fabric or by addition.
Beautifid gardens lie to the east and north of them; the warden's
garden is especially fine. In the quadrangle is a clock designed
by Christopher Wren, who entered the college in 1649. It was
in this year that John Wilkins, warden (1648-1659), initiated a
weekly philosophical club, out of the meetings of which grew
the Royal Society, which received its charter in 1662.
Worcester College was founded in its present form in 17 14, out
of a bequest by Sir Thomas Cookes, Bart. (d. 1701) of Bentley
Pauncefoot, Worcestershire. On part of the site, in 1283,
Gloucester Hall had been founded for Benedictine novices from
Gloucester. After the dissolution of the monasteries, the
buildings were used by Robert King, first bishop of Oxford,
as a palace (1542); later it was acquired by Sir Thomas White,
founder of St John's College, and again became a hall. This
fell into diificulties, and was in great poverty when the present
foundation superseded it. Cookes's foundation provided for a
provost, 6 fellows and 6 scholars; there are now from 6
to 10 fellows, and from 10 to 18 scholars. Four of the
scholarships are appropriated to Bromsgrove school, of which
Cookes was a benefactor. The frontage of the buildings, in
Worcester Street, is in a classical style, but the quadrangle
retains some of the old buildings of Gloucester Hall. The
gardens, with their lake, are fine.
'The year in which the statutes were issued; Dorothy Wadham
had received the royal charter in 1610.
Halls, Ac.
The academical halls, which were of very early origin, were
originally in the nature of lodging-houses, in which students
lived under a principal chosen by themselves. But
they were gradually absorbed by the colleges as
these became firmly established. The only remaining
academical hall is that of St Edmund, which is said to have
been founded in 1226, and to derive its name from Edmund
Rich, archbishop of Canterbury, who is known to have taught
at Oxford, and was canonized in 1248. The hall came into
the possession of Queen's College in 1557, and the principal
is nominated by that society. The buildings, which form a
small quadrangle east of Queen's College, date mainly from
the middle of the iSth century. There are three private halls
in Oxford, estabhshed under a university statute of 1882, which
provides for such establishment by any member of convocation
under certain conditions and under licence from the vice-
chancellor. Non-collegiate students,- i.e. members of the
university, possessing all its privileges without being members
of any college, were first admitted in 1868. As a body they are
under the care of a delegacy and the supervision of a censor.
Women are admitted to lectures and university examinations
but not to its degrees; they have four colleges or halls — Somer-
ville College (1870), Lady Margaret Hall (1879), St Hugh's Hall
(1886) and St Hilda's Hall (1893). Among foundations in-
dependent of university jurisdiction and intended primarily
for the teaching of theology are the Pusey House (1884, founded
in memory of Edward Bouverie Pusey), St Stephen's House
(1876) and Wychft'e Hall (1878), both theological colleges;
Mansfield College (Congregational, founded to take the place
of Spring Hill CoUege, Birmingham, in 1889) and Manchester
College (1893), also a nonconformist institution. The buildings
of Mansfield, especially the chapel, should be noticed as of very
good design in Decorated and Perpendicular styles. None of
these houses is a residence for undergraduates. There is a
theological college at Cuddesdon, near Oxford, where also is
the bishop of Oxford's palace.
A notable group of buildings connected with the university stands
between Broad Street and High Street, and between Exeter and
Brasenose and All Souls colleges. Among these tl^ie prin-
cipal are the old schools buildings, which form a fine v'^f,
quadrangle, and are now mainly occupied by the Bodleian " . °^*
Library, more e.xtensive accommodation for the schools ^y, tlons
(examinations, &c.) being provided in the modern range
of buildings facing High Street and King Street, completed in 1882
from the designs of T. G. Jackson. The erection of the old schools
quadrangle was b^un in 161 3, and the architecture combines late
Gothic with classical details. On the inner face of the gateway
towers are seen the five Roman orders, in tiers, one above another.
The windows, parapet and rich pinnacles, however, are Gothic.
The quadrangle was founded by Sir Thomas Bodley, who conceived
the addition of schools to the celebrated library which bears his
name. The main chamber of the Bodleian Library is entered from
the quadrangle. The library (see Libraries) was opened in 1602.
The central part of the room dates from 1480, when it was completed
to contain the library given to the university by Humphrey, duke of
Gloucester (d. 1447). This library was destroyed in the time of
Edward VI. Bodley added the east wing, the west wing followed
in 1634-1640, being built to house the collection of John Selden,
one of the principal of many benefactors of the library. The whole
forms a most beautiful room, enhanced by the jinely painted ceiling
and the excellent design of the fittings. In the storey above the
library is the picture-gallery, containing portraits of chancellors,
founders and benefactors of the university. The basement of the
central part of the library is formed by the Divinity School, a splendid
chamber (1480), in which the most notable feature is the groined roof,
divided into compartments by widely splayed arches, and adorned
with rich tracery and carved pendants. The Convocation House,
below the west wing of the library, and entered from the west end
of the school, has a roof with fan tracery. To the north of these
buildings, flanking Broad Street, are the Sheldonian Theatre, the
old building of the Clarendon Press and the Old Ashmolean building.
" The Sheldonian " was built in 1664-1669 at the charge of Gilbert
Sheldon (i 598-1677), chancellor of the university and archbishop
of Canterbury, from the design of Sir Christopher Wren. The
principal public ceremonies of the university, including the " En-
caenia," the annual commemoration of benefactors, accompanied
by the conferring of honorary degrees and the recitation of prize
compositions, are generally held in this building, which is particularly
well adapted for its purp ose. The university printing press w as
' This title was given by a statute of 1884.
HO 8MO
i<-
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.n
r r\
413
early established in its upper part. This institution bears the name
of the Clarendon Press from the fact that it was founded partly from
the proceeds of the sale of the earl of Clarendon's History of the
Rebellion, the copyright of which was given to the university by his
son Henry, the second earl. In 1713 it occupied the building creeled
for it close to the theatre; in 1830 it was moved to the larger build-
ings it now occupies in Walton Street. Printing in Oxford dates
from the seventh or eighth decade of the 15th century, but was
only carried on spasmodically until 1585, when the first university
printer was Joseph Barnes. All the subsidiary processes of type-
founding, .stereotyping, &c., are carried on in the buildings of the
press, and paper is supplied from the university mill at Wolvercote.
The press is to a large extent a commercial firm, in which the uni-
versity has a preponderating influence, governing it through a
delegacy. The Broad Street building is used for other purposes
of the university, as is the adjacent Old Ashmolean building, which
originally (1683) contained the Ashmolean Museum, described here-
after, and now affords rooms for the School of Geography (1899).
To the south of the old schools, between Brasenose and All Souls
colleges, is the fine classical rotunda known as the Radcliffe Library
or camera, founded in 1737 by the eminent physician John Radcliffe
(1650-1714). The architect was James Gibbs. In 1861 the building
was devoted to the purpose it now serves, that of a reading room to
the Bodleian Library, the collection of medieval and scientific works
it contained being removed to the University Museum. The exterior
gallery round the dome is celebrated as a view-point.
To the south of the Radcliffe Library, bordering High Street, is
the church of St Mary the Virgin, commonly called the University
church, on a site which is traditionally said to have been occupied
by a church even from King Alfred's time. Its principal feature is
a fine Decorated tower and spire,! dating from the early part of
the 13th century. The body of the church, however, is mamly an
excellent example of Perpendicular work. The main entrance
from High Street is beneath- a classical porch erected in 1637 by
Morgan Owen, a chaplain of Archbishop Laud; the statue of the
Virgin and Child above it was alluded to in the impeachment of
the archbishop. On the north side of the chancel is a building of
earlier date than the present church ; it is Decorated, of two storeys,
and has served various purposes connected with the university,
including that of housing a library before the foundation by
Humphrey, duke of Gloucester. The university sermons are preached
in St Mary's church.
A massive pile of classical buildings (1845) at the corner of
Beaumont and St Giles's Streets is devoted to the Taylor Institution,
the LIniversity Galleries and the Ashmolean Museum. Sir Robert
Taylor, architect (1714-1788), left a bequest to establish the teaching
of modern European languages in Oxford, and to provide a building
for the purpose, and the eastern wing is devoted to this purpose,
containing a library. In the University Galleries the most notable
features are the celebrated Arundel marbles, a large series of drawings
for pictures by Raphael and Michelangelo, and models for busts and
statues by Sir Francis Chantrey. The new building for the Ash-
molean Museum was added in 1893; and in connexion both with
the building and with subsequent additions to the collections the
benefactions of Charles Drury Edward Fortnum (1820- 1899) should
be remembered. The nucleus of this collection was formed by John
Tradescant, a traveller and botanist (1608-1662), who left it to Elias
Ashmole (q.v.), who added books, paintings and other objects, and
presented the whole to the university in 1679. When the museum
was moved from the Old Ashmolean building, the collection was in
great part distributed; thus, books were sent to the Bodleian
Library, and natural history objects to the University Museum.
The Ashmolean Museum now contains excellent collections of
Egyptian, Greek, Roman and British antiquities, and many other
objects, among which perhaps the most widely famous is the Alfred
Jewel, an ornament of crystal, enamel and gold, bearing King
Alfred's name, and found at Athelney. The University Museum is
an extensive building close to the parks, opposite Keble College.
Its foundation was the outcome of the necessity of keeping pace in
the university with the extended range of modern scientific study.
It was built in 1856 seq., and contains the following departments: —
medicine and public health, comparative anatomy, physiology,
human anatomy, zoology, experimental philosophy, physics,
chemistry, geology, mineralogy and pathology. There is also here
the Pitt-Rivers ethnographical museum, which had its origin in the
collection of Augustus Henry Lane Fox Pitt-Rivers, presented to
the university in 1883. Additional buildings contain the Radcliffe
Library and various laboratories. The university observatory is in
the parks, not far from the museum, but an older observatory is that
called the RadcUffe (i 772-1 795), built by the trustees of the Radcliffe
bequest, as was the RadclifTe Infirmary (1770) standing near the
observatory, in Woodstock Road. Opposite Magdalen College, by
the banks of the Cherwell, is the beautiful botanic garden founded
by Henry Danvers, earl of Danby, in 1622, with which are con-
nected a library, herbarium and museum. The Indian Institute
(1882), in Broad Street, was founded as a centre for the study of
Indian subjects, and for the use of native students in the university
and prospective Indian civil servants. The Oxford Union Society,
the principal university club, founded in 1825, has its rooms, with
library and debating hall, near Cornmarket Street.
Ancient buildings in Oxford, apart from collegiate and university
buildings, are mainly ecclesiastical, but there are a few notable
exceptions. The castle, which, as already indicated, was _
erected by Robert d'Oili at the west of the ancient city, f „^,
retains its massive tower, standing picturesquely by the •'""'"''fP-
river, and a mound within which is a curious chamber containing
a well. There is also a Norrnan crypt-chapel, but the county court
and gaol buildings adjacent are mfxlern. Among old houses, of
which not a few survive in Holywell Street and elsewhere. Bishop
King's palace in St Aldate's Street may be mentioned; it has been
in great part defaced by modern alterations, while the remaining
front is a beautiful half-timbered and gabled example dated 1628;
but ornate ceilings preserved in some of the rooms date from the
erection in the time of Edward VI. Kettell Hall in Broad Street
is another fine house, now used as a private residence, but formerly
put to collegiate use, having been built by Ralph Kettell, president
of Trinity (1599-1643). Among ancient churches in Oxford, after
the cathedral and St Mary's, the chief in interest is St Peter's-in-the-
East, which has a fine Norman chancel, crypt and south doorway,
with additions of Early English and later date. St Michael's church,
the body of which as now existing is of little interest, has a very
early tower (nth century) of massive construction, which probably
served as a defence for the north gate of the city. St Giles s church
has Norman remains, but is chiefly notable for the excellent character
of its Early English portions and for a beautiful font of that period.
Holywell church retains a fine Norman chancel arch; and the churches
of St Mary Magdalen, St Aldate's, St Ebbe's and St Thomas
the Martyr are all of some antiquarian interest in spite of extensive
modern alteration. Only the 14th century tower remains of St
Martin's church at Carfax, the body of the church, which was a
complete reconstruction of 1820, being removed at the close of the
century, in the course of street-widening. Some of the modern
churches are on sites of early dedication. The church of AU Saints
in High Street was rebuilt in 1706-1708 from the design of Dean
Aldrich, and is a good classical example. Beneath several buildings
in this part of the city the crypts of earlier halls or other buildings
remain. In the suburb of Cowley are remains, including the chapel,
of the hospital of St Bartholomew, originally a foundation for lepers
(1126). The village church at Iffley, not far beyond the eastern
outskirts of the city, with its ornate west end, tower and chancel,
is one of the most notable small Norman churches in England. Of
modern city buildings, the only one of special note is the town hall
(1893-1897), which has a striking frontage upon St Aldate's Street.
" The Chancellor, Masters and Scholars of the University of
Oxford " form a corporate body, within which the colleges are so
many individual corporations. The university was
governed by statutes of its own making, which were ^"'^'^"y
codified and brought out of the confusion into which ">"*"'""
they had fallen in the course of centuries in 1636, during Z" f.
Laud's chancellorship. A commission was appointed to f ^ " ^"
inquire fully into the condition of the university in 1850; " '"'■
it reported in 1852, and in 1854 the constitution was amended by
the Oxford University Act. In 1876 another commission was
appointed, and in 1877 the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge
Act was passed. This act provided for the appointment of com-
missioners who (1882) made statutes for each college, excepting
Hertford, Keble and Lincoln, the first and second of which are
modern foundations, while the third is governed under statutes of
1855. The highest officer of the university is the chancellor, who is
elected by the members of convocation, holds office for life, and is
generally a distinguished member of the university. He does not
take an active part in the details of administration, delegating this
to the vice-chancellor, who is, therefore, practically the head. He
is nominated annually by the chancellor, and must be the head of a
college. He appoints four pro-vice-chancellors, also heads of colleges,
to exercise his authority in case of necessity. The high steward is
appointed for life, with the duty of trying grave criminal cases
when the accused is a resident member of the university. Two
proctors are appointed annually by two of the colleges in rotation;
their special duty is a disciplinary surveillance over members of the
university in statu pupillari when these are not within the jurisdiction
of their colleges. They are assisted by four pro-proctors. The
principal duty of the public orator is that of presenting those who
are to receive an honorary master's degree, and of making speeches
in the name of the university on ceremonial occasions. The registrar
acts as the recorder of the various administrative bodies of the
university, and the secretary to the Board of Faculties has similar
duties with regard to these boards, his work being closely associated
with that of the registrar. The chancellor's court exercises ci\'il
jurisdiction in cases in which one of the parties is a resident member
of the university. The university returns two members (burgesses)
to parliament, the privilege dating from 1604.
The Hebdomadal ' Council consists of the chancellor, vice-
chancellor, immediate ex-vice-chancellor and proctors as official
members, and of eighteen other members (heads of houses, pro-
fessors, &c.) elected for terms of six years by the congregation of
the university. The council takes the initiative in promulgating,
' From Greek Iffioiias, the number seven ; the Hebdomadal
Board instituted in 1631 was appointed to hold a weekly meeting.
414
OXFORD— OXFORD, PROVISIONS OF
discussing and submitting to Convocation all the legislation of
the university. The Ancient House of Congregation consists of
" regents," i.e. doctors and masters of arts for two years after the term
in which they take their degrees, professors, heads of colleges and
other resident officers, &c. The house thus includes all those who
are concerned with education and discipline in the university, but
it now has practically no functions beyond the granting of degrees.
It lost its wider powers under the act of 1854, when the Congregation
of the university was created. This body, which includes besides
certain officials all members of Convocation who have resided for a
fixed period within one mile and a half of Carfax, approves or amends
legislation submitted by the Hebdomadal Council previously to its
submission to Convocation ; it also has considerable powers in the
election of the various administrative boards. The House of Con-
vocation consists of all masters of arts and doctors of the higher
faculties who have their names on the university books, and has
the final control over all acts and business of the university. There
are boards of curators for the Bodleian Library, the university
chest and other institutions, delegates of the common university
fund, the museum and the press, for extension teaching, local
examinations and other similar purposes, visitors for the Ashmolean
Museum and university galleries, and many other administrative
bodies. There are boards for the following faculties: theology,
law, medicine, natural science and arts (including literae humaniores,
oriental languages and modern history). Among the numerous
professorships and readerships in the various subjects of study, the
oldest foundation is the Margaret professorship of divinity, founded
in 1502 by Margaret, countess of Richmond and mother of Henry VU.
This was followed by the five Regius professorships of divinity,
civil law, medicine, Hebrew and Greek, founded by Henry VHI.
in 1546.
The colleges, as already seen, consist of a head, whose title varies
in different colleges, fellows (who form the governing body) and
scholars. To these are to be added the commoners, who are not
" on the foundation," i.e. those who either receive no emoluments,
or hold exhibitions which do not (generally) entitle them to rank
with the scholars. The college officer who is immediately concerned
with the disciplinary surveillance of members of the college in statu
pupillari is the dean (except at Christ Church). Each undergraduate
(this term covering all who have not yet proceeded to a degree) is,
as regards his studies, under the immediate supervision of one of
the fellows as tutor. The university terms are four — Michaelmas
(which begins the academic year, and is therefore the term in which
the majority of undergraduates begin residence), Hilary or Lent,
Easter and Trinity. The last two run consecutively without in-
terval, and for certain purposes count as one ; they are kept by three
weeks' residence in each, while the two first are kept by six weeks'
residence in each, though the terms properly speaking are longer.
The examinations required to be passed in order to obtain the first
or bachelor's degree may be summarized thus:— (a) Responsions,
usually taken very early in the course of study. Exemption is in
many cases granted when a candidate has passed a certificate
examination held by university examiners at the school where he
has been educated, (b) First public examination or School of
Moderations, usually taken after four or six terms, (c) Second
public examination or final school (this in the case of literae humani-
ores is commonly called " Greats ") usually takes place at the
end of the fourth year of residence. " Pass " schools and " honour "
schools are distinguished ; in the latter candidates are grouped in
classes according to merit. No further examination or other exercise
is required for the degree of master of arts. Among the numerous
scholarships and prizes offered by the university (as distinct from
the colleges) a few of the most noted may be mentioned — the Craven
and the Ireland classical scholarships on the foundation respectively
of John, Lord Craven (d. 1648), who also founded the travelling
fellowships which bear his name for the study of antiquities, and of
John Ireland, dean of Westminster (1825); the scholarship com-
memorating Edward, earl of Derby (chancellor 1852-1869); the
law scholarship commemorating John, first earl of Eldon; the
chancellor's prizes in Latin verse and English prose (initiated by
the earl of Lichfield, chancellor 1762-1772) and in Latin prose (by
Lord Grenville, 1809); the Newdigate prize for English verse,
founded by Sir Roger Newdigate (1806); the Gaisford prizes in
Greek verse and prose (1856), commemorating Thomas Gaisford,
dean of Christ Church; the Arnold historical essay (1850), com-
memorating Thomas Arnold, headmaster of Rugby school; and the
theological foundations of Edward Bouverie Pusey and Edward
Ellerton, fellow of Magdalen. Lfniversity scholarships, such as
those mentioned, are awarded to persons who are already members
of the university (who must in some cases already have taken a
degree) ; they thus differ from college scholarships, which are
generally open to persons who have not yet matriculated. The
Rhodes scholarships (see Rhodes, Cecil) stand alone. They are
an adaptation of the college scholarship to a special purpose, but
are not in the award of any one college. Arrangements exist whereby
members of the universities of Cambridge or Dublin may be " in-
corporated " as members of Oxford Lfniversity; and whereby the
period of necessary academical residence at Oxford University is
reduced in the case of students from " affiliated " colleges within the
United Kingdom. Special provisions are also made in the case of
students from any foreign university and from certain colonial and
Indian universities. The number of persons who matriculate at
Oxford University is about 850 annually.
The principal social functions in the university take place in
" Eights' Week." when, during the summer term (Easter and
Trinity), the college eight-oared bumping races are held, and also,
more especially, in " Commemoration Week," at the close of the
same term, when the university ceremonies [connected with the
commemoration of benefactors, the conferring of degrees honoris
causa, &c., are held, and balls are given in some of the colleges.
The city of Oxford (as distinct from the university) returns one
member to parliament, having lost its second member under the
Redistribution Act of 1885, before which date it had been entirely
disfranchised for a year owing to bribery at the election of 1881.
The municipal government is in the hands of a mayor, isaldermen
(including 3 from the university) and 45 councillors (9 from the
university). Area, 4676 acres.
Authorities. — See the Oxford University Calendar (annually)
and the Oxford Historical Register, Oxford. The Oxford Historical
Society has issued various works dealing with the history. In the
" College History " series, London, the story of each college forms a
volume by a member of the foundation. The principal earlier
authority is Anthony k Wood iq.v.). See also James Ingram (pre-
sident of Trinity, 1824-1850), Memorials of Oxford (Oxford, 1837);
A. Lang, Oxford (London, 1885); H. C. Maxwell Lyte, History of the
University of Oxford to 1530 (London, 1886); Hon. G. C. Brodrick,
History of the University of Oxford in " Epochs of Church History"
series (London, 1886); C. W. Boase, Oxford, in " Historic Towns"
series (London, 1887) ; Oxford and Oxford Life, ed. J. Wells (London,
1892). (O. J. R. H.)
OXFORD, a village in Butler county, Ohio, U.S.A., about
40 m. N.W. of Cincinnati. Pop. (1890) 1922; (1900) 2009.
Oxford is served by the Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton railway.
It is the seat of Miami University (co-educational; chartered
in 1809, opened as a grammar school in 1818, and organized as a
coUege in 1824), which had 40 instructors and 1076 students in
1909. At Oxford also are the Oxford CoUege for Women,
chartered in 1906, an outgrowth, after various changes of name,
of the Oxford Female Academy (1839); and the Western
College for Women (chartered in 1904), an outgrowth of the
Western Female Seminar>' (opened in 1855). The first settlement
on the site was made about 1800.
OXFORD, PROVISIONS OF, the articles constituting a
preliminary scheme of reform enacted by a parliament which
met at Oxford (England) on the nth of June 1258. King Henry
III. had promised on the 2nd of May that the state of his realm
should be rectified and reformed by twenty-four counsellors
who were to meet at Oxford for this purpose five weeks later.
Twelve of these counsellors were chosen by the king, and twelve
by the earls and barons. When the parliament met each twelve
of these twenty-four chose two from the other twelve, and this
committee of four was empowered, subject to the approval of
the whole body, to elect a king's council of fifteen members.
The twenty-four then provided that the new council should
meet three times a year in parliaments to which twelve com-
missioners were to be summoned to discuss the affairs of the
realm on behalf of the whole community. Another body of
twenty-four was appointed to treat of an aid, which was probably
the aid which had been demanded earlier in the year. On
the 22nd of June the king appointed new wardens of some of the
castles which were then in the custody of his Poitevin half-
brothers and their friends, and on the same day he gave directions
that the twenty-four should proceed with the work of reform, and
the committee of four with the election of the council of fifteen.
Meanwhile it was provided that the sheriffs and the three great
officers of state were to hold office for a year only, and to render
accounts at the expiration of their terms of office. On the 24th
of August in pursuance of a provision by the parliament the
king directed four knights in each county to inquire into the
trespasses and wrongs which had been committed by sheriffs,
baihffs and other officials. For many of the grievances of the
barons the Oxford parliament provided no remedy, and they
were only partly redressed by the Provisions of Westminster
in the autumn of 1259. The king declared his adhesion to the
Provisions of Oxford on the i8th of October by proclamations
in English, French and Latin, but in 1261, having obtained a
papal dispensation from his oath of observance, he entirely
repudiated them. The barons, however, insisted on his obligation
OXFORDIAN— OXFORDSHIRE
415
to observe the provisions, and the dispute was eventually
referred to the arbitration of Louis IX. of France, who formally
annulled them on the 23rd of January 1 264, but expressly
declared that his decision was not to invalidate the privileges,
liberties and laudable customs of the realm of England, which
had existed before the time of the provisions.
No ofificial record of the Provisions of Oxford has been preserved,
and our knowledge of them is chiefly derived from a series of notes
and extracts entered in the Annals of Burton Abbey, which are
probably neither exhaustive nor in correct order. Sec thc'^Annalcs
monaslici, vol. i. (Burton), edited by H. R. Luard for the Rolls
series; Patent Rolls, Henry III. (printed text); Foedera (Record
Commission edition) ; W. Stubbs, Constitutional History and
Select Charters, and Charles B6mont, Simon de Montfort (1884).
OXFORDIAN, in geology, the name given to a series of strata
in the middle Oolites which occur between the Corallian beds
and the Cornbrash; the division is now taken to include the
Oxford Clay with the underlying Callovian stage {(/.v.). The
argillaceous beds were called " Clunch Clay and Shale " by
William Smith (1815-1816); in 1818 W. Buckland described
them under the unwieldy title " Oxford, Forest or Fen Clay."
The term Oxfordian was introduced by d'Orbigny in 1844.
The name is derived from the English county of Oxford, where
the beds are well developed, but they crop out almost continu-
ously from Dorsetshire to the coast of Yorkshire, generally
forming low, broad valleys. They are well exposed at Wey-
mouth, Oxford, Bedford, Peterborough, and in the cUffs at Scar-
borough, Red Cliff and Gristhorpe Bay. Rocks of this age arc
found also in Uig and Skye.
The Oxford Clay is usually bluish or greenish-grey in colour,
weathering brown or yellow; in the lower portions it is somewhat
more shaly. The beds frequently tend to be calcareous and
bituminous, while in places there is a considerable amount of lignite.
Septaria of large size are common, they have been cut and polisherl
at Radipole and Melbury Osmund in Dorsetshire, where they are
known as Melbury marble or " turtle-stones "; they were used to
form table-tops, &c. In Yorkshire the Oxford Clay is usually a
grey sandy shale. In the central and southern English counties
the Oxford Clay is divisible as follows: —
Upper zone of ( Cl.iys with septJLri.i and ironstone nodules. Clays with
Cardiaccras cordatum } pyritized fossils (subzone of Qitcnstedioceras Latnberti).
ColMocfrafonmlum \ ^^^^ "'"' Pyn'i^'id fossils (subzone ol Cosmocens Jason).
The upper zone contains also Gryphaea dilatata (large forms),
Serpula vertebralis, Belemnites hastatus, Aspidoceras perarmatum,
Cardioceras vertebrate. The lower zone yields Reineckia anreps,
Peltoceras athleta, Quenstedtoceras Marine, Cosmoceras Jason,
Cerithiiim muricatum, and a small form of Gryphaea dilatata. The
remains of fishes and saurian reptiles have been found. The Oxford
Clay is dug for brick-making at Weymouth, Trowbridge, Chippen-
ham, Oxford, Bedford, Peterborough and Fletton.
The " O.xfordian " of the continent of Europe is divided according
to A. de Lapparent into an upper (Argovian) and a lower (Neuvizyen)
substage. In the former he includes part of the English Coralline
Oolite and in the latter the lower Calcareous Grit, while a portion
of the lower Oxford Clay is placed in the Divesian or upper substage
of the Callovian. In north-west Germany the Oxford Clay is re-
presented by the Hersumer beds. Most of the European formations
on this horizon are clays and marls with occasional limestone and
ironstone beds.
See Jurassic, Callovian, Corallian. (J. A. H.)
OXFORDSHIRE (or Oxon), an inland county of England,
bounded N.E. by Northamptonshire, N.W. by Warwickshire,
W. by Gloucestershire, S.S.W. and S.E. by Berkshire, and E. by
Buckinghamshire; area 755-7 sq. m. The county lies almost
wholly in the basin of the upper Thames. This river forms
its southern boundary for 71 rn., from Kelmscot near Lechlade
(Gloucestershire) to Remenham below Henley-on-Thames,
excepting for very short distances at two points near Oxford.
The main stream is the boundary line, but from Oxford
upward the river often sends out branches through the flat water-
meadows. The principal tributaries joining the Thames on the
Oxfordshire side do not in any case rise within the county,
but have the greater part of their courses through it.
These tributaries are as follows, pursuing the main river down-
wards, (i) The Windrush, rising in Gloucestershire, follows a
narrow and pleasant valley as far as Witney, after which it meanders
in several branches through rich flat country, to join the Thames
at Newbridge. (2) The Evenlode, also rising in Gloucestershire,
forms the western county boundary for a short distance, and follows
n similar but more beautiful valley to the Thames below Eynsham.
From the north it receives the (ilyme, which joins it on the confines
of Blenheim Park, where the woodland scenery is of peculiar rich-
ness. (3) The Chcrwell, rising in Northamptonshire, forms some
10 m. of the eastern boundary, and with a straight southerly course
joins the Thames at Oxfor<l. From the east it receives the Ray,
which drains the flat tract of Ot Moor. (4) The Thame, rising in
Buckinghamshire, runs south-west and west, forming 6 m. of the
eastern fjoundary, after which it turns south tf) join the Thames
near Dorchester. Above the point of jun( tion the Thames is often
called the Isis. Lastly, a small part of the north-eastern boundary
is formed by the Great Ouse (which discharges into the North Sea),
here a very slight stream, some of whose head-feeders rise within
Oxfordshire.
The low hills which lie south of the Windrush, and those
between it and the Evenlode (which attain a greater height)
are foothills of the Cotteswold range, the greater part of which
lies in Gloucestershire. Between the Windrush and Evenlode
they are clothed with the remaining woods of Wychwood Forest,
one of the ancient forests of England, which was a royal preserve
from the time of John, and was disafforested in 1862. Its extent
was 3735 acres of forest proper. The hills continued north of the
Evenlode (but not under the name of Cotteswold) at an average
elevation over 500 ft. The range terminates at Edge Hill, just
outside the county in Warwickshire. The hills bordering the
Cherwell basin on the east are of slight elevation, until, running
east from Oxford into Buckinghamshire, a considerable line of
heights is found north of the Thame valley, reaching 560 ft.
in Shotover hill, overlooking Oxford. Across the south-east of
the county stretches the bold line of the Chiltern Hills, running
N.E. and S.W. On the western brow, Nettlebed Common, an
extensive plateau, reaches a,t some points nearly 700 ft. of
altitude. The district was probably once covered with forest,
and there are still many fine beeches, oaks and ash trees. William
Camden in his survey of the British Isles (1586) mentions forests
as a particular feature of Oxfordshire scenery, and there are
traces still left of natural woodland in various parts of the lower
country.
The Thames flows through a deep gap from about Goring
downwards, between the Chilterns and the Berkshire Downs.
Here, as above at Nuneham and other points, the sylvan scenery
is fine, and Henley and Goring are favourite riverside resorts on
the Oxfordshire shore. The western feeders of the Thames and
Cherwell have much rich woodland in their narrow valleys,
and the sequestered village of Great Tew, on a tributary of the
Cherwell river, may be singled out as having a situation of
exceptional beauty.
Geology. — The influence of the rocky substratum upon the char-
acter of the scenery and soil is clearly marked. It is sufficient to
point, on the one hand, to the dry chalky upland of the Chiltern
Hills and the oolitic limestone hills in the north-west, or the Corn-
brash with its rich, fertile soil; and, on the other hand, to the dreary
scenery of the 0,\ford Clay land with its cold, unproductive soil.
Cretaceous rocks occupy the south-eastern corner of the county;
Jurassic rocks prevail over the remainder. The general dip is
towards the south-east, and the strike of the strata is S.W.-N.E. ;
therefore in passing from south to north, beds are traversed which
are successively lower and older. The Chiltern Hills, with a strong
scarp facing the north-west, are formed of Chalk, the Lower Chalk
at the foot and the hard Chalk rock at the summit; from the top
of the hills the Upper Chalk-with-Flints descends steadily towards
the Thames. Here and there, as at Shiplake and Nettlebed, outliers
of Tertiary clays rest upon it. The Upper Greensand forms a low
feature at the foot of the Chalk hills; this is succeeded by the Gault,
with an outcrop varying from 4 m. to ij m. wide between Dor-
chester and Sydenham; it is a pale blue clay, dug for bricks at
Culham. The Lower Greensand appears from beneath the Gault
at Culham and Nuneham Courtney and in outliers north of Cuddes-
don. The Kimmeridge clay, in the grass-covered vales between
Sandford and Waterperry, is separated from the Lower Greensand
by the Portland limestone and Portland sands and by the thin
Purbeck beds; it is dug for bricks at Headington. Both Portland
and Purbeck beds may be observed in Shotover hill; the Portland
limestone is quarried at Garsington. The Coral Rag,with calcareous
grit at the base, is a shelly, coral-bearing limestone, traceable from
Sandford to Wheatley; it has been extensively quarried at Heading-
ton hill. North-west of the last-named formation a broad outcrop
of Oxford Clay crosses the county; while this is mostly under
pasture, the next lower formation, the Cornbrash, a brownish
rubbly limestone, gives rise to a loose brown soil very suitable for
the cultivation of wheat. Exposures of Cornbrash occur at Norton
4i6
R}i
T
OXFORDSHIRE iO>IXO
Bridge, Woodstock and Shipton ; it forms a broad plateau between
Middleton Stoney and Bicester. Inliers also lie in the Oxford Clay
plain at Islip, Charlton, Merton and Black Horse Hill. Wychwood
Forest has given its name to the " Forest Marble," an inconstant
series of limestones which thin out eastward and become argillaceous.
The Great Oolite limestones, with the " Stonesfield Slate " at the
base and occasional marls, form the higher ground in the north-
west. An e.Kcellent freestone is quarried at Tainton and Milton.
The Inferior Oolite series of sands and limestones forms the RoUright
Ridge and caps Shenlow and Epwell hills; it also reaches down to
Chipping Norton and eastward to Steeple Aston. The three divisions
of the Lias are represented in the N.VV. of the county. The most
important is the middle member with marlstone, which, being a hard
calcareous bed at the top, forms an elevated ridge along the limit
of the outcrop. The marlstone is quarried for building stone at
Hornton, and for road metal in many places, and, as it contains a
considerable amount of iron oxide, it has been extensively worked
for iron at Adderbury, Fawler and elsewhere. The Upper Lias clays
occur mostly as unimportant outliers. The Lower Lias clays ha\'e
been exposed by the Evenlode near Charlbury and by the Cherwell
in the upper part of its valley. A hard shelly limestone called
Banbury marble occurs in this part of the Lias. Glacial drift is
sparingly scattered over the south-western part of the county, but
is more plentiful in the north-eastern portion. Valley gravels are
associated with the main stream courses and gravel, clay-with-
flints and brick earth rest upon much of the chalk slope. Coal
Measures have been proved at a depth of about 1200 ft. near Burford.
Climate and Agriculture. — The climate is healthy and generally
dry except in the low ground bordering the Thames, as at Oxford;
but colder than the other southern districts of England, especially
in the bleak and exposed regions of the Chilterns. Crops are later
in the uplands than in more northerly situations at a lower elevation.
In the northern districts there is a strong yet friable loam, well
adapted for all kinds of crops. The centre of the county is occupied
for the most part by a good friable but not so rich soil, formed of
decomposed sandstone, chalk and limestone. A large district in
the south-east is occupied by the chalk of the Chiltern Hills, partly
wooded, partly arable, and partly used as sheep-walks. The re-
mainder of the county is occupied by a variety of miscellaneous
soils ranging from coarse sand to heavy tenacious clay, and occa-
sionally very fertile. Nearly seven-eighths of the area of the
county, a high proportion, is under cultivation. The acreage under
grain crops is nearly equally divided between barley, oats and
wheat. There is a considerable acreage under beans. More than
half the total acreage under green crops is occupied by turnips,
and vetches and tares are also largely grown. Along the smaller
streams there are very rich meadows for grazing, but those on the
Thames and Cherwell are subject to floods. The dairy system
prevails in many places, but the milk is manufactured into butter,
little cheese bemg made. The improved shorthorn is the most
common breed, but Alderney and Devonshire cows are largely kept.
Of sheep, Southdowns are kept on the lower grounds, and Leicesters
and Cotteswolds on the hills. Pigs are extensively reared, the
county being famous for its brawn.
Manufactures. — Blankets are manufactured at Witney, and tweed,
girths and horsecloths at Chipping Norton. There are paper mills
at Shiplake, Sandford-on-Thames, Wolvercot and Eynsham, using
water power, as do the blanket works and many mills on the tributary
streams of the Thames. Agricultural implements and portable
engines are made at Banbury, and gloves at Woodstock, the last
a very ancient industry. Banbury has been long celebrated for the
manufacture of a peculiar cake. Some iron ore is raised (from the
middle Lias), and the quarries and clays for brick-making are im-
portant, as already indicated. A large number of women and girls
are employed in several of the towns and villages in the lace manu-
facture.
Communications. — The northern line of the Great Western railway,
leaving the main line at Didcot Junction in Berkshire, runs north
through Oxfordshire by the Cherwell valley. Oxford is the junction
for the Worcester line, running north-west by the Evenlode valley,
with branches from Chipping Norton Junction into Gloucestershire
(Cheltenham), and across the north-west of the county to the
northern line at King's Sutton. From Oxford also the East
Gloucester line serves Witney and the upper Thames. Another
Great Western line, from Maidenhead and London, enters the
county on the east, has a branch to Watlington, serves the town of
Thame, and runs to Oxford. The Great Central railway has a branch
from its main line at Woodford in Northamptonshire to Banbury,
the north and south expresses using the Great Western route south-
ward. Branches of the London and North Western railway from
Bletchley terminate at Oxford and Banbury. As regards water-
communications, the Thames is navigable for large launches to
Oxford, and for barges over the whole of its Oxfordshire course.
None of its tributaries in this county is commercially navigable.
The Oxford Canal, opened in 1790, follows the Cherwell north from
Oxford and ultimately connects with the Grand Junction and
Warwick canals.
Population and Administration. — The area of the ancient
county is 483,626 acres, with a population in 1891 of 185,240
and in 1901 of 181,120. The area of the administrative county is
480,687 acres. The municipal boroughs are Banbury (pop. 1 2,968) ,
Chipping Norton (3780)7 Henley-on-Thames (5984), Oxford,
a city and the county town (49,336) and Woodstock (1684).
The urban districts are Bicester (3023), Caversham (6580),
Thame (2911), Wheatley (872), Witney (3574). Bampton
(1167) and Burford (1146) in the west, and WatUngton (1154)
in the south-east, are the other principal country towns. The
county is in the Oxford circuit, and assizes are held at Oxford.
It has one court of quarter-sessions, and is divided into 11
petty sessional divisions. The borough of Banbury and the
city of Oxford have separate courts of quarter-sessions and
commissions of the peace, and the borough of Henley-on-Thames
has a separate commission of the peace. The total number of
civil parishes in 304. Oxfordshire is in the diocese of Oxford,
and contains 244 ecclesiastical parishes or districts, wholly or
in part. The ancient county is divided (since 1885) into three
parliamentary divisions: Banbury or northern, Woodstock
or mid, and Henley or southern, each returning one member.
It also includes part of the parliamentary borough of Oxford,
returning one membej, in addition to which the university
of Oxford returns two members.
Education. — On account of the famous university of Oxford and
other educational institutions there, the county as regards education
holds as high a position as any in England. In connexion with the
university there is a day training college for schoolmasters, and
there is also in Oxford a residential training college for school-
mistresses (diocesan), which takes day students. There is a training
college for schoolmasters in the dioceses of Oxford and Gloucester,
at Culham. At Cuddesdon, where is the palace of the bishops of
Oxford, there is a theological college, opened in 1854. At Bloxham
is the large grammar school of All Saints, and there are several
boys' schools in Oxford.
History. — The origin of the county of Oxford is somewhat
uncertain; like other divisions of the Mercian kingdom, the
older botmdaries were entirely wiped out, and the district was
renamed after the principal town. The boundaries, except for
the southern one, which is formed by the Thames, are artificial.
There are fourteen hundreds in Oxfordshire, among them being
five of the Chiltern hundreds. The jurisdiction over these five
belonged to^the manor of Benson, and in 1199 to Robert de Hare-
court, a name which is still to be found in the county in the
Harcourts of Stanton-Harcourt and Nuneham. The county
includes small portions of Berkshire and Buckinghamshire,
which lie in the hundreds of Bampton and Ploughley respectively.
There has been little change in the county boundary; but acts
of William IV. and Victoria slightly increased its area.
The district was overrun in the 6th century by the victorious
West Saxons, who took Benson and Eynsham, as may be
seen in the Saxon Chronicle for 571. In the 7th century the
Mercians held all the northern border of the Thames, and
during the 8th century this district twice changed hands,
falling to Wessex after the battle of Burford, and to Mercia
after a battle at Benson. As part of the Mercian kingdom it
was included in the diocese of Lincoln. A bishopric had been
established at Dorchester as early as 634, when Birinus, the
apostle of Wessex, was given an episcopal seat there, but when
a bishop was established at Winchester this bishopric seems
to have come to an end. Before the Mercian conquest in 777,
Oxfordshire was in the diocese of Sherborne. In 873 the juris-
diction of Dorchester reached to the Humber, and when the Danes
were converted it extended over Leicestershire and Lincolnshire,
Oxfordshire forming about an eighth of the diocese. At the
Conquest there was no alteration, but in 1092 the seat was
transferred to Lincoln. In 1542 a bishopric of Osney and Thame
was established, taking its title from Oxford, the last abbot of
Osney being appointed to it. In 1546 the existing bishopric
of Oxford was established. The ecclesiastical boundaries remain
as they were when archdeacons were first appointed — the
county and archdeaconry being conterminous — and the county
being almost entirely in the diocese of O-xford. The Danes
overran the county during the nth century; Thurkell's army
burnt Oxford in loio, and the combined armies of Sweyn and
Olaf crossed Watling Street and ravaged the district, Oxford and
OXFORDSHIRE
417
Winchester submitting to them. In 1018 Danes and English-
men chose Eadgar's law at an assembly in Oxford, and in 1036,
on Canute's death, his son Harold was chosen king. Here also
took place the stormy meeting following the assembly (gemot)
at Northampton, in which Harold allowed Tostig to be outlawed
and Morkcre to be chosen earl in his place, thus preparing the
way for his own downfall and for the Norman Conquest. The
destruction of houses in Oxford recorded in the Domesday
Survey may possibly be accounted for by the ravages of the
rebel army of Eadwine and Morkcre on this occasion, there being
no undisputed mention of a siege by William. Large possessions
in the county fell to the Conqueror, and also to his rapacious
kinsman, Odo, bishop of Winchester. The bishop of Lincoln
also had extensive lands therein, while the abbeys of Abingdon,
Osney and Godstow, with other religious houses, held much land
in the county. Among lay tenants in chief, Robert D'Oili,
heir of Wigod of Walhngford, held many manors and houses
in Oxford, of which town he was governor. The importance of
Oxford was already well established; the shire moot there is
mentioned in Canute's Oxford laws, and it was undoubtedly
the seat of the county court from the first, the castle being the
county gaol. The principal historical events between this period
and the Civil War belong less to the history of the county than
to that of the city of Oxford (q.v.). The dissolution of the
monasteries, though it affected the county greatly, caused no
general disturbance.
When King Charles I. won the first battle of the Civil War at
Edgehill (23rd of October 1642), Oxford at once became the
material and moral stronghold of the royaUst cause. Every
manor house in the district became an advanced work, and from
Banbury in the north to Marlborough in the west and Reading
in the south the walled towns formed an outer line of defence.
For the campaign of 1643 the role of this strong position was to
be the detention of the main parliamentary army until the royalists
from the north and the west could come into line on either hand,
after which the united royal forces were to close upon London
on all sides, and in the operations of that year O.xfordshire
successfully performed its allotted functions. No serious breach
was made in the line of defence, and more than once, notably
at Chalgrove Field (i8th of June 1643), Prince Rupert's cavalry
struck hard and successfully. In the campaign of Newbury
which followed, the parliamentary troops under Essex passed
through north Oxfordshire on their way to the rehef of Gloucester,
and many confused skirmishes took place between them and
Rupert's men; and when the campaign closed with the virtual
defeat of the royalists, the fortresses of the county offered them
a refuge which Essex was powerless to disturb. The following
campaign witnessed a change in Charles' strategy. Realizing
his numerical weakness he abandoned the idea of an envelop-
ment, and decided to use Oxfordshire as the stronghold from
which he could strike in all directions. The commanding
situation of the city itself prevented any serious attempt at
investment by dividing the enemy's forces, but material wants
made it impossible for Charles to maintain permanently his
central position. Plans were continually resolved upon and
cancelled on both sides, and eventually Essex headed for the
south-west, leaving Waller to face the king alone. The battle
of Cropredy Bridge followed {29th of Jan.), and the victorious
king turned south to pursue and capture Essex at Lostwithiel
in Cornwall. In the remaining operations of 1644 Oxfordshire
again served as a refuge and as a base (Newbury and Donnington) .
With the appearance on the scene of Cromwell and the New
Model army a fresh interest arose. Having started from Windsor
on the 20th of April 1645, the future Protector carried out a
daring cavalry raid. He caught and scattered the royalists
unawares at Islip; then he pursued the fugitives to Bletchington
and terrified the governor into surrendering. He swept right
round Oxford, fought again at Bampton, and finally rejoined
his chief, Fairfax, in Berkshire. A few days later Charles again
marched away northwards, while Fairfax was ordered to besiege
Oxford. In spite of the difficulties of the besiegers Charles
was compelled to turn back to relieve the city, and the consequent
delay led to the campaign and disaster of Naseby. Yet even after
Naseby the actual position of Oxfordshire was practically un-
shaken. It is true that Abingdon with its parliamentary garrison
was a standing menace, but the districts east of the Cherwell
and Thames, and the triangle bounded by Oxford, Faringdon
and Banbury, still retained its importance, till early in 1646 the
enemy closed from all sides on the last stronghold of royaUsm.
Stow-on-the-Wold witnessed the final battle of the war. On
the gth of May Banbury surrendered, and two days later Oxford
itself was closely invested. On the 24th of June the city capitu-
lated, and three days later Walhngford, the last place to give
in, followed its example.
The war left the county in an exceedingly impoverished
condition. Its prosperity had steadily declined since the early
14th century, when it had been second in prosperity in the
kingdom, owing its wealth largely to its well-watered pastures,
which bred sheep whose wool was famous all over England,
and to its good supply of water power. Salt is mentioned as
a product of the county in Domesday Book. Various small
industries grew up, such as plush-making at Banbury, leather
works at Bampton and Burford, gloves at Woodstock, and
malt at Henley. Glass was made at Benson and Stokcnchurch
in the reign of Henry VI., and the wool trade continued, though
not in so flourishing a state, Witney retaining its fame in blanket-
making. The pestilence of 1349, the conversion of arable into
pasture land, and the enclosure of common land in the early
i6th century had led to agricultural depression and discontent.
In 1830 the enclosure of Otmoor led to serious riots, in
which the people gathered in Oxford at St Giles' fair joined.
The county was represented in parUament in 1289 by two
members.
Antiquities. — The remains of castles are scanty. The majority
of them were probably built for defence in the civU strife of
Stephen's reign (1100-1135), and were not maintained after
order was restored. Considerable portions of the Norman
Oxford Castle survive, however, while there are shghter remains
of the castle at Bampton, the seat of Aylmer de Valence in 13 13.
Among remains of former mansions there may be noted the
14th century Greys Court near Henley-on-Thames, Minster
Lovell, on the Windrush above Witney, and Rycote, between
Thame and O.xford. Minster Lovell, the extensive ruins of
which make an exquisite picture by the river-side, was the seat
of Francis, Lord Lovel, who, being the son of a Lancastrian
father, incurred the hatred of that party by'serving Richard III.,
and afterwards assisted the cause of Lambert Simnel, mysteri-
ously disappearing after the battle of Stoke. The remains of
Rycote (partly incorporated with a farmhouse) are of fine
Elizabethan brick, and in the chapel attached to the manor
there is remarkable Jacobean woodwork, the entire fittings of
the church, including the canopied pews and altar-table, being
of this period. Here EUzabeth was kept in 1554, before her
accession, and afterwards resided as queen. Of ancient mansions
still inhabited, the finest is Broughton Castle near Banbury,
dating from 1301. Others are Shirburn Castle, begun in 1377,
but mainly Perpendicular of the next century; Stanton Har-
court, dating from 1450, with a gatehouse of 1540, a vast kitchen,
and Pope's Tower, named from the poet, who stayed here more
than once. Mapledurham, on the Thames above Reading, is
a fine Tudor mansion of brick; and Water Eaton, on the Cher-
well above Oxford, is a singularly perfect Jacobean house of
stone, with a chapel of the same period resembling pure Per-
pendicular. Of other mansions in the county Blenheim Palace,
near Woodstock, must be mentioned. The former Holton
House (now replaced by a Georgian building), near Wheatley,
was the scene in 1646 of the wedding of Ireton, the soldier of
Cromwell, with his leader's daughter Bridget.
The influence of such a centre of learning as the university
was naturally very great upon the ecclesiastical historj' of
the neighbourhood. A large number of monastic foundations
arose, such as those of Augustinian canons at Bicester, Cavers-
ham, Cold Norton, Dorchester, Osney (a magnificent foundation
just outside the walls of Oxford) and Wroxton; of Cistercians,
XX. 14
4i8
OXIDE— OXIMES
at Bruern and Thame; of Benedictines, at Cogges, Eynsham,
Milton; of Mathurins, at NuflSeld; of Gilbertines, at Clatter-
cote; of Templars, at Sandford-on-Thames. There was at
Gosford one of the only two preceptories of female Templars
in England. Of all these, excepting the abbey church at Dor-
chester, remains are scanty. A few domestic buildings remain
at Studley; the boundary walls still stand of Godstow Nunnery
on the Thames, the retreat and burial-place of Rosamund CHfford
or " Fair Rosamund," the object of Henry II. 's famous court-
ship; and there are traces of Rewley Abbey within Oxford.
In ecclesiastical architecture Oxfordshire, apart from Oxford
itself, is remarkably rich, but there is no dominant style, nearly all
the churches being of mixed dates. In fact, of the most important
churches only Iffley, Adderbury and Minster Lovell need be taken
as types of a single style. Iffley, picturesquely placed above the
Thames i m. S. of O.xford, is one of the finest examples of pure
Norman in England, with a highly ornate west front. Adderbury,
4 m. S. of Banbury, is a great cruciform Decorated church with a
massive central tower and spire. Minster Lovell, also cruciform, is
pure Perpendicular; its central tower is supported, with beautiful
and unusual effect, on four detached piers. For the rest, one feature
common to several is to be noticed. The short ungainly spire of
Oxford cathedral was among the earliest, if not the first, constructed
in England, and served as a model from which were probably
developed the splendid central spires of the great churches at
Witney, Bampton, Shipton-under-Wychwood and Bradwell. There
are also three fine spires in the north : Bloxham, Adderbury and
King's Sutton (across the border in Northamptonshire), which are
locally proverbial as typifying length, strength and beauty. Blox-
ham church, mainly Decorated, with Norman portions and a re-
markable Early English west front, is one of the largest and most
beautiful in the county. In the west Burford (Norman and later)
is noteworthy, and in the porch of the fine Norman church of
Langford is seen the rare feature of a crucifix with the figure cloaked.
At South Leigh are remarkable mural paintings of the 15th century.
About 5 m. N. of Oxford there are Kidlington (Decorated) with a
beautiful needle-like Perpendicular spire, and Islip, which, as the
birthplace of Edward the Confessor, retains a connexion with his
Abbey of Westminster, the Dean and Chapter of which are lords of
the manor and patrons of the living. In the south-east, Dorchester
Abbey, with its nave of transitional Norman, has a curious De-
corated Jesse window, the tracery representing the genealogical
tree of the patriarch. At Cuddcsdon there is another large cruciform
church, Norman and later. Ewelme church (Perpendicular) is
remarkable for the tomb of Alice, Duchess of Suffolk (1475), gorgeous
with tracery and gilded canopy, and that of Sir Thomas Chaucer
(1434), ornamented with enamelled coats of arms. Here William
de la Pole, Duke of Suffolk, founded in 1436 the picturesque hospital
and free school still standing.
Authorities. — The Natural History of Oxfordshire (Oxford,
1677, 2nd ed. 1705); Shelton, Engraved Illtcstrations of the principal
Antiquities of Oxfordshire, from drawings by T. Mackenzie (Oxford,
1823); Sir T. Phillips, Oxfordshire Pedigrees (Evesham, 1825);
J. M. Davenport, Lords Lieutenant and High Sheriffs of Oxford, 10S6
(Oxford, 1868), and Oxfordshire Annals (O.xford, 1869).
OXIDE, in chemistry, a binary compound of o.xygen and other
elements. In general, oxides are the most important compounds
with which the chemist has to deal, a study of their composition
and properties permitting a valuable comparative investigation
of the elements. It is possible to bring about the direct com-
bination of oxygen with most of the elements (the presence
of traces of water vapour is generally necessary according to
the researches of H. B. Baker), and when this is not so, indirect
methods are available, except with bromine and fluorine (and
also with the so-called inert gases — argon, helium, &c.), which
so far have yielded no oxides. Most of the elements combine
with oxygen in several proportions, for example nitrogen has five
oxides: NoO, NO, N2O3, NOo, N2O5; for classificatory purposes,
however, it is advantageous to assign a typical oxide to each
element, which, in general, is the highest having a basic or acid
character. Thus in Group I. of the periodic system, the typical
oxide is M2O, of Group II. MO, of Group III. M2O3, of Group IV.
MOo, of Group V. M2O5, of Group VI. MO3.
Five species of oxides may be distinguished: (l) basic oxides,
(2) acidic oxides, (3) neutral oxides, (4) peroxides, (5) mixed anhy-
drides and salts. Basic oxides combine with acids or acidic oxides
to form salts; similarly acidic oxides combine with basic oxides
to form salts also. The former are more usually yielded by the
metals (some metals, however, form oxides belonging to the other
groups), whilst the latter are usually associated with the non-metals.
An oxide may be both acidic and basic, i.e. combine with bases as
well as acids ; this is the case with elements occurring at the transi-
tion between basigenic and oxygenic elements in the periodic classi-
fication, e.g. aluminium and zinc. Neutral oxides combine neither
with acids nor bases to give salts nor with water to give a base or
acid. A typical member is nitric oxide; carbon monoxide and
nitrous oxide may also be put in this class, but it must be remembered
that these oxides may be regarded, in some measure at least, as the
anhydrides of formic and hyponitrous acid, although, at the same
time, it is impossible to obtain these acids by simple hydration of
these oxides. Peroxides may in most cases be defined as oxides
containing more oxygen than the typical oxide. The failure of this
definition is seen in the case of lead dioxide, which is certainly a
peroxide in properties, but it is also the typical oxide of Group IV.
to which lead belongs. All peroxides have oxidizing properties.
Peroxides may be basic or acidic. Some basic oxides yield hydro-
gen peroxide with acids, others yield oxygen (these also liberate
chlorine from hydrochloric acid), and may combine with lower
acidic oxides to form salts of the normal basic oxide with the
higher acidic oxide. E.xamples are BaOi-|-H2S04 = BaS04-|-H-0-. ;
2Mn02-f2H2S04 = 2MnSOj4-2H20-|-02; Mn02-l-4HCl = MnCl,-|-
2H2O + CI2; Pb02-|-S02 = PbSOi (i.e. PbO-l-SOa). Two species
of basic peroxides may be distinguished: (i) the superoxides
or pero.xidates, containing the oxygen atoms in a chain, e.g.
Na-0-O-Na, 0-Ba-O, which yield hydrogen peroxide with acids ;
and (2) the polyoxides, having the oxygen atoms doubly linked to
the metallic atom, e.g. 0:Mn: 0,0:Pb:0, and giving oxygen with
sulphuric acid, and chlorine with hydrochloric. L. Marino (Zeit.
anorg. Chem., 1907, 56, p. 233) pointed out that manganese and
lead dioxide behaved differently with sulphur dioxide, the former
giving dithionate and the latter sulphate, and suggested the following
formulae: 0:Mn:0, O-Pb! 0, as explaining this difference. A
simpler explanation is that the manganese dioxide first gives a
normal sulphite which rearranges to dithionate, thus: Mn02-|-2S02 =
Mn(S03)2— ^MnSjOe, whilst the lead dio.\ide gives a basic sulphite
which rearranges to sulphate, thus: PbO-+-S02 = PbOS03->PbS04.
Acidic peroxides combine with basic oxides to form " per " salts, and
by loss of oxygen yield the acidic oxide typical of the element.
Mixed anhydrides are oxides, which yield with water two acids, or
are salts composed of a basic and acidic oxide of the same metal.
Examples of mixed anhydrides are CIO2 and NO2, which give
chlorous and chloric acid, and nitrous and nitric acid: 2CIO2-I-
H20 = HC102 + HC103, 2N02-+-H20 = HN02-|-HN03; and of mixed
salts Pb203 and PbsOj, which may be regarded as lead meta- and
ortho-plumbate: PbO-Pb02, 2PbO-Pb02.
Oxidatioti and Reduction. — In the narrow sense " oxidation " may
be regarded as the combination of a substance with oxygen, and
conversely, "reduction" as the abstraction of oxygen; in the
wider sense oxidation includes not merely the addition of oxygen,
but also of other electro-negative elements or groups, or the removal
of hydrogen or an electro-positive element or group. In inorganic
chemistry oxidation is associated in many cases with an increase in
the active valency. Ignoring processes of oxidation or reduction
simply brought about by heat or some other form of energy, we may
regard an oxidizing agent as a substance having a strong affinity for
electro-positive atoms or groups, and a reducing agent as having a
strong affinity for electro-negative atoms or groups; in the actual
processes the oxidizing agent suffers reduction and the reducing agent
oxidation.
Many substances undergo simultaneous oxidation and reduction
when treated in a particular manner; this is known as self- or
auto-oxidation. For example, on boiling an aqueous solution of a
hypochlorite, a chlorate and a chloride results, part of the original
salt being oxidized and part reduced: 3NaOCl = NaC103-f-2NaCl.
Similarly phosphorous and hypophosphorous acids give phosphoric
acid and phosphine, whilst nitrous acid gives nitric acid and nitric
oxide: 4H3P03 = 3H3P04-HPH3; 2H3P02 = H3P04+PH3; 3HN02 =
HNO34-2NO-I-H2O. In organic chemistry, a celebrated example
is Cannizzaro's reaction wherein an aromatic aldehyde gives an acid
and an alcohol: 2CeH5CHO-fH20 = C6H5C02H-|-C6H6CH20H.
The important oxidizing agents include: oxygen, ozone, per-
oxides, the halogens chlorine and bromine, oxyacids such as nitric
and those of chlorine, bromine and iodine, and also chromic and
permanganic acid. The important reducing agents include hydrogen,
hydrides such as those of iodine, sulphur, phosphorus, &c., carbon,
many metals, potassium, sodium, aluminium, magnesium, &c.,
salts of lower oxyacids, lower salts of metals and lower oxides.
OXIMES, in organic chemistry, compounds containing the
grouping > C : N • OH, derived from aldehydes and ketones by
condensing them with hydroxylamine. Those derived from
aldehydes are known as aldoximes, those from ketones as
keto.ximes. They were first prepared by V. Meyer in 1882
{Ber., 1882, 15, pp. 1324, 1525, 2778). They are either colour-
less liquids, which boil without decomposition, or crystalhne
solids; and are both basic and acidic in character. On reduction
by sodium amalgam in glacial acetic acid solution they yield
primary amines. They are hydrolysed by dilute mineral acids
OXIMES
419
yielding hydroxylamine and the parent aldehyde or ketone.
The aldoximes are converted by the action of dehydrating
agents into nitriles: RCH : NOH^RC ] N + H,0. The kel-
oximes by the action of acetyl chloride undergo a peculiar intra-
molecular re-arrangement known as the Beckmann trans-
formation (E. Beckmann, Ber., 1886, 19, p. 989; 1887, 20, p.
2580), yielding as final products an acid-amide or anilide, thus:
RC(:N-OH)R'->RC(OH):NR'-^RCONHR'.
As regards the constitution of the oximes, two possibilities exist,
namely > C : NOH, or > C<^ • , and the first of these is presumably
correct, since on alkylation and subsequent hydrolysis an alkyl
hydroxylamine of the type NHj-OR is obtained, and consequently
it is to be presumed that in the alkylated oxime, the alkyl group is
attached to oxygen, and the oxime itself therefore contains the
hydroxyl group. It is to be noted that the oximes of aromatic
aldehydes and of unsymmetrical aromatic ketones fiequently exist
in isomeric forms. This isomerism is explained by the Hantzsch-
Werner hypothesis (Ber., 1890, 23, p. 11) in which the assumption
is made that the three valencies of the nitrogen atom do not lie in
the same plane. Thus in the case of the simple aldoximes two con-
RCH RC-H
figurations are possible, namely: •• and •• .the former
NOH HO-N
where the H atom and OH group are contiguous, being known as
jyn-aldoximes and the latter as the an/i-aldoximes. The syn-ald-
oxinies or treatment with acetyl chloride readily lose water and yield
nitriles; the anti-aldoximes as a rule are acetylated and do not yield
nitriles. The isomerism of the oximes of unsymmetrical ketones is
explained in the same manner, and their configuration is determined
by an application of the Beckmann transformation (see Ber., 1891,
24, p. 13); thus:
" -^R-C(OH) : NR'^R-CONHR'(R'and OH, " syn ").
N ' OH
R'C'R'
,Tr^ ;; ^RN : C(OH)R'->RNHCOR' (Rand OH," n'n").
HO • N
Aldoximes are generally obtained by the action of hydroxylamine
hydrochloride on the aldehyde in presence of sodium carbonate;
the o.xime being then usually extracted from the solution by ether!
They may also be prepared by the reduction of primary nitro com-
pounds with stannous chloride and concentrated hydrochloric acid;
by the reduction of unsaturated nitro compounds with aluminium
amalgam or zinc dust in the presence of dilute acetic acid (L. Bouve-
ault, Comptes rendus, 1902, 134, p. 1145): R2C :CHNOo->R2C: CH-
NHOH^ RaCH-CH : NOH, and by the action of alkyl iodides on the
sodmm salt of nitro-hydroxylamine (A. Angeli, Rend. Acad. d.
Lincei, 1905, (5), 14, ii. p. 411), the cycle of reactions probably being
as follows:
N02-NHOH-^HN02-|-HNO; HNO-f RI->HI-|-RNO
,, . (CH3CHoNO-^CH3CH:NOH).
Formaldoxtme, CHj: NOH, was obtained by W. R. Dunstan
(Joiir. Chem. Soc., 1898, 73, p. 352) as a colourless liquid by the
addition of hydroxylamine hydrochloride to an aqueous solution of
formaldehyde in the presence of sodium carbonate; the resulting
solution was extracted with ether and the oxime hydrochloride
precipitated by gaseous hydrochloric acid, the precipitate being then
dissolved in water, the solution exactly neutralized and distilled.
It boils at 83-85° C. and burns with a green coloured flame. It is
readily transformed into a solid polymer, probably (CH2:NOH)3.
In the absence of water, it forms salts of the type (CHj: N0H)3-HCi
with acids. It behaves as a powerful reducing agent, and on hydro-
lysis with dilute mineral acids is decomposed into formaldehyde and
hydroxylamine, together with some formic acid and ammonia, the
amount of each product formed varying with temperature, time of
reaction, amount of water present, &c. This latter reaction is
probably due to some of the oxime existing in the form of the
isomeric formamide HCO-NHj. Acetyl- and benzoyl-formaldoxime
are derivatives of the threefold polymeric form. The acetyl com-
pound on reduction yields two of its nitrogen atoms in the form of
ammonia and the third in the form of methylamine
Acetaldoxime, CHiCH:]<iOV{, crystallizes in needles which melt
^M^ o P"^ continued fusion the melting point gradually sinks to
about 13 C, probably owing to conversion into a polymeric form
Chloraloxtme, CCUCH-.nOH, is obtained when one molecular
proportion of chloral hydrate is warmed with four molecular pro-
portions of hydroxylamine hydrochloride and a little water It
"yf a'']??5 '" Pi:>/ms which melt at 39° C. A chloral hydroxylamine,
CCI3CHOHNHOH, melting at 98° C. is obtained by allowing a
mixture of one molecular proportion of chloral hydrate with two
molecular proportions of hydroxylamine hydrochloride and one of
sodium carbonate to stand for some time in a desiccator
Clyoxime, won -.CnCH-.-t^OH. obtained from glyoxal and
hydroxylamine, or by boiling amidothiazole with excess of hydroxy-
lamine hydrochloride and water, melts at 178° C. and is readily
soluble in hot water.
Succinic aldehyde dioxime, HO.N : CH-CHjCHzCH : NOH, is
obtained by boiling an alcoholic solution of pyrrol with hydroxylami ne
hydrochloride and anhydrous sodium carbonate (G. Ciamician, Ber.,
i8«4, 17, P- 534)- It mehs at 173° C. ; and on reduction with
sodium in alcoholic solution yields tetramethylene diamine. A
boiling solution of caustic potash hydrolyses it to ammonia and
succinic acid.
Benzaldoximes. — The a-oxime (benz-anh'-aldoxime) is formed by
the action of hydroxylamine on benzaldehyde. It melts at 35° C.
and boils at 117° C. (ij^ mm.). Acids convert it into the /3-oxime
(l;jenz-jyn-aldoxime) which melts at 125° C. When distilled under
diminished pressure the 0-form reverts to the a-modification (see
Beckmann, Ber., 1887, 20, p. 2766; 1889, 22, pp. 429, 513, 1531,
1588).
Ketoximes are usually rather more difficult to prepare than ald-
oximes, and generally require the presence of a fairly concentrated
alkaline solution. They may also be prepared by the reduction of
pseudo-nitrols (R. Scholl, Ber., 1896, 29, p. 87), the reaction probably
being:
RR:C(N02)NO^RR:C:(NHOH)2->RR:C:NOH-t-NH20H.
Acetoxime, (CH3)2C:NOH, melts at 58-59° C. and is readily
soluble in water. Its sodium salt is obtained by the action of
sodamide on the o,xime, in presence of benzene (A. W. Titherley,
Jour. Chem. Soc, 1897, 71, p. 461).
Mesityl oxime, {CH.hC : CH-C( : N0H)CH3, exists in two modifica-
tions. The /3-form is obtained by the direct action of hydroxylamine
hydrochloride on mesityl oxide, the hydrochloride so formed being
decomposed by sodium carbonate. It crystallizes in plates which
melt at 48-49° C. and boil at 92° C. (9 mm.). When boiled for
some time with caustic soda, it is converted into the oily a-oxime,
which boils at 83-84° C. (9 mm.). Both forms are volatile in
stearn. The a-oxirne, on long continued boiling with a concentrated
solution of a caustic alkali, is partially decomposed with formation
of some acetone and acetoxime (C. Harries, Ber., 1898, 31, pp. 1381,
1808; 1899, 32, p. 1331). By the diiect action of hydroxylamine on
a methyl alcohol solution of mesityl oxide in the presence of sodium
methylate a hydioxylamino- ketone, diacetone hydroxylamine,
(CH 3)20 (NHOH)-CH2COCH 3, is formed. In a similar manner phorone
gives rise to triacetone hydroxvlamiiie, CO:[CH2-C(CH3)o]2:NOH.
Acetophenoneoxime, C6H5'C(:NOH)-CH3, melts at" 59° C. In
glacial acetic acid solution, on the addition of concentrated sulphuric
acid, it is converted into acetanilide. Benzophenone oxime, CfHsC
( :NOH)C6H5, exists only in one modification which melts at 140° C. ;
whereas the unsymmetrical benzophenones each yield two oximes.
O. VVallach {Ann., 1900, 312, p. 171) has shown that the saturated
cyclic ketones yield oximes which by an application of the Beckmann
reaction are converted into isoximes, and these latter on hydrolysis
with dilute mineral acids are transformed into acyclic amino-acids;
thus from cyclohexanone, e-amidocaproic acid (^-leucine) may be
obtained : —
CH
/
CH2-CHs
\,
~^CH2-CH2/
C : NOH -> CH
CH2-CH2CO
■^CH2-CH2NH
^CH
/
CH2CH2CO2H
\CH2-CH2NH2
An ingenious application of the fact that oximes easily lose the
elements of water and form nitriles was used by A. Wohl (Ber.,
1893, 26, p. 730) in the " breaking down " of thesugars. Glucose-
oxime on warming with acetic anhydride is simultaneously acetylated
and dehydrated, yielding an acetylated gluconitrile, which when
warmed with ammoniacal silver nitrate loses hydrocyanic acid and
is transformed into an acetyl pentose. The pentose is then obtained
from the acetylated compound by successive treatment with ammonia
and dilute acids: —
CH20H(CHOH)3-CHOH-CH: NOH->CH20H-(CHOH)3-
CHOHCN-^CH20H(CHOH)3-CHO.
In order to arrive at the configuration of the stereoisomeric ket-
oximes, A. Hantzsch (Ber., 1891, 24, p. 13) has made use of the Beck-
mann reaction, whereby they are converted into acid-amides.
Thus, with the tolylphenylketoximes, one yields the anilide of
toluic acid and the other the toluidide of benzoic acid, the former
necessitating the presence of the phenyl and hydro.xyl radicals in
the syn position and the latter the tolyl and hydro.xyl radicals in the
syn position, thus:
CH3*C6H4'C-CfiH6
-> CHjCeHsCONHCeHs;
N-OH
5y»-phenyItolylketoxime
CHs'CeHi'C-CeHfi
-> CHsCeHjNHCOCeHs
.i4n/j-tolylphenylketoxime
In the case of the aldoximes, that one which most readily loses the
elements of water on dehydration is assumed to contain its hydro.xyl
radical adjacent to the movable hydrogen atom and is designated
the i.vH-compound.
On the oxyamido-oximes see H. Ley, Ber., 1898, 31, p. 2126;
G. Schroeter, Ber., 1900, 33, p. 1975.
420
OXUS
Sources.
OXUS, or Amu Darya, one of the great rivers of Central Asia.
Prior to the meeting of the commissions appointed for the deter-
mination of the Russo-Afghan boundary in 1885, no very
accurate geographical knowledge of the upper Oxus regions
existed, and the course of the river itself was but roughly mapped.
Russian explorers and natives of India trained for geographical
reconnaissance, and employed in connexion with the great
trigonometrical survey of India, had done so much towards
clearing away the mists which enveloped the actual course of the
river, that all the primary afHuents were known, although their
relative value was misunderstood, but the nature of the districts
which bordered the river in Afghan Turkestan was so imperfectly
mapped as to give rise to considerable political complication in
framing the boundary agreement between Great Britain and
Russia. From Lake Victoria (Sor-Kul) in the Pamirs, which was
originally reckoned as the true source of the river, to Khamiab,
on the edge of the Andkhui district of Afghan Turkestan, for a
distance of about 680 m., the Oxus forms the boundary between
Afghanistan and Russia. For another 550 m. below Khamiab
it follows an open and sluggish course till it is lost in the Sea of
Aral, being spanned at Charjui, iso m. below Khamiab, by the
wooden bridge which carries the Russian railway from Merv to
Samarkand. The level of Lake Victoria is 13,400 ft. above sea.
At Khamiab the river is probably rather less than 500 ft.
For many years a lively geographical controversy circled about
the sources of the Oxus, and the discussion derived some political
significance from the fact that the true source, wherever
it might be found, was claimed as a point in the Russo-
Afghan boundary. The final survey of the Pamir region (wherein
the heads of all the chief tributaries of the river lay hidden),
by the Pamir boundary commission of 1895 estabUshed the follow-
ing topographical facts in connexion with this question. The
elevated mountain chain which is now called the Nicolas range,
which divides the Great from the Little Pamir, is a region of vast
glaciers and snow-fields, from which the lakes lying immediately
north and south derive the greater part of their water-supply.
On the north the principal glacial tributary of Lake Victoria
forms, within the folds of the gigantic spurs of the Nicolas
mountains, a series of smaller lakes, or lakelets, before joining the
great lake itself. On the south a similar stream starting farther
east, called Burgutai (denoting the position of a difficult and
dangerous pass across the range) sweeps downwards towards
Lake Chakmaktin, the lake of the Little Pamir, which is some
400 ft. lower than Victoria. But at the foot of the mountain this
stream bifurcates in the swamps which lie to the west of Chak-
maktin, and part of its waters find their way eastwards into the
lake, and part flow away westwards into the Ab-i-Panja, which
joins the Pamir river from Lake Victoria at Kala Panja. This
at any rate is the action of the Burgutai stream during certain
seasons of the year, so that the glaciers and snowfields of the
Nicolas range may be regarded as the chief fountain-head of at
least two of the upper tributaries of the Oxus, namely, the Aksu
(or Murghab) and the Pamir river, and as contributing largely
to a third, the Ab-i-Panja. Neither Lake Victoria nor Lake
Chakmaktin derives any very large contributions from glacial
sources other than those of the Nicolas range. It is possible that
there may be warm springs on the bed of Lake Victoria, as such
springs are of frequent occurrence in the Pamirs; but there is
no indication of them in the Chakmaktin basin, and the latter
lake must be regarded rather as an incident in the course of the
Aksu — a widening of the river channel in the midst of this high-
level, glacier-formed valley — than as the fountain-head of the
infant stream. There are indications that the bed of Lake
Victoria, as well as that of Chakmaktin, is rapidly silting, and
that the shores of the latter are gradually receding farther from
the foot of the hills. The glacial origin of the Pamir valleys is
everywhere apparent in their terrace formations and the erratic
blocks and boulders that lie scattered about their surface. It is
probable that the lakes themselves are evidence of (geologically)
a comparatively recent deliverance from the thraldom of the ice
covering, which has worn and rounded the lower ridges into the
smooth outlines of undulating downs.
Russian
Posts on
the Oxus.
Another important source of the river (considered by Curzon
to be the chief source) is to be found in the enormous glaciers
which he about the upper or main branch of the Ab-i-Panja
(called the Ab-i-Wakhjir or Wakhan), which rises under the
mountains enclosing the head of the Taghdumbash Pamirs.
Although the superficial area of glacial ice from which the Ab-i-
Wakhjir derives the greater part of its volume is not equal to
that found on the Nicolas range, it is quite impossible to frame
any estimate of comparative depth or bulk, or to separate the
volume of its contributions at any time from those which,
combined, derive their origin from the Nicolas range. If the
Aksu (or Murghab) and the Pamir river from Lake Victoria are
to be considered in the light of independent tributaries, it is
probable that the Ab-i-Panja contributes as large a volume of
glacial flood to the Oxus as either of them.
From the point where the rivers of the Great and Little Pamirs
join their forces at Kala Panja to Ishkashim, at the elbow of the
great bend of the Oxus northwards, the river valley has Surveys
been surveyed by Woodthorpe; and the northern slopes '
of the Hindu Kush, which near Ishkashim extend in slopes of
barely 10 m. in length from the main watershed to the river banks,
have been carefully mapped. These slopes represent the extent of
Afghan territory which e.xists north of the Hindu Kush between
Kala Panja and Ishkashim. From Ishkashim northwards the river
passes through the narrow rock-bound valleys of Shignan and
Roshan ere it sweeps north and west through the mountains and
defiles of Darwaz. By the terms of the boundary agreement with
Russia this part of the river now parts Badakshan and Darwaz from
the districts of Roshan, Shignan, and Bokhara, which formerly
maintained an uncertain claim over a part of the territory on the
left bank of the river. All this part of the Oxus, until the river once
again emerges from the Bokhara hills into the open plains bordering
Badakshan on the north, falls within the area of Russian surveys,
with which a junction from India has been effected both on the
Pamirs and in Turkestan.
At Langar Kisht, a little to the east of the Oxus bend, there is a
small Russian post of observation. About 50 m. north of the bend,
where the Suchan or Ghund joins the Oxus from the
Alichur Pamir, there is another and larger post called
Charog. On the left bank of the river the Afghans main-
tain a frontier post at the fort of Kala Bar Panja. A
road will connect Charog with the Alichur Pamir, following the
general course of the Ghund stream, a road which will form a
valuable link in the chain of communications between Bokhara and
Sarikol. Eighty-five miles north of Ishkashim, at Kala Wamar,
the river which rises in the Little Pamir, and which is called Aksu,
Murghab, or Bartang, joins the Oxus from the east. It is on this
river that the Russian outpost, Murghabi (or Pamirski), is situated,
at an elevation of 12,150 ft. above the sea. Fort Murghabi is con-
nected by a good military road with Osh. At this point the measure-
ment of the comparative lengths of the chief Pamir tributaries of
the Oxus is as follows : —
To the head of the Aksu at Lake Chakmaktin . . 260 miles.
To the head of the most easterly tributary of Lake
Victoria, in the Great Pamir, about . . . 230 ,,
To the glacial sources of the Ab-i-VVakhjir, about . 230 ,,
For 120 m. the two latter are united in the main stream of the Oxus
the volume of which has been further increased by the united forces
of the Ghund and Shakhdara draining the Alichur Pamir and the
heights of Shignan.
The narrow cramped valley of the river between Ishkashim and
Kala Wamar is hedged in on the west by a long ridge flanking the
highlands of Badakshan; on the east the buttresses and Nature of
spurs of the Shignan mountains (of which the strike is ^j^^ Oxus
transverse to the direction of the river and more or less valley.
parallel to that of the main Hindu Kush watershed)
overhang its channel like a wall, and afford but little room
either for cultivation or for the maintenance of a practicable
road. Yet the lower elevation (for this part of the Oxus stream is
not more than about 7000 ft. above sea-level) and comparatively
mild climate give opportunities to the industrious Tajik population
for successful agriculture, of which they are not slow to avail them-
selves, and a track exists on the left bank of the river to Kala Bar
Panja opposite the Ghund (or Suchan) debouchment, which is
practicable for mules. There are no bridges, and the transit of the
river from bank to bank can only be effected by the use of inflated
skins. Beyond the Bartang (or Murghab) confluence the valley
narrows, and the difficulties of the river route increase. Between
Kala Wamar (6580 ft.) and Kala Khum (4400 ft.), where the O.xus
again bends southwards, its course to the north-west is almost at
right angles to the general strike of the Darwaz mountains, which is
from north-east to south-west, following the usual conformation of
all this part of high Asia. Thus its chief affluents from the north-
east, the Wanj and the Yaz Ghulam, drain valleys which are com-
paratively open, and which are said to be splendidly fertile. At
oxus
421
Kala Khum the river is 480 {t. wide, narrowing to 350 ft. in the
narrowest gorge. Its level varies with the obstructions formed
by ice, falling as much as 28 ft. when its upper channels are
blocked.
The climate of eastern Bokhara and Darwaz is delightful in
summer, and Dr Regel writes of its Alpine scenery and flora in terms
of enthusiastic admiration. In the valleys of the Waksh
and the Surkhab to the north of Darwaz, which form an
important part of the province of Karatcgin, maple, ash.
Climate
aad Pro-
ductions,
hawthorn, pistachio, and juniper grow freely in the
mountain forests, and beetroot, kohl rabi, and other vegetables are
widely cultivated. About the cliffs and precipices of the Panja
valley near Kala Khum the wild vine, ccrasus, and pomegranate are
to be found, and the plane tree and mulberry flourish in groups near
the villages. Here also, amongst other plants, the sunflower de-
corates village gardens. The houses are built of stone and mortar,
and above the thatched straw roof which surmounts the double-
storeyed buildings the square water-tower rises gracefully. Every
house possesses its staircase, its well, and cisterns for irrigation;
and on the whole the Aryan Tajiks of this northern section of the
Oxus valley seem to be well provided with most of the comforts, if
not the luxuries, of life. Their language is the language of Bokhara
and Samarkand. Bokharan supremacy was re-established in 1878,
when Kala Khum was occupied by Bokharan troops. Since then the
right bank of the river has been politically divided horn the left,
and the latter now belongs to Afghanistan.
From Kala Khum, which fort about marks the most northerly
point of the great bend of the Oxus round Badakshan, the river
follows a south-westerly course for another 50 m. through a close
mountainous region ere it widens into the more open valley to the
south of Kolab. It now becomes a river of the plains from which
the mountains on either side stand back.
The topography of Darwaz south of the river is not accurately
known, but at least one considerable stream of some 60 m. in length
drains to the north-east, parallel to the general strike of
A^r"t ^^^ mountain system into the transverse course of the
Affluents. Qxus, which it joins nearly opposite to the lateral valleys
of Yaz Ghulam and Wanj. This stream is called Pangi-Shiwa,
or Shiwa, but not much is known about it. Another of about
equal length, starting from the same central water-parting of this
mountain block, and included within the Oxus bend, follows a trans-
verse direction at almost right angles to the Shiwa, and joins the
Oxus valley near its debouchment into the more open Kolab plains,
where the course of the Oxus has again assumed a direction parallel
to the mountain strike. All that we know about this river (which
is called the Ragh or Sadda) is that towards its junction with the
Oxus itcuts through successive mountain ridges, which renders its
course impracticable as a roadway. It is necessary to avoid the
river, and to pass by mountain tracks which surmount a series of
local spurs or offshoots from the central plateau, in order to reach
the Oxus. The e.xistence of this route, which traverses the Darwaz
mountains from east to west, cutting off the northern bend of the
Oxus, and connecting those easterly routes which intersect the
Pamirs by means of the Ghund and Shakhdara (and which con-
centrate about Lake Shiwa) with Kolab in eastern Bokhara, is
important. (See Badakshan.)
From about the point where the O.xus commences to separate the
Bokharan province of Kolab from the comparatively open Afghan
districts of Rustak and Kataghan, the channel of the
^.™ *" . river is no longer confined within walls of mountains
^Hlueats °^ volcanic and schistose formation. The Kolab and the
Surkhab (or Waksh) flow into it in broad muddy
streams from the highlands of Karateghin, and the river at
once commences to adopt an uncertain channel wherever the out-
stretched arms of the hills fail to confine it within definite limits.
It divides its waters, splitting into many channels, leaving broad
central islands; and as the width increases, and the depth during
dry seasons diminishes, opportunities for fords become comparatively
frequent. Between Kolab and Pata Kesar, immediately north of
the Turkestan capital of Mazar-i-Sharif, there are at least three well-
known " guzars " or fords, and there are probably more. Besides
the great muddy affluents from Karateghin on the north, the Kaba-
dian, the Surkhan, and the Darbant are all of them very considerable
tributaries from Bokhara. The last of the three is the river on
which the well-known trade centre of Shirabad is built, some 20 m.
north of the river. Near the junction of the Surkhan with the Oxus
are the ruins of the ancient city of Termez, on the northern or
Bokharan bank, and the ferry at Pata Kesar (not far from the ruins
of an old bridge) is the connecting link between Bokhara and Mazar
hereabouts. A Russian branch railway is said to have been recently
built from Samarkand to Termez.
From the south two very remarkable affluents of the O.xus join
their streams to the main river between Kolab and the Mazar
g^ . . crossings. The Kokcha and the Khanabad (or Kunduz)
Shan ^'^^ ^^^ '^° ^'^*^^* "^'^^^ of Badakshan. The valley of
Affluents the Kokcha leads directly from the Oxus to Faizabad, the
capital of Badakshan, and its head is closeabovelshkashim
at the southern elbow of the great Oxus bend, a low pass of only
9500 ft. dividing its waters from those of the main river. This
undoubtedly was a section of the great central trade route of Asia,
which once connected Ferghana and Herat with Kashgar and China.
(See Badakshan.) Both these rivers tap the northern slopes of the
Hindu Kush, and claim their sources in the unmapped mountain
wilderness of Kafiristan. The Khanafjad, or Kunduz, is also called
locally the Aksarai. All the rivers of Central Asia are known by
several names. To the west of the Kunduz no rivers find their way
through the southern banks of the Oxus. Throughout the plains of
Afghan Turkestan the drainage from the southern hills is arrested
and lost in the desert sands.
The only island of any size in the bed of the river is the island of
Paighambar, a little below the ruins of Termez. The inhabitants of
this island, and of a smaller one in the neighbourhood called Zarshoi,
wash for gold in the bed of the river.
At Airatan, a little above the Pata Kesar ferry, there are ruins,
as also at Khisht Tapa (where the road from Kabadian to Tash-
kurghan leaves the river) and at Kalukh Tapa. At Khisht Tapa
there is a tradition of a bridge having once existed.
The Oxus river, as seen in flood at this part of its course, is an
imposing stream. It is rarely less than 1000 yards wide, and in
some places it is fully a mile across. Its winter channel
may be estimated at from two-thirds to three-fourths of Channel
its flood channel, except where it is confined within "'""'
narrow limits by a rocky bed, as at Kilif, where its un- Ojtus.
varying width is only 540 yards. The average strength of the
current in flood is about 4 m. per hour, varying from 2-2 to 5 m.
The left bank of the Oxus above Kilif is, as a rule, low and flat, with
reed swamps bordering the stream and a strip of jungle between
the reeds and the edge of the elevated sandy desert. The jungle
is chiefly tamarisk and padah (willow). Swamp deer, pheasants,
and occasionally tigers are found in it. The right bank is generally
higher, drier, more fertile and more populated than the left.
A wide belt of blown sand (or Chul), sprinkled with saxaul jungle,
separates the swamps on the south side of the river from the cultivated
plains of Afghan Turkestan; but in places, notably for
about 12 m. above Khamiab, where the Russo-Afghan Culllva-
boundary touches the river, through the districts which are "°"'
best known by thename of KhwajaSalar, and again in a less degree for
50 m. above the ferry at Kilif, a very successful war has been waged
by the agricultural Turkman (of the Ersari tribes) against the en-
croaching sand-waves of the desert; and a strip of riverain soil
averaging about a mile in width has been reclaimed and cultivated
by irrigation. The cultivation, supported by canals drawn from
the Oxus, the heads of which are constantly being destroyed by
flood and again renewed, is of a very high order. Wheat and barley
spread in broad crops over many square miles of rich soil; the fields
are intersected by narrow little stone-walled lanes, bright with way-
side flowers, amongst which the poppy and the purple thistle of
Badghis are predominant; the houses are neatly built of stone,
and stand scattered about the landscape in single homesteads,
substantial and comfortable; and the spreading willow and the
mulberry offer a_ most grateful shade to the wayfarer in summer time,
when the heat is often insupportable. The fiery blasts of summer,
furnace-heated over the red-hot Kizil Kum, are hardly less to be
feared than the ice-cold shamshir (or north-western blizzard) of
winter, which freezes men when it finds them in the open desert, and
frequently destroys whole caravans.
The principle on which the Oxus ferries are worked is peculiar
to those regions. Large flat-bottomed boats are towed across the
river by small horses attached to an outrigger projecting
beyond the gunwale by means of a surcingle or bellyband. ^""^
They are thus partially supported in the water whilst Ferries.
they swim. The horses are guided from the boat, and a twenty- or
thirty-foot barge with a heavy load of men and goods will be towed
acrossthe river at Kilif (where, as already stated, the width of the
river is between 500 and 600 yards only) with ease by two of
these animals. The Kilif ferry is on the direct high-road between
Samarkand and Akcha. It is perhaps the best-used ferry on
the Oxus.
Khwaja Salar derives some historical significance from the fact that
it presented a substantial difficulty to the settlement of the Russo-
Afghan boundary, in which it was assigned by agreement
as the point of junction between that boundary and the Khwaja
Oxus. It had been defined in the agreement as a " post " Salar.
on the river banks, and had been so described by Burnes in his
writings some fifty years previously. But no post such as that
indicated could be discovered. There was a district of that name
extending from Khamiab to the neighbourhood of Kilif, and at the
Kilif end of the district was a ziarat sacred to the Khwaja who bore
the name. It was only after long inquiry amongst local cultivators
and landowners that, about 2 m. below the ziarat, and nearly
opposite to the site of the present Karkin bazaar, the position of a
lost ferry was identified, which had once been marked by a riverside
hamlet called by the name of the saint. The ferry had long dis-
appeared, and with it a considerable slice of the riverside alluvial
soil, which had been washed into the stream by the action of floods.
The post had, in fact, subsided to the bottom of the river, but the
consequences of its disappearance had been both far-reaching and
expensive.
Below Khamiab, to its final disappearance in the Aral Sea. the
great river rolls in silent majesty through a vast expanse of sand and
422
oxus
desert. Under Russian auspices a considerable strip of alluvial
soil on the left bank has been brought under cultivation, measuring
4 or 5 m. in width, and there is more cultivation on
O^V ^^^ banks of the Oxus now than there is in the Merv oasis
*" ' itself, but it is confined to the immediate neighbourhood
of the river, for no affluents of any considerable size exist. The river
is navigable below Charjui, and takes its place as an important unit
in the general scheme of Russian frontier communications. There
is now a regular steamer service, twice a week in summer and once
a week ,in winter, as far as Pata Kasar. The steamers are flat-
bottomed paddle boats drawing 3 ft.
An important feature in connexion with the course of the Oxus
is the discussion that has arisen with regard to its former debouch-
ment into the Caspian Sea. On this point much recent
ifhth' evidence has been collected, and it appears certain that
T is'a there was a time in the post-Pliocene Age when a long
gulf of the Caspian Sea protruded eastwards nearly as
far as the longitude of Merv, covering the Kara Kum sands, but not
the Kara Kum plateau to the north of the sands, which is separated
from the sands by a distinct sea beach. At the same time another
branch of the same gulf protruded northwards in the direction of the
Aral, probably as far as the Sary Kamish depression, which lies to
the west of the Khivan delta of the Oxus, separated from it by wide
beds of loess, clays and gravel, covering rocks of an unknown age.
The Murghab river and the Hari Rud, which terminate in the oases
of Merv and Sarakhs, almost certainly penetrated to the gulf of the
Kara Kum, but the question whether the Oxus was ever deflected
so as to enter the gulf with the Murghab cannot be said to be answered
decisively at present. The former connexion between the Caspian
and Aral by means of the gulf now represented by the Sary Kamish
depression seems to be admitted by Russian scientists, nor would
there appear to be much doubt about the connexion between the
Khivan oasis and the northern extremity of the Sary Kamish. In
this discussion the names of Kaulbars, Lessar, Annenkov, Konshin
and other Russian geographers are conspicuous. The general
conclusions are ably summed up by P. Kropotkin in the
September number of the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society
for 1898.
History. — In the most remote ages to which written history
carries us, the regions on both sides of the Oxus were subject
to the Persian monarchy. Of their populations Herodotus
mentions the Bactrians, Chorasmians, Sogdians and Sacae as
contributing their contingents to the armies of the great king
Darius. The Oxus figures in Persian romantic history as the
limit between Iran and Turan, but the substratum of settled
population to the north as well as the south was probably of
Iranian lineage. The valley is connected with many early
Magian traditions, according to which Zoroaster dwelt at Balkh,
where, in the 7th century B.C., his proselytizing efforts first
came into operation. Buddhism eventually spread widely over
the Oxus countries, and almost entirely displaced the religion
of Zoroaster in its very cradle. The Chinese traveller Hsuen
Tsang, who passed through the country in a.d. 630-644, found
Termez, Khidm, Balkh, and above all Bamian, amply pro-
vided with monasteries, stupas and colossal images, which are
the striking characteristics of prevalent Buddhism; even the
Pamir highlands had their monasteries.
Christianity penetrated to Khorasan and Bactria at an early
date; episcopal sees are said to have existed at Merv and
Samarkand in the 4th and 5th centuries, and Cosmas (c. 545)
testifies to the spread of Christianity among the Bactrians and
Huns.
Bactria was long a province of the empire which Alexander the
Great left to his successors, but the Greek historians give very
little information of the Oxus basin and its inhabitants. About
250 B.C. Diodotus, the " governor of the thousand cities of
Bactria," declared himself king, simultaneously with the revolt
of Arsaces which laid the foundation of the Parthian monarchy.
The Graeco-Bactrian dominion was overwhelmed entirely about
126 B.C. by the Yue-chi {q.v.), a numerous people who had been
driven westwards from their settlements on the borders of China
by the Hiungnu [q.v.). From the Yue-chi arose, about the
Christian era, the great Indo-Scythian dominion which extended
across the Hindu Kush southwards, over Afghanistan and Sind.
The history of the next five centuries is a blank. In 571 the
Haiathalah (Ephthalites, q.v.) of the Oxus, who are supposed
to be descendants of the Yue-chi, were shattered by an invasion
of the Turkish khakan; and in the following century the Chinese
pilgrim Hsuen Tsang found the former empire of the Haiathalah
broken up into a great number of small states, all acknowledging
the supremacy of the Turkish khakan, and several having names
identical with those which still exist. The whole group of states
he calls Tukhara, by which name in the form Tokharistan, or by
that of Haiathalah, the country continued for centuries to be
known to the Mahommedans. At the time of his pilgrimage
Chinese influence had passed into Tokharistan and Transoxiana.
Yazdeged, the last of the Sassanid kings of Persia, who died in
651, when defeated and hard pressed by the Moslems, invoked
the aid of China; the Chinese emperor, Taitsung, issued an edict
organizing the whole country from Ferghana to the borders of
Persia into three Chinese administrative districts, with 126
mihtary cantonments, an organization which, however, probably
only existed on paper.
In 711-712 Mahommedan troops were conducted by Kotaiba,
the governor of Khorasan, into the province of Khwarizm
(Khiva), after subjugating which they advanced on Bokhara
and Samarkand, the ancient Sogdiana, and are said to have
even reached Ferghana and Kashgar, but no occupation then
ensued. In 1016-1025 the government of Khwarizm was
bestowed by Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni upon Altuntash, one of
his most distinguished generals.
Tokharistan in general formed a part successively of the
empires of the Sassanid dynasty (terminated a.d. 999), of the
Ghaznevid dynasty, of the Seljuk princes of Persia and of
Khorasan, of the Ghori or Shansabanya kings, and of the sultans
of Khwarizm. The last dynasty ended with Sultan Jalal-ud-din,
during whose reign (1221-1231) a division of the Mogul army
of Jenghiz Khan first invaded Khwarizm, while the khan himself
was besieging Bamian; Jalal-ud-din, deserted by most of his
troops, retired to Ghazni, where he was pursued by Jenghiz
Khan, and again retreating towards Hindustan was overtaken
and driven across the Indus.
The commencement of the i6th century was marked by the
rise of the Uzbeg rule in Turkestan. The Uzbegs were no one
race, but an aggregation of fragments from Turks, Mongols and
all the great tribes constituting the hosts of Jenghiz and Batu.
They held Kunduz, Balkh, Khwarizm and Khorasan, and for
a time Badakshan also; but Badakshan was soon won by the
emperor Baber, and in 1 529 was bestowed on his cousin Suleiman,
who by 1555 had established his rule over much of the region
between the Oxus and the Hindu Kush. The Mogul emperors
of India occasionally interfered in these provinces, notably
Shah Jahan in 1646; but, finding the difficulty of maintaining
so distant a frontier, they abandoned it to the Uzbeg princes.
About 1765 the wazir of Ahmad Shah Abdali of Kabul invaded
Badakshan, and from that time until now the domination of the
countries on the south bank of the Oxus from Wakhan to Balkh
has been a matter of frequent struggles between Afghans and
Uzbegs.
The Uzbeg rale in Turkestan has during the last fifty years
been rapidly dwindling before the growth of Russian power. In
1S63 Russia invaded the Khokand territory, taking in rapid
succession the cities of Turkestan, Chimkent and Tashkend.
In 1866 Khojend was taken, the power of Khokand was com-
pletely crushed, a portion was incorporated in the new Russian
province of Turkestan, while the remainder was left to be
administered by a native chief almost as a Russian feudatory;
the same year the Bokharians were defeated at Irdjar. In
1S67 an army assembled by the amir of Bokhara was attacked
and dispersed by the Russians, who in 1868 entered Samarkand,
and became virtually rulers of Bokhara. In 1873 Khiva was
invaded, and as much of the khanate as lay on the right bank
of the Oxus was incorporated into the Russian empire, a portion
being afterwards made over to Bokhara. Russia acquired the
right of the free navigation of the Oxus throughout its entire
course, on the borders of both Khiva and Bokhara. The ad-
ministration of the whole of the states on the right bank of the
Oxus, down to the Russian boundary line at Ichka Yar, is now
in the hands of Bokhara, including Karateghin — which the
Russians have transferred to it from Khokand — and Darwaz
at the entrance to the Pamir highlands.
OXYGEN
423
Authorities. — Although much has been written of late years
about the sources of the Oxus within the region of the Pamirs,
there is very little to be found in the writings of geographers of
modern date descriptive of that part of its course which separates
Darwaz and Afghan Turkestan from Bokhara, and that little is
chiefly in the pages of reports and gazettes, die, which are not avail-
able to the public. The following authorities may be consulted :
The Report of the Pamir Boundary Commission of 1895, published
at Calcutta (1897); Dr A. Regel, "Journey in Karateghin and
Darwaz," Investia, Russian Geog. Soc, vol. xiii. (1882); translation,
vol. iv. Proc. R.G.S.; Michel], " Regions of the Upper Oxus,"
vol. vi. Proc. R.G.S. (1884); Griesbach, " Geological Field Notes,"
No. 3, Afghan Boundary Commission (1885); C. Yate, Northern
Afghanistan (London, 1888); Curzon, "The Pamirs," vol. viii.
Jour. R.G.S. (1896); Kropotkin, "Old Beds of the Oxus," Jour.
R.G.S. (September 1898); Cobbold, Innermost Asia (London, 1900).
To the above may be added the Reports of the Russo-Afghan Boun-
dary Commission of 1884-1885, and that of Lockhart's Mission in
1885, and the Indian Survey Reports. (T. H. H.*)
OXYGEN (symbol O, atomic weight 16), a non-metallic chemical
element. It was apparently first obtained in 1727 by Stephen
Hales by strongly heating minium, but he does not seem to have
recognized that he had obtained a new element, and the first
pubhshed description of its properties was due to J. Priestley in
1774, who obtained the gas by igniting mercuric oxide, and gave
it the name " dephlogistigated air." K. W. Scheele, working
independently, also announced i. 1775 the discovery of this
element which he called "empyreal air" {Crells' Annalcn,
1785, 2, pp. 229, 291). A. L. Lavoisier repeated Priestley's
experiments and named the gas " oxygen " (from Or. o^fe, sour,
fivvajji, I produce) to denote that in a large number of cases,
the products formed by the combustion of substances in the gas
were of an acid character. Oxygen occurs naturally as one of
the chief constituents of the atmosphere, and in combination
with other elements it is found in very large quantities; it
constitutes approximately eight-ninths by weight of water and
nearly one-half by weight of the rocks composing the earth's
crust. It is also disengaged by growing vegetation, plants
possessing the power of absorbing carbon dioxide, assimilating
the carbon and rejecting the oxygen. Oxygen may be prepared
by heating mercuric oxide; by strongly heating manganese
dioxide and many other peroxides; by heating the oxides of
precious metals; and by heating many oxy-acids and oxy-salts
to high temperatures, for example, nitric acid, sulphuric acid,
nitre, lead nitrate, zinc sulphate, potassium chlorate, &c.
Potassium chlorate is generally used and the reaction is acceler-
ated and carried out at a lower temperature by previously
mixing the salt with about one-third of its weight of manganese
dioxide, which acts as a catalytic agent. The actual decomposi-
tion of the chlorate is not settled definitely; the following equa-
tions give the results obtained by P. F. Frankland and Dingwall
(Chem. News, 1887, 55, p. 67): — at a moderate heat: 8KC10,3 =
5KC104-h3KCl-l-202, succeeded by the following reactions
as the temperature increases: 2KC103 = KC104-|-KCl-t-02 and
2KC103 = 2KCl-l-302 (see also F. Teed, ibid., 1887, 55, p. 91;
H. N. Warren, ibid., 1888, 58, p. 247; W. H. Sodeau, Proc. Chem.
Soc, 1901, 17, p. 149). It may also be obtained by heating
manganese dioxide or potassium bichromate or potassium
permanganate with sulphuric acid; by the action of cobalt salts
or manganese dioxide on a solution of bleaching powder (Th.
Fleitmann, Ann., 1865, 134, p. 64); by the action of a ferrous
or manganous salt with a salt of cobalt, nickel or copper on
bleaching powder (G. F. Jaubert, Ger. pat. 157171); by passing
chlorine into milk of Hme (C. Winkler, Jour, prakt. Chem., 1866,
98, p. 340); by the action of chlorine on steam at a bright red
heat; by the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide by bleaching
powder, manganese dioxide, potassium ferricyanide in alkahne
solution, or potassium permanganate in acid solution; by
heating barium peroxide with an aqueous solution of potassium
ferricyanide (G. Kassner, Zeil. angcw. Chem., 1890, p. 44S)
Ba02-|-2K3Fe(CN)6=Ba[FeK3(CN)6]2+02; by the decomposi-
tion of sodium and potassium peroxides with a solution
of potassium permanganate in the presence of a trace of
nickel salts (G. F. Jaubert, Comptes rendus, 1902, 134,
p. 778).
Numerous methods have been devised for the manufacture of
oxygen. The more important are as follows: by decomposing
strongly heated sulphuric acid in the presence of a contact
substance; by heating an intimate mixture of one part of
sodium nitrate with two parts of zinc oxide (T. H. Pepper,
Dingier' s Jour., 1863, 167, p. 39): 2ZnO-|-4NaN03 =
2Zn(ONa)2-l-2N2-l-502; by the use of cuprous chloride which
when mixed with clay and sand, moistened with water and
heated in a current of air at 100-200° C. yields an oxychloride,
which latter yields oxygen when heated to 400° C (A. Mallet,
Comptes rendus, 1S67, 64, p. 226; 1868, 66, p. 349); by the
electrolysis of solutions of sodium hydroxide, using nickel
electrodes; by heating calcium plumbate (obtained from
litharge and calcium carbonate) in a current of carbon dioxide
(G. Kassner, Monil. Scicnl., i8go, pp. 503, 614); and from air
by the process of TessieduMotay (Ding. Jour., 1870, 196, p. 230),
in which air is drawn over a heated mixture of manganese
dioxide and sodium hydroxide, the sodium manganate so formed
being then heated to about 450° C. in a current of steam, the
following reversible reaction taking place: 4NaOH-t-2Mn02-|-
02i^2Na2Mn04-)-2H20. Oxygen is largely prepared by Brin's
process {Mem. soc. dcs Ingen. civ., 1881, p. 450) in which barium
monoxide is heated in a current of air, forming the dioxide,
which when the retorts are exhausted yields up oxygen and
leaves a residue of monoxide; but this method is now being
superseded, its place being taken by the fractional chstillation
of liquid air {The Times, Engin. Suppl., April 14, 1909, p. 13)
as carried out by the Linde method (Eng. Pat. 14111; 1902).
Oxygen is a colourless, odourless and tasteless gas. It is
somewhat heavier than air, its specific gravity being 1-10523
(A. Leduc, Comptes rendus, 1896, 123, p. 805). It is slightly
soluble in water and more so in alcohol. It also dissolves quite
readily in some molten metals, especially silver. Oxygen does
not burn, but is the greatest supporter of combustion known,
nearly aD the other elements combining with it under suitable
conditions (cf. Oxide). These reactions, however, do not take
place if the substances are absolutely dry. Thus H. B. Baker
{Proc. Chem. Soc, 1902, 18, p. 40) has shown that perfectly
dry oxygen and hydrogen will not combine even at a temperature
of 1000° C. It is the only gas capable of supporting respiration.
For the properties of liquid oxygen see LiQtJiD Gases.
It is found, more especially in the case of organic compounds, that
if a substance which oxidizes readily at ordinary temperature be
mixed with another which is not capable of such oxidation, then
both are oxidized simultaneously, the amount of oxygen used being
shared equally between them; or in some cases when the substance
is spontaneously oxidized an equivalent amount of oxygen is con-
verted into ozone or hydrogen pero.xide. This phenomenon was first
noticed by C. F. Schonbein (Jour, prakt. Chem., 1858-1868), who
found that on oxidizing lead in the presence of sulphuric acid, the
same quantity of oxygen is used to form lead o.xide as is converted
into hydrogen peroxide. In a similar manner M. Traube (Ber.,
1882-1893) found that when zinc is oxidized in presence of water
equivalent quantities of zinc hydroxide and hydrogen peroxide are
formed at first, thus: Zn-HHoO-f 02 = ZnO-f-H202, followed by
Zn0-|-H:0 = Zn(0H)2,Zn-fH202 = Zn(0H)2. Theoxygen uniting with
the substance undergoing oxidation is generally known as " bound
oxygen," whilst that which is transformed into ozone or hydrogen
peroxide is usually called " active o.\ygen." C. Engler (Ber., 1897,
30, p. 1669) calls the substance which undergoes oxidation the
" autoxidizer " and the substance which unites with the active
oxygen the "acceptor"; in the oxidation of metals he expresses
results as: M-t-02 = M02, followed by M02 7^M-0-f0, and if water
be present, 0-|-H20 = H202. Various theories have been developed
in order to account for these phenomena. Schonbein (loc. cit.)
assumed that the ordinary oxygen molecule is decomposed into two
parts which carry electrical charges of opposite kinds, the one with
the positive charge being called " antozone " and the other carrying
the negative charge being called " ozone," one variety being pre-
ferentially used up by the oxidizing compound or element and the
other for the secondary reaction. J. H. Van't Hoff (Zeit. phys.
Chem., 1895, 16, p. 411) is of the opinion that the oxygen molecule
is to a certain extent ionized and that the ions of one kind are pre-
ferably used by the oxidizing compound. Traube (loc. cit.), on the
other hand, concludes that the oxygen molecule enters into action as
a whole and that on the oxidation of metals, hydrogen peroxide and
the oxide of the metal are the primary products of the reaction.
A. Bach (Comptes rendus, 1897, 124, p. 2) considers that the first
stage in the reaction consists in the production of a peroxide which
424
OXYHYDROGEN FLAME— OYSTER
then interacts with water to form hydrogen peroxide (see also W.
Manchot, Ann., 1901, 314, p. 177; 1902, 325, p. 95). _
Oxygen is a member of the sixth group in the periodic classifica-
tion, and consequently possesses a maximum valency of six. In
most cases it behaves as a divalent clement, but it may also be
quadrivalent. A. v. Baeyer and V. Villiger (Ber., 1901, 34, pp. 2679,
3612) showed that many organic compounds (ethers, alcohols,
aldehydes, ketones, &c.) behave towards acids, particularly the more
complex acids, very much like bases and yield crystallized salts in
which quadrivalent oxygen must be assumed as the basic element.
These salts are considered to be derived from the hypothetical base
OHs-OH, oxoniurn. hydroxide (compare sulphonium salts). Further
see J. Schmidt, " Uber die basischen Eigenschaften des Sauerstoffs "
(Berlin, 1904). Baeyer and Villiger assume for the configuration of
the salts of carbonyl compounds the arrangement > C : O <^-y , whilst
J. W. Bruhl and P. W. Walden point out from the physico-chemical
standpoint that in water and hydrogen peroxide the oxygen atom
is probably quadrivalent.
The atomic weight of oxygen is now generally taken as 16, and as
such is used as the standard by which the atomic weights of the
other elements are determined, owing to the fact that most elements
combine with oxygen more readily than with hj'drogen (see Ele-
ment).
Oxygen is widely used in medical practice as well as in surgery.
Inhalations of the gas are of service in pneumonia, bronchitis, heart
disease, asthma, angina and other conditions accompanied by
cyanosis and dyspnoea. They often avert death from asphyxia, or
render the end less distressing. Oxygen is also administered in
chloroform poisoning, and in threatened death from the inhalation
of coal gas or nitrous oxides. It is of value in cyanide and opium
poisoning and in the resuscitation of the apparently drowned. The
mode of administration is by an inhaler attached to an inhalation
bag, which serves to break the force with w'hich the oxygen issues
from the cylinders in which it is sold in a compressed form. It can
be administered pure or mixed with air as required. If given in too
great quantity a temporary condition of apnoea (cessation of breath-
ing) is produced, the blood being fully charged with the gas. 0.\ygen
may be applied locally as a disinfectant to foul and diseased surfaces
by the use of the peroxide of hydrogen, which readily parts with
its oxygen ; a solution of hydrogen peroxide therefore forms a
valuable spray in diphtheria, tonsillitis, laryngeal tuberculosis and
ozaena. It can also be used with advantage in inoperable uterine
cancer, favus and lupus, and as an injection in gonorrhoea and
suppurative conditions of the ear. It relieves the pain of wasp and
bee stings. Internally hydrogen peroxide is used in various diseased
conditions of the gastro-intestinal tract, such as dyspepsia, diarrhoea
and enteric fever. The B.P. preparation Liquor Hydrogenii Peroxidi
dose 5 to 2 drs. is synonymous with the Aqua Hydrogenii Dioxidi
of the U.S.P. and the ten-volume solution termed eau oxygence in
France. It is customary to use oxygen in combination with chloro-
form, or nitrous oxide in order to produce insensibility to pain (see
Anaesthetics).
OXYHYDROGEN FLAME, the flame attending the combustion
of hydrogen and oxygen, and characterized by a very high
temperature. Hydrogen gas readily burns in oxygen or air
with the formation of water. The quantity of heat evolved,
according to JuUus Thomsen, is 34,116 calories for each gram
of hydrogen burned. This heat-disturbance is quite independent
of the mode in which the process is conducted; but the tempera-
ture of the flame is dependent on the circumstances under which
the process takes place. It obviously attains its maximum in
the case of the firing of pure " oxyhydrogen " gas (a mixture
of hydrogen with exactly half its volume of oxygen, the quantity
it combines with in becoming water, German Knall-gas). It
becomes less when the " oxyhydrogen " is mixed with excess of
one or the other of the two reacting gases, or an inert gas such
as nitrogen, because in any such case the same amount of heat
spreads over a larger quantity of matter. Many forms of
oxyhydrogen lamps have been invented, but the explosive
nature of the gaseous mixture rendered them all more or less
dangerous. It acquired considerable apphcation in platinum
works, this metal being only fusible in the o.xyhydrogen flame
and the electric furnace; and also for the production of limelight,
as in optical (magic) lanterns. But these applications are being
superseded by the electric furnace, and electric light.
OYAMA. IWAO, Prince (1842- ), Japanese field-marshal,
was born in Satsuma. He was a nephew of Saigo, with whom
his elder brother sided in the Satsuma insurrection of 1877, but
he nevertheless remained loyal to the imperial cause and com-
manded a brigade against the insurgents. When war broke out
between China and Japan in i S94 , he was appointed commander-
in-chief of the second Japanese army corps, which, landing on
the Liaotung Peninsula, carried Port Arthur by storm, and,
subsequently crossing to Shantung, captured the fortress of
Wei-hai-wei. For these services he received the title of marquess,
•and, three years later, he became field-marshal. When (1904)
his country became embroiled in war with Russia, he was
appointed commander-in-chief of the Japanese armies in Man-
churia, and in the sequel of Japan's victory the mikado bestowed
on him (1907) the rank of prince. He received the British Order
of Merit in iqo6.
OYER AND TERMINER, the Anglo-French name, meaning
" to hear and determine," for one of the commissions by which
a judge of assize sits (see Assize). By the commission of oyer
and terminer the commissioners (in practice the judges of assize,
though other persons are named with them in the commission)
are commanded to make diligent inquiry into all treasons,
felonies and misdemeanours whatever committed in the counties
specified in the commission, and to hear and determine the same
according to law. The inquiry is by means of the grand jury;
after the grand jury has found the bills submitted to it, the
commissioners proceed " to hear and determine " by means
of the petty jury. The words oyer and terminer are also used
to denote the court which has jurisdiction to try offences within
the limits to which the commission of oyer and terminer extends.
By the Treason Act 1708 the crown has power to issue com-
missions of oyer and terminer in Scotland for the trial of treason and
misprision of treason. Three of the lords of justiciary must be in any
such commission. An indictment for either of the offences mentioned
may be removed by certiorari from the court of oyer and terminer
into the court of justiciary.
In the United States oyer and terminer is the name given to courts
of criminal jurisdiction in some states, e.g. New York, New Jersey,
Pennsylvania, and Georgia.
OYSTER. The use of this name in the vernacular is equivalent
to that of Ostrea (Lat. from Gr. oaTptov, oyster, so called from
its shell, ocTTtoc, bone, shell) in zoological nomenclature; there
are no genera so similar to Ostrea as to be confounded with
it in ordinary language. Ostrea is a genus of LameUibranch
Molluscs. The degeneration produced by sedentary habits in
all lamellibranchs has in the oyster reached its most advanced
stage. The valves of the shell are closed by a single large adductor
muscle, the anterior adductor being absent. The muscular
projection of the ventral surface called the foot, whose various
modifications characterize the different classes of Mollusca,
is almost entirely aborted. The two valves of the shell are
unequal in size, and of different shape; the left valve is larger,
thicker and more convex, and on it the animal rests in its natural
state. This valve, in the young oyster, is attached to some object
on the sea-bottom; in the adult it is sometimes attached,
sometimes free. The right valve is flat, and smaUer and thinner
than the left. In a corresponding manner the right side of the
animal's body is somewhat less developed than the left, and to
this extent there is a departure from the bilateral symmetry
characteristic of Lamellibranchs.
The organization of the oyster, as compared with that of a
typical lamellibranch such as Anodon (see Lamellibranchia),
is brought about by the reduction of the anterior part of the
body accompanying the loss of the anterior adductor, and the
enlargement of the posterior region. The pedal gangha and
auditory organs have disappeared with the foot, at aU events
have never been detected; the cerebral ganglia are very minute,
while the parieto-splanchnic are weU developed, and constitute
the principal part of the nervous system.
According to Spengel, the pair of gangha near the mouth,
variously called labial or cerebral, represent the cerebral pair
and pleural pair of a gastropod combined, and the parieto-
splanchnic pair correspond to the visceral ganglia, the com-
missure which connects them with the cerebro-pleural represent-
ing the visceral commissure. Each of the visceral ganglia is
connected or combined with an olfactory ganglion underlying
an area of specialized epithelium, which constitutes the olfactory
organ, the osphradium. The heart and pericardial chamber
in the oyster lie along the anterior face of the adductor muscle,
OYSTER
425
almost perpendicular to the direction of the gills, with which
in Anodon they are parallel. In Anodon and the majority of
lamelUbranchs the ventricle surrounds the intestine; in the
oyster the two are quite independent, the intestine passing above
the pericardium. The renal organs of the oyster were dis-
covered by Hoek to agree in their morphological relations with
those of other lamellibranchs.
The generative organs of the oyster consist of a system of
branching cavities on each side of the body lying immediately
beneath the surface. AU the cavities of a side are ultimately
in communication with an efferent duct opening on the surface
of the body a little above the Hne of attachment of the gills.
The genital opening on each side is situated in a depression of
the surface into which the renal organ also opens. The genital
products are derived from the cells which line the cavities of
the genital organs. The researches of Hoek have shown that in
the same oyster the genital organs at one time produce ova, at
another spermatozoa, and that consequently the oyster does not
fertiUze itself. How many times the alternation of sex may take
place in a season is not known. It must be borne in mind that
in what follows the species of the European coasts, Oslrca
edulis, is under consideration. The ova are fertilized in the
genital duct, and before their escape have undergone the earliest
stages of segmentation. After escaping from the genital aperture
they find their way into the infra-branchial part of the mantle
cavity of the parent, probably by passing through the supra-
branchial chamber to the posterior extremity of the gills, and
then being conducted by the inhalent current caused by the
ciHa of the gills into the infra-branchial chamber. In the latter
they accumulate, being held together and fastened to the gills
by a white viscid secretion. The mass of ova thus contained in
the oyster is spoken of by oyster lishcrs as "white spat," and
an oyster containing them is said to be " sick." While in this
position the ova go through the earlier stages of development.
At the end of a fortnight the white spat has become dark-
coloured from the appearance of coloured patches in the develop-
ing embryos. The embryos having then reached the condition
of " trochospheres " escape from the mantle cavity and swim
about freely near the surface of the water among the multitude
of other creatures, larval and adult, which swarm there. The
larvae are extremely minute, about t^j in. long and of glassy
transparency, except in one or two spots which are dark brown.
From the trochosphere stage the free larvae pass into that of
" veligers." How long they remain free is not known; Huxley
kept them in a glass vessel in this condition for a week. Ulti-
mately they sink to the bottom and fix themselves to shells,
stones or other objects, and rapidly take on the appearance of
minute oysters, forming white disks -jV in. in diameter. The
appearance of these minute oysters constitutes what the fisher-
men call a " fall of spat." The experiment by which Hoek
conclusively proved the change of sex in the oyster was as follows.
In an oyster containing white spat microscopic examination
of the genital organs shows nothing but a few unexpeUed ova.
An oyster in this condition was kept in an aquarium by itself
for a fortnight, and after that period its genital organs were
found to contain multitudes of spermatozoa in all stages of
development.
The breeding season of the European oyster lasts from May
to September. The rate of growth of the young oyster is, roughly
speaking, an inch of diameter in a year, but after it has attained
a breadth of 3 in. its growth is much slower. Professor Mobius is
of opinion that oysters over twenty years of age are rare, and that
most of the adult Schleswig oysters are seven to ten years old.
The development of the American oyster, O. virginiana, and
of the Portuguese oyster, O. angulala, is very similar to that of
0. edidis, except that there is no period of incubation within the
mantle cavity of the parent in the case of these two species.
Hence it is that so-called artificial fertilization is possible; that
is to say, fertilization wiU take place when ripe eggs and milt
are artificially pressed from the oysters and allowed to fall into
a vessel of sea-water. But if it is possible to procure a supply
of spat from the American oyster by keeping the swarms of larvae
in confinement, it ought to be possible in the case of the European
oyster. All that would be necessary would be to take a number
of mature oysters containing white spat and lay them down
in tanks till the larvae escape. This would be merely carrying
oyster culture a step farther back, and instead of collecting the
newly fixed oysters, to obtain the free larvae in numbers and
so insure a faU of spat independently of the uncertainty of
natural conditions. This method has been tried several times
in England, in Holland and in France, but always without
permanent success.
Natural beds of oysters occur on stony and shelly bottoms
at depths varying from 3 to 20 fathoms. In nature the beds
are Uable to variations, and, although Huxley was somewhat
sceptical on this point, it seems that they are easily brought
into an unproductive condition by over-dredging. Oysters do
not flourish in water containing less than 3% salt; and hence
they are absent from the Baltic. The chief enemies of oysters
are the dog-whelk, Purpura lapillus, and the whelk-tingle,
Murex crinaccus, which bore through the shells. Starfishes
devour large numbers; they are able to pull the valves of the
shell apart and then to digest the body of the oyster by their
everted stomach. Clioiia, the boring sponge, destroys the shells
and so injures the oyster; the boring annelid Leucodore also
excavates the sheU.
The wandering life of the larvae makes it uncerain whether
any of the progeny of a given oyster-bed will settle within its
area and so keep up its numbers. It is known from the history
of the Liimfjord beds that the larvae may settle 5 m. from their
place of birth.
The genus Ostrea has a world-wide distribution, in tropical and
temperate seas; seventy species have been distinguished. Its
nearest allies are Pinna among living iorms, Eligvius among fossils.
For the so-called pearl-oyster see Pearl.
Oyster Industry. — Oysters are more valuable than any other
single product of the fisheries, and in at least twenty-five countries
are an important factor in the food-supply. The approximate
value of the world's oyster crop approaches £4,000,000 annually,
representing over 30,000,000 bushels, or nearly 10 billion oysters.
Not less than 150,000 persons are engaged in the industry, and
the total number dependent thereon is fuUy half a million. The
following table shows in general terms the yearly oyster product
of the world: —
Country.
Bushfls.
Value.
United States .
Canada ....
Great Britain and Ireland
France
Holland ....
Italy
Other European countries
Asia, Africa and Oceania .
Total .
26,853,760
134.140
113,700
3,260,190
100,000
68,750
29.030
275,000
£2,533.481
43.405
154.722
716,778
84,400
44,000
40,250
1 1 1 ,400
30,835,470
£3,728,436
United States. — The oyster is the chief fishery product in the
United States. The states which lead in the quantity of oysters
taken are Maryland, Virginia, New York, New Jersey and Connecti-
cut ; the annual value of the output in each of these is over Si,ooo,ooo.
Other states with important oyster interests are Rhode Island,
North Carolina, Louisiana and California. The oyster fisheries
give employment to over 56,000 fishermen, who man 4000 vessels,
valued at 84,000,000, and 23,000 boats, valued at 81,470,000; the
value of the 11,000 dredges and 37,000 tongs, rakes and other
appliances used is 8365,000. The quantity of oysters taken in 1898
was 26,853,760 bushels, with a value of 812,667,405. The output of
cultivated oysters in 1899 was about 9,800,000 bushels, worth
88,700,000.
Canada. — Oyster banks of some importance exist in the Gulf
of St Lawrence and on the coast of British Columbia. All of the
grounds have suffered depletion, and cultural methods to maintain
the supply have been instituted. The oyster output of the Dominion
has never exceeded 200,000 bushels in a single year, and in 1898
was 134,140 bushels, valued at 8217,024.
United Kingdom. — The natural oyster beds of Great Britain and
Ireland have been among the most valuable of the fisher^' resources,
and British oysters have been famous from time immemorial. The
most important oyster region is the Thames estuary, the site of
extensive planting operations. The present supply is largely from
cultivated grounds. Important oyster-producing centres are
XX. 14a
426
OYSTER
Whitstable, Colchester and Brightlingsea. The oysters landed on the
coasts of England and Wales in 1898 numbered 35,809,000, valued
at £122,320, and in 1899. 38,978,000, valued at £143,841. The
Scottish fishery has its centre at Inveraray and Ballantrae, and in
1905 yielded 218,000 oysters, valued at £865. Public oyster grounds
of Ireland in 1903 produced 2,532,800 oysters, valued at £5030.
The fishery is most extensive at \Vicklo\v, Queenstown, Ballyheige,
Galway and Moville. Planting is carried on in seven counties;
the oysters taken from cultivated beds in 1903 numbered 2,687,500
oysters, valued at £5420.
France. — The industry owes its importance to the attention
given to oyster cultivation. In the fishery on public grounds in
l8g6 only 6370 fishermen were engaged, employing 1627 vessels
and boats, valued at 1,473,449 francs, and apparatus worth 211,495
francs, while only 13,127,217 kilograms of oysters were taken, or
about 320,000 bushels, valued at 414,830 francs. In the parks,
claires and reservoirs the private culture of oysters has attained
great perfection. Fully 40,000 men, women and children are em-
ployed, and the output in 1896 was 1,536,417,968 oysters, worth
17,537,778 francs. The principal centre is Arcachon.
Oyster Culture. — The oyster industry has passed from the
hands of the fisherman into those of the oyster culturist. The
oyster being sedentary, except for a few days in the earliest
stages of its existence, is easily exterminated in any given
locality; since, although it may not be possible for the fishermen
to rake up from the bottom every individual, wholesale methods
of capture soon result in covering up or otherwise destroying
the oyster banks or reefs, as the communities of oysters are
technically termed. The main difference between the oyster
industry of America and that of Europe lies in the fact that in
Europe the native beds have long since been practically de-
stroyed, perhaps not more than 6 or 7 °o of the oysters of Europe
passing from the native beds directly into the hands of the
consumer. It is probable that 60 to 75% are reared from the
spat in artificial parks, the remainder having been laid down
for a time to increase in size and flavour in shoal waters along
the coasts. In the United States, on the other hand, from 30
to 40% are carried from the native beds directly to market.
The oyster fishery is everywhere, except in localities where the
natural beds are nearly exhausted, carried on in the most reck-
less manner, and in all directions oyster grounds are becoming
deteriorated, and in some cases have been entirely destroyed.
At present the oyster is one of the cheapest articles of diet in the
United States; and, though it can hardly be expected that the
price of American oysters will always remain so low, still, taking
into consideration the great wealth of the natural beds along
the entire Atlantic coast, it seems certain that a moderate
amount of protection would keep the price of seed oysters far
below European rates, and that the immense stretches of sub-
merged land especially suited for oyster planting may be utilized
and made to produce an abundant harvest at much less cost
than that which accompanies the complicated system of culture
in vogue in France and Holland.
The simplest form of oyster culture is the preservation of the
natural oyster-beds. Upon this, in fact, depends the whole
future of the industry, since it is not probable that any system
of artificial breeding can be devised which will render it possible
to keep up a supply without at least occasional recourse to seed
oysters produced under natural conditions. It is the opinion
of almost all who have studied the subject that any natural bed
may in time be destroyed by overfishing (perhaps not by
removing aU the oysters, but by breaking up the colonies, and
delivering over the territory which they once occupied to other
kinds of animals), by burying the breeding oysters, by covering
up the projections suitable for the reception of spat, and by
breaking down, through the action of heavy dredges, the ridges
which are especially fitted to be seats of the colonies.' The
' Even Huxley, the most ardent of all opponents of fishery
legislation, while denying that oyster-beds had been permanently
annihilated by dredging, practically admitted that a bed may be
reduced to such a condition that the oyster will only be able to
recover its former state by a long struggle with its enemies and
competition — in fact that it must re-establish itself much in the
same way as they have acquired possession of new grounds in Jutland,
a process which, according to his own statement, occupied thirty
years (Lecture at the Royal Institution, May 11th, 1883, printed
with additions in the English Illustrated Magazine, i. pp. 47-55.
112-121).
immense oyster-beds in Pocomoke Sound, Maryland, have
practically been destroyed by over-dredging, and many of the
other beds of the United States are seriously damaged. The
same is doubtless true of all the beds of Europe. It has also
been demonstrated that under proper restriction great quantities
of mature oysters, and seed oysters as well, may be taken from
any region of natural oyster-beds without injurious effects.
Parallel cases in agriculture and forestry will occur to every one.
jVIobius, in his most admirable essay Die A uster und Die A ustern-
■wirthschaft , has pointed out the proper means of preserving
natural beds, declaring that, if the average profit from a bed
of oysters is to remain permanently the same, a sufficient number
of mother oysters must be left in it, so as not to diminish the
capacity of maturing. He further shows that the productive
capacity of a bed can only be maintained in one of two ways:
(i) by diminishing the causes which destroy the young oysters,
in which case the number of breeding oysters may safely be
decreased; this, however, is practicable only under such favour-
able conditions as occur at Arcachon, where the beds may be
kept under the constant control of the oyster-culturist; (2) by
regulating the fishing on the natural beds in such a manner
as to make them produce permanently the highest possible
average quantity of oysters. Since the annual increase of
half-grown oysters is estimated by him to be four hundred and
twenty-one to every thousand full-grown oysters, he claims that
not more than 42 % of these latter ought to be taken from a bed
during a year.
The Schleswig-Holstein oyster-beds are the property of the
state, and are leased to a company whose interest it is to preserve
their productiveness. The French beds are also kept under
government control. Not so the beds of Great Britain and
America, which are as a general rule open to all comers,' except
when some close-time regulation is in force. Huxley has illus-
trated the futility of " close-time " in his remark that the
prohibition of taking oysters from an oyster-bed during four
months of the year is not the slightest security against its being
stripped clean during the other eight months. " Suppose," he
continues, " that in a country infested by wolves, you have a
flock of sheep, keeping the wolves off during the lambing season
will not afford much protection if you withdraw shepherd and
dogs during the rest of the year." The old close-time laws
were abolished in England in 1866, and returned to in 1876,
but no results can be traced to the action of parliament in either
case. Huxley's conclusions as regards the future of the oyster
industry in Great Britain are doubtless just as applicable to
other countries — that the only hope for the oyster consumer
lies in the encouragement of oyster-culture, and in the develop-
ment of some means of breeding oysters under such conditions
that the spat shall be safely deposited. Oyster culture can
evidently be carried on only by private enterprise, and the
problem for legislation to solve is how to give such rights of pro-
perty upon those shores which are favourable to oyster culture
as may encourage competent persons to invest their money in
that undertaking. Such property right should undoubtedly be
extended to natural beds, or else an area of natural spawning
territory should be kept under constant control and surveillance
by government, for the purpose of maintaining an adequate
supply of seed oysters.
The extension of the area of the natural beds is the second
step in oyster culture. As is well known to zoologists, and as
has been very lucidly set forth by Mobius, the location of oyster
banks is sharply defined by absolute physical conditions. Within
certain definite limits of depth, temperature and salinity, the only
requirement is a suitable place for attachment. Oysters cannot
thrive where the ground is composed of moving sand or where
mud is deposited; consequently, since the size and number of
these places are very limited, only a very small percentage of
the young oysters can find a resting-place, and the remainder
perish. Mobius estimates that for every oyster brought to
' Connecticut has greatly benefited its oyster industry by giving
to oyster-culturists a fee simple title to the lands under control by
them.
OYSTER BAY
427
market from the Holstein banks, 1,045,000 are destroyed or
die. By putting down suitable " cultch " or " stools " immense
quantities of the wandering fry may be induced to settle, and
are thus saved. As a rule the natural beds occupy most of the
suitable space in their own vicinity. Unoccupied territory may,
however, be prepared for the reception of new beds, by spreading
sand, gravel and shells over muddy bottoms, or, indeed, beds
may be kept up in locations for permanent natural beds, by
putting down mature oysters and cultch just before the time of
breeding, thus giving the young a chance to fix themselves
before the currents and enemies have had time to accomplish
much in the way of destruction.
The collection of oyster spat upon artificial stools has been
practised from time immemorial. As early as the 7th century,
and probably before, the Romans practised a kind of oyster
culture in Lake Avernus, which still survives to the present
day in Lake Fusaro. Piles of rocks are made on the muddy
bottoms of these salt-water lakes, and around these are arranged
circles of stakes, to which are often attached bundles of twigs.
Breeding oysters are piled upon the rookeries, and their young
become attached to the stakes and twigs provided for their
reception, where they are allowed to remain until ready for use,
when they are plucked off and sent to the market. A similar
though ruder device is used in the Poquonock river in Connecti-
cut. Birch trees are thrown into the water near a natural
bed of oysters, and the trunks and twigs become covered with
spat; the trees are then dragged out upon the shore by oxen,
and the young fry are broken off and laid down in the shallows
to increase in size. In 1858 the methods of the Italian lakes
were repeated at St Brieuc under the direction of Professor P.
Coste, and from these experiments the art of artificial breeding
as practised in France has been developed. There is, however,
a marked distinction between oyster-culture and oyster-breeding.
In considering the oyster-culture in France it is necessary to
distinguish the centres of production from the centres of rearing or
fattening. The chief centres or regions of oyster production are
two, (i) Arcachon, (2) Brittany. The basin of Arcachon has an
area of about 38,000 acres at high water, and only about 15,000 acres
are under water at low tide. The water is salter than the sea. At
the beginning of the 19th century there were only natural oyster
beds in the basin, and these produced 75 million oysters per annum.
But in the middle of the century the natural beds had been almost
exhausted and the system of government control, letting " parks "
to private tenants, and artificial cultivation was instituted. Certain
beds in the basin are reserved and kept under government control.
Cultch is placed upon them every year, and gathering of oysters
upon them is allowed only at intervals of two or more years, when
the authority thinks they are sufficiently stocked to permit of it.
These beds supply spat for the private cultivators. The latter collect
the spat on tiles : these are made of earthenware and concave on
one side. One of the most important points in the system is the
coating of the tiles with lime. It is necessary to detach the young
oysters from the tiles when they are nearly a year old (dctroquage) :
this could not be done without destroying the oysters if they were
attached directly to the surface of the tile. The coating of lime or
mortar is soft and brittle, and consequently the young oysters can
easily be detached with a stout knife. The method of liming the
tiles (chaulage) consists in dipping them into a liquid mixture of
lime and water. Sometimes lime only is used, sometimes equal
quantities of lime and sand, or lime and mud. Often it is necessary
to repeat the dipping, and for the second coat hydraulic lime may
be employed.
The tiles coated with lime are set out on the shore near the low-
water mark of spring tides, at the beginning of the spatting season.
This is earlier in the south of France than in England : at Arcachon
the collectors are put in position about the middle of June. Various
methods are adopted for keeping the tiles in place and for arranging
them in the position most favourable to the collection of spat. At
Arcachon they are arranged in piles each layer being transverse to
the one below, so that the space formed by the concavity of the
tile is kept open. A wooden frame- work often surrounds the heap
of tiles to prevent them being scattered by the waves.
In the following season, about April, the young oysters, then
from i to I in. in diameter, are separated or dilroques. They may
then be placed in oyster cases (caisses ostreophiles) or in shallow
ponds (claires) made on the fore-shore. The cases are about 8 in.
deep, made with a wooden frame-work, and galvanized wire netting
top and bottorn, the lid being hinged. These cases about 8 ft. by
4 ft. in dimensions are fixed on the fore-shore by means of short
posts driven into the ground, so that they are raised about 9 in.
or I ft. from the latter. The young oysters grow rapidly in these
cases, and have to be thinned out as they grow larger. When they
have been in the boxes a year they arc large enough to be placed
in the claires or simply scattere<l along the fore-shore.
In Brittany the chief seat of oyster production is the gulf of
Morbihan, where the estuaries of numerous small rivers furnish
fore-shores suitable to the industry. Here the prevalence of mud
is one of the chief obstacles, and for this reason the tile-collectors
are usually fastened together by wiie and suspended to posts (tuiles
en bouquets). The collectors are not set out before the middle of
July. The natural beds from which the supply of spat is derived
are reserved, but apparently are insufficiently protected, so that
much poaching goes on.
These two regions of production, Arcachon and Morbihan supply
young oysters for " relaying," i.e. rearing, not only to numerous
places on the coast of France, but also to England, Ireland and
elsewhere. Among rearing districts Marennes and La Tremblad"
are specially celebrated on account of the extensive system of
claires or oyster ponds, in which the green oysters so much prized
in Paris are produced. The irrigation of the claires is entirely under
control, and the claires undergo a special preparation for the pro-
duction of the green oysters, whose colour seems to be derived from
a species of Diatom which abounds in the claires.
In Holland the French system of oyster-culture is followed in the
estuary of the Scheldt, with some modifications in detail. The tiles
used are flat and heavy, and are placed on the foreshores in an
oblique position resting on their edges and against each other. The
tiles with the young oysters on them are placed in enclosures
during the winter, and delroquage is carried out in the following
summer.
In England the use of tiles has been tried on various occasions,
in Cornwall on the river Fal, at Hayling Island and in Essex, but
has nowhere become permanently established. The reasons for this
are that the fall of spat is not usually very abundant, and the kind
of labour required cannot be obtained at a sufficiently cheap rate.
In many places oysters are simply imported from France and
Holland and laid down to grow, or are obtained by dredging from
open grounds. At VVhitstable most of the stock is thus obtained,
but cultch (i.e. dead shells) is here and elsewhere scattered over the
ground to serve for the attachment of spat. The use of cultch as
collector is a very ancient practice in England, and is still almost
universally maintained. In the estuaries of Essex there are many
private or semi-private oyster fisheries, where the method of culture
is to dredge up the oysters in autumn and place them in pits, where
they are sorted out, and the suitable ones are selected for the market.'
Just before the close season the young oysters and all the rest that
remain are scattered over the beds again, with quantities of cultch,
and in many cases the fishery is maintained by the local fall of spat,
without importation. In some places where the ground is suitable
cultch is spread over the foreshores also to collect spat. The
genuine English " native " is produced in its greatest perfection in
the Essex fisheries, and is probably the highest priced oyster in the
world.
In addition to the literature quoted see also the following: Rap-
port sur les recherches concernanl I'huttre et I' ostreiculture pnblie par
la Commission de la Soctete Neerlandaise de Zoologie (Leiden, 1883-
1884); P. Brocchi, Traite de I' ostreiculture (Paris, 1883); Bashford
Dean, European Oyster Culture, Bulletin U.S. Fish Commission,
vol. X. for 1890, vol. xi. for 1891 ; J. T. Cunningham, Report of the
Lecturer on Fishery Subjects, in Report of Technical Instruction
Committee of Cornwall (1899, 1900). (G. B. G. ; J. T. C.)
OYSTER BAY, a township of Nassau (formerly of Queens)
county. New York, on Long Island, about 25 m. E.N.E. of Long
Island City. Pop. (1890) 13,870, (1900) 16,334; (1910 census)
21,802. The township reaches from N. to S. across the island
(here about 20 m. wide) in the shape of a rough wedge, the
larger end being on Long Island Sound at the N.; on the
northern shore is the tripartite Oyster Bay, whose western arm
is Mill Neck creek, whose central branch is Oyster Bay harbor,
and whose easternmost arm, called Cold Spring harbor, separates
the township of Oyster Bay from the township of Huntington.
On the south side of the township is South Oyster bay, immedi-
ately east of the main body of the Great South bay; and between
South Oyster Bay and the ocean lie several island beaches, the
smaller and northernmost ones being marshy, and the southern,
Jones or Seaford beach, being sandy and having on the ocean
side the Zach's inlet and Jones Beach life-saving stations.
The township is served by four branches of the Long Island
railway; the Oyster Bay branch of the north shore to the village
of Sea Cliff (incorporated in 1883; pop. 1910, 1694), on the E.
side of Hempstead harbor, to Glen Cove, a large unincorporated
village, immediately N.E. of Sea Cliff, to Locust Valley and to
Mill Neck farther E., and to the village of Oyster Bay, the
terminus of the branch, on Oyster Bay harbor; the Wading
428
OYSTER-CATCHER
River branch to Hicksville and to Syosset; a third branch to
Farmingdale, which also has direct communication by railway
with Hicksville; and the Montauk division to Massapequa,
in the south-western part of the township on Massapequa Lake
and Massapequa Creek, which empties into South Oyster Bay.
The villages served by the railway are the only important
settlements; those on the hilly north shore are residential. To
the north of the village of Oyster Bay, on a long peninsular
beach called Centre Island, are the headquarters of the Sea-
wanhaka Yacht Club; and to the east of the same viUage,
especiaUy on Cove Neck, between Oyster Bay Harbor and Cold
Spring Harbor, are many summer residences with fine grounds.
Massapequa, on the south shore, is a residential summer resort.
The villages of Hicksville and Farmingdale are rural; the former
has many German settlers. Jericho, N.E. of Hicksville, is a
stronghold of the Hicksite Quakers, who are mostly wealthy
landowners. In Locust Valley is Friends' .Academy (1876), a
secondary school for boys and girls. There are a few truck farms
in the township, potatoes, cabbages and cucumbers for pickhng
being the principal crops; " Oyster Bay asparagus " was once
a famous crop. Oysters are cultivated on the Sound Shore and
there are clam beds in Oyster Bay and South Oyster Bay. In
the village of Glen Cove there is a large leather-belting factory.
David Pieterssen de Vries, in his Voyages from Holland to
America, makes the first mention of Oyster Bay Harbor, which
he explored in June 1639. In the same month Matthew Sinder-
land (or Sunderland) bought from James Forrett, deputy of
William Alexander, earl of Stirling, " two httle necks of land,
the one upon the east side of Oyster Bay Harbor "; but Sinder-
land made no settlement. A settlement from Lynn, Mass., was
attempted in 1640 but was prevented by Governor William
Kieft. By the treaty signed at Hartford, Connecticut, on the
29th of September 1650 by the Commissioners of the United
colonies of New England and those of New Netherland all land
east of the west side of Oyster Bay was granted to the Enghsh,
and all land west to the Dutch; but the Dutch placed Oyster
Bay, according to a letter of Pieter Stuyvesant written in 1659,
two and a half leagues farther east than the New Englanders
did. In 1653 an Indian deed granted land at Oyster Bay to
Peter Wright and others of Salem and Sandwich, Mass.,
who made a permanent settlement here; in 1663 another sale
was made to Captain John Underbill (d. 1672), who first went to
Long Island about 1653, when he led a force which fought the
only important engagement ever fought with the Indians on
Long Island, in which the colonists destroyed the fortification
at Fort Neck near the present Massapequa, of Tackapousha,
chief of the Massapequas, an Algonquian tribe, whose name
meant " great pond." Oyster Bay was for a time closely
connected poUtically with New Haven, but in 1664 with the
remainder of Long Island it came under the New York govern-
ment of Richard NicoUs, to whose success Underbill had largely
contributed by undermining Dutch influence on Long Island.
In 16S9 a Friends' meeting-house was built at Jericho, the home
of Elias Hicks, near the present Hicksville, the site of which was
owned by his family and which was named in his honour; and
the Dutch buUt their first church in Oyster Bay in 1732. The
harbour of Oyster Bay was a famous smugghng place at the
close of the 17th century, when there was a customs house here.
The first settlement on the " south side " of the township was
made about 1693, when the Massapequa Indians sold 6000 acres
at Fort Neck to Thomas Townsend, and his son-in-law Thomas
Jones (1665-1713), who had fought for James II. at Boyne and
Aghrim, who became a high sheriff of Queen's county in 1704,
and who was the founder of the family of Jones and Floyd-
Jones, whose seat was Tryon Hall (built at South Oyster Bay,
now Massapequa, in 1770); Thomas Jones (1731-1792), grand-
son of the first Thomas Jones, was a prominent Loyalist
during the War of Independence and wrote a valuable History
of New York during the Revolutionary War, first pubhshed in 1879.
OYSTER-CATCHER, a bird's name which does not seem to
occur in books until 1731, when M. Catesby {Nat. Hist. Carolina,
i. p. 85) used it for a species which he observed to be abundant
on the oyster-banks left bare at low water in the rivers of Carohna,
and beheved to feed principally upon those molluscs. In 1776
T. Pennant apphed the name to the allied British species, which
he and for nearly two hundred years many other English writers
had called the " Sea-Pie." The change, in spite of the misnomer
— for, whatever may be the case elsewhere, in England the bird
does not feed upon oysters — met with general approval, and the
new name has, at least in books, almost whoUy replaced what
seems to have been the older one.' The Oyster-catcher of
Europe is the Haematopus- oslralegus or Linnaeus, belonging
to the group now called Limicolae, and is generally included in
the family Charadriidae; though some writers have placed it in
one of its own, Haemalopodidae, chiefly on account of its peculiar
bill — a long thin wedge, ending in a vertical edge. Its feet
also are much more fleshy than are generally seen in the Plover
family. In its strongly-contrasted plumage of black and white,
with a coral-coloured bill, the Oyster-catcher is one of the most
conspicuous birds of the European coasts, and in many parts
is still very common. It is nearly always seen paired, though
the pairs collect in prodigious flocks; and, when these are broken
up, its shrill but musical cry of " tu-lup," " tu-lup," somewhat
pettishly repeated, helps to draw attention to it. Its wariness,
however, is very marveUous, and even at the breeding-season,
when most birds throw ofiF their shyness, it is not easily approached
within ordinary gunshot distance. The hen-bird commonly
lays three clay-coloured eggs, blotched with black, in a very
slight hollow on the ground not far from the sea. As incubation
goes on the hollow is somewhat deepened, and perhaps some
haulm is added to its edge, so that at last a very fair nest is the
result. The young, as in all Limicolae, are at first clothed in
down, so mottled in colour as closely to resemble the shingle
to which, if they be not hatched upon it, they are almost imme-
diately taken by their parents, and there, on the slightest alarm,
they squat close to elude observation. This species occurs
on the British coasts (very seldom straying inland) all the year
round; but there is some reason to think that those we have in
winter are natives of more northern latitudes, while our home-
bred birds leave us. It ranges from Iceland to the shores of
the Red Sea, and hves chiefly on marine worms, Crustacea and
such moUuscs as it is able to obtain. It is commonly supposed
to be capable of prizing Hmpets from their rock, and of opening
the shells of mussels; but, though undoubtedly it feeds on both,
further evidence as to the way in which it procures them is
desirable. J. E. Harting informed the present writer that the
bird seems to lay its head sideways on the ground, and then,
grasping the limpet's shell close to the rock between the
mandibles, use them as scissor-blades to cut off the mollusc
from its sticking-place. The Oyster-catcher is not highly
esteemed as a bird for the table.
Differing from this species in the possession of a longer bill,
in having much less white on its back, in the paler colour of its
mantle, and in a few other points, is the ordinary American
species, with at least three races, Haematopus palliatus. Except
that its call-note, judging from description, is unlike that of the
European bird, the habits of the two seem to be perfectly similar;
and the same may be said indeed of all the other species. The
Falkland Islands are frequented by a third, H. leucopus, very
similar to the first, but with a black wing-lining and paler legs,
while the AustraUan Region possesses a fourth, H. longirostris,
with a very long bill as its name intimates, and no white on its
' It seems, however, very possible, judging from its equivalents in
other European languages, such as the Frisian Oestervisscher, the
German Augsterman, Austernfischer, and the like, that the name
" Oyster-catcher " may have been not a colonial invention but
indigenous to the mother-country, though it had not found its way
into print before. The French Huitrier, however, appears to be a
word coined by Brisson. " Sea-Pie " has its analogues in the French
Pie-de-Mer, the German Meerelster, Seeelster, and so forth.
- Whether it be the Haematopus, whose name is found in some
editions of Pliny (lib. x. cap. 47) is at best doubtful. Other editions
have Himantopus; but Hardouin prefers the former reading. Both
words have passed into modern ornithology, the latter as the generic
name of the Stilt {q.v.) ; and some writers have blended the two in
the strange and impossible compound Haemantopus.
OYSTERMOUTH— OZIERI
429
primaries. China, Japan and possibly eastern Asia in general
have an Oyster-catcher which seems to be intermediate between
the last and the first. This has received the name of H. osculans;
but doubts have been expressed as to its deserving specific
recognition. Then we have a group of species in which the
plumage is whoUy or almost wholly black, and among them
only do we find birds that fulfil the implication of the scientific
name of the genus by having feet that may be caUed blood-red.
H. nigcr, which frequents both coasts of the northern Pacific,
has, it is true, yellow legs, but towards the extremity of South
America its place is taken by H. akr, in which they are bright
red, and this bird is further remarkable for its laterally com-
pressed and much upturned bill. The South African H. capcnsis
has also scarlet legs; but in the otherwise very similar bird of
Australia and New Zealand, H. unicolor, these members are of a
pale brick-colour. (A. N.)
OYSTERMOUTH, or The Mumbles, an urban district and
seaside resort in the Gower division of Glamorganshire, south
Wales, situated on the western bend of Swansea Bay, 45 m. S.W.
of Swansea, with which it is connected by the steam-tramway
of the Swansea and Mumbles Railway Company, constructed
in 1804. The London and North-Western railway has also a
station at Mumbles Road, 2\ m. N. of Oystermouth. Pop.
(1901) 4461. The castle, which belongs to the duke of Beaufort
as lord of the seigniory of Gower, is an imposing ruin, nobly
situated on a rocky knoll overlooking the bay. Its great hall
and chapel with their traceried Gothic windows are fairly well
preserved. The earhest structure (probably only a " peel "
tower), built in the opening years of the 12th century, probably
by Maurice de Londres, was destroyed by the Welsh in 12 15.
The early English features of the square keep indicate that it
was soon rebuilt, by one of the De Breos lords (see Gower).
In 1 284 Edward I. stayed here two days as the guest of William
de Breos, and from that time on it became the chief residence
in Gower of the lords seignior and subsequently of their stewards,
and their chancery was located here till its abolition in 1535.
The parish church, which has an embattled tower, was restored
in i860, when fragments of Roman tesselated pavement were
found in various parts of the churchyard. Roman coins were
also found in the village in 1822 and 1837 — all indicating that
there had been a small settlement here in Roman times. The
name of the castle appears in the Welsh chronicles as Ystum
Llwynarth, which, by the elision of the penultimate, was probably
changed by false analogy into Oystermouth — the bay being
noted for its oyster beds. Its church is mentioned in the cartulary
of Gloucester (1141) as Ostrenuwe.
The village itself is straggling and uninteresting, but the
high ground between it and the pretty bays of Langland and
Caswell on the southern side of the headland fronting the open
channel is dotted with well-built villas and commands magnificent
views. The headland terminates in two rocky islands, which
to sailors coming up the channel would appear like the breasts
of " mammals," whence the comparatively modern name, The
Mumbles, is supposed to be derived. On the outer of these rocks
is a lighthouse erected in 1794 and maintained by the Swansea
Harbour Trust. The district is rapidly increasing in popularity
as a seaside resort. A pier was erected by the Mumbles Railway
Company at a cost of £12,000 in i8g8. The fishing industry,
once prosperous, has much diminished in importance, but there
are still oyster-beds in the bay.
OZANAM, ANTOINE FR6d6rIC (1813-1853), French scholar,
was born at Milan on the 23rd of April 1813. His family, which
was of Jewish extraction, had been settled in the Lyonnais for
many centuries, and had reached distinction in the third genera-
tion before Frederic through Jacques Ozanam (1640-1717), an
eminent mathematician. Ozanam's father, Antoine, served in
the armies of the republic, but betook himself, on the advent of
the empire, to trade, teaching, and finally medicine. The boy
was brought up at Lyons and was strongly influenced by one of
his masters, the Abbe Noirot. His conservative and religious
instincts showed themselves early, and he published a pamphlet
against Saint-Simonianism in 1831, which attracted the attention
of Lamartine. In the following year he was sent to study law
at Paris, where he fell in with the Ampere family, and through
them with Chateaubriand, Lacordaire, Montalembert, and other
leaders of the neo-Catholic movement. Whilst still a student
he took up journalism and contributed considerably to Bailly's
Tribune catholiquc, which became (November i, 1833) L'uni-
vers. In conjunction with other young men he founded in May
1833 the celebrated charitable society of St Vincent de Paul,
which numbered before his death upwards of two thousand
members. He received the degree of doctor of law in 1836, and
in 1S38 that of doctor of letters with a thesis on Dante, which
was the beginning of one of his best-known books. A year later
he was appointed to a professorship of commercial law at Lyons,
and in 1840 assistant professor of foreign literature at the
Sorbonne. He married in June 1841, and visited Italy on his
wedding tour. At Fauriel's death in 1844 he succeeded to the
full professorship of foreign hterature. The short remainder of
his life was extremely busy with his professorial duties, his
extensive literary occupations, and the work, which he still
continued, of district-visiting as a member of the society of St
Vincent de Paul. During the revolution of 1S48, of which he
took an unduly sanguine view, he once more turned journalist
for a short time in the Ere nouvellc and other papers. He
travelled extensively, and was in England at the time of the
Exhibition of 1851. His naturally weak constitution fell a prey
to consumption, which he hoped to cure by visiting Italy, but he
died on his return at Marseilles on the 8th of September 1853.
Ozanam was the leading historical and literary critic in the
neo-Cathohc movement in France during the first half of the
19th century. He was more learned, more sincere, and more
logical than Chateaubriand; less of a political partisan and less
of a literary sentimentalist than Montalembert. In contem-
porary movements he was an earnest and conscientious advocate
of Cathohc democracy and socialism and of the view that the
church should adapt itself to the changed pohtical conditions
consequent to the Revolution. In his writings he dwelt upon
important contributions of historical Christianity, and main-
tained especially that, in continuing the work of the Caesars, the
Catholic church had been the most potent factor in civiKzing the
invading barbarians and in organizing the life of the middle ages.
He confessed that his object was " to prove the contrary thesis
to Gibbon's," and, although any historian who begins with the
desire to prove a thesis is quite sure to go more or less wrong,
Ozanam no doubt administered a healthful antidote to the
prevalent notion, particularly amongst English-speaking peoples,
that the Catholic church had done far more to enslave than to
elevate the human mind. His knowledge of medieval hterature
and his appreciative sympathy with medieval life admirably
qualified him for his work, and his scholarly attainments are still
highly esteemed.
His works were published in eleven volumes (Paris, 1862-1865).
They include Deux chanceliers d'Angleterre, Bacon de Verulam et
Saint Thomas de Cantorbery (Paris, 1836); Dante et la philosophic
catholique an XIII'""! si'ecle (Paris, 1839; 2nd ed., enlarged 1845);
Etudes germaniqiics (2 vols., Paris, 1847-1849), translated by A. C.
Glyn as History of Civilization in the Fifth Century (London, 1868);
Documents incdits pour servir i I'histoire de I' Italic depuis Ic Vllleme
si'ccte jusqu'au Xlleme (Paris, 1850); Les poetes franciscains en
Italic au XIII'"'' si'ecle (Paris, 1852). His letters have been partially
translated into English by A. Coates (London, 1886).
There are French lives of Ozanam by his brother, C. A. Ozanam
(Paris, 1882); Mme. E. Humbert (Paris, 1880); C. Huit (Paris.
1882); M. de Lambel (Paris, 1887); L. Curnier (Paris, 1888): and
B. Faulquier (Paris, 1903). German lives by F. X. Karker (Pader-
born, 1867) and E. Hardy (Mainz, 1878); and an interesting English
biography by Miss K. O'Meara (Edinburgh, 1867; 2nd ed., London,
1878). (C. H. Ha.)
OZIERI, a town of Sardinia in the province of Sassari, from
which it is 34 m. E.S.E. by rail. Pop. (1901) 9555. It is situated
1280 ft. above sea-level on a steep slope, but faces north, and so is
not very healthy. In the centre of the town is a square with
a fine fountain of 1594. The cathedral was restored in 1S4S; it
is the seat of the diocese of Bisarcio. The former cathedral of this
diocese Hes some distance to the N.W. ; it is a fine Romanesque
building of the 12th and 13th centuries. The district of Ozieri
430
OZOKERITE— OZONE
is famous for its butter — the only butter made in Sardinia —
cheese and other pastoral products; cattle are also bred here.
See D. Scano, Sloria dell' arte in Sardegna dal xi. al xiv. secolo
(Cagliari-Sassari, 1907), p. 200.
OZOKERITE, or Ozocerite (Gr. oleiv, to emit odour, and
KTjpos, wax), mineral wax, a combustible mineral, which may be
designated as crude native paraffin (q.v.), found in many localities
in varying degrees of purity. Specimens have been obtained
from Scotland, Northumberland and Wales, as well as from
about thirty different countries. Of these occurrences the
ozokerite of the island of Tcheleken, near Baku, and the deposits
of Utah, U.S.A., deserve mention, though the last-named have
been largely worked out. The sole sources of commercial supply
are in Galicia, at Boryslaw, Dzwiniacz and Starunia, though the
mineral is found at other points on both flanks of the Carpathians.
Ozokerite-deposits are believed to have originated in much the
same way as mineral veins, the slow evaporation and oxidation of
petroleum having resulted in the deposition of its dissolved
paraffin in the fissures and crevices previously occupied by the
liquid. As found native, ozokerite varies from a very soft wax
to a black mass as hard as gypsum. Its specific gravity ranges
from -85 to -95, and its melting point from 58° to 100° C. It is
soluble in ether, petroleum, benzene, turpentine, chloroform,
carbon bisulphide, &c. Galician ozokerite varies in colour from
light yellow to dark brown, and frequently appears green owing
to dichroism. It usually melts at 62° C. Chemically, ozokerite
consists of a mixture of various hydrocarbons, containing 85-7%
by weight of carbon and 14-3% of hydrogen.
The mining of ozokerite was formerly carried on in Galicia by
means of hand-labour, but in the modern ozokerite mines
owned by the Boryslaw Actien Gesellschaft and the Galizische
Kreditbank, the workings of which extend to a depth of 200
metres, and 225 metres respectively, electrical power is employed
for hauUng, pumping and ventilating. In these mines there
are the usual main shafts and galleries, the ozokerite being
reached by levels driven along the strike of the deposit. The wax,
as it reaches the surface, varies in purity, and, in new workings
especially, only hand-picking is needed to separate the pure
material. In other cases much earthy matter is nii.xed with the
material, and then the rock or shale having been eliminated by
hand-picking, the " wax-stone " is boiled with water in large
coppers, when the pure wax rises to the surface. This is again
melted without water, and the impurities are skimmed off, the
material being then run into slightly conical cylindrical moulds
and thus made into blocks for the market. The crude ozokerite
is refined by treatment first with Nordhausen oil of vitriol, and
subsequently with charcoal, when the ceresine or cerasin of
commerce is obtained. The refined ozokerite or ceresine, which
usually has a melting-point of 6i° to 78° C, is largely used as an
adulterant of beeswax, and is frequently coloured artificially to
resemble that product in appearance.
On distillation in a current of superheated steam, ozokerite
yields a candle-making material resembling the paraffin obtained
from petroleum and shale-oil but of higher melting-point, and
therefore of greater value if the candles made from it are to be
used in hot climates. There are also obtained in the distillation
light oils and a product resembling vaseKne {q.v.). The residue
in the stills consists of a hard, black, waxy substance, which in
admixture with india-rubber is employed under the name of
okonite as anelectrical insulator. From theresidue a form of the
material known as heel-ball, used to impart a polished surface to
the heels and soles of boots, is also manufactured.
According to published statistics, the output of crude ozokerite
in Galicia in 1906 and 1907 was as follows :
1906. 1907.
District. Metric Tons. Metric Tons.
Boryslaw . . 2,205 2,240
Dzwiniacz . 260 270
Starunia . , 210 135 (B. R.)
OZONE, allotropic oxygen, O3. The first recorded observations
of the substance are due to Van Marum (1785), who found that
oxygen gas through which a stream of electric sparks had
been passed, tarnished mercury and emitted a pecuhar smell.
In 1840 C. F. Schonbein {Pogg. Ann. 50, p. 616) showed that
this substance was also present in the oxygen liberated during
the electrolysis of acidulated water, and gave it the name
ozone (Gr. o^uv, to smell). Ozone mixed with an excess of
oxygen is obtained by submitting dry oxygen to the silent
electric discharge [at the temperature of liquid air, E. Briner
and E. Durand {Comples rendus, 1907, 14s, P- 1272) obtained
a 90% yield]; by the action of fluorine on water at 0° C.
(H. Moissan, Comptes rendus, 1899, 129, p. 570); by the action
of concentrated sulphuric acid or barium peroxide or on
other peroxides and salts of peracids (A. v. Baeyer and V.
Villiger, Ber. 1901, 34, p. 355); by passing oxygen over
some heated metallic oxides, and by distOhng potassium per-
manganate with concentrated sulphuric acid in vacuo. It is
also formed during many processes of slow oxidation. For a
description of the various forms of ozonizers used on the large
scale see N. Otto, Rev. gen. de chemie pure et appliquee, 1900,
ii. p. 405; W. Elworthy, Elekt. Zcits., 1904, ii. p. i), and H.
GuUleminot [Comptes rendus, 1903, 136, p. 1653). Ozone is
also produced by the action of cathode and ultra-violet rays
on oxygen. These methods of preparation give an ozone
diluted with a considerable amount of unaltered oxygen; A.
Ladenburg [Ber. 1898, 31, pp. 2508, 2830) succeeded in liquefy-
ing ozonized o.xygen with liquid air and then by fractional
evaporation obtained a hquid containing between 80 and
go% of ozone.
Ozone is a colourless gas which possesses a characteristic
smell. When strongly cooled it condenses to an indigo blue
liquid which is extremely explosive (see Liquid Gases). In
ozonizing oxygen the volume of the gas diminishes, but if the
gas be heated to about 300° C, it returns to its original volume
and is found to be nothing but oxygen. The same change of
ozone into oxygen may be brought about by contact with
platinum black and other substances. Ozone is only very slightly
soluble in water. It is a most powerful oxidizing agent, which
rapidly attacks organic matter (hence in preparing the gas,
rubber connexions must not be used, since they are instantly
destroyed), bleaches vegetable colouring matters and acts
rapidly on most metals. It liberates iodine from solutions of
potassium iodide, the reaction in neutral solution proceeding
thus: 03-f2KI + H,0 = Oo.-H2-f2KHO. whilst in acid solution
the decomposition takes the following course: 4O3-i-10HI =
5l2-fHj02-f4H20+302 (A. Ladenburg, Ber. 1901, 34, p. 1184).
Ozone is decomposed by some metallic oxides, with regeneration
of oxygen. It combines with many unsaturated carbon com-
pounds to form ozonides (C. Harries, Ber. 1904, 37, pp. 839
et seq.).
The constitution of ozone has been determined by J. L. Soret
(Ann. chim. pliys.. 1866 [4], 7, p. 113; 186S [4], 13, p. 257), who
showed that the diminution in volume when ozone is absorbed
from ozonized oxygen by means of oil of turpentine is twice as
great as the increase in volume observed when ozone is recon-
verted into oxygen on heating. This points to the gas possessing
the molecular formula O3. Confirmation was obtained by com-
paring the rate of diffusion of ozone with that of chlorine, which
gave 24-8 as the value for the density of ozone, consequently
the molecular formula must be O3 (cf. B. C. Brodie, Phil. Trans.,
1872, pt. ii. p. 435). More recently A. Ladenburg (Ber. 1901,
34, p. 631) has obtained as a mean value for the molecular
weight the number 47-78, which corresponds with the above
molecular formula. Ozone is used largely for sterilizing
water.
P— PACATUS DREPANIUS
431
PThe sixteenth letter of the English alphabet, the fifteenth
in the Latin and the sixteenth in the Greek alphabet, the
latter in its ordinary form having the symbol for x before
o. In the Phoenician alphabet, from which the Western
alphabets are directly or indirectly derived, its shape, written
from right to left, is 1. In the Greek alphabet, when written
from left to right, it takes the form P or Fl , the second form being
much rarer in inscriptions than the first. Only very rarely and
only in inscriptions of the 7th and 6th centuries B.C. are rounded
forms f, n found. In Italy the Etruscan and Umbrian form 'I
(written from right to left), though more angular than the
Phoenician symbol, resembles it more closely than it does the
Greek. The earliest Roman form — on the inscription found in
the Forum in 1899 — is Greek in shape 1, though the second leg
is barely visible. The Oscan Fl is identical with the rarer Greek
form. As time goes on the Roman form becomes more and more
rounded P,but not till Imperial times is the semicircle completed
so as to form the symbol in the shape which it still retains P.
The Semitic name Pe became in Greek ttsT, and has in the course
of ages changed but little. The sound of p throughout has been
that of the breathed labial stop, as in the English pin. At the
end of English words Uke Up the breath is audible after the
consonant, so that the sound is rather that of the ancient Greek
4>, i.e. p-h, not /, as <^ is ordinarily now pronounced. This sound
is found initially also in some dialects of English, as in the Irish
pronunciation of pig as p-hig. For a remarkable interchange
between p and qu sounds which is found in many languages, see
under Q. (P. Gi.)
PAARL, a town of the Cape Province, South Africa, 36 m. by
rail E.N.E. of Cape Town. Pop. (1904), 11,293. The town is
situated on the west bank of the Berg river, some 400 ft. above
the sea. It stands on the coast plain near the foot of the
Drakenstein mountains. West of the town the Paarl Berg rises
from the plain. The berg is crowned by three great granite
boulders, known as the Paarl, Britannia and Gordon Rock.
The town is beautifully situated amid gardens, orange groves
and vineyards. The chief public buUdings are the two Dutch
Reformed churches, the old church being a good specimen of
colonial Dutch architecture, with gables, curves and thatched
roof. Paarl is a thriving agricultural and viticultural centre,
among its industries being the manufacture of wine and brandy,
wagon and carriage building and harness making. South-east
of the town are granite quarries. The wines produced in the
district are among the best in South Africa, ranking second only
to those of Constantia.
The Paarl is one of the oldest European towns in South
Africa. It dates from 1687, the site for the new settlement being
chosen by the governor, Simon van der Stell. It was named
Paarl by the first settlers from the fancied resemblance of one
of the boulders on the top of the hill, when glistening in the sun,
to a gigantic pearl. Shortly afterwards several of the Huguenots
who had sought refuge at the Cape after the revocation of the
edict of Nantes were placed in the new settlement. The present
inhabitants are largely descended from these Huguenots.
PABIANICE, a town of Russian Poland, in the government of
Piotrkow, 30 m. N.W. of the town of Piotrkow, and 10 m. S.S.W.
from Lodz railway station. Pop. (1897), 18,251. It lies amidst
e.xtensive forests round the head-waters of the Ner, which were
the hunting-grounds of the Polish kings. It has woollen, cloth
and paper mills, and manufactures agricultural implements.
PABNA, or Pubna, a town and district of British India, in the
Rajshahi division of Eastern Bengal and Assam. The town is
situated on the river Ichhamati, near the old bed of the Ganges.
Pop. (1901), 18,424. The district of Pabna has an area of 1839
sq. m. Pop (1901), 1,420,461, showing an increase of 4-8% in
the decade. It is bordered along its entire east face by the main
stream of the Brahmaputra or Jamuna, and along its south-west
face by the Ganges or Padma. It is entirely of alluvial origin,
the silt of the annual inundations overlying strata of clay on
sand. Apart from the two great bordering rivers, it is inter-
sected by countless water-channels of varying magnitude, so
that during the rainy season every village is accessible by boat
and by boat only. Almost the whole area is one green rice-field,
the uniform level being broken only by clumps of bamboos and
fruit-trees, which conceal the village sites. The district is a
modern creation of British rule, being first formed out of Rajshahi
district in 1832, and possesses no history of its own. The two
staple crops are rice and jute. Sirajganj, on the Brahmaputra,
is the largest mart for jute in Bengal. The Eastern Bengal
railway cuts across the south-west corner of the district to Sara,
where a bridge crosses the Ganges. The district was affected
by the earthquake of the 12th of June 1897, which was most
severely felt at Sirajganj.
PABST, FREDERICK (1836-1904), American brewer, was born
at Nicholausreith, in Saxony, on the 28th of March 1836. In
1848 he emigrated with his parents to Chicago. There he
became, first a waiter in an hotel, then a cabin-boy on a Lake
Michigan steamer, and eventually captain of one of these vessels.
In this last capacity he made the acquaintance of a German,
Philip Best, the owner of a small but prosperous brewery at
Milwaukee, and married his daughter. In 1862 Pabst was
taken into partnership in his father-in-law's brewery, and set
himself to work to study the details of the business. After
obtaining a thorough mastery of the art of brewing, Pabet
turned his attention to extending the market for the beer, and
before long had raised the output of the Best brewery to 100,000
barrels a year. The brewery was eventually converted into a
public company, and its capital repeatedly increased in order to
cope with the continually increasing trade.
PACA, the Brazilian name for a large, heavily-built, short-
tailed rodent mammal, easily recognized by its spotted fur.
This rodent, Coelogenys (or Agouti) paca, together with one or
two other tropical American species, represents a genus near
akin to the agoutis and included in the family Caiiidae.
Pacas may be distinguished from agoutis by their heavier and
more compact buUd, the longitudinal rows of light spots on the
fur, the five-toed hind-feet, and the peculiar structure of the
skull, in which the cheek-bones are expanded to form large
capsules on the sides of the face, each enclosing a cavity opening
on the side of the cheek. Their habits are very similar to those
of agoutis, but when pursued they invariably take to the water.
The young, of which seldom more than one is produced at a birth,
remain in the burrows for several months. The flesh is eaten
in Brazil. Males may be distinguished from females by the skull,
in which the outer surface of the cheek-bones is roughened in the
former and smooth in the latter sex. The paca-rana {Dinomys
branicki), from the highlands of Peru, differs, among other
features, by its weU-developed tail and the arrangement of the
spots. (See Rodentia.)
PACATUS DREPANIUS. LATINUS (or Latinius), one of the
Latin panegyrists, flourished at the end of the 4th century a.d.
He probably came from Aginnum (Agen), in the south of France,
in the territory of the Nitiobriges, and received his education
in the rhetorical school of Burdigala (Bordeaux). He was the
contemporary and intimate friend of Ausonius, who dedicated
two of his minor works to Pacatus, and describes him as the
greatest Latin poet after Virgil. Pacatus attained the rank of
proconsul of Africa (a.d. 390) and held a confidential position
at the imperial court. He is the author of an extant speech
(ed. E. Bahrens in Panegyrici lalini, 1874, No. 12) delivered in
the senate house at Rome (389) in honour of Theodosius I. It
contains an account of the life and deeds of the emperor, the
special subject of congratulation being the complete defeat of
the usurper Ma.ximus. The speech is one of the best of its
432
PACCHIA AND PACCHIAROTTO— PACHISI
kind. Though not altogether free from exaggeration and
flattery, it is marked by considerable dignity and self-restraint,
and is thus more important as an historical document than
similar productions. The style is vivid, the language elegant
but comparatively simple, exhibiting famiharity with the best
classical literature. The writer of the panegyric must be dis-
tinguished from Drepanius Florus, deacon of Lyons (c. 850),
author of some Christian poems and prose theological works.
See M. Schanz, Ceschkhte der romischen Lilteratur (1904), iv. i.
PACCHIA, GIROLAMO DEL, and PACCHIAROTTO (or
Pacchiarotti), JACOPO, two painters of the Sienese school.
One or other of them produced some good pictures, which used
to pass as the performance of Perugino; reclaimed from Perugino,
they were assigned to Pacchiarotto; now it is sufficiently settled
that the good works are by G. del Pacchia, while nothing of
Pacchiarotto's own doing transcends mediocrity. The mythical
Pacchiarotto who worked actively at Fontainebleau has no
authenticity.
Girolamo del Pacchia, son of a Hungarian cannon-founder,
was born, probably in Siena, in 1477. Having joined a turbulent
club named the Bardotti he disappeared from Siena in 1535,
when the club was dispersed, and nothing of a later date is
known about him. His most celebrated work is a fresco of the
"Nativity of the Virgin," in the chapel of S Bernardino, Siena,
graceful and tender, with a certain artificiality. Another
renowned fresco, in the church of S Caterina, represents that
saint on her visit to St Agnes of Montepulciano, who, having
just expired, raises her foot by miracle. In the National Gallery
of London there is a " Virgin and Child." The forms of G. del
Pacchia are fuller than those of Perugino (his principal model
of style appears to have been in reahty Franciabigio) ; the
drawing is not always unexceptionable; the female heads have
sweetness and beauty of feature, and some of the colouring has
noticeable force.
Pacchiarotto was born in Siena in 1474. In 1530 he took part
in the conspiracy of the Libertini and Popolani, and in 1534 he
joined the Bardotti. He had to hide for his fife in 1535, and
was concealed by the Observantine fathers in a tomb in the
church of S Giovanni. He was stuffed in close to a new-buried
corpse, and got covered with vermin and dreadfully exhausted
by the close of the second day. After a while he resumed work;
he was exiled in 1539, but recalled in the following year, and in
that year or soon afterwards he died. Among the few extant
works with which he is still credited is an " Assumption of the
Virgin," in the Carmine of Siena. Other works rather dubiously
attributed to him are in Siena, Buonconvento, Florence, Rome
and London.
PACE, RICHARD (c. 1482-1536), English diplomatist, was
educated at Winchester under Thomas Langton, at Padua, at
Bologna, and probably at Oxford. In 1500 he went with
Cardinal Christopher Bainbridge, archbishop of York, to Rome,
where he won the esteem of Pope Leo X., who advised Henry
VIII. to take him into his service. The Enghsh king did so,
and in 151 5 Pace became his secretary and in 15 16 a secretary
of state. In 1515 Wolsey sent him to urge the Swiss to attack
France, and in 1519 he went to Germany to discuss with the
electors the impending election to the imperial throne. He was
made dean of St Paul's in 1519, and was also dean of Exeter
and dean of Sahsbury. He was present at the Field of the Cloth
of Gold in 1520, and in 1521 he went to Venice with the object
of winning the support of the republic for Wolsey, who was
anxious at this time to become pope. At the end of 1526 he was
recalled to England, and he died in 1536. His chief literary
work was Dejructu (Basel, 1517).
PACE (through O. Fr. pas, from Lat. passus, step, properly
the stretch of the leg in walking, from pandere, to stretch), one
movement of the leg in walking; hence used of the amount of
ground covered by each single movement, or generally of the
speed at which anything moves. The word is also used of a
measure of distance, taken from the position of one foot to that
of the other in making a single " pace," i.e. from 2\ ft. (the
military pace) to i yard. The Roman passus was reckoned
from the position of the back foot at the beginning of the pace
to the position of the same foot at the end of the movement,
i.e. 5 Roman feet, 58-1 English inches, hence the Roman mile,
}ni!le passus =1646 yards.
For pacing in horse-racing see Horse-racing.
PACHE, JEAN NICOLAS (1746-1823), French pohtician, was
born in Paris, of Swiss parentage, the son of the concierge of the
hotel of Marshal de Castries. He became tutor to the marshal's
children, and subsequently first secretary at the ministry of
marine, head of supplies {munilionnaire general des vivres), and
comptroUer of the king's household. After spending several
years in Switzerland with his family, he returned to France at
the beginning of the Revolution. He was employed successively
at the ministries of the interior and of war, and was appointed
on the 20th of September 1793 third deputy suppleant of Paris
by the Luxembourg section. Thus brought into notice, he was
made minister of war in the following October. Pache was a
Girondist himself, but aroused their hostility by his incompetence.
He was supported, however, by Marat, and when he was super-
seded in the ministry of war by Beurnonville (Feb. 4, 1794) he
was chosen mayor by the Parisians. In that capacity he con-
tributed to the fall of the Girondists, but his relations with Hebert
and Chaumette, and with the enemies of Robespierre led to his
arrest on the loth of May 1794. He owed his safety only to
the amnesty of the 25th of October 179s- After acting as
commissary to the civil hospitals of Paris in 1799, he retired
from pubhc life, and died at Thin-le-Moutier on the i8th of
November 1823.
See L. Pierquin, Memoires sur Pache ((Charleville, 1900).
PACHECO, FRANCISCO (1571-1654), Spanish painter and
art historian, was born at Seville in 1571. Favourable specimens
of his style are to be seen in the Madrid picture gallery, and also
in two churches at Alcala de Guadaira near Seville. He attained
great popularity, and about the beginning of the 17th century
opened an academy of painting which was largely attended.
Of his pupils by far the most distinguished was Velazquez,
who afterwards became his son-in-law. From about 1625
he gave up painting and betook himself to literary society and
pursuits; the most important of his works in this department
is a treatise on the art of painting {Arte de la pintura: su antigUe-
dad y grandeza, 1649), which is of considerable value for the
information it contains on matters relating to Spanish art. He
died in 1654.
PACHISI (Hindu pac/iis, twenty-five), the national table-game
of India. In the palace of Akbar at Fatehpur Sikri the court
of the zenana is divided into red and white squares, representing
a pachisi-board, and here Akbar played the game with his
courtiers, employing sixteen young slaves from his harem as
living pieces. This was also done by the emperors of Delhi in
their palace of Agra. A pachisi-board, which is usually em-
broidered on cloth, is marked with a cross of squares, each limb
consisting of three rows of 8 squares, placed around a centre
square. The outer rows each have ornaments on the fourth
square from the end and the middle rows one on the end
square, these ornamented squares forming " castles," in which
pieces are safe from capture. The castles are so placed that
from the centre square, or " home," whence all pieces start
going down the middle row and back on the outside and then to
the end of the next hmb, will be exactly 25 squares, whence the
name. Four players, generally two on a side, take part. The
pieces, of which each player has four, are coloured yellow, green,
red and black, and are entered, one at a time, from the centre and
move down the middle row, then round the entire board and up
the middle row again to the home square. The moves are
regulated by six cowrie shells, which are thrown by hand down a
slight incline. The throws indicate the number of squares a
piece may move, as well as whether the player shall have a
" grace," without which no piece, if taken, may be re-entered.
A piece may be taken if another piece lands on the same square,
unless the square be a castle. The object of each side is to
PACHMANN— PACIFIC BLOCKADE
433
get all eight pieces round and home before the opponents can
do so.
Sec Games, Ancient and Oriental, by E. Falkner (London, 1892).
PACHMANN, VLADIMIR DE (1848- ), Russian pianist,
was born at Odessa, where his father was a professor at the
university. He was educated in music at Vienna, and from
1869 to 1S82 only rarely performed in public, being engaged in
the meanwhile in assiduous study. He then obtained the
greatest success, particularly as a player of Chopin, his brilliance
of execution and rendering being no less remarkable than the
playfulness of his platform manner.
PACHMARHI, a hill-station and sanatorium for British troops
in the Central Provinces of India. Pop. (igoi), 3020, rising to
double that number in the season. It is situated at a height
of 3500 ft. on a plateau of the Satpura hills in Hoshangabad
district, 32 m. by road from Piparia station on the Great Indian
Peninsula railway. Though not free from fever in the hot season,
it affords the best available retreat for the Central Provinces.
PACHOMIUS, ST (292-346), Egyptian monk, the founder of
Christian cenobitical life, was born, probably in 292, at Esna
in Upper Egypt, of heathen parents. He served as a conscript
in one of Constantine's campaigns, and on his return became a
Christian (314); he at once went to live an eremitical life near
Dendera by the Nile, putting himself under the guidance of an
aged hermit. After three or four years he was called (by an
angel, says the legend) to establish a monastery of cenobites, or
monks living in common (see Monasticism, § 4). Pachomius
spent his life in organizing and directing the great order he had
created, which at his death included nine monasteries with some
three thousand monks and a nunnery. The order was called
Tabennesiot, from Tabennisi, near Dendera, the site of the first
monastery. The most vivid account of the life and primitive
rule is that given by Palladius in the Lausiac History, as witnessed
by him (c. 410). Difficulties arose between Pachomius and the
neighbouring bishops, which had to be composed at a synod at
Esna. But St Alhanasius was his firm friend and visited his
monastery c. 330 and at a later period. Pachomius died
(probably) in 346.
The best modern work on Pachomius is by P. Ladeuze, Le Ceno-
bitisme pakhomien (1898). There have been differences of opinion
in regard to the dates; those given above are Ladeuze's, now
commonly accepted. The priority of the Greek Life of Pachomius
over the Coptic may be said to be established; the historical charac-
ter and value of this life are now fully recognized. A good ana-
lysis of all the literature is supplied in Herzog's Realencvklopddie
(ed. 3). (E.'C. B.)
PACHUCA, a city of Mexico and capital of the state of
Hidalgo, 55 m. direct and 68 m. by rail N.N.E. of the city of
Mexico. Pop. (1900), 37,487. Pachuca's railway connexions
include the Mexican, the Hidalgo and the Mexican Oriental,
besides which it has 5 m. of tramway line. The town stands
in a valley of an inland range of the Sierra Madre Oriental,
at an elevation over 8000 ft. above the sea, and in the midst of
several very rich mineral districts — Atatonileo el Chico, Capula,
Potosi, Real del Monte, Santa Rosa and Tepenene. It is said
that some of these silver mines were known to the Indians before
the discovery of America. Pachuca has some fine modern
edifices, among which are the palace of justice, a scientific and
literary institute, a school of mines and metallurgy, founded in
1877, a meteorological observatory and a pubhc library. Mining
is the chief occupation of its inhabitants, of whom about 7000
are employed underground. Electric power is derived from the
Regla Falls, in the vicinity. The city's industrial establishments
include smelting works and a large number of reduction works,
among which are some of the largest and most important in
the repubhc. It was here that Bartolome de Medina discovered
the " patio " process of reducing silver ores with quicksilver in
ISS7, and his old hacienda de bcneficio is still to be seen. Pachuca
was founded in 1534, some time after the mines were discovered.
Here Pedro Romero de Terreros made the fortune in 1739 that
enabled him to present a man-of-war to Spain and gain the title
of Count of Regla. Pachuca was sacked in 1812, and so keen
was the desire to possess its sources of wealth, in common with
other mining towns, that mining operations were partially
suspended for a time and the mines were greatly damaged.
In 1824 the Real del Monte mines were sold to an English
company and became the centre of a remarkable mining specula-
tion — the company ruining itself with lavish expenditures and
discontinuing work in 1848. The mines in 1909 belonged to an
American company.
PACHYMERES. GEORGIUS (1242-c. 1310), Byzantine histo-
rian and miscellaneous writer, was born at Nicaea, in Bithynia,
where his father had taken refuge after the capture of Con-
stantinople by the Latins in 1204. On their expulsion by
Michael Palaeologus in 1261 Pachymeres settled in Constanti-
nople, studied law, entered the church, and subsequently became
chief advocate of the church (npo>T(KOiKos) and chief justice
of the imperial court (5LKato4>v\a^). His literary activity was
considerable, his most important work being a Byzantine
history in 13 books, in continuation of that of Georgius Acropo-
lita from 1261 (or rather 1255) to 1308, containing the history
of the reigns of Michael and Andronicus Palaeologi. He was
also the author of rhetorical exercises on hackneyecl sophistical
themes; of a Quadriviiim (Arithmetic, Music, Geometry, Astro-
nomy), valuable for the history of music and astronomy in the
middle ages; a general sketch of Aristotelian philosophy; a
paraphrase of the speeches and letters of Dionysius Areopagita;
poems, including an autobiography; and a description of the
Augusteum, the column erected by Justinian in the church of
St Sophia to commemorate his victories over the Persians.
The History has been edited by I. Bekker (1835) in the Corpus
scriptorum hist, byzantinae, also in J. P. Migne, Patrologia graeca.
cxliii., cxliv. ; for editions of the minor works see C. Krumbacher,
Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur (1897).
PACIFIC BLOCKADE, a term invented by Hautefeuille, the
French writer on International Maritime Law, to describe a
blockade exercised by a great power for the purpose of bringing
pressure to bear on a weaker state without actual war. That it
is an act of violence, and therefore in the nature of war, is undeni-
able, seeing that it can only be employed as a measure of coercion
by maritime powers able to bring into action such vastly superior
forces to those the resisting state can dispose of that resistance
is out of the question. In this respect it is an act of war, and
any attempt to exercise it against a power strong enough to
resist would be a commencement of hostilities, and at once bring
into play the rights and duties affecting neutrals. On the other
hand, the object and justification of a pacific blockade being to
avoid war, that is general hostihties and disturbance of inter-
national traffic with the state against which the operation is
carried on, rights of war cannot consistently be exercised against
ships belonging to other states than those concerned. And yet,
if neutrals were not to be affected by it, the coercive effect of
such a blockade might be completely lost. Recent practice has
been to limit interference with them to the extent barely neces-
sary to carry out the purpose of the blockading powers.'
It is usual to refer to the intervention of France, England and
Russia in Turkish aft'airs in 1S27 as the first occasion on which
the coercive value of pacific blockades was put to the test.
Neutral vessels were not affected by it. This was followed by a
number of other coercive measures described in the textbooks
as pacific blockades. The first case, however, in which the
operation was really a blockade, unaccompanied by hostilities,
and which therefore can be properly called a " pacific blockade,"
was that which in 1837 Great Britain exercised against New
Granada. A British subject and consul of the name of Russell
was accused of stabbing a native of the country in a street brawl.
He was arrested, and after being kept in detention for some
months he was tried for the unlawful carrying of arms and
' There is always the alternative of making the blockade an act
of war. This was done in 1902-3, when Great Britain, Germany
and Italy proclaimed a blockade of certain ports of Venezuela and
the mouths of the Orinoco. The blockade in this case was not
pacific, but was war with all its consequences for belligerents and
neutrals (see Foreign Olfice notice in London Gazette of December
20, 1902).
434
PACIFIC OCEAN
sentenced to six years' imprisonment. The British government
resented this treatment as " not only cruel and unjust towards
Mr Russell, but disrespectful towards the British nation," and
demanded the dismissal of the officials impKcated and £1000
damages " as some compensation for the cruel injuries which had
been inflicted upon Mr Russell" (State Papers, i837-i838,p. 183).
The New Granada government refused to comply with these
demands, and the British representative, acting upon his
instructions, called in the assistance of the West Indian fleet,
but observed in his communication to the British naval officer
in command that it was desirable to avoid hostilities, and to
endeavour to bring about the desired result by a strict blockade
only. This seems to be the first occasion on which it had occurred
to anybody that a blockade without war might serve the purpose
of war. This precedent was shortly afterwards followed by
another somewhat similar case, in which from the i6th of April
to the 28th of November 1838 the French government blockaded
the Mexican ports, to coerce the Mexican government into accept-
ance of certain demands on behalf of French subjects who had
suffered injury to their persons and damage to their property
through insufficient protection by the Mexican authorities.
The blockade of Buenos Aires and the Argentine coast from
the 28th of March 1838 to the 7th of November 1840 by the French
fleet, a coercive measure consequent upon vexatious laws affect-
ing foreign residents in the Argentine Repubhc, seems to have
been the first case in which the operation was notified to the
different representatives of foreign states. This notification
was given in Paris, and at Buenos Aires, and to every ship
approaching the blockaded places. This precedent of notifica-
tion was, a few years later (1845), followed in another blockade
against the same country by Great Britain and France, and in
one in 1842 and 1844 by Great Britain against the port of Grey-
town in Nicaragua. In 1850 Great Britain blockaded the ports
of Greece in order to compel the Hellenic government to give
satisfaction in the Don Pacifico case. Don Pacifico, a British
subject, claimed £32,000 as damages for unprovoked pillage of
his house by an Athenian mob. Greek vessels only were seized,
and these were only sequestered. Greek vessels bona fide carry-
ing cargoes belonging to foreigners were allowed to enter the
blockaded ports.
Before the next case of blockade which can be described as
"pacific" occurred came the Declaration of Paris (April 15,
1856), requiring that " blockades in order to be binding must be
effective; that is to say, maintained by a force sufficient reaUy to
prevent access to the coast of the enemy."
Some ill-defined measures of blockade followed, such as that
of i860, when Victor Emmanuel, then king of Sardinia, joined
the revolutionary government of Naples in blockading ports in
Sicily, then held by the king of Naples, without any rupture of
pacific relations between the two governments; that of 1862, in
which Great Britain blockaded the port of Rio de Janeiro, to
exact redress for pillage of an Enghsh vessel by the local popula-
tion, at the same time declaring that she continued to be on
friendly terms with the emperor of Brazil; and that in 1880,
when a demonstration was made before the port of Dulcigno
by a fleet of British, German, French, Austrian, Russian and
Italian men-of-war, to compel the Turkish government to carry
out the treaty conceding this town to Montenegro, and it was
announced that if the town was not given up by the Turkish
forces it would be blockaded.
The blockade which first gave rise to serious theoretical
discussion on the subject was that instituted by France in 1884
in Chinese waters. On the 20th of October 1884 Admiral
Courbet declared a blockade of all the ports and roadsteads
between certain specified points of the island of Formosa. The
British government protested that Admiral Coubert had not
enough ships to render the blockade effective, and that it was
therefore a violation of one of the articles of the Declaration of
Paris of 1856; moreover, that the French government could only
interfere with neutral vessels violating the blockade if there was
a state of war. If a state of war existed, England as a neutral
was bound to close her coaling stations to belligerents. The
British government held that in the circumstances France was
waging war and not entitled to combine the rights of peace and
warfare for her own benefit. Since then pacific blockades have
only been exercised by the great powers as a joint measure in
their common interest, which has also been that of peace; and
in this respect the term is taking a new signification in accordance
with the ordinary sense of the word " pacific."
In 1886 Greece was blockaded by Great Britain, Austria,
Germany, Italy and Russia, to prevent her from engaging in
war with Turkey, and thus forcing the powers to define their
attitude towards the latter power. The instructions given to
the British commander were to detain every ship under the
Greek flag coming out of or entering any of the blockaded ports
or harbours, or communicating with any ports within the limit
blockaded; but if any parts of the cargo on board of such ships
belonged to any subject or citizen of any foreign power other
than Greece, and other than Austria, Germany, Italy and Russia,
and had been shipped before notification of the blockade or after
such notification, but under a charter made before the notifica-
tion, such ship was not to be detained.
On the blockade of Crete in 1897 it was notified that " the
admirals in command of the British, Austro-Hungarian, French,
German, ItaUan, and Russian naval forces " had decided to put
the island of Crete in a state of blockade, that " the blockade
would be general for all ships under the Greek flag," and that
" ships of the six powers or neutral powers may enter into the
ports occupied by the powers and land their merchandise, but
only if it is not for the Greek troops or the interior of the island,"
and that " these ships may be visited by the ships of the inter-
national fleets."
Since the adoption of the Hague Convention of 1907 respecting
the limitation of the employment of force for the recovery of
contract debts, the contracting powers are under agreement
" not to have recourse to armed force for the recovery of contract
debts claimed from the government of one country by the govern-
ment of another country as being due to its nationals, " unless
" the debtor state refuses or neglects to reply to an offer of
arbitration, or after accepting the offer prevents any compromis
from being agreed on, or after the arbitration fails to submit to
the award " (Art. i). Though this does not affect pacific
blockades in principle, it supersedes them in practice by a new
procedure for some of the cases in which they have hitherto
been employed. (T. Ba.)
PACIFIC OCEAN, the largest division of the hydrosphere,
lying between Asia and Australia and North and South America.
It is nearly landlocked to the N., communicating with the
Arctic Ocean only by Bering Strait, which is 36 m. wide and of
small depth. The southern boundary is generally regarded
as the parallel of 40° S., but sometimes the part of the great
Southern Ocean (40° to 665° S.) between the meridians passing
through South Cape in Tasmania and Cape Horn is included.
The north to south distance from Bering Strait to the Antarctic
circle is 9300 m., and the Pacific attains its greatest breadth,
10,000 m., at the equator. The coasts of the Pacific are of
varied contour. The American coasts are for the most part
mountainous and unbroken, the chief indentation being the
Gulf of Cahfornia; but the general type is departed from in the
extreme north and south, the southern coast of South America
consisting of bays and fjords with scattered islands, while the
coast of Alaska is similarly broken in the south and becomes low
and swampy towards the north. The coast of Austraha is high
and unbroken; there are no inlets of considerable size, although
the small openings include some of the finest harbours in the
world, as Moreton Bay and Port Jackson. The Asiatic coasts
are for the most part low and irregular, and a number of seas
are more or less completely enclosed and cut off from communi-
cation with the open ocean. Bering Sea is bounded by the
Alaskan Peninsula and the chain of the Aleutian Islands; the
sea of Okhotsk is enclosed by the peninsula of Kamchatka and
the Kurile Islands; the Sea of Japan is shut off by Sakhalin
Island, the Japanese Islands and the peninsula of Korea; the
Yellow Sea is an opening between the coast of China and Korea;
i
PACIFIC OCEAN
435
Relief of
Bed.
the China Sea lies between the Asiatic continent and the island
of Formosa, the Philippine group, Palawan and Borneo.
Amongst the islands of the Malay Archipelago are a number of
enclosed areas — the Sulu, Celebes, Java, Banda and Arafura
seas. The Arafura Sea extends eastwards to Torres Strait, and
beyond the strait is the Coral Sea, bounded by New Guinea,
the islands of Melanesia and north-eastern Austraha.
The area and volume of the Pacific Ocean and its seas, with the
mean depths calculated therefrom, are given in the article Ockan.
The Pacific Ocean has one and three-quarter times the
Extent. area of the Atlantic — the next largest division of the
hydrosphere — and has more than double its volume of water. Its
area is greater than the whole land surface of the globe, and the
volume of its waters is six times that of all the land above sea-
level. The total land area draining to the Pacific is estimated by
Murray at 7,500,000 sq. m., or little more than one-fourth of the
area draining to the Atlantic. The American rivers draining
to the Pacific, except the Yukon, Columbia and Colorado, arc unim-
portant. The chief Asiatic rivers are the Amur, the Hwang-ho and
the Yangtsze-kiang: none of which enters the open Pacific directly.
Hence the proportion of purely oceanic area to the total area is
greater in the Pacific than in the Atlantic, the supply of detritus being
smaller, and terrigenous deposits are not borne so far from land.
The bed of the Pacific is not naturally divided into physical
regions, but for descriptive purposes the parts of the area lying
east and west of 150° VV. are conveniently dealt with
separately. The eastern region is characterized by great
uniformity of depth ; the 2000-fathom line keeps close to
the American coast except off the Isthmus of Panama, whence an
ill-defined ridge of less than 2000 fathoms runs south-westwards,
and again off the coast of South America in about 40° S., where a
similar bank runs west and unites with the former. The bank
then continues south to the Antarctic Ocean, in about 120° W.
Practically the whole of the north-east Pacific is therefore more than
2000 fathoms deep, and the south-east has two roughly triangular
spaces, including the greater part of the area, between 2000 and 3000
fathoms. Notwithstanding this great average depth, the " deeps "
or areas over 3000 fathoms are small in number and extent. Five
small deeps are recognized along a line close to the coast of South
America and parallel to it, in the depression enclosed by the two
banks mentioned — they extend from about 12° to 30° S. — and are
named, from north to south, Milne-Edwards deep, Kriimmel deep,
Bartholomew deep, Richards deep and Haeckel deep. In the north-
east the deeps are again few and small, but they are quite irregularly
distributed, and not near the land. East of 150° W. the Pacific has
few islands; the oceanic islands are volcanic, and coral formations are
of course scanty. The most important group is the Galapagos Islands.
The western Pacific is in complete contrast to the part just
described. Depths of less than 2000 fathoms occur continuously
on a bank extending from south-eastern Asia, on which stands the
Malay Archipelago. This bank continues southwards to the
Antarctic Ocean, expanding into a plateau on which Australia
stands, and a branch runs eastwards and then southwards from
the north-east of Australia through New Zealand. The most
considerable areas over 3000 fathoms are the Aldrich deep, an irregu-
lar triangle nearly as large as Australia, situated to the east of New
Zealand, in which a sounding of 5155 fathoms was obtained by
H.M.S. " Penguin," near the Tonga Islands: and the Tuscarora
deep, a long, narrow trough running immediately to the east of
Kamchatka, the Kurile Islands and Japan. A long strip within
the Tuscarora deep forms the largest continuous area with a depth
greater than 4000 fathoms. All the rest of the v/estern Pacific
is a region of quite irregular contour. The average depth varies
from 1500 to 2500 fathoms, and from this level innumerable volcanic
ridges and peaks rise almost or quite to the surface, their summits
for the most part occupied by atolls and reefs of coral formation,
while interspersed with these are depressions, mostly of small area,
among which the deepest soundings recorded have been obtained.
The United States telegraph ship " Nero," while surveying for a
cable between Hawaii and the Philippines, sounded in 1900 the
greatest depth yet known between Midway Islands and Guam
(12° 43' N., 145° 49' E.) in 5269 fathoms, or almost exactly 6 m.
The following table, showing the area of the floor of the Pacific
(to 40° S.) and the volume of water at different levels, is due to Sir
J. Murray: —
Fathoms.
Areas,
(sq. m.)
Volume,
(cub. m.)
0-100
100-500
500-1000
1000-2000
2000-3000
3000-4000
over 4000
3.379.700
1.753.450
1,707,650
6,902,550
39,621,550
2,164,150
94.850
6,128,500
23.348.350
28,323,700
52,628,500
32,545,400
1.357.900
70,600
55,623,900
144,402,950
So far as our knowledge goes, the present contours of the open
Pacific Ocean are almost as they were in Palaeozoic times, and in
the intervening ages changes of level and form have been slight.
There is no reason to suppose that any considerable part of the vast
area now covered by the waters of the Pacific has ever been exposed
as dry land. Hence the Pacific basin may be regarded as a stable
and homogeneous geographical unit, clearly marked off round nearly
all its margin by steep sharp slopes, extending in places through
the whole known range of elevation above sea-level and of depression
below it — from the Cordilleras of South America to the island chains
of Siberia and Australia. (See OcKAN.)
The deeper parts of the bed of the Pacific arc covered by
deposits of red clay, which occupies an area estimated at no less
than 105,672,000 sq. kilometres, or three-fifths of the _
whole. Over a large part of the central Pacific, far ""'"'*'"•
removed from any possible land-infiuences or deposits of ooze,
the red-clay region is characterized 'oy the occurrence of manganese,
which gives the clay a chocolate colour, and manganese no(hiles are
found in vast numbers, along with sharks' teeth and the e.ir-bones
antl other bones of whales. Kadiolarian ooze is found in the <(ntral
Pacific in a region between 15° N. to 10° S. and 140° E. to 150° W',,
occurring in seven distinct localities, and covering an area of
about 3,007,000 sq. kilometres. The " Challenger " discovered an
area of radiolarian ooze between 7°-i2° N. and I47°-I52° W.,
and another in 2°-io° S., I52°-I53°W. Between these two areas,
almost on the equator, a strip of globigcrina ooze was found,
corresponding to the zone of globigerina in the e(|uatorial region
of the Atlantic. Globigerina ooze covers considerable areas in the
intermediate depths of the west and south Pacific — west of New
Zealand, and along the parallel of 40° S., between 8o°-98° W.
and 150°-! 18° W. — but this deposit is not known in the north-
eastern part of the basin. The total area covered by it is esti-
mated at 38,332,000 sq. kilometres — about two-thirds of that in the
Atlantic. Pteropod ooze occurs only in the neighbourhood of F'iji
and other islands of the western Pacific, passing up into fine coral
sands and mud. Diatom ooze has been found in detached areas
between the Philippine and Mariana islands, and near the Aleutian
and Galapagos groups, forming an exception to the general rule of
its occurrence only in high latitudes. All the enclosed seas are
occupied by characteristic terrigenous deposits.
Partly on account of its great extent, and partly because there is
no wide opening to the Arctic regions, the normal wind circulation is
on the whole less modified in the North Pacific than in
the Atlantic, except in the west, where the south-west , * eoro-
monsoon of southern Asia controls the prevailing winds, °^'
its influence extending eastwards to 145° E., near the Ladrones,
and southwards to the equator. In the South Pacific the north-
west monsoon of Australia affects a belt running east of New Guinea
to the Solomon Islands. In the east the north-east trade-belt
extends between 5° and 25° N.; the south-east trade crosses the
equator, and its mean southern limit is 25° S. The trade-winds
are generally weaker and less persistent in the Pacific than in the
Atlantic, and the intervening belt of equatorial calms is broader.
Except in the east of the Pacific, the south-east trade is only fully
developed during the southern winter; at other seasons the regular
trade-belt is cut across from north-west to south-east by a band
twenty to thirty degrees wide, in which the trades alternate with
winds from north-east and north, and with calms, the calms prevail-
ing chiefly at the boundary of the monsoon region (5° N.-i5° S.,
l6o°-i85 E.). Thisarea, in which the south-east trade is interrupted,
includes the Fiji, Navigator and Society groups, and the Paumotus.
In the Marquesas group the trade-wind is constant. Within the
southern monsoon region there is a gradual transition to the north-
west monsoon of New Guinea in low latitudes, and in higher latitudes
to the north-cast wind of the Queensland coast. The great warming
and abundant rainfall of the island regions of the western Pacific,
and the low temperature of the surface water in the east, cause a
displacement of the southern tropical maximum of pressure to the
east; hence we have a permanent "South Pacific anticyclone"
close to the coast of South America. The characteristic feature of
the south-western Pacific is therefore the relatively low pressure and
the existence of a true monsoon region in the middle of the trade-
wind belt. It is to be noted that the climate of the islands of the
Pacific becomes more and more healthy the farther they are from
the monsoon region. The island regions of the Pacific are every-
where characterized by uniform high air-temperatures; the mean
annual range varies from 1° to 9° F., with extremes of 24° to 27°,
and the diurnal range from 9° to 16°. In the monsoon region relative
humidity is high, viz. 80 to 90 °o. The rainfall is abundant; in the
western island groups there is no well-marked rainy season, but
over the whole region the greater part of the rainfall takes place
during the southern summer, even as far north as Hawaii. In the
trade-wind region we find the characteristic hea\'>' rainfall on the
weather sides of the islands, and a shorter rainy season at the season
of highest sun on the lee side. Buchan describes the island-studded
portion of the western Pacific as the most extensive region of the
globe characterized by an unusually hea\T.- rainfall. Beyond the
tropical high-pressure belt, the winds of the North Pacific are under
the control of an area of low pressure, which, however, attains neither
the size nor the intensity of the " Iceland " depression in the north
43^
PACIFIC OCEAN
Atlantic. The result is that north-westerly winds, which in winter
are exceedingly dry and cold, blow over the western or Asiatic
area; westerly winds prevail in the centre, and south-westerly and
southerly winds off the American coast. In the southern hemisphere
there is a transition to the low-pressure belt encircling the Southern
Ocean, in which westerly and north-westerly winds continue all the
year round.
The distribution of temperature in the waters of the Pacific Ocean
has been fully investigated, so far as is possible with the existing
observations, by G. Schott. At the surface an extensive
Temperature. ^^^^ ^j maximum temperature (over 20° C.) occurs over
10° on each side of the equator to the west of the ocean. On the
eastern side temperature falls to 22° on the equator and is slightly
higher to N. and S. In the North Pacific, beyond lat. 40°, the
surface is generally warmer on the E. than on the W., but this con-
dition is, on the whole, reversed in corresponding southern latitudes.
In the intermediate levels, down to depths not exceeding 1000 metres,
a remarkable distribution appears. A narrow strip of cold water
runs along the equator, widest to the east and narrowing westward,
and separates two areas of ma.xirnum which have their greatest
intensity in the western part of the ocean, and have their central
portions in higher latitudes as depth increases, apparently tending
constantly to a position in about latitude 30° to 35° N. and S. A
comparison of this distribution with that of atmospheric pressure
is of great interest. High temperature in the depth may be taken
to mean descending water, just as high atmospheric pressure means
descending air, and hence it would seem that the slow vertical
movement of water in the Pacific reproduces to some extent the
phenomena of the " doldrums " and " horse latitudes," with this
difference, that the centres of maximum intensity lie off the east
of the land instead of the west as in the case of the continents. The
isothermal lines, in fact, suggest that in the vast area of the Pacific
something corresponding to the " planetary circulation " is estab-
lished, further investigation of which may be of extreme value in
relation to current inquiries concerning the upper air. In the greater
depths temperature is extraordinarily uniform, 8o°'o of the existing
observations falling within the limits of 1-6'' C. and 1-9° C. In the
enclosed seas of the western Pacific, temperature usually falls till
a depth corresponding to that of the summit of the barriers which
isolate them from the open ocean is reached, and below that point
temperature is uniform to the bottom. In the Sulu Sea, for example,
a temperature of 10-3° C. is reached at 400 fathoms, and this remains
constant to the bottom in 2500 fathoms.
The surface waters of the North Pacific are relatively fresh, the
salinity being on the whole much lower than in the other great
Salinity oceans. The saltest waters are found along a belt extend-
ing westwards from the American coast on the Tropic of
Cancer to 160° E., then turning southwards to the equator. North
of this salinity diminishes steadily, especially to the north-west,
the Sea of Okhotsk showing the lowest salinity observed in any
part of the globe. South and east of the axis mentioned salinity
becomes less to just north of the equator, where it increases again,
and the saltest waters of the whole Pacific are found, as we should
expect, in the south-east trade-wind region, the ma.ximum occurring
in about 18° S. and 120° W. South of the Tropic of Capricorn the
isohalines run nearly east and west, salinity diminishing quickly to
the Southern Ocean. The bottom waters have almost uniformly a
salinity of 34-8 per mille, corresponding closely with the bottom
waters of the South Atlantic, but fresher than those of the North
Atlantic.
The surface currents of the Pacific have not been studied in the
same detail as those of the Atlantic, and their seasonal variations
Circulation ^■'^ little known except in the monsoon regions. Speak-
' ing generally, however, it may be said that they are
for the most part under the direct control of the prevailing
winds. The North Equatorial Current is due to the action of the
north-east trades. It splits into two parts east of the Philippines,
one division flowing northwards as the Kuro Siwo or Black Stream,
the analogue of the Gulf Stream, to feed a drift circulation which
follows the winds of the North Pacific, and finally forms the Cali-
fornian Current flowing southwards along the American coast.
Part of this rejoins the North Equatorial Current, and part probably
forms the variable Mexican Current, which follows the coasts of
Mexico and California close to the land. The Equatorial Counter-
Current flowing eastwards is largely assisted during the latter half
of the year by the south-west monsoon, and from July to October
the south-west winds prevailing east of 150° E. further strengthen
the current, but later in the year the easterly winds weaken or even
destroy it. The South Equatorial Current is produced by the south-
east trades, and is more vigorous than its northern counterpart.
On reaching the western Pacific part of this current passes south-
wards, east of New Zealand, and again east of Australia, as the East
Australian Current, part northwards to join the Equatorial Counter-
Current, and during the north-east monsoon part makes its way
through the China Sea towards the Indian Ocean. During the
south-west monsoon this last branch is reversed, and the surface
waters of the China Sea probably unite with the Kuro Siwo. Between
the Kuro Siwo and the Asiatic coast a band of cold water, with a
slight movement to the southward, known as the Oya Siwo, forms
the analogue of the " Cold Wall " of the Atlantic. In the higher
latitudes of the South Pacific the surface movement forms part of
the west wind-drift of the Roaring Forties. On the west coast of
South America the cold waters of the Humboldt or Peruvian Current
corresponding to the Benguela Current of the South Atlantic, make
their way northwards, ultimately joining the South Equatorial
Current. The surface circulation of the Pacific is, on the whole,
less active than that of the Atlantic. The centres of the rotational
movement are marked by " Sargasso Seas " in the north and south
basins, but they are of small extent compared with the Sargasso Sea
of the North Atlantic. From the known peculiarities of the distri-
bution of temperature, it is probable that definite circulation of
water is in the Pacific confined to levels very near the surface, except
in the region of the Kuro Siwo, and possibly also in parts of the
Peruvian Current. The only movement in the depths is the slow
creep of ice-cold water northwards along the bottom from the
Southern Ocean; but this is more marked, and apparently penetrates
farther north, than in the Atlantic.
Seei??/)ortjof expeditions of the U.S.S. " Albatross " and " Thetis."
1888-1892; A. Agassiz, Expedition to the Tropical Pacific, 1899-1900,
1904-1905; H.M.S. "Challenger," 1873-1876; " Egeria." 1888-
1889 and 1899; " Ehsabeth," 1877; " Gazelle," 1875-1876; " Planet,"
1906; " Penguin," 1891-1903; " Tuscarora," 1873-1874; " Vettor
Pisani," 1884; " Vitraz," 1887-1888; also observations of surveying
and cable ships, and special papers in the A nnalen der Hydrographie
(for distribution of temperature see G. Schott, p. 2, 1910).
(H. N. D.)
Islands of the Pacific Ocean
Up to a certain point, the islands of the Pacific fall into an
obvious classification, partly physical, partly political. In
the west there is the great looped chain which fringes the east
coast of Asia, and with it encloses the series of seas which form
parts of the ocean. The north of the chain, from the Kuriles
to Formosa, belongs to the empire of Japan; southward it is
continued by the Philippines (belonging to the United States
of America) which link it with the vast archipelago between the
Pacific and Indian oceans, to which the name Malay Archipelago
is commonly applied. As the loop of the Kuriles depends from
the southern extremity of Kamchatka, so from the east of the
same peninsula another loop extends across the northern part
of the ocean to Alaska, and helps to demarcate the Bering Sea;
this chain is distinctly broken to the east of the Commander
Islands, but is practically continuous thereafter under the name
of the Aleutian Islands. Islands form a much less important
feature of the American Pacific coast than of the Asiatic;
between 48° N. and 38° S. there are practicaUy none, and to the
north and south of these parallels respectively the islands,
though large and numerous, are purely continental, lying close
under the mainland, enclosing no seas, and forming no separate
political units. South-eastward of the Malay Archipelago lies
" the largest island and the smallest continent," Australia;
eastward of the archipelago, New Guinea, the largest island if
Australia be regarded as a continent only. With Australia
may be associated the islands lying close under its coasts,
including Tasmania. Next foUow the two great islands and
attendant islets of New Zealand.
There now remains a vast number of small islands which lie
chiefly (but not entirely) within an area which may be defined
as extending from the Philippines, New Guinea and Australia
to 130° W., and from tropic to tropic. These islands fall
principally into a number of groups clearly enough defined to be
well seen on a map of small scale; they are moreover divided, as
will be shown, into three main divisions; but whereas they have
enough characteristics in common to render a general view of
them desirable, there is no well-recognized name to cover them
all. The name Polynesia was formerly taken to do so, but
belongs properly to one of the three main divisions, to which the
name Eastern Polynesia was otherwise given; Oceania and
Oceanica are variants of another term which has been used for
the same purpose, though by no means generally. Moreover
usage varies slightly as regards the limits of the three main
divisions, but the accompanying table shows the most usual
classification, naming the principal groups within each, and
distributing them according to the powers to which they are
subject.
The following islands may be classified as oceanic, but not with
any of the three main divisions: the Bonin Islands, north of the
Marianas, belonging to Japan; Lord Howe and Norfolk Islands (to
A
e a
D_
Icohama
■,,'■* 3 'Pcinafitlin
.'b'/j' 7 ''^'urA (Two 7 <
a i^'i'^*, ' -'Borodino Is. Caffm -.^isjands (to fapan)
^\^ ^fas/jinta Arzobispo, Kita-'wo-iima
.yakazhima I .ftcial. .'"'°-^'"'° -.Volcano Is. uo J*i«n) ,' «<i^m /. .
'Formosa no lapan) i '
Gangts /.
Patncmiol.F
#
3
'" PhUippine
Calanduattes
Islands
Samar
- Cojaaon //-^f^,^ ^Mindanao y ,< •„,_.""»''•"«'' \s»"'
^^- ., .V
C !■ / ? 6'.- s .„ S e a , , -i ■ _/)j„"^,a
HuJm«»«rBS
«.* Oraluh : i,iP
V
•>p/e'(u
i.oj Oauoo f
Pelew Js.
- -V '' '
. Snrrsercl
^ ~-Arina
Mani-re
£.„„,, ,»/„..y>M i d d 1
'**oVV 1< '-■'
Uajt'6ng - MentschiUouj V %r •■ SomoMOt rl roup
■ «« '^;°"1,' '< ■ Mate ft b
c r n ■ Marshall . o '
•'Veflj^i ■•■P'tgtiap \ Islands ,^^ ^„ «''^? -.'•'■'
Caroline Islanids
/T ^
.-sis- I . ,Kop'flOO.
, Namorih* .' Jaluit , ^
ffiiSj;* \ ,, 't>, Know/
Ebon' ' ,'
Equator
. Bismarck ^,f^;0" .
Arch. JHec/<ieiiiiHrg^ • * ,cti ' ,„(et ;,ckls- *^
<pa..^sv*'°'°'' Gilbert '■■.
A7arou/a
"TZy.'rZT Islands \
Nawodo_'y .^ Ncnuti \ p^^^
i^-.Bonabe Tap'teuta -'■ • \Muliunau
•^Onoatoa
Tamana' *jiro,o.
;v^
Nanomea
*-^ ■*. *.V*,M<./a.(ff \SantaCru2 Is.
Cr:>4 . ^- '
■teaux_: CO^ ■ ^ '■^atema ~ ::^i'~ffVrrY
_ Rcissel '■• OcHonn , S.Crutoja/.- mTupua J^ \^Anuda
, .'^ , ■■■-. 'l> „ .■:' VanihofO* ..-^ -Fataka
LoiiiSiade ■■.. \flennell
Archipelago "-■• -■'
Tucopt
Torres «
Is. \ 't Banks
- Group 1
.' H, 1 Neu
EUice ^Q.Eupt
Islands "'f"
.„Hebrides\ \ FW-.,-0^-
»*Suva«
Tropic _ of Ca
''\S^^-^^'-^h.-. u s Lfr..m.?A ..:,L v^i.m
^jSa U S-T-RA;Ll A ■'. . . oodnL^mA,.-;^-'^"^-
o Y.X 'i •yit. O'VMcniKS a.m ■• ._ AUS 1 K A L. 1-»A -Vi . y Bpurto
10
o.-s'^-jfo^j.. ^-^:>^E-"« --t^-vpo.
The
PACIFIC OCEAN
Scale, 1:40,000,000
English Miles
O 100 200 JOO 40 5OQ 1000
Principal Raihuays ■"-— Cables r— n
J I United States ...
British
French.
Dutch-.
German
Portuguese -
■■■■■■■" 5 "'N.o.'i>J^''',„
HokunEa\Aa*^
ViV v.><^ if"
* * - .New Plytnoulh / jF Ci^' fXiUt
NEW ZEALAND '^'<a!ig'/,'7"'"'°"
M;,it>>'y*-7/-g Wellington
Christchurch
•'SanAs Ptmnsula
South Island
A
140° Longitude East 150' c' Greenwich 160° P '7°
I
«.4.„nj,., I • """""• •■ (no^cr'i .'_ Group ^. -i"""*,.
To^"''' a'^ V*'^"*'""" Croup
Jan
,• • Society i -.. „K,,.' •, •. , *.»',;:•„,•-..».
,•'" \ I^ranHc I .' • 'Cor/ ."e"" /•
^ _C00k I ij*„ _1 1 V'Htrrttrtli/i /Vgoml.' ""'"'""'•
i.?''"*'^ I \ re™,.,,,.: - .C™«", /> ,
A-'""- "■ *<i, ^ •'-'":'- - - -■-, T «•'""•• .,,?■ T"., •..'■>-
■■ ». it Vauitao
• \ ^ .-
'pnualci ■
■ Vavau : INiue
'a pa I ''• ■ ■... ■ ■ "
■ufcn Hichilson I
atabu
Palmtnton I.
Islands ^''" 'W""^- !
"tRarotong.^ I »
*nd.
^
7"
S'i(.f(/Mflys.OVauro V. V
TradSuru I ■ q ^— ^J*--^.''""
' .o*" ,«''^A '"''"J'W. \<Jf alalia
SOLOMON ISLANDS sa«:CrLoS^'
Scale, 1:15,000.00c
Eneliih Miles
r^
- NEW HEBRIDES \ror.« ,,^^^^^^,
and ' .Va/ua fld/i/f.s
NEW CALEDONIA "HaQ -«o(<. ^
Scale. i:i5.ooo,o<« - -, i^ruiip
English Miles ..-. ''. '
'f/lerla<i
6
€spintu\ \j\- n
SantoV^i AobaJ\'^'"'"°
Lug-nviUe^i. ^J
Pt. Sandwich fV^P'
<3l '''-.Shtphcrd Is.
P(, Havanruh,
Huon'is.
Surpr'St
• Lt/«iioijy
ft.
^""^f/a^e
^0: <^ £romanga^-
160 Lontjitudc W^st i5o'\>f Greenwich 140°
Poit%- Belep Is, %.-^ A'
Caledonia „„ '^
, of'""
170' "ffesi Long.
'!"'
Btlhrtgshousen
SOCIETY ISLANDS
Scnlf, 1:15,000,000
Ene1i%h Miles
40
10
titit ry \V alkcr sc.
PACIFIC OCEAN
437
New South Wales) ; Easter Island (to Chile) ; the Galapagos Islands
(to Ecuador). In an area to be defined roughly as lying about the
Tropic of Cancer, between Hawaii and the Bonin Islands, there are
scattered a few small islands and reefs, of most of which the position,
if not the existence, is doubtful. Such are Patrocinio (about 28° 30'
N., 177° 18' E.) and Ganges (39° 47' N., 154° 15' E.), among others
which appear on most maps. Marcus Island, in 23° 10' N., 154° E.,
was annexed by Japan in 1899 with a view to its becoming a cable
station.
The fGllowing paragraphs review the oceanic islands generally,
and are therefore concerned almost entirely with the central
and mid-western parts of the ocean. It is impossible to estimate
the total number of the islands; an atoll, for instance, which may
slate in the Marquesas, which afford a type of the extinct
volcanic islands, as does Tahiti. In other areas, however, there
is still volcanic activity, and in many cases volcanoes to which
only tradition attributes eruptions can hardly be classified as
extinct. Hawaii contains the celebrated active crater of
Kilauea. In Tonga, in the New Hebrides, and in the long chain
of the Solomons and the Bismarck Archipelago there is much
activity. Submarine vents somelimes break forth, locally
raising the level of the sea-bottom, or even forming temporary
islands or shoals. Earthquakes are not uncommon in the
volcanic areas. Most of the volcanic islands are lofty in propor-
tion to their size. The peaks or sharp cones in which they
Islands of the Pacific
Ocean
Melanesia.
Area,
sq. m.
Fop.
Micronesia.
Area,
sq. m.
Pop.
Polynesia.
Area,
sq. m.
Pop.
To Great
Britain.
Fiji . • .. ■
Louisiade Archip.
Santa Cruz Island
Solomon Islands
(part) . . .
7.435
850
380
12,800
121,000
5,000
5,000
135,000
Gilbert Island
166
30,000
America Islands
Cook Islands'.
EUice Islands .
Manihiki Islands
Niue . . .
Phoenix Islands
Pitcairn
Tokelau Islands
Tonga Islands.
260
III
14
12
36
16
2
7
385
300
6,200
2,400
1 ,000
4,000
60
170
500
19,000
Total, British
21.465
266,000
166
30,000
843
33.630
To United
States of
America
Guam ....
200
9,000
Hawaii
Samoa (part) .
6,651
95
154,000
6,000
Total, U.S.A
—
—
200
9,000
6,746
160,000
To France .
Loyalty Island
New Caledonia .
1,050
6,450
20,000
52,000
Marquesas Islands
Paumotu Archip.
Society Islands
Tubuai Islands
Wallis Archip. .
490
364
637
no
40
4.300
5,000
18,500
2,000
4.500
Total, French
7.500
72,000
—
—
1,641
34.300
To Germany.
Bismarck Archip.
Solomon Islands
(part) . . .
20,000
4,200
188,000
45.000
Caroline Islands .
Mariana Islands
(excl. Guam)
Marshall Islands .
Pelew Islands . .
380
245
160
175
36,000
2,500
15,000
3,100
Samoa (part) .
985
33.000
Total, German
24,200
233,000
960
56,600
985
33,000
New Hebrides ^ .
5,106
50,600
Total . .
Melanesia .
58.271
621,600
Micronesia
1.326
95,600
Polynesia .
10,215
260,930
The above figures give a total land area for the whole region of 69,561 sq. m., with a population of 978,130; but they are for the most
part merely approximate.
be divided into a large number of islets, often bears a single
name. The number of names of islands and separate groups in
the Index to the Islands of the Pacific (W. T. Brigham), which
covers the limited area under notice, is about 2650, exclusive
of alternative names. Of these, it may be mentioned, there is a
vast number, owing in some cases to divergence of spelling in
the representation of native names, in others to European dis-
coverers naming islands (sometimes twice or thrice successively)
of which the native names subsequently came into use also.
The islands may be divided broadly into volcanic and coral
islands, though the physiography of many islands is imperfectly
known. There are ancient rocks, however, in New Caledonia,
which has a geological affinity with New Zealand; old sedimen-
tary rocks are known in New Pomerania, besides granite and
porphyry, and slates, sandstone and chalk occur in Fiji, as weU
as young volcanic rocks. Along with these, similarly, hornblende
and diabase occur in the Pelew Islands and gneiss and mica
' These are dependencies of New Zealand, as are also the follow-
ing islands and groups which lie apart from the main Polynesian
clusters, nearer New Zealand itself: Antipodes Islands, Auckland
Islands, Bounty Islands, Campbell Islands, Chatham Islands,
Kermadec Islands.
^ Under British and French influence jointly.
frequently culminate, combined with the rich characteristic
vegetation, are the principal features which have led all travellers
to extol the beauty of the islands.
In the central and western Pacific the northern and southern
limits of the occurrence of reef-forming corals are approximately
30° N. and 30° S. It may be added that this belt narrows
greatly towards the east, mainly from the south, in sympathy
with the northward flow of cold water off the coast of South
America. But apart from this the limits are seen to accord
fairly closely with the geographical definition of the area under
consideration. Here the broad distinction has been drawn
between volcanic and coral islands; but this requires amplifica-
tion, both because the coral islands follow more than one type,
and because the work of corals is in many cases associated with
the volcanic islands in the form of fringing or barrier reefs. As
to the distribution of coral reefs within the Pacific area, in
Micronesia the northern Marianas (volcanic) are without reefs,
which, however, are well developed in the south. The Pelew
islands have extensive reefs, and the Carohne, MarshaU and
Gilbert islands are almost entirely coral. In Melanesia, as has
been seen, the volcanic type predominates. Coral reefs occur
round many of the islands (e.g. the Louisiade and Admiralty
438
PACIFIC OCEAN
groups, New Caledonia and Fiji), but in some cases they are
wholly absent or nearly so {e.g. the eastern Solomon Islands and
the New Hebrides). Of the Polynesian Islands, the Hawaiian
chain presents the type of a volcanic group through which coral
reefs are not equally distributed. The main island of Hawaii
and Maui at the east end are practically without reefs; which,
however, are abundant farther west. Round the volcanic
Marquesas Islands, again, coral is scanty, but the Society
Islands, Samoa and Tonga have extensive reefs. The various
minor groups to the north of these (Ellice, Phoenix, Union,
Manihiki and the America Islands) are coral islands. Christmas,
one of the last-named, is reputed to be the largest lagoon island
in the Pacific. The Paumotu Archipelago is the most extensive
of the coral groups.
The coral islands are generally of the form well known under
the name of atoU, rising but sHghtly above sea-level, flat, and
generally of annular form, enclosing a lagoon. Often, as has
been said, the atoU is divided into a number of islets, but in some
smaller atolls the ring is complete, and the sea-water gains access
beneath the surface of the reef to the lagoon within, where it is
sometimes seen to spout up at the rise of the tide. Besides the
atolls there is a type of island which has been called the elevated
coral island. The Loyalty Islands e.xhibit this type, in which
former reefs appear as low cliffs, elevated above the sea, and
separated from it by a level coastal tract. The island of Mare
shows evidence of three such elevations, three distinct cliffs
alternating with level tracts. For the much debated question
as to the conditions under which atolls and reefs are formed,
see Coral Reefs. As to the local distribution of reefs, it has
been maintained that in the case of active volcanic islands which
have no reefs, their absence is due to subterranean heat. The
contour of the sea-bed, however, has been shown to influence
this distribution, the continuation of the slope of a steep shore
beneath the sea being adverse to their formation, whereas on
a gentler slope they may be formed.
Flora. — In considering the flora of the islands it is necessary to
distinguish between the rich vegetation of the fertile volcanic islands
and the poor vegetation of the coral islands. Those plants which
are widely distributed are generally found to be propagated from
seeds which can easily be carried by the wind or by ocean currents,
or form the food of migratory birds. The tropical Asiatic element
predominates on the low lands; types characteristic of Australia
and New Zealand occur principally on the upper parts of the high
islands. In Hawaii there are instances of American elements.
In the volcanic islands a distinction may be observed between the
windward and leeward flanks, the moister windward slopes being
the more richly clothed. But almost everywhere the vegetation
serves to smooth the contours of the rugged hills, ferns, mosses and
shrubs growing wherever their roots can cling, and leaving only
the steepest crags uncovered to form, as in Tahiti, a striking con-
trast. The flora is estimated to include 15 % of ferns, but they form
only the most important group among many plants of beautiful
foliage, such as draceanas and crotons. Flowering plants are
numerous, and the natives often (as in Hawaii) greatly appreciate
flowers, which thus add a feature to the picturesqueness of island-
life, though they do not usually grow in great profusion. Fruits
are abundant, though indigenous fruits are few; the majority liave
been introduced by missionaries and others. Oranges are often
plentiful, also pine-apples, guavas, custard-apples, mangoes and
bananas. These last are of special importance, and the best kind,
the Chinese banana, is said to have sprung from a plant given to the
missionary John Williams, and cultivated in Samoa. The natives
live very largely on vegetable food, among the most important
plants which supply them being the taro, yam, banana, bread-fruit,
arrow-root, pandanus and coco-nut. The last constitutes a valuable
article of commerce in the form of copra, from which palm oil is
expressed ; the natives make use of this oil in made dishes, and also
of the soft half-green kernel and the coco-nut "milk," the clear
liquid within the nut. Their well-known drink, kava, is made
from a variety of pepper-plant. The most characteristic trees are
the coco-nut palm, pandanus and mangrove. The low coral islands
suffer frequently from drought ; their soil is sandy and unproductive,
and in some cases the natives attempt cultivation by excavating
trenches and fertilizing them with vegetable and other refuse.
Fauna. — The indigenous fauna of the islands is exceedingly poor
in mammals, which are represented mainly by rats and bats. Pigs
have been held to be indigenous on some islands, but were doubtless
introduced by early navigators. Cattle and horses, where intro-
duced, are found to degenerate rather rapidly unless the supply of
fresh stock is kept up. Birds are more numerous than mammals,
among the most important kinds being the pigeons and doves,
especially the fruit-eating pigeons. Megapodes are found in the
Solomon Islands, the New Hebrides, Samoa, Tonga, the Carolines
and the Marianas. The remarkable dtdunculus occurs in Samoa,
and after the introduction of cats and rats, which preyed upon it,
was compelled to change its habits dwelling in trees instead of on
the ground. Insect life is ricn in northern Melanesia; in southern
Melanesia it is less so; in Fiji numerous kinds of insects occur, while
individual numbers are small. In the rest of the islands the insect
fauna is poor. But if this is true of the land fauna as a whole,
especially on the atolls, where it consists mainly of a few birds,
lizards and insects, the opposite is the case with the marine fauna.
Fish are exceedingly abundant, especially in the lagoons of atolls,
and form an important article of food supply for the natives, who are
generally expert fishermen. The fish fauna of the islands is
especially noted for the gorgeous colouring of many of the species.
Among marine mammals, the dugong occurs in the parts about
New Guinea and the Caroline Islands. Various sorts of whale are
found, and the whaling industry reached the height of its importance
about the middle of the 19th century In considering the marine
fauna the remarkable palolo or halolo should be mentioned. This
annelid propagates its kind by rising to the surface and dividing
itself. The occurrence of this process can be predicted exactly for
one day, before sunrise, in October and November, and as both the
worm and the fish which prey on it are appreciated by the natives
as food the occasions of its appearance are of great importance to
them.
History. — Not long after the death of Columbus, and when
the Portuguese traders, working from the west, had hardly
reached the confines of the Malay Archipelago, the Spaniard
Vasco Nufiez de Balboa crossed America at its narrowest part
and discovered the great ocean to the west of it (1513). The
belief in the short and direct westward passage from Europe
to the East Indies was thus shaken, but it was still held that some
passage was to be found, and in 1519-1521 Fernao de Magalhaes
(Magellan) made the famous voyage in which he discovered the
strait which bears his name. Sailing thence north-westward
for many weeks, over a sea so calm that he named it El Mar
pacifico, he sighted only two small islands. These may have
been Puka Puka of the Tuamotu Archipelago and Flint Island;
but it may be stated here that the identification of islands sighted
by the early explorers is often a matter of conjecture, and that
therefore some islands of which the definite discovery must be
dated much later had in fact been seen by Europeans at this
early period. In this narrative the familiar names of islands are
used, irrespective of whether they were given by the first or later
discoverers, or are native names. Magellan reached the
" Ladrones " (Marianas) in 1521, and voyaged thence to the
PhiHppines, where he was killed in a local war. In 1522-1524
various voyages of discovery were made on the west coast of
America, partly in the hope of finding a strait connecting the
two oceans to the region of the central isthmus. In 1525-1527
Garcia Jofre de Loyasa sailed to the Moluccas, but, like Magellan,
missed the bulk of the oceanic islands. About this time,
however, the Portuguese sighted the north coast of New Guinea.
FuUer knowledge of this coast was acquired by Alvaro de
Saavedra (1527-1529), and among later voyages those of Ruy
Lopez de Villalobos (1542-1545) and Miguel Lopez de Legaspi
(1564-1565) should be mentioned. These, however, like others
of the period, did not greatly extend the knowledge of the
Pacific islands, for the course between the Spanish American and
Asiatic possessions did not lead voyagers among the more exten-
sive archipelagoes. For the same reason the British and Dutch
fleets which sailed with the object of harrying the Spaniards,
under Sir Francis Drake (1577-1580), Thomas Cavendish
(1586-1593) and OUver van Noort (1598-1601), were not, as
regards the Pacific, of prime geographical importance. But the
theory of the existence of a great southern continent was now
also attracting voyagers. Alvaro Mendafia de Ne>Ta, after cross-
ing a vast extent of ocean from Peru and sighting only one island,
probably in the Ellice group, reached the Solomon Islands. In
1595-1596 he made a second voyage, and though he did not again
reach these islands, the development of v/hich was his objective,
he discovered the Marquesas Islands, and afterwards Santa
Cruz, where, having attempted to found a settlement, he died.
Thereafter his pilot, Pedro Fernandez de Quiros, set out with the
remainder of the company to make for the Philippines, and on
PACIFIC OCEAN
439
the way discovered Ponape of the Caroline Islands, some of
which group, however, had been known to the Portuguese as
early as 1527. Quires returned to Europe, and, obtaining
command of a fleet, made a voyage in 1605-1607 during which he
observed some of the Paumotu and Society Islands, and later
discovered the small Duff group of the Santa Cruz Islands,
passing thence to the main island of the New Hebrides, which he
hailed as his objective, the southern continent. One of his
commanders, Luis Vaes de Torres, struck off to the north-west,
coasted along the south of the Louisiade Archipelago and New
Guinea, traversed the strait which bears his name between New
Guinea and Australia, and reached the Philippines. In 1615-1617
two Dutchmen, Jacob Lemaire and Willem Cornells Schouten,
having in view both the discovery of the southern continent and
the possibility of estabhshing relations with the East Indies
from the east, took a course which brought them to the north
part of the Paumotu Archipelago, thence to part of the Tonga
chain, and ultimately to New Pomerania, after which they
reached the East Indies. In 1642-1643 Abel Tasman, working
from the east, discovered Van Diemen's Land (Tasmania) and
the west coast of New Zealand, subsequently reaching the Tonga
Islands. Now for a while the tide of discovery slackened.
Towards the close of the century the buccaneers extended their
activity to the Pacific, but naturally added little to general
knowledge. William Dampier, however, making various voyages
in 1690-1705, explored the coasts of Australia and New Guinea,
and at the opening of the century both the French and the
Dutch showed some activity. The Dutchman Jacob Roggeveen,
in the course of a voyage round the world in 1721-1722,
crossed the Pacific from east to west, and discovered Easter
Island, some of the northern islands of the Paumotu Archipelago,
and (as is generally supposed) a part of the Samoan group. The
voyage of Commodore George (afterwards Lord) Anson in 1 740-
1744 was for purposes rather of war than of exploration, and
Commodore John Byron's voyage in 1765 had little result beyond
gaining some additional knowledge of the Paumotu Archipelago.
It is about this time that what may be called the period of
rediscovery set in fully. In the ensuing account a constant
repetition of the names of the main archipelagoes will be found;
it may of course be assumed that each successive voyager added
something to the knowledge of them, but on the other hand, as
has been said, islands were often rediscovered and renamed in
cases where later voyagers took no account of the work of their
predecessors, or where the earlier voyagers were unable clearly
to define the positions of their discoveries. Moreover, rivalry
between contemporary explorers of different nationalities
sometimes caused them to ignore each other's work, and added
to the confusion of nomenclature among the islands.
In 1767 Samuel Wallis worked through the central part of the
Paumotus, and visited Tahiti and the Marianas, while his
companion Philip Carteret discovered Pitcairn, and visited
Santa Cruz, the Solomons and New Pomerania. The French
were now taking a share in the work of discovery, and in 1768
Louis Antoine de Bougainville sailed by way of the central
Paumotus, the Society Islands, Samoa, the northern New
Hebrides, the south coast of New Guinea and the Louisiade and
Bismarck archipelagoes. The next voyages in chronological
order are those of the celebrated Captain James Cook {q.v.).
Within the limits of the area under notice, his first voyage (1769)
included visits to Tahiti and the Society group generally, to New
Zealand and to the east coast of Australia, his second (1773-1774)
to New Zealand, the Paumotu Archipelago, the Society Islands,
Tonga and subsequently Easter Island, the Marquesas and the
New Hebrides; and his third (1777-1778) to Tonga, the Cook or
Norway group, and the Hawaiian Islands, of which, even if they
were previously known to the Spaniards, he may be called the
discoverer, and where he was subsequently killed. In 1786
Jean Francois Galoup de La Perouse, in the course of the famous
voyage from which he never returned, visited Easter Island,
Samoa and Tonga. The still more famous voyage of William
Bligh of the " Bounty " (1788) was followed by that of Captain
Edwards of the " Pandora " (1791), who in the course of his
search for Bligh discovered Rotumah and other islands. The
Hawaiian Islands came within the purview of George Vancouver,
following the course of Cook in 1791. In 1792-1793 Joseph
Antoine d'Entrecasteaux, searching for traces of La Perouse,
ranged the islands west of Tonga. In 1797 Captain J. Wilson of
the missionary ship " Duff " vi-sited the Society groui), I''iji,
Tonga and the Marquesas, and added to the knowledge of the
Paumotu and Caroline Islands. Another power entered on
the field of exploration when the Russians sent Adam Ivan
Krusenstern to the Pacific (1803). He was followed by Otto
von Kotzebue (1816) and Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen
(1819-1821). The work of these three was carried out princi-
pally in the easternmost part of Polynesia. In 1818-1819 the
I'rench navigator Louis Claude Desaulses de Freycinct ranged
from New Guinea through the Marianas to Hawaii. Two of his
countrymen followed him in 1823-1829 — Louis Isidore Duperrey
and Dumont d'Urville. Kotzebue made a second voyage, accom-
panied by scientists, in 1823-1826. In 1826-1828 Frederick
William Beechey was at work in the middle parts of the ocean,
and Feodor Petrovich Count Liitke, the Russian circumnavigator,
in the northern. In 1834 Dr Debell Bennett made scientific
researches in the Society, Hawaiian and Marquesas Islands, in
1835 Captain Robert Fitzroy was accompanied by Charles
Darwin, and in 1836 sqq., Abel Aubert du Petit-Thouars was
carrying on the work of the French in the Pacific. During his
voyage of 1837-1840, Dumont d'Urville was again in Polynesia,
working westward from the Paumotu and Marquesas Islands by
Fiji and the Solomon, Loyalty and Louisiade groups to New
Guinea. In 1839 sqq. the first important American expedition
was made under Charles Wilkes, who covered a great extent of
the ocean from Hawaii to Tonga, Fiji and New Zealand. Among
later British explorers may be mentioned Captain J. Elphinstone
Erskine (1849) and Captain H. M. Denham, and several impor-
tant voyages for scientific research were made in the second half
of the 19th century, including one from Austria under Captain
WuUerstorf Urbair (1858), and one from Italy in the vessel
"Magenta" (1865-1868), which was accompanied by the scientist
Dr Enrico Giglioli. The celebrated voyage of H.M.S. "Challenger"
(1874-1875) and those of the American vessels " Tuscarora "
(1873-1876) and " Albatross " (1888-1892) may complete the tale.
Whalers, sealers and traders followed in the wake of explorers,
the traders dealing chiefly in copra, trepang, pearls, tortoiseshell,
&c. The first actual settlers in the islands were largely men of
bad character — deserting sailors, escapers from the penal settle-
ments in Australia and others. It is not to be supposed that
there were no orderly colonists, but that the natives suffered
much at the hands of Europeans and Americans is only too
clear. The class of traders who made a living by disreputable
means and attempted to keep a monopoly of the island on which
they settled, became notorious under the name of " beach-
combers," and for each of the many dark chapters in Polynesian
history there must have been many more unwritten. The
kidnapping of natives for the South American and Australian
labour markets was common. It cannot be denied that there
has been actual deterioration of the native races, and elimination
in their numbers, consequent upon contact with Europeans and
Americans (see further, Polynesia). The romantic character
of island-history has perhaps, however, tended to emphasize
its dark side, and it is well to turn from it to recognize the work
of the missionaries, who found in the Pacific one of their most
extensive and important fields of labour, and have e.xercised not
only a moral, but also a profound political influence in the islands
since the London Missionary Society first established its agents
in Tahiti in 1797. Many of them, moreover, have added greatly
to the scientific knowledge of the islands and their inhabitants.
The imposition of strict rules of life upon the natives was in some
instances carried too far; in others their conversion to Chris-
tianity was little more than nominal, but cases of this sort
are overshadowed by the fine work of William Ellis and John
Williams (c. 1818) and many of their successors.
The discovery of sandalwood in Fiji in 1804, and the estab-
lishment of a trade therein, made that group a centre of interest
4-4-0
PACIFIC OCEAN
in the early modern history of the Pacific islands. Moreover
the London Missionary Society, having worked westward from
its headquarters in Tahiti to Tonga as early as 1797, founded a
settlement in Fiji in 1835. Meanwhile the white traders in
Fiji had played an intimate part in the internal pohtical affairs
of the group, and in 1S58 King Thakombau, being threatened
with reprisals by the American consul on account of certain
losses of property which he had sustained, asked for British
protection, but did not obtain it. The British, however, were
paramount among the white population, and as by 1S70 not only
American, but also German influence was extending through the
islands (the first German government vessel visited Fiji in 1872),
annexation was urged on Great Britain by Australia and New
Zealand. Meanwhile the labour traffic, which had been initiated,
so far as the Pacific islands were concerned, by an unsuccessful
attempt in 1847 to employ New Hebridean labourers on a
settlement near the present township of Eden in New South
Wales, had attained considerable proportions, had been
improperly exploited and, as already indicated, had led the
natives to retahation, sometimes without discernment, a
notorious example of this (as was generally considered) being
the murder of Bishop Patteson in 1871. In 1872 an act was
passed by the British government to regulate the labour traffic;
Fiji was annexed in 1874, and in 1875 another act estabUshed
the post of the British high commissioner.
In 1842 the French had formally annexed the Marquesas
Islands; and subsequently extended their sphere, as shown in
the table at the outset of this article, both in the east of Polynesia
and in the south of Melanesia. In some of the island-groups
independent native states were recognized for some time by the
powers, as in the case of Hawaii, which, after the deposition of
the queen in 1893 and the proclamation of a republic in 1894,
was annexed to the United States of America only in 1898, or,
again, in the case of Tonga, which provided a curious example
of the subordination of a native organization to unauthorized
foreign influence. The partition of Polynesia was completed
in 1899, when Samoa was divided between Germany and the
United States. In Micronesia, since the discoveries of the early
Spanish navigators, the Carolines, IMariana and Pelew Islands
had been recognized as Spanish territory until 1885, when
Germany began to establish herself in the first-named group.
Spain had never occupied this group, but protested against the
German action, and Pope Leo XIII. as arbitrator awarded the
Carolines to her. Thereafter Spain made attempts at occupation,
but serious conflicts with the natives ensued, and in 1899 the
islands were sold to Germany, which thus became the predomi-
nating power in Micronesia. When Germany acquired the
Bismarck Archipelago in Melanesia the introduction of German
names (New Pomerania, Ncu Pommern, for New Britain; Neil
Mecklenburg for New Ireland; Neu Langenburg for the Duke of
York Group, &c.) met with no little protest as contrary to
precedent and international etiquette. The provision for the
joint influence of Great Britain and France over the New
Hebrides (1906) brought these islands into some prominence
owing to the hostile criticism directed against the British
government both in Australia and at home. The partition of
the Pacific islands never led to any serious friction between the
powers, though the acquisition of Hawaii was attempted by
Britain, France and Japan before the United States annexed
the group, and the negotiations as to Samoa threatened trouble
for a while. There were occasional native risings, as in Samoa
(where, however, the fighting was rather in the nature of civil
warfare), the French possessions in eastern Polynesia, and the
New Hebrides, apart from attacks on individual settlers or
visitors, which have occurred here and there from the earliest
period of exploration.
Administration. — Of the British possessions among the islands of
the Pacific, Fiji is a colony, and its governor is also high commis-
sioner for the western Pacific. In this capacity, assisted by deputies
and resident commissioners, he exercises jurisdiction over all the
islands except Fiji and those islands which are attached to New
Zealand and Xew South Wales. Some of the islands (e.g. Tonga)
are native states under British protection. Pitcairn, in accordance
with its peculiar conditions of settlement, has a peculiar system of
local government. The New Hebrides are under a mixed British
and French commission. The Hawaiian Islands forma territory of
the United States of America and are administered as such ; Guam is
a naval station, as is Tutuila of the Samoan Islands, where the com-
mandant exercises the functions of governor. New Caledonia is a
French colony under a governor; the more easterly French islands
are grouped together under the title of the French Establishments
in Oceania, and are administered by a governor, privy council,
administrative council, &c., Papeete in Tahiti being the capital.
The seat of government of the German protectorate of Kaiser
Wilhelm's Land (New Guinea) is Herbertshohe in the Bismarck
Archipelago. The administrative area includes the German
Solomon Islands and the Caroline, Pelew and Mariana Islands, which
are divided into three administrative groups — the eastern Carolines,
western Carolines and Marianas. The Marshall Islands form a
" district " {Bezirk) within the same administrative area. The
German Samoan Islands are under an imperial governor.
Races. — In the oceanic islands of the Pacific three different peoples
occur, who have been called Melanesians, Polynesians and Micro-
nesians.' These form themselves naturally into two broad but very
distinct divisions — the dark and brown races; the first division
being represented by the Melanesians, and the Polynesians and
Micronesians together forming the second. The Melanesians,
sometimes called Papuans (q.v., the Malay name for the natives of
New Guinea, the headquarters of the race), are physically negroid
in type, nearly black, with crisp curly hair, flat noses and thick lips.
In all essentials they agree with the African type: such variations
as there are, for example, the more developed eyebrow ridges,
narrower, often prominent nose, and somewhat higher narrower
skull, obviously owing their existence to crossing with the Malay or
the Polynesian races. The oceanic black peoples must thus be
regarded as having a connexion more or less remote with the African
negroes. Whether the two families have a common ancestor in
the ncgritos of Malaysia and the Indian archipelago, or whether
Papuan and Negrito are alike branches of an aboriginal African
race, is a problem yet to be solved. But if their origin is unknown,
there is little doubt that the Melanesians were the earliest occupants
of the oceanic world, possibly reaching it from Malaysia. They
undoubtedly constitute the oldest ethnic stock sometimes modified
on the spot by crossings with migratory peoples (Malays, Poly-
nesians) ; sometimes, as in the eastern Pacific, giving way entirely
before the invaders. The traditions of many of the Polynesian
islanders refer to a black indigenous race which occupied their islands
when their ancestors arrived, and the black woolly-haired Papuan
type is not only found to-day in Melanesia proper, but traces of it
occur throughout Polynesia and Micronesia. That the oceanic
blacks form one family there can be no doubt, and it is evidence of
the immensely remote date at which their dispersion began that
they have a multitude of languages often unintelligible except
locally, and an extraordinary variety of insular customs: differentia-
tions which must have needed centuries to be effected. Furthermore
the Rev. R. H. Codrington {Melanesian Languages) has adduced
evidence to prove that Melanesia is the most primitive form of the
oceanic stock-language, and that both Malays and Polynesians
speak later dialects of this archaic form of speech. The Melanesians
then, must be regarded as the aborigines of Oceania. How they
came to occupy the region it is impossible to say. Evidence exists
as to the migrations of the brown races; but there is nothing to
explain how the blacks came to inhabit the isolated Pacific islands.
In this connexion it is a curious fact, and one which deepens the
mystery, that, unlike the Polynesian peoples, who are all born
sailors, the blacks are singularly unskilful seamen.
The second ethnic division, the Polynesian-Micronesian races,
represents a far later migration and occupation of the Pacific islands.
It has been urged that these brown peoples sprang from one stock
with the Malays and the Malagasy of Madagascar; and that they
represent this parent stock better than the Alalays who have been
much modified by crossings. But linguistic and physical evidence
are against this theorj-. It is practically certain that the Poly-
nesians at least are an older race than the Malays and their sub-
families. The view which has received most general acceptance
is that they represent a branch of the Caucasic division of mankind
who migrated at a remote period possibly in Neolithic times from the
Asiatic mainland travelling by way of the Malay Archipelago and
gradually colonizing the eastern Pacific. The Polynesians, who, as
represented by such groups as the Samoans and Marquesas islanders,
are the physical equal of Europeans, are of a light brown colour, tall,
well-proportioned, with regular and often beautiful features. Such
an explanation of the Polynesian's origin does not preclude a relation-
ship with the Malays. It is most probable that the two stocks have
Asiatic ancestors in common, though the Polynesians remain to-
day, what they must have always been in remote times, a distinct
race. Of their sub-division, the Micronesians, the same cannot be
said. They are undoubtedly a very hybrid race, owing this charac-
teristic to their geographical position in the area where the dominat-
ing races of the Pacific, Malays, Polynesians, Melanesians, Japanese
' From these the three main divisions of the islands are named
Polynesia, Melanesia, Micronesia {q.v.).
PACK, O. VON— PACKER
441
and Chinese, may be said to converge. Careful investigations have
supported the theory that Micronesia was peopled largely from the
Philippines or some portion of the Malay Archipelago at a much
later period than the Polynesian migration. The Micronesians
then are probably of Malay stock much modified by early Poly-
nesian crossings, and probably, within historic times, by Papuan and
even Japanese and Chinese migrations. While their general physique
appro.ximates to the Polynesian type, they are often characterized
by a stunted form and a dark comple.\ion.
In this review of the inhabitants of the Pacific islands an imaginary
ethnological line has been drawn round it so as to include none but
the branches of the two great divisions. But on the borders of the
region, often without real boundary lines, are grouped other peoples,
the true Malays, the Indonesians or pre-Malays with the Negritos
to the westward and the Australians, who are generally admitted
to be a distinct race. Of these races detailed information will be
found under their several headings.
Prehistoric Remains. — One of the most obscure questions with
which the ethnologist has to deal is that of the prehistoric remains
which occur in different and widely separated parts of the oceanic
region. The most remarkable of these are on Easter Island,
where immense platforms built of dressed stone without mortar are
found, together with stone images. Similar remains have been
found on Pitcairn Island. On the island of Tongatabu in the
Tonga group, there is a monument of great stone blocks which must
have been brought thither by sea. In some of the Caroline Islands,
again, there are extensive remains of stone buildings, and in the
Marianas stone monuments occur. No native traditions assign
origin to these remains, nor has any complete explanation of their
existence been offered.
BlBLiOG RA PH Y. — For the results of the various voyages of explorers
see their narratives, especially those of Captain Cook, and among
the earlier Collections of voyages see especially Captain James
Burney, Chronological History of the Discoveries in the South Sea or
Pacific Ocean — from the earliest navigators to 1764 — (London, 1803-
1817). Of general works (which are few) see C. E. Mcinicke,
Die Inseln des Stillen Oceans (Leipzig, 1875); F. H. H. Guillemard,
Australasia, vol. ii., revised by A. H. Keanc, in Stanford's Compen-
diuni 0} Geography and Travel (London, IQOS) ; and W. T. Brigham,
Index to the Islands of the Pacific (Honolulu, 1900). Among other
works (the majority of which deal only with parts of the region known
to the writers from travel), see J. A. Moerenhout, Voyages aux lies du
Grand Ocean (1837) ; W. Ellis, Polynesian Researches (London, 1853) ;
G. Turner, Nineteen Years in Polynesia (London, 1861); T. West,
Ten Years in South Central Polynesia (London, 1865); J. Brenchley,
Cruise of the " Cura^oa " among the South Sea Islands during 1865
(London, 1873); W. Coote, Western Pacific Islands (London, 1883);
H. H. Romillv, The Western Pacific and New Guinea (London, 1887) ;
H. Stonehew'er Cooper, The Islands of the Pacific (London, 1888;
earlier editions, 1880, &c., were under the title Coral Lands); F. J.
Moss, Through Atolls and Islands (London, 1889); W. T. Wawn,
The South Sea Islanders and the Queensland Labour Trade (1889);
G. Haurigot, Les Rlablissements fran(;ais en Oceania (Paris, 1891);
B. F. S. B. Powell, In Savage Isles and Settled Lands (London, 1892) ;
" Sundowner," Rambles in Polynesia (London, 1897); M. M. Shoe-
maker, Islands of the Southerji Seas (New York, 1898); Joachim Graf
Pfeil, Studien . . . aus der ^jMsee (Brunswick, 1899); Robert Louis
Stevenson, In the South Seas (London, 1900) ; A. R. Colquhoun,
The Mastery of the Pacific (London, 1902) ; G. Wegener,
Deutschland in der Siidsee (Bielefeld, 1903) ; A. Kramer, Hawaii,
Ostmikronesien, und Samoa (Stuttgart, 1906); J. D. Rogers, Austra-
lasia, vol. vi. of the Historical Geography of the British Colonies,
edited by Sir C. P. Lucas (Oxford, 1907); T. A. Coghlan, Statistical
Account of the Seven Colonies of Australasia (Sydney). With especial
reference to the natives and their languages see Sir G. Grey, Poly-
nesian Mythology (London, 1855); \V. Gill, Myths and Songs of
the South Pacific (London, 1876); J. D. Lang, Origin and Migrations
of the Polynesian Nation (Sydney, 1877); A. Lesson, Les Polynesiens
(Paris, 1880 seq.) ; R. H. Codrington, Tlie Melanesian Languages
(Oxford, 1885); E. Reeves, Brown Men and Wometi (London, 1898);
J. Gaggin, Among the Man-Eaters (London, 1899); A. C. Haddon,
Head-hunters, Black, White and Brown (London, 1902) ; D.Macdonald,
The Oceanic Languages: their Grammatical Structure, Vocabulary and
Origin (London, 1907); J. Macmillan Brown, Maori and Polynesian
(London, 1907), and the articles Polynesia ; Melanesia. And with
especial reference to natural history, J. D. Hooker, A Lecture on
Insidar Floras (London, 1868) ; E. Drake del Castillo, Remarques sur
la flore de la Polynesie (Paris, 1890); H. B. Guppy, Observations of a
Naturalist in the Pacific, 1896-1899 (London, 1903 seq.).
PACK, OTTO VON (c 14S0-1537), German conspirator,
studied at the university of Leipzig, and obtained a responsible
position under George, duke of Saxony, which he lost owing to
his dishonesty. In 1528 he revealed to Philip, landgrave of
Hesse, the details of a scheme agreed upon in Breslau by the
archduke Ferdinand, afterwards the emperor Ferdinand I.,
and other influential princes, to conquer Hungary for Ferdinand
and then to attack the reformers in Germany. Pack was sent
to Hungary to concert joint 'measures with John Zapolya, the
opponent of Ferdinand in that country; but John, elector of
Saxony, advised that the associates of Ferdinand should be
asked to explain their conduct, and Pack's revelations were
discovered to be false, the copy of the treaty which he had
shown to Philip proving to be a forgery. For some time Pack
lived the life of a fugitive, finally reaching the Netherlands,
where he was seized at the request of Duke George. Examined
under torture he admitted the forgery, and the government of the
Netherlands passed sentence of death, which was carried out
on the 8th of February 1537. This affair has given rise to an
acute controversy as to whether Philip of Ilesse was himself
deceived by Pack, or was his assistant in concocting the scheme.
See W. Schomburgk, Die Packschen Hdndel (Leipzig, 1882);
H. Schwarz, Landgraf Philip p von Hessen und die Packschen Handel
(Leipzig, 1881) ; St Ehses, Geschichte der Packschen Handel (Freiburg,
1 880 and Landgraf Philipp von Hessen und Otto von Pack (Freiburg,
1886); and L. von Ranke, Deutsche Geschichte im Zeitalter der
Reforniati-on (Leipzig, 1882).
PACK (apparently from the root pah-, paq-, seen in Lat.
pangere, to fasten; cf. " compact "), primarily a bundle or
parcel of goods securely wrapped and fastened for transport.
The word, in this sense, is chiefly used of the bundles carried by
pedlars. It was in early use, according to the New English
Dictionary, in the wool trade, and may have been introduced
from the Netherlands. As a measure of weight or quantity the
term has been in use, chiefly locally, for various commodities,
e.g. of wool, 240 lb, of gold-leaf 20 books of 25 leaves each. In
a transferred sense, a " pack " is a collection or gathering of
persons, animals or things; and the verb means generally to
gather together in a compact body. " Pack-ice " is the floating
ice which covers wide areas in the polar seas, broken into large
pieces which are driven (packed) together by wind and current
so as to form practically a continuous sheet. " Packet," a
small parcel, a diminutive of " pack," was first confined in
meaning to a parcel of despatches carried by a post, especially
the state despatches or " mail "; and " packet " properly
" packet-boat," was the name given to the vessels which carried
these state despatches.
PACKER, ASA (1805-1879), American capitalist, was born
in Mystic, Connecticut, on the 29th of December 1805. In 1822
he became a carpenter's apprentice at Brooklyn, Susquehanna
county, Pennsylvania. He worked as a carpenter in New York
City for a time and then in SpringviUe, Pennsylvania, but in
1833 settled at Mauch Chunk, in the Lehigh 'V'alley, where he
became the owner of a canal-boat (carrying coal to Philadelphia),
and then established the firm of A. & R. W. Packer, which built
canal-boats and locks for the Lehigh Coal & Navigation
Company, probably the first through shippers to New York.
He urged upon the Coal & Navigation Company the advantage
of a steam railway as a coal carrier, but the project was not then
considered feasible. In 1851 the majority of the stock of the
Delaware, Lehigh, Schuylkill & Susquehanna Railroad Company
(incorporated in 1846), which became the Lehigh Valley Railroad
Company in January 1853, came into his control, and between
November 1852 and September 1855 a railway line was built
for the Company, largely by Packer's personal credit, from
Mauch Chunk to Easton. He built railways connecting the
main line with coal-mines in Luzerne and Schuylkill counties;
and he planned and built the extension (completed in 1868) of
the line into the Susquehanna 'Valley and thence into New York
state to connect at Waverly with the Erie railway. Packer
also took an active part in politics. In 1841 and 1842 he was
a member of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives; in
1843-1848 was county judge of Carbon county; in 1853-1857 was
a Democratic member of the national House of Representatives;
and in 1869 was the Democratic candidate for the governorship of
Pennsylvania. In 1865 he gave $500,000 and 60 acres (after-
wards increased to 115 acres) in South Bethlehem, Pennsylvania,
for a technical school for the professions represented in the
development of the Lehigh Valley; Lehigh University was
chartered in 1866, and its main building, Packer Hall, was
completed in 1869; he erected a library building in 1877 as a
442
PACORUS— PAD
memorial to his daughter, Mrs Lucy Packer Linderman; and
his will bequeathed $1,500,000 as an endowment for the univer-
sity and $500,000 to the university library, and gave the univer-
sity an interest (nearly one third) in his estate when finally
distributed. He died in Philadelphia on the 17th of May 1879.
The Packer Memorial Church (Protestant Episcopal) on the
Lehigh University campus, given by his daughter, Mrs Mary
Packer Cummings, was dedicated on the 13th of October 1887.
PACORUS, a Parthian name, borne by two Parthian princes.
1. Pacorus, son of Orodes I., was, after the battle of Carrhae,
sent by his father into Syria at the head of an army in 52 B.C.
The prince was stiU very young, and the real leader was Osaces.
He was defeated and killed by C. Cassius, and soon after Pacorus
was recalled by his father, because one of the satraps had rebelled
and proclaimed him king (Die Cass. xl. 28 sqq.; Justin xlii. 4;
cf. Cicero, ad Fam. xv. i; ad AH. vi. i. 14). Father and son
were reconciled, but the war against the Romans was always
deferred. In the autumn of 45 Pacorus and the Arabic chieftain
Alchaudonius came to the help of Q. Caecihus Bassus, who had
rebelled against Caesar in Syria; but Pacorus soon returned, as
his troops were unable to operate in the winter (Cic. ad Att. xiv.
9. 3; Dio Cass, xlvii. 27). At last in 40 B.C. the Roman fugitive
Titus Labienus induced Orodes to send a great army under the
command of Pacorus against the Roman provinces. Pacorus
conquered the whole of Syria and Phoenicia with the exception
of Tyre, and invaded Palestine, where he plundered Jerusalem,
deposed Hyrcanus, and made his nephew Antigonus king (Dio
Cass, xlviii. 24 sqq. ; Joseph. Ant. xiv. 13 ; Tac. Hist. v. 9). Mean-
while Labienus occupied Cilicia and the southern parts of Asia
Minor down to the Carian coast (Dio Cass, xlviii. 26; Strabo xiv.
66.0). But in 39 P. Ventidius Bassus, the general of Mark
Antony, drove him back into Cilicia, where he was killed, defeated
the Parthians in Syria (Dio Cass, xlviii. 39 sqq.) and at last
beat Pacorus at Gindarus (in northern Syria), on the 9th of
June 38, the anniversary of the battle of Carrhae. Pacorus
himself was slain in the battle, which effectually stopped the
Parthian conquests west of the Euphrates (Dio Cass. xhx. 19 seq. ;
Justin xhi. 4; Plut. Anton. 24; Strabo xvi. 751; Velleius ii. 78;
cf. Horace, Od. iii. 6, g).
2. Pacorus, Parthian king, only mentioned by Dio Cass.
Ixviii. 17; Arrian, ap. Suid. s.v. wvr]T7i, according to whom he
sold the kingdom of Osroene :o Abgar VIL; and Ammianus
Marcellinus xxiii. 6. 23, who mentions that he enlarged Ctesiphon
and built its walls. But from his numerous dated coins we
learn that he was on the throne, with interruptions, from a.d.
78-95. He always calls himself Arsaces Pacorus. This mention
of his proper name, together with the royal name Arsaces, shows
that his kingdom was disputed by rivals. Two of them we
know from coins — Vologaeses IL, who appears from 77-79 and
again from 111-146, and Artabanus III. in 80 and 81. Pacorus
may have died about 105; he was succeeded by his brother
Osroes. (Ed. M.)
PACUVIUS, MARCUS (c. 220-130 B.C.), Roman tragic poet,
was the nephew and pupil of Ennius, by whom Roman tragedy
was first raised to a position of influence and dignity. In the
interval between the death of Ennius (169) and the advent of
Accius, the youngest and most productive of the tragic poets,
he alone maintained the continuity of the serious drama, and
perpetuated the character first imparted to it by Ennius. Like
Ennius he probably belonged to an Oscan stock, and was born
at Brundusium, which had become a Roman colony in 244.
Hence he never attained to that perfect idiomatic purity of
style, which was the special glory of the early writers of comedy,
Naevius and Plautus. Pacuvius obtained distinction also as a
painter; and the elder Phny (Nat. Hist. xxxv. 19) mentions a
work of his in the temple of Hercules in the Forum boarium.
He was less productive as a poet than either Ennius or Accius;
and we hear of only about twelve of his plays, founded on Greek
subjects (among them the Antiope, Teucer, Armorum Judicium,
Diilorestes, Chryses, Niptra, &c., most of them on subjects con-
nected with the Trojan cycle), and one praetexta (Paul us) written
in connexion with the victory of Lucius Aemilius Paulus at Pydna
(16S), as the Clastidium of Naevius and the Ambracia of Ennius
were written in commemoration of great military successes.
He continued to write tragedies till the age of eighty, when he
exhibited a play in the same year as Accius, who was then thirty
years of age. He retired to Tarentum for the last years of his
life, and a story is told by GeUius (xiii. 2) of his being visited
there by Accius on his way to Asia, who read his Atrcus to him.
The story is probably, hke that of the visit of the young Terence
to the veteran Caecihus, due to the invention of later gram-
marians; but it is invented in accordance wtih the traditionary
criticism (Horace, Epp. ii. i. 54-55) of the distinction between
the two poets, the older being characterized rather by cultivated
accomplishment (dodus), the younger by vigour and animation
{alius). Pacuvius's epitaph, said to have been composed by
himself, is quoted by Aulus Gellius (i. 24), with a tribute of
admiration to its " modesty, simplicity and fine serious spirit ":
Adulescens, tam etsi properas, te hoc saxum rogat
Ut sese aspicias, deinde quod scriptum 'st legas.
Hie sunt poetae Pacuvi Marci sita
Ossa. Hoc volebam nescius ne esses. Vale.
Cicero, who frequently quotes from him with great admiration,
appears (De Optimo gcnere oratorum, i.) to rank him first among
the Roman tragic poets, as Ennius among the epic, and Caecilius
among the comic poets.
The fragments of Pacuvius quoted by Cicero in illustration
or enforcement of his own ethical teaching appeal, by the forti-
tude, dignity, and magnanimity of the sentiment expressed in
them, to what was noblest in the Roman temperament. They
are inspired also by a fervid and steadfast glow of spirit and
reveal a gentleness and humanity of sentiment blended with the
severe gravity of the original Roman character. So far too as
the Romans were capable of taking interest in speculative
questions, the tragic poets contributed to stimulate curiosity
on such subjects, and they anticipated Lucretius in using the
conclusions of speculative philosophy as well as of common sense
to assail some of the prevailing forms of superstition. Among
the passages quoted from Pacuvius are several which indicate
a taste both for physical and ethical speculation, and others
which expose the pretensions of religious imposture. These
poets aided also in developing that capacity which the Roman
language subsequently displayed of being an organ of oratory,
history and moral disquisition. The literary language of Rom.e
was in process of formation during the 2nd century B.C., and
it was in the latter part of this century that the series of great
Roman orators, with whose spirit Roman tragedy has a strong
affinity, begins. But the new creative effort in language was
accompanied by considerable crudeness of execution, and the
novel word-formations and varieties of inflexion introduced by
Pacuvius exposed him to the ridicule of the satirist LuciUus, and,
long afterwards, to that of his imitator Persius. But, notwith-
standing the attempt to introduce an alien element into the
Roman language, which proved incompatible with its natural
genius, and his own failure to attain the idiomatic purity of
Naevius, Plautus or Terence, the fragments of his dramas are
sufficient to prove the service which he rendered to the formation
of the literary language of Rome as well as to the culture and
character of his contemporaries.
Fragments in O. Ribbeck, Fragmenta scaenicae romanorum
poesis (1897), vol. i. ; see also his Romische Tragodie (1875) ; L. Miiller,
De Pacuvii fahulis (1889) ; W. S. Teuffel, Caecilius Statins, Pacuvius,
Attius, Afranius (1858); and Mommsen, History of Rome, bk. iv.
ch. 13.
PAD. (i) Probably from the same root as " pod," the husk
or seed-covering in certain plants, a term used in various con-
nexions, the sense being derived from that of a soft cushion, or
cushion-like combination used either for protective purposes or
as stuffing or stiffening. In zoology, it is particularly used of
the fleshy elastic protuberances on the sole of the foot of many
animals such as the cat and dog, the camel, &c. ; and of the similar
cushion beneath the toes of a bird's foot or of the tarsal cushion
of an insect. In sporting phraseology the whole paw of a fox
or other beast of chase is called the " pad." A special technical
use, somewhat difficult to connect with the above meanings, is
PADDING— PADEREWSKI
443
for the socket of a brace or for the handle of such tools as a key-
hole saw. (2) The canting word " pad," now surviving in such
words as " footpad," a highway robber, or " pad horse," a
roadster riding-horse with an easy action, is the same as " path,"
adapted directly from the Low Ger. form pad, a track or road.
(3) There is an old EngUsh dialect word for a frog (Scottish and
North) or a toad, more familiar in the diminutive " paddock "
(cf. Hamlet, iii. 4, 189; Macbeth, i. i, g). This is found in many
Teutonic languages, cf. Dan. padde, Du. pad, &c. The diminu-
tive is to be distinguished from " paddock," a small enclosed
plot of pasture land, an altered form of " parrock," O. Eng.
pearroc. (See Park.)
PADDING, the term in textUe manufacture used for the
stiffening of various garments. The most useful and flexible
material for this purpose is hair cloth, but this is too expensive
to be used for the padding of cheap clothing. Hence many kinds
of fibrous material are employed for the same purpose. Hair,
cotton, flax, tow, jute and paper are used, alone and in com-
bination. The fabrics are first woven, and then starched to
obtain the necessary degree of stiffness and flexibility.
PADDINGTON, a municipality of Cumberland county. New
South Wales, AustraUa, 3 m. S.E. of and suburban to Sydney.
It is a busy industrial suburb, devoted to brewing, tanning,
soap-boiUng and various other manufactures. The town hall
is one of the finest in the colony, and there is an excellent free
library. Paddington returns one member to parliament. Pop.
(iQoi), 22,034.
PADDINGTON, a north-western metropolitan borough of
London, England, bounded E. by Hampstead and Marylebone,
S. by the city of Westminster, and W. by Kensington, and
extending N. to the boundary of the county of London. Pop.
(iQOi), 143,976. The best houses are found in the streets
and squares of Bayswater, in the south-west, neighbouring
to Kensington Gardens (a small part of which is in the
borough) and to Hyde Park, farther east, while in the
north-east are broad avenues and " mansions " of residential
flats. Bayswater Road, skirting the park and gardens, forms
part of the southern boundary of the borough; Edgware Road
forms the eastern; from this Harrow Road branches north-west,
Bishop's Road and Westbourne Grove form a thoroughfare
westward, and Queen's Road, Bayswater, leads south from
there to Bayswater Road. The name of Paddington finds no
place in Domesday — it may have been included in the manor
of Tyburn — and the land belonged to the Abbey of Westminster
at an early date. It was granted to the see of London by Edward
VI. In the i8th century the picturesque rural scenery attracted
artists, and even in the middle of the 19th the open country was
reached within the confines of the present borough, which now
contains no traces of antiquity. Bayswater is said to take its
name from Baynard, a Norman, who after the Conquest held
land here and had a castle by the Thames not far above the
Tower of London, whence a ward of the city is called Castle
Baynard. Many springs flowed forth here; the stream called
Westbourne was near at hand, and water was formerly supphed
hence to London. In the borough are the Paddington and the
Queen's Park technical institutes; St. Mary's Hospital, Praed
Street, with medical school; and Paddington Green children's
hospital. The terminus of the Great Western railway, facing
Praed Street, is called Paddington Station. The parliamentary
borough of Paddington has north and south divisions, each
returning one member. The borough council consists of a
mayor, 10 aldermen and 60 councillors. Area, 1356-1 acres.
PADDLE, (i) A verb, meaning to splash, dabble or play
about in water with the feet or hands. (2) A species of oar, with
a broad flat blade and short handle, used without a rowlock
for propelling canoes or other lightly-built craft (see Canoe).
(3) \ small spade-like implement, apparently first used to clear
a ploughshare from clods of earth. The verb seems to be a
frequentative form of "pad," to walk, cognate with "path," or of
"pat," to strike gently, an onomatopoeic word; it may have been
influenced by the Fr. patrouiller, in much the same sense. The
verb may have given rise to "paddle," an oar, an easy transition
in sense; but the New English Dictionary identifies this with
the word for a small spade, which occurs earher than the
verb, and seems to have no connexion in sense with it. The
implement was known in the 17th and i8th centuries also as
" spaddle," a diminutive of " spade," but " paddle " occurs in
this sense as early as 1407. The term " paddle " has been
applied to many objects and implements resembling the oar in
its broad-bladed end: e.g. a shovel used in mixing materials in
glass-making, in brick-making, &c., and also to the float-boards
in the paddle-wheel of a steamboat or the wheel of a water-
mill.
PADERBORN (Lat. Paderae Pontes, i.e. the springs of the
Pader), a town and episcopal see of Germany, in the Prussian
province of Westphalia, 63 m. N.E. from Dortmund on the
railway to Berlin via Altenbeken. Pop. (1905), 26,468, of whom
about 80% are Roman Catholics. It derives its name from the
springs of the Pader, a small affluent of the Lippe, which rise
in the town under the cathedral to the number of nearly 200,
and with such force as to drive several mills within a few yards
of their source. A large part of the town has been rebuilt
since a great fire of 1875. The most prominent of half-a-dozen
churches is the Roman Catholic cathedral, the western part
of which dates from the nth, the central part from the 12th,
and the eastern part from the 13th century; it was restored in
1891-1893. Among other treasures it contains the silver coffin
of St Liborius, a substitute for one which was coined into dollars
in 1622 by Christian of Brunswick, the celebrated freebooter.
The chapel of St Bartholomew, although externally insignificant,
dates from the earlier part of the nth century, and is counted
among the most interesting buildings in Westphalia; it was
restored in 1852. The Jesuit church and the Protestant Abding-
hofkirche are also interesting. The town hall is a picturesque
edifice of the 13th century; it was partly rebuilt in the i6th,
and was restored in the 19th century. Paderborn formerly pos-
sessed a university, founded in 1614, with faculties of theology
and philosophy, but this was closed in 1819. The manufactures
of the town include railway plant, glass, soap, tobacco and
beer; and there is a trade in grain, cattle, fruit and wool.
Paderborn owes its early development to Charlemagne, who
held a diet here in 777 and made it the seat of a bishop a few years
later. The Saxon emperors also held diets in the city, which
about the year 1000 was surrounded with walls. It joined the
Hanseatic League, obtained many of the privileges of a free
Imperial town, and endeavoured to assert its independence of
the bishop. The citizens gladly accepted the reformed doctrines,
but the supremacy of the older faith was restored in 1604 by
Bishop Theodore von Fiirstenberg, who forcibly took possession
of the city. It underwent the same fate at the hands of Chris-
tian of Brunswick during the Thirty Years' War. The bishopric
of Paderborn formed part of the arch-diocese of Mainz, and its
bishop became a prince of the empire about iioo. Some of
the bishops were men of great activity, and the bishopric
attained a certain measure of importance in North Germany,
in spite of ravages during the Thirty Years' War and the
Seven Years' War. It was secularized in 1803 and was given
to Prussia, and after losing it for a few years that country
regained it by the settlement of 1815. The last bishop was
Franz Egon von Fiirstenberg (d. 1825). The bishopric had an
area of nearly 1000 sq. m. and a population of about 100,000.
A new bishopric of Paderborn, with ecclesiastical authority
only, was established in 182 1.
See W. Richter, Geschichte der Stadt Paderborn (Paderborn,
1899-1903); A. Hiibinger, Die Verfassung der Stadt Paderborn im
Mittelalter (Miinster, 1899) ; and J. Freisen, Die Universitdt Paderborn
(Paderborn, 1898). For the history of the bishopric see W. F.
Giefers, Die Anfdnge des Bistums Paderborn (Paderborn, i860);
L. A. T. Holscher, Die dltere Diozese Paderborn (Paderborn, 1886);
the Urkunden des Bistums Paderborn, edited by R. Wilmans (Miinster
1874-1880); and W. Richter, Studien und Quellen zur Paderborner
Geschichte (Paderborn, 1893).
PADEREWSKI, IGNACE JAN (i860- ), Polish pianist
and composer, was born in Podolia, a province of Russian
Poland. He studied music chiefly at Warsaw, Berlin and
444
PADIHAM— PADUA
Vienna, where he was a pupil of Theodor Leschetizky (b. 1830),
the pianist and composer. He made his first public appearance
in Vienna in 1887, in Paris in 1889, and in London in 1S90, his
brilliant playing created a furore which went to almost extrava-
gant lengths of admiration; and his triumphs were repeated
in America in 1891. His name at once became synonymous
with the highest pitch of pianoforte playing, and society was at
his feet. In 1899 he married Baroness de Rosen, and after 1900
he appeared but little in public; but he became better known as a
composer, chiefly of pieces for his own instrument. In 1901 his
opera Manru was performed at Dresden.
PADIHAM, an urban district in the Clitheroe parliamentary
division of Lancashire, England, 3 m. W. by N. of Burnley by
the Lancashire and Yorkshire railway. Pop. (1901), 12,205. It
hes in a wild and dreary district on the precipitous banks of the
Calder. It possesses large cotton mills, and quarries and coal-
mines are worked in the immediate neighbourhood. The
church of St Leonard, founded before 145 1, was frequently
altered before it was rebuilt in 1866-1868 in the Perpendicular
style. Padiham in 1251 was a manor in the possession of
Edmund de Lacy.
PADILLA, JUAN LOPEZ DE, insurrectionary leader in the
" guerra de las comunidades " in which the commons of Castile
made a futile stand against the arbitrary policy of Charles V.
and his Flemish ministers, was the eldest son of the commendator
of Castile, and was born in Toledo towards the close of the
15th century. After the cities, by their deputies assembled at
Avila, had vainly demanded the king's return, due regard for
the rights of the cortes, and economical administration, to be
entrusted to the hands of Spaniards, it was resolved to resort
to force, and the " holy junta " was formed, with Padilla at its
head. An attempt was first made to estabhsh a national
government in the name of the imbecile Joanna, who was then
residing at Tordesillas; with this view they took possession of
her person, seized upon the treasury books, archives, and seals
of the kingdom, and stripped Adrian of his regency. But the
junta soon alienated the nobihty by the boldness with which it
asserted democracy and total abolition of privilege, while it
courted defeat in the field by appointing to the supreme command
of its forces not Padilla but Don Pedro de Giron, who had no
recommendation but his high birth. After the army of the
nobility had recaptured Tordesillas, Padilla did something to
retrieve the loss by taking Torrelobaton and some other towns.
But the junta, which was not fully in accord with its ablest
leader, neutralized this advantage by granting an armistice;
when hostilities were resumed the commons were completely
defeated near Villalar (April 23, 1521), and Padilla, who had been
taken prisoner, was publicly executed on the following day.
His wife, Doiia Maria Pacheco de Padilla, bravely defended
Toledo against the royal troops for six months afterwards, but
ultimately was compelled to take refuge in Portugal.
See Sandoval, Htstoria de Carlos V. (Pamplona, 1681); E. Arm-
strong, Tlie Emperor Charles V. (1902); A. Rodriquez Villa, Jtiana
la Loca (Madrid, 1892); and Pero Mejia, Comunidades de Castilla,
in the Biblioteca de autores espaiioles of Rivadeneyra, vol. xxi.
PADISHAH, the Turkish form of the Persian padshah, a title
— equivalent to " lord king " — of the reigning sovereign.
Though strictly apphed in the East to the shahs of Persia, it
was also used of the Great Moguls or Tatar emperors of Delhi,
and hence it is now used by the natives of British India of the
British sovereign as emperor of India. In Europe it is applied
to the sultan of Turkey. The Persian padshah is from paii, lord,
master, and shah, king. It is now generally considered to have
no etymological connexion with " pasha " {q.v.).
PADSTOW, a small seaport and market town in the St Austell
parliamentary division of Cornwall, England, on a branch of the
London & South Western railway. Pop. of urban district
(1901), 1566. It hes near the north coast, on the west shore,
and 2 m. from the mouth of the estuary of the river Camel, a
picturesque inlet which from Padstow Bay penetrates 6 m. into
the land. The church of St Petrock, with a massive roodstone
in the churchyard, is mainly Perpendicular, with an Early
EngUsh tower. Within are an ancient font, a canopied piscina,
and a fine timber roof over the nave and aisles. Other interest-
ing churches in the locaUty are those of St Petrock Minor,
St Minver, St Michael, St Constantine, and, most remarkable of
all, St Enodock's. This building, erected in the isth century
amid the barren dunes bordering the east shore of the estuary
near its mouth, in place of a more ancient oratory, was long
buried beneath drifts of sand. From a httle distance only the
weather-beaten spire can be seen. A Norman font remains
from the older foundation. A monastery formerly stood on the
high ground west of Padstow, and according to tradition was
founded by St Petrock in the 6th and razed by the Danes in
the loth century. Its site is occupied by Prideaux Place, an
Elizabethan mansion, which contains among other valuable
pictures Van Dyck's portrait of Queen Henrietta Maria. Pentine
Point shelters Padstow Bay on the north-east, but the approach
to the estuary is dangerous during north-westerly gales. Pad-
stow, nevertheless, is a valuable harbour of refuge, although
the river channel is narrow and much silted. Dredging, however,
is prosecuted, the sand being sent inland, being useful as a
manure through the carbonate of lime with which it is impreg-
nated. The Padstow Harbour Association (1829) is devoted to
the rescue of ships in distress, making no claims for salvage beyond
the sums necessary for its maintenance. Padstow has fisheries
and shipyards and some agricultural trade.
Padstow (Aldestowe 1273, Patrikstowe 1326, Patrestowe
1346) and St Ives are the only two tolerably safe harbours on
the north coast of Cornwall. To this circumstance they both
owed their selection for early settlement. St Petrock, who has
been called the patron saint of Cornwall, is said to have landed
here and also to have died here in the 6th century. At the time
of the Domesday survey Bodmin, which treasured the saint's
remains, had become the chief centre of religious influence.
Padstow is not mentioned in that record. It was included in the
bishop of Exeter's manor of Pawton, which had been annexed
to the see of Crediton upon its formation by Edward the Elder
in 909. Padstow was plundered by the Danes in 981. Until
then it is said to have possessed a monastery, which thereupon
was transferred to Bodmin. Two manors of Padstow are
mentioned later — the prior of Bodmin's manor, which included
the rectory, and a manor which passed from the Bonvilles to
the Greys, marquesses of Dorset, both of which were eventually
acquired by the family of Prideaux. From the letters patent
addressed to the baihfTs of Padstow demanding the survey and
delivery of ships for foreign service, the appointment of a king's
butler for the port, and the frequent recourse which was had to
the king's courts for the settlement of disputes of shipping,
Padstow appears to have been a port of considerable repute in
the 14th century. Its affairs were entrusted to a reeve or
baihff acting in conjunction with the principal men of the town.
In 1540 Leland, without sufficient reason, credits Athelstan
with the bestowal of such privileges as it then enjoyed, and
describes it as a parish full of fishermen and Irishmen. Forty
years later Norden describes it as an incorporation and market
town. Carew in 1602 states that it had lately purchased a
corporation and derived great profit from its trade with Ireland.
Some steps towards incorporation were doubtless taken, but
it is remarkable that no traces of its municipal character are
discoverable in any subsequent records. A prescriptive market
is held on Saturdays; two fairs of like nature have disappeared.
PADUA (Lat. Patavium ; Ital. Padova), a city of northern
Italy, on the river Bacchighone, 25 m. W. of Venice and 18 m.
S.E. of Vicenza, with a population of 82,283. The city is
picturesque, with arcaded streets, and many bridges crossing the
various branches of the Bacchiglione, which once surrounded
the ancient walls. The Palazzo deUa Ragione, with its great
hall on the upper floor, is reputed to have the largest roof un-
supported by columns in Europe; the hall is nearly rectangular,
its length 267I ft., its breadth 89 ft., and its height 78 ft.; the
walls are covered with symbohcal paintings in fresco ; the building
stands upon arches, and the upper storey is surrounded by an
open loggia, not unhke that which surrounds the basilica of
PADUCAH
445
Vicenza; the Palazzo was begun in 1172 and finished in 1219; in
1306 Fra Giovanni, an Augustinian friar, covered the whole with
one roof; originally there were three roofs, spanning the three
chambers into which the hall was at first divided; the internal
partition walls remained till the fire of 1420, when the Venetian
architects who undertook the restoration removed them, throw-
ing all three compartments into one and forming the present
great hall. In the Piazza dei Signori is the beautiful loggia
called the Gran Guardia, begun in 1493 and finished in 1526,
and close by is the Palazzo del Capitanio, the residence of the
Venetian governors, with its great door, the work of Falconetto
of Verona, 1532. The most famous of the Paduan churches
is the basilica dedicated to Saint Anthony, commonly called 11
Santo; the bones of the saint rest in a chapel richly ornamented
with carved marbles, the work of various artists, among them
of Sansovino and Falconetto; the basilica was begun about the
year 1230 and completed in the following century; tradition
says that the building was designed by Niccola Pisano; it is
covered by seven cupolas, two of them pyramidal. On the piazza
in front of the church is Donatello's magnificent equestrian
statue of Erasmo da Narni, the Venetian general (1438-1441).
The Eremitani is an Augustinian church of the 13th century,
distinguished as containing the tombs of Jacopo (1324) and
Ubertino (1345) da Carrara, lords of Padua, and for the chapel of
SS James and Christopher, illustrated by Mantegna's frescoes.
Close by the Eremitani is the small church of the Annunziata,
known as the Madonna dell' Arena, whose inner walls are entirely
covered with paintings by Giotto. Padua has long been famous
for its university, founded by Frederick II. in 1238. Under the
rule of Venice the university was governed by a board of three
patricians, called the Riformatori dello Studio di Padova. The
list of professors and alumni is long and illustrious, containing,
among others, the names of Bembo, Sperone Speroni, Veselius,
Acquapendente, Galileo, Pomponazzi, Pole, Scaliger, Tasso
and Sobieski. The place of Padua in the history of art is
nearly as important as its place in the history of learning. The
presence of the university attracted many distinguished artists,
as Giotto, Lippo Lippi and Donatello; and for native art there
was the school of Squarcione (1394-1474), whence issued the
great Mantegna (1431-1506). The industry of Padua has
greatly developed in modern times. Corn and saw mills, dis-
tilleries, chemical factories, breweries, candle-works, ink-works,
foundries, agricultural machine and automobile works, have been
established and are flourishing. The trade of the district has
grown to such an extent that Padua has become the central
market for the whole of Venetia.
Padua claims to be the oldest city in north Italy; the inhabi-
tants pretend to a fabulous descent from the Trojan Antenor,
whose relics they recognized in a large stone sarcophagus ex-
humed in the year 1274. Their real origin is involved in that
obscurity which conceals the ethnography of the earliest settlers
in the Venetian plain. Padua early became a populous and
thriving city, thanks to its excellent breed of horses and the
wool of its sheep. Its men fought for the Romans at Cannae,
and the city became so powerful that it was reported able to
raise two hundred thousand fighting men. Abano in the neigh-
bourhood was made illustrious by the birth of Livy, and Padua
was the native place of Valerius Flaccus, Asconius Pedianus
and Thrasea Paetus. Padua, in common with north-eastern
Italy, suffered severely from the invasion of the Huns under
Attila (452). It then passed under the Gothic kings Odoacer
and Theodoric, but made submission to the Greeks in 540. The
city was seized again by the Goths under Totila, and again
restored to the Eastern Empire by Narses in 568. Following
the course of events common to most cities of north-eastern
Italy, the history of Padua falls under eight heads: (i) the
Lombard rule, (2) the Frankish rule, (3) the period of the bishops,
(4) the emergence of the commune, (5) the period of the despots,
(6) the period of Venetian supremacy, (7) the period of Austrian
supremacy, and finally (8) the period of united Italy, (i)
Under the Lombards the city of Padua rose in revolt (601)
against Agilulph, the Lombard king, and after suffering a long
and bloody siege was stormed and burned by him. The city did
not easily recover from this blow, and Padua was still weak when
the Franks succeeded the Lombards as masters of north Italy.
(2) At the Diet of Aix-la-Chapelle (828) the duchy and march of
Friuli, in which Padua lay, was divided into four counties, one
of which took its title from that city. (3) During the period
of episcopal supremacy Padua does not appear to have been
either very important or very active. The general tendency of
its policy throughout the war of investitures was Imperial and
not Roman; and its bishops were, for the most part, Germans.
(4) But under the surface two important movements were taking
place. At the beginning of the nth century the citizens estab-
lished a constitution, composed of a general council or legislative
assembly and a credenza or executive; and during the next
century they were engaged in wars with Venice and Vicenza
for the right of water-way on the Bacchiglione and the Brenta —
so that, on the one hand, the city grew in power and self-
reliance, while, on the other, the great families of Camposam-
piero, D'Este and Da Romano began to emerge and to divide
the Paduan district between them. The citizens, in order to
protect their liberties, were obliged to elect a podesta, and their
choice fell first on one of the D'Este family (c. 1175). The
temporary success of the Lombard league helped to strengthen
the towns; but their ineradicable jealousy of one another soon
reduced them to weakness again, so that in 1236 Frederick II.
found little difficulty in establishing his vicar Ezzelino da Romano
in Padua and the neighbouring cities, where he practised fright-
ful cruelties on the inhabitants. When Ezzelino met his death,
in 1259, Padua enjoyed a brief period of rest and prosperity:
the university flourished; the basilica of the saint was begun;
the Paduans became masters of Vicenza. But this advance
brought them into dangerous proximity to Can Grande della
Scala, lord of Verona, to whom they had to yield in 131 1. (5)
As a reward for freeing the city from the Scalas, Jacopo da
Carrara was elected lord of Padua in 1318. From that date
till 1405, with the exception of two years (1388-1390) when Gian
Galeazzo Visconti held the town, nine members of the Carrara
family succeeded one another as lords of the city. It was a long
period of restlessness, for the Carraresi were constantly at war;
they were finaUy extinguished between the growing power of
the Visconti and of Venice. (6) Padua passed under Venetian
rule in 1405, and so remained, with a brief interval during the
wars of the League of Cambray, till the fall of the republic in
1797. The city was governed by two Venetian nobles, a podesta
for civil and a captain for military affairs; each of these was
elected for sixteen months. Under these governors the great
and small councils continued to discharge municipal business
and to administer the Paduan law, contained in the statutes of
1276 and 1362. The treasury was managed by two chamber-
lains; and every five years the Paduans sent one of their nobles
to reside as nuncio in Venice, and to watch the interests of his
native town. (7 and 8) After the fall of the Venetian republic
the history of Padua follows the history of Venice during the
periods of French and Austrian supremacy. In 1866 the battle
of Koniggratz gave Italy the opportunity to shake off the last of
the Austrian yoke, when Venetia, and with Venetia Padua,
became part of the united Italian kingdom.
See " Chronicon patavinum,"in L. A. Muratori's Avtiquitates itali-
cae medii aevi, vol. iv. (Milan, 1738);" Rolandino"and " Monaco
padovano " (Muratori's Annali d' Italia, vol. viii., Venice, 1790; Cor-
tusiorum historia," ibid. vol. xii. ; Gattari, " Istoria padovana," ibid,
vol. xvii. ; Vergerius, " Vitae carrariensium principum," ibid. vol.
xvi.); G. Verci, Storia della Marca Trevigiana (Venice, 1786); Abate
G. Gennari, Annali di Padova (Padua); G. Cittadella, Storia della
dominazione carrarese (Padua, 1842); P. Litta, Famiglie celebri, s.v.
"Carraresi" ( 1 825-1 835) ; C.Cantu, Illustrazione grande del Lombardo-
Veneto (Milan, 1857); B. Gonzati, La Basilica di Sant' Antonio di
Padova (Padua, 1853). (H. F. B.)
PADUCAH, a city and the county-seat of McCracken county.
Kentucky, U.S.A., at the confluence of the Tennessee river with
the Ohio, about 12 m. below the mouth of the Cumberland, and
about 50 m. E. by N. of Cairo, Illinois. Pop. (1S90), 12,707;
(1900), 19,446, of whom 5814 were negroes and 516 were foreign-
born; (1910 census) 22,760. It is served by three branches of
446
PAEAN— PAEONIA
the Illinois Central railroad by a branch of the Nashville Chatta-
nooga & St Louis railway (of which it is the terminus), and by
Steamboat hnes to Pittsburg, Louisville, St Louis, New Orleans,
Nash\-ille, Chattanooga, and other river ports. Paducah is in
a rich agricultural region, and its wholesale trade is probably
greater than that of any other city of the state except Louis\-iUe.
Its trade is largely in groceries, whisky, tobacco, hardware,
grain and Mve stock, vegetables and lumber. It is a large loose-
leaf tobacco market, and is a headquarters for tow boats carrjing
coal down the Mississippi. The lUinois Central and the Nash-
ville, Chattanooga & St Louis railways have repair shops here;
and there are numerous manufactures, the value of the factory
products increasing from $2,976,931 in 1900 to $4,443,223 in
1905, or 49-3 "o- Paducah (said to have been named in honour
of an Indian chief who Hved in the \-icinity and of whom there
is a statue in the city) was settled in 1S21, was laid out in 1827,
■was incorporated as a town in 1S30, and was chartered as a citj-
in 1S56. The city was occupied by General U. S. Grant the 5th
of September 1861; on the 25th of March 1864 it was entered
by a Confederate force under General Nathan B. Forrest, who,
however, was imable to capture the fortifications and imme-
diately withdrew.
PAEAN (,Gr. Ilcuav, epic Ilairio}v),'m Homer (/i. v. 401, 899),
the physician of the gods. In other writers the word is a mere
epithet of .A.pollo (q.v.) in his capacity as a god of healing (cf.
iaTpofjiavTLS oOXios), but it is not known whether Paean was
originally a separate deity or merely an aspect of ApoUo. Homer
leaves the question unanswered; Hesiod (cf. schol. Hom. Od. iv.
432) definitely separates the two, and in later poetr>- Paean is
invoked independently as a health god. It is equally difficult
to discover the relation between Paean or Paeon in the sense of
" healer " and Paean in the sense of " song." FarneU refers to
the ancient association between the healing craft and the sing-
ing of spells, and says that it is impossible to decide which is the
original sense. At all events the meaning of " healer " gradually
gave place to that of " h>Tnn," from the phrase 'I17 Ilaidi'.
Such songs were originally addressed to Apollo (cf. the Homeric
Hymn to Apollo 272, and notes in ed. by Sikes and Allen), and
afterwards to other gods, Dionysus, Helios, Asclepius. About
the 4th centur>- the paean became merely a formula of adulation;
its object was either to implore protection against disease and
misfortune, or to offer thanks after such protection had been
rendered. Its connexion with .\pollo as the slayer of the python
led to its association with battle and victory; hence it became
the custom for a paean to be sung by an army on the march and
before entering into battle, when a fleet left the harbour, and also
after a victory had been won. The most famous paeans are those
of BacchyUdes (q.v.) and Pindar (q.v.). Paeans were sung at
the festivals of Apollo (especially the Hyacinthia), at banquets,
and later even at pubUc funerals. In later times they were
addressed not only to the gods, but to human beings. In this
manner the Rhodians celebrated Ptolemy I. of Eg>'pt, the
Samians Lysander of Sparta, the .Athenians Demetrius, the
Delphians Craterus of Macedon. The word " paean " is now-
used in the sense of any song of joj' or triumph.
See A. Fairbanks, ' A Study of the Greek Paean." No. xii. of
Cornell Studies in Classical Philology (New York, 1900) ; L. R. FarneU,
Cults of the Greek Stales.
PAELIGNI, a people of ancient Italy, first mentioned as a
member of a confederacy- which included tne Marsi, Marrucini
and Vestini iqg.v.), with which the Romans came into conflict
in the second Samnite War, 325 B.C. (Lw. \Tii. 29). On the
submission of the Samnites they all came into alliance with
Rome in 305-302 B.C. (Liv. is. 45, x. 3, and Diod. xx. loi), the
PaeUgnians ha\ing fought hard (Diod. xx. 90) against even this
degree of subjection. Each of them was an independent unit,
and in none was there any town or community poUtically
separate from the tribe as a whole. Thus the Vestini issued
coins in the 3rd ceniur>'; each of them appears in the hst of the
aUies in the Social War (.\ppian. B.C. i. 39, with J. Beloch, Der
italische Bund unter romischer Hegtmonie, p. 51). How purely
Italic in sentiment these communities of the mountain country-
remained appears from the choice of the mountain fortress of
Corfinium as the rebel capital. It was renamed Vitellio, the
Oscan form of Itaha, a name which appears, written in Oscan
alphabet, on the coins struck there in 90 B.C. (see R. S. Conway,
The Italic Dialects, p. 216).
The inscriptions we possess are enough to show that the
dialect spoken by these tribes was substantially the same from
the northern boundary of the Frentani to some place in the upper
Aternus valley not far from Amiternum (mod. Aquila), and that
this dialect closely resembled the Oscan of Lucania and Samnium,
though presenting some peculiarities of its own, which warrant,
perhaps, the use of the name North Oscan. The clearest of
these is the use of postpositions, as in Vestine Poimunie-n,
" in templo Pomonali "; pritrom-e, i.e. in proximum, " on to what
lies before you." Others are the sibUation of consonantal i and
the assibUation of -di- to some sound Like that of English j (de-
noted by B in the local variety of Latin alphabet), as in vidadu,
" \-iamd6," i.e. " ad-viam "; Musesa = Lal. Mussedia ; and the
loss of d (in pronunciation) in the ablative, as in aetatu firata
fertlid {i.e. actate fertili finita), where the contrast of the last with
the other two forms shows that the -d was an archaism still
occasionally used in writing. The last sentence of the inter-
esting epitaph from which this phrase is taken may be quoted
as a specimen of the dialect; the stone was found in Pentima, the
ancient Corfinium, and the verj' perfect style of the Latin alpha-
bet in which it is written shows that it cannot well be earlier
than the last century B.C.: " Eite uus pritrome pacris, puus
ecic lexe Hfar," " ite vos porro pacati (cum bona pace), qui hoc
scriptum {Ithar, 3rd decl. neut.) legistis." The form lexe (2nd
plur. perf. indie.) is closely parallel to the inflection of the same
person in Sanskrit and of quite unique Hnguistic interest.
The name Paezigni may belong to the NO-class of Ethnica
(see S.\BtNi), but the difference that it has no vowel before
the suffix suggests that it may rather be parallel with the
suffix of Lat. prvdgnus. If it has any connexion with Lat.
paelex, " concubine," it is conceivable that it meant " half-
breeds," and was a name coined in contempt by the conquering
Sabines, who turned the tonta Maronca into the community of
the Marrucini iq.i\). But, when unsupported by direct evi-
dence, even the most tempting etymologj' is an unsafe guide.
For the history of the Paehgni after 90 B.C. see the references
given in C. I. L. is. 290 (Sithno, esp. Ovid, e.g. Fasti,
iv. 79, Ainor. ii. 16; Florus ii. 9; Caes., B.C., i. 15) and 296
(Corfinium, e.g. Diod. Sic. xxx\'ii. 2, 4, Caes., B.C., i. 15). None
of the Latin inscriptions of the district need be older than Sulla,
but some of them both in language and script show the style
of his period (e.g. 3087, 3137); and, on the other hand, as several
of the native inscriptions, which are all in the Latin alphabet,
show the normal letters of the Ciceronian period, there is Uttle
doubt that, for religious and private purposes at least, the
Paehgnian dialect lasted down to the middle of the ist century
B.C.
Paelignian and this group of inscriptions generally form
a most important fink in the chain of the ItaUc dialects, as
without them the transition from Oscan to Umbrian would
be completely lost. The unique collection of inscriptions and
antiquities of Pentima and the museum at Sulmona were both
created by the late Professor Antonio de Nino, whose brilliant
gifts and unsparing devotion to the antiquities of his native
district rescued every single Paelignian monument that we
possess.
For further details and the text of the inscriptions, the place-
names, «S:c.. see R. S. Conway, The Italic Dialects, pp. 235 sqq., and
the earlier authorities there cited. (R. S. C.)
PAEONIA, in ancient geography, the land of the Paeonians,
the boundaries of which, like the early history of its inhabitants,
are ver>- obscure. The Paeonians are regarded as descendants
of the Phr>'gians of .\sia Minor, large numbers of whom in early
times crossed over to Europe. According to the national legend
(Herodotus v. 16), they were Teucrian colonists from Troy, and
Homei {Iliad, ii. 848) speaks of Paeonians from the Axius
fighting on the side of their Trojan kinsmen. Before the reign
PAEONIUS— PAER
447
of Darius Hystaspes, they had made their way as far east as
Perinthus in Thrace on the Propontis. At one time all Mygdonia,
together with Crestonice, was subject to them. When Xerxes
crossed Chalcidice on his way to Therma (Thessalonica) he is
said to have marched " through Paeonian territory." They
occupied the entire valley of the Axius (Vardar) as far inland as
Stobi, the valleys to the east of it as far as the Strymon (Struma),
and the country round Astibus and the river of the same name,
with the water of which they anointed their kings. Emathia,
the district between the Hahacmon (Bistritza) and Axius, was
once called Paeonia; and Pieria and Pelagonia were inhabited
by Paeonians. In consequence of the growth of Macedonian
power, and under pressure from their Thracian neighbours, their
territory was considerably diminished, and in historical times
was limited to the N. of Macedonia from lUyria to the Strymon.
The chief town and seat of the kings was Bylazora (Veles,
Kuprolu on the A.xius); in the Roman period, Stobi (Pusto-
Gradsko). The Paeonians included several independent tribes,
all later united under the rule of a single king. Little is known
of their manners and customs. They adopted the cult of Dionysus,
known amongst them as Dyalus or Dryalus, and Herodotus
(iv. 33) mentions that the Thracian and Paeonian women offered
sacrifice to Queen Artemis (probably Bendis). They worshipped
the sun in the form of a small round disk fi.xed on the top of a
pole. A passage in Athenaeus (ix. p. 398) seems to indicate
the affinity of their language with Mysian. They drank barley
beer and various decoctions made from plants and herbs. The
country was rich in gold and a bituminous kind of wood (or
stone, which burst into a blaze when in contact with water) called
cnrlvos (or cnvivos). The women were famous for their industry.
In this connexion Herodotus (v. 12) tells the story that Darius,
having seen at Sardis a beautiful Paeonian woman carrying
a pitcher on her head, leading a horse to drink, and spinning
flax, all at the same time, inquired who she was. Haxdng been
informed that she was a Paeonian, he sent instructions to
Megabyzus, commander in Thrace, to deport two tribes of the
nation without delay to Asia. At the time of the Persian
invasion, the Paeonians on the lower Strj'mon had lost, while
those in the north maintained, their independence. They
frequently made inroads into Macedonian territory, until they
were finally subdued by PhiUp, who permitted them to retain
their government by kings. The daughter of Audoleon, one of
these kings, was the wife of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, and Alex-
ander the Great wished to bestow the hand of his sister Cynane
upon Langarus, who had shown himself loyal to Philip. .\n
inscription, discovered in 1877 at Olympia on the base of a statue,
states that it was set up by the community of the Paeonians
in honour of their king and founder Dropion. Another
king, whose name appears as Lyppeius on a fragment of an
inscription found at Athens relating to a treaty of alliance is
no doubt identical with the Lycceius or Lycpeius of Paeonian
coins (see B. V. Head, Historia numoriim, 1887, p. 207). In
280 the Gallic invaders under Brennus ravaged the land of the
Paeonians, who, being further hard pressed by the Dardani, had
no alternative but to join the Macedonians, whose downfall they
shared. After the Roman conquest, Paeonia east and west of
the Axius formed the second and third districts respectively
of Macedonia (Livy xlv. 29). Under Diocletian Paeonia and
Pelagonia formed a province called Macedonia seciinda or
salutaris, belonging to the prefecture of Illyricum.
See W. Tomaschek, " Die alten Thraker " in Sitzungsherichte der
k. Akad. der Wissenschaften. xxviii. (\'ienna, 1893); H. F. O. Abel,
Makedonien vor Konig Philipp (Leipzig, 1847); C. O. Miiller, t'ber
die Wohnsiize, die Abstammung und die dllere Geschichte des makedon-
ischen Volkes (Berlin, 1825); T. Desdevises-u-Dezert, Ceographie
ancienne de la Macedoine (Paris, 1863); see also Macedonia.
PAEONIUS, of Mende in Thrace, a Greek sculptor of the
latter part of the 5th century. The statement of Pausanias
that he executed one of the pediments of the temple of Zeus
at Olympia is rejected by critics. But we possess an important
work of Paeonius in the Victory found in the German excava-
tions at Olympia, and set up, according to the most probable
view, in memory of the battle of Sphacteria (see Greek Art,
fig. 36). It bears the inscription " Dedicated to Olympian Zeus
by the Messenians and Xaupactians as a tithe of the spoil of
their enemies. Paeonius of Mende made the statue, and was a
successful competitor in the construction of the gable-figures
for the temple." The gable figures last mentioned were doubt-
less gilt victories of bronze which stood an the gable, not in it.
Pausanias seems to have misunderstood the phrase as im.plying
that Paeonius made one of the pedimenlal groups.
PAEONY (botanically Paeonia; Nat. ord. Ranunculaceae
q.v.) a genus of plants remarkable for their large and gorgeous
flowers. There are two distinct sets, one the strong-growing
herbaceous kind, with fleshy roots and annual stems, derived
mainly from Paeonia albijlora and P. officinalis; the other called
the tree paeony, stiff-growing plants with half-woody permanent
stems, which have sprung from the Chinese P. Moutan.
The herbaceous paeonics usually grow from 2 to 3 ft. in
height, and have large much-divided leaves, and ample flowers
of varied and attractive colours, and of a globular form in the
double varieties which are those most prized in gardens. They
usually blossom in May and June, and as ornaments for large
beds in pleasure grounds, and for the front parts of shrubberies,
few flowers equal them in gorgeous effect. A good moist loamy
soil suits them best, and a moderate supply of manure is
beneficial. They are impatient of frequent transplantings or
repeated divisions for purposes of propagation, but when
necessary they may be multiphed by this means, early in
autumn, care being taken that a sound bud is attached to each
portion of the tuberous roots.
The older varieties of P. albijiora include Candida, festa,
fragrans, Humei, Reevesii, nibesccns, vestal is, Whilleyi, &c.;
those of P. officinalis embrace albicans, ancmoniflora, Baxteri,
blanda, rosea, Sabini, &c. The garden varieties of modern
times are, however, still more beautiful, the flowers being in
many instances deUcately tinted with more than one colour,
such as buff" with bronzy centre, carmine with yellowish centre,
rose with orange centre, white tinted with rose, &c.
The Siberian P. tcniiifolia, with finely cut leaves and crimson
flowers, is a graceful border plant, and its double-flowered
variety is perhaps the most elegant of its race.
The Moutans or tree paeonies are remarkable for their sub-
shrubby habit, forming vigorous plants sometimes attaining
a height of 6 to 8 ft., and producing in May magnificent flowers
which vary in colour from white to lilac, purple magenta, violet
and rose. These are produced on the young shoots, which
naturally bud forth early in the spring, and are in consequence
liable in bleak locahties, unless protected, to be cut off by spring
frosts. They require to be thoroughly ripened in summer,
and therefore a hot season and a dryish situation are desirable
for their well-being; and they require perfect rest during winter.
SmaU plants with a single stem, if well matured so as to ensure
their blossoming, make very attractive plants when forced.
They are increased by grafting in late summer or autumn on the
roots of the herbaceous paeonies.
The yellow-tlowered tree paeony {P. lulea) was introduced
from China in 18S7, but is still very rare. There are hundreds
of names given to the colour variations of both the herbaceous
and tree paeonies, but as these have only a fleeting interest
it is better to consult current catalogues for the latest types.
PAER, FERDINANDO (i 771-1830), Itahan musical composer,
was born at Parma on the ist of June 1771. He studied the
theory of music under the viohnist Ghiretti, a pupil of the
Conservatoire deUa Pieta de' Turchini at Naples. His first
opera, La Locanda de' vagcbondi. was published when he was
only sixteen; others rapidly foUowed, and his name was soon
famous throughout Italy. In 1707 he went to Vienna, where his
wife, the singer Riccardi, had obtained an engagement at the
opera; here he produced a series of operas, including his La
Camilla ossia il Sotteranco (1790) and his Achille (1801). In
1S03 he was appointed composer to the court theatre at Dresden,
where his wife was also engaged as a singer, and in 1804 the life
appointment of Hofkapelhneistcr was bestowed upon him by the
elector. At Dresden he produced, inter alia, II Sargino (1S03),
AA-
8
PAESTUM— PAEZ, P.
an opera which obtained a wide popularity, and Leonora (1804),
based on the same story as Beethoven's Fidelio. In 1807
Napoleon while in Dresden took a fancy to him, and took him
with him to Warsaw and Paris at a salary ot 28,000 francs.
In 181 2 he succeeded Spontini as conductor of the Italian opera
in Paris. This post he retained at the Restoration, receiving
also the posts of chamber composer to the king and conductor
of the private orchestra of the duke of Orleans. In 1823 he
retired from the Italian opera in favour of Rossini. In 183 1
he was elected a member of the Academy, and in 1832 was
appointed conductor of his orchestra by King Louis Philippe.
He died on the 3rd of May 1839.
Paer wrote in all 43 operas, in the Italian style of Paesiello
and Cimarosa. His other works, which include nine religious
compositions, thirteen cantatas, and a short list of orchestral
and chamber pieces, are of little importance; in any case the
superficial quality of his compositions was such as to secure
him popularity while he lived and after his death obHvion.
See R. Eitner; Quellen-Lexikon (Leipzig, 1902), vii. 277, sqq., where
a list of his works is given.
PAESTUM (Gr. Iloo-etSwi'ta; mod. Pesto), an ancient Greek
city in Lucania, near the sea, with a railway station 24 m. S.E. of
Salerno, 5 m. S. of the river Silarus (Salso). It is said by Strabo
(v. 251) to have been founded by Troezenian and Achaean
colonists from the still older colony of Sybaris, on the Gulf of
Tarentum; this probably happened not later than about 600 B.C.
Herodotus (i. 167) speaks of it as being already a flourishing city
in about 540 B.C., when the neighbouring city of Velia was
founded. For many years the city maintained its independence,
though surrounded by the hostile native inhabitants of Lucania.
Autonomous coins were struck, of which many specimens now
exist (see Numismatics). After long struggles the city fell into
the hands of the Lucanians (who nevertheless did not expel the
Greek colonists) and in 273 B.C. it became a Latin colony under
the Roman rule, the name being changed to the Latin form
Paestum. It successfully resisted the attacks of Hannibal;
and it is noteworthy that it continued to strike copper coins even
under Augustus and Tiberius. The neighbourhood was then
healthy, highly cultivated, and celebrated for its flowers; the
" twice blooming roses of Paestum " are mentioned by Virgil
{Gear. iv. 118), Ovid {Met. xv. 70S), Martial (iv. 41, 10; vi. 80, 6),
and other Latin poets. Its present deserted and malarious state
is probably owing to the silting up of the mouth of the Silarus,
which has overflowed its bed, and converted the plain into
unproductive marshy ground. Herds of buffaloes, and the few
peasants who watch them, are now the only occupants of this
once thickly populated and garden-like region. In 871 Paestum
was sacked and partly destroyed by Saracen invaders; in the nth
century it was further dismantled by Robert Guiscard, and in
the i6th century was finally deserted.
The ruins of Posidonia are among the most interesting of
the Hellenic world. The earliest temple in Paestum, the so-
called Basilica, must in point of style be associated with the
temples D and F at Selinus, and is therefore to be dated about
570-554 B.C.' It is a building of unique plan, with nine columns
in the front and eighteen at the sides, 4! ft. in diameter. A hne
of columns runs down the centre of the cella. The columns
have marked entasis, and the flutings end in a semicircle, above
which is generally a torus (always present in the so-called temple
of Ceres). The capitals are remarkable, inasmuch as the necking
immediately below the echinus is decorated with a band of leaves,
the arrangement of which varies in different cases. The columns
and the architraves upon them are well preserved, but there is
nothing above the frieze existing, and the cella wall has entirely
disappeared. Next in point of date comes the so-called temple
of Ceres, a hexastyle peripteros, which may be dated after 540 B.C.
The columns are all standing, and the west and part of the east
pediment are still in situ; but of the cella, again, nothing is
' The dating adopted in the present article, which is in absolute
contradiction to that given in the previous edition of this work, is
that given by R. Koldewey and O. Puchstein, Die griechischen
Tempel in Unteritalien und Sicilien (Berlin, 1899), 11-35.
left. The capitals are like those of the Basilica, but the details
are differently worked out. In front of this temple stood a
sacrificial altar as long as the temple itself.
The most famous of the temples of Paestum, the so-called
temple of Neptune, comes next in point of date (about 420 B.C.).
It is a hexastyle peripteros with fourteen columns on each side,
and is remarkably well-preserved, both pediments and the
epistyle at the sides being still in situ. No traces of the decora-
tion of the pediments and metopes have been preserved. The
cella, the outer walls of which have to a great extent disappeared,
has two internal rows of seven columns 4I ft. in diameter, upon
which rests a simple epistyle, supporting a row of smaller columns,
so that the interior of the cella was in two storeys.
The Temple of Peace is a building of the Roman period of
the 2nd century B.C., with six Doric columns on the front,
eight on the sides and none at the back; it was excavated in
1S30 and is now entirely covered up. Traces of a Roman
theatre and amphitheatre (?) have also been found. The circuit
of the town walls, well built of squared blocks of travertine,
and 16 ft. thick, of the Greek period, is almost entire; they are
about 3 m. in circumference, enclosing an irregular, roughly
rectangular area. There were four gates, that on the east with
a single arched opening being well-preserved. Outside the north
gate is a street of tombs, in some of which were found arms,
vases and fine mural paintings (now in the Naples Museum).
The following table gives the chief dimensions of the four temples
described above in feet ; —
J:
J3
"o
'o
"0 .
^
"o »
^ a
j^ •
V =
c
u C
a
-5 rt
pa
5°
'0
c
Basilica (so-
called). .
178
8of
i37i
44^
4f
21
50
Temple of
Ceres (so -
called) . .
108
47i
78I
25^
6i
i9i
34
Temple of
Neptune
(so-called) .
197
80
1494
44i
4!
28
36
Temple of
Peace (so-
called) . .
84
44 1
48 5-
28i
3
?
20
(T. As.)
PAEZ, JOSfi ANTONIO (i 790-1873), Venezuelan president,
was born of Indian parents near Acarigua in the province of
Barinas on the 13th of June 1790. He came to the front in the
war of independence against Spain, and his military career, which
began about 1810, was distinguished by the defeat of the Spanish
forces at Mata de la Miel (1815), at Montecal and throughout
the province of Apure (1816), and at Puerto Cabello (1823). In
1820 he furthered the secession of Venezuela from the republic
of Colombia, and he became its first president (1830-1834).
He was again president in 1839- 1843, and dictator in 1846; but
soon afterwards headed a revolution against his successor and
was thrown into prison. In 1850 he was released and left the
country, but in 1858 he returned, and in i860 was made
minister to the United States. A year afterwards he again
returned and made himself dictator, but in 1863 was overthrown
and exiled. He died in New York on the 6th of May 1873.
His autobiography was published at New York in 1 867-1 869, and
his son Ramon Paez wrote Public^ Life of J. A. Paez (1864). An
Apoteosis by Guzman Blanco was published at Paris in 1889.
PAEZ, PEDRO (1564-1622), Jesuit missionary to Abyssinia,
was born at Olmedo in Old Castile in 1564. Having entered
the Society of Jesus, he was set apart for foreign mission service,
and sent to Goa in 1588. Within a year he and a fellow mis-
sionary were dispatched from that place to Abyssinia to act as
spiritual directors to the Portuguese residents. On his way
thither, he fell into the hands of pirates at Dhofar and was
sent to Sanaa, capital of the Yemen, where he was detained
PAGAN— PAGANINI
449
for seven years by the pasha as a slave. Having been redeemed
by his order in 1596, he spent some years in mission work on the
west coast of India, and it was not until 1603 that he again set out
for Abyssinia, and landed at the port of Massawa. At the
headquarters of his order, in Fremona, he soon acquired the
two chief dialects of the country, translated a catechism, and
set about the education of some Abyssinian children. He also
estabhshed a reputation as a preacher, and having been sum-
moned to court, succeeded in vanquishing the native priests
and in converting Za-Denghel, the negus, who wrote to the
pope and the king of Spain for more missionaries, an act of zeal
which involved him in civil war with the Abyssinian priests (who
dreaded the influence of Paez) and ultimately cost him his life
(Oct. 1604). Paez, who is said to have been the iirst European
to visit the source of the Blue Nile, died of lever in 1622.
In addition to the translation of the Catechism, Paez is supposed
to be the author of a treatise De Abyssinorum erroribus and a history
of Ethiopia (ed. C. Beccari in Reriitn aethio picarum scriptores
occidentales inediti a saeculo XVI. ad XIX. (1905).
See A. de Backer, Bibliothegue de la Compagnie de Jdsus (ed. C.
Sommervogel) vi. (1895); W. D. Cooley in Bulletin de la socicte de
geographie (1872), 6th series, vol. iii.
PAGAN, a town and former capital, in Myingyan district.
Upper Burma, 92 m. S.W. of Mandalay. It was founded by
King Pyinbya in 847, and remained the capital until the extinc-
tion of the dynasty in 1298. Pagan itself is now a mere village,
but hundreds of pagodas in various stages of decay meet the
eye in every direction. The majority of them were built by King
Anawra-hta, who overcame the Peguan king, Manuha of Thaton.
It was Anawra-hta who introduced the Buddhist religion in
Upper Burma, and who carried off nearly the whole Thaton
population to build the pagodas at Pagan on the model of the
Thaton originals. Many of these are of the highest architectural
interest, besides being in themselves most imposing structures.
Pagan is still a popular place of Buddhist pilgrimage, and a
museum has been built for the exhibition of antiquities found
in the neighbourhood. The population in 1901 was 6254.
PAGAN (Lat. paganus, of or belonging to a pagiis, a canton,
county district, village, commune), a heathen, one who worships
a false god or false gods, or one who belongs to a race or nation
which practises idolatrous rites and professes polytheism. In
its early application paganus was applied by the Christian Church
to those who refused to believe in the one true God, and still
followed the Greek, Roman and other ancient faiths. It thus
of course excluded Jews. In the middle ages, at the time of
the crusades and later, " pagan " and " paynim " (O. Fr.
paenime, Late Lat. paganismus, heathenism or heathen lands)
were particularly applied to Mahommcdans, and sometimes to
Jews. A special signiticance attaches to the word when applied
to one who adopts that attitude of cultured indifference to, or
negation of, the various theistic systems of rehgion which was
taken by so many of the educated and aristocratic classes in
the ancient Hellenic and Roman world.
It has long been accepted that the application of the name
pagaims, villager, to non-Christians was due to the fact that
it was in the rural districts that the old faiths lingered. This
explanation assumes that the use of paganus in this sense arose
after the establishment of Christianity as the religion generally
accepted in the urban as opposed to the rural districts, and
it is usually stated that an edict of the emperor Valentinian
of 368 dealing with the religio paganorum (Cod. Thcod. xvi. 2)
contains the first documentary use of the word in this secondary
sense. It has now been shown that the use can be traced much
earUer. TertulKan (c. 202; De corona militis, xi.), says " Apiid
hunc (Christum) tam miles est paganus fidehs quam paganus
est miles infideUs." This gives the clue to the true explanation.
In classical Latin paganus is frequently found in contradistinc-
tion to miles or armatus (cf. especiaDy Tac. Hist. i. 53; ii. 14,
88; iii. 24, 43, 77), where the opposition is between a regular
enrolled soldier and the raw half-armed rustics who sometimes
formed a rude militia in Roman wars, or, more widely, between
a soldier and a civilian. Thus the Christians who prided them-
selves on being " soldiers of Christ " (milites) could rightly term
the non-Christians pagani. See also Gibbon, Decline and Fall
of the Roman Empire (ed. Bury, 1896), ch. xxi. note ad fin.
PAGANINI, NICOLO (1784-1840), Itahan virtuoso on the
violin, was born at Genoa on the i8th of February 1784. His
father Antonio, a clever amateur, who was in the shipping
business, taught him the violin at a very early age, and he had
further lessons from the maestro di cappella of the cathedral of
San Lorenzo. He first appeared in public at Genoa in 1793,
with triumphant success. In 1795 he visited Parma for the
purpose of taking lessons from Alessandro RoUa, who, however,
said that he had nothing to teach him. On returning home,
he studied more diligently than ever, practising single passages
for ten hours at a time, and publishing compositions so difficult
that he alone could play them. His first professional tour,
through the cities of Lombardy, was made with his father in
1797. For some years he led a chequered career; he gambled at
cards, and had to pawn his violin; and between 1801 and 1804
he lived in retirement, in Tuscany, with a noble lady who was
in love with him. In 1805 however he started on a tour through
Europe, astonishing the world with his matchless performances,
and especially with his unprecedented playing on the fourth
string alone. The princess of Lucca and Piombo, Napoleon's
sister, made him her musical director, and he became a prominent
figure at the court where his caprices and audacities were a by-
word. He abandoned this in 1813, and visited Bologna, Milan,
and other cities, gaining further fame by his extraordinary
virtuosity. In Venice, in 1815, he began a liaison with Antonia
Bianchi, a dancer, which lasted till 1828; and by her he had a
son Achillino, born in 1826. Meanwhile the world rang with
his praises. In 1827 the pope honoured him with the
Order of the Golden Spur; and, in the following year,
he extended his travels to Germany, beginning with Vienna,
where he created a profound sensation. He first appeared
in Paris in 1831; and on the 3rd of June in that year
he played in London at the King's Theatre. His visit to
England was preluded by the most romantic stories. He was
described as a political victim who had been immured for twenty
years in a dungeon, where he played all day long upon an old
broken violin with one string, and thus gained his wonderful
mechanical dexterity. The result of this and other foolish
reports was that he could not walk the streets without being
mobbed. He charged what for that time were enormous fees;
and his net profits in England alone, during his six years of
absence from his own country, amounted to some £17,000.
In 1832 he returned to Italy, and bought a villa near Parma.
In 1833 he spent the winter in Paris, and in 1834 Berlioz com-
posed for him his beautiful symphony, Harold en Italic. He was
than at the zenith of his fame; but his health, long since ruined
by excessive study, declined rapidly. In 1838 he suffered
serious losses in Paris through the failure of the " Casino
Paganini," a gambling-house which was re''used a licence. The
disasters of this year increased his malady — laryngeal phthisis —
and, after much suffering, he died at Nice on the 17th of May
1S40. His wiU left a fortune of £So,ooo to his son Achillino;
and he bequeathed one of his violins, a fine Joseph Guarnerius,
given him in early hfe by a kind French merchant, to the munici-
pality of Genoa, who preserve it as one of their treasures.
Paganini's style was impressive and passionate to the last
degree. His cantabile passages moved his audience to tears,
while his tours de force were so astonishing that a Viennese
amateur publicly declared that he had seen the devil assisting
him. His name stands in history as that of the most extraordi-
nary e,xecutant ever known on the vioh'n; and in spite of greater
artists or no less remarkable later virtuosi, this reputation will
remain with Paganini as the inaugurator of an epoch. He
was the first to show what could be done by brilhance of tech-
nique, and his compositions were directed to that end. He was
an undeniable genius, and it may be added that he behaved
and looked like one, with his tall, emaciated figure and long
black hair.
There are numerous lives of Paganini; see the article and biblio-
graphy in Grove's Dictionary of Music.
XX. IS
450
PAGE, T. N.— PAGEANT
PAGE, THOMAS NELSON (1853- ), American author,
was born at Oakland Plantation, Hanover county, Virginia,
on the 23rd of April 1853, the great-grandson of Thomas Nelson
(1738-1789) and of John Page (1744-1808), both governors
of Virginia, the former being a signer of the Declaration of
Independence. After a course at Washington and Lee Univer-
sity (1S69-1872) he graduated in law at the university of
Virginia (1874), and practised, chiefly in Richmond, until 1S93,
when he removed to Washington, D. C, and devoted himself to
writing and lecturing. In 1884 he had pubhshed in the Century
Magazine " Marse Chan," a tale of hfe in Virginia during the
Civil War, which immediately attracted attention. He wrote
other stories of negro life and character (" Meh Lady," " Unc'
Edinburg's Drowndin'," and " Ole 'Stracted "), which, with
two others, were published in 1887 with the title In Ole Virginia,
perhaps his most characteristic book. This was followed by
Bcfo' de War (iS88), dialect poems, written with Armistead
Churchill Gordon (b. 1855); On Newjound River (1S91); The
Old South (1891), social and political essays; Elskct and Other
Stories (1892); The Burial of the Guns (1894); Pastime Stories
(1894); The Old Gentleman of the Black Stock (1897); Social Life
in Old Virginia before the War (1897); Two Prisoners (189S);
Red Rock (1898), a novel of the Reconstruction period; Gordon
Keith (1903); The Negro: the Southerner's Problem (1904);
Bred in the Bone and Other Stories (1904); The Coast of Bohemia
(1906), poems; The Old Dominion: Her Making and her Man7iers
(1907), a collection of essays; Under the Crust (1907), stories;
Robert E. Lee, the Southerner (1908); John Marvel, Assistant
(1909), a novel; and various books for children. He is at his
best in those short stories in which, through negro character
and dialect, he pictures the life of the Virginia gentry, especially
as it centred about the mutual devotion of master and servant .
PAGE, WILLIAM (1811-1885), American artist, was born at
Albany, New York, on the 3rd of January 181 1. He studied
for the ministry at the Andover Theological Seminary in 1828-
1830 and in later life became a Swedenborgian. He received
his training in art from S. F. B. Morse and in the schools of the
National Academy of Design, and in 1836 became a National
Academician. From 1849 to i860, he Lived in Rome, where
he painted portraits of his friends Robert and Elizabeth
Browning. The first collection of Lowell's Poems (1843) was
dedicated to Page, who was also a friend of W. W. Story. In
1871-1873 he was president of the National Academy of Design.
He died at Tottenville, Staten Island, New York, on the ist
of October 18S5. Besides numerous portraits he painted
" Farragut at the Battle of Mobile," belonging to the Tsar of
Russia; a " Holy Family," in the Boston Athenaeum; and " The
Young Merchants," at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine
Arts, Philadelphia. He modelled and painted several portraits
of Shakespeare, based on the Becker " death mask." He wrote
A New Geometrical Method of Measuring the Human Figure
(i860).
PAGE, (i) A term used of a boy, lad or young male person
in various capacities, positions or offices. The etymology is
doubtful; the word is common to the Romanic languages;
cf. O. Fr. and Span, page, Port, pagem, Ital. paggio. The
Med. Lat. pagius has been commonly referred to Gr. xatStoi',
diminutive of iraTs, boy, but the connexion is extremely
doubtful. Others refer the word to the pueri paedagogiani,
young slaves trained to become paedagogi (Gr. wmSaycoy oi),
or tutors to young boys attending school. Under the empire,
numbers of such youths were attached to the imperial household
for the purposes of ceremonial attendance on state occasions,
thus occupying much the same position as that of the pages
of a royal or noble household in medieval and modern times.
In fact the term paedagogiani became equivalent to pueri
honorarii, qui in palatio ministerio principis militabanl (so
Du Cange, Glossarium, s.v.). Littre refers pagius to pagensis,
i.e. rustic, belonging to the country districts (pagus), and adduces
from this the fact that the pagii were not necessarily boys or
youths; and quotes from Claude Fauchet (1530-1601) the
statement (Lib. I. Orig. milit. cap. i.) that up to the time of
Charles VI. (1368-1403) and Charles VII. (1403-1461) " le
mot de Page .... sembloit etre seulement donne a de
viles personnes, comme a garfons de pied." Skeat {Etyvi.
Diet.) points out that the form of the word in Portuguese,
pagem, indicates the derivation from pagensis. The word
" page " was applied in English to a boy or youth who was
employed as an assistant to an older servant, acting as it
were as an apprentice and learning his duties. In present
usage the chief apphcations are: (a) to a boy or lad, generally
wearing livery, and sometimes styled a " buttons," who is
employed as a domestic servant; and (6) to a young boy who,
dressed in fancy costume, forms part of the bridal procession
at weddings. The word is also used (c) as the title of various
officials of different rank in royal and other households; thus
in the British royal household there are pages of honour, a page
of the chambers, pages of the presence, and pages of the back
stairs. These, no doubt, descend from the pueri paedagogiani
of the Roman imperial household through the young persons
of noble or gentle birth, who, during the middle and later ages,
served in the household of royal and noble persons, and received
a training to fit them for their future position in society. In
the times of chivalry the " page " was one who served a knight
and was trained to knighthood, and ranked next to a squire.
(See Knighthood and Valet.)
(2) In the sense of one side of a leaf of printed or written
matter, the word is derived through Fr. from Lat. pagina
[pangere, to fasten).
PAGEANT, in its most general sense a show or spectacle;
the more specific meanings are involved in the etymology of
the word and its connexion with the history of the early mystery
plays (see Drama). In its early forms, dating from the 14th
century, the word is pagyn or pagen, the excrescent i or d, as
in " tyrant," " ancient," not appearing till later. The Med.
Lat. equivalent is pagina, and this, or at least the root from
which it is formed, must be taken as ths source. The senses,
however, in which the word is used, viz. stage, platform, or
scene played on a stage, are not those of the classical Lat. pagina,
a page of a book, nor do they apparently occur in the medieval
Latin of any language other than EngUsh. Further, it is not
clear which meaning comes first, platform or scene. If the last,
then " scene," i.e. a division of a play, might develop out of
" page " of a book. If not, then pagina is a fresh formation
from the root pag of pangere, to fix or fasten, the word meaning
a fastened framework of wood forming a stage or platform;
cf. the classical use of compago, structure. Others take pagina
as a translation of Gr. TTTJyfia, platform, stage, a word from
the same root pag-. Du Cange (Glossarium) quotes a use in
Med. Lat. of pegma in this sense, Machina lignea in qua statuae
collocabantur, and Cotgrave gives " Pegmate, a stage or frame
whereon pageants be set or carried."
As has been said, " pageant " is first found in the sense of a
scene, a division or part of a play or of the platform on which
such scene was played in the medieval drama. Thus we read
of Queen Margaret in 1457 that at Coventry she saw " aUe the
pagentes pleyde save domesday which myght not be pleyde
for lak of day," and in the accounts of the Smiths' gild at
Coventry for 1450, five pence is paid " to bring the pagent
into gosford-stret." A clear idea of what these stages were
like when the mystery plays became processional (processus),
that is, were acted on separate platforms moving along a street,
is seen in Archdeacon Roger's contemporary account of the
Chester plays about the end of the i6th century. " The maner
of these playes weare, every company had his pagiant, or parte,
which pageants weare a high scafolde with 2 rowmes, a higher
and a lower, upon 4 wheeles " (T. Sharp, Dissertation on the
Pageants or Mysteries at Coventry, 1825, which contains most
of the early references to the word). The movable platform, fiUed
with emblematic or allegorical figures, naturally played an im-
portant part in processional shows with no dialogue or dramatic
action. An instance (1432) of the practice and the use of the
word is found in the Munimenta gildhallac londiniensis (ed.
Riley), " Parabatur machina in cujus medio stabat
ACIOOA PAGET, SIR JAMES )A4
451
gigas mirae magnitudinis .... ex utroque latere ... in
eadem pagina erigebantur duo animalia vocata antdops." At
Anne Boleyn's coronation, June i, 1533, one " pageant " con-
tained figures of Apollo and the Muses, another represented
a castle, with " a heavenly roof and under it upon a green
was a root or stock, whereout sprang a multitude of white and
red roses " (Arber, English Garner, ii. 47, quoted in the New
English Dictionary). Such " pageants " formed a feature, in
a somewhat degraded shape, in the annual lord mayor's show
in London. The development in meaning from " moving
platform " to that of a " processional spectacle " or " show "
is obvious.
The 20th century has seen in England what may in some
respects be looked on as a revival but in general as a new depar-
ture in the shape of semi-dramatic spectacles illustrative of the
history of a town or locality; to such spectacles the name of
" Pageant " has been appropriately given. Coventry in its
procession in commemoration of Lady Godiva's traditional
exploit, has since 1678 illustrated an incident, however mythical,
in the history of the town, and many of the ancient cities
of the continent of Europe, as Siena, Bruges, Nuremberg, &c.,
have had, and still have, at intervals a procession of persons
in the costumes of various periods, and of figures emblematical
of the towns' associations and history. The modern pageant
is far removed from a mere procession in dumb show, however
bright with colour and interesting from an historical or artistic
point of view such may be made. It consists of a series of
scenes, representing historical events directly connected with
the town or locality in which the pageant takes place. These
are accompanied by appropriate dialogue, speeches, songs, &c.,
and with music and dances. The effect is naturally much
heightened by the place of the performance, more particularly
if this is the actual site of some of the scenes depicted, as at the
Winchester Pageant (1908) where the background was formed
by the ruins of Wolvesey Castle. The Sherborne pageant of
1905 was the first of the series of pageants. In 1907 and 1908
they became very numerous; of these the principal may be
mentioned, those at Oxford, Bury St Edmunds in 1907; at
Winchester, Chelsea, Dover and Pevensey in 1908; and that of the
English Church at Fulham Palace 1909, a peculiarly interesting
example of a pageant connected with an institution and not
a locality.
The artistic success of a pageant depends on the beauty or
historic interest of its site, the skilful choice of episodes and
dramatic incidents, the grouping and massing of colour, and the
appropriateness of the dialogue, speeches and incidental music.
It is here that the skill and talent of the writer, designer or
director of the pageant find scope. The name of the dramatist
Louis N. Parker (b. 1852), the author of the Sherborne pageant,
the earUest and one of the most successful, must always be asso-
ciated with the movement, of which he was the originator.
More important, perhaps, than the aesthetic pleasure given
is the educational effect produced not only on the spectators
but also on the performers. The essence of the pageant is that
all who take part are residents in the place and locahty, that
the costumes and accessories should be made locally, and that
all classes and all ages should share in a common enthusiasm
for the bringing back in the most vivid form the past history,
often forgotten, in which all should feel they have an equal
and common part. (C. We.)
PAGET, SIR JAMES, Bart. (1814-1899), British surgeon,
born at Yarmouth on the nth of January 1S14, was the son of
a brewer and shipowner. He was one of a large family, and his
brother Sir George Paget (1809-1892), who became regius
professor of physic at Cambridge in 1872, also had a distinguished
career in medicine and was made a K.C.B. He attended a
day-school in Yarmouth, and afterwards was destined for the
navy; but this plan was given up, and at the age of sixteen
he was apprenticed to a general practitioner, whom he served
for four and a half years, during which time he gave his leisure
hours to botanizing, and made a great collection of the flora
of East Norfolk. At the end of his apprenticeship he published
with one of his brothers a very careful Sketch of the Natural
History of Yarmouth and its Neighbourhood. In October 1834
he entered as a student at St Bartholomew's Hospital. Medical
students in those days were left very much to themselves; there
was no close supervision of their work, but it is probable that
Paget gained rather than lost by having to fight his own way.
He swept the board of prizes in 1835, and again in 1836; and in
his first winter session he detected the presence of the Trichina
spiralis, a minute parasite that infests the muscles of the human
body.' In May 1836 he passed his examination at the Royal
College of Surgeons, and became qualified to practise. The
next seven years (1836-1843) were spent in London lodgings,
and were a time of poverty, for he made only £15 a year by
practice, and his father, having failed in business, could not
give him any help. He managed to keep himself by writing for
the medical journals, and preparing the catalogues of the hospital
museum and of the pathological museum of the Royal College
of Surgeons. In 1836 he had been made curator of the hospital
museum, and in 1838 demonstrator of morbid anatomy at
the hospital; but his advancement there was hindered by the
privileges of the hospital apprentices, and by the fact that he
had been too poor to afford a house-surgeoncy, or even a dresser-
ship. In 1841 he was made surgeon to the Finsbury Dispensary;
but this appointment did not give him any experience in the
graver operations of surgery. In 1843 he was appointed lecturer
on general anatomy (microscopic anatomy) and physiology
at the hospital, and warden of the hospital college then founded.
For the next eight years he lived within the walls of the hospital,
in charge of about thirty students resident in the little college.
Besides his lectures and his superintendence of the resident
students, he had to enter all new students, to advise them how
to work, and to manage the finances and the general affairs
of the school. Thus he was constantly occupied with the
business of the school, and often passed a week, or more, without
going outside the hospital gates. In 1844 he married Lydia,
youngest daughter of the Rev. Henry North. In 1S47 he was
appointed an assistant-surgeon to the hospital, and Arris and
Gale professor at the College of Surgeons. He held t his professor-
ship for six years and each year gave six lectures in surgical
pathology. (The first edition of these lectures, which were
the chief scientific work of his life, was published in 1853 as
Lectures on Surgical Pathology.) In 1851 he was elected a
Fellow of the Royal Society. In October 1851 he resigned the
wardenship of the hospital. He had now become known as a
great physiologist and pathologist: he had done for pathology
in England what R. Virchow had done in Germany; but he had
hardly begun to get into practice, and he had kept himself poor
that he might pay his share of his father's debts — a task that
it took him fourteen years to fulfil.
It is probable that no famous surgeon, not even John Hunter,
ever founded his practice deeper in science than Paget did, or
waited longer for his work to come back to him. In physiology
he had mastered the chief English, French, German, Dutch
and Italian literature of the subject, and by incessant study
and microscope work had put himself level with the most
advanced knowledge of his time; so that it was said of him by
R. Owen, in 1851, that he had his choice, either to be the first
physiologist in Europe, or to have the first surgical practice in
London, with a baronetcy. His physiological lectures at
St Bartholomew's Hospital were the chief cause of the rise in
the fortunes of its school, which in 1843 had gone down to a low
point. In pathology his work was even more important. He
fills the place in pathology that had been left empty by Hunter's
death in 1793 — the time of transition from Hunter's teaching,
'This discovery is usually credited to R. Owen {q.v.). The facts
appear to be as follows: Paget was a first-year's student, and, by
means of a pocket lens, found in the dissecting-room that the specks
in the infected muscles were parasitic worms and not, as previously
thought, spicules of bone. Thomas Wormal 1, the senior demonstra-
tor, who was no pathologist, sent a piece of the same muscle to Owen,
who authoritatively pronounced the specks to be parasites and gave
them their scientific name. It is probable that Owen did not realize
that Paget had already made the discover^', and it was naturally
associated with the name of the professor.
452
PAGET OF BEAUDESERT— PAGODA
which for all its greatness was hindered by want of the modern
microscope, to the pathology and bacteriology of the present day.
It is Paget 's greatest achievement that he made pathology
dependent, in everything, on the use of the microscope — especially
the pathology of tumours. He and Virchow may truly be called
the founders of modern pathology; they stand together, Paget's
Lectures on Surgical Pathology and Virchow's Cellular- Pathologie.
When Paget, in 1851, began practice near Cavendish Square,
he had still to wait a few years more for success in professional
Ufe. The " turn of the tide " came about 1854 or 1855; and
in 1858 he was appointed surgeon extraordinary to Queen
Victoria, and in 1S63 surgeon in ordinary to the prince of
Wales. He had for many years the largest and most arduous
surgical practice in London. His day's work was seldom less
than sixteen or seventeen hours. Cases sent to him for final
judgment, with especial frequency, were those of tumours, and
of all kinds of disease of the bones and joints, and all " neurotic "
cases having symptoms of surgical disease. His supremacy
lay rather in the science than in the art of surgery, but his name
is associated also with certain great practical advances. He
discovered the disease of the breast and the disease of the bones
(osteitis deformans) which are called after his name; and he
was the first at the hospital to urge enucleation of the tumour,
instead of amputation of the hmb, in cases of myeloid sarcoma.
In 1S71 he nearly died from infection at a post mortem
examination, and, to lighten the weight of his work, was obliged
to resign his surgeoncy to the hospital. In this same year
he received the honour of a baronetcy. In 1875 he was
president of the Royal College of Surgeons, and in 1877
Hunterian orator. In 1878 he gave up operating, but for
eight or ten years longer he still had a very heavy con-
sulting practice. In 1881 he was president of the Inter-
national Medical Congress held in London; in 1880 he gave,
at Cambridge, a memorable address on " Elemental Pathology,"
setting forth the likeness of certain diseases of plants and trees
to those of the human body. Besides shorter writings he also
published Clinical Lectures and Essays (ist ed. 1875) and Studies
of Old Case-books (1891). In 1883, on the death of Sir George
Jessel, he was appointed vice-chancellor of the university of
London. In 1889 he was appointed a member of the royal
commission on vaccination. He died in London on the 30th
of December 1899, in his eighty-fifth year. Sir James Paget
had the gift of eloquence, and was one of the most careful and
most delightful speakers of his time. He had a natural and
unaffected pleasure in society, and he loved music. He possessed
the rare gift of ability to turn swiftly from work to play; enjoying
his holidays hke a schoolboy, easily moved to laughter, keen
to get the maximun of happiness out of very ordinary amuse-
ments, emotional in spite of incessant self-restraint, vigorous
in spite of constant overwork. In him a certain hght-hearted
enjoyment was combined with the utmost reserve, unfailing
religious faith, and the most scrupulous honour. He was all
his life profoundly indifferent toward politics, both national
and medical; his ideal was the unity of science and practice in
the professional life. (S. P.)
PAGET OF BEAUDESERT, WILLIAM PAGET, ist Baron
(1506-1563), English statesman, son of William Paget, one
of the serjeants-at-mace of the city of London, was born in
London in 1506, and was educated at St Paul's School, and
at Trinity Hall, Cambridge, proceeding afterwards to the
university of Paris. Probably through the influence of Stephen
Gardiner, who had early befriended Paget, he was employed by
Henry VIII. in several important diplomatic missions; in 1532
he was appointed clerk of the signet and soon afterwards of
the privy council. He became secretary to Queen Anne of
Cleves in 1539, and in 1543 he was sworn of the privy council
and appointed secretary of state, in which position Henry VIII.
in his later years relied much on his advice, appointing him
one of the council to act during the minority of Edward VI.
Paget at first vigorously supported the protector Somerset,
while counselling a moderation which Somerset did not always
observe. In 1547 he was made comptroller of the king's house-
hold, chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, and a knight of the
Garter; and in iS49 he was summoned by writ to the House of
Lords as Baron Paget de Beaudesert. About the same time
he obtained extensive grants of lands, including Cannock Chase
and Burton Abbey in Staffordshire, and in London the residence
of the bishops of Exeter, afterwards known successively as
Lincoln House and Essex House, on the site now occupied by
the Outer Temple in the Strand. He also obtained Beaudesert
in Staffordshire, which is still the chief seat of the Paget family. J
Paget shared Somerset's disgrace, being committed to the \
Tower in 15 51 and degraded from the Order of the Garter in
the following year, besides suffering a heavy fine by the Star
Chamber for having profited at the expense of the Crown in his
administration of the duchy of Lancaster. He was, however,
restored to the king's favour in 1553, and was one of the twenty-
six peers who signed Edward's settlement of the crown on Lady
Jane Grey in June of that year. He made his peace with Queen
Mary, who reinstated him as a knight of the Garter and in the
privy council in 1553, and appointed him lord privy seal in 1556.
On the accession of EUzabeth in 1558 Paget retired from public
life, and died on the 9th of June 1563.
By his wife Anne Preston he had four sons, the two eldest of
whom, Henry (d. 1 568) and Thomas, succeeded in turn to the peer-
age. The youngest son, Charles Paget (d. 161 2), was a well-known
Cathohc conspirator against Queen Elizabeth, in the position of
secretary to Archbishop James Beaton, the ambassador of Mary
Queen of Scots in Paris; although at times he also played the part
of a spy and forwarded information to Walsingham and Cecil.
Thomas, 3rd Baron Paget of Beaudesert (c. 1540-1589), a
zealous Roman Catholic, was suspected of complicity in Charles's
plots and was attainted in 1587. But the peerage was restored
in 1604 to his son Wilham (1572-1629), 4th Lord Paget, whose
son William, the 5th lord (1609-1678), fought for Charles I.
at Edgehill. William, the 6th lord (1637-1713), a supporter
of the Revolution of 1688, was ambassador at Vienna from 1689
to 1693, and later at Constantinople, having much to do with
bringing about the important treaty of Carlowitz in 1699. Henry,
the 7th baron (c. 1665-1743), was raised to the peerage during
his father's lifetime as Baron Burton in 171 2, being one of the
twelve peers created by the Tory ministry to secure a majority
in the House of Lords, and was created earl of Uxbridge in 17 14.
His only son, Thomas Catesby Paget, the author of an Essay
on Human Life (1734) and other writings, died in January 1742
before his father, leaving a son Henry (1719-1769), who became
2nd earl of Uxbridge. At the latter's death the earldom of
Uxbridge and barony of Burton became extinct, the older
barony of Paget of Beaudesert passing to his cousin Henry Bayly
(1744-1812), heir general of the first baron, who in 1784 was
created earl of Uxbridge. His second son. Sir Arthur Paget
(1771-1840), was an eminent diplomatist during the Napoleonic
wars. Sir Edward Paget (1775-1849), the fourth son, served under
Sir John Moore in the Peninsula, and was afterwards second
in command under Sir Arthur WeUesley; the fifth. Sir Charles
Paget (i 778-1839), served with distinction in the navy, and
rose to the rank of vice-admiral. The eldest son Henry Wilham,
2nd earl of Uxbridge (1768-1854), was in 1815 created marquess
of Anglesey (q.v.).
PAGHMAN, a small district of Afghanistan to the west of
Kabul, lying under the Paghman branch of the Hindu Kush
range. It is exceedingly picturesque, the villages clinging to
the sides of the mountain glens from which water is drawn for
irrigation; and excellent fruit is grown.
PAGODA (Port, pagode, a word introduced in the i6th century
by the early Portuguese adventurers in India, reproducing
phonetically some native word, possibly Pers. but-kadah, a
house for an idol, or some form of Sansk. bhagavat, divine,
holy), an Eastern term for a temple, especially a building of
a pyramid shape common in India and the Far East and devoted
to sacred purposes; in Buddhist countries, notably China,
the name of a many-sided tower in which are kept holy rehcs.
More loosely " pagoda " is used in the East to signify any
non-Christian or non-Mussulman place of worship. Pagoda or
PAHARl
453
pagod was also the name given to a gold (occasionally also
silver) coin, of about the value of seven shillings, at one time
current in southern India. From this meaning is derived the
expression " the pagoda tree," as synonymous with the " wealth
of the Indies," whence the phrase to " shake the pagoda tree."
There is a real tree, the Plumieria acuminata, bearing the name.
It grows in India, and is of a small and graceful shape, and bears
yellow and white flowers tinged with red.
PAHARl (properly Pahari, the language of the mountains),
a general name applied to the Indo-Aryan languages or dialects
spoken in the lower ranges of the Himalaya from Nepal in
the east, to Chamba of the Punjab in the west. These forms
of speech fall into three groups — an eastern, consisting of the
various dialects of Khas-kura, the language of Nepal; a central,
spoken in the north of the United Provinces, in Kumaon and
Garhwal; and a western, spoken in the country round Simla
and in Chamba. In Nepal, Khas-kura is the language only of the
Aryan population, the mother tongue of most of the inhabitants
being some form or other of Tibeto-Burman speech (see
TiBETO-BuRMAN LANGUAGES), not Indo-Aryan. As may be
expected, Khas-kura is mainly differentiated from Central Pahari
through its being affected, both in grammar and vocabulary,
by Tibeto-Burman idioms. The speakers of Central and
Western Pahari have not been brought into close association
with Tibeto-Burmans, and their language is therefore purely
Aryan.
Khas-kura, as its speakers themselves caU it, passes under
various names. The English generally call it Nepali or Naipall
(i.e. the language of Nepal), which is a misnomer, for it is not
the principal form of speech used in that country. Moreover,
the Nepalese employ a corruption of this very word to indicate
what is reaUy the main language of the country, viz. the Tibeto-
Burman Newari. Khas-kura is also caUed Gorkhali, or the lan-
guage of the Gurkhas, and Pahari or Parbatiya, the language of
the mountains. The number of speakers is not known, no census
ever having been taken of Nepal; but in British India 143,721
were recorded in the census of 1901, most of whom were soldiers
in, or others connected with, tie British Gurkha regiments.
Central Pahari includes three dialects — Garhwali, spoken
mainly in Garhwal and the country round the hill station of
Mussoorie; Jaunsari, spoken in the Jaunsar tract of Dehra Dun;
and Kumauni, spoken in Kumaun, including the country
round the hiU station of Naini Tal. In 1901 the number of
speakers was 1,270,931.
Western Pahari includes a great number of dialects. In
the Simla Hill states alone no less than twenty-two, of which
the most important are Sirmauri and Keonthali (the dialect
of Simla itself), were recorded at the last census. To these
may be added Chambiali and Churahi of the state of Chamba,
Mandeali of the state of Mandi, Gadi of Chamba and Kangra,
Kuluhi of Kulu and others. In 1901 the total number of
speakers was 1,710,029.
The southern face of the Himalaya has from time immemorial
been occupied by two classes of people. In the first place there
is an Indo-Chinese overflow from Tibet in the north. Most of
these tribes speak Indo-Chinese languages of the Tibeto-Burman
family, while a few have abandoned their ancestral speech and
now employ broken half-Aryan dialects. The other class
consists of the great tribe of Khasas or Khasiyas, Aryan in
origin, the Kacrtotof the Greek geographers. Who these people
originally were, and how they entered India, are questions which
have been more than once discussed without arriving at any very
definite conclusion.' They are frequently mentioned in Sanskrit
literature, were a thorn in the side of the rulers of Kashmir,
and have occupied the lower Himalayas for many centuries.
Nothing positive is known about their language, which they
have long abandoned. Judging from the relics of it which
appear in modern Pahari, it is probable that it belonged to the
' See ch. iv. of vol. ii. of R. T. Atkinson's Himalayan Districts
of the North-Western Provinces 0} India, forming vol. xiof the" Gazet-
teer of the NoTth-Western Provinces " (Allahabad, 1884), and the
Archaeological Survey 0/ India, xiv. 125 sqq. (Calcutta, 1882).
same group as Kashmiri, Lahnda and Sindhi. They spread
slowly from west to east, and are traditionally said to have
reached Nepal in the early part of the 12th century a.d.
In the central and western Pahari tracts local traditions
assert that from very early times there was constant communica-
tion with Rajputana and with the great kingdom of Kanauj
in the Gangetic Doab. A succession of immigrants, the tide
of which was materially increased at a later period by the
pressure of the Mussulman invasion of India, entered the
country, and founded several dynasties, some of which survive
to the present day. These Rajputs intermarried with the
Khasa inhabitants of their new home, and gave their rank to ,
the descendants of these mixed unions. With the pride of birth \
these new-bom Rajputs inherited the language of their fathers, >
and thus the tongue of the ruling class, and subsequently of the
whole population of this portion of the Himalaya, became a form
of Rajasthani, the language spoken in distant Rajputana.
The Rajput occupation of Nepal is of later date. In the early
part of the i6th century a number of Rajputs of Udaipur in
Rajputana, being oppressed by the Mussulmans, fled north
and settled in Garhwal, Kumaon, and western Nepal. In
a.d. 1559 a party of these conquered the small state of Gurkha,
which lay about 70 m. north-west of Katmandu, the present
capital of Nepal. In 1768 Prithwi Narayan Shah, the then
Rajput ruler of Gurkha, made himself master of the whole of
Nepal and founded the present Gurkhali dynasty of that
country. His successors extended their rule westwards over
Kumaon and Garhwal, aiid as far as the Simla Hill states. The
inhabitants of Nepal included not only Aryan Khasas, but also,
as has been said, a number of Tibeto-Burman tribes. The
Rajputs of Gurkha could not impose their language upon these
as they did upon the Khasas, but, owing to its being the tongue
of the ruling race, it ultimately became generally understood
and employed as the lingua franca of this polyglot country.
Although the language of the Khasas has disappeared, the tribe
is still numerically the most important Aryan one in this part
of the Himalaya, and it hence gave its name to its newly adopted
speech, which is at the present day locally known as " Khas-kura."
In the manner described above the Aryan language of the
whole Pahari area is now a form of Rajasthani, exhibiting
at the same time traces of the old Khasa language which it
superseded, and also in Nepal of the Tibeto-Burman forms of
speech by which it is surrounded. (For information regarding
Rajasthani the reader is referred to the articles Indo-Aryan
Languages; Prakrit; and Gujarati.)
Khas-kura shows most traces of Tibeto-Burman influence. The
gender of nouns is purely sexual, and, although there is an oblique
case derived from Rajasthani, it is so often confounded with the
nominative, that in the singular number either can be employed for
the other. Both these are due to Tibeto-Burman influence, but the
non-Aryan idiom is most prominent in the use of the verb. There
is an indefinite tense referring to present, past or future time accord-
ing to the context, formed by suffixing the verb substantive to the
root of the main verb, exactly as in some of the neighbouring Tibeto-
Burman languages. There is a complete impersonal honorific con-
jugation which reminds one strongly of Tibetan, and, in colloquial
speech, as in that tongue, the subject of any tense of a transitive
verb, not only of a tense derived from the past participle, is put into
the agent case.
In Eastern and Central Pahari the verb substantive is formed
from the root ach, as in both Rajasthani and Kashmiri. In Rajas-
thani its present tense, being derived from the Sanskrit present
rcchdmi, I go, does not change for gender. But in Pahari and Kash-
miri it must be derived from the rare Sanskrit particle *rcchitas,
gone, for in these languages it is a participial tense and does change
according to the gender of the subject. Thus, in the singular we
have : — -
Khas-kura.
Kumauni.
Kashmiri.
Masc.
Fem.
Masc.
Fem.
Masc.
Fem.
1 am .
Thou art . .
He is . . . .
chii
chas
cha
chii
ches
eke
chic
chai
ch
chii
chl
chl
chus
chukh
chuh
ches
chekh
cheh
Here we have a relic of the old Khasa language, which, as has been
said, seems to have been related to Kashmiri. Other relics of Khasa,
+54
PAHLAVI
again agreeing with north-western India, are the tendency to shorten
long vowels, the practice of epenthesis, or the modification of a vowe!
by the one which follows in the next syllable, and the frequent occur-
rence of disaspiration. Thus, Khas siknu, Kumauni sikno, but
Hindi s'lkhnS, to learn; Kumauni yesd, plural ydsa. of this kind.
Regarding Western Pahari materials are not so complete. The
speakers are not brought into contact with Tibeto-Burman languages,
and hence we find no trace of these. But the signs of the influence
of north-western languages are, as might be expected, still more
apparent than farther east. In some dialects^ epenthesis is in full
swing, as in (Churahi) khSta, eating, fern, khaiti. Very interesting
is the mixed origin of the postpositions defining the various cases.
Thus, while that of the genitive is generally the Rajasthani ro,
that of the dative continually points to the west. Sometimes it is
, the Sindhi khe (see SiNDHi). At other times it is jo, where ishere a
locative of the base of the Sindhi genitive postposition jo. In
^ all Indo-Aryan languages, the dative postposition is by origin the
locative of some genitive one. In vocabulary. Western Pahari
often employs, for the more common ideas, words which can most
readily be connected with the north-western and Pisaca groups.
(See Indo-Aryan Langu.\ges.)
Literature. — Khas-kura has a small literature which has grown
up in recent years. We may mention the Birsikka, an anonymous
collection of folk-tales, and a Ramayana by Bhanu Bhatta. There
are also several translations from Sanskrit. Of late years local
scholars have done a good deal towards creating an interest in
Central Pahari. Special mention may be made of Ganga Datt
Upreti's Proverbs and Folklore of Kumaun and Garhwal (Lodiana,
1894) ; the same author's Dialects of the Kumaun Division (Almora,
1900); and Jwala Datt Joshi's translation of Dandin's Sanskrit
DaSa Kuinara Carita (.\lmora, 1892). A local poet who lived about
a century ago, GumanI Kavi by name, was the author of verses
written in a peculiar style, and now much admired. Each verse
consists of four lines, the first three being in Sanskrit, and the
fourth a Hindi or Kumauni proverb. A collection of these, edited
by Rewa Datt Upreti, was published in the Indian Antiquary for
1909 (pp. 177 seq.) under the title of Gumani-nili. Western Pahari
has no literature. Portions of the Bible have been translated into
Khas-kura (under the name of " Nepali "), Kumauni, Garhwali,
Jaunsari and Chambiali.
Authorities. — S. H. Kellogg's Hindi Grammar (2nd ed., London,
1893) includes both Eastern and Centra! Pahari in its survey. For
Khas see also A. TurnbuU, Nepali, i. e. Corkhali or Parbale Grammar
(Darjeeling, 1904), and G. A. Grierson, " A Specimen of the Khas or
Naipali Language," in the Zeilschrift der deutschen morgenldndisrhen
Gesellschaft (1907), Ixi. 659 seq. There is no authority dealing with
Western Pahari as a whole. A. H. Diack's work, The Kulu Dialect
of Hindi (Lahore, 1896), may be consulted for Kuluhi. See also
T. Grahame Bailey's Languages of the Northern Himalayas (Royal
Asiatic Society, London, 1908). Vol. ix., pt. iv., of the Linguistic
Sun'ey of India contains full particulars of all the Pahari dialects
in great detail. (G. A Gr.)
PAHLAVI, or Pehlevt, the name given by the followers of
Zoroaster to the character in which are written the ancient
translations of their sacred books and some other works which
they preserve (see Persia: Language). The name can be traced
back for many centuries; the great epic poet FirdousI (second
half of the loth Christian century) repeatedly speaks of Pahla\-i
books as the sources of his narratives, and he teDs us among
other things that in the time of the first Khosrau (Chosroes I.,
A.D. 531-579) the Pahlavi character alone was used in Persia.^
The learned Ibn Mokaffa" (Sth century) calls Pahlavi one of
the languages of Persia, and seems to imply that it was an
official language.^ We cannot determine what characters,
perhaps also dialects, were called Pahlavi before the Arab period.
It is most suitable to confine the word, as is now generally
done, to designate a kind of writing — not only that of the
Pahla\'i books, but of aU inscriptions on stone and metal which
use similar characters and are written on essentially the same
principles as these books.
At first sight the Pahlavi books present the strangest spectacle
of mi.xture of speech. Purely Semitic (Aramaic) words — and
thest not only nouns and verbs, but numerals, particles, demon-
strative and even personal pronouns — stand side by side with
Persian vocables. Often, however, the Semitic words are
compounded in a way quite unsemitic, or have Persian termi-
nations. As read by the modern Zoroastrians, there are also
* We cannot assume, however, that the poet had a clear idea of
what Pahlavi was.
- The passage, in which useful facts are mixed up with strange
notions, is given abridged in Fihrist, p. 13, more fully by Yakut, iii.
925, but most fully and accurately in the unprinted MafatHi al-'olUm.
many words which are neither Semitic nor Persian;' but it is
soon seen that this trachtional pronunciation is t intrust worthy.
The character is cursive and very ambiguous, so t'hat, for e.xam-
ple, there is but one sign for h, ;(, and r, and one for y, d, and g,
this has led to mistakes in the received pronunciation, which for
many words can be shown to have been at one time more correct
than it is now. But apart from such blunders there remain
phenomena which could never have appeared in a re-al language;
and the hot strife which raged till recently as to whether Pahlavi
is Semitic or Persian has been closed by the chscovery that it
is merely a way of writing Persian in which the Persian words
are partly represented — to the eye, not to the ear — by their
Semitic equivalents. This view, the development of which
began with Westergaard {Zendavesta, p. 20, note), is in fuU
accordance with the true and ancient tradition. Thus Ibn
Mokaflfa", who translated many Pahlavi books into Arabic,
tells us that the Persians had about one thousand words which
they wrote otherwise than they were pronounced in Persian.^
For bread he says they wrote lhma, i.e. the Aramaic lahma,
but they pronounced 7idn, which is the common Persian word
for bread. Similarly bsra, the Aramaic besrd, flesh, was pro-
nounced as the Persian gosht. We still possess a glossary which
actually gives the Pahlavi writing with its Persian pronunciation.
This glossary, which besides Aramaic words contains also a
variety of Persian words disguised in antique forms, or by errors
due to the contracted style of writing, e.xists in various shapes, all
of which, in spite of their corruptions, go back to the work which
the statement of Ibn Mokaffa" had in view.* Thus the Persians
did the same thing on a much larger scale, as when in English
we write £ (Ubra) and pronounce " pound " or wTite &" or &
(et) and pronounce " and." No system was followed in the
choice of Semitic forms. Sometimes a noun was written in its
status absohitus, sometimes the emphatic a was added, and this
was sometimes written as x sometimes as n. One verb was
written in the perfect, another in the imperfect. Even various
dialects were laid under contribution. The Semitic signs by
which Persian synonyms were distinguished are sometimes
quite arbitrary. Thus in Persian khwesh and khwat both mean
"self"; the former is written NFshn (nafshd or nafsheh), the
latter BNFshH with the preposition hi prefixed. Personal
pronouns are expressed in the dative {i.e. with prepositional /
prefixed), thus lk Qakh) for tu, "thou," lnh Qand) for amd,
" we." Sometimes the same Semitic sign stands for two
distinct Persian words that happen to agree in sound; thus
because hand is Aramaic for " this," hna represents not only
Persian e, " this," but also the interjection e, i.e. " " as pre-
fixed to a vocative. Sometimes for clearness a Persian termina-
tion is added to a Semitic word; thus, to distinguish between
the two words for father, pit and pilar, the former is written
ab and the latter abitr. The Persian form is, however, not
seldom used, even where there is a quite well-known Semitic
ideogram.^
These difBculties of reading mostly disappear when the
ideographic nature of the writing is recognized. We do not
always know what Semitic word supplied some ambiguous
group of letters (e.g. pun for pa, "to," or ht for agar, "if");
but we always can tell the Persian word — ^which is the one
important thing — though not always the exact pronunciation
of it in that older stage of the language which the extant Pahlavi
works belong to. In Pahlavi, for example, the word for " female"
is written mdtak, an ancient form which afterwards passed
through mddhak into mddha. But it was a mistake of later
ages to fancy that because this was so the sign T also meant D,
' Fihrist, p. 14, line 13 seq., cf. line 4 seq. The former passage
was first cited by Quatremere, Joiir. As. (1835), i. 256, and discussed
by Clermont-Ganneau, ibid. (1866), i. 430. The expressions it uses
are not always clear; perhaps the author of the Fihrist has condensed
somewhat.
■* Editions by HoshangjI, Jamaspjl Asa and M. Haug (Bombay,
1870), and by C. Salemann (Leiden, 1878). See also J. Olshausen,
" Zur Wurdigung der Pahlavi-glossare " in Kuhn's Zeil. f. vergl.
Sprforsch., N.F., vi. 521 seq.
^ For examples of various peculiarities see the notes to Noldeke's
translation of the story of Artakhshlr i Papakan (Gottingen, 1879).
^AMO^AIGNTON UAS
455
and so to write T for D in many cases, especially in foreign
proper names. That a word is written in an older form than
that which is pronounced is a phenomenon common to many
languages whose Literature covers a long period. So in English
we still write, though we do not pronounce, the guttural in
through, and write laugh when we pronounce laf.
Much graver difficulties arise from the cursive nature of ^ the
characters already alluded to. There are some groups which
may theoretically be read in hundreds of ways; the same little
sign may be "', n', n', in, m, nj, nj, and the n too may be
either h or kh.
In older times there was still some little distinction
between letters that are now quite identical in form, but even
the Egyptian fragments of Pahlavi writing of the yth century
show on the whole the same type as our MSS. The practical
inconveniences to those who knew the language were not so
great as they may seem; the Arabs also long used an equally
ambiguous character without availing themselves of the dia-
critical points which had been devised long before.
Modern MSS., following Arabic models, introduce diacritical
points from time to time, and often incorrectly. These give
little help, however, in comparison with the so-called Pazand
or transcription of Pahlavi texts, as they are to be spoken, in
the character in which the Avesld itself is written, and which
is quite clear and has all vowels as well as consonants. The
transcription is not philologically accurate; the language is
often modernized, but not uniformly so. Pazand MSS. present
dialectical variations according to the taste or inteUigence of
authors and copyists, and all have many false readings. For
us, however, they are of the greatest use. To get a conception
of Pahlavi one cannot do better than read the Minoi-Khiradh
in the Pahlavi with constant reference to the Pazand.' Critical
labour is still required to give an approximate reproduction
of the author's own pronunciation of what he wrote.
The coins of the later Sassanid kings, of the princes of Tabar-
istan, and of some governors in the earlier Arab period, exhibit
an alphabet very similar to Pahlavi MSS. On the older coins
the several letters are more clearly distinguished, and in good
specimens of well-struck coins of the oldest Sassanians almost
every letter can be recognized with certainty. The same holds
good for the inscriptions on gems and other small monuments
of the early Sassanian period; but the clearest of all are the
rock inscriptions of the Sassanians in the 3rd and 4th centuries,
though in the 4th century a tendency to cursive forms begins
to appear. Only r and v are always quite alike. The character
of the language and the system of writing is essentially the
same on coins, gems and rocks as in MSS. — pure Persian, in
part strangely disguised in a Semitic garb. In details there are
many differences between the Pahlavi of inscriptions and the
books. Persian endings added to words written in Semitic
form are much less common in the former, so that the person
and number of a verb are often not to be made out. There
are also orthographic variations; e.g. long a in Persian forms is
always expressed in book-Pahlavi, but not always in inscriptions.
The unfamiliar contents of some of these inscriptions, their
limited number, their bad preservation, and the imperfect way
in which some of the most important of them have been
published^ leave many things still obscure in these monuments
of Persian kings; but they have done much to clear up both
great and small points in the history of Pahlavi.^
Some of the oldest Sassanian inscriptions are accompanied by
a text belonging to the same system of writing, but with many
variations in detail,^ and an alphabet which, though derived
' The Book of the Mainyo-i-Khard in the Original Pahlavi, ed. by
Fr. Ch. Andreas (Kiel, 1882); idem, The Pazand and Sanskrit Texts,
by E. W. West (Stuttgart and London, 1871).
^ See especially the great work of F. Stolze, Persepolis (2 vols.,
Berlin, 1882). It was De Sacy who began the decipherment of the
inscriptions.
_' Thus we now know that the ligature in book-Pahlavi which means
" in," the original letters of which could not be made out, is for rn,
" between." It is to be read andar.
* Thus pus, " son," is written '13 instead of nn^; pish, " before,"
is written nnDip, but in the, usual Pahlavi it, is 'J;ti;='J'X^,,,
from the same source with the other Pahlavi alphabets (the old
Aramaic), has quite different forms. This character is also
found on some gems and seals. It has been called Chaldaeo-
Pahlavi, &c. Olshausen tries to make it probable that this
was the writing of Media and the other that of Persia. The
Persian dialect in both sets of inscriptions is identical or
nearly so.^
The name Pahlavi means Parthian, Pahlav being the regular
Persian transformation of the older Parthava.''' This fact
points to the conclusion that the system of writing was developed
in Parthian times, when the great nobles, the Pahlavans, ruled
and Media was their main seat, "the Pahlav country." Other
linguistic, graphical and historical indications point the same
way; but it is still far from clear how the system was developed.
We know, indeed, that even under the Achaemenids Aramaic
writing and speech were employed far beyond the Aramaic
lands, even in official documents and on coins. The Iranians
had no convenient character, and might borrow the Aramaic
letters as naturally as they subsequently borrowed those of
the Arabs. But this does not explain the strange practice of
writing Semitic words in place of so many Persian words which
were to be read as Persian. It cannot be the invention of an
individual, for in that case the system would have been more
consistently worked out, and the appearance of two or more
kinds of Pahlavi side by side at the beginning of the Sassanian
period would be inexplicable. But we may remember that the
Aramaic character first came to the Iranians from the region
of the lower Euphrates and Tigris, where the comphcated
cuneiform character arose, and where it held its ground long
after better ways of writing were known. In later antiquity
probably very few Persians could read and write. All kinds
of strange things are conceivable in an Eastern character
confined to a narrow circle. Of the facts at least there is no
doubt.
The Pahlavi literature embraces the translations of the holy
books of the Zoroastrians, dating probably from the 6th century,
and certain other religious books, especially the Minoi-Khiradh
and the Bundahish. ' The Bundahish dates from the Arab
period. Zoroastrian priests continued to write the old language
as a dead tongue and to use the old character long after the
victory of a new empire, a new religion, a new form of the
language (New Persian), and a new character. There was
once a not quite inconsiderable profane literature, of which a
good deal is preserved in Arabic or New Persian versions or
reproductions, particularly in historical books about the time
before Islam.* Very httle profane literature still exists in
Pahlavi; the romance of Ardashir has been mentioned above.
See E. W. West's " Pahlavi Literature," in Geiger and Kuhn's
Grundriss der iranischen Philologie (1896), vol. ii. ; "The Extent,
Language and Age of Pahlavi Literature " in Sitzungsber. der k.
Akad. der wiss. Phil. u. hist. Klasse (Munich, 1888), pp. 399-443
and his Pahlavi Texts in Sacred Books of the East (1880-1897). The
difficult study of Pahlavi is made more difficult by the corrupt
state of our copies, due to ignorant and careless scribes.
Of glossaries, that of West (Bombay and London, 1874) is to be
recommended; the large Pahlavi, Gujarat! and English lexicon of
Jamaspji Dastur Minocheherji (Bombay and London, 1877-1882)
is very full, but has numerous false or uncertain forms, and must be
used with much caution. (Th. N.)
PAIGNTON, a seaside resort in the Torquay parliamentary
division of Devonshire, England, on Tor Bay, 2f m. S.W. of
Torquay, on the Great Western railway. Pop. of urban district
(igoi), 8385. The church of St John is mainly Perpendicular,
^ What the Fihrist (p. 13 seq.) has about various forms of Persian
writing certainly refers in part at least to the species of Pahlavi.
But the statements are hardly all reliable, and in the lack of trust-
worthy specimens little can be made of them.
* This was finally proved by Olshausen, following earlier scholars;
see J. Olshausen, Parthava und Pahlav. Mada und Mah (Berlin,
1877, and in the Monatsb. of the Academy).
'Translations ed. bv F. Spiegel (i860), the Bundahish by N. L.
Westergaard (Copenhagen, 1851) and F. Justi (Leipzig, 1868); other
Pahlavi books by Spiegel and Haug, by Hoshangji, and other Indian
Parsees.
' One other book, the stories of Kalilag and Damnag, in a Syriac
version from the Pahlavi, the latter taken from the Sanskrit.
45^
PAIL— PAINE, THOMAS
but has a late Norman doorway, and contains a carved and
painted pulpit, and in the Kirkham chapel several interesting
monuments of the Kirkham family, and a beautiful though
damaged stone screen. Among other buildings and institutions
are a novitiate of Marist Fathers, a science and art school, a
pier with pavilion and concert rooms, and a yacht club. Little
remains of an old palace of the bishops of Exeter apart from
the 14th-century Bible Tower. Its last tenant was Bishop Miles
Coverdale, who in 1535 published the first English translation
of the whole Bible. The town owes its popularity to a firm
expanse of sand, good bathing facilities, and a temperate climate.
PAIL, a bucket, a vessel for carrying water, milk or other
liquids, made of wood or metal or other material, varying in
size, and usually of a circular shape and somewhat wider at the
top than the bottom. The word is of somewhat obscure origin.
The present form points to the O. Eng. paegel, but the sense, that
of a small wine-measure, a giU, is difficult to connect with the
present one. The earlier forms of the word in Mid. Eng. spell the
word payle, paille, and this rather points to a connexion with
O. Fr. paelle, payelle, a small pan or flat dish, from Lat. patella,
diminutive of patera, dish. The sense here also presents diffi-
culties, " pail " in English being always a deep vessel.
PAILLERON, 6D0UARD JULES HENRI (1834-1899), French
poet and dramatist, was born in Paris on the 17th of September
1834. He was educated for the bar, but after pleading a single
case he entered the first dragoon regiment and served for two
years. With the artist J. A. Beauce he travelled for some time
in northern Africa, and soon after his return to Paris in i860 he
produced a volume of satires, Les Parasites, and a one-act piece,
Le Parasite, which was represented at the Odeon. He married
in 1862 the daughter of Frangois Buloz, thus obtaining a share
in the proprietorship of the Revue des deux mondes. In 1869
he produced at the Gymnase theatre Les Faux menages, a four-
act comedy depending ?or its interest on the pathetic devotion
of the Magdalene of the story. L'£tincelle (1879), a brilHant
one-act comedy, secured another success, and in 1881 with
Le Monde oil I'on s'ennuie Pailleron produced one of the most
strikingly successful pieces of the period. The play ridiculed
contemporary academic society, and was filled with transparent
allusions to well-known people. None of his subsequent eiJorts
achieved so great a success. Pailleron was elected to the French
Academy in 1882, and died on the 20th of April 1899.
PAIMPOL, a fishing port of western France, in the department
of C6tes-du-Nord, 27^ m. N.N.W. of St Brieuc by road. Pop.
(1906), 2340. Paimpol is well known for its association with the
Icelandic cod-fisheries, for which it annually equips a large fleet.
Steam sawing and boat -building are carried on; grain, &c., is
exported; imports include coal and timber. A tribunal of
commerce and a school of navigation are among the public
institutions.
PAIN (from Lat. poena, Gr. iroivri, penalty, that which must
be paid: O. Fr. peine), a term used loosely (i) for the psycho-
logical state, which may be generally described as " unpleasant-
ness," arising, c.a. from the contemplation of a catastrophe or of
moral turpitude, and (2) for physical (or psycho-physical) suffer-
ing, a specific sensation localized in a particular part of the body.
The term is used in both senses as the opposite of " pleasure,"
though it is doubtful whether the antithesis between physical
and psychical pleasure can be equally well attested. The
investigation of the pleasure-pain phenomena of consciousness
has taken a prominent place in psychological and ethical specula-
tion, the terms " hedonics " and " algedonics " {oKyqblov, pain
of body or mind) being coined to express different aspects of
the subject. So in aesthetics attempts have been made to assign
to pain a specific psychological function as tending to increase
pleasure by contrast (so Fechner): pain, e.g. is a necessary ele-
ment in the tragic. Scientists have experimented elaborately
with a view to the precise localization of pain-sensations, and
" pain-maps " can be drawn showing the exact situation of
what are known as " pain-spots." For such experiments
instruments known as " aesthesiometers " and " algometers "
have been devised. The great variety of painful sensations —
throbbing, dull, acute, intermittent, stabbing — ^led to the
conclusion among earlier investigators that pains differ in quality.
It is, however, generally agreed that all pain is'qualitatively
the same, though subject to temporal and intensive modification.
(See Psychology; Aesthetics; Nervous System; Sym-
pathetic System.)
PAIN, BARRY (1867- ), English humorous writer, was
educated at Cambridge, and became a prominent contributor to
The Granta. James Payn inserted his story, " The Hundred
Gates," in the Cornhill Magazine in 1889, and shortly afterwards
he became a contributor to Punch and the Speaker, and joined
the staffs of the Daily Chronicle and Black and White. His works
include: In a Canadian Canoe (1891); papers reprinted from The
Granta; Playthings and Parodies (1892); The Kindness of the
Celestial (1894); The Octave 0} Claudius (1897); Eliza (1900);
Another English Woman's Love Letters (1901), &c. As a writer
of parody and lightly humorous stories his name has become
widely known.
PAINE, ROBERT TREAT (1731-1814), American politician,
a signer of the Declaration of Independence, was born in Boston,
Massachusetts, on the nth of March 1731. He graduated at
Harvard in 1749, and was admitted to the bar in 1759. In 1768
he was a delegate to the provincial convention which was called
to meet in Boston, and conducted the prosecution of Captain
Thomas Preston and his men for their share in the famous
" Boston Massacre ' of the sth of March 1770., He served in the
Massachusetts General Court in 1773-1774, in the Provincial
Congress in i774-i775,and in the Continental Congress in 1774-
1778, and was speaker of the Massachusetts House of Represen-
tatives in 1777, a member of the executive council in 1779, a
member of the committee which drafted the constitution of
1780, attorney-general of the state from 1777 to 1790, and a
judge of the state supreme court from 1790 to 1804. He died
in Boston on the nth of May 1814.
See John Sanderson, Biography of the Signers of the Declaration
of Independence (Philadelphia, 1823), vol. ii.
His son, Robert Treat Paine (1773-1811), who was christened
Thomas but in 1801 took the name of his father and of an elder
brother who died without issue in 1794, was a poet of some repute,
but his verses have long been forgotten. His best known pro-
ductions are Adams and Liberty, a once popular song written in
1798, The Invention of Letters (1795), and The Ruling Passion,
the Harvard Phi Beta Kappa poem of 1797.
His Works in Verse and Prose (Boston, 1812) contains a bio-
graphical sketch.
PAINE, THOMAS (1737-1809), English author, was born at
Thetford, Norfolk, on the 29th of January 1737, the son of a
Quaker staymaker. After several years at sea and after trying
various occupations on land, Paine took up his father's trade in
London, where he supplemented his meagre grammar school
education by attending science lectures. He succeeded in 1762
in gaining an appointment in the excise, but was discharged for
neglect of duty in 1765. Three years later, however, he received
another appointment, at Lewes in Sussex. He took a vigorous
share in the debates of a local Whig club, and in 1772 he
wrote a pamphlet embodying the grievances of excisemen and
supporting their demands for an increase of pay. In 1774 he
was dismissed the service for absence without leave — in order
to escape his creditors.
A meeting with Benjamin Franklin in London was the turning
point in his life. Franklin provided him with letters to his son-
in-law, Richard Bache, and many of the leaders in the colonies'
resistance to the mother country, then at an acute stage. Paine
sailed for America in 1774. Bache introduced him to Robert
Aitkin, whose Pennsylvania Magazine he helped found and,
edited for eighteen months. On the oth of January 1776 Paine
pubhshed a pamphlet entitled Common Sense, a telling array of
arguments for separation and for the establishment of a republic.
His argument was that independence was the only consistent
line to pursue, that " it must come to that some time or other ";
that it would only be more difficult the more it was delayed,
and that independence was the surest road to union. Written
PAINESVILLE— PAINTER- WORK
457
in simple convincing language, it was read everywhere, and the
open movement to independence dates from its publication.
Washington said that it " worked a powerful change in the minds
of many men." Leaders in the New York Provincial Congress
considered the advisability of answering it, but came to the
conclusion that it was unanswerable. When war was declared,
and fortune at first went against the colonists, Paine, who was
then serving with General Greene as volunteer aide-de-camp,
wrote the first of a series of influential tracts called The Crisis,
of which the opening words, " These are the times that try
men's souls," became a battle-cry. Paine's i services were
recognized by an appointment to be secretary of the commission
sent by Congress to treat with the Indians, and a few months
later to be secretary of the Congressional committee of foreign
affairs. In 1779, however, he committed an indiscretion that
brought him into trouble. He published information gained
from his official position, and was compelled to resign. He was
afterwards clerk of the Pennsylvania legislature, and accom-
panied John Laurens during his mission to France. His
services were eventually recognized by the state of New York
by a grant of an estate at New RocheUe, and from Pennsylvania
and, at Washington's suggestion, from Congress he received
considerable gifts of money.
In 1787 he sailed for Europe with the model of an iron bridge
he had designed. This was publicly exhibited in Paris and
London, and attracted great crowds. In England he determined
to " open the eyes of the people to the madness and stupidity
of the government." His first efforts in the Prospects on the
Rubicon (1787) were directed against Pitt's war policy, and to-
wards securing friendly relations with France. When Burke's
Reflections on the Revolution in France appeared, in 1790, Paine
at once wrote his answer, The Rights of Man. The first part
appeared on the 13th of March 1791, and had an enormous
circulation before the government took alarm and endeavoured
to suppress it, thereby exciting intense curiosity to see it,
even at the risk of heavy penalties. Those who know the book
only by hearsay as the work of a furious incendiary will be
surprised at the dignity, force and temperance of the style;
it was the circumstances that made it inflammatory. Pitt
" used to say," according to Lady Hester Stanhope, " that Tom
Paine was quite in the right, but then he would add, ' What am
I to do? As things are, if I were to encourage Tom Paine's
opinions we should have a bloody revolution.' " Paine was
indicted for treason in May 1792, but before the trial came ofi he
was elected by the department of Calais to the French convention,
and escaped into France, followed by a sentence of outlawry.
The first years that he spent in France form a curious episode in
his life. He was enthusiastically received, but as he knew little
of the language translations of his speeches had to be read for
him. He was bold enough to speak and vote for the " detention
of Louis during the war and his perpetual banishment after-
wards," and he pointed out that the execution of the king would
alienate American sympathy. He incurred the suspicion of
Robespierre, was thrown into prison, and escaped the guillotine
by an accident. Before his arrest he had completed the first
part of the Age of Reason, the pubhcation of which made an
instant change in his position on both sides of the Atlantic, the
indignation in the United States being as strong as in England.
The Age oj Reason can now be estimated calmly. It was written
from the point of view of a Quaker who did not believe in revealed
religion, but who held that " all religions are in their nature mild
and benign " when not associated with pohtical systems. Inter-
mixed with the coarse unceremonious ridicule of what he con-
sidered superstition and bad faith are many passages of earnest
and even lofty eloquence in favour of a pure morality founded on
natural religion. The work in short — a second part, written
during his ten months' imprisonment, was published after his
release — represents the deism of the i8th century in the hands
of a rough, ready, passionate controversialist.
At the downfall of Robespierre Paine was restored to his scat
in the convention, and served until it adjourned in October
1705. In 1796 he published a long letter to Washington,
attacking his military reputation and his presidential policy with
inexcusable bitterness. In 1802 Paine sailed for America, but
while his services in behalf of the colonies were gratefully
remembered, his Age of Reason and his attack on Washington
had ahenated many of his friends. He died in New York on the
8th of June 1809, and was buried at New Rochelle, but his
body was in 1819 removed to England by William Cobbett.
See the biography by Moncure D. Conway (1892).
PAINESVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Lake county,
Ohio, U.S.A., on the Grand River, 3 m. S. of Lake Erie and about
30 m. N.E. of Cleveland. Pop. (1900) 5024, of whom 499 were
foreign-born and 179 negroes; (1910) 5501. It is served i;y
the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the New York, Chicago &
St Louis and the Baltimore & Ohio railways, and by electric
lines to Cleveland, Fairport and Ashtabula. It is the seat of
Lake Erie College (non-sectarian, for women), the successor of
Willoughby Seminary (1847), whose buildings at Willoughby,
Ohio, were burned in 1856; the college was opened as the Lake
Erie Female Seminary in 1859, and became Lake Erie College and
Seminary in 1898 and Lake Erie College in 1908. Painesville
is situated in a farming and fruit-growing country, and also has
some manufactures. Three miles north, on Lake Erie, is the
village of Fairport (pop. in 1900, 2073), with a good harbour and
coal and ore docks. The municipality owns and operates its
waterworks and street-lighting plants. Painesville was founded
in 1800-1802 by settlers from Connecticut and New York,
conspicuous among whom was General Edward Paine (1746-
1841), an ofJicer from Connecticut in the War of Independence;
it was incorporated as a village in 1832, and became a city in 1902
under the new Ohio municipal code.
PAINTER-WORK, in the building trade. When work is
painted one or both of two distinct ends is achieved, namely
the preservation and the coloration of the material painted.
The compounds used for painting — taking the word as meaning
a thin protective or decorative coat — are very numerous, inclu-
ding oil-paint of many kinds, distemper, whitewash, tar; but the
word " paint " is usually confined to a mixture of oil and pigment,
together with other materials which possess properties necessary
to enable the paint to dry hard and opaque. Oil paints are
made up of four parts — the base, the vehicle, the solvent and
the driers. Pigment may be added to these to obtain a paint of
any desired colour.
There are several bases for oil paint, those most commonly
used for building work being white lead, red lead, zinc white and
oxide of iron. White lead is by far the commonest of bases for
paint. When pure it consists of about 75% carbonate of lead
and about 25% of lead hydrate. It is mixed with 6 or 7°'o by
weight of pure hnseed oil, and in this form is supplied to the
painter. Sulphate of baryta is the chief adulterant used in the
manufacture of white lead. White lead has greater covering
properties and is more durable than the other bases. It should
therefore always be used in external painting. Paints having
white lead for a base darken with age, and become discoloured
when exposed to the fumes of sulphuretted hydrogen, which
exists to a greater or less extent in the air of aU large towns.
Zinc white, an oxide of zinc, is of a purer white colour than white
lead. It is lighter, and does not possess the same durability or
covering power. It is, however, useful in internal decoration,
as it retains its colour well, even when subjected to the action of
gases. Red lead is a lead oxide. It is used chiefly in the priming
coat and as a base for some red paints. Like white lead, it is in-
jured if exposed to acids or impure air, which cause discoloration
and decay. Oxide of iron is used chiefly as a base in paints used
for covering iron-work, the theory being that no destructive
galvanic action can be set up, as might be the case with lead paint
when used on iron. A variety of red pigments are made from
oxide of iron, varying in hue from a pale to a deep brownish-
red. They are quite permanent, and may be used under any
conditions.
The vehicle is a liquid in which the particles of the base are
held in suspension, enabling a thin coat of paint to be formed,
uniform in colour and consistency, and which on drying forms
XX. 1 5 a
45?
PAINTER- WORK -^^
a kind of skin over the surface to which it is applied. For oil
paint the vehicles used are oils; for distemper water is employed.
The oils used as vehicles are chiefly linseed oil, raw and boiled,
and poppy-seed oil. Nut oils are occasionally used for inferior
work because they are much cheaper. Linseed oil, the one
most commonly used, is obtained from the seeds of the flax
by warming it and squeezing out the oil under hydraulic pressure.
The resultant, which is of a transparent amber colour, is known
as " raw " oil. It is used principally in interiors for light, bright
colours, drying somewhat slowly and giving a firm elastic coat.
The oil improves by keeping, and is sometimes " refined " with
acids or alkahes. " Boiled " oil is the raw oil heated with driers,
such as litharge or red lead, to a temperature from 350° to 500° F.,
at which it is maintained for three or four hours. It is thick
and much darker in colour than the raw oil, drying much more
quickly, with a coat hard and glossy but less elastic than that
produced by raw oil. Poppy-seed oU is expressed from the seeds
of the poppy plant. It does not possess the tenacity and quick-
drying powers of boiled linseed oil, but being of a very Light colour
it is used for delicate colours.
Turpentine is used as a solvent, diluent, or " thinner," to bring
the paint to a proper consistency so as to allow it to be spread in
a thin even coat. When a flat dull surface is desired, turpentine
alone is used with the base and the oil is omitted. The best
turpentine comes from the pine forests of America. French
turpentine is next in quality. Russian turpentine is the cheapest,
and has usually a strong and unpleasant odour that renders it
objectionable to work with. In consequence of the high price
of turpentine of good quahty, and the increasing difficulty of
obtaining it, substitutes are coming into general use.
" Driers " are substances usually added to paint to hasten the
process of oxidation, i.e. the drj'ing, of the oil. Some pigments
possess this quality, as red lead and white lead. The most
notable driers are litharge, sugar of lead, patent driers, sulphate
of zinc and manganese dioxide. Liquid driers, such as terebene,
are also in use. Litharge, an oxide of lead, is in most general
use. Sugar of lead is used, ground in oil, for light tints. Sul-
phate of zinc and manganese driers are used for paints in which
zinc white is the base, which would be injured by lead driers.
" Pigments " are preparations of metallic, earthy or animal
origin mixed into paint to give it colour. For oil paint they are
usually ground in oil; for distemper they are sold as a finely
ground powder. The ordinary pigments are white lead, zinc
white, umbers, siennas, ochres, chromes, Venetian red, Indian
red, lamp black, bone black, vegetable black, ultramarine,
Prussian blue, vermilion, red lead, oxide of iron, lakes and
Vandyke brown.
The term " enamel paint " was first given to a compound of
zinc white, petrol and resin, which possessed on drying a hard
glossy surface. The name is now applied to any coloured paint
of this nature. Quick-drying enamels are spirit varnishes ground
with the desired pigment. For slow-drying enamels oil varnishes
form the vehicle.
Woodwork is often treated with a thin transparent-coloured
liquid which changes the colour of the work without hiding the
grain of the wood, and if the latter is good a very fine result is
obtained. Sometimes the stain is produced by the combination
of two or more chemicals applied separately, or soluble pigments
may be mixed with a transparent vehicle and applied in the usual
way. The vehicles for the pigments vary considerably, and
include water, methylated spirit, size, turpentine and clear raw
linseed oil.
Varnish is made by dissolving certain gums in linseed oil,
turpentine, spirit or water. They give a transparent protective
coat to painted and stained surfaces or to wall-paper or plain
woodwork. Varnishes usually dry with a very smooth, hard
and shiny surface, but " flat " or " dead " surfaces which are
without gloss may be obtained with special varnish.
The gums used for hard-wearing or carriage varnishes, such
as those to be exposed to the weather and frequently cleaned
and polished, are amber, copal and gum anime. Amber is a
yellow transparent or clouded gum found on the coasts of the
Baltic, and particularly in Prussia. It makes a hard, durable
and slow-drying varnish which does not darken with age. Copal
gum is brought from the West India Islands and also from the
East Indies. It makes the most durable varnish, and being
tough and hard is generally used for external work. Gum anime,
is a variety of copal found in the sandy soil of the East Indies.
It is hard, durable and quick-drying, but unless the varnish
is carefully made it is liable to crack. Varnishes for inside work,
or cabinet varnishes, are made with a variety of resins dissolved
in linseed oil and turpentine. The resultant gives a hard,
lustrous surface, somewhat less durable than that of carriage
varnishes. Turpentine varnishes are made from soft gums,
such as dammar, common resin and mastic; they are light in
colour, cheap and not very durable. Lacquers or spirit varnishes
are made from very soft gums, such as shellac and sandarach,
dissolved in methylated spirit. They are used for internal work,
drying quickly, and becoming hard and very brilliant. Surfaces
formed with such varnishes are liable to chip easily and scale
off. Oil paint is very much improved by the addition of some
varnish; it causes it to dry harder and more quickly and with
a fine lustrous surface.
The driers used for varnish are generally acetate of lead or
litharge. An excess of driers makes the varnish less durable
and causes cracking.
There are many kinds of French polishes, mixed in different
ways, but most are composed of shellac and sandarach dissolved
in spirit. It is applied to the perfectly smooth surface of hard
woods with a pad of flannel or wadding wrapped in linen, and
well rubbed in with a circular motion.
A duU polish is procured by rubbing beeswax into the wood.
It must be thoroughly rubbed in, a little turpentine being added
as a lubricant when the rubber works stiffly.
If paint were applied over the bare knots of new wood it
would be destroyed, or at least discoloured, by the exudation
of resin from the knots. For the purpose of obviating this
the knots are covered with two coats of a preparation called
" knotting," made by dissolving shellac in methylated spirit.
Putty is required for stopping nail-holes and small crevices
and irregularities in woodwork. It is made of powdered whiting
and linseed oil mixed together and kneaded into a stiff paste.
For light work " hard stopping," made of white lead and whiting,
should be employed.
The tools and appliances of the painter are mixing pots, paint
kettles to hold the colour for the painter at work, strainer,
palette knife, scraping knife, hacking, stopping and chisel knives,
the hammer, sponge, pumice, blow-lamp for burning off, and a
variety of brushes, such as the duster, the ground brush, the tool,
the distemper brush, the fitch and camel-hair pencil for picking
out smaU parts and lines, the sable and flogger for gilding, the
stippler; for grained work several steel graining combs with
coarse and fine teeth, graining brush of hogs' hair, pencil over-
grainer, and other special shaped brushes used to obtain the
peculiar characteristics of different woods. It is absolutely
necessary for good work to use brushes of a fine quality, and
although expensive at first cost, they are undoubtedly cheapest
in wear.
Workmanship. — New woodwork requires to be knotted,
primed, stopped, and in addition painted with three or four
coats of oil colour. The priming coat is a thin coat of white
lead, red lead and driers mixed with linseed oil and turpentine.
Work should always be primed before the stopping is done. The
second or " lead " coat is composed mainly of turpentine, linseed
oil and white lead. The third coat is the ground for the finishing
colour, and is made of white lead and linseed oil and turpentine,
with enough pigment to bring it to a tint approaching the finish-
ing colour. The remaining coat or coats is of similar composi-
tion. A " flatting " coat is made of white lead and turpentine
with the desired pigment. One pound of colour will cover |
4 sq. yds. in the first coat and 6 sq. yds. in the additional coat.
Graining. — Graining is understood among painters to be the
imitating of the several different species of ornamental woods,
as satinwood, rosewood, mahogany, oak and others. After
vaai
PAINTINQ
459
the necessary coats of paint have been put on to the wood a
ground is then laid of the required tint and left to dry. The
painter then prepares small quantities of the same colour with
a little brown, and boiled oil and turpentine, and, having mixed
this, spreads it over some small part of his work. 1 he flat
hogs' hair brushes being dipped in the hquid and drawn down
the newly-laid colour, the shades and grainings are produced.
To obtain the mottled appearance the camels' hair pencils are
applied, and when completed the work is left to dry, and after-
wards covered by a coat or two of good copal varnish. Imitation
wainscot requires the use of combs of various degrees of fineness
to obtain the grain (whence the process is called combing by
some persons), and the flower is got by wiping off the colour with
a piece of rag. When dry it is over-grained to obtain a more
complete representation of the natural wood, and then varnished.
If the work be done in water-colour and not in oil, beer grounds
to act as a drier are mixed with the colour; this sets it ready for
varnishing. A " patent graining machine," a sort of roller with
a pattern upon it, is often used.
Marbling. — Marbling is the imitation of real marbles and
granites, some of which are represented by splashing on the
carefully prepared ground, which should have been painted and
often rubbed and polished to obtain an even surface; others
have to be painted in colours, and then well varnished.
Painting on Plaster Work. — Plastering should never be painted
until it is thoroughly dry. Portland cement is best left for a
year or two before being painted. Plaster work not previously
painted will require four or five coats, Portland cement five or
six. If plastered work is required to be painted immediately,
it should be executed in Keene's or Parian cement (see Plaster
Work). A great deal more paint is of course absorbed by
plaster than by wood, just as wood absorbs more than iron.
Painting on Iron.- — Iron and steel work should receive a coat of
oxide paint at the manufacturer's works; additional coats are
added after erection. All rust should be previously removed by
means of wire brushes and paraffin or turpentine. The best
paints for external iron work are composed of oxide of iron and
red lead, mixed with Linseed oil.
The following is an extract from the building by-laws of the
municipality of Johannesburg: —
" All structural metal work shall be thoroughly cleaned from
scale and rust before painting. Faying surfaces in riveted work
shall be painted before putting them together. All surfaces of
steel or iron work inaccessible after erection shall be protected
as far as possible either by coating them with ' Smith's ' or other
approved bituminous composition, or by filling the spaces which
they enclose with lime concrete."
Repainting Old Work. — Before beginning to repaint work
of any description it must be thoroughly cleaned. If the
surface is in good condition it will be sufficient to scrub down
with good soap and water and afterwards sponge and wipe
dry. If the work has become rough it will often be
necessary to use pumice stone to facilitate the operation of
cleaning. The pumice should be cut or rubbed to a flat
surface and vigorously apphed with plenty of clean water. It
is essential that the work should be quite dry before any paint
is applied. If the old surface is much cracked and bHstered no
amount of rubbing with pumice will enable the workman to
obtain a good ground for the new coats, and it will be necessary to
remove the old paint entirely. For this purpose painters most
frequently use a paint burner or torch which burns paratSn oil
under air pressure. This causes the paint to soften and blister
under the heat, in which state it is readily scraped off by a blunt
knife. The old-fashioned grate filled with charcoal held close
to the surface by means of a long handle is now not often used.
There has recently been a considerable increase in the use of
chemical paint removers in paste or Uquid form; as a rule these
contain some alkali, such as lime or caustic soda. The prepara-
tion is brushed on to the paint required to be removed, and in
the course of from ten minutes to half an hour the paint becomes
so soft that it can readily be scraped off.
Blistering and Cracking.— The blistering of paintea surfaces
may be caused in several ways. If on iron, it may be the result
of a particle of rust which, not having been removed in the jtro-
cess of cleaning, has increased in size and loosened the paint.
If on plaster, a particle of unslaked lime may have " blown,"
with a similar result. On wood, blistering is usually caused
by painting upon a wet surface or upon unseasoned wood.
Blisters may also be caused by the use of too much oil in paint
exposed to heat, or the application of one coat upon another
before the latter is properly dry. To prevent blistering a
method that has been tried with good results is to apply two
coats of water paint (washable distemper) and follow by two
coats of oil colour or varnish. Cracking is caused by the use of
too much oil in the under coats and too little in the top coats.
Distemper. — New plaster-work must be quite dry before dis-
temper is applied. The work should be stopped (that is, any
irregularities filled up with plaster of Paris mixed with whiting
and water to a paste) and then rubbed perfectly smooth with
glass paper. Clairecole, a solution of thin size and whiting,
is then applied to render the plaster non-absorbent, and this is
followed by distemper of the desired colour. Distemper is made
by soaking whiting in clean water to a creamy consistency.
To this is added size which has been previously warmed, and the
pigment required to colour the mixture; the whole is then well
stirred and strained to remove any lumps. Many patent wash-
able distempers under fancy names are now on the market in the
form of paste or powder, which simply require to be mixed with
water to be ready for use. If applied to woodwork distemper is
apt to flake off.
The " one-knot " brush for cornices and other mouldings and
the " two-knot " and " brass-bound " brushes for flat surfaces
are usually employed for distempering and whitewashing.
A granular surface is produced by stippUng or dabbing the
surface with a stiff bristled brush specially made for this purpose.
Gilding, b'c. — Very rich effects may be produced both in
external and internal decorations by the judicious use of overlays
of gold or silver. In their apphcation, however, it must always
be borne in mind that they are metals, not paints, and they
should only be used in positions such as would be appropriate
for the actual metals. " Dutch metal " and other imitations
cost about one-third of the price of genuine gilding, and require
to be protected from oxidization by a coat of lacquer. Gold leaf
is affixed with gold size or other adhesive preparations. The
best and most durable work is oil gilding, which involves less
labour, and results in a richer appearance than other methods.
The work is usually primed first of aU with a solution of boiled
Unseed oil and white lead, and then covered with a fine glutinous
composition called gold size, on which, when it is nearly dry, the
gold leaf is laid in narrow strips with a fine brush, and pressed
down with a pad of cotton-wool held in the fingers. As the slips
must be made to overlap each other slightly to ensure the com-
plete covering of the whole surface, the loose edges will remain
unattached, to be afterwards struck off with a large sable or
camel-hair brush. The joints, if the work be skilfully executed,
will be invisible. For burnished gilding the work must be
covered with various coats of gluten, plaster and bole, which last
is mixed with gold size to secure the adhesion of the leaf.
Authorities. — A. C. Wright, M.A., B.Sc., Simple Methods for
Testing Paititers' Materials; Professor A. H. Church, Colour; Ellis
A. Davidson, House Painting. Graining, Marbling and Sign Writing;
W. J. Pearce, Painting and Decorating; A. S. Jennings, Paint and
Colour Mixing; G. H. Hurst, F.C.S., Painters, Colours, Oils and
Varnishes. (J. Bt.)
PAINTING, in art, the action of laying colour on a surface, or
the representing of objects by the laying of colour on a surface.
It is with painting in the last sense, considered as one of the fine
arts, that this article deals. In the first sense, in so far as
painting is a part of the builder's and decorator's trade it is
treated above under the heading Painter-Work. The verb
" to paint " is derived through Fr. pcindre (peint, the past
participle, was possibly the earhest part adopted, as is suggested
460
PAINTING
[DEVELOPMENT
in the New English Dictionary), from Lat. pingere, to paint.
From the past participle piclus comes pictura, picture, and from
the root pig, pigment. The ultimate meaning of the root is
probably to decorate, adorn, and is seen in Gr. irouiXos, many-
coloured, variegated.
In Part I. of this article, after a brief notice of the general
character of the art and an account of its earliest manifestations,
a sketch is given of the course of its development from the
ancient Egyptian period to modem times. (An account, by
countries, of recent schools of painting wiU be found as an
appendix at the end of Part III.) The point of view chosen is
that of the relation of painting to nature, and it is shown how
the art, beginning with the delineation of contour, passes on
through stages when the effort is to render the truth of solid form,
to the final period when, in the 17th century, the presentment of
space, or nature in all her extent and variety, becomes the subject
of representation. Certain special forms of painting charac-
teristic of modern times, such as portraiture, genre painting,
landscape, stQl-life, &c., are briefly discussed.
Part II. consists in tables of names and dates intended to afiford
a conspectus of the different historical schools of painting from
the 1 2th century a.d. downwards.
Part III. is devoted to a comprehensive treatment of the
different technical processes of painting in vogue in ancient and
modern times.
Authorities. — There is one elaborate general treatise on the
whole art of painting in all its branches and connexions. It is
by Paillot de Montabert, and was published in Paris (1829-1850).
It is entitled Traile complet de la peinture, and is in nine sub-
stantial volumes, with an additional volume of plates. It begins
with establishing the value of rules for the art, and giving a diction-
ary of terms, lists of artists and works of art, &c. Vols. ii. and iii.
give the history of the art in ancient, medieval and modern times.
Vols, iv., v., vi. and vii. contain discussions on choice of subjects,
design, composition, &c. ; on proportions, anatomy, expression,
drapery; on geometry, perspective, light and shade, and colour.
In vol. viii., pp. 1-285 ^caX with colour, aerial perspective and exe-
cution; pp. 285-503 take up the different kinds of painting, history,
portrait, landscape, genre, &c.; and pp. 503-661 are devoted to
materials and processes, which subject is continued through vol. ix.
To encaustic painting 125 pages are given, and 100 to painting in
oil. A long discussion on painting grounds and pigments follows,
while other processes of painting, in tempera, water-colour, enamel,
mosaic, &c., are more briefly treated in about 200 pages, while the
work ends with a notice of various artistic impedimenta. Vol. i.,
it should be said, contains on 70 pages a complete synopsis of the
contents of the successive volumes. The best general History 0}
Painting is that by Woltmann and VVoermann (Eng. trans.,
London, 1880, &c.), but it does not go beyond the i6th century a.d.
See also the separate articles on China {Art), Japan {Art), Egypt
(Art), Greek Art, Roman Art, &c.
For the Italian schools of painting may be consulted: Crowe and
Cavalcaselle, History of Painting in Italy (2nd ed., London, 1902,
&c.). The original edition was published in London under the
titles History of Painting in Italy (3 vols., 1864-1866), and History
of Painting in North Italy (2 vols., 1871), Venturi, Sloria dell'
arte italiana (Milan, 1901, &c.).
For the German: Janitschek, Geschichte der deutschen Malerei
(Berlin, 1890).
For the Early Flemish : Crowe and Cavalcaselle, The Early
Flemish Painters (2nd ed., London, 1872); Wurzbach, Nieder-
Idndisches Kiinstler-Lexicon (Vienna and Leipzig, 1906, &c.); Weale,
Hubert and John van Eyck (London, 1907).
For the Dutch : Wurzbach ; Bode, Studien zur Geschichte der
Holldndischen Malerei (Braunschweig, 1883) and Rembrandt und
seine Zeitgenossen (Leipzig, 1906) ; Havard, The Dutch School of
Painting (trans., London. 1885).
For the French : Lady Dilke, French Painters of the Eighteenth
Century (London, 1899); D. C. Thomson, The Barhizon School.
For the English : Redgrave, A Century of Painters of the English
School (London, 1890).
For the Scottish: W. D. McKay, R.S.A., The Scottish School of
Painting (London, 1906).
For the American: J. C. Van Dyke (ed.). History of American Art
(New York, 1903, &c.) ; S. Isham, A History of American Painting
(N. Y., 1905).
The modern schools generally are treated fully, with copious
bibliographical references, by Richard Muther, The History of
Modern Painting (2nd ed., Eng. trans., London, 1907).
Part I. — A Sketch of the Development of the Art
§1. Constituents and General Character. — If we trace back to
the parent stock the various branches that support the luxuriant
modern growth of the graphic art, we see that this parent stock
is in its origin twofold. Painting begins on the one side in outline
delineation and on the other in the spreading of a coloured coating
over a surface. In both cases the motive is at first utilitarian,
or, at any rate, non-artistic. In the first the primary motive
is to convey information. It has been noticed of certain savages
that if one of them wants to convey to a companion the impression
of a particular animal or object, he will draw with his finger in the
air the outline of some characteristic feature by which it may be
known, and if this do not avail he will sketch the same with a
pointed stick upon the ground. It is but a step from this to
delineation on some portable tablet that retains what is scratched
or drawn upon it, and in this act a monument of the graphic art
has come into being.
In the other case there are various motives of a non-aesthetic
kind that lead to the covering of a surface with a coat of another
substance. The human body, the first object of interest to
man, is tender and is sensitive to cold. Wood, one of the earliest
building materials and the one material for any sort of boat-
building, is subject, especially when exposed to moisture, to
decay. Again, the early vessel of clay, of neolithic date, because
imperfectly burned, is porous. Now the properties of certain
substances suitable for adhesive coatings on anything that needed
protection or reinforcement would soon be noticed. Unctuous
and oily substances like animal fat, mixed with ashes or some such
material, are smeared by some savages on their bodies to keep
them warm in cold regions and to defend them against insect
bites in the tropics. Wax and resin and pitch, liquefied by the
heat of the sun or by fire, would lend themselves readily for the
coating of wood with a substance impervious to moisture.
Vitreous glazes, first no doubt the result of accident, fused over
the surface of the primitive clay vessel would give it the required
impermeability. This is no more art than the mere delineation
which is the other source of painting, but it begins to take on
itself an aesthetic character when colour plays a part in it.
There are physiological reasons why the colour red exercises an
exciting influence, and strong colours generally, like glittering
surfaces, make an aesthetic appeal. In prehistoric times the
flesh was sometimes stripped from the skeleton of a corpse and
the bones rubbed with red earth or ruddle, while the same easily
procured colouring substance is used to decorate the person or
the implement of the savage. In this sensibility to colour we
find a second and distinct origin of the art of painting.
What a perspective does a glance back at the development of
painting afford! Painting, an art that on a flat surface can
suggest to illusion the presence of solid forms with length,
breadth and thickness; that on the area of a few square inches
can convey the impression of the vast spaces of the universe, and
carry the eye from receding plane to plane till the persons or
objects that people them grow too minute for the eye to discern;
painting that can deck the world in Elysian brightness or veil
it in the gloom of the Crucifixion, that intoxicates the senses with
its revelation of beauty, or magician-like withdraws the veil from
the mysterious complexity of nature; the art that can exhibit
all this, and yet can suggest a hundredfold more than it can show,
and by a line, a shade, a touch, can stir within us " thoughts that
do often lie too deep for tears " — this Painting, the most fasci-
nating, because most illusive in its nature, of all the arts of form,
is in its first origin at one time a mere display to attract attention,
as if one should cry out " See here!" and at another time a
prosaic answer to a prosaic question about some natural object,
" What is it like?" The coat or streak or dab of colour, the
informing outline, are not in themselves aesthetic products. The
former becomes artistic when the element of arrangement or
pattern is introduced. There is arrangement when the shape and
size of the mark or marks have a studied relation to those of the
surface on which they are displayed; there is pattern when they
are combined among themselves so that while distinct and
contrasted they yet present the appearance of a unity. Again,
the delineation, serving at first a purpose of use, is not in itself
artistic, and it is a difficult question in aesthetic whether any
representation of nature that aims only at resemblance really
DEVELOPMENT]
PAINTING
461
comes into the domain of art. It is of course acknowledged that
a mere prosaically hteral likeness of a natural object is not a work
of art ; but when the representation is of such a kind as to bring out
the character of the oliject with discrimination and emphasis, to
give the soul of it, as it were, and not the mere lineaments, then,
logically or illogically, art claims it as its child. In the strict
sense the delineation only becomes artistic when there is present
the element of beauty in arrangement or composition. The insight
and sympathy just referred to are qualities rather intellectual
than artistic, and the really artistic element would be the tasteful
fitting of the representation to the space within which it is dis-
played, and the harmonious relations of the lines or masses or
tones or colours that it presents to the eye. In other words, in
artistic delineation there will be united elements drawn from both
the sources above indicated. The representation of nature will
be present, and so will also a decorative effect produced by a
pleasing combination of forms and lines.
§ 2. Limitations of the Meaning of the ward Painting. — If
dehneation take on itself a decorative character, so too decora-
tion, relying at first on a pleasing arrangement of mere lines or
patches that have in themselves no significance, soon goes on to
impart to these the similitude, more or less exact, of natural
objects. Here we arrive at a distinction which must be drawn
at the outset so as duly to limit the field which this survey of
painting has to cover. The distinction is that between orna-
mental or, in a narrow sense, decorative painting on the one side,
and painting proper on the other. In the first, the forms em-
ployed have either in themselves no significance or have a
resemblance to nature that is only distant or conventional.
In painting proper the imitation of nature is more advanced and
is of greater importance than the decorative effect to the eye.
It is not only present but preponderant, while in ornamental
work the representative element is distinctly subordinate to the
decorative effect. In Greek vase decoration the conventional
floral forms, or the mannered animal figures that foUow each
other monotonously round vases of the "Oriental" style, belong
to the domain of ornament, while the human forms, say, on the
earliest red-figured vases, while displayed in pleasing patterns
and in studied relation to the shape and structure of the vessel,
exhibit so much variety and so great an effort on the part of the
artist to achieve similitude to nature, that they claim a place for
themselves in the annals of the painter's art.
A further limitation is also necessary at the outset. Pictorial
designs may be produced without the equipment of the painter
proper; that is to say, without the use of pigments or coloured
substances in thin films rubbed on to or attached by a binding
material upon a surface. They may be executed by setting
together coloured pieces of some hard substance in the form of
Mosaic {q.v.); by interweaving dyed threads of wool, linen or
silk into a textile web to produce Tapestry (q.v.) or Embroidery
(q-v.); by inlaying into each other strips of wood of different
colours in the work called Tarsia or Marquetry (q.v.) ; by fusing
different coloured vitreous pastes into contiguous cavities, as in
Enamelling (see Enamel) ; or by framing together variously
shaped pieces of transparent coloured glass into the stained
glass window (see Glass, Stained).
These special methods of producing pictorial effects, in so far
as the technical processes they involve are concerned, are excluded
from view in this article and are dealt with under their own
headings. Only at those periods when pictorial design was
exclusively or especially represented by work in these forms will
the results of these decorative processes be brought in to illustrate
the general character of the painting of the time. For example,
in the 5th and 6th Christian centuries the art of painting is
mainly represented by the mosaics in the churches at Rome and
Ravenna, and these must be included from the point of view of
design in any review of painting, though as examples of mosaic
technique and style they are treated in an article apart. Greek
vase painting, again, is a special subject (see Greek Art and
Ceramics), yet the designs on early Greek vases are the only
extant monuments that illustrate for us the early stages of
the development of classical painting as a whole. It will be
understood therefore that in this article the word " painting "
means the spreading of thin films of colouring matter over
surfaces to which they are made by different means to adhere,
and it will only be taken in a wider sense in certain exceptional
cases just indicated.
§ 3. Importance in the Art of the Representation of Nature. —
If we regard painting as a whole, the imitation of nature may be
estabhshed as its most distinctive characteristic and the guiding
principle of its development. It must at the same time be under-
stood that in the advanced criticism of painting, as it is formulated
in modern times, no distinction is allowed among the different
elements that go to make up a perfect production of the art. In
such a production the idea, the form, the execution, the elements
of representation and of beauty, and the individual expression
of the artist in his handiwork, are essentially one, and none of
them can be imagined as really existing without the others. It
is not the case of a thought, envisaged pictorially, and deliber-
ately clothed in an artistic dress, but of a thought that would have
no existence save in so far as it is expressible in paint. This
is the modern truth of the art, and the importance of the principle
here involved will be illustrated in a later section, but it must be
borne in mind that the painting to which this principle applies
is a creation of comparatively modern times. As in music so in
painting, it has been reserved for recent epochs to manifest the
full capabihties of the art. Whereas the arts of architecture and
sculpture, though they have found in the modern era new fields
to conquer, yet grew to their full stature in ancient Hellas, those
of music and painting remained almost in their infancy till the
Renaissance. It was only in the i6th and 17th centuries that
painters obtained such a mastery on the one hand over the forms
of nature, and on the other over an adequate technique, that they
were able to create works in which truth and beauty are one and
the artistic speech exactly expresses the artistic idea. For this
the painter had to command the whole resources of the science
of perspective, linear and aerial, and all the technical capabilities
of the many-sided processes of oil-paint. Till that stage in the
development of the art was reached work was always on one side
or another tentative and imperfect, but all through these long
periods of endeavour there is one constant feature, and this is the
effort of the artist to attain to truth in the representation of
nature. No matter what was the character of his task or the
material equipment of which he disposed, this ideal was for ever
before his eyes, and hence it is that in the relation of the painter's
work to nature we find that permanent feature which makes the
development of the art from first to last a unity.
§ 4. General Scheme of the Development of the Art. — From this
point of view, that of the relation of the work of the painter to
nature, we may make a rough division of the whole history of the
art into four main periods.
The first embraces the efforts of the older Oriental peoples, best
represented by the painting of the Egyptians; the second includes
the classical and medieval epochs up to the beginning of the
15th century; the third, the 15th and i6th centuries; and the
fourth the time from the beginning of the 17th century onwards.
In the first period the endeavour is after truth of contour, in
the second and third after truth of form, in the fourth after
truth of space.
The Egyptian artist was satisfied if he could render with
accuracy, and with proper emphasis on what is characteristic,
the silhouettes of things in nature regarded as little more than
flat objects cut out against a hght background. The Greek and
the medieval artist realized that objects had three dimensions,
and that it was possible on a flat surface to give an indication
of the thickness of anything, that is of its depth away from the
spectator, as well as its length and breadth, but they cannot be
said to have fully succeeded in the difficult task they set them-
selves. For this there was needful an efficient knowledge of
perspective, and this the 15th century brought with it. During
the 15th century the painter fully succeeds in mastering the
representation of the third dimension, and during the next he
exercises the power thus acquired in perfect freedom, producing
some of the most convincing and masterly presentments of solid
462
PAINTING
[DEVELOPMENT
forms upon a flat surface that the art has to show. During this
period, however, and to a more partial extent even in the earlier
classical epoch, efforts were being made to widen the horizon of
the art and to embrace within the scope of its representations
not only solid objects in themselves, but such objects as a whole
in space, in due relation to each other and to the universe at
large. It was reserved, however, for the masters of the 17th
century perfectly to realize this ideal of the art, and in their hands
painting as an art of representation is widened out to its fullest
possible limits, and the whole of nature in all its aspects becomes
for the first time the subject of the picture.
§ 5. The Place of Classical Painting in the Development of the
Art. — This limitation of classical painting to the representation
of form may be challenged, for some hold that Greek artists not
only attempted but succeeded in the task of portraying objects
in space in due relation to each other and to the system of things
as a whole, and that the scope of their work was as extended as
that of the Italian painter of the i6th century. The view taken
in this article will presently be justified, but a word may be said
here as to Greek painting in general and its relation to sculpture.
The main arguments in favour of the more exalted view of this
phase of the art are partly based on general considerations, and
partly on the existence of some examples which seem to show the
artist grappling with the problems of space. The general
argument, that because Greek sculptors achieved so much we
must assume that the painters brought their art to the same level,
is of no weight, because it has been already pointed out that
painting and music are not in their development parallel to
sculpture and architecture. Nothing, moreover, is really proved
by the facts that painting was held by the ancients in higher
estimation than its sister art, and that the painters gained great
wealth and fame. Painting is a more attractive, more popular
art than sculpture. It represents nature by a sort of trick or
illusion, whereas sculpture with its three dimensions is more a
matter of course. It is a puzzle how the object or scene, with its
colours as wcU as its forms, can be made to appear on a few square
inches of flat surface, and the artist who has the secret of the
illusion is at once a man of mark. In Greece this was specially
the case, because painting there made its appearance rather later
than sculpture and so was from the first more conspicuous.
Hence literary writers, when they refer to the arts generally, quote
a painter rather than a sculptor. The people observed the
painters, and these naturally made the most of themselves and
of their art. The stories of the wealth and ostentation of some
of these show that there was an atmosphere of reclame about the
painters that must have affected the popular estimate, in an
aesthetic sense, of their work. Then, too, popular criticism of
painting has no standard. To the passer-by who watches the
pavement artist, the result of his operations seems nature itself.
" Better than I saw not who saw the truth," writes Dante {Purg.
xii. 68) of incised outlines on a pavement, that cannot go very
far in natural similitude. Vasari, though a trained artist, writes
as if they " vied with nature " of certain works that, though ex-
cellent for their day, do not approach the modern type. We think
ourselves that Raphael's babies are like nature till weseeCorreg-
gio's, and that Venetian Venuses are "real flesh and blood" till
that of Velazquez comes to prove them paint. The fact is that
the expression " true to nature " is a relative one, and very httle
weight should be given to a merely popular or literary judgment
on a question of the kind. Hence we must not assume that
because ancient painting was extravagantly praised by those
who knew no other, it therefore covered all the field of the art.
§ 6. The Earliest Representative Art. — Naturalistic design of a
very effective kind appears at a very early stage of human
development, and is practised among the most primitive races
of the actual world, such as the Austrahans, the Bushmen of
South Africa and the Eskimo. Of the existence of such art
different explanations have been offered, some finding for the
representations of natural objects motives of a religious
or magical kind, while others are content to see in them the
expression of a simple artistic delight in the imitation of objects
of interest. The extraordinary merit, within certain limits, of
this early naturaHstic work can be accounted for on sociological
hues. As Grosse has put it {The Beginnings of Art, p. 198),
" Power of observation and skill with the hand are the qualities
demanded for primitive naturalistic pictorial art, and the
faculty of observation and handiness of execution are at the same
time the two indispensable requisites for the primitive hunter
life. Primitive pictorial art, with its pecuhar characteristics,
thus appears fuUy comprehensible to us as an aesthetic exercise
of two faculties which the struggle for existence has developed
and improved among the primitive peoples." So far as concerns
the power of seizing and rendering the characteristics of natural
objects, some of the earliest examples of representative art in the
world are among the best. The objects are animals, because
these were the only ones that interested the early hunter, but
tens of thousands of years ago the Palaeolithic cave-dwellers of
western France drew and carved the mammoth, the reindeer,
the antelope, and the horse, with astonishing skill and spirit.
Fig. 6, Plate III., shows the famous sketch of a mammoth made
by a prehistoric hunter and artist of western France. The tusks,
the trunk, the little eye, the forehead, and especially the shaggy
fell of the long-haired elephant, are all effectively rendered.
Figs. 1, 2 and 3, Plate I., show three examples of the marvel-
lous series of prehistoric carvings and incised drawings, from
the caves of southern France, published by the late Edouard
Piette. We note especially the remarkable effort to portray a
stag turning its head, and the close observation displayed in
the representation of the action of a running buck.
Even more striking are the Palaeolithic paintings discovered
in the cave of Altamira at SantiUane, near Santander in Spain.
These are less ancient than the carvings and sketches mentioned
above, but they date from a time when what is now Great
Britain was not yet divided from the continent by the Channel,
when the climate of southern Europe was stiU cold, and when
animals now extinct — such as the European bison — were still
common. These paintings, boldly sketched in three colours,
may be reckoned as some 50,000 years old. They display the
same power of correct observation and artistic skill as the earlier
carvings. Notice in the remarkable examples given on Plate II.
the black patches on the bison's winter coat and the red colour
of the hide where, with the progress of the spring, he has got rid
of the long hair from the more prominent parts of his body by
rubbing himself against the rocks. The impressionist character
of some of these sketches is doubtless partly due to the action of
time; but note how, in the case of the great boar, the artist has
represented the action of the legs in running as well as standing
in much the same way as might be done in a rapid sketch by a
modern painter. The mystery of these astounding paintings is
increased by the fact that they are found in a cave to which no
daylight has ever penetrated, sometimes in places almost
inaccessible to sight or reach, and that they are surrounded by
symbols of which none can read the meaning (see the two
lozenges in fig. 3, Plate I.).
Palaeolithic art is, however, a phenomenon remote and
isolated, and in the history of painting its main interest is to
show how ancient is the striving of man after the accurate and
spirited representation of nature. Modern savages on about the
same plane of civilization do the same work, though not with
equal artistic deftness, and Grosse reproduces(/oc.a7., ch.vii.)some
characteristic designs of Australians and Bushmen. Some of
these are of single figures, but there are also " large associated
groups of men and animals with the landscapes around them."
The pictures consist in outlines engraved or scratched on stone
or wood or on previously blackened surfaces of hide, generally,
though not always, giving profile views, and are sometimes filled
in with flat tints of colour. There is no perspective, except to
this extent, that objects intended to appear distant are sometimes
made smaUer than near ones. In the extended scenes the figures
and objects are dispersed over the field, without any arrangement
on planes or artistic composition, but each is delineated with
spirit and in essential features with accuracy.
It is a remarkable fact, but one easily explained, that when man
advances from the hunter stage to a more settled agricultural life
PAINTING
Plate L
4m
^••yA^Ml^ I ':• If
->-
>SN^
^. .u*^i^r,M^:ii;.^^^|*-<
•wiweasea jjC>j5f^^
xs*
Figs, i, 2.— HEADS OF CHAMOIS, &c., ENGRAVED ON THE TINES OF AN ANTLER.
(From the Cave of Gourdan, Haute-Garonne, France.)
Fig. 3.— STAGS AND SALMON. THE ORIGIN.ALS ARE ENGR.WED ROUND AN ANTLER ABOUT AN INCH
IN DIAMETER. (From the Grotto of Lortet, Hautes-Pyrexees, France.)
PREHISTORIC INCISED DRAWINGS OF ANIMALS.
XX. 460. Reproduced from Edouard Pietle's Vart pendant Va^e du renne (Paris, 1907). By permission.
PAINTING
Plate II.
Fig. 5. The Finest Example of a Bison.
Reproduced by kind permission of the authors and publishers of La Caverne d'AItamira."
REDUCED FACSIMILES OF PAINTINGS OF THE PALAEOLITHIC AGE FROM THE CAVE OF ALTAMIRA IN' SPAIN
DEVELOPMENT]
PAINTING
463
these spontaneous naturalistic drawings no longer appear.
Neolithic man shows a marked advance on the capacity of his
Palaeolithic predecessors in all the useful arts of life: his tools,
his pottery, his weapons; but as an artist he was beyond com-
parison inferior. His attempts to draw men and beasts resulted
in no more than conventional symbols, such as an intelligent
child might scribble; of the Palaeolithic man's taste for design,
as shown in the carved work of the caves, or of his power of
reproducing nature, there is not a sign. Keenness of observation
and deftness of hand are no longer developed because no longer
needed for the purposes of existence, and representative art
almost dies out, to be, however, revived at a further stage of
civilization. At this further stage the sociological motive of art
is commemoration. It is in connexion with the tomb, the temple
and the palace that in early but still fully organized communities
art finds its field of operations. Such communities we find in
ancient Egypt and Babylonia, while similar phenomena showed
themselves in old Oriental lands, such as India and China.
§ 7. The Painting of Contour: Egypt and Babylonia. — In
ancient Egypt we find this graphic delineation of natural objects,
so spontaneous and free among the hunter tribes, reduced to a
system and carried out with certain well-established conventions.
The chief of these was the almost universal envisagement in
profile of the subject to be represented. Only in the case of
subsidiary figures might a front or a back view or a three-quarter
face be essayed. To bring the human figure into profile it was
conventionalized, as fig. 7, Plate III., will show. The subject is
an Egyptian of high rank, accompanied by his wife and son,
fowling in the marshes of the Delta. It is part of a wall-painting
from a tomb at Thebes dating about 1500 B.C. The head, it will
be seen, is in profile, but the eye is drawn full-face. The shoulders
are shown in front view, though by the outline of the breast, with
its nipple, on the figure's right, and by the position far to the
right of the navel, an indication is given that the view here is
three-quarters. At the hips the figure is again in profile, and this
is the position also of the legs. It will be observed that the two
feet have the big toe on the same side, a device to escape the
necessity of drawing the four toes as seen in the outside view of a
foot. As a rule the action of these figures is made as clear as
possible, and they are grouped in such a way that each is clearly
seen, so that a crowd is shown either by a number of parallel
outlines each a little in advance of the other suggesting a row seen
in slight obliquity, or else by parallel rows of figures on lines one
above the other. Animals are treated in the same way in profile,
save that oxen will show the two horns, asses the two ears, as in
front view, and the legs are arranged so that all are seen.
Within these narrow limits the Egyptian artist achieved extra-
ordinary success in the truthful rendering of nature as expressed
in the contours of figures and objects. If the human form be
always conventionalized to the required flatness, the draughts-
man is keen to seize every chance of securing variety. He fastens
on the distinctive traits of different races with the zeal of a modern
ethnologist, and in the case of royal personages he achieves
success in individual portraiture. Though he could not render
varieties of facial expression, he made the action of the limbs
express all it could. The traditional Egyptian gravity did not
exclude humour, and some good caricatures have been preserved.
Egyptian drawing of animals, especially birds (see fig. 7, Plate
III.), has in its way never been surpassed, and the specific points
of beasts are as keenly noted as the racial characteristics of human
beings. Animals, domestic or wild, are given with their particu-
lar gait or pose or expression, and the accent is always laid on
those features that give the suggestion of strength or swiftness
or lithe agility which marks the species. The precision of draw-
ing is just as great in the case of lifeless objects, and any set of
early, carefully-executed, hieroglyphic signs will give evidence of
an eye and hand trained to perfection in the simpler tasks of the
graphic art.
The representation of scenes, as distinct from single figures or
groups, was not wholly beyond the Egyptian artist's horizon.
His most ambitious attempts are the great battle-scenes of the
period of the New Empire, when a Seti or a Rameses is seen
driving before him a host of routed foemen. The king in his
chariot with the rearing horses is firmly rendered in the severe
conventional style, but the crowd of fugitives, on a comparatively
minute scale, are not arranged in the original clear fashion in
parallel rows, but are tumbled about in extraordinary confusion
all over the field, though always on the one flat plane. By another
convention objects that cannot be given in profile are sometimes
shown in ground plan. Thus a tank with trees round it will be
drawn square in plan and the trees will be exhibited as if laid out
flat on the ground, pointing on each side outwards from the
tank.
In Babylonia and Assyria the mud-brick walls of palaces
were coated with thin stucco, and this was in the interior some-
times painted, but few fragments of the work remain. On the
exterior considerable use was made of decorative bands and
panels of enamelled tiles, in which figure subjects were promi-
nent, as we learn by the passage from Ezek. xxiii., about " men
pourtrayed upon the wall, the images of the Chaldeans pour-
trayed with vermilion." The best idea of Assyrian graphic
design is gained from the slabs carved in very low relief, which
contain annalistic records of the acts of the king and his people
in war and peace. The human figure is treated here in a less
conventional scheme, but at the same time with less variety
and in a less spirited and interesting fashion than in Egypt.
Of animals far fewer species are shown, but in the portrayal of
the nobler beasts, notably the horse, the lion and the mastiff,
there is an element of true grandeur that we seldom find in
Egyptian design. Furthermore, the carver of the reliefs had
a better idea of giving the impression of a scene than his brother
of the Nileland, and in his representations of armies marching and
fighting he introduces rivers, hills, trees, groups of buildings
and the like, all of course delineated without perspective, but
in far truer and more telling fashion than is the case with the
scenes from the campaigns of Egyptian conquerors.
§ 8. Painting in Prc-historic Greece. — A new chapter in the
history of ancient painting was opened by the discovery of relics
of the art in the palaces and tombs of the Mycenaean period on
the coasts and islands of the Aegean. The charming naturalistic
representations of marine plants and animals on the painted
vases are quite unlike anything which later Greek art has to
offer, and exhibit a decorative taste that reminds us a little of
the Japanese. What we are concerned with, however, are
rather the examples of wall-painting in plaster found at Tiryns
and Mycenae and in Crete. Of the former the first to attract
notice was the well-known bull from Tiryns, represented in
profile and in action, and accompanied by a human figure; but
of far greater importance, because foreshadowing an advance in
the pictorial art, are certain wall-paintings discovered more
recently by Dr Evans at Cnossos in Crete. The question is
not of the single figures in the usual profile view, like the already
celebrated " Cup-bearer," however important these may be
from the historical side, but of the so-called " miniature " wall-
paintings that are now preserved in the museum at Candia, in
which figures on a small scale are represented not singly but in
crowds and in combination with buildings and landscape features
that seem to carry us forv/ard to far more advanced stages of the
art of painting. To borrow a few sentences from Dr Arthur
Evans's account of them on their first discovery {Annual oj
British School at Athens, vi. 46): "A special characteristic
of these designs is the outline drawing in fine dark lines. This
outline drawing is at the same time combined with a kind of
artistic shorthand brought about by the simple process of
introducing patches of reddish brown or of white on which
groups belonging to one or other sex are thus delineated. In this
way the respective flesh-tints of a series of men or women are
given with a single sweep of the brush, their limbs and features
being subsequently outlined on the background thus obtained."
There is here, it is true, no perspective, but there is a distinct
effort to give the general effect of objects in a mass, which cor-
responds curiously with the modern development of the art of
painting called " impressionism."
§ 0. The Painting of Form: Ancient Greece and Italy. — .As
464
PAINTING
[DEVELOPMENT
is well known, this early civilization in the Greek world of the
second milleniura B.C. was almost completely swept away,
probably by the political cataclysm of about 1000 B.C. known as
the Dorian Migration. Hellenic art proper, in its historical
continuity, represents a new start altogether and the beginnings
of it need not be sought earlier than about 800 to 700 B.C. The
art of painting had then completely lost touch with the graceful
naturahsm and with the broad generalization of the " Aegean "
period, and is represented by figure designs on the so-called
" geometric " or " Dipylon " vases of the most primitive kind.
For a long time Greek painting is chiefly represented by work on
the vases, but that this may be regarded as in the strict sense
painting is shown by the fact that tablets or panels (pinakes)
that would certainly be called pictures were being painted at the
same time by the same technical methods, and in some cases by
the same craftsman, as the vases. As Klein remarks {Euphro-
nios,- p. 252), " the most ancient material for Greek painting
is clay in the form of the vase as well as of the pinax." Now we
find in Pliny's account of the beginnings of Greek painting
{Nat. Hist. XXXV. 15 seq.) certain stages indicated in the develop-
ment of technique, and we are able to illustrate these stages from
vases which correspond more or less in their chronological order
with the succession of the stages in Pliny. The correspondence
is not exact, and there are difficulties in the way of interpreting
the statements from the monuments, but the two are certainly
to be brought into connexion. According to Pliny the order of
development seems to be (i) outhnes; (2) [a] outhnes filled in
with flat tints, or [b] outlines with linear inner markings but no
colour. OutUne drawing is obviously always the first stage in
the graphic art regarded as delineation, not decoration. The flat
tints without inner markings are found on " Dipylon " vases of
800-700 B.C., and as for the inner markings, though there is a
difiiculty in the exact interpretation of Pliny's words, yet inner
markings in the form of lines scratched on these silhouettes make
their appearance very early. Two further stages are indicated
by Pliny as the introduction of a red colour and the distinction
between male and female figures by a painter named Eumarus of
Athens. This would be by the use of white, which with red, an
oxide of iron, appears on vases of about 600 B.C. Eumarus is
also said to have " ventured to imitate all kinds of figures," and
we cannot fail here to be reminded of the marvellous Franfois
vase at Florence (fig. 8, Plate III.) of the first half of the 6th
century, which is of large size and is decorated with a wealth of
figure designs from mythological sources that are among the
most remarkable productions of the graphic art in existence.
Human figures and animals are there displayed in an extra-
ordinary variety of poses and illustrating aU kinds of scenes, and
the execution shows a firmness of hand and patience in the
rendering of details to which no praise can do justice. The
inner markings are rendered by lines with the most scrupulous
care and finish. Cimon of Cleonae is said to have followed
Eumarus with certain improvements which are of the utmost
significance for the future of the art in Greece. He is said to
have introduced four innovations: (a) " Catagrapha," which
Pliny explains as " profile figures" but which must mean some-
thing more than this, seeing that profiles had been in use from
the first. " Foreshortenings " is a possible and an intelligible
rendering which moreover corresponds with what is further
ascribed to him; (b) the representation of " countenances in
different positions, looking backwards or upwards or down-
wards." The other improvements, in giving (c) the details of
anatomy and (d) " the wrinkles and folds of drapery," are not
of so much importance as such advance is normal and necessary.
The introduction of foreshortened views is the matter of real
moment, for this is the point at which Greek painting parts
company with the older oriental traditions, and enters on a course
of its own which leads directly to all the modern developments of
the art.
The words of Pliny explaining the term " catagrapha " can
be aptly illustrated from the vase paintings connected with the
name of Epictetus. Epictetus was the leading figure among a
company of Athenian vase decorators of the last decades of the 6th
century B.C. and the beginning of the 5th, who usher in the period
of the most gifted and original masters of the craft. Their work is
marked by efforts to give to the human figure a vigour and expres-
siveness it had never before attained, and to gain their end they
essay all sorts of novel and difficult problems in drawing. In con-
nexion with Pliny's words, Klein remarks {Euphronios, p. 47)
that on their vases " the running figures look behind them;
those that are jumping, revelling or fighting look up; the lifting
or bending ones look down." Some of the best vases decorated
by this set of artists, who are the first to use the so-called " red-
figured " technique instead of painting as the older masters had
done in black on red, are for qualities of strength, variety and
animation unequalled by any of their successors of the later
periods, yet it is significant of the whole character of this ancient
painting that they are always conspicuously more successful
with profiles and objects in an upright plane at right angles to
the line of sight than with any forms which involve foreshorten-
ing or perspective. They are masters of contour but are still
struggling for the full command over form, and it is noteworthy
that the generation of these greatest of the vase-painters had
passed away before these difficulties of foreshortening had been
conquered.
We have now followed on the vases the development of Greek
painting up to about the time of the Persian wars, and it must be
noted that in other forms, as on terra-cotta tablets or pinakes,
on the flat edges of sarcophagi in the same material, and occa-
sionally on marble slabs or stelae, the same technical character-
istics are to be observed. Of painting on a monumental scale
Greece proper has hitherto shown no trace, yet at this very
juncture, in the decades immediately after the Persian wars,
there suddenly makes his appearance one of the greatest repre-
sentatives of monumental wall-painting known to the annals
of the art. This is Polygnotus, who, with some worthy associates,
displayed on the walls of pubhc buildings at Athens and at
Delphi a series of noble compositions on a large scale that woa
the admiration of the whole Hellenic community.
To find any remains of mural painting that may seem to lead
up to Polygnotus and his school we have to pass beyond the
bounds of Greece proper into Italy, where, alike in the Greek
and Etruscan cities and also at Rome, painting in this form was
practised from an early date. Pliny mentions paintings at
Ardea older than the city of Rome, and some very ancient ones
at Caere. Two sets of early paintings, not actually on walls
but on terra-cotta slabs meant for the coating of walls,
have come to light in recent times at Cervetri, the ancient
Caere, some of which, in the British Museum, were dated by the
late A. S. Murray at about 600 B.C. {Journal of Hellenic Studies,
X. 243), while others in the Louvre may be about half a century
later. True wall-paintings, of possibly a still earlier date and
certainly of more primitive design, were found in the Campana
tomb at Veil (Dennis, Etruria, ch. i.). The paintings from
Caere are executed on a white or yellowish " sUp " in a few
simple colours, and exhibit single figures in a frieze-like arrange-
ment with little attempt at action and none at grouping. The
flesh of the women is left the colour of the white ground, that of
the men is painted a ruddy hue. To the 6th, and first half of
the 5th century, belong wall-paintings in Italian tombs, which,
whether in Greek cities or in Etruscan, show distinct signs of
Hellenic influence. Some of these wall-paintings {Antike
Denkmdlcr, u., Taf. 41-43) show considerable livehness in colour-
ing and in action, and a freedom and gaiety in female costume
that remind us of what we read about the painting of
Polygnotus {g.v.). The place of this great painter in the general
history of the graphic art is given to him for his ethical greatness
and the austere beauty of his single figures, which ancient
writers extol. AU we have to do here is fix his place in the
development of painting by noting the stage at which he had
arrived in the representation of nature.
The waU-paintings of Polygnotus and his school must have
exhibited a large number of figures powerfully characterized
in action and expression, not in a confused mass nor summarized
as at Cnossus, nor grouped together as in a modern composition,
PAINTING
Plate III.
Plwto, Alinaii.
Fig. 10.— ZEUS AND HERA. ^POMPEIAN WALL PAINTING.
Flwto, Alinari.
Fig. 8.— FRANgOIS VASE. Florence.
FlW.o.W. .1. Mamdl&Cn.
Fig. II.— HEROD'S BIRTHDAY FEAST. WALL PAINTING IN CATHEDRAL AT BRUNSWICK.
XX. 464.
Plate IV.
PAINTING
By pcnnis.ion of Bramt, Clrmcnt & C,\. Do,i:.uh (Ah.irc) a»,1 P.iris.
Fig. 12.— the MARIES AT THE SEPULCHRE, HUBERT VAN EYCK (?). (28 X 35.)
Pholo, Alinari.
Fig. 13.— HEROD'S BUiTHUAY FEAST, GIOTTO.
DEVELOPMENT]
PAINTING
465
nor yet arranged in formal rows one above the other, but
distributed at different levels on the one plane of the picture, the
levels being distinguished by summary indications of a landscape
setting. Parts of some of the figures were hidden by risings of
the ground. The general effect is probably represented by the
paintings on the vase in the Louvre shown in fig 4, one side of
which exhibits the destruction of the children of Niobe, and the
other the Argonauts. SimpHcity in design and ethical dignity
in the single forms are here unmistakable.
It is probable that Polygnotus had not fully mastered the
difficulties of foreshortening with which the early " red-figure "
masters were struggling, but later designs both on vases and else-
where do show that in the 4th century at any rate these had been
Fig. 4. — ^Vase painting in the Louvre, illustrating the
overcome. The drawing on the so-called Ficoronian Cista, and
on the best of the Greek mirror-backs, may be instanced. The
ancients recognized that in the latter part of the sth century
B.C. painting made a great technical advance, so that all that
had gone before seemed archaic, while for the first time " the
gates of art " were opened and the perfect masters entered in.
The advance is in the direction of the representation not of form
only but of space, and seems from literary notices to have implied
a considerable acquaintance with perspective science. The
locus classicus, one of great importance, is in Vitruvius. In the
preface to his seventh book he writes of Agatharcus, a painter
who flourished at Athens in the middle and third quarter of the
5th century, that he executed a scene-painting for Aeschylus,
and wrote a treatise upon it which inspired the philosophers
Democritus and Anaxagoras to take up the subject, and to show
scientifically from the constitution of the eye and the direction
of rays of light how it was possible in scenic paintings to give
sure images of objects otherwise hard to fix correctly, so that when
such objects were figured on an upright plane at right-angles to the
line of sight some shotdd appear to recede and others to come forwards.
It would not be easy to summarize more aptly the functions of
perspective, and if philosophers of the eminence of those just
mentioned worked out these rules and placed them at the
disposal of the artists, the transition from ancient to modern
painting should have been accomplished in the 5th century B.C.,
instead of just two thousand years afterwards! So far however
as the existing evidence enables us to judge, this was not actually
the case, and in spite of Agatharcus and the philosophers,
painting pursued the even tenor of its way within the compara-
tively narrow limits set for it by the genius of ancient art (see
Greek Art). It may be admitted thai in many artistic qualities
it was beyond praise. In beauty, in grace of line, in composition,
we can imagine works of Apelles, of Zcuxis, of Protogenes,
excelling even the efforts of the Italian painters, or only matched
by the finest designs of a Raphael or a Leonardo. In the small
encaustic pictures of a Pausias there may have been all the rich-
ness and force we admire in a Chardin or a Monticelli. We may
even concede that the Greek artist tried at times to transcend
the natural limits of his art, and to represent various planes of
space in perspective, as in the landscape scenes from the Odyssey,
or in figure compositions such as the " Alexander and Darius
at Issus," preserved to us in a mosaic, or the " Battle-piece "
by Aristides that contained a hundred combatants. The facts,
however, remain, first that the Greek pictures about which we
chiefly read were of single figures, or subjects of a very limited
and compact order with little variety of planes; and second,
that the existing remains of ancient painting are so full of
mistakes in perspective that the representation of distance
cannot have been a matter to which the artists had really set
themselves. The monumental evidence available on the last
point is sufficient to override arguments to the contrary that may
be built up on literary notices. No competent artist, or even
teacher of drawing, who examines
what is left of ancient painting,
can fail to see that the problem
of representing correctly the third
dimension of space, though it may
have been attacked, had certainly
not been solved. It is of no avail
to urge that these remains are not
from the hands of the great
artists but of mere decorators.
In modern times the mere decora-
tor, if he had passed through a
school of art, would be as far
above such childish blunders as
a Royal Academician. We have
only to consider dispassionately
the photographic reproductions
from ancient paintings (Herr-
style of Polygnotus. ^^^^^ Denkmalcr der Malcrcicds
Altertums, Munich, 1906, &c.) to see that the perspective
researches of the philosophers had not resulted in a general
comprehension among the artists of the science of receding
planes. For example, in the famous waU-painting of " Zeus and
Hera on Mount Ida " in the House of the Tragic Poet at Pompeii,
the feet of the standing figure of the goddess are nearer to the
spectator than the seat of her lord, but the upper part of her form
is away on the farther side of him (see fig. 5, Plate IV.). No one
who could draw at all would be capable now of such a mistake.
In interiors the perspective of the rafters of a roof, of a table,
a stool, a throne, is in most cases faulty; and the scale of the
figures seems often to be determined rather by their relative
importance in the scene than by their position on the planes of
the picture. In the Pompeian landscape-piece of " Paris on
Mount Ida " (Herrmann, No. S) there is no sense of the
relative proportions of objects, and a cow in the foreground
is much smaller than Paris, who is a long way back in the
composition.
It is an additional confirmation of this view to find early
Christian and early medieval painting confined to the representa-
tion of the few near objects, which the older Oriental artists had
all along envisaged. If classical painters had really revolu-
tionized design, as it was actually revolutionized in the 15th
century of our era, and had followed out to their logical conse-
quence the innovations of Agatharcus, we may be sure that the
466
PAINTING
[DEVELOPMENT
influence of these innovations would not have been wholly lost
even in the general decline of the arts at the break-up of the
Roman Empire of the West. In any case, the influence would
have survived in Byzantine art, where there was no such
cataclysm. Yet we fail to see in the numerous pictorial minia-
tures from the 5th century onwards, or in the mosaics or the
wall-paintings of the same epoch, any more effective grasp of
the facts of the third dimension of space than was possessed by
the pre-classical Egyptian.
All through the middle ages, therefore, the facts concerning
painting with which we are here concerned remain the same,
and the art appears almost exclusively concerned with the few
selected objects and the single plane. The representation is
at most of form and not of space.
§ 10. Early Christian and Early Medieval Painting. — The
extant remains of early Christian painting may be considered
under three heads: (i) the waO-paintings in the catacombs; (2)
the pictorial decorations in books; (3) the mosaic pictures on
the walls of the churches, (i) The first are in themselves of
little importance, but are of historical interest as a hnk of con-
nexion between the wall-painting of classical times and the more
distinctively Christian forms of the art. They are slightly
executed and on a small scale, the earliest, as being more near to
classical models, are artistically the best. (2) That form of
painting devoted to the decoration and illustration of books
belongs more to the art of ornament than to painting proper
(see Illuminated MSS. and Illustration). (3) Early Chris-
tian mosaics are noble monuments of the graphic art, and
are its best representatives during the centuries from the 5th
to the 8th. A dignified simplicity in design suits their large
scale and architectural setting, and the aim of the artist is to
present in forms of epic grandeur the personages of the sacred
narratives. They are shown as in repose or engaged in some
typical but simple action; the backgrounds being as a rule plain
blue or gold and the accessories of the simplest possible descrip-
tion. The finest Christian mosaic is also the earliest. It is in
the apse of S. Pudentiana, Rome, and displays Christ enthroned
as teacher with the Apostles seated on each side of Him. It may
date from the 4th century. Next to this the best examples are
at Ravenna, in the tomb of Galla Placidia, the Baptistery,
S. Apollinare Nuovo and S. V'itale, dating from the 5th and 6th
centuries. The picture in the baptistery of the " Baptism of
Christ " is the most artistic piece of composition and pictorial
effect, and next to this comes the " Good Shepherd " of the tomb
of Galla Placidia. The finest single figures are those of the white-
robed saints between the windows of the nave of S. Apollinare
Nuovo, and the most popular representations are the two
processions of male and female saints lower down on the same
walls. The famous mosaics in S. Vitale depicting Justinian and
Theodora with courtiers in attendance, though historically
interesting, are designed in a wooden fashion, and later mosaics
at Palermo, Venice, Rome and other places are as a rule rather
decorative than pictorial. Where the costly material of glass
mosaic was not available, the churches of this period would
show mural paintings on plaster of much the same design and
artistic character, though comparatively ineffective.
In monumental painting the interval between the early
Christian mosaics and mural pictures and the revival of the 13th
century is filled by a series of wall and ceiling paintings of
Carolingian, Romanesque and early Gothic date, in Italy,
Germany and England. The earliest of which account need
be taken are those in the recently excavated church of S. Maria
Antiqua by the Forum at Rome (Rushworth, in Papers of the
British School at Rome, vol. i., London, 1902), where there is a
complete and, on the whole, well-preserved series consisting
for the most part in single figures and simply composed scenes.
Most of the work can be dated to the time of Pope John VII. at
the beginning of the 8th century. Its style shows a mixture of
Byzantine motives with elements that are native to Rome.
It must be remembered that at the time Rome was strongly
under Byzantine influence. Passing over some more frag-
mentary specimens, we may refer next to several series of mural
paintings in and near the island of Reichenau at the western end
of the lake of Constance, where a school of painting flourished
in the latter part of the 10th century. The work here is quite
as good as anything Italy has to show, and represents a native
German style, based on early Christian tradition, with very little
dependence on Byzantine models. The most interesting piece
is the " Last Judgment" in the church of St George at OberzeU
on Reichenau, where, in a very simple but dignified and effective
form, we find the earhest existing representation of this standard
theme of later medieval monumental art (F. X. Kraus, Wandge-
tndlde der St Georgskirche zu OberzeU auf der Insel Reichenau,
Freiburg-i.-Br., 1884).
About a hundred years later, in the latter part of the nth
century, a mural painting of the same theme was executed
in the church of S. Angelo in Formis near Capua in southern
Italy, the style of which shows a mixture of Latin and Byzantine
elements (F. X. Kraus, DieWandgemdlde von S. Angelo in Formis,
Berlin, 1893).
To the middle of the 12th century belongs one of the most
complete and interesting cycles of medieval wall-decoration,
the display of a series of figures and scenes illustrating the
eleventh chapter of Hebrews, in the chapter-house of the now
secularized monastery of Brauweiler, near Cologne, in the
Rhineland. Here the pictorial effect is simple, but the decora-
tive treatment in regard to the filling of the spaces and the lines
of composition is excellent. The design is Romanesque in its
severity (E. Aus'm Weerth, Wandmalcreicn des Mittelalters in den
Rheinlandcn, Leipzig 1879). Romanesque also, but exhibiting
an increase in animation and expressiveness, is the painting
of the flat ceiling of the nave of the fine church of St Michael at
Hildesheim. In the general decorative effect, the distribution
of the subjects in the spaces, the blending of figures and orna-
ment, the work, the main subject of which is the Tree of Jesse, is
a masterpiece. Two nude figures of Adam and Eve are for the
period remarkable productions. The date is the close of the 12th
century.
Succeeding examples show unmistakable signs of the approach
of the Gothic period. In the wall-paintings of the nuns' choir
of the church of Gurk in Carinthia, a certain grace and tenderness
begin to make themselves felt, and the same impression we gain
from the extensive cycle in the choir of the cathedral of Bruns-
wick, from the first decades of the 13th century. The picture
of Herod's birthday feast is typical of the style of German
painting of the time; there is nothing about it in the least rude
or tentative. It is neither childish nor barbarous, but very
accomplished in a conventional style that is exactly suited from
the decorative point of view to a mural painting. The story is
told effectively but in quaint fashion, and several incidents of it
are shown in the same composition. There is no attempt to
represent the third dimension of space, nor to give the perspective
setting of the scene, but the drawing is easy and true and
expressive. The studied grace in the bend of certain figures
and the lively expressions of the faces are traits which prefigure
Gothic art (see fig. 11, Plate III.).
Distinctively Gothic in their feeling were the wall-paintings
in the chapel at Ramersdorf, opposite Bonn, dating from the
beginning of the 14th century. They are only preserved in
copies, but these enable us to see with what grace and feeling
the slender figures were designed, how near to Angelico's came
the tender angels making music where the virgin is receiving her
celestial crown (E. Aus'm Weerth, loc. cit.). From the end of
the 14th century. Castle Runkelstein, near Botzen in Tirol, has
preserved an extensive cycle of secular wall-paintings, much
repainted, but of unique interest as giving an idea how a medieval
residence of the kind might be adorned. The style is of native
growth and no influence from south of the Alps is to be discerned
(Janitschek, Geschichte der deutschen Malerei, Berlin, 1890, 198
seq.). Technically speaking, all these mural paintings consist
in little more than outlines filled in with flat tints, neither
modelling of the forms nor perspective effect in the setting is
attempted, but the work so far as it goes is wholly satisfactory.
There is no coarseness of execution nor anything in the forms.
PAINTING
Plate V.
Photo, Aliiiari.
Fig. 14.— peace, LORENZETTI.
Siena.
Pliulu, llanjshu-iisl.
Fig. 16. -battle OF S. EGIDIO, UCCELLO. (72 X 125.) National Gallery, London.
Photo, Banjsiacn^l.
Fig. I7-— martyrdom OF S. SEBAS-
TL^N, POLLAIUOLO. (114X79*)
National Gallery, London.
Photo, Alinari.
Fig. 18.— THE DREAM OF CON-
STANTINE, PIERO DELLA
FRANCESCA. Arezzo.
Photo, Alinari
Fig. 15,
VX. 466.
THE EXPULSION FROM EDEN,
MASACCIO.
Photo, Aliiian.
Fig. 19.— burial OF S. FINA, GHIRLANDAJO. S. Gemignano.
Plate ^'I.
PAINTING
By permission oj Bniini, Clement & Co.. Dornach (Als-i r) aiiil Paris.
Fig. 20.— dance OF THE MUSES, MANTEGNA.
(64 X 77-) Louvre.
Plwio, Andcrsi'it
Fig. 21.— ALTARPIECE AT MURANO, BELLINI. Figures almost Life-size.
DEVELOPMENT]
PAINTING
467
gestures or expressions that offends the eye. The colours are
bright and pure, the decorative effect often charming.
In the matter of panel paintings on wood, we have the inter-
esting notice in Bede that Abbot Benedict of Wearmouth at the
end of the 7th century brought from Italy portable pictures on
wooden panels for the decoration of his church, part of which
still remains. The style of the painting on these, it has recently
been noticed, would resemble the existing wall-paintings of the
beginning of the 8th century in S. Maria Antiqua in Rome,
already referred to. Movable panel pictures in the form of
representations of the Madonna and Child were produced in
immense numbers at Byzantium and were imported largely
into Italy, where they became of importance in connexion with
the revival of painting in the 13th century. As a rule, however,
paintings on panel were not movable but were attached to a
screen, a door, or similar structure of wood consisting in framing
and panels. This form of decoration is of special importance
as it is really the origin of the modern picture. The painted
panel, which at first forms an integral part of an architecturally
designed structure of wood, gradually comes to attract to itself
more and more importance, tiU it finally issues from its original
setting and, emancipated from all relations to its surroundings,
claims attention to itself as an independent work of art.
Painted panels in an architectural setting were used for the
decoration of altar-fronts or antependia, of altar-backs or, as
they are commonly called, altar-pieces, choir-screens, doors of
presses and the like; or again for ceilings. There was painting
also on the large wooden crucifixes displayed in churches, where
a picture of Christ on the Cross might take the place of the more
life-like carved image. In Italy painted panels were used as
decoration of furniture, notably of the large carved chests or
cassoni so common at the epoch of the Renaissance.
Examples of early medieval date do not appear to have
survived. In Germany, where, as has been noticed, the arts in
the nth and 12th centuries stood at a higher level than in Italy
or elsewhere in the west, certain antependia or altar-fronts from
Soest in Westphalia of the 12th century are said to be the earliest
known examples of German panel painting. One is preserved in
the museum at Berlin. A little later the number of such panels
introduced as part of the decoration of altar-backs, generally
with folding doors, becomes very great. Painted panels as part
of the decoration of screens are preserved in the choir at Cologne
from the middle of the 14th century. In Italy the painted
crucifix shared popular favour with the imported or imitated
Byzantine Madonna-panels. A good example of the early
painted altar-screen is preserved in Westminster Abbey.
Later, in the isth century, the painted panel, generally with
a single figure of a saint, becomes a common part of the carved,
painted and gilded chancel screen in English churches, and many
specimens are still to be seen, especially in East Anglia.
§ II. Beginnings of the Picture: German and Early Flemish
Panel Painting. — From the decorative panels introduced into
wooden screen-work was developed in Germany and Flanders the
picture proper, the mural painting passing out of use owing to
the prevalence in the north of Gothic architecture, which does
not admit of wall spaces for the display of pictures, but substi-
tutes as a form of painting the stained-glass window. In Italy,
where Gothic was treated as a plaything, the wall spaces were
never sacrificed, and in the development of the art the mural
picture took the lead, the painted panel remaining on the whole
of secondary importance.
Priority in this development of the picture is claimed in
Germany for the school of Prague, where a gild of painters was
founded in 1348, but the first northern school of painting that
influenced other schools and plays a part in the history of painting
as a whole is the so-called school of Cologne, where painters
such as Meister Wilhelm and Hermann Wynrich achieved
reputation in the 14th century, and produced as their successor
in the 15th Stephan Lochner, author of the so-called " Dombild "
in the cathedral, and of the " Virgin of the Priests' Seminary."
A little later than the earliest Cologne masters appears Hubert
van Eyck, born near Maestricht at no great distance from the
Rhineland capital, who with his younger brother, Jan, heads the
Early Flemish school of painting. Hubert is one of the great
names in the history of the art, and is chiefly responsible for the
altar-piece of the " Adoration of the Lamb " at Ghent, the most
important masterpiece of the northern schools before the 17th
century, and the earliest monument of the then newly developed
art of oil painting. Table No. I. in Part II. of this article gives
the names of the chief successors of the Van Eycks, and the school
ends with the life and work of Quintin Matsys of Antwerp, in
the first quarter of the i6th century. The spirit of the early
Cologne school, and in the main of that of Flanders, is idyllic
and devotional, but the artists of the latter school achieve
extraordinary force and precision in their representation of the
facts of nature. They are, moreover, the first painters of land-
scape, for in their hands the gold background of the medieval
panels yields place to a rendering of natural scenery and of
effects of distance, minute in details and fresh and delightful in
feeling. The famous picture ascribed by some to Hubert van
Eyck in the coUection of Sir Francis Cook at Richmond is a
good example. The subject is the " Three Maries at the
Sepulchre," and the background is a wonderful view of a city
intended for Jerusalem (see fig. 12, Plate IV.).
In Germany, on the other hand, the tendency of the 15th
century was towards a rather crude realism in details, to which
the higher artistic qualities of beauty and devotional sentiment
were often sacrificed. This is a new phenomenon in the history
of the art. In the older Oriental, the classical and the medieval
phases of painting, though there is a constant effort to portray
the truth of nature, yet the decorative instinct in the artist, his
feeling for pattern, was a controlling element in the work, 'and
the representation was conventionalized into a form that satisfied
the ideal of beauty current at the time. Jan van Eyck was
matter-of-fact in his realism, but avoided ugliness, whereas
in Germany in the 15th and i6th centuries we find action and
expression exaggerated to contortion and grimace, and all
artistic qualities sacrificed to a mistaken idea of force. German
art was, however, saved by the appearance of some artists of
great genius who more than made up for the national insensibility
to beauty by their earnestness and truth. Martin Schongauer of
Colmar learnt his art from the painters of the Flemish Nether-
lands, and imbibed something of the feeling for beauty which
the successors of Hubert van Eyck had never wholly lost.
After Schongauer German art culminates at Nuremberg in the
person of Albrecht Diirer, and a little later in that of Hans
Holbein the younger. Contemporary with Diirer, Mathias
Grunewald of Colmar exhibits a dramatic power in his creations
that compensates for their exaggerated realism, and Bartholo-
maus Bruyn, of Cologne, prefigures the future success of the
northern schools in portraiture. In Germany, however, the
wars of religion in the i6th century checked the further growth
of a national art. Holbein's migration to England is a significant
sign of this, and German art in this phase of it may be said to
come to an end in the person of Adam Elsheimer of Frankfort,
who introduced German painting at Rome about the year 1600.
In the Netherlands the early religious school ends, as we have
seen, with Quintin Matsys, and the next generation of Flemish
painters for the most part practise their art in Italy, and import
Italian fashions into the painting of their own country. From
the ranks of these so-called Italianizcrs in the Flanders of the
16th century proceeds a little later the commanding personality
of Rubens.
§ 12. The Rise of Schools of Painting. — The expression
"school of painting" has more than once been used; what is
the meaning of it? The history of painting has hitherto been
treated in the article as a development that proceeded according
to a natural law of evolution in independence of individuals.
In painting, however, as in aU the higher operations of the arts,
the initiative of the individual counts for much, and the action
and reaction on each other of individuals, and those groups of
individuals whom common aims and practice draw together
into schools, make up for us a good part of the interest of the
historical study of painting. At certain periods this particular
468
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[DEVELOPMENT
interest has been lacking. In ancient Egypt, for example,
and among the older Oriental peoples generally, schools of paint-
ing in the modern sense did not exist, for the arts were carried
on on traditional lines and owed little, so far as records tell, to
individual initiative. In ancient Greece, on the contrary, we
find ourselves at once in an atmosphere of names and achieve-
ments which give all the glamour of personal and biographical
interest to the story of art. In the early Christian and early
medieval periods, we return again to a time when the arts were
practised in the same impersonal fashion as in the oldest days,
but with the later medieval epoch we emerge once more into an
era where the artist of genius, with his experiments and triumphs,
his rivals and followers, is in the forefront of interest; when
history is enlivened with anecdote, and takes light and shade
from the changing fortunes of individuals.
There is a danger lest the human interest of such a period
may lead us to forget the larger movements, impersonal and
almost cosmic, which are all the time carrying these individuals
and groups forward on their destined course. The history of
painting cannot be understood if it be reduced to a notice,
however full, of separate " schools" or to a series of biographies,
fascinating as these may be made, of individual artists. Hence
in what follows it is still the main course of the development of
the art in its relation to nature that will be kept in view, while the
information about names and dates and mutual relations of
artists and schools, which is in its own way equally important,
will be furnished in the tables constituting Part II. of this article.
What has just been said will prepare the reader for the fact
that the first schools of painting here mentioned are those
of Germany and Flanders, not those of Italy, though the
latter are more important as well as actually prior in point
of time.
§ 13. The Gothic Movement and the Proto-Renaissance, in
their Influence an Painting north and south of the Alps. — The
revival of the arts of sculpture and painting in the Italy of the
last part of the 13th century was an event of capital importance,
not only for that country but for the west at large. Its impor-
tance has, however, been exaggerated, when it has been said
to imply the rediscovery of the arts after a period in which they
had suffered an entire eclipse. So far as Italy is concerned, both
sculpture and painting had in the previous period sunk to a
level so low that they could hardly be said to exist, but at the
same epoch in lands north of the Alps they were producing
works of considerable merit. Romanesque wall-painting of
the 12th century, as represented in some Rhineland churches
and cloisters, is immeasurably better than anything of the same
period south of the Alps. In the arts of construction and
ornament the lead remained for a long time with the northern
peoples, and in every branch of decorative work with the excep-
tion of mosaic the craftsmanship of Germany and France
surpassed anything that native Italian workmen could produce.
By the middle of the 12th century the intellectual and social
activity of the French people was accompanied by an artistic
movement that created the most complex and beautiful archi-
tectural monuments that the world has seen. The adornment
of the great French Gothic cathedral was as artistically perfect
as its fabric was noble. For one, at any rate, of the effects at
which the painter aims, that of glowing and sumptuous colour,
nothing can surpass the stained-glass windows of the Gothic
churches, while the exteriors of the same buildings were enriched
with hundreds of statues of monumental dignity endowed with a
grace and expressiveness that reflect the spirit of the age.
The Gothic age in France was characterized by humanity,
tenderness and the love of nature, and there are few epochs in
human history the spirit of which is to us more congenial. The
1 2th century, which witnessed the growth of the various elements
of culture that combined to give the age its ultimate character,
saw also a movement of revival in another sphere. The reference
is to what has been aptly termed a " Proto-Renaissance," the
characteristic of which was a fresh interest in surviving remains
of classical antiquity. In more than one region of the west,
where these remains were specially in evidence, this interest
manifested itself, and the earliest sign of it was in Provence,
the highly Romanized part of southern Gaul known par excellence
as the " Provincia." To this is due the remarkable development
of decorative sculpture in the first decades of the 12th century,
which gave to that region the storied portals of St Gilles, and of
St Trophime at Aries. Somewhat later, in the early part of the
13th, those portions of southern Italy under the direct rule of
the emperor Frederick II. presented a similar phenomenon that
has been fully discussed by M. Bertaux in his L' Art dans I'llalie
meridionale (Paris, 1904). There were other centres of this same
movement, and a recent writer enumerates no fewer than seven.
The Gothic movement proper depended in no degree on the study
of the antique, and in art the ornamental forms which express
its spirit are naturalistic, not classical, while the fine figure
sculpture above referred to is quite independent of ancient
models, which hardly existed in the central regions of France
where the Gothic movement had its being. Still the proto-
Renaissance can be associated with it as another phase of the
same awakening of intellectual life that marked the 12th century.
Provence took the lead in the literary revival of the time, and
the artistic movement that followed on this was influenced by the
fact of the existence in those regions of abundant remains of
classical art.
The Gothic movement was essentially northern in its origin,
and its influence radiated from the lie de France. What has
been described as the idyllic grace, the tenderness, that mark the
works of the early Cologne school, and to some extent those of
the early Flemings, were Gothic in their origin, while the feeling
for nature in landscape that characterizes van Eyck, and the
general tendency towards a realistic apprehension of the facts
of things, may also be put down to the quickening of both thought
and sympathy due to the Gothic movement. Hence it is that
the northern schools of painting are noticed before the Italian
because they were nearer to the source of the common inspiration.
All the lands of the West, however, exhibit, each in its own
special forms, the same stir of a new intellectual, religious and
artistic life. In Italy we meet with the same phenomena as in
France, a proto-Renaissance, first in southern Italy and then,
as we shall presently see, at Rome and at Pisa, and a religious
and intellectual movement on Gothic lines that was embodied
in the attractive personality of St Francis of Assisi. Francis was
as perfect an embodiment of the Gothic temper as St Louis
himself, and in his romantic enthusiasm, his tenderness, his
humanity is in spirit more French than Italian.
§ 14. The Rise of the Italian Schools of Painting. — The revival
of the arts in Italy in the latter part of the 13th century was the
outcome of the two movements just noticed. The art of Niccola
Pisano is now recognized as a phase of the proto-Renaissance
of southern Italy, whence his family was derived. It represents
a distinct advance on the revived classical sculpture of Provence
or Campania because Niccola's artistic personality was a strong
one, and he gives to his work the impress of the individual of
genius. Throughout its history Italian art depends for its
excellence on this personal element, and Niccola's achievement
is epoch-making because of his personal vigour, not because he
reinvented a lost art. Towards the end of the 13th century,
painting began to show the results of the same renewed study
of antique models, and here again the revival is connected with
the names of gifted individuals. Among these the most note-
worthy are the Roman Pietro Cavallini and Duccio di Buonin-
segna of Siena. The condition of painting in Italy in late
medieval days has already been indicated. Cavallini and
Duccio now produce, in two standard forms of the art, the mural
painting of the " Last Judgment " and the enthroned Madonna
with angels — works characterized by good taste, by largeness
and suavity of treatment, and by an execution which, if still
somewhat primitive and laboured, at any rate aims at beauty of
form and colour. The recently uncovered fresco of the Last
Judgment by Cavallini, executed about 1 293 on the western waD
of S. Cecilia in Trastevere at Rome, is classical in feeling and
represents an immense advance on the older rendering of the
same subject in S. Angelo in Formis (see § 10). The vast
DEVELOPMENT)
PAINTING
469
enthroned Madonna in the Rucellai chapel of S. Maria Novella
at Florence, ascribed by Vasari to Cimabue, is now assigned
by many to Duccio of Siena, and presents similar attractive
qualities. Cimabue, a Florentine contemporary of Cavallini
and Duccio, is famed in story as the chief representative of the
painting of this period, but we possess no certain works from his
hand except his mosaic at Pisa. His style would probably
correspond to that of the painters just mentioned. His chief
importance for our purpose resides in the fact that he was the
teacher of the Florentine Giotto.
If the artists just referred to represent a revived classicism
rather than a fresh and independent study of nature, Giotto is
essentially a creation of the Gothic movement and his close
association with the Franciscan cycle of ideas brings this fact
into clearer rehef. Giotto is in no way dependent on the study
of the antique, but rehes on his own steady and penetrating out-
look upon man and upon nature. He is Gothic in his humanity,
his sympathy, his love of truth, and he incorporates in his
own person many of the most pleasing quahties of Gothic art as
it had already manifested itself in France, while by the force of
his own individual genius he raises these qualities to a higher
level of artistic expression.
In the work of Giotto painting begins to enter on its modern
era. The demonstrative element permanently takes the pre-
eminence over the more decorative element we have called
pattern-making. Though the pattern is always present, the
elements of it become of increasing value in themselves as
representations of nature, and the tendency henceforward for
a couple of centuries is to exaggerate their importance so that
the general decorative effect becomes subordinate. Giotto's
greatness depends on the gift he possessed for holding the balance
even among opposed artistic qualities. If he was interesting
and convincing as a narrator, he had a fine eye at the same time
for composition and balanced his masses with unerring tact.
Neither he nor any of the Florentine frescoists had much sense
of colour, and at this stage of the development of painting
compositions of light and shade were not thought of, but in line
and mass he pleases the eye as much as he satisfies the mind by
his clear statement of the meaning and intention of his figures
and groups.
In putting these together he is careful above all things to
make them tell their story, and primitive as he is in technique
he is as accomplished in this art as Raphael himself. Moreover,
he holds the balance between the tendency, always so strong
among his countrymen as among the Germans, to over-emphasis
of action and expression, and the grace and self-restraint which
are among the most precious of artistic qualities. He never
sacrifices beauty to force, nor on the other hand does he allow
his sense of grace of line to weaken the telling effect of action or
grouping. A good example of his style, and one interesting also
from the comparative standpoint, is his fresco of " Herod's
Birthday Feast " in S. Croce at Florence (fig. 13, Plate IV.). We
contrast it with the earlier wall-painting of the same subject in
the cathedral at Brunswick (fig. 1 1 , Plate III.). Giotto has reduced
the number of actors to the minimum necessary for an effective
presentation of the scene, but has charged each figure with
meaning and presented the ensemble with a due regard for
space as well as merely for form. The flatness of the older work
has already been exchanged for an efl'ective, if not yet fully
correct, rendering of planes. The justice of the actions and
expressions will at once strike the observer.
The Florentine school as a whole looks to Giotto as its head,
because he embodies all the characteristics that made it great;
but at the same time the artists that came after him in most
cases faOed by over-emphasis of the demonstrative element,
and sacrificed beauty and sentiment to vigour and realism.
The school as a whole is markedly intellectual, and as a result
is at times prosaic, from which fault Giotto himself was saved
by his Gothic tenderness and romance. His personality was
so outstanding that it dominated the school for nearly a century.
The " Giotteschi " is a name given to a number of Florentine
painters whose labours cover the rest of the 14th century
among whom only one, Andrea di Cione, called Orcagna, hfted
himself to any real eminence.
At Siena the Gothic movement made itself felt in the next
artistic generation after that of Duccio. Its chief representative
was Simone Martini. With him Sienese art takes upon itself
a character contrasting markedly with the Florentine. It is
on the demonstrative side less intellectual, less vigorous, less
secular; and a dreamy melancholy, a tenderness that is a little
sentimental, take the place of the alertness and force with
which the personages in Florentine frescoes are endued. On the
other hand, in decorative feeling, especially in regard to colour,
Sienese painting surpasses that of the Florentines. Simone was
followed by a number of artists who answered to the Florentine
" Giotteschi " and carry on the style through the century, but
as Florence produces an Orcagna, so at Siena about the middle
of the 14th century there appear in the brothers Lorenzetti two
artists of exceptional vigour, who carry art into new fields.
Ambrogio Lorenzetti, the younger of the brothers, is specially
represented by some frescoes in the Public Palace at Siena of a
symbolical and didactic kind, representing Good and Bad
Government, from which is selected a figure representing Peace
(fig. 14, Plate v.). Sienese sentiment is here very apparent.
Simone Martini's masterpiece had been a great religious fresco
of an edifying kind on the wall of the chapel, and now in the
rooms devoted to the secular business of the city Lorenzetti
covers the waUs with four large compositions on the subject
named.
The painters of the Sienese school were on the whole faithful
to the style indicated, and later on in the century they extend
the boundaries of their school by spreading its influence into the
hill country of Umbria. In the cities of this region Taddeo di
Bartoli, one of the best of the followers of Simone, worked about
the end of the century, and early Umbrian art in consequence
exhibits the same devotional character, the same dreaminess, the
same grace and decorative charm, that are at home in Siena.
Elsewhere in Italy the art of the 14th century represents a
general advance beyond the old medieval standard, but no out-
standing personahty made its appearance and there was nothing
that can be strictly termed a revival. At Rome, where on the
foundation of the noble design of Cavallini there might have been
reared a promising artistic structure, the removal early in the
14th century of the papal court to Avignon in France led to a
cessation of all effort.
§ 15. The Fifteenth Century, and its Influence on the Develop-
ment of Painting at Florence. — We come now to what was
indicated in § 4 as the third of the main periods into which the
history of painting may be divided. It is that in which, by the
aid of the new agency of perspective, truth of form was for the
first time perfectly mastered, and an advance was made in the
rendering of the truth of space.
The opening of the 15th century in Italy is the most important
epoch in the whole history of painting, for it was the real begin-
ning of the modern era. Here Florence, the first home of Renais-
sance culture, unmistakably assumes the lead, and the new era is
again opened by the agency of an individual of genius. The
father of modern painting is the Florentine Masaccio. He not
only advanced the art in those qualities in which Giotto had
already made it great, but pointed the way towards the repre-
sentation of the third dimension of objects and of space asa whole
which had for so long been almost ignored. His short hfe course,
for he died before he was thirty, only allowed him to execute one
work of the first importance, the frescoes in the Brancacci chapel
of the Carmine at Florence. There in the " Tribute Money "
he told the story with all Giotto's force and directness, but with
an added power in the creation of exalted types of human
character, and in the presentation of sohd shapes that seem to
live before us. In the " Expulsion from Eden " he rose to greater
heights. In the whole range of demonstrative art no more
convincing, more moving, figures have ever been created than
those of our first parents, Adam veiling his face in his hands,
Eve throwing back her head and wailing aloud in agony, while
in the foreshortened form of the angel that hovers above we
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[DEVELOPMENT
discern the whole future development of the art for a century to
come (see fig. 15, Plate V.). Above all qualities in IVIasaccio's
work we are impressed with the simplicity and the ease of the
work. The youthful artist possessed a reserve of power that,
had he hved, would have carried him at one bound to heights
that it took his actual successors in the school well nigh a
century to cUmb.
The 15th century at Florence presents to us the picture of a
progressive advance on the technical side of art, in the course
of which various problems were attacked and one by one van-
quished, till the form of painting in the style recognized in the
school was finally perfected, and was then handed on to the great
masters of expression, such as Raphael and Michelangelo, who
used it as the obedient instrument of their wills. The efiorts
of the artists were inspired by a new intellectual and social
movement of which this century was the scene. If the Gothic
movement in the 14th century had inspired Giotto and Simone
Martini, now it was the revived study of the antique, the true
Renaissance, that was behind all the technical struggles of the
artists. Painting was not, however, directly and immediately
affected by the study of antique models. This was only one
symptom of a general stir of intellectual hfe that is caUed by the
apt term " humanism." In the early Gothic epoch the move-
ment had been also in the direction of humanity, that is to say,
of softness in manners and of the amenities and graces of Ufe,
but it was also a strictly rehgious movement. Now, in the 15th
century, the inspiration of thought was rather pagan than
Christian, and men were going back to the ideas and institutions
of the antique world as a substitute for those which the Church
had provided for thirty generations. The direct influence of
these studies on art was chiefly felt in the case of architeciure,
which they practically transformed. Sculpture was influenced
to a lesser degree, and painting least of all. It was not till the
century was pretty far advanced that classical subjects of a
mythological kind were adopted by artists like Botticelli and
Piero di Cosimo, the first figures borrowed from the antique
world being those of repubhcan worthies displayed for purposes
of public edification.
The elements which the humanistic movement contributed
to Florentine art are the following: (i) The scientific study of
perspective in all its branches, hnear and aerial, including the
science of shadows. (2) Anatomy, the study of the nude form
both at rest and in action. (3) Truth of fact in details in
animate and inanimate subjects. (4) The technique of oil
painting. It must be observed that in this work the Florentines
were joined by certain painters of Umbria, who were not satisfied
with the Umbro-Sienese tradition already spoken of, but alUed
themselves with the leaders of the advance who were fighting
under the banner of Masaccio.
Of the studies mentioned above by far the most important
was that of perspective. Anatomy and reahsm in details only
represented an advance along the lines painting had been
already following. The new technique of oil painting, though
of immense importance in connexion with the art as a whole,
affected the Florentines comparatively Uttle. Their favourite
form of painting was the mural picture, not the self-contained
panel or canvas for which the oil medium was specially designed,
and for mural work fresco remained always supreme (see Part III.,
§ 35). In this mural work the introduction of scientific perspec-
tive effected something like a transformation. The essence of
the work from the decorative point of view had been its flatness.
It was primarily pattern-making, and nature had been represented
by contours which stood for objects without giving them their full
dimensions. When the artist began to introduce varying planes
of distance and to gain relief by light and shade, there was at
once a change in the relation of the picture to the wall. It no
longer agreed in its flatness with the facts of the surface of which
it formed the enrichment, but opposed these by its suggestion
of depth and distance. Hence while painting as a whole
advanced enormously through this effort after the truth of space,
yet decorative quality in this particular form of the art propor-
tionately suffered. . : . . .
The study of perspective owed much to the architect and
scholar Brunellesco, one of the oldest as well as ablest of the men
in whom the new movement of the 15th century was embodied.
Brunellesco taught all he knew to Masaccio, for whose genius
he felt strong admiration; but the artist in whom the result of
the new study is most obvious is Paolo Uccello, a painter of
much power, who was born as early as 1397. Uccello, as
extant works testify, sometimes composed pictures mainly
with a view to the perspective effects for which they furnished
the opportunity. See fig. 16, Plate V., where in a fresco of a
cavalry skirmish he has drawn in foreshortened view the figure
of a warrior prone on the ground, as well as various weapons
and other objects under the feet of the horses. A fresco of " The
Flood " at Florence is even more naive in its parade of the
painter's newly won skill in perspective science. The intarsists,
or workers in inlaid woods, who were very numerous in Florence,
also adopted perspective motives for their designs, and these
testify to the fascination of the study during all the last part of
the century and the beginning of the next.
The advance in anatomical studies may be illustrated in
the person of Antonio PoUaiuolo. Masaccio had been as great
in this department of the painter's craft as in any other; and in
the Adam and Eve of the " Expulsion," and the famous nudes
shown in the fresco of " Peter Baptizing," he had given the
truth of action and expression as few have been able to render it;
but in the matter of scientific accuracy in detail more anatomical
study was needful, and to this men like Pollaiuolo now devoted
themselves. Pollaiuolo's " Martyrdom of St Sebastian," in
the London National Gallery, is a very notable Olustration of
the efforts which a conscientious and able Florentine of the
period would make to master these problems of the scientific
side of art. (See fig. 17, Plate V.)
On the whole, however, of the men of this group it was not a
Florentine but the Umbrian Piero de' Franceschi that represents
the greatest achievement on the formal side of art. His theoreti-
cal studies were profound. He wrote a treatise on perspective,
representing an advance on the previous treatment of the
science by Alberti; and to this study of linear perspective Piero
united those of aerial perspective and the science of shadows. A
fresco of his at Arezzo entitled the " Dream of Constantine "
is epoch-making in presenting a night effect into the midst of
which a bolt of celestial radiance is hurled, the incidence of which
on the objects of the various planes of the picture has been care-
fully observed and accurately reproduced. (See fig. iS, Plate V.)
Piero handed on his scientific accomphshments to a pupil,
also an Umbrian of Florentine sympathies, Luca SignorelU of
Cortona. He achieved still greater success than Pollaiuolo in
the rendering of the nude form in action, but more conspicuously
than any others of this group he sacrificed beauty to truth, and
the nudes in his great series of frescoes on the Last Things at
Orvieto are anatomized like ecorches, and are in colour and
texture positively repellent. Luca's work is, however, of his-
torical importance as leading on to that of Michelangelo.
A great power in the Florentine school of the 15th century
was Andrea del Castagno, an artist with much of the vigour, the
feeling for the monumental, of Masaccio, but without Masaccio's
saving gift of suavity of treatment. He is best represented by
some single figures representing Florentine worthies, whom he
has painted as if they were statues in niches. They formed
part of the decoration of a villa, and are noteworthy as wholly
secular in subject. There is a massiveness about the forms
which shows how thoroughly the 15th century Florentines were
mastering the representation of solid objects in all their three
dimensions. Other painters attracted attention at the time for
their reaUstic treatment of details. Vasari singles out Alessio
Baldovinetti.
The importance for art of the Florentine school of the isth
century resides in these efforts for the perfecting of painting
on the formal side, which its representatives were themselves
making and were inspiring in others. The general historian
of the art will dweU rather on this aspect of the work of the
school than on the numerous attractive featufes it offers 19 the
PAINTING
Plate VII.
Photo. Neurdein.
Fig. 22.— the CONCERr, (;iORGIONE (?). Louvre. (44 ~^ 55)
PJwlo, Anderso7i.
Fig. 23.— the PRESENTATION IN THE TEMPLE, TITIAN. (13S ■, 310.) Academy, Venice.
XX. 470.
Plate VIII.
PAINTING
Pho'o, UatifsUienn^l
Fig. 24.— fete CHAMPETRE, WATTEAU.
Edinburgh.
{22 ■ iS.)
Photo, Hanfstaengl.
Fig. 25.— HON.
MRS GRAHAM, GAINSBOROUGH.
(93 X 60.) Edinburgh.
PJw*o, Anderson.
Fig. 26.— CHARLES V., TITIAN. (133x110.) Madrid.
Photo, Hanfstaengl.
Fig. 27.— GEORGE GYSIS,
HOLBEIN. (38J X 33.) Berlin.
DEVELOPMENT]
PAINTING
471
superficial observer. The Fra Angelicos, the Filippo Lippis,
the Benozzo Gozzohs, the Botticellis, the Fih'ppino Lippis of
the century express pleasantly in their work various phases of
feeUng, devotional, idyllic or pensive, and enjoy a proportionate
popularity among the lovers of pictures. Exigencies of space
preclude anything more than a mention of their names, but a
sentence or two must be given to a painter of the last half of the
century who represents better than any other the perfection
of the monumental style in fresco painting. This painter is
Ghirlandajo, to whom is ascribed a characteristic saying. When
disturbed in hours of work about some domestic affair he
exclaimed: " Trouble me not about these household matters;
now that I begin to comprehend the method of this art I would
fain they gave me to paint the whole circuit of the walls of
Florence with stories." Ghirlandajo was entering into the
heritage of technical knowledge and skill that had been labor-
iously acquired by his countrymen and their Umbrian comrades
since the beginning of the century, and he spread himself upon
the plastered walls of Tuscan churches with easy copiousness,
in works which give us a better idea than any others of the time
of how much can be accomplished in a form of art of the kind
by sound tradition and a businesslike system of operation.
The mural painting of Ghirlandajo represents in its perfection
one important phase of the art. It was still decorative in the
sense that lime colour-washes were the natural finish of the lime
plaster on the wall, and that these washes were arranged in a
colour-pattern pleasing to the eye. The demonstrative element,
that is, the significance of these patches of colour as represent-
ations of nature, was however in the eyes of both painter
and public the matter of primary importance, and similitude
was now carried as far as knowledge of anatomy and linear
perspective rendered possible. Objects were rendered in their
three dimensions and were properly set on their planes and
surrounded with suitable accessories, while aerial perspective
was only drawn on to give a general sense of space without the
eye being attracted too far into the distance. As a specimen of
the monumental style nothing can be better than Ghirlandajo's
fresco of the " Burial of S. Fina " at S. Gimignano in Tuscany
(see fig. 19, Plate V.). We note with what architectural feeling
the composition is balanced, how simple and monumental is the
effect.
§ 16. The Fifteenth Century in the other Italian Schools. — It has
been already noticed that the painting of the 14th century in
the Umbrian cities was inspired by that of Siena. Through
the isth century the Umbrian school developed on the same
lines. Its artists were as a whole content to express the placid
religious sentiment with which the Sienese had inspired them,
and advanced in technical matters almost unconsciously, or at
any rate without making the pronounced efforts of the Floren-
tines. While Piero de' Franceschi and Luca Signorelli vied with
the most ardent spirits among the Florentines in grapphng
with the formal problems of the art, their countrymen generally
preserved the old flatness of effect, the quiet poses, the devout
expressions of the older school. This Umbro-Sienese art pro-
duced in the latter part of the century the typical Umbrian
painter Perugino, whose chief importance in the history of his
art is the fact that he was the teacher of Raphael.
An Umbrian who united the suavity of style and feeling
for beauty of the Peruginesques with a daring and scientific
mastery that were Florentine was Piero de' Franceschi's pupil,
Melozzo da Forli. His historical importance largely resides
in the fact that he was the first master of the so-called Roman
school. As was noticed before in connexion with the early
Roman master, Pietro Cavallini, the development of a native
Roman school was checked by the departure of the papal court
to France for the best part of a century. After the return, when
affairs had been set in order, the popes began to gather round
them artists to carry out various extensive commissions, such
as the decoration of the walls of the newly-erected palace
chapel of the Vatican, called from its founder the Sistine. These
artists were not native Romans but Florentines and Umbrians,
and among them was Melozzo da Forli, who by taking up his
residence permanently at Rome became the founder of the
Roman school, that was afterwards adorned by names like
those of Raphael and Michelangelo.
In the story of the development of Italian painting Melozzo
occupies an important place. He carried further the notion
of a perspective treatment of the figure that was started by
Masaccio's angel of the " Expulsion," and preceded Corrcggio
in the device of representing a celestial event as it would appear
to a spectator who was looking up at it from below.
On the whole, the three Umbrians, Piero de' Franceschi,
with his two pupils Luca SignoreUi and Melozzo, are the most
important figures in the central Itahan art of the formative
period. There is one other artist in another part of Italy whose
personahty bulks more largely than even theirs, and who, like
them a disciple of the Florentines, excelled the Florentines in
science and power, and this is the Paduan Mantegna.
We are introduced now to the painters of north Italy. Their
general character differs from that of the Umbro-Sienese school
in that their work is somewhat hard and sombre, and wanting
in the naivete and tenderness of the masters who originally
drew their inspiration from Simone Martini. Giotto had spent
some time and accomplished some of his best work at Padua in
the earliest years of the 14th century, but his influence had not
lasted. Florentine art, in the more advanced form it wore in
the first half of the 15th century, was again brought to it by
Donatello and Paolo Uccello, who were at work there shortly
before 1450. At that time Andrea Mantegna was receiving his
first education from a painter, or rather impresario, named
Francesco Squarcione, who directed his attention to antique
models. Mantegna learnt from Donatello a statuesque feeling
for form, and from Uccello a scientific interest in perspective,
while, acting on the stimulus of his first teacher, he devoted him-
self to personal study of the remains of antique sculpture which
were common in the Roman cities of north Italy. Mantegna
built up his art on a scientific basis, but he knew how to inspire
the form with a soul. His own personahty was one of the
strongest that we meet with in the annals of Italian art, and he
stamped this on all he accomplished. No figures stand more firmly
than Mantegna's, none have a more plastic fullness, in none are
details of accoutrement or folds of drapery more clearly seen
and rendered. The study of antique remains supphed him with
a store of classical details that he uses with extraordinary
accuracy and effectiveness in his representations of a Roman
triumph, at Hampton Court. Ancient art invested, too, with a
certain austere beauty his forms of women or children, and in
classical nudes there is a firmness of modelling, a suppleness in
movement, that we look for in vain among the Florentines.
Fig. 20, Plate VI., which shows a dance of the Muses with Venus
and Vulcan, is typical. Mantegna was not only a great person-
ality, but he exercised a powerful and wide-reaching influence
upon all the art of north Italy, including that of Venice. His
perspective studies led him in the same direction as Melozzo da
Forli, and in some decorative paintings in the Camera degh Sposi
at Mantua he pointed out the way that was afterwards to be
followed by Correggio.
Mantegna's relations with the school of Venice introduce us
to the most important and interesting of aU the Italian schools
save that of Florence. Venetian painting occupies a position
by itself that corresponds with the place and history of the city
that gave it birth. The connexions of Venice were not with the
rest of Italy, but rather with the East and with Germany.
Commercially speaking, she was the emporium of trade with
both. Into her markets streamed the wealth of the Orient,
and from her markets this was transferred across the Alps to
cities hke Nuremberg. From Germany had come a certain
Gothic element into Venetian architecture in the 14th century,
and a little later an influence of the same kind began to affect
Venetian painting. Up to that time Venice had depended
for her painters on the East, and had imported Byzantine
Madonna pictures, and called in Byzantine mosaic-workers
to adorn the walls and roof of her metropolitan church. The
first sign of native activity is to be found at Murano, where,
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in the first half of the 15th century, a German, Justus of
Allemagna, worked in partnership with a Muranese family. A
little later a stranger from another quarter executes important
commissions in the city of the lagoons. This was an Umbrian,
Gentile da Fabriano, who possessed the suavity and tenderness
of his school.
The natural tendency of Venetian taste, nourished for cen-
turies on opulent Oriental stuffs, on gold and gems, ran in the
direction of what was soft and pleasing to the sense. The
northern Gothic and the Umbrian influences corresponded with
this and flattered the natural tendency of the people. For the
proper development of Venetian painting some element of
Florentine strength and science was absolutely necessary, and
this was imparted to the Venetian school by Mantegna through
the medium of the Bellini.
The BeUini were a Venetian family of painters, of whom the
father was originally an assistant to Gentile da Fabriano, but
lived for a while at Padua, where his daughter Nicolosia became
the wife of Mantegna. With the two Bellini sons. Gentile and
Giovanni, Mantegna became very intimate, and a mutual
influence was exercised that was greatly to the benefit of all.
Mantegna softened a httle what has been termed his " iron style,"
through the assimilation of some of the suavity and feeling for
beauty and colour that were engrained in the Venetians, while
on the other hand Mantegna imparted some of his own stern-
ness and his Florentine science to his brothers-in-law, of whom
the younger, Giovanni, was the formative master of the later
Venetian school.
§ 17. The Painting of the Sixteenth Century: the Mastery 0}
Form. — If we examine a drawing of the human figure by Raphael,
Michelangelo, or Correggio, and compare it with the finest
examples of Greek figure design on the vases, we note at once
that to the ancient artist the form presented itself as a sil-
houette, and he had to put constraint on himself to reahze its
depth; whereas the moderns, so to say, think in the third dimen-
sion of space and every touch of their pencil presupposes it.
The lovely " Aphrodite riding on a Swan," on the large Greek
kylix in the British Museum, is posed in an impossible position
between the wing of the creature and its body, where there
would be no space for her to sit. The lines of her figure are
exquisite, but she is pure contour, not form. In a Raphael
nude the strokes of the chalk come forward from the back,
bringing with them into relief the rounded limb which grows
into plastic fullness before our eyes. Whether the parts recede
or approach, or sway from side to side, the impression on the
eye is equally clear and convincing. The hnes do not merely
limit a surface but caress the shape and model it by their very
direction and comparative force into relief. In other words,
these 16th-century masters for the first time perfectly realize
the aim which was before the eyes of the Greeks; and Raphael,
who in grace and truth and composition may have been only
the peer of Apelles, probably surpassed his great predecessor in
this easy and instinctive rendering of objects in their solidity.
In so far as the work of these masters of the culminating
period, in its relation to nature, is of this character it needs
no further analysis, and attention should rather be directed to
those elements in Italian design of the 16th-century which have
a special interest for the after development of the art.
Not only was form mastered as a matter of drawing, but
relief was indicated by a subtle treatment of light and shade.
Foreshortening as a matter of drawing requires to be accom-
panied by correct modulation of tone and colour, for as the form
in question recedes from the eye, changes of the most delicate
kind in the illumination and hue of the parts present themselves
for record and reproduction. The artist who first achieved
mastery in these refinements of chiaroscuro was Leonardo da
Vinci, while Correggio as a colourist added to Leonardesque
modelling an equally delicate rendering of the modulation of
local colour in relation to the incidence of light, and the greater
or less distance of each part from the eye. This represented
a great advance in the rendering of natural truth, and prepared
the way for the masters of the 17th century. It is not only by
linear perspective, or the progressive diminution in size of
objects as they recede, that the effect of space and distance can
be compassed. This depends more on what artists know as
" tone " or " values," that is, on the gradual degradation of the
intensity of light and shadow, and the diminishing saturation
of colours, or, as we may express it in a word that is not however
quite adequate, aerial perspective. That which Leonardo and
Correggio had accomphshed in the modelling, hghting and
tinting of the single form in space had to be applied by succeeding
artists to space as a whole, and this was the work not of the i6th
but of the 17th century, and not of Italians but of the masters of
the Netherlands and of Spain.
§ 18. The Cotitribution oj Venice. — Before we enter upon this
fourth period of the development of the art, something must be
said of an all-important contribution that painting owes to the
masters of Venice.
The reference is not only to Venetian colouring. This was
partly, as we have seen, the result of the ternperament and
circumstances of the people, and we may ascribe also to the
peculiar position of the city another Venetian characteristic.
There is at Venice a sense of openness and space, and the artists
seem anxious on their canvases to convey the same impression
of a large entourage. The landscape background, which we
have already found on early Flemish panels, becomes a feature
of the pictures of the Venetians, but these avoid the meticulous
detail of the Flemings and treat their spaces in a broader and
simpler fashion. An indispensable condition however for the
rich and varied effects of colour shown on Venetian canvases was
the possession by the painters of an adequate technique. In
the third part of this article an account is given of the change
in technical methods due, not so much to the introduction of the
oil medium by the Van Eycks, as to the exploitation at Venice of
the unsuspected resources which that medium could be made
to afford. Giovanni Bellini, not Hubert van Eyck, is really the
primal painter in oils, because he was the first to manipulate
it with freedom, and to play off against each other, the various
effects of opaque and transparent pigment. His noble picture
at Murano, representing the Doge Barbarigo adoring the
Madonna, represents his art at its best (see fig. 21, Plate VI.).
Bellini rendered possible the painters of the culminating
period of Venetian art, Giorgione, Titian, Tintoretto, with others
hardly less great. Giorgione was the first who made the art,
as an art of paint not merely of design, speak to the soul. His
melting outlines and the crisp clean touches that wake the piece
to life; his glowing hues and the pearly neutrals that give them
repose and quality; the intimate appeal of his dreamy faces,
his refined but voluptuous forms, and the large freedom of his
spaces of sky and distance, all combine to impress us with a
sense of the poetry and mystery of creation that we derive from
the works of no other extant painter. The " Concert " of the
Louvre, fig. 22, Plate VII. is typically Giorgionesque. (
Tintoretto, more intellectually profound, more passionate,
writes for us his message in his stormy brush-strokes, now
shaking us with terror, now lifting our souls on the wings of his
imagination; but with him as with the younger master it is
always the painter who speaks, and always in the terms of
colour and texture and handling. Lastly, between the two,
unapproachable in his majestic calm, stands Titian. Combining
the poetry of Giorgione with much of Tintoretto's depth and
passion, he is the first, and still perhaps the greatest, of the
supreme masters of the painter's art. His masterpiece is the
great "Presentation" of the Venice Academy, fig. 23, Plate
VII. Painting, it is true, has to advance in its development
beyond the ideals of Titian's century, but it loses on the ethical
side more than on the technical side it wins, and without the
Venetians the world would have never known the full possi-
bilities of the art that began so simply and at so early a stage of
human civilization.
§ 19. The Fourth Period: the Realization of the Truth of Space.
Changed Relation of Painting to Nature. — By the 17th century
the development of painting had passed through all its stages,
and the picture was no longer a mere silhouette or a transcript
DEVELOPMENT]
PAINTING
473
of objects against a flat background, but rather an enchanted
mirror of the world, in which might be reflected space beyond
space in infinite recession. With this transformation of the
picture there was connected a complete change in the relation
of the artist to nature. Throughout all the earlier epochs of
the art that painter had concerned himself not with nature as
a whole, but with certain selected aspects of nature that furnished
him with his recognized subjects. These subjects were selected
on account of their intrinsic beauty or importance, and as
representing intrinsic worth they claimed to be delineated
in the clearest and most substantial fashion. In the 17th
century, not only was the world as a whole brought within
the artist's view, but it presented itself as worthy in every
part of his most reverent attention. In other words the art
of the 17th century, and of the modern epoch in general, is
democratic, and refuses to acknowledge that diff'erence in artistic
value among the aspects of nature which was at the basis of the
essentially aristocratic art of the Greeks and Italians. It does
not follow that selection is of any less importance in modern
painting than it was of old; the change is that the basis of selec-
tion is not now a fixed intrinsic gradation amongst objects, but
rather a variable difference dependent not on the object itself
but on certain accidents of its position and lighting. The
artist still demands that nature shall inspire him with her
beauty, but he has learned that this beauty is so widely diffused
that he may find it anywhere. It was a profound saying of
John Constable that there is nothing ugly in nature, for, as he
explained it, let the actual form and character of an object be
what it would, the angle at which it might be viewed, and the
effect upon it of light and colour, could always make it beautiful.
It is when objects and groups of objects have taken on themselves
this pictorial beauty, which only the artistically trained eye
can discern, that the modern painter finds himself in the presence
of his " subject," and he knows that this magical play of beauty
may appear in the most casual and unlikely places, in mean
and squalid corners, and upon the most ordinary objects of
daily life. Sometimes it will be a heap of litter, sometimes a
maiden's face, that will be touched with this pictorial charm.
Things to the common eye most beautiful may be barren of it,
while it may touch and glorify a clod.
The artist who was the first to demonstrate convincingly
this principle of modern painting was Rembrandt. With
Rembrandt the actual intrinsic character of the object before
him was of small concern. Beauty was with him a matter of
surface effect that depended on the combined influence of the
actual local colour and superficial modelling of objects, with
the passing condition of their hghting, and the greater or
less clearness of the air through which they were seen. Behind
the effect produced in this fortuitous fashion the object in itself
vanished, so to say, from view. It was appearance that was
important, not reality. Rembrandt's art was related essentially
not to things as they were but as they seemed. The artists
of the 15th century, whose careful delineation of objects gives
them the title of the earliest realists, portrayed these objects
in precise analytical fashion each for itself. More advanced
painters regarded them not only in themselves but in their
artistic relations as combining beauties of form and colour that
together made up a pictorial effect. Rembrandt in his later work
attended to the pictorial effect alone and practically annulled
the objects, by reducing them to pure tone and colour. Things
are not there at all, but only the semblance or effect or " impres-
sion " of things. Breadth is in this way combined with the
most dehcate variety, and a new form of painting, now called
" impressionism," has come into being.
To give back nature just as she is seen, in a purely pictorial
aspect, is the final achievement of the painter's craft, but as the
differences of tone and colour on which pictorial beauty depends
are extremely subtle, so it is only by a skill of touch that seems
like the most accomplished sleight of hand that the required
illusion can be produced, and in this way the actual handling
of the brush assumes in modern painting an importance which
in the old days it never possessed. The effect is produced not by
definite statements of form and colour, but by what Sir Charles
Eastlake termed " the judicious unfinish of a consummate
workman," through which " the flat surface is transformed into
space." Frans Hals of Haarlem, who was born in 1580, was
perhaps the first to reveal the artistic possibilities of a free
suggestive handling in oil paint, and Van Dyck is said to have
marvelled how Hals was able to sketch in a portrait " with
single strokes of the brush, each in the right place, without
altering them and without fusing them together." In the
wonderful late Velazquez at Vienna, the portrait of the Infant
Philipp Prosper as a child of two years old, the white drapery,
the minute fingers, the delicate baby face from which look out
great eyes of darkest blue, are all indicated with touches so
loosely thrown upon the canvas that seen near by they are all
confusion — yet the life and truth are in them, and at the proper
focal distance nature herself is before us. The touches combine
to give the forms, the local colours, the depth, the solidity of
nature, while at the same time the chief impression they convey
is that of the opalescent play of changing tones and hues which,
eluding the limitations of definite contours, make up to the
painter's eye the chief beauty of the external world. Moreover
it will be understood that this realization of the truth of space,
which is the distinguishing quality of modern painting, does
not mean that the artist is always to be rendering large views of
sky and plain. The gift of setting objects in space, so that the
atmosphere plays about them, and their relations of tone to their
surroundings are absolutely correct and 'convincing, is shown
just as well in a group of things close at hand as in a wide land-
scape. The backgrounds in the pictures by Velazquez of " The
Surrender of Breda " and " Don Balthazar Carlos " at Madrid
are magnificent in their limitless suggestion of the free spaces
of earth and sky, but the artist's power in this respect is just as
effectively shown in the creation of space in the interiors of
" The Maids of Honour "and the" Spinners," and the skill with
which he brings away the hand of the sitter from his white robe,
in the " Innocent X." of the Doria Palace at Rome. The fact
is that the scale on which the modern painter works, and the
nature of his subjects, make no difference in the essential char-
acter of the result. A very few square feet of canvas were
sufficient for Ruysdael to convey in his " Haarlem from the
Dunes " the most sublime impression of infinity; and a Dutch
interior by De Hooch gives us just as much feeling of air and
distance as one of the vast panoramic landscapes of De Koningk
or Rubens.
§ 20. Impressionism. — The term " impressionism," much heard
in artistic discussions of to-day, is said to date from a certain
exhibition in Paris in 1871, in the catalogue of which the word
was often used; a picture being called Imprcssio7i de tnon pot-
A-fett, or Impression d'un chat qui se promhie, &c. An
influential critic summed up these impressions, and dubbed
the exhibition " Salon des Impressionistes " (Muther, Modern
Painting, 1896, ii. 718). It is a mistake however to suppose
that the style of painting denoted by this term is an invention
of the day, for, in so far as it is practised seriously and with
adequate artistic powers, it is essentially the same style as that
of some of the greatest 17th-century masters, such as Rembrandt
and Velazquez. Modern investigation into the reasons of things
has provided the system with a scientific basis and justification,
and we can see that it really corresponds with the experimentally
determined facts of human vision. The act of " seeing " may
mean one or two different things. We may (i) allow our glance
to travel leisurely over the field of vision, viewing the objects one
by one, and forming a clear picture to ourselves of each in turn;
or (2) we may try to take in the whole field of vision at a glance,
ignoring the special objects and trying to frame before ourselves
a sort of summary representation of the whole; or again, (3)
we may choose a single point in the field of vision, and focus on
that our attention, allowing the surrounding objects to group
themselves in an indistinct general mass. We can look at nature
in any one of these three ways; each is as legitimate as the others;
but since in most ordinary cases we look at things in order to
gain information about them, our vision is usually of the first or
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PAINTING
[DEVELOPMENT
analytical kind, in which we fix the objects successively, noting
each by each their individual characteristics. As the object
of painting is to reproduce what is seen as we see it, so in the
majority of cases painting corresponds to this, our usual way,
of viewing nature. That is to say, all painters of the early
schools, and the majority of painters at all times, represent nature
in a way that answers to this analytical vision. The treatment
of groups of objects in the mass, though, as we have seen,
occasionally essayed even In ancient times (see §§ 8, 9), does not
become the painter's ideal till the 17th centur>'. We find then,
and we find here and there through all the later periods of the
art. efforts on the part of the artist to reproduce the effect of
vision of the other two kinds, to show how objects look when
regarded all together and not one by one, or how they look when
we focus our attention on one of them but notice at the same
time how all the others that are in the field of vision group them-
selves round in a penumbra, in which they are seen and yet not
seen. The special developments of impressionistic art in recent
times in France and England are dealt with in the article on
Impressionism (see also the appendix to this article on Recent
Schools of Painting) , but it is mentioned here as a style of paint-
ing that is the logical outcome of the evolution of the art which
has been traced from the earliest times to the 17th centurj'. For
the particular pictorial beauty, on which the modern painter
trains his eye, is largely a beauty of relation, and depends on
the mutual effect on each other of the elements in a group.
Unless these are looked at in the mass their pictorial quality will
be entirely missed. This word on impressionism, as corre-
sponding to certain ways of looking at nature, is accordingly a
necessary adjunct to the critique of modem painting since
the 17th century.
§ 21. Painting in tlie Modern Schools. — The history of the art
has been presented here as an evolution, the ultimate outcome
of which was the impressionist painting of 17th-century
masters such as Rembrandt and Velazquez. In this form of
painting the artist is only concerned with those aspects of nature
which give him the sense of pictorial beauty in tone and colour,
and these aspects he reproduces on his canvas, not as a mere
mirror would, but touched, pervaded, transfigured by his own
artistic personality. It does not follow however that these
particular ideals of the art have inspired modem painters as a
body. No one who visits the picture exhibitions of the day, or
even our galleries of older art, will fail to note that a good deal
of modern painting since the 17th century has been academic
and conventional, or prosaically natural, or merely popular in
its appeal. With work of this kind we are not concerned, and
accordingly, in the table (VIII.) which follows in Part II. of the
article, the names with few exceptions are those of artists
who embody the maturer pictorial aims that have been under
discussion.
Of the schools of the 17th century that of Spain, owing
much to the so-called Italian " naturahsts," produced the
incomparable Velazquez with one or two notable contempor-
aries, and later on in the 18th century the interesting figure
of Goya; while the influence of Velazquez on Whistler and other
painters of to-day is a more important fact connected with the
school than the recent appearance in it of brilliant technical
executants such as Fortuny.
The schoob of Flanders and of France are closely coimected,
and both owe much to Italian influence. The land of Italy,
rather than any works of ItaHan painters, has been the inspira-
tion of the so-called classical landscapists, among whom the
Lorrainer Claude and the French Poussin take the rank of
captains of a goodly band of followers. In figure painting the
Venetians inspire Rubens, and Raphael stands at the head
of the academic draughtsmen and composers of " historical "
pieces who have been especially numerous in France. Rubens
and Raphael together formed Le Brun in the days of Louis XIV.,
David and Delaroche in the two succeeding centuries, and the
modem decorative figure painters, such as Baudry, whose works
adorn the pubHc buildings of France. Flemish influence is also
strong in the French painting in a gallant vein of the i8th century
from the serious and beautiful art of Watteau (fig. 24, Plate VIII.)
to the slighter productions of a Fragonard. Van Dyck, another
Fleming of genius, is largely responsible for the British portrait-
ure of the iSth century, which is affiUated to him through Kneller
and Sir Peter Lely. There is something of the courtly elegance
of Van Dyck in the beautiful Gainsborough at Edinburgh
representing the Hon. Mrs Graham (fig. 25, Plate VIII.). On the
whole, though the representative masters of these two schools
are original, or at any rate personal, in technique, they are in
their attitude towards nature largely dependent on the traditions
established in the great ItaUan schools of figure-painting of the
i6th centurj'. The contrast when we turn from France and
Flanders to HoUand is extraordinary. This country produced
at the close of the i6th century and in the first half of the 17th
a body of painters who owed no direct debt at all to Italy, and,
so far as appears, would have been what they were had Titian and
Raphael and Michelangelo never existed. They took advantage,
it is true, of the mastery over nature and over the material
apparatus of painting which had been won for the world by
the ItaUans of the 15th and i6th centuries, but there their
debt to the peninsula ended, and in their outlook upon nature
they were entirely original.
The Dutch school is indeed an epitome of the art in its modern
phase, and all that has been said of this apphes with special
force to the painting of Holland. Democratic in choice of
subject, subtle in observation of tone and atmosphere, refined in
colour, free and yet precise in execution, sensitive to every charm
of te.xture and handhng, the Dutch painter of the first half of
the 17th century represents the most varied and the most
finished accomplishment in paint that any school can show.
Such work as he perfected could not fail to exercise a powerful
effect on later art, and accordingly we find a current of influence
flowing from HoUand through the whole course of modern
painting, side by side with the more copious tide that had its
fountain-head Ln Italy. Hogarth and Chardin and Morland
in the i8th century, the Norwich painters and Constable in the
igth, with the French Barbizon landscapists who look to the
last as their head, aU owe an incalculable debt to the sincere
and simple but masterly art of the countr>'men of Rembrandt.
§ 22. The Different Kinds of Painting represented in the Modern
Schools. — The fact that the Dutch painters have left us master-
pieces in so many different walks of painting, makes it con-
venient that we should add here some brief notes on characteristic
modern phases of the art on which they stamped the impress
of their genius. The normal subject for the artist, as we have
seen, up to the 17th century, was the figure-subject, generally
in some connexion with religion. The Egyptian portrayed the
men and women of his time, but the pictures, through their
connexion with the sepulchre, had a quasi-religious significance.
The Assyrian chronicled the acts of semi-divine kings. Greek
artists, whether sculptors or painters, were in the majority of
cases occupied with the doings of gods and heroes. Christian
art, up to the i6th century, was almost exclusively devoted to
reUgious themes. In all this art, as weU as in the more secular
figure-painting of the modern schools, the personages represented,
with their doings and surroundings, were of intrinsic importance,
and the portrayal of them was in a measure an act of service
and of honour. Portraiture is differentiated from this kind of
subject-picture through stages which it would be interesting
to trace, but the portrait, though secular, is always treated in
such a way as to exalt or dignify the sitter. Another kind of
figure-piece, also differentiated by degrees from the subject-
picture of the loftier kind, is the so-caUed Genre Painting, in
which the human actors and their goings-on are in themselves
indifferent, trivial, or mean and even repellent; and in which,
accordingly, intrinsic interest of subject has disappeared to be
replaced by an artistic interest of a different kind. Landscape,
in modem times so important a branch of painting, is also an
outcome of the traditional figure-piece, for at first it is nothing but
a background to a scene in which human figures are prominent.
Marine Painting is a branch of landscape art differentiated from
this, but supphed at first in the same way with figure-interest.
DEVELOPMENT]
Painting
475
The origin of Animal Painting is to be sought partly in
figure-pieces, where, as in Egypt and Assyria, animals play
a part in scenes of human hfe, and partly in landscapes, in
which cattle, &c., are introduced to enliven the foreground. The
Hunting Picture, combining a treatment of figures and animals
in action with landscape of a picturesque character, gives an
artist like Rubens a welcome opportunity, and the picture of
Dead Game may be regarded as its offshoot. This brings us to
the important class of Still-Life Painting, the relation of which
to the figure-piece can be traced through the genre picture and
the portrait. As a natural scene in the background, so on the
nearer planes, a judiciously chosen group of accessory objects
adds life and interest to the representation of a personage or
scene from human life. Later on these objects, when regarded
with the eyes of an artist fully opened to the beauty of the
world, become in themselves fit for artistic, aye, even ideal,
treatment; and a Vollon will by the magic of his art make the
interior of a huge and polished copper caldron look as grand as if
it were the very vault of heaven itself.
§ 23. Portraiture. — Attention has already been called in § 7
to the skill of the Egyptian artist in marking differences of
species and race in animals and men. In the case of personages
of special distinction, notably kings, individual lineaments
were portrayed with the same freshness, the same accent of
truth. There is less of this power among the artists of Assyria.
The naturalism of Cretan and Mycenaean art is so striking that
we should expect to find portraiture represented among its
remains, and this term may be fairly applied to the gold masks
that covered the faces of bodies in the tombs opened by Dr
Schliemann. In early (historical) Greek art some archaic vases
show representations of named personages of the day, such as
King Arkesilas of Cyrene, that may fall under the same heading,
and portraiture was no doubt attempted in the early painted
tombstones. The ideal character of Greek art however kept
portraiture in the background tiU the later period after Alex-
ander the Great, whose effigy limned by Apelles was one of the
most famous pictures in antiquity. Our collections of works
of classical art have been recently enriched by a series of actual
painted portraits of men and women of the late classical period,
executed on mummy cases in Egypt, and discovered in Graeco-
Egyptian cemeteries. An attempt has been made by comparison
with coins to identify some of the personages represented with
members of the Ptolemaic house, including the famous Cleopatra,
but it is safer to regard them, with Flinders Petrie, as portraits
of ordinary men and vvomen of the earhest centuries a.d. Tech-
nically they are of the highest interest, as will be noticed in § 42.
From the artistic point of view one notes their variety, their life-
like character, and the pleasing impression of the human person-
ality which some of them afford. There are specimens in the
London National Gallery and British Museum.
During the early Christian and early m.edieval periods por-
traits always existed. The effigies of rulers appeared, for
example, on their coins, and there are some creditable
attempts at portraiture on Anglo-Saxon pieces of money. In
painting we find the most continuous series in the illuminated
MSS. where they occur in the so-called dedicatory pictures,
in MSS. intended for royal or distinguished persons, where
the patron is shown seated in state and perhaps receiving the
volume. The object here, as Woltmann says, " always appears
to be to give a true portrait of the exalted personage himself "
{Hist, of Paintiiig, Eng. trans., i. 212). Julia Anicia, grand-
daughter of Valentinus III., in the 6th century; the Carolingian
emperor, Lothair, in the gth; the Byzantine emperors, Basil II.
in the loth, and Nikephoros Botaniates in the nth, &c.,
appear in this fashion. Some famous mosaic pictures in
S. Vitale, Ravenna, contain effigies of Justinian, Theodora, and
the Ravennese bishop, Maximian. In very many medieval
works of art a small portrait of the donor or the artist makes its
appearance as an accessory.
With the rise of schools of painting in the 14th and isth
centuries, especially in the north, the portrait begins to assume
greater prominence. The living personage of the day not only
figures as donor, but takes his place in the picture itself as one
of the actors in the sacred or historical scene which is portrayed.
A good deal of misplaced ingenuity has been expended in older
and more modern days in identifying by guess-work historical
figures in old pictures, but there is no doubt that such were often
introduced. Dante and some of his famous contemporaries
make their appearance in a fresco ascribed to Giotto in the chapel
of the Bargello at Florence. One is wilUng to see the face and
form of the great Masaccio in the St Thomas with the red cloak,
on the right of the group, in the fresco of the Tribute Monty
(see § 15). Diirer certainly paints himself as one of the Magi in
his picture in the Uffizi. In Italy Ghirlandajo (see § 15) carried
to an extreme this fashion, and thereby unduly secularized his
bibhcal representations. The portrait proper, as an independent
artistic creation, comes into vogue in the course of the 15th
century both north and south of the Alps, and Jan van Eyck,
!\Iemlinc, and Diirer are in this department in advance of the
Florentines, for whereas the latter almost confine themselves
to flat profiles. Van Eyck introduces the three-quarter face view,
which represents an improvement in the rendering of form.
Mantegna and Antonello da Messina portray with great firmness,
and to Uccello is ascribed an interesting series of heads of his
contemporaries. It is Gentile and Giovanni Bellini however
who may be regarded as the fathers of modern portrait painting.
Venetian art was always more secular in spirit than that of the
rest of Italy, and Venetian portraits were abundant. Those by
Gentile Bellini of the Sultan Mahomet II., and by Giovanni
of the Doge Loredano are specially famous. Vasari in his
notice of the Bellini says that the Venetian palaces were full of
family portraits going back sometimes to the fourth generation.
Some of the finest portraits in the world are the work of the
great Venetians of the i6th century, for they combine pictorial
quality with an air of easy greatness which later painters find
it hard to impart to their creations. Though greatly damaged,
Titian's equestrian portrait of Charles V. at Madrid (fig. 26,
Plate VIII.) is one of the very finest of existing works of the kind.
It is somewhat remarkable that of the other Italian painters
who executed portraits the most successful was the idealist
Raphael, whose papal portraits of Julius II. and Leo X. are
masterpieces of firm and accurate delineation. Leonardo's
" Monna Lisa " is a study rather than a portrait proper.
The realistic vein, which, as we have seen, runs through
northern painting, explains to some extent the extraordinary
merit in portraiture of Holbein, who represents the culmination
of the efforts in this direction of masters Like Jan van Eyck
and Durer. Holbein is one of the greatest delineators that ever
lived, and in many of his portraits he not only presents his
sitter in life-like fashion, but he surrounds him with accessory
objects, painted in an analytical spirit, but with a truthfulness
that has seldom been equalled. The portrait of Georg Gysis at
Berlin represents this s'de of Holbein's art at its best (fig. 27,
Plate VIII.) . Some fine portraits by Italianizing Flemings such as
Antonio Moro (see Table I.) bring us to the notable masters in
portraiture of the 17th century. All the schools of the period
were great in this phase of the art, but it flourished more espe-
cially in Holland, where political events had developed in the
people self-reliance and a strong sense of individuality. As a
consequence the Dutch men and women of the period from about
1575 to 1675 were incessantly having their portraits painted,
either singly or in groups. The so-called " corporation picture "
was a feature of the times. This had for its subject some group
of individuals associated as members of a company or board or
military mess. Such works are almost incredibly numerous
in Holland, and their artistic evolution is interesting to trace.
The earlier ones of the i6th century are merely collections of
single portraits each treated for itself, the link of connexion
between the various members of the group being quite arbitrary.
Later on efforts, that were ultimately successful, were made to
group the portraits into a single composition so that the picture
became an artistic whole. Frans Hals of Haarlem, one of the
most brilliant painters of the impressionist school that he did
much to found, achieved remarkable success in the artistic
476
PAINTING
[DEVELOPMENT
grouping of a number of portraits, so that each should have the
desired prominence while yet the effect of the whole was that
of a unity. His masterpieces in this department in the town-
hall at Haarlem have never been equalled.
As portraitists the other great 17th-century masters fall into
two sets, Rembrandt and Velazquez contrasting with Rubens
and his pupil Van Dyck. The portraits of the two former are
individualized studies in which the sitter has been envisaged in
an artistic aspect, retaining his personality though sublimated
to a harmonious display of tone and colour. The Flemings are
more conventional, and representing rather the type than the
individual, are disposed to sacrifice the individuality of the sitter
to their predetermined scheme of beauty. Both Velazquez and
Rubens have left portraits of Isabel de Bourbon, first wife of
Philip IV. of Spain, but whereas the Spaniard's version gives us
an uncomely face but one full of character, that of the Fleming
shows us merely the big-eyed buxom wench we are accustomed
to meet on all his canvases. Rembrandt was much less careful
than Velazquez or Holbein or Hals to preserve the individuality
of the sitter. He did not however, like the Flemings, convention-
alize to a type, but worked each piece into an artistic study of
tone, colour and texture, in the course of which he might deal
somewhat cavalierly with the actual facts of the piece of nature
before him. The result, though incomparable in its artistic
strength, may sometimes, in comparison with a Velazquez, seem
laboured, but there is one Rembrandt portrait, that of Jan Six
at Amsterdam, that is painted as directly as a Hals, and with
the subtUty of a Velazquez, while it possesses a richness of
pictorial quality in which Rembrandt surpasses all his ancient
or modern compeers (see fig. 28, Plate IX.).
In the i8th century, though France produced some good
limners and Spain Goya, yet on the whole England was the
home of the best portraiture. Van Dyck had been in the
service of Charles I., and foreign representatives of his style
carried on afterwards the tradition of his essentially courtly
art, but there existed at the same time a line of native British
portraitists of whom the latest and best was Hogarth. One
special form of portraiture, the miniature iq-v.), has been
characteristically English throughout. The greater Enghsh
and Scottish portraitists of the latter part of the i8th century,
headed by Reynolds, owed much to V'an Dyck, and their work
was of a pronounced pictorial character. Every portrait,
that is to say, was before everything beautiful as a work of art.
Detail, either of features or dress, was not insisted on; and the
effort was rather to generalize than to accentuate characteristic
points. In a word, while the artist recognized the claims of the
facts before him to adequate portrayal, he endeavoured to fuse
all the elements of the piece into one lovely artistic unity, and in
so doing he secured in his work the predominant quality of
breadth. This style, handed on to painters of less power, died
out in the first half of the 19th century in attenuated produc-
tions, in which harmony became emptiness. To this has suc-
ceeded in Britain, still the home of the best European portraiture,
a more modern style, the dominant notes of which have been
truth and force. While the older school was seen at its best
when dealing with the softer forms of the female sex and of
youth, these moderns excelled in the delineation of character
in strongly-marked male heads, and some of them could hardly
succeed wth a woman's portrait. The fine appreciation of
character in portraiture shown by Sir John Watson Gordon
about the middle of the 19th century marked the beginning of
this forcible style of the later Victorian period, a style suited
to an age of keen intellectual activity, of science and of matter-
of-fact. More recently still, with the rapid development in
certain circles of a taste for the life of fashion and pleasure,
the portrait of the showily-dressed lady has come again into
vogue, and if any special influence is here to be discerned it
may be traced to Paris.
§ 24. Genre Painting. The term " genre " is elliptical — it
stands for genre has, and means the " low style," or the style
in which there is no grandeur of subject or scale. A genre
piece is a picture of a scene of ordinary human hfe without
any religious or historical significance, and though it makes
its appearance earher, it was in the Netherland schools of the
first half of the 17th century that it was established as a canonical
form of the art. In Egypt we have seen that the subjects from
human life have almost always a quasi-religious character,
and the earliest examples of genre may be certain designs on
early black-figured vases of the 6th century B.C. in Greece.
Genre painting proper was introduced at a later period in Greece,
and attracted special attention because of its contrast to the
general spirit of classical art. It had a special name about
which there is some difficulty but which seems to denote the
same as genre has. In early Christian and early medieval painting
genre can hardly be recognized, but it makes its appearance in
some of the later illuminated MSS. and becomes more common,
especially north of the Alps, in the 15th century. It really
begins in the treatment in a secular spirit of scenes from the
sacred story. These scenes, in Italy, but still more among the
prosaic artists of the north, were made more life-like and inter-
esting when they were furnished with personages and accessories
drawn from the present world. Real people of the day were as
we have just seen introduced as actors in the scriptural events,
and in the same way all the objects and accessories in the
picture were portrayed from existing models. It was easy
sometimes for the spectator to forget that he was looking at
biblical characters and at saints and to take the scene from
the standpoint of actuality. Rembrandt, one of whose chief
titles to fame is derived from his religious pictures, often treats
a Holy Family as if it were a mere domestic group of his own
day. It was a change sure to come when the religious signifi-
cance was abandoned, and the persons and objects reduced
to the terms of ordinary life. This of course represented a
break with a very long established tradition, and it was only
by degrees, and in Germany and Flanders rather than in Italy,
that the change was brought about. Thus for example, St
Eloi, the patron of goldsmiths, might be portrayed as saint,
but also as artificer with the impedimenta of the craft about
him. The next stage, represented by a charming picture by
Quintin Matsys at Paris, shows us a goldsmith, no longer a
saint, but busy with the same picturesque accessories (fig. 29,
Plate IX.). He has however his wife by his side and she is reading
a missal which preserves to the piece a faint religious odour.
Afterwards all religious suggestion is dropped, and we have the
familiar goldsmith or money changer in his everyday surround-
ings, of which northern painting has furnished us with so many
examples.
Genre painting, however, is something a little more special
than is here implied. The term must not be made to cover
all figure-pieces from ordinary life. There are pictures by
the late Italian " naturalists " of this kind; Caravaggio's
" Card Players " at Dresden is a famUiar example. These
are too large in scale to come under this heading, and the same
applies to the bodcgones or pictures of kitchens and shops
full of pots and pans and eatables, which, largely influenced
by the Italian pictures just noticed, were common in Spain in
the early days of Velazquez. Nor again are the large and showy
subject pictures, which constitute the popular items in the
catalogues of Burlington House and the Salon, to be classed
as " genre." The genre picture, as represented by its acknow-
ledged masters, is small in scale, as suits the nature of its
subject, but is studied in every part and finished with the most
fastidious care. The particular incident or phase of life por-
trayed is as a rule of little intrinsic importance, and only serves
to bring figures together with some variety of pose and expression
and to motive their surroundings. It is rarely that the masters
of genre charge their pictures with satiric or didactic purpose.
Jan Steen in Holland and Hogarth in England are the excep-
tions that prove the rule. The interest is in the main an
artistic one, and depends on the nice observance of relations of
tone and colour, and a free and yet at the same time precise
touch. All these qualities combine to lend to the typical genre
picture an intimite, a sympathetic charm, that gives the masters
of the style a firm hold on our affections. Probably the most
PAINTING
Plate IX.
PliotOy Bruckmatm.
Fig. 28,— JAN SIX, REMBRANDT.
Amsterdam.
Six Collection,
flioto^ Hanfstaengl.
Fig. 30.— a singing PARTY, BROUWER. (16 x 21.) Munich.
Photo^ Hanfstaengl.
Fig. 31.— HAARLEM, FROM THE DUNES.
(20 X 24.) Hague.
XX. 476.
By permission of Brann, Clement & Co.^
Dornach {Alsace) and Paris.
Fig. 29.— LE BANQUIER ET SA FEMME,
MATSYS. (28J-X27.) Louvre.
QLTNTIN
Photo, Hanfstaengl.
Fig. 32.— crossing THE BROOK, TURNER.
National Gallery, London.
(76 X 65.)
RUYSDAEL.
Plate X.
PAINTING
i)'v p(-nnission of Braiin, Clcmctti i3f Co., Dornarh {Alsace) and Paris.
Fig. 33.— still LIFE, CHARDIN. (74x50.) Louvre.
Fig. 36.— the THREE GRACES, BOTTICELLI.
Florence.
FItoto, Anderson.
Fig. 34.— FIGURE OF ADAM, MICHELANGELO. Rome.
DEVELOPMENT]
PAINTING
477
excellent painters of genre are Terborch, Metsu and Brouwer,
the two first painters of the life of the upper classes, the last of
peasant existence in some of its most unlovely aspects. The
pictures of Brouwer are among the most instructive documents
of modern painting. They are all small pictures and nearly
all exhibit nothing but two or three boors drinking, fighting,
or otherwise characteristically employed, but the artist's feeling
for colour and tone, and above all his inimitable touch, has
raised each to the rank of a masterpiece. He is best represented
in the Munich Pinacotek, from which has been selected fig. 30,
Plate IX. Hardly less admirable are Tenicrs in Flanders; De
Hooch, Ver Meer of Delft, Jan Steen, A. van Ostade, in Holland,
while in more modern times Hogarth, Chardin, Sir David Wilkie,
Meissonier, and a host of others carry the tradition of the work
down to our own day (see Table VIII.). Greuze may have the
doubtful honour of having invented the sentimental figure-
piece from ordinary life that delights the non-artistic spectator
in our modern exhibitions.
§ 25. Landscape and Marine Painting. This is one of the
most important and interesting of the forms of painting that
belong especially to modern times. It is true that there is
sufficient landscape in ancient art to furnish matter for a sub-
stantial book (Woermann, Die Landschaft in der Kunsi der altcn
Vdlker, Munich, 1876), and the extant remains of Pompeian and
Roman wall-painting contain a very fair proportion of works
that may be brought under this heading. By far the most
important examples are the half-dozen or so of pictures forming
a series of illustrations of the Odyssey, that were found on the
Esquihne at Rome in 1848, and are now in the Vatican hbrary.
As we shall see it to be the case with the landscapes of the late
medieval period, these have all figure subjects on the nearer
planes to which the landscape proper forms a background,
but the latter is far more important than the figures. In
some of these Odyssey landscapes there is a feeling after space
and atmospheric effect, and in a few cases an almost modern
treatment of light and shade, which give the works a prominent
place among ancient productions which seem to prefigure the
later developments of the art. In the rendering of landscape
detail, especially in the matter of trees, nothing in antique art
equals the pictures of a garden painted on the four walls of a
room in the villa of Livia at Prima Porta near Rome. They
are reproduced in Antike Denkmdler (Berlin, 1887, &c.). These
may be the actual work of a painter of the Augustan age named
Ludius or Studius, who is praised by Phny {Hist. Nat. xxxv.
116) for having introduced a style of wall decoration in which
" villas, harbours, landscape, gardens, sacred groves, woods,
hills, fish-ponds, straits, streams and shores, any scene in short
that took his fancy " were depicted in lively and facile fashion.
Pompeian wall paintings exhibit many pieces of the kind, and
we find the same style illustrated in the low rehefs in modelled
stucco, of which the specimens found near the Villa Farnesina,
and now in the Terme Museum at Rome, are the best known.
In medieval painting landscape was practically reduced to
a few typical objects, buildings, rocks, trees, clouds, &c., which
stood for natural scenery. OccasionaUy however in the MSS.
these objects are grouped in pictorial fashion, as in a Byzantine
Psalter of the loth century in the National Library at Paris.
The beginning of the 15th century may be reckoned as the time
when the modern development of landscape art had its origin,
and Masaccio here, as in other walks of painting, takes the
lead. Throughout the century the landscape background,
always in strict subordination to the figure interest, is a common
feature of Flemish and Italian pictures, but, in the latter
especially, the forms of natural objects are very conventional,
and the impression produced on the city-loving Tuscan or
Paduan of the time by mountain scenery is shown by the fact
that rocks are commonly shown not only as perpendicular but
overhanging. Titian is the first painter who, as mountain-bred,
depicts the soaring peaks with real knowledge and affection
(see the distance in fig. 22, Plate VII.), and the Venetians are
the first to paint landscape with some breadth and sense of
spaciousness, while, as we have seen, the Flemings, from Hubert
van Eyck downwards, distinguish themselves by their minute
rendering of details, in which they were followed later on by
Diirer, who was fond of landscape, and by Altdorfer. Of
Durer indeed it has been said that some of his landscape sketches
in water-colour are the first examples in which a natural scene
is painted for its own sake alone. Some of the northern artists
of the " Italianizing " school of the i6th century, such as
Patinir, whom Diirer, about 1520, calls "Joachim the good
landscape painter," Paul Bril later in the century, and Adam
Elsheimer, who worked at Rome about 1600, with several of
their contemporaries, must not be omitted in any sketch of
the history of the art. South of the Alps, the late Italian
Salvator Rosa treats the wilder aspects of nature with some
imaginative power, and his work, as well as the scenery of his
native land, had an influence in the rapid development of land-
scape art in the 17th century, which was in part worked out
in the peninsula. What is known as " classical landscape "
was perfected in the 17th century, and its most notable masters
were the Lorrainer Claude Gelee and the French Poussin and
Dughet, while the Italianizing Dutch painters Both and Berchem
modify the style in accordance with the greater naturalism of
their countrymen.
The landscapes of Claude are characteristic productions of
the 17th century, because they convey as their primary
impression that of space and atmosphere. The compositions, in
which a few motives such as rounded masses of foliage are
constantly repeated, are conventional; and there is little effort
after naturalism or variety in detail; but the pictures are full
of art, and reproduce in telling fashion some of the larger and
grander aspects of the material creation. There are generally
figures in the foreground, and these are often taken from
classical fables or from scripture, but instead of the landscape,
as in older Italian art, being a background to the figures, these
last come in merely to enliven and give interest to the scenery.
The style, in spite of a certain conventionality which offends
some modern writers on art, has lived on, and was represented
in our own country by Richard Wilson, the contemporary
of Reynolds; and in some of his work, notably in the Liber
Studiorum, by Turner. Even Corot, though so individual a
painter, owes something to the tradition of classical landscape.
The prevailing tendency of modern landscape art, especially
in more recent times, has been in the direction of naturalism.
Here the masters of the Dutch school have produced the
canonical works that exercise a perennial influence, and they
were preceded by certain northern masters such as the elder
Breughel, whose " Autumn " at Vienna has true poetry;
Savary, Roghman, and Hercules Seghers. Several of the Dutch
masters, even before the time of Rembrandt, excelled in the
truthful rendering of the scenes and objects of their own
simple but eminently paintable country; but it was Rembrandt,
with his pupil de Koningk and his rival in this department
Jacob Ruysdael, who were the first to show how a perfectly
natural and unconventional rendering of a stretch of country
under a broad expanse of sky might be raised by poetry and
ideal feeling to the rank of one of the world's masterpieces of
painting. Great as was Rembrandt in what Bode has called
" the landscape of feeling," the " Haarlem from the Dunes "
of Ruysdael (fig. 31, Plate IX.) with some others of this artist's
acknowledged successes, surpass even his achievement.
Nearer our own time Constable caught the spirit of the best
Dutch landscapists, and in robust naturalism, controlled by
art and elevated to the ideal region by greatness of spirit, he
became a worthy successor of the masters just named, while
on the other side he furnished inspiration to the French painters
of the so-called Barbizon school, and through them to many of
the present-day painters in Holland and in Scotland.
To fix the place of J. M. W. Turner in landscape art is not
easy, for the range of his powers was so vast that he covered
the whole field of nature and united in his own person the
classical and naturalistic schools. The special merits of each
of these phases of the art are united in this artist's " Crossing;
the Brook " in the National Gallery, that is probably the most
478
PAINTING
[DEVELOPMENT
perfect landscape in the world (tig. 32, Plate IX.). In a good
deal of Turner's later work there was a certain theatrical strain,
and at times even a garishness in colour, while his intense
idealism led him to strive after effects beyond the reach of human
art. We may however put out of view everything in Turner's
(Buvrc to which reasonable exception may on these grounds be
taken, and there will still remain a body of work which for
e.xtent, variety, truth and artistic taste is like the British fleet
among the navies of the world.
Among Turner's chief titles to honour is the fact that he
portrayed the sea in all its moods with a knowledge and
sympathy that give him a place alone among painters of
marine. Marine painting began among the Greeks, who were
fond of the sea, and the " Odyssey " and other classical land-
scapes are stronger on this side than the landscapes of the
Tuscans or Umbrians, who cared as little for the ocean as for
the mountains. The Venetians did less for the sea in their
paintings than might have been expected, and in northern
art not much was accomplished till the latter part of the i6th
century, when the long line of the marine painters of Holland
is opened by Hendrick Cornehus \'room, who found a worthy
theme for his art in the defeat of the Spanish Armada. Simon
de Vheger of Rotterdam, who was born about the beginning of I
the 17th century, was the master of W. \'andevelde the younger
(1633-1707), who has never been equalled for his truthful repre-
sentation of calm seas and shipping. He painted innumerable
pictures of the sea-fights of the time between the Enghsh and
the Dutch, those representing the victories of the Dutch being
in Holland, while at Hampton Court the English are triumphant.
There are exquisite artistic qualities in the painting of Vande-
velde, who is reckoned the canonical master in this branch of
art; but the few sea-pieces by Ruysdael, especially the " Dykes "
of the Louvre, and the " Stormy Sea " at Berhn, exhibit the
element under far more imaginative aspects. Besides Turner
there are many British artists of modern days who have won
fame in this branch of art that is naturally attractive to
islanders.
§ 26. Animal Painting. — In all early schools of representative
art from the time of the cave-dwellers downwards, the artist
has done better with animals than with the human figure,
and there is no epoch of the art at which the portrayal of
animals has not flourished. (On Egyptian and Assyrian animals
see § 7.) In Greece the representations of animals on coins
are so varied and so excellent that we may be sure that the
praise given to the pictures of the same creatures by contem-
porary artists is not overdrawn. In northern art animals have
always played an important part, and the motives of medieval
decoration are largely drawn from this source, while beast
symbolism brings them into vogue in connexion with religious
themes. In Italian and early Flemish and German art animals
are as a rule only accessories, though some artists in all these
schools take special dehght in them; and when, early in the 17th
century, they begin to take the chief place, the motive is often
found in Paradise, where Adam and Eve lord it over the animal
creation. If De VTieger and Ruysdael are the first to show the
sea in agitation, Rubens may have the same credit for reveahng
the passion and power of the animal nature in the violent
actions of the combat or the chase. In this his contemporary
Frans Snyders (1579-1657), and after Snyders Jan Fyt,
specialized, and the first named is generally placed at the head
of animal painters proper.
In Holland, in the 17th century, the animal nature presented
itself under the more contemplative aspect of the ruminants in
the lush water-meadows. True to their principle of doing every-
thing they attempt in the best possible way, the Dutch paint
horses (Cuyp, Wouwerman) and cattle (Cuyp, Adrian Vande-
velde, Paul Potter) with canonical perfection, while Hondekoeter
delineates live cocks and hens, and Weenix dead hares and
moor-fowl, in a way that makes us feel that the last word on
such themes has been spoken. There is a large white turkey by
Hondekoeter in which the truth of mass and of texture in the
full soft plumage is combined with a dehcacy in the detail of
the airy filaments, that is the despair of the most accomplished
modern executant.
But animals have been treated more nobly than when shown
in Flemish agitation or in Dutch phlegmatic calm. Leonardo
da Vinci was specially famed for his horses, which he may have
treated with something of the majesty of Pheidias. Durer has
a magnificent horse in the " Knight and Death," but this is
studied from the CoUeoni monument. Nearer our own time
the painter of Napoleonic France, Gericault, gave a fine reading ,
of the equine nature. Rembrandt's drawings of hons are
notable features in his work, and in our own day in France and
England the lion and other great beasts have been treated with
true imaginative power.
§ 27. Still-Life Painting. — Like portraiture and landscape,
the painting of objects on near planes, or as it is called still-life
painting, is gradually differentiated from the figure-piece which
was supreme in the early, and has been the staple product in all,
the schools. Just as is the case with the other subsidiary
branches of painting, it appears, though only as a by-product,
in the history of ancient classical painting, passes practically
out of e-xistence in medieval times, begins to come to a knowledge
of itself in the 15th and i6th centuries, and attains canonicity
in the Dutch school of the first half of the 17th century. Still-
life may be called the characteristic form of painting of the
modern world, because the intrinsic worth of the objects
represented is a matter of complete indifference when compared
with their artistic treatment in tone, colour and texture. By
virtue of this treatment it has been noted (§§ 19, 20) that a study
ot a group of ordinary objects, when seen and depicted by a
Rembrandt, may have all the essential qualities of the highest
manifestations of the art. There is no finer Rembrandt for
pictorial quality than the picture in the Louvre representing
the carcase of a flayed ox in a flesher's booth. As illustrating
the principle of modern painting this form of the graphic art
has a value and importance which in itself it could hardly
claim. It is needless to repeat in this connexion what has
been said on modern painting in general, and it wiU suffice
here to indicate briefly the history of this particular phase of
the art.
The way was prepared for it as has been noticed by the
minute and forcible rendering of accessory objects in the figure-
pieces and portraits of the early Flemish masters, of Diirer, and
above all of Holbein. The painting of flower and fruit pieces
without figure interest by Jan Breughel the younger, who was
born in 1601, represents a stage onward, and contemporary
with him were several other Dutch and Flemish speciahsts in
this department, among whom Jan David de Heem, born 1603,
and the rather older WiUem Klaasz Heda may be mentioned.
Their subjects sometimes took the form of a luncheon table
with vessels, plate, fruit and other eatables; at other times of
groups of costly vessels of gold, silver and glass, or of articles used
in art or science, such as musical instruments and the like; and
it is especiaUy to be noted that the handling stops always
short of any illusive reproduction of the actual textures of
the objects, while at the same time the differing surfaces of
stuffs and metal and glass, of smooth-rinded apples and gnarled
lemons, are all most justly rendered. In some of these pieces
we realize the beauty of what Sir Charles Eastlake has called
the " combination of solidity of execution with vivacity and
grace of handling, the elasticity of surface which depends on
the due balance of sharpness and softness, the vigorous touch
and the delicate marking — aU subservient to the truth of model-
ling." In this form of painting the French iSth-century artist
Chardin, whose impasto was fuller, whose colouring more juicy
than those of the Dutch, has achieved imperishable fame (see
fig. T^T,, Plate X.); and the modern French, who understand
better than others the technical business of painting, have
carried on the fine tradition which has culminated in the work
of Vollon. The Germans have also painted stiU-hfe to good
result, but the comparative weakness in technique of British
painters has kept them in this department rather in the back-
ground.
I
SCHOOLS OF PAINTING)
PAINTING
Part II., §28. — Sch(X)ls of Painting
479
[In the following Tables are included the main facts in the history of Painting since about a . d. iooo, with the artistsof the first, second and
third ranlc in their schools and periods. The relative importance of the artists is shown by the size of the capitals in which their
names are printed. Facts and names of minor importance have in the interest of clearness been'excluded. The names are given as
commonly used, and where they differ from the headings of the separate biographical articles identification can be made by the Index.
Words indicating localities are in italics.)
1200
1150
10
woo
I.
MEDIEVAL PAINTING & ITS OFFSHOOTS NORTH OF THE ALPS.
[From the Caroiingian period till the Xlltti century Germany is tlie chief European centre uf artistic production. From about 1150 to
1300 France takes the leati. Italy is in the background till about 1250.J
} Romanesque Wall and Panel Painting, Reichenau, Brauweiler, Brunswick, Hildesheim, Soesl, &c.
r Romanesque Sculpture, Hildesheim, Brunswick, Wechselburg, Freiberg i. S., &c.
( THE GOTHIC MOVEMENT IN CENTRAL FRANCE FROM 1150. 1
} Gothic decorative Sculpture, Stained Glass, Ivories, MS. Illuminations, &c. l to
I Qualities in the work : — Refinement, Tenderness of Feeling, Love of Nature, j 1300
ITALY.
(For Comijarison.)
5. A n^elo in Formis,
Willi paintings of c. 1100.
Byzantine panels imported.
Proto-Renaissance,
c. 12001300.
GOTHIC INFLUENCE ON NORTHERN PAINTING.
Wall and Panel Paintings at Ramersdorf, Cologne, Westminster, &c.
THE EARLIEST NORTHERN SCHOOLS.
GERMANY. FLANDERS.
Early Religious Schools (Gothic).
Prague, from c. 1348. HOLLAND.
Cologne. MEISTER WILHELM, fl. c. I360. HUBERT & J.\N
Gothic characteristics in
GIOTTO,
1267-1337.
EYCK. n. c. 1380-1440.
HERMANN WYNRICH, fl. c. I400.
STEPHANLOCHNER (Dombild, c. I440)
German Realism begins.
MARTIN SCHONGAUER {Colmar), c. 1450-
14SS. Influenced by Van der Wcyden.
EARTH. ZEITBLOM (Ulm),C. I45O-C. I52O.
HANS HOLBEIN THE ELDER (Augsburg), d. 1524
.'\doration of the Lamb, Ghent. 1432.
ROGER VAN DER WEYDEN, :39g-i464 {in Italy.
1449).
DIERICK BOCTS (.Ilaarlem), i40o(?)-i475. (Perhaps author of the
" Lieversberg Passion.")
PETRUS CRISTUS, c. I4IO-I472.
HANS MEMLINC, c. 1430-1494.
HUGO VAN DER GOES, c. 1435-1482.
r.ERARD DAVID (Oudewater), c. 1450-1523.
MASACCIO, 1402-1429.
Age of humanism begins.
ALBRECHT DURER
{Nuremberg'), 1471-152S.
LUCAS CRANACH, i4-2-i5S3-
HANSBURGKMAIR, I473-I53I-
M.\THIAS GRUNEWALD, c. i47S-c. 1530-
BARTH. BRUYN, c. I493-I:. I555-. Painter of
Portraits.
HANS HOLBEIN, 1497-1543. England
his headquarters, 1526-1543.
ADAM ELSHEIMER, 1578-1620. Influential at
Rome c. 1600.
LUCAS VAN LEYDEN
{Leiden). 1494-1533-
JAN SCHOREEL, 1495-1562
{.ilkmaar).
MARTEN VAN HEEMSKERK
{Rdarlem), 149S-1574.
QUINTIN M.\TSVS {Antwerp), c. 1466-1530.
JOACHIM DE PATINIR, d. c. 1524. ^ Landscape
BREUGHEL THE ELDER, C. 1525-1570. V and
The BREUGHEL Family. ) Genre.
MABUSE IJAN GOSSART),C.I472-C.I533
FRANS FLORIS(DE VRIE.NDT) c. 1520- [• Figures
1570.
.\NTONIO MORO, c. isi2-c. 1575. Portraits.
PAUL ERIL, 1554-1626. Landscape.
RAPHAEL, d. IS20.
The High Renaissance.
TITIAN, d.is-6.
TINTORETTO,
1518-1594-
German painting proper almost dies out
in the XVIIth and early XVIIIth
centuries.
For the Dutch School of
the XVIIth century,
see Table VII.
PETER PAUL RUBENS, b. 1577.
For the Flemish School as headed by
Rubens, see Table VIII.
For later Italian Paint-
ing, see Table VI.
1200
II.
THE PROTO-RENAISSANCE AND THE REVIVAL OF ART IN 7r.4Z,r.
CONDmON OF THE ART OF P.AINTING IN ITALY BEFORE THE REVIVAL.
Wall Paintings of poor style, with hard black outlines, devoid of any feeling for beauty or truth to nature.
Panel Paintings, chiefly in the form of Enthroned Madonnas of Byzantine type, heavy but dignified ;and painted Crucifixes, repulsive in
aspect, with exaggeration of physical suffering, black outlines, green shadows, hatched lights.
[ Best Italian Sculpture, e.g. by .\ntellanii at Farma, c. 1 200, greatly inferior to contemporary work in France. J
1250
REVIVAL FIRST SEEN IN SCtTLPTURE.
NICCOL.\ PIS.^NO inspired by the Proto-Renaissance of Southern Italy; his pulpit at Pisa, 1260.
REVIVAL OF PAINTING UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF THE PROTO-RENAISS.\NCE.
At ROME, piETRO CAVALLINI "Last Judgment" at S. Cecilia, Rome, c. 1293; at SIENA. DUCCIO DI BUONINSEGNA, c. 12SS-C.1315,
(probably) Ruccellai Madonna at Florence, and Madonna at Siena; at FLORENCE, CIMABUE, teacher of Giotto.
480
o
1300
PAINTING
III.
GOTHIC INFLUENCE ON THE ITALIAN REVIVAL.
[SCHOOLS OF PAINTING
[Gothic Naturalism, Expressiveness, and Feeling in tlie Sculpture of Giovanni Pisano and Andrea Pisano.]
FLORE>:CE.
GIOTTO. 1 267-1337, great in composition and in natural and dramatic treatment
of sacred tliemes.
Painting carried on on traditional lines by the Giottcsques to the
end of the century. At Florence painters' company founded 1349.
TADDEO GADDI, STEFANO, MASO DI BANCO, BERNARDO DADDI,
ANDREA ORCAGNA, agnolo caddi, spinello aretino,
GIOVANNI da UlLANO, ANDREA DI FIRZNZE, STARNINA, &C.
SIENA.
SIMONE M.\RTINI, c. 1 283-1344. exhibits the pensive sweetness that marks
Sienese painting. At Siena painters' company founded 1355.
Sienese school preserves throughout its tender and devout feeling,
and decorative charm.
LIPPO MESOn, BARTOLO DI FREDI. ANDREA VANNI.
TADDEO BARTOLi influences art in Umbria.
THE LORENZETTI, d. c. 1348. Painters of dramatic power.
CONTEMPORARY PAINTING /.V OTBER PARTS OF ITALY.
Revival hardly begins in XlVth century. Best work done by allegretto di nuzio of Fabriano and altichiero of Verona.
FRA ANGELICO DA FIESOLE, 13S7-14SS, sums up the purely religious art of the Gothic period.
IV.
IT.ALIAN SCHOOLS OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF THE RENAISSANCE.
Painting advances at Florence, declines at Siena. Other Italian schools begin to develop
FLORENCE. SIENA. UMBRIA. NORTH ITALY.
MASOLINO DA PANICALE. 1383-^- 144°
Teacher of
MASACCIO, 1402-1420. Great as Giotto, with
added knowledge and unique sense of the
monumental in painting.
FiLippo LIPPI, 1406-1469. Idyllic charm.
SA.NDRO BOTTICELLI. 1444-1510-. Sentiment
and beauty. Treats classical subjects.
FlLlPPINO LIPPI, 1460-1505. Grace, classical
details.
BENOzzo GozzoLi, 1424-1498. Copious in detail.
COSIUO ROSSELLI, PIERO DI COSIUO.
PAOLO UCCELLO, ^^^. devotee of Perspective"
AND. DEL CASTAGNO, c. 13QO-14S7. Vigour.
DOM. VENEZiANO. c. i4oo-(?} 1461, ttics oil-paint?
ALESSIO BAUDOVINEITI, I427-I49O, realist.
ANT. POLLAIUOLO i5i2. Anatomy, nude, oil.
I49»
ANDREA DEL VERROCCHIO, 1435-1488.
Great in sculpture. Teacher of Leonardo.
DOM. DEL GHIRLANDAJO, 1449-1494-
Master of monumental style in fresco.
a =
2~
FRA BARTOLOMMEO,
AND. DEL SARTO,
14S7
147'; 'I
1517' 1.
Perfection of art on the
formal side.
SIENA.
TADDEO BARTOLI
1363-142^-
DOM. DI BARTOLO
SANO DI PIETRO
MAT. DI GIOVANNI
FRAN. DI GIORGIO,
&C.. &C.
carry art through
the century on the
same lines as in
the XlVth cent.
Decline of
Sienese Art.
All these fore-
Y runners of the-
great masters.
UMBRIA.
GENTILE DA FABRIANO,
c. 1370-C. 1450. Visits
Venice and Florence.
NICCOLO ALLTNNO.
BENEDETTO BONFIGLI.
FIORENZO DI LORENZO.
B. CAPORALI,
&C., &C.
Exhibit Umbrian suavity on
Sienese lines. No progress-
PIERO DE' FRANCESCHI
c. 1416-1492, teacher of
MELOZZO da FORLI, Hi^
1494
and of
LUCA SIGNORELLI. i^^
1524
Realists of Florentine type.
Progressive.
GIOVANNI SANZIO. d. I494.
Father of Raphael.
PIETRO PERUGINO.
1446-1524. Raphael's master
VERONA.
VITTORE PISANO, d. I456.
Finest Italian medalist.
PADUA,
Native art begins with the
school of FRANCESCO
SQUARCIONE, I394-I474.
Classical remains studied.
[DONATELLO tc UCCELLO
Work at PADUA, c. 1445]
From all these proceeds
AND. MANTEGNA,
1431
1506
Studies Tuscan Art and
inlluences Venetian.
VICENZA.
montagna, 1475-1523.
FERRARA.
cosiMO tura, d. c. 1496.
LORENZO COSTA, I460-1535
BOLOGyA.
FRANC. FRANCIA,
1450-1517-
VENICE.
{ GENTILE da FABRIANO
Works at Venice^ c. 1422.]
School of MURANO,
influenced from Germany,
and
THE vrvARiNi flourish,
c. 1440-c. 1500.
CARLO CRIVELLI,
d, C, 1493.
ANTONELLO da MESSINA,
c. 1430-1479-
In Venice, 1475-6.
Oil painting introduced,
c. 1473-
CniA DA CONEGUANO,
d. c, 1508.
VmORE CARPACaO,
d. c. 1522.
THE BELLINI,
Associated with Mantegna
JACOPO d. c. 1470.
GENTILE, ^^J^^,
1507
GIOVAN^^, Eii4|o
1516
THE GREAT ITALIAN MASTERS OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY.
FLORENCE.
LEONARDO DA VINCI, ffff-
At Milan 1482-1499. " Last Supper" finished
c. 1497.
MICHELANGELO BLONARROTI
1475-1564-
Sistine Chapel ceiling painted 1508-1512.
" Last Judgment," c. 1540.
Dome of St. Peter's, c. 1560.
SEBASTIANO DEL PIOUBO, I4S5-1547.
GIORGIO VASARI, 1511-1574.
Wrote lives of the artists.
The Michelangelesque affects Italian
design in general.
UMBRIA.
PERUGINO, SANZIO.
' NORTH ITALY.
.VILAS.
BERNARDINO LUINI,
c. 1465
c. 1540
R.\FFAEL SANZIO,
1483-1520.
Umbrian period to 1504.
Florentine period, 1 504-1508.
Roman period, ,1508-1520.
GIOVANNI DA UDINE.
Age of the mannerists.
GIULIO ROMANO, I492-I546.
PERINO DEL VAGA.
&C., &C.
Followers of Rapliael.
Influenced by Leonardo,
PAR.MA,
CORREGGICt^-
PARMIGIANO, 1504-1540.
BRE.KIA.
MORETTO, C. 1498-1554.
BEROAiaO.
MORONI, C. 1510-1578.
VENICE.
GIOVANNI BELLINI.
GIORGIONE, ^j^
LORENZO LOTTO, C. I480-C. I5S6.
PALMA VECCHIO, c. 1480-1528.
TITIAN,
died 1576, bom 1476 (?) or some years later (?).
First dated work, 1507.
Tribute Money," c. 1508 (Diirerat Venice, 1506)
Peter Martyr," 1530, influenced by Michelangelo.
"Presentation in Temple," 1540.
PAUL VERONESE, 1S2S-15SS.
TINTORETTO. 15:8-1594.
"Paradise" begun, 1588.
155Q
SCHOOLS OF PAINTING]
PAINTING
481
VI.
THE LATER PHASES OF ITALIAN PAINTING.
Eclectics. BOLOGNA SCHOOL.
THE CAR.^CCI, ^7-^, LUDOvico, agostino, annibale.
Naturalists.
CARAVAGGIO, 1560-1609.
VENICE (amiinued).
PARIS BORDONE, SCHIAVONE,
THE BASSANI.THK DOXIFAZI, &C.. &C.,
all die before the end of XVIth century.
PADOVANINO, 1500-1650.
GUIDO REM, 1575-1642; DOMENICHINO, IsSl-1641.
EARBIERI (GUERCINO), lS9l-l666; SASSOFERRATO, 1605-1685.
RlBERA (Spani.ird), 15S8-1653. Strong lighl
and shade.
SALVATOK ROSA, 1615-1673. Landscape.
G. B. TIEPOLO, 1692-1769. Docomtive style
CANALETTO, 1697-1768, Views of Venire.
LONGHl, 1702-1762; CUARDl, 17x2-1793,
VII.
1700
THE DUTCH SCHOOL OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
Artists of native type. Italianizers.
Portraitists and Painters of Corporation Pictures. g. honthorst, 1590-1656.
MIEREVELT, 1567-1641; RAVESTEYN, C. 1572-1657; DE KEYSER, 1596-1667. PIETER LAST.MAN, 1583-1633.
—REMBRANDT, 1606-
FRANS HALS,
1 60b'
1069; VAN DER HELST, 1613-1670.
GERARD DOU, JAN VICTOR, GERBRANDT VAN DEN EECKHOUT, CAREL FABRITItJS, AART DE GELDER, f'ERD. IIOL, COVERT FUNCK,^, "
(Poetic.)
. fP. DE KONINGK.
DE HOOCH; VER MEER OF DELFT.
(Rustic.)
A. VAN OSTADE.
1650.
(Aristocratic.)
G. TEKBORCH.
G. METSU.
(Satiric.)
JAN STEEN.
I, VAN OSTADE.
(Cavalier.)
P. WOUVVERMAN.-'
(-DE heem; heda, (Slill life.)
ejij M, DE hondekoeter. (Poultry.)
S j1 JAN WEENIX. (Dead game.)
IjAN VAN tlUVSUM. (Flowers.)
o oj (Early landscapists, bom before 1600.) ?
3 ■S'l ESAJAS VAN DE VELDE, J. VAN GOYEN. )
? "! AERT VAN DER NFER. (Night Scenes, moonlight.)
[rUYSDAEL, hoebema, wvnants.
(Cattle and Landscape.)
A. CUYP; A. van de velde; PAUL POTTER,
(Marine painters,)
SIMON DE vlieger; W. V.\N DE VELDE;
L. EACKHUYSEN.
(Architecture.)
JAN VAN DER HEYDEN.
JAN BOTH
NICOLAES BERCHEM
K. DU JARDIN.
ll
(Painters of the Decline.)
VAN MIERIS, C. NETSCHER,
ADRIAN VAN DER WERFF.
HOLLAND.
1580, H.\LS, 1666.
VIII.
CONSPECTUS OF THE MODERN SCHOOLS SINCE 1600.
ITALY.
FLA NDERS.
RUBENS, '-jp-
_ 1 640
The Venetians.
Naturalists,
Landscapists.
The Florentines.
RAPHAEL.
Figure Painters,
SPAIN.
REMBRANDT, '-^-
' 1609
Dutch School of
Portrait, Landscape, Genre,
See TABLE \'II above.
VAN DYCK, ip.
1 64 1
TENIERS,
SNYDERS;
BROUVVER,
POUSSIN, 1^24.
I i66s
CLAUDE, i^.
I 1652
DUGHET, 1613-1675,
(CASPAR POUSSIN).
FR.INCE.
r-"
Age of
LOUIS XIV.
LE BRUN,
1 619-1690.
VELAZQUEZ,
1599-1060,
1617, MURILLO, 1682,
GERMAN '.
I
CHODOWIECKI, 1726-1801.
RAPHAEL MENGS,
726-180
Js Hi?
17S4, CORNELIUS, 1867,
1789, OVERBECK, 1869,
1805, KAULBACH, 1874,
fRETHEL, 1816-1859
Rom-
anticists! EOCKLIN,
BRITAIN.
HOGARTH, iS22, knellf.r
1764
Hli REYNOLDS, G.\INSUOROUGH, i2I2
1792 I I 1788
ROMNEY, RAEBURN.
1785, WILKIE, 1S4I.
i(..S4, WATTEAU, 1721.
BOUCHER.
I'.\TER, FRAGONARD.
CHARDIN,
1699-1779.
GREUZE. 1725-1805.
-I
1746
Norwich School. 1714, wilson, 1782,
1770, CONST.\BLE, 1S37. TURNER. mS
I 1S51
Water Colour School.
Pre-Raphaelites.
W.ATTS.
I CORUT,
1796
|'S7S'
I 1
Modern Dutch, maris, &c.; Glasgow School.
3l4, MILLET, 1875,1
Barbizon School.
DIAZ. I
MONTICELLI, I
I I
174S, DA\ID, 182^,
I
INGRES,
I
DELAROCHE,
LAURENS, &C.
1798
1863
, DEL.\CROIxl^„°^"
r
Sentimental Genre. Impressionists. WHISl'LER.
XX. 16
482
PAINTING
[TECHNIQUE
Part III. — The Technique of Painting
§ 29. The Materials of Painting. — Painting begins, as we
have seen, on the one side in outline delineation, on the other
in the spreading of a coating of colour on a surface. For both
these the material apparatus is ready at hand. Drawing may
have begun merely with lines in the air, but lasting designs
were soon produced either by indenting or marking any soft
substance by a hard point, or by rubbing away a comparatively
soft substance, such as a pointed piece of burnt wood, on a
rough surface of harder grain. Almost all the materials in use
for drawing are of primitive origin. Charcoal, coloured earths
and soft stones are natural or easily procured. Our plumbago was
known to Pliny (xxxiv. iS) and to Cennino (ch. 34), but it was
not in common use till modern times. The black-lead pencil
is first described as a novelty in 1565 (QueUenschriften edition
of Cennino, p. 143). A metal point of ordinary lead or tin
was used in medieval MSS. for drawing lines on parchment,
or on a wooden surface previously whitened with chalk (Theo-
philus, II. ch. xvii.). Silver-point drawing is only a refinement
on this. The metal point is dragged over a surface of wood or
parchment that has been grounded with finely powdered bone-
dust, or, as in modern times, with a wash of Chinese white
(Cennino, ch. 6 seq.; Church, 292), and through the actual
abrasion of the metal leaves a dark line in its track. Pliny
knows the technique (xxxiii. 98). When a coloured fluid was
at hand a pointed stick might be used to draw lines with it,
but a primitive pen would soon be made from a split reed or
the wing-feather of a bird.
The coating of one substance by another of which the colour
is regarded from the aesthetic standpoint is the second source
of the art of painting. To manipulate the coating substance
so that it will lie evenly; to spread it by suitable mechanical
means; and to secure its continued adherence when duly laid,
are by no means difficult. Nature provides coloured juices
of vegetable or of animal origin, and it has been suggested that
the blood of the slain quarry or foeman smeared by the victor
over his person was the first pigment. To imitate these by
mixing powdered earths or other tinted substances in water is a
very simple process. Certain reeds, the fibres of which spread
out in water, were used as paint-brushes in ancient Egypt.
A natural hare's-foot is still employed in theatrical circles to
lay on a certain kind of pigment, and no great ingenuity would
be required on the part of the hunter for the manufacture of
a brush from the hair or bristles of the slain beast. In the
matter of securing the adhesion of the coating thus spread,
nature would again be the guide. Many animal and vegetable
products are sticky and ultimately dry hard, while heat or
moisture thins them to convenient fluidity. Great heat makes
mineral substances liquid that harden when cold. Hence
binding materials offer themselves in considerable abundance,
and they are of so great importance in the painter's art that
they form the basis of current classifications of the different
kinds of painting.
§ 30. The Surfaces covered by the Painter. — Many important
questions connected with the technique of painting depend on
the nature of surfaces; for the covering coat — though from the
present point of view only of interest aesthetically — may, as
we have seen, originally serve a utilitarian purpose. The
surface in question may be classed as follows: the human
body; implements, vessels, weapons, articles of dress; objects
of furniture, including books; boats and ships; walls and other
parts of buildings; panels and other surfaces prepared especially
or entirely to be painted on.
The differences among these from the present point of view
are obvious. The body could not suitably be covered with a
substance impervious to air and moisture; the coatings of a
clay vessel and of a boat should on the other hand make them
waterproof. The materials used in building often require
protection from the weather. The painting on the prepared
panel needs to resist time and any special influence due to
location or climate. All such considerations are prior to the
questions of colour, design, or aesthetic effect generally, in these
coatings; and on them depend the binding materials, or media,
with which the colouring substances are apphed. The case of
one particular surface much employed for pictorial display
is exceptional. This is the wall-plaster so abundantly used
for clothing an unsightly, rough, or perishable building material,
Uke rubble or crude brick. This function it performs perfectly
when left of its natural white or greyish hue, but its plain
unbroken surface has seemed to demand some relief through
colouring or a pattern, and the recognition of this led to one
of the most important branches of the art, mural painting.
Now lime-plaster, if painted on while it is still wet, retains
upon its surface after it has dried the pigments used, although
these have not been mixed with any binding material. On all
other surfaces the pigments are mixed with some binding
material, and on the character of this the kind of painting depends.
There is thus a primary distinction between the process just
referred to and aU others. In the former, pigments, mixed
only with water, are laid on while the plaster is wet, and from
this " freshness " of the ground the process is called by an Itahan
term, painting " a fresco " or " on the fresh," though in ordinary
parlance the word " fresco " has come to be used as a noun, as
when we speak of the " frescoes " of Giotto. Furthermore,
as " fresco " is the wall-painter's process par excellence the word
is unfortunately often employed inaccurately for any mural
picture, though this may have been executed by quite a different
process. In contradistinction to painting " a fresco " all other
processes are properly described by the Italian term " a tem-
pera," meaning " with a mixture." The word is used as a
noun in the sense of a substance mixed with another; but it
is to be regarded as the imperative of the verb temperare,
which both in Latin and Italian means " to divide or proportion
duly," " to qualify by mixing," and generally " to regulate."
Tempera means strictly " mix," just as " recipe," also employed
as a substantive, is an imperative meaning " take." In ordi-
nary parlance, however, the word tempera is confined to a certain
class of binding materials to the exclusion of others, so that the
more general term " media " is the best to employ in the present
connexion. We go on, therefore, to consider these various
media in relation to dift'erent surfaces and conditions.
§ 31. Binding Materials or Media. — The, fundamental dis-
tinction among media is their solubility or non-solubility in
water, though, as will be seen presently, some possess both
these qualities. The non-soluble media are (i) of mineral, (2)
of vegetable origin, (i) Of the former kind are all vitreous
pastes or pottery glazes, with which imperishable coloured
surfaces or designs are produced on glazed tiles used in the
decoration of buildings, on ceramic products, and in all processes
of enamelling. Silicate of potash, employed to fix pigments on
to mural surfaces of plaster in the so-called " stereochrome "
or " water-glass " processes of wall painting (see § 37), is
another mineral medium, so too is paraffin wax. In the
process called (unscientificaUy) " fresco secco," in which the
painting is on dry plaster, Hme is used as a binding material
for the colours. Its action here is a chemical one (see § 36).
(2) Non-soluble vegetable media are drying oils, resins, waxes
(including paraffin wax, which is really mineral). In ancient
times wax, and to some small extent also resins, were used as
a protection against moisture, as in shipbuilding and some forms
of wall-painting. Resins have always remained, but wax
gradually went out of use in the earlier Christian centuries,
and was replaced by the new medium, not used in classical
times, of drying oil. In northern lands the desire to protect
painted surfaces from the moisture of the air led to a more
extensive use of oils and resins than in Italy; and it was in the
Netherlands that in the 15th century oil media were for the
first time adopted in the regular practice of painting, which
they have dominated ever since.
The soluble media are of animal and vegetable origin. Egg,
yolk or white, or both combined, is the chief of the former.
Next in importance are size, gained by boiling down shreds of
parchment, and fish glue. Egg is the chief medium in what
is specially known as " tempera " painting, while for the painting
TECHNIQUE]
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483
commonly called distemper or " gouache," of which scene-
painting is typical, size is used. Milk, ox-gall, casein and other
substances are also employed. Of soluble vegetable media
the most used are gums of various kinds. These are common
" temperas " or tempera media, and, with glycerin or honey,
form the usual binding material in what is called " water-
colour " painting. Wine, vinegar, the milk of fig-shoots, &c.,
also occur in old recipes.
Attention must be drawn to the fact that substances can be
prepared for use in painting that unite soluble and insoluble
media, but can be diluted with water. These substances are
known as " emulsions." A wax emulsion, which is also called
" saponified wax," can be made by boiling wax in a solution
of potash [in the proportions 100 bleached wax, 10 potash,
250 distilled water (Berger, Bcitrage. i. 100)] till the wax is
melted. When the solution has cooled it can be diluted with
cold water. An admixture of oil is also possible. This, accord-
ing to Berger, is what Pliny and Vitruvius (vii. 9, 3) call " Punic
wax," a material of importance in ancient painting.
An oil emulsion can be made by mixing drying oil with water
through the intermediary of gum or yolk of egg. An intimate
mechanical compound, not a chemical one, is thus effected,
and the mixture can be diluted with water. If gum arable
be used the result is a " lean " emulsion of a milky-white colour,
if yolk of egg a " fat " emulsion of a yellowish tint. When
these wax or oil emulsions are dry they have the waterproof
character of their non-soluble constituents.
Lastly, it must be noticed that certain substances used in
the graphic arts — some of which possess in themselves a certain
unctuousness — can be, as it were, rubbed into a suitably rough-
ened, and at the same time yielding, ground, to which they will
adhere, though loosely, without binding material. This is the case
with charcoal, chalks and pencil. The same property is imparted
by a little gum or starch to soft coloured chalks, with which
is executed the kind of work called " pastel." These are now
also made up with an oleaginous medium and are known as " oil
pastels." Pictures can be carried out in ordinary or in oil
pastels, and the work should rank as a kind of painting. The
coloured films, rubbed off from the sticks of soft chalk on a
suitably rough and sometimes tinted paper, are artistic in
their texture and capable of producing very beautiful effects of
colour. Professor Church notes also that the colours laid on
in this fashion seem peculiarly durable (Chemistry, p. 293).
§ 32. The Processes of Painting: Preliminary Note. — These
will be discussed from the point of view of the media employed,
but certain departures from strict logical arrangement will be
convenient. Thus, different processes of monumental painting
on walls may be brought together though distinct media are
employed. Tempera and early oil practice cannot be separated.
Painting by the use of vitreous glazes fused by heat may be
noticed first, as the process comes within the scope of the article,
though it has generally been applied in a purely decorative
spirit, so as to be a branch of the art of ornament rather than
strictly speaking of painting (see § 2).
In painting processes proper fresco takes the lead. It is
in its theory the simplest of all, and at the same time it has
produced some of the most splendid results recorded in the annals
of the art. With the fresco process may be grouped for the
sake of convenience other methods of wall-painting, which share
with it at any rate some of its characteristics.
One of these subsidiary methods of wall-painting is that known
as the wax process or " encaustic," used in ancient times and
revived in our own. Painting in wax, not specially on walls,
was an important technique among the ancient Greeks, and the
consideration of it introduces some difficult archaeological
questions, at which space will not allow more than a glance.
The wax used in the process, softened or melted by heat or driven
by fire into the painting ground — whence the name " encaustic "
ox " burning in " — is really a tempera or binding material,
and we are brought here to the important subject of tempera
painting in general. It will have to be noticed in this connexion
what were the chief binding materials used in the so-named
technique in different lands at the various stages of the art, and
what conditions were imposed on the artist by the nature of
his materials. Lastly, there is the all-important process in which
the binding materials are oils and varnishes, a process to which
attaches so much historical and artistic interest, while a form
of tempera painting that has been specially developed in modern
times, that known as water-colour, may claim a concluding
word.
§ a. Historical Use of the Various Processes of Painting. —
The extent and nature of the employment of these processes
at different periods may have here a brief notice.
Tempera painting has had a far longer history and more
extended use than any other. The Spaniard Pacheco, the
father-in-law and teacher of Velazquez, remarks on the venera-
tion due to tempera because it had its birthday with art itself,
and was the process in which the famous ancient artists accom-
plished such marvels. In the matter of antiquity, painting
with vitreous glazes is its only rival: glazed tiles formed, in
fact, the chief polychrome decoration for the exteriors of the
palaces of Mesopotamia, and were used also in Egypt; but all
the wall-paintings in ancient Egypt and Babylonia and My-
cenaean Greece, all the mummy cases and papyrus rolls in
the first-named country are executed in tempera, and the
same is true of the wall-paintings in Italian tombs. In Greece
Proper paintings on terra-cotta fixed by fire were very common
in the period before the Persian wars. When monumental
wall-painting came to the front just after that event it was
almost certainly in tempera rather than in fresco that Polygnotus
and his companions executed their masterpieces. It has been
doubted whether these artists painted directly on plaster or
on wooden panels fixed to the wall, but the discovery in Greece
of genuine mural paintings of the Mycenaean period has set
these doubts at rest. In Italy tomb-paintings actually on
plaster exist from the 6th century B.C. The earlier panel
painters of the 5th and 4th centuries B.C. also used tempera
processes, though their exact media are not recorded. About
the time of Ale.xander there seems to have been felt a demand
for a style of painting in which could be obtained greater depth
and brilliancy of colouring, with corresponding force in relief,
than was possible in the traditional tempera; and this led to
painting in a wax medium with which abundance of " body "
could be secured. There are many puzzling questions con-
nected with this ancient encaustic, but the discovery in recent
years of actual specimens of the work, in the form of portraits
on the late Egyptian mummy cases of the first centuries a.d.
have assisted the study. Meanwhile a new technique to have
been in process of evolution for use on walls, for the fresco process,
in a complete or modified form, was certainly in use among the
Romans.
The history of the fresco process, as will presently be seen,
is somewhat puzzling. Vitruvius and Pliny knew it, and it is
mentioned in the Mount Athos Handbook, vihAch incorporates
the technical traditions of the art of the Eastern Empire; it
appears also to have been in use in the Christian catacombs,
but was not practised by the wall painters who adorned the
early medieval churches south and north of the Alps. The
difficulties of the process, and another reason to be noticed
directly, may have led to its partial disuse in the West, but we
find it again coming into vogue in Italy in the 13th and
14th centuries. In the early Christian centuries its place
was taken in the monumental decoration of walls by marble
inlays, and especially by glass mosaic, which is in itself an
important form of wall-painting and may have put painting
on plaster, and with it the fresco process, into the shade; notice
will however presently be taken of a theory that seeks to establish
a close technical connexion between mosaic work and the fresco
painting, which, on the decline in the later medieval period of
mosaic, came forward again into prominence.
The tempera processes were accordingly in vogue in early
medieval times for wall-paintings (except to some extent
in the East), for portable panels, and on parchment for
the decoration and illustration of manuscripts. Meanwhile the
484
PAINTING
[TECHNIQUE
use of drying oils as painting media was coming to be known,
and both on plaster and on wood these were to some extent
employed through the later medieval period, though without
seriously challenging the supremacy of tempera. From the
beginning of the 15th century, however, oil painting rose rapidly
in estimation, and from the end of that century to our own
time it has practically dominated the art. Wall-painting in
fresco continued to be practised till the last part of the i8th
century, and has been revived and supplemented by various
other monumental processes in the 19th, but even for mural
work the oO medium has proved itself a convenient substitute.
Water-colour painting in its present form is essentially an art
of the last hundred years. The old tempera processes have been
partly revived in our own time for picture-painting, but the
chief modern use of tempera is in scene-painting, where it is
more commonly called " distemper."
§ 34. Paintuig with Coloured Vitreous Pastes. — There is no
single work that deals with the whole subject of this material
and its different uses in transparent or opaque form in the arts,
but details will be found in the special articles where these
uses are described. (See Ceramics; Mosaic; Enamel; Glass,
STAINED.) On the subject of the substances and processes
employed in the colouring of the various vitreous pastes informa-
tion will be found in H. H. Cunynghame's Art Enamelling on
Metals (2nd ed., London, 1906, ch. vi.), but the subject is a large
and highly technical one.
Coloured vitreous pastes are among the most valuable materials
at the command of the decorative artists, and are employed
in numerous techniques, as for example for the glazes of ceramic
products including wall or iloor tiles; for painted glass windows;
for glass mosaic, and for all kinds of work in enamels. The
vitreous paste is tinged in the mass with various metallic oxides,
one of the finest colours being a ruby red obtained from gold.
Silver gives yellow, copper a blue green, cobalt blue, chromium
green, nickel brown, manganese violet, and so on. Tin in any
form has the curious property of making the vitreous paste
opaque. It should be understood that though the vitreous
substance and the metalHc o.xides are essentially the same in
all these processes, yet the preparation of the coloured pastes
has to be speciaUy conditioned in accordance with the particular
technique in view. There are generally various ways of produc-
ing reds and blues and greens, &c., from oxides of different
metals. The material is generally lustrous, and it admits of
a great variety in colours, some of which are highly saturated
and beautiful. It is on the lustre and colour of the substance,
rather than on the pictorial designs that can be produced by
its aid, that its artistic value depends; but though this imphes
that it comes under the heading " Ornament " rather than
" Painting," yet in certain forms and at particular periods it
has been the chief medium for the production of pictorial results,
and must accordingly have here a brief notice.
The difiference between opaque and transparent coloured
glass is the basis of a division among the arts that employ the
material. If it be kept transparent the finest possible effect
is obtained in the stained-glass window, where the colours are
seen by transmitted light. The stained-glass window came
into general use in the early Gothic period, and was a substitute
for the wall-paintings which had been common in the Roman-
esque churches of the nth and 12th centuries. Hence it is a
form, and a very sumptuous and beautiful form, of the art of
mural painting, representing that art in the later medieval
buildings north of the Alps. In Italy, where the practice of
wall-painting continued without a break from early medieval
to Renaissance times, the stained-glass window was not a national
form of art.
The most effective use of opaque coloured vitreous pastes is
in ceramics (pottery) and in glass mosaic. The terra-cotta
plaque, or tile-painted with designs in glazes of the kind was,
as we have seen (§ 7), one of the chief forms of exterior mural
decoration in ancient Mesopotamia. The best existing examples
were found not long ago on the site of the ancient Susa (" Shushan
the palace " of Scripture) and are now in the Louvre. Human
figures, animals, and ornaments, are represented not only in
lively colours but also in relief; that is to say, each separate
glaze brick had its surface, measuring about 12 in. by 9 in.,
modelled as well as painted for the exact place it had to occupy
in the design. On these bricks there are formed small ridges
in relief intended to keep the different liquid glazes apart before
they were fixed by vitrifaction in the kiln. Chemical analysis
has shown that the yellow colour is an antimoniat of lead, the
white is oxide of tin, similar to the well-known opaque white
glaze used by the Delia Robbia in Italy, the blues and greens are
probably oxides of copper, the red a sub-oxide of copper (Semper,
Der Stil, i. 332). This same region of the world has remained
through all time a great centre for the production of coloured
glazed tiles, but the use of " Persian," " Moresque," and other
decorated plaques has been more ornamental than pictorial.
Glazed pottery only comes occasionally within the survey
of the historian of painting. It does so in ancient Greece,
because the earlier stages of the development of Greek painting
can only be followed in this material; it does so, too, in a sense,
in Italian faience and in some Oriental products, but these hardly
fall within our view. The Greek vase was covered with a black
glaze of extreme thinness and hardness, the composition of
which is not known. Figure designs were painted in this on
the natural clay of the vessel (see fig. 3, Plate IV.), or it was
used for a background, the design being left the colour of the
clay. Other colours, especially a red (oxide of iron) and white,
were also employed to diversify the design and emphasize details,
and these were also fixed by firing. A special kind of Greek
vase was the so-called " polychrome lekuthos," a small upright
vessel, the clay of which was covered with a white " slip " on
which figure designs were painted in lively tints. The technique
is not quite understood, but the colours were certainly fired.
There is an article on " The Technical History of White Lecythi "
in the American Journal of Archaeology for 1907; the processes
are not, however, analysed.
In glass mosaic thin sohd slabs of coloured vitreous pastes
are broken up into little cubes of | in. to 5 in. in size and set in
some suitable cement. The artist works from a coloured drawing
and selects his cubes accordingly. Any number of shades of
all hues can be obtained, and the modern mosaic workers of
Italy boast that they dispose of some 25,000 different tints.
As it is of the essence of the work to be simple and monumental
in effect, a limited palette is aU that is needed; and the mosaics
recently executed in St Paul's in London are done in about
thirty colours. The worker should have at hand appliances to
cut to shape any particular cube wanted for a special detail.
The ancients used the art, and the finest existing ancient
picture is in a mosaic, not indeed of glass pastes, but of coloured
marbles. This is the famous " Battle of Issus " found at
Pompeii. Glass mosaic came in under the early Roman Empire,
but its chief use was in early Christian times, when it was the
chief material for mural decoration of a pictorial kind. Ravenna
is the place where this form of painting is most instructively
represented, and the 5th and 6th centuries a.d. are the times
of its greatest glory. At Rome and Constantinople there is
fine early work, while that at Venice and Palermo is later. In
the earliest and best examples the design is very simple, and a
few monumental forms of epic dignity, against a flat background
commonly of dark blue, represents the persons and scenes of
the sacred narratives. The effect of colour is always sumptuous.
Gold, especially for the backgrounds, is in later work freely
employed.
The subject of enamel work forms the theme of a separate
article. Here it need only be said that pictures can be produced
by painting on a ground, generaOy of metal, with coloured
vitreous pastes that are afterwards fixed by fusing. Limoges
in France has been the great centre of the art, but enamelling
loses in artistic value when a too exclusively pictorial result is
aimed at.
§ 35. Fresco Painting. — Vitru\'ius (De Architectura, bk. vii.
chs. 2, 3; age of Augustus), Mount Athos Handbook (Hermeneia,
chs. 54 seq. ; date uncertain but based on early tradition) ; Cennino
TECHNIQUE]
PAINTING
485
Cennini {Trattalo della piltura, chs. 67 seq., ed. Milanesi, 1859;
Eng. trans, by Christiana J. Herringham, Lond., 1899); Leon
Battista Alberti (De re aedificaloria, bk. vi. ch. g; early and mid-
dle 15th century); Vasari (Operc, ed. Milanesi, i. 181; middle of
i6th century) — aU refer in general terms to the fresco process, as
one generally understood in their times. Armenini {Dei veri
precetli della pitlura; Ravenna, 1587), and Palomino (El Mitsco
piclorico; Madrid, 1715-1724), give more detailed accounts of
the actual technical procedure, of which they had preserved
the tradition. Much information of the highest value and
interest was collected at the time when, in the forties of the
igth century, the project for the decoration in fresco of the new
EngUsh Houses of Parhament was under discussion. This is
contained in various communications by Sir Charles Eastlake,
Mr Charles Heath Wilson, and others, printed with the suc-
cessive Reports of the Commissioners on the Fine Arts from
1842 onwards. The experience obtained in the revived modern
work in fresco by Cornehus, Hess, and other German artists
encouraged by King Ludwig I. of Bavaria, which began at Rome
in the second decade of the iQth century, was also drawn upon
for the purpose of these Reports. A useful compendium was
issued at the time by W. B. Sarsfield Taylor, A Manual of Fresco
and Encaustic Painting (Lond., 1843). F. G. Cremei sV all stand igc
Anleitung zur Fresco-Malerei (Diisseldorf, 1891), may also be
mentioned as a recent manual. The chemistry of the process
is well explained by Professor Church in his Chemistry of Paints
and Paintings.
The fresco process is generally regarded as a method for the
production of a picture. It is better to look upon it in the first
place as a colour-finish to plaster-work. What it produces
is a coloured surface of a certain quality of texture and a high
degree of permanence, and it is a secondary matter that this
coloured surface may be so diversified as to result in a pattern
or a picture.
We do not know among what people the discovery was first
made that a wash of Uquid pigment over a freshly laid surface
of lime plaster remained permanently incorporated with it when
all was dry, and added to it great beauty of colour and texture.
The Egyptians, the Assyrians, the Phoenicians, the Mycenaean
and later Greeks, the ancient Italians — all made extensive use
of plaster as a coating to brickwork or masonry, but when they
coloured it this was done after it was dry and with the use of
some binding material or tempera.
The earhest notice of the fresco technique that we have in
extant literature is contained in the third chapter of the seventh
book of Vitruvius, and it is there treated as a familiar, well-
understood procedure, the last stage in the construction and
finish of a wall. Pliny also in several passages of his Natural
History treats the technique as a matter of common knowledge.
In Vitruvius the processes of plastering albaria opera are first
described (vii. 2, 3), and it is provided that after the rough
cast, truUissatio, there are to follow three coats of plaster made
of lime and sand, each one laid on when the one below is begin-
ning to dry, and then three of plaster in which the place of the
sand is taken by marble dust, at first coarse, then finer, and in
the uppermost coat of all in finest powder. It might now be
(i) finished with a plain face, but one brought up to such an
exquisite surface that it would shine like a mirror (chs. 3, 9); or
(2) with stamped ornaments in relief or figure designs modelled
up by hand; or (3) it might be completed with a coat of colour,
and this would be applied by the fresco process, for which Pliny
uses the formula udo illinere, " to paint upon the wet." The
reason why the pigments mixed with water only, without
any gum or binding material, adhere when dry to the plaster
is a chemical one. It was first clearly formulated by Otto
Donner von Richter in conne.xion with researches he made on
the Pompeian wall-paintings and published in 1868 as an appendix
to Helbig's Campanische Wandgemdlde. He demonstrated that
when limestone is burnt into hme all the carbonic acid is driven
out of it. When this hme is " slaked " by being drenched with
water it drinks this in greedily and the resultant paste becomes
saturated with an aqueous solution of hydrate of lime. When
this paste is mixed with sand or marble dust and laid on to the
wall in the form of plaster this hydrate of lime in solution rises
to the surface, and when the wet pigment is applied to this the
liquid hydrate of lime or hme water, to use Professor Church's
phrasing, " diffuses into the paint, soaks it through and through,
and gradually takes up carbonic acid from the air, thus producing
carbonate of hme, which acts as the binding material " (Church,
p. 278). It is a mistake to speak of the pigment " sinking into
the wet plaster." It remains as a fact upon the surface, but
it is fixed there in a sort of crystalline skin of carbonate of lime —
the element originally banished when the lime was burned —
that has now re-formed on the surface of the plaster. This
crystalline skin gives a certain metallic lustre to the surface of a
fresco painting, and is suflicient to protect the colours from the
action of external moisture, though on the other hand there
are many causes chemical and physical that may contribute
to their decay. If, however, proper care has been taken through-
out, and conditions remain favourable, the fresco painting is
quite permanent, and as Vitruvius says (vii. 3, 7), " the colours,
when they have been carefully laid upon the wet plaster, do
not lose their lustre but remain as they are in perpetuity ... so
that a plaster surface that has been properly finished does not
become rough through time, nor can the colours be rubbed off,
that is unless they have been carelessly applied or on a surface
that has lost its moisture."
In the passage from which these words are taken Vitruvius
gives useful hints as to the aesthetics of the fresco technique.
Italian writers on the subject, such as Vasari, are generally
so taken up with the pictorial design represented on the wall
that the more essential characteristics of the process in itself
are lost sight of. To Vitruvius the work is coloured plaster,
not a picture on plaster, and he shows how important it is that
the plaster should be finished with a fine surface of gleaming
white so as to light up the transparent film of colour that clothes
it. It is the result of such care in classical times that a surface
of Pompeian plastering, self-tinted " a fresco," is beautiful
without there being any question of pattern or design.
This beauty and polish of Pompeian, and generally of ancient
Roman plaster, has recently been made the ground for calling
in question the view accepted for a generation past that it was
merely hme plaster painted on " a fresco," and for substituting
a totally different technical hypothesis. The reference is to
the treatment of ancient wall-painting generally in the first
part of Berger's Beitrage (2nd ed., 1904, pp. 58 seq.). This writer
denies that the well-known classical wall-paintings in question
are frescoes, and evolves with great ingenuity a wholly new
theory of this branch of ancient technique. It is his view that
the plaster was prepared by a special process in which wax
largely figured and which corresponds to, and indeed survives
in, the so-called " stucco-lustro " of the modern Itahans.
The process in question is described by L. B. Alberti (Dc re
acdificatoria,vi. 9), who says that when the plaster wall surface
has been carefully smoothed it must be anointed with a mixture
of wax, resin and oil, which is to be driven in by heat, and then
polished till the surface shines Hke a mirror. This is a classical
process referred to by Vitruvius under the name " ganosis,"
as applied to the nude parts of marble statues, possibly to tone
down the cold whiteness of the material. Now Vitruvius,
and Pliny, who probably follows him, do as a fact prescribe this
same process for use on plaster, but only in the one special
case of a wall painted " a fresco " with vermilion, which was
not supposed to resist the action of the light unless " locked up."
in this way with a coating of this " Punic " or saponified wax.
Neither writer gives any hint that the process was appUed to
plaster surfaces generally, or that the lustre of these was depen-
dent on a wax polish, and Vitruvius's description is so clear that
if wax had been in use he would certainly have said so.
Vitruvius prescribes so many successive coats of plaster, each
one put on before the last was dry, and on the wet uppermost
coat the colouring is laid. How can we with any reason sub-
stitute for this a method in which the plaster has to be made
quite dry and then treated with quite a different material and
486
PAINTING
[TECHNIQUE
process? Furthermore, Berger holds the astonishing theory
that on the self-coloured surfaces of Pompeian and Roman
plastered walls the colour was not apphcd, as in the fresco process,
to the surface of the final coat, but was mixed up with the actual
material of the intonaco so that this was a coat of coloured
plaster. This is of course a matter susceptible of ocular proof,
but the actual fragments of ancient coloured stucco referred
to by Berger afford a very slender support to the hypothesis,
whereas everyone who, like the present writer, possesses such
fragments can satisfy himself that in almost every case the
colour coat is confined to the surface. The writer has a frag-
ment of such stucco from Rome, coloured with vermilion, and
here there is clear evidence that some substance has soaked into
the plaster to the depth of an eighth of an inch, as would be the
case in the " ganosis " of Vitruvius. The part thus affected is
yellowish and harder than the rest of the plaster. A careful
chemical analysis, kindly made for the purpose of this article
by Principal Laurie of Edinburgh shows that, although the small
quantity of the material available makes it impossible to attain
certainty, yet the substance may possibly be wax with the
slight admixture of some greasy substance. On the other hand
all the writer's other specimens show the colour laid on to all
appearance " a fresco." The evidence of the coloured plaster
in the house of about the 2nd century B.C. on Delos is wholly
against Berger's view. The writer has many specimens of this,
and they are all without exception coloured only on the surface.
It is true that there are certain difficulties connected with
Pompeian fresco practice, but the description of the process
as a wet process in Vitruvius and Pliny is so absolutely unmis-
takable that Berger's theory must without hesitation be
rejected.
The history of the fresco technique remains at the same
time obscure. Here again Berger offers an interesting sugges-
tion which cannot be passed over in silence. If the Pompeian
technique, as he beUeves, be a wax process on dry plaster,
followed by some form of tempera, how did the fresco technique,
which is known both in East and West in the later medieval
period, take its rise? The early medieval age was not a time
when a difficult and monumental technique of the kind is likely
to have been evolved, but Berger most ingeniously connects it
with that of mosaic work. In mosaic the wall surface is at
first rough plastered and a second and comparatively thin coat
of cement is laid over it to receive and retain the cubes of
coloured glass, only so much cement being laid each morning
as the worker wiU cover with his tesserae before night. It was
the practice sometimes to sketch in water-colours on the freshly
laid patch of cement the design which was to be reproduced in
mosaic, and Berger points to the incontestable fact if this sketch
were allowed to remam without being covered with the cubes
it would really be a painting in fresco. This is the way he
thinks that the frescoe practice actually began, and the period
would be that of the decline of mosaic work in the West as
the middle ages advanced.
In spite of the attractiveness of these suggestions, we must
reaffirm the view of this article that the testimony of Vitruvius
is conclusive for the knowledge by the Romans of the early
empire of the fresco technique. Why we do not find evidence
of it far earlier cannot be determined, but it is worth noting
that the success of the process depends on the plaster holding
the moisture for a sufficient time, and this it can only do if
it be pretty thick. In ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, for
example, the plaster used as painting ground was very thin,
and especially in those hot climates would never have lent itself
to fresco treatment. On the other side, the dechne, and perhaps
temporary extinction, of the technique in the early middle
ages may be reasonably explained by the general condition of
the arts after the break-up of the Roman Empire of the West.
To return now to the technical questions from which this histori-
cal digression took its rise, it will be easily seen that the process
of painting in fresco must be a rapid one, for it must be completed
before the plaster has had time to dry. Hence only a certain
portion of the work in hand is undertaken at a time, and only
so much of the final coat of plaster, called by the Italians intonaco
is laid by the plasterer as will correspond to the amount the
artist has laid out for himself in the time allowed him by the
condition of the plaster. At the end of this time the plaster
not painted on is cut away round the outline of the work already
finished, and when operations are recommenced a fresh patch
is laid on and joined up as neatly as possible to the old. In the
making of these joints the ancient plasterer seems to have been
more expert than the Italians of the Renaissance, and the seams
are often pretty apparent in frescoes of the 15th and 16th centu-
ries, so that they can be discerned in a good photograph. When
they can be followed, they furnish information which it is often
interesting to possess as to the amount that has been executed
in a single day's work. Judging by this test, Mr Heath Wilson,
in his Life of Michelangelo, computed that on the vault of the
Sistine Michelangelo could paint a nude figure considerably
above hfe size in two working days, the workmanship being
perfect in every part. The colossal nude figures of young men
on the cornice of the vault at most occupied four days each.
The " Adam " (fig 34, Plate X.). was painted in four or perhaps
in three. A day was generally occupied by the head of such
figures, which were about 10 ft. high. Raphael, or rather
his pupils, it is thus calculated, painted the Incendio del
Borgo, containing about 350 sq. ft., in about forty days, the
group of the young man carrying his father occupying three.
The group of the Three Graces in the Villa Farnesina took five
days at most. Luini, a most accomplished executant, could
paint " more than an entire figure, the size of life, in one day "
(Second Report, p. 37). It has been noticed as one of the diffi-
culties about the Pompeian frescoes, that joints hardly occur, or
at any rate that larger surfaces of plaster were covered by the
painter at a single time than was the case among Renaissance
artists, and a conjectural explanation has been offered based
on the fact that the ancient plaster ground, laid on in many
successive coats while in each case the previous one was still
humid, was thicker and would hold more moisture than the
more modern intonaco, and would accordingly allow the artist
longer time in which to carry out his work. Alberti, Armenini,
and Palomino only contemplate one or two thin coats over the
original rough cast, while Cornelius and his associates, who
revived the process early in the 19th century, speak of an
intonaco over the rough cast only about a quarter of an inch
thick. A piece of plaster ground from Raphael's Loggie in
the Vatican was found to be quite thin, and Donner calculated
that the ancient grounds were on an average 3 in. thick, the
modern only a little over 1 in. On such grounds work had
necessarily to be finished within the day, and Cennino expressly
says (ch. 67): " Consider how much you can paint in a day;
for whatever you cover with plaster you must finish the same
day." Hence almost invariably in ItaUan fresco practice
every join means a new day's work. At Pompeii the plaster,
it is thought, might have remained damp over night. In the
Mount Athos Handbook tow was to be mixed with the plaster,
undoubtedly to retard its drying.
This necessarily rapid execution gives to well-handled frescoes
a simplicity and look of directness in technique that are of the
essence of the aesthetic effect of this form of the art. Hence
Vasari is right when he extols the process in the words, " of all
the ways in which painters work, waU-painting is the finest
and most masterly, since it consists in doing upon a single
day that which in other methods may be accomphshed in
several by going over again what has been done. . . . there
are many of our craft who do well enough in other kinds of work,
as for example in oil or tempera, but fail in this, for this is in
truth the most manly, the safest, and most solid of all ways
of painting. Therefore let those who seek to work upon the
wall, paint with a manly touch upon the fresh plaster, and avoid
returning to it when it is dry " (Opere, ed. Milanesi, i. 181).
The process gives the artist another advantage in that his
painting, being executed in the very material of the surface
itself, seems essentially a part of the wall. It is lime painting
on a hme ground, and fabric and enrichment are one. This
TECHNIQUE]
PAINTING
487
can be noted in the Sola del Constantino in the Vatican
at Rome, one of the stanze or suite of rooms decorated by
Raphael and Jus associates. There are two figures here painted
on the walls in oil, and though there is a certain depth and rich-
ness of effect secured in this medium, they are too obviously
something added as an afterthought, while the figures in fresco
seem an integral part of the wall.
Work of this kind, finished in each part at a sitting, is what
the Italians call buon fresco or " true fresco," and it has always
been, as it was with V'itruvius, the ideal of the art, but at many
periods the painters have had to rely largely on retouches and
reinforcements after the plaster was dry. Cennino devotes
the 67th chapter of his Trattato to a description of the process,
and expressly tells us that the method he recommends is the
one traditional in the school of Giotto, of which he himself was
a direct scion. He is fully alive to the importance of doing as
much as possible while the ground is wet, for " to paint on the
fresh — that is, a fixed portion on each day — is the best and most
permanent way of laying on the colour, and the pleasantest
method of painting "; but an ordinary artist of the early part
of the 15th century had not sufficient skill to do all that was
required at the one moment. Observations made on the works
executed by various Italian masters from the 14th to the i6th
century show great varieties in this matter of retouching, but
the subject need not be dwelt on as it involves no principle.
Every painter of worthy ambition, who had entered into the
spirit of his craft, would desire to do all he could " on the
fresh," and would be satisfied with, and indeed glory in, the
conditions and limitations of the noble technique. Masaccio,
even at the beginning of the 15th century, is remarkable for the
amount of fine pictorial effect he secured without reliance on
retouching. It was second-rate artists, like Pinturicchio, who
delighted to furbish up their mural pictures with stucco reliefs
and gilding and to add touches of more brilliant pigments than
could be used in the wet process. Giotto, Masaccio, Ghirlandajo,
Michelangelo, Luini, are among the frescanti proper, who
represent the true ideals of the craft.
The following notes upon the methods of the work are derived
partly from observation of extant works and partly from the older
treatises, but reference has also been made to modern practice in
Germany and Italy, as information derived from this last source
may be found useful by those who are disposed to-day to make
essays in the process.
To avoid loss of time it is essential that the necessary drawing
should all be accomplished beforehand. Pozzo, a painter and
writer of the end of the 17th century says, " everyone knows that
before beginning to paint it is necessary to prepare a drawing and
well-studied coloured sketch, both of which are to be kept at hand
in painting the fresco, so as not to have any other thought than that
of the execution " (First Report, p. 35). In Cennino's time it seems
to have been the practice to square out the work full size from the
sketch on to the surface of the rough cast before the intonaco was
laid. This at any rate enabled the artist to see how his work as
a whole would come in relation to the space provided for it, but the
actual intonaco had to be laid piece by piece over this general
sketch and the drawing of each portion repeated on the new surface.
In the palmy days of Italian painting, however, as well as in modern
times, the design has been drawn out on a full-sized cartoon, and
this cartoon, or a tracing from it, has been transferred piece by
piece to the freshly laid intonaco on which the painting is about
to be executed. The drawing may be nailed against the wall, and
the outlines passed over with a blunt-pointed stylus of some hard
material, that by dinting the paper impresses on the yielding
plaster a line sufficient to guide the painter in his work; or the
outlines of the cartoon may be pricked and "pounced " with a
little bag of red or black powder that will leave a dotted outline
on the wall.
The preparation of the intonaco itself is however a matter for
much care. The lime should be prepared from a stone that is as
far as possible pure carbonate of lime — the travertine of Tivoli,
recommended by Vasari, is perfect for the purpose — and after it
is burnt should be slaked with water and thoroughly macerated so
that the lumps are all completely broken up. The slaked lime,
of the consistency of a stiff paste, or as it is termed "putty," must
be kept covered in from the air for a considerable period that varies
according to different authorities from eight to twelve months to
as many years. All experts, from Vitruvius downwards, are
agreed on the necessity for this, but the exact scientific reason
therefor does not seem to be quite clear. One advantage of the
keepmg is that the lime hydrate may take up a certain amount
of carbonic acid, though not too much, from the air. Church
says that, " not more than one-third or at most two-fifths of the
lime should be converted into the carbonate " (p. ig); but Faraday
(Fifth Report, p. 25) was of opinion that through lapse of time
there was brought about a molecular change that divided the par-
ticles more thoroughly and gave the lime a finer texture so as to
mix lietter with the pigments. At any rate, when Cornelius and his
associates started the modern fresco revival at Rome, in 1815, an
old workman who had been employed under Raphael Mengs directed
their attention to this tradition, and they used lime that had been
kept in a slaked condition, but still caustic — that is, still deprived
of most of its carbonic acid, for twelve years! For mixing the
plaster the proportions of lime to sand or marble dust vary; Cennino
gives two of sand to one of " rich " or caustic lime, but the Germans
used three of sand to one of lime. Whatever its exact constitution,
the intonaco has to be carefully laid each morning over that part
of the rough cast, previously well wetted, that corresponds to the
amount laid out for the day's work. Contrary to the prescription
of Vitruvius and Pompeian practice, which favours a polished
surface, the moderns prefer a slight roughness or "tooth ' on the
intonaco. Painting should not begin, so Cornelius advised (First
Report, p. 24), till " the surface is in such a state that it will barely
receive the impression of the finger, but not so wet as to be in danger
of being stirred up by the brush."
The pigments are ready mixed in little pots, on a tin palette
with a rim round the edge, or on a table, and in old Italian practice
each colour was compounded in three shades — dark, middle and
light. The water should be boiled or distilled, or should be rain-
water; for spring-water often contains carbonate of lime that would
derange the chemistry of the process. Again, on account of the
chemical action that takes place during the process, the pigments
have to be carefully selected. The palette of the fresco painter is
indeed a very restricted one, and this is another reason of the broad
and simple effect of the work. Practically speaking only the earth
colours, such as the ochres raw or burned, can be used with safety;
even the white has to be pure white lime (in Italian, bianco San-
Giovanni), since lead white used in oil painting (Italian, biacca) is
inadmissible. Vegetable and animal pigments are as a rule ex-
cluded, " very few colours of organic origin withstanding the de-
composing action of lime " (Church, p. 280). The brushes are of
hog-bristles or otter-hair or sable, and have to be rather long in
the hair. Round ones are recommended. According to early
Italian practice, the painter would first outline the figures or
objects, already drawn on the plaster, with a long-haired brush
dipped in red ochre, and would then, e.g. in the case of the faces,
lay in broadly with terre verte the shadows under the brows,
below the nostrils, and round the chin, and bring down and fuse
into these shadows the darkest of the three flesh-tints, with a dexter-
ous blending of the wet pigments upon a surface that preserves
their dampness. On the other side these half-tones are now modelled
up into the lighter hues of the flesh. White may then be used in
decided touches for the high lights, and the details of the eyes,
mouth and other features put in without too much searching
after accidents of local colour. Modern frescoists have found that
" the tints first applied sink in and look faint, so that it is necessary
sometimes to go over the surface repeatedly with the same colour
before the full effect is gained " (First Report, p. 24), but it is well
to allow in each case some minutes to elapse before touching any
spot a second time. For the hair the Italians would make three
tints suffice, the high lights again following with white. The
draperies are broadly treated. After the whole has been laid in,
in monochrome, with the green pigment, the folds would be marked
out with the deepest of the three tints for shadow, and these shadows
united by the middle tint. Lastly the lighter parts are painted up
and finally reinforced with white. The work needs to be deftly
touched, for too much handling of one spot may destroy the fresh-
ness of the tints and even rub up the ground. It is not necessary
(as moderns have sometimes supposed) to put touch beside touch,
never going twice over the same ground. So long as the pigments
and the surface are wet the tints may be laid one over the other
or fused at will, and may be " loaded " in some parts and in others
thinly spread, the one essential being that a fresh and crisp effect
shall not be lost. The wetness of the ground will always secure
a certain softness in all touches, even those that give the strong
high-lights, and so important is it that the plaster should not begin
to dry, that it should be sprinkled if necessary with fresh water.
The characteristic softness of the touches laid on " a fresco " is
the more apparent when they are compared with those strokes of
reinforcement which may be put on " a tempera " after the work
is dry. Armenini says that the shadows may be finished and deep-
ened by hatching, as in a drawing, with black and lake laid on
with a soft brush with a medium of gum, size, or white and yolk
of egg diluted with vinegar. Such retouches are always hard and
" wiry," and are as much as possible to be avoided.
As examples of execution in fresco no works are better than
those of Luini. He painted rapidly and thinly, securing thereby
a transparency of effect that did not however preclude richness.
Heath Wilson indeed says of his painting that " it may be
488
PAINTING
[TECHNIQUE
compared to that of Rubens; it is juicy, transparent, and clear;
... his execution is light and graceful." No sounder model
could be taken for modern work. The high-water mark of
achievement in fresco painting was however reached by a greater
than Luini — by Michelangelo in his painting of the Sistine Chapel
roof. Considering that since his boyhood he had had no practical
experience of the fresco process, and refused the commission as
long as he could because he was not a painter but a sculptor,
Buonarroti's technical success in the manipulation of the difficult
process is still more astounding than the aesthetic result of the
work as a creation of imaginative genius. He had to paint for
the most part lying on his back in a sort of cradle, and working
with his arms above his head, and had no skilled assistants;
yet there is no quality in the work that strikes us more than its
freshness and air of easy mastery, as if the artist were playing
with his task. The fusion of the lights and shadows through
the most delicate half-tones is accomphshed in that melting
fashion for which the Italians used the term sfumato or
" misty," while at the same time the touches are crisp and firm,
the accent here and there decided; and the artist's incomparable
mastery of form gives a massive solidity to the whole (see fig.
34, Plate X.)
In our own times and in English-speaking circles the fresco
process has been discredited owing to the comparative failure
of the experiments connected with the Houses of Parliament.
On the condition of the frescoes there, as well as on that of the
pictures in various other media, a series of Memoranda were
made by Professor Church, and a select committee of the House
of Lords took evidence on the subject as late as December 1906.
Most of the frescoes executed in the forties and fifties of the
igth century had got into a deplorable state; but Church's belief
was that the main cause of the decay was the sulphurous acid
with which, owing to the consumption of coal and gas, the air
of London is so highly charged. The action of this acid — a
million tons of which are said to be belched out into the London
atmosphere in every year — turns the carbonate of lime which
forms the surface of the fresco into a sulphate, and it ceases to
retain its binding power over the pigments. " The chemical
change," he reports, " is accompanied by a mechanical expansion
which causes a disruption of the ground and is the main cause
of the destruction of the painting." It is a remarkable fact,
however, that one of the frescoes in question. Sir John Tenniel's
" St Cecilia," completed in 1S50, painted very thinly and on a
smooth surface, lasted well, and opposed " a considerable
measure of successful resistance for nearly half a century on the
part of a pure fresco to the hostile influence of the London
atmosphere " (Church, Memorandum, iv. 1896).
Abroad, experience was more favourable. The earliest
frescoes of the modem revival — those by Cornelius and his
associates from the Casa Bartholdy at Rome — are in a fairly
good state in the National Gallery at Berlin. Such too is the
condition of Cornelius's large fresco in the Ludwigskirche at
Munich. The best modern frescoes, from the artistic point of
view, in all Europe are those of about 1850 by Alfred Rethel in
the town-hall at Aix-la-Chapelle, and they are well preserved.
The exterior frescoes on the Pinacotek at Munich have on the
other hand mostly perished; but the climate of that city is
severe in winter, and nothing else was really to be expected.
We must not expect carbonate of lime to resist atmospheric
influences which affect to a greater or less degree all mineral
substances.
§ 36. Frcsco-Secco. — (See Charles Heath Wilson, in appendix
to Second Report of the Commissioners on the Fine Arts, London,
1843, p. 40; Church, Chemistry of Paints and Painting, 1901, p.
278).
The process called " fresco-secco " is a method of lime painting
on a plaster surface that has been allowed to dry. It is described
by Theophilus in the Schedida of about a.d. 1 100; and Mr Charles
Heath Wilson in 1843 wrote of it as " extensively used in Italy
at present and with great success." It is of course obvious that
paintings must often be executed on walls the plastering of which
is already dry, and on which the true fresco process is imprac-
ticable. Some kind of painting in tempera is thus needful, and
" fresco-secco " uses for this the lime that is the very constituent
of the plaster. The process is thoroughly to drench the dry
surface of the plaster the night before with water with which a
little lime or baryta water has been mixed, and to renew the
wetting the next morning. The artist then fixes up his cartoon,
pounces the outlines, and sets to work to paint with the same
pigments as used in buon fresco mixed with lime or baryta water
or with a little slaked lime. If the wall become too dry a syringe
is used to wet it. The directions given by Theophilus (i. 15)
correspond with this modern practice. " When figures or
representations of other things," he says, " are to be delineated
on a dry wall, it must be forthwith moistened with water tiU
it is thoroughly wet. On this wet ground all the colours must
be laid that are required, and they must be all mixed with hme,
and will dry with the wall so that they adhere to it." Mr C. H.
Wilson praises the work for its convenience, economy, and ease
of execution, and notes that " for ornament it is a better method
than real fresco, as in the latter art it is quite impossible to make
the joinings at outlines owing to the complicated forms of orna-
ments," but says that " it is in every important respect an inferior
art to real fresco. Paintings executed in this mode are ever heavy
and opaque, whereas fresco is light and transparent." He
declares also for its durability, but Professor Church states what
seems obvious, that " the fixation of the pigments ... is less
complete " than in real fresco though depending on the same
chemical conditions(Second Report, 1843, p. ^o; Chemistry, p. 279).
§ 37. Stcreochromy or Water-Glass Painting. — (See Chemisch-
technische Bibliothek, Band Ixxviii., Die Mineral-Malerei, von
A. Keim, Wien, &c., 1881; Rev. J. A. Rivington in Journal of the
Society of Arts, No. 1630, Feb. 15, 1884; Mrs Lea Merritt and
Professor Roberts Austin in Journal of the Society of Arts, No.
2246, Dec. 6, 1895; F. G. Cremer, Beitrdge zur Technik der
M onumental-M alverfahren, Diisseldorf, 1S95).
Akin to " fresco-secco," in that a mineral agent is used to
secure the adhesion of the colouring matter to the plaster, is
the process known as stcreochromy or water-glass painting. It
is not a traditional process, but an outcome of comparatively
modern chemical research, and is not yet a century old. It is
based on the properties of the substance called water-glass, a
silicate of potassium or of soda, perfected by the German
chemist Von Fuchs about 1825. A process of painting called
" stcreochromy " was soon after evolved, in which pigments of
the same kind as those used in fresco, mixed only with distilled
water and laid on a prepared plaster ground, were afterwards
fi-xed and securely locked up by being drenched with this sub-
stance, which is equivalent to a soluble glass. Some of the mural
paintings in the Houses of Parliament, notably those by Maclise,
were executed in this process. Improvements were more recently
effected in the process with which the names of Keim and Reck-
nagel of Munich are connected, and in this form it has been used
a good deal in Germany in the last quarter of the 19th century
both in interiors and in the open air. For example, in 1881
Professor Schraudolph of Munich painted in this process the
front of the Hotel Bellevue in that city. This improved water-
glass painting was introduced to notice in England in a paper
read before the Society of Arts by the Rev. J. A. Rivington on
the 13th of February 1S84, and printed in the Journal of the
society, No. 1630. A more recent description is contained in
F. G. Cremer's Beitrdge.
The recipe for the preparation of the actual medium is as follows:
15 parts pounded quartzsand, 10 parts refined potash, i part
powdered charcoal are mixed together and fused for 6 to 8 hours
in a glass furnace. The resultant mass when cold is reduced to
powder and boiled for 3 or 4 hours in an iron vessel with distilled
water till it dissolves and yields a heav^' syrupy liquor of strongly
alkaline reaction. This can be diluted with water, and in the process
is applied hot.
The ground is very carefully prepared, and over a thoroughly
sound and dry backing a thin coat of plaster is laid, composed of
only I part lime to 5 or 8 parts selected sand and pounded marble
with a slight admixture of infusorial earth. The object is to obtain
a homogeneous porous ground that can be thoroughly permeated
with the solution, and to help to secure this the intonaco when dry
TECHNIQUE]
PAINTING
489
is sprayed with hydrofluo-silicic acid to dissolve away the crystalline
skin of carbonate of lime formed on the surface and to "open the
pores " of the plaster. The surface of the painting ground, which
is left with a decided " tooth " upon it, is then well soaked with
the solution, and when dry will be found " hard but perfectly
absorbent and ready for painting."
The pigments consist in the usual ochres and earths; chrome
reds, greens, and yellows; Naples yellow (antimoniate of lead);
cobalt blue and green; and artificial ultramarine; terre verte, &c.,
with zinc white or baryta white.
It is important however to note, that the pigments (which can
be supplied by Messrs Schirmer, late Faulstich, of Munich, and
many other firms) are mixed with various substances so as to render
uniform the action upon them of the fixing solution and neutralize
the action of its alkalies. The operations of painting, in which
only distilled water is used with the colours, are easy and admit of
considerable freedom. " Every variety of treatment is possible,
and the method adapts itself to any individual style of painting."
The work can be left and resumed at will. After the painting is
dry there comes the all-important final process of fixing with the
water-glass solution. This is sprayed on in a hot state by means
of a special apparatus, and the process is repeated till the wall
can absorb no more, the idea being that the substance will pene-
trate right through to the wall, and when set will bind pigments,
intonaco, roi'gh plastering and wall into one hard mass of silicate
that will be impervious to moisture or any injurious agencies.
The last paragraph of the official account of the Keim process
issued in 1883 for the guidance of those contemplating mural work
runs as follows: "The fixing of the picture is accomplished by
means of a hot solution of potash water-glass, thrown against the
surface by means of a spray-producing machine in the form of a
very fine spray. This fixing done, by several repetitions of the
process, a solution of carbonate of ammonia is finally applied to
the surface. The carbonate of potash, which is thus quickly formed,
is removed by repeated washings with distilled water. Then the
picture is dried by a moderate artificial heat. Finally a solution
of paraffin in benzene may be used to enrich the colours and further
preserve the painting from adverse influences."
§ 38. Spirit Fresco or the " Gambicr Parry " Process, with
modifications by Professor Church. — (See Spirit Fresco Painting:
an Account of the Process, by T. Gambier Parry, London, 1S83;
Church, Chemistry of Paints and Painting, 288 seq.).
This process is also one of quite modern origin, but in Great
Britain, at any rate, it is now very popular. Mr Gambier Parry,
who invented and first put it into practice, claims for it that it
" is not the mere addition of one or more medium to the many
already known, but a system, complete from the first preparation
of a wall to the last touch of the artist," and that the advantages
it offers are " (i) durability (the principal materials being all but
imperishable); (2) power to resist external damp and changes of
temperature; (3) luminous effect; (4) a dead surface; (5) freedom
from all chemical action on colours."
The theory of the process is much the same as that of stereo-
chromy, the drenching of the ground with a solution that forms
at the same time the medium of the pigments, so that the whole
forms when dry a homogeneous mass. The solution or medium
is however not a mineral one, but a combination of oils, varnishes
and wax, the use of which makes the process nearly akin to that
of oil painting. The objection to the use of oil painting proper
on walls is the shininess of effect characteristic of that system,
which is in mural work especially to be avoided, and " spirit
fresco " aims at the elimination of the oleaginous element and
the substitution of wax which gives the "matt " surface
desired.
Mr Gambier Parry directs a carefully laid intonaco of ordinary
plaster suitable for fresco on a dry backing, " the one primary
necessity " being that the intonaco " should be left with its natural
surface, its porous quality being absolutely essential. All smooth-
ing process or ' floating ' with plaster of Paris destroys this quality.
All cements must be avoided." When dry the surface of the wall
must be well saturated with the medium, for which the following
is the recipe: pure white wax 4'oz. by weight; elemi resin 2 oz.
by weight dissolved in 2 oz. of rectified turpentine; oil of spike
lavender 8 oz. by measure; copal varnish about 20 oz. by measure.
These ingredients are melted and boiled together by a process
described in his paper, and when used for the wall the medium is
diluted in one and a half its bulk of good turpentine. With this
diluted solution the wall is well soaked, and the directions continue,
" after a few days left for evaporation, mix equal quantities of pure
white lead in powder and of gilder's whitening in the medium
slightly diluted with about a third of turpentine, and paint the
surface thickly, and when sufficiently evaporated to bear a second
coat, add it as thickly as a brush can lay it. This when dry, for
which two or three weeks may be required, produces a perfect
surface " both white and absorbent.
The pigments, which are practically the same as those used in
oil painting, must be ground in dry powder in the undiluted medium,
and when prepared can be kept in tubes like oil colours. Solid
painting with a good deal of body is recommended and pure oil of
spike is freely used as painting medium. Pure spike oil may also
be washed over the ground before painting " to melt the surface
(hence the name Spirit Fresco) and prepare it to incorporate the
colours painted into it." The spike oil is " the one common solvent
of all the materials; . . . the moment the painter's brush touches
the surface (already softened, if necessary, for the day's work) it
opens to receive the colours, and on the rapid evaporation of the
spike oil it closes them in, and thus the work is done." The oil of
spike lavender, it may be noticed, is an essential oil prepared from
Lavandula spica.
Professor Church has suggested improvement in the composition
of the medium by eliminating the " doubtful constituents " elemi
resin and bees'-wax and substituting paraffin wax, one of the safest
of materials, dissolved in non-resinifiable oil of turpentine. This
is mi.xed as before with copal varnish and used in the same way
and with the same or better results as Mr Gambier Parry's medium.
§ 39. Oil Processes of Wall Painting. — The use of the oil
medium for painting on plaster in medieval days opens up a
much debated subject on which a word will be said in connexion
with oil painting in general. In the later Renaissance period in
Italy it came into limited use, and Leonardo essayed it in an
imperfect form and with disastrous result in his " Last Supper "
at Milan. Other artists, notably Sebastiano del Piombo, were
more successful, and Vasari, who experimented in the technique,
gives his readers recipes for the preparation of the plaster ground.
This with Cennino (ch. go) had consisted in a coat of size or
diluted egg-tempera mixed with milk of fig-shoots, but later on
there was substituted for this several coats of hot boiled linseed
oil. This was still in common use in the i6th century, but
Vasari himself had evolved a better recipe which he gives us in
the 8th chapter of his " Introduction " to Painting. Over
undercoatings of ordinary plaster he lays a stucco composed of
equal parts of lime, pounded brick, and scales of iron mixed with
white of egg and linseed oil. This is then grounded with white
oil toned down with a mixture of red and yellow easily drying
pigments, and on this the painting is executed.
In Edinburgh and other places Mrs Traquair has recently carried
out wall paintings on dry plaster with oil colours much thinned
with turpentine. The ground is prepared with several coats of
white oil paint, and the finished work is finally varnished with the
best copal carriage varnish.
In most cases oil painting intended for mural decoration has
been executed on canvas, to be afterwards attached to the wall.
This is the case more especially in France, and also in America at
the Boston public library and other places. The effort here is to
get rid of the shiny effect of oil painting proper by eliminating as
far as practicable the oil. As this however serves as the binding
material of the pigments the procedure is a risky one. To suppress
the oil and to secure a " matt " surface Mr E. A. Abbey employed
at Boston and elsewhere, as a medium for painting with ordinary
oil colours, wax dissolved in spike oil and turpentine. In France
Puvis de Chavannes used some preparation to secure a matt effect
in his fine decorative oil painting on canvas.
§ 40. Tempera Painting on Walls. — This is a very ancient and
widely diffused technique, but the processes of it do not differ in
principle from those of panel painting in the same method. It is
accordingly dealt with under tempera painting in general
(§43).
§ 41. Encaustic Painting on Walls. — (See Schultze-Naumburg,
Die Technik dcr Malerei, p. 122 seq.; Paillot de Montabert, Traite
complct de la peinture, vol. ix.).
It has been already mentioned that wax is employed in modern
mural painting in order to secure a matt surface. Many pictures
have been carried out within the last century on walls in a regular
wax medium that may or may not represent an ancient process.
Hippolyte Flandrin executed his series of mural pictures in St
Vincent de Paul and St Germain des Pres in Paris in a process
worked out by Paillot de Montabert. Wax dissolved in turpen-
tine or oil of spike is the main constituent of the medium with
which the wall is saturated and the colours ground. Heat is used
to drive the wax into the plaster.
A German recipe prepared by Andreas Miiller in Diisseldorf has
been used for mural paintings in the National Gallery', Berlin.
XX. 16 a
490
PAINTING
[TECHNIQUE
In this one part virgin wax is dissolved in two parts turpentine
with a few drops of boiled linseed oil. The pigments are ground
in boiled linseed oil with the addition of this medium. The plaster
ground, well dried, is soaked with hot boiled linseed oil diluted with
an equal quantity of turpentine. It is then grounded with several
coats of oil paint for a priming and smoothed with pumice stone.
The painting can be executed in a thin water colour technique or with
a full body, and dries lighter than when wet and with a dead surface.
§ 42. Encaustic Painting in general in Ancient and Modern
Times. — (See Cros and Henry, L' Encaustigue et les autres precedes
de la peinture chcz les ancicns, Paris, 1884; Flinders- Petrie,
Hawara, &c., London, 1889; O. Donner v. Richter, Vbcr Tech-
nisches in der Malerei der Altcn, Mtmich, 1885; Berger, Beitrdge
zur Entwickelungs-Geschichte der Maltechnik, ii. 185 seq.; Munich,
1904)-
Although in modern mural painting wax is employed to secure
a matt surface, in ancient times it appears to have been valued
rather from the depth and intensity it lent to colours when it was
polished. It there represented an attempt to secure the same
force and pictorial quahty which in modern times are gained by
the use of the oil medium. We are told of it by the ancients that
it was a slow and troublesome process, and the name of it,
meaning " burning in," shows that the inconvenience of a heating
apparatus was inseparable from it; yet it seems at the same time
to have been a generally accepted technique, and Greek writers
from Anacreon to Procopius treat " wax " as the standard
material for the painter. Nay more, hardly a day now passes with-
out every one of us bearing testimony in the words he uses to the
importance of the technique in antiquity. The Etymologicum
magnum of the 12th century makes the process stand for
painting generally {iyKtK.avntvri-t^u)ypa(jyrjHivr{), and the name
" encaustic " came to be applied not only to painting but also
to sumptuous calligraphy. Then it was applied to writing in
general, and the name still survives in the Italian inchiostro
and our own familiar " ink " (Eastlake, Materials, i. 151).
The technique of ancient encaustic has given rise to much
discussion which till recently was carried on chiefly on a literary
basis. Fresh material has been contributed by the discovery,
in the eighties of the igth century, in Egypt of a series of portraits
on mummy cases, executed for the most part in a wax process,
and dating probably from the first two or three centuries a.d.
Previous to this discovery there was little material of a monu-
mental kind, though what appears to be the painting apparatus
of a Gallo-Roman artist in encaustic was found in 1847 at St
Medard-des-Pres in La Vendee, and has been often figured. It
should be stated at the outset that the modern process of
dissolving wax in turpentine or an essential oil like oil of spike
was not known to the ancients, who however knew how to mix
resinous substances with it, as in the case of ship-painting (Pliny
xi. 16; Dioscorides i. 98). They also saponified wax by boiling it
with potash so as to form what was called " Punic wax " (Pliny
xxi. 84 seq.), and this emulsion may be reduced with water,
and at the same time combines with oil and with size, gum, egg
and other temperas. Wax, Pliny says, may be coloured and
used for painting — ad cdendas similitudines {loc. cil.); but as
the name " encaustic " implies, and as we gather from another of
Pliny's phrases, ceris pingcre ac picturam inurere (xxxv. 122),
heat was an essential part of the process. Hence the material
must have been employed as a rule in a more or less solid form
and liquefied each time for use, and not in the form of a diluted
solution or emulsion which could be made serviceable cold. It is
true that Punic wax mixed with a little oil is prescribed by
Vitruvius (vii. 9, 3) as a solution for covering and locking up
from the air a coat of the changeable pigment vermilion laid on a
wall (see §35), but the solution is used hot and driven in by
application of a heating apparatus.
The accounts of the technique furnished to us by Pliny can
be brought into connexion with the actual remains, and Berger
and others have succeeded fairly well in imitating these by
processes evolved from the ancient notices. It is unfortunate
that the most important passage of Pliny (xxxv. 149) appears
corrupt. It runs in the received text as follows: Encauslo
pingendi duo fuere antiquitus genera, cera et in chore cestro, id est
vericulo, donee classes pingi coepere. Hoc tertium accessit resolutis
igni ceris penicillo utendi, quae pictura navibus nee sole nee sale
ventisve corrumpitur. Here three kinds of encaustic painting
are mentioned, two old and one new (the comparative chronology
of the processes need not come into question), and in the two last
cases the distinction is that between two instruments of painting,
the cestruin and the penicillus or brush. It is natural to sug-
gest that instead of the word cera, which, as wax is the material
common to all encaustic processes, need not have been introduced
and on manuscript authority may be suspected, some word
for a third instrument of painting should be restored. Berger,
with some philological likelihood,
conjectures the word caulerio,
which means properly a " branding-
iron," but which he believes to be
a sort of hollowed spatula or spoon
with a large and a small end by
which melted waxes of difTerent
colours might be taken up, laid on
a ground, such as a wooden panel,
and manipulated in a soft state as
pictorial effect required. Instru-
ments of the kind were found in
the Gallo-Roman tomb in La
Vendee. The second kind of
painting with the cestrum or
verictdum was on ivory and
must have been on a minute
scale. The "cestrum" was certainly
a tool of corresponding size, and
some have seen in it a sort of point
or graver, such as that with which
the incised outlines were made on
the figured ivory plaques in the
Kertch room at St Petersburg
(see below); others a small lancet-
shaped spatula Like the tools that
sculptors employ for working on
plaster. The brush, with which
melted waxes could be laid on in
washes, as was the case on ships,
needs no explanation.
An examination of the portraits
from the mummy cases (see fig. 35)
makes it quite clear that the brush
was used with coloured melted
waxes to paint in, in sketchy fashion,
the draperies and possibly to
underpaint the flesh and hair,
while the flesh was executed in a
more pastos style, with waxes in
a soft condition laid on and
manipulated with some spatula-
like instrument, which we may if (From a photograph by W. A. Mansell
we like caU " cauterium " or ^ ,,*'^'' r.
"cestrum." The marks of such F'?l35.-Mummy of Artemi-
a tool are on several of the heads
unmistakably in evidence, and may
be seen in specimens in the London
National Gallery. There is a
difference of opinion however as to the constitution of the
wax. Donner von Richter holds that the wax was "Punic,"
i.e. a kind of emulsion, and was blended with oil and resinous
balsams so as to be transformed into a soft paste which could
be manipulated cold with the spatula. Heat for " burning
in " {picturam inurere) he thinks was afterwards applied, with the
effect of slightly fusing and blending the coloured waxes that
had been in this way worked into a picture. Berger, on the other
hand, believes that the coloured wax pastes were manipu-
lated hot with the " cauterium," which would be maintained in a
heated condition, and that there was no subsequent process of
" burning in." Flinders Petrie is of opinion that, even in the
dorus with painted portrait,
inscribed " O Artemidorus,
Farewell." About A.D. 200
(Brit. Mus.).
TECHNIQUE]
PAINTING
-491
case of the washes laid on with the brush, pure melted wax was
employed and not a compound or emulsion, such as is generally
assumed. Berger believes in a mixture of wax, oil and resin.
It is interesting to note that the distinguished modern painter,
Arnold Bocklin, executed his picture of " Sappho " in coloured
pastes composed of copal resin, turpentine and wax, manipu-
lated with a curved spatula, and that he applied heat to fuse
slightly the impasto. He beheved he obtained in this way a
brilliancy not to be compassed with oils.
The nature of the " cestron " technique on ivory is not known.
The only existing artistic designs in ivory are executed by
engraved lines, and these are sometimes filled in with coloured
pastes. Exquisite work in this style exists in the Hermitage
at St Petersburg, and there are examples in other museums, but
this can hardly be termed encaustic painting. A better idea of
the laboriously executed miniature portraits of which Pliny tells
us can be gained from the small medallion portraits modelled in
coloured wax that were common at, the Renaissance period and
are still executed to-day. In these however the smaller details
are put in with the brush and pigment.
It is known from the evidence of the Erechtheum inscription
that the encaustic process was employed for the painting of
ornamental patterns on architectural features of marble buildings,
but there is stiU considerable doubt as to the technique employed
in such forms of decorative painting as the colouring of the white
plaster that covered the surfaces of stonework on monumental
buildings in inferior materials. Polychrome ornament on terra-
cotta for architectural embellishment may have been fixed by the
glaze as in ordinary vase painting, but Pliny says that Agrippa
figulinum opus encausto pinxil in his Thermae (xxxvi. 189).
The technique of the polychrome lecuthi and of the polychrome
terra-cotta statuary is not certain.
The later history of wax painting after the fall of the Western
Empire is of interest in connexion with the evolution of the
painter's technique as a whole. Its possible relation to oil
painting will be noticed later on. Here it is enough to note that
the so-called Lucca MS. of the 8th century mentions the mingling
of wax with colours, and the Byzantine Mount Athos Handbook,
recording probably the practice of the nth century, gives a
recipe for an emulsion of partly saponified wax with size as
a painting medium. A recipe of the 15th century quoted by
Mrs Merrifield from the MSS. of Le Begue gives a similar compo-
sition that can be thinned with water and used to temper all
sorts of colours.
§ 43. Tetnpcra Painting. [Cennino's rra//a/o, in the English
edition with terminal essays by Mrs Herringham (London, 1899),
is the best work to consult on the subject. The Society of Painters
in Tempera published in 1907 a volume of Papers on the subject.
F. Lloyd's Practical Guide to Scene Painting and Painting in
Distemper (London, 1879), is chiefly about the painting of thea-
trical scenery, and this subject is also dealt with in articles by
William Telbin in the Magazine of Art (1889), pp. 92, 195.]
The binding substances used in the tempera processes may be
classed as follows: (i) Size, preferably that made from boiling
down cuttings of parchment. Fish-glue, gum, especiaUy gum
tragacanth and gum arabic (the Senegal gum of commerce) ;
glycerin, honey, milk, wine, beer, &c. (2) Eggs, in the form of
(i) the yolk alone, (ii) the white alone, (iii) the whole contents of
the egg beaten up, (iv) the same with the addition of the milk or
sap of young shoots of the fig-tree, (v) the contents of the egg
with the addition of about the same quantity of vinegar [(iv) was
used in the south, (v) north of the Alps]. (3) Emulsions, in
which wax or oil is mingled with substances which bring about
the possibility of diluting the mixture with water. Thus oil
can be made to unite mechanically (not chemically) with water
by the interposition either of gum or of the yolk of egg.
Of these materials it may be noted that a size or gum tempera
is always soluble in water, and is moreover always of a rather
thin consistency. The latter applies also to white of egg. On
the other hand the yolk of an egg makes a medium of greater
body, and modern artists, especially in Germany, have painted
in it with a fuU impasto. The yolk of egg or the whole egg slightly
beaten up may be used to temper powdered pigments without
any dilution by means of water, and the stillest body can in this
way be obtained. The medieval artists seem however always to
have painted with egg thinly, diluting the yolk with about an
equal quantity of water. Their panels show this, and we can
argue the same from the number of successive coats of paint
prescribed by Cennino and other writers. The former (ch. 165)
mentions seven or eight or ten coats of colours tempered with
yolk alone, that must have been well thinned with water. This
point will be returned to later on. The yolk of egg is really
itself an emulsion as it contains about 30% of oil or fatty matter,
though in its fluid state it combines readily with water. " Egg
yolk," writes Professor Church {Chemistry, p. 74), "must be
regarded as essentially an oil medium. As it dries the oil
hardens," and ultimately becomes a substance not unlike leather
that is quite impervious to moisture. Hence while size tempera
when dry yields to water egg tempera will resist it. Sir William
Richmond gave a proof of this in evidence before a committee
of the House of Lords in November 1906, describing how he had
exposed a piece of plaster painted with yolk of egg medium to all
weathers for six months on the roof of a church and found it at the
end perfectly intact. As to the milk of young fig-shoots, it is
interesting to know from Principal Laurie (" Pigments and
Vehicles of the Old Masters," in Journal of the Society of Arts,
Jan. 15, 1892, p. 172) that "fig-tree belongs to the same
family as the india-rubber tree, and its juice contains caout-
chouc." He says, " doubtless the mixture of albumen and
caoutchouc would make a very tough and protective medium."
With regard to the historical use of these different media, the
medieval Italians used almost exclusively the yolk of egg
medium, and this is also the favourite tempera of the moderns.
In fact in Italy the word " tempera," as used by Vasari and other
writers, generaUy means the egg medium. On the other hand
size or gum was more common north of the Alps. It is in most
cases very difficult to decide what temperas were in vogue in
different regions and at the various epochs of the art, and the
following must not be taken for more than an approximate
statement of the facts. As far as it is known, the binding
material in ancient Egypt was for the most part size, while
Greek influence from about 600 B.C. onwards may have led to the
use of wax emulsion (Punic wax). For paintings on mummy
cases, and on papyrus scrolls, the medium may have been size
or gum. Professor Fhnders Petrie says it was acacia gum. The
wall paintings of ancient Mesopotamia as well as those of India
and the farther East generally were all in tempera, and it is
noteworthy that recipes and technical practices of the East and
of the West seem to be curiously alike. The exact media used
are doubtful. The same doubt exists with regard to the exact
processes of wall and panel painting in tempera in ancient Greece
and Italy, in the East, in Byzantine times, and in the early
middle ages both north and south of the Alps. The materials
and processes mentioned by Phny or in the various technical
handbooks are on the whole clearly established, but it is very
difficult to say in particular cases what was the actual technique
employed. Any certainty in this matter must be based on the
results not only of superficial examination but of analysis, and
the very small quantities of the materials that can be placed at
the disposal of the chemist make it often impossible to arrive at a
satisfactory diagnosis.
A story in Pliny (xxxv. 102) shows that the Greek panel
painters, when not " encaustae," used a water tempera, but
whether size or egg was its main constituent we do not know.
ApeUes is said to have covered his finished panels with a thin coat
of what Pliny calls " atramentum," which may have been a white
of egg varnish, for spirit varnishes were not known in antiquity
(Berger i. and ii. 183), and the Greeks do not seem to have used
drying oils nor varnishes made with these. Byzantine panel
painting, according to the Mount Athos Handbook, was executed
as a rule in an egg tempera (Berger iii. 75), and this technique
was followed later on in Italy. For Greek and Etruscan (Itahan)
wall-paintings of the pagan period; for late Roman wall-paintings
north of the Alps, and for Romanesque and Gothic wall-paintings.
492
PAINTING
[TECHNIQUE
we have to choose amongst the theories of size or egg tempera,
wax tempera (emulsion), and the lime painting in " fresco secco "
described by Theophilus. When we come to the panel painting
from the 12th to the 15th century we are on surer ground. For
.the north we have the technical directions of Theophilus, for the
south those of Cennino. Theophilus (i. ch. xxvii.) prescribes a
tempera of gum from the cherry tree, and, with some pigments,
white of egg. The finished panel was to be covered with an oil
varnish (vernition). Cennino prescribes a tempera of the yolk
of egg alone, half and half with the pigments, which have been
finely ground in water and are very liquid, so that there might
be in the ultimate compound about as much water as egg. A
tempera of the whole egg with the milk of fig-shoots he recom-
mends, not for panels, but for retouching fresco-work on the wall
when it is dry. Tempera panels painted with egg yolk are, like
the gum tempera panels of Theophilus, to be varnished with
vcrnicc liquida (oil varnish). In these media were executed
all the fine tempera panels of the early Italian and early German
schools of the 15th century, and these represent a limited, but
within its bounds a very perfect and interesting, form of the
painter's art.
A word or two may be said here about the various subsidiary
processes connected with 14th and 15th century panel painting,
which are of great interest as showing the conscientious, and indeed
devotional spirit in which the operations were carried out. At the
outset of his Traitato Cennino gives a list of the processes the panel
painter has to go through, and in subsequent chapters he describes
minutely each of these. The artist must " know how to grind
colours, to use glue, to fasten the linen on the panel, to prime with
gesso, to scrape and smooth the gesso, to make reliefs in gesso, to
put on bole, to gild, to burnish, to mix temperas, to lay on grounding
colours, to transfer by pouncing through pricked lines, to sharpen
lines with the stylus, to indent with little patterns, to carve, to
colour, to ornament the panel, and finally to varnish it."_ The
preliminary operations, before the artificer actually begins to
" colour " or paint, will take him six years to learn, and it requires
with Cennino half a hundred chapters to describe them. The
wooden panel is carefully compacted and linen is glued down over
its face, and over this is laid, in many successive coats, a gesso
ground of slaked plaster of Paris mixed with size, with which
composition raised ornaments, such as the nimbi of saints, &c.,
can be modelled. Both these and the flat parts of the panel are
scraped and smoothed till they are like ivory. The design of the
picture is then drawn out on the panel, and the outlines sharpened
up with the utmost precision. The gilding of the background and
of the carved woodwork in which the panel is set now follows.
Armenian bole, ground finely with white of egg diluted with water,
is spread over the gesso and carefully burnished as a ground for
water gilding with white of egg. The gold is then burnished till it
apoears almost dark (in the shadow) from its own refulgence.
The delicate indented patterns which are so charming on the gilded
grounds of the painted panels on East Anglian screens, such as that
at Southwold, are stamped with little punches, and Cennino says
this is one of the most beautiful parts of the art. In the actual
painting, which is on the non-gilded part of the panel, the utmost
attention is paid to the ornamentation of brocaded draperies, in
which gold is used as a ground and is made to show in parts, while
glazes of pigment mixed with dr^'ing oil are also used. Directions
for painting the flesh, which is to be done after the draperies and
background, are precise. There is an under-painting in a mono-
chrome of terra verte and white, and over this in successive coats
of great thinness the flesh-tints are spread, every tint being laid in
its right position on the face, the darkest flesh-tint being shaded
down to the terra verte and softened off in a tender sfumato
manner. Many coats are superimposed, but the green ground^ is
still to remain slightly visible. At the last the lightest flesh-tint
is used to obtain the reliefs and the high lights are touched in in
white. The outlines are sharpened up with red mixed with black.
The varnishing process should be delayed for at least a year, and
the varnish, which was evidently thick, is to be spread by the fingers
over the painted surfaces, care being taken not to let the varnish
go over the gold ground. This should be done if possible in the
sun, but Cennino says that if the varnish be boiled it will dry
without being placed in the sun.
The process thus described is not what we should call, in the
modern sense, painting, for the precision and conventionality of
the work and the great importance given to subsidiary details are
quite opposed to the spirit of the art since the l6th century. Never-
theless, the naive simplicity of the design and the exquisite delicacy
of the finish have an unfailing charm. We feel, as Cennino says,
that the artist has loved and delighted in his work, and regarded
his patient manipulation as a religious act. A modern artist in
tempera specially praises the old work for its " breadth, trans-
parency and purity of colour," qualities " owing to the gradual
bringing forward of the picture from a simple outline of extreme
beauty." " This outline is never lost; its beautifully opposed and
harmonizing lines and masses are retained to the end, even strength-
ened and accentuated, giving great distinctness at a distance, even
when not actually visible. A perfectly modulated monochrome
of light and shade fills the outline, apparent through the overlaid
glory of colour, over which again is thrown a veil of atmosphere,
a refulgence of light, a suggestion of palpitating space " (Mrs
Herringham's Cennino, p. 218). A difficulty in the technique is
the rapid drying of the medium, that prevents the fusing of the
colours together in the impasto, which is possible in oil painting.
Woltmann (History 0} Painting, Eng. trans, i. 406) thought that
in the north honey was mixed with the white of egg or size to
prevent too rapid drying, and he wrote, " this method rendered
possible a liquid and softly gradated handling, and though the
Italian variety of tempera allowed greater depth in the shadows,
the northern gave on the whole greater brightness." In Italy,
owing to the rapid drying of the egg-yolk, modelling was often
secured by hatching, which is not so pleasing in its effect as the
other method of superimposing thin coats of paint one over the
other till the proper effect of shading is secured. One notable
quality of tempera is its transparency, which is referred to by
Cennino when he says that the original under-painting of terra
verte is never to be wholly obliterated.
The well-known group of the " Three Graces," from Botticelli's
large panel of the " Allegory of Spring," at Florence, gives the
quality of tempera painting very aptly (see fig. 36, Plate X.).
There is a Society of Painters in Tempera in London, and some
artists are enthusiastic in their admiration of the process for its
purity, sincerity and permanence.
Under the heading " tempera " should be noticed another style
of painting with a water-medium that is executed as a rule on a
large scale and in a comparatively slight fashion. Painting for
the purposes of temporary decoration on canvas or wood, so much
used in the Italian cities of the Renaissance period, is of this kind.
Large cartoons in colour for mural pictures or tapestry, of which
Raphael's cartoons are the most famous examples, are other ex-
amples; while in modern times the technique is chiefly employed
in theatrical scene painting. The pigments are tempered with
size or gum, and body is given to them by whitening, pipe-clay or
similar substance. Work executed in this medium dries much
lighter than when it is put on, and to execute it effectively, as in
the case of stage scenery, requires much skill and practice. " In
the study of the art of distemper painting a source of considerable
embarrassment to the inexperienced eye is that the colours when
wet present such a different appearance to what they do when
dr>'." So writes F. Lloyds, but W. Telbin, though he recognizes
this difficulty, extols the process. " A splendid material dis-
temper! For atmosphere unequalled, and for strength as powerful
as oil, in half an hour you can do with it that which in water or oil
would take one or two days!" The English word "distemper"
and the French " gouache " are commonly applied to this style of
broad summary painting in body-colour. " Distemper" to English
ears suggests house-decoration, " tempera " the work of the artist.
§ 44. Oil Painting.— [See Eastlake, Materials Jar a History of
Oil Painting (London, 1847); Merimee, Dc la peinture a I'huile
(Paris, 1830); Berger, Bcitrdge zur Entwicklungs-Geschickte der
Maltechnik, esp. iii. 221 sqq., and iv. (Munich, 1897), &c.;
Dalbon, Les Origines de la peinture a riiuile (Paris, 1904);
Ludwig, tjher die Grundsatze der Oelmalerei (Leipzig, 1876);
Lessing, tjber das Alter der Oelmalerei, 1774.)
Oil painting is an art rather of the north than of the south and
east, for its development was undoubtedly furthered by the
demand for moisture-resisting media in comparatively damp
climates, and, moreover, the drying oils on which the technique
depends were but sparingly prepared in lands where ohve oil,
which does not dry, was a staple product.
Certain vegetable oils dry naturally in the air by a process of
oxydization, and this drying or hardening is not accompanied by
any considerable shrinking, nor by any change of colour; so that
oil and substances mixed with it do not alter in volume nor in
appearance as a consequence of the drying process. There may
be a slow subsequent alteration in the direction of darkening or
becoming more yellow; but this is another matter. Among these
oils the most important is linseed oil extracted from the seeds
of the flax plant, poppy oil from the seeds of the opium poppy,
and nut oil from the kernels of the common walnut. With these
oils, generally linseed, ordinary tube colours used by painters in
oil are prepared, and oil varnishes, also used by artists, are made
by dissolving in them certain resins. Their natural drying
qualities can be greatly aided by subjecting them to heat, and
TECHNIQUE]
PAINTING
493
also by mingling with them chemical substances known as
" dryers," of which certain salts of lead and zinc are the most
familiar. How far back in antiquity such oils and their proper-
ties were known is doubtful. Certain varnishes are used in
Egypt on mummy cases of the New Empire and on other surfaces,
and, though some of these are soluble in water, others resist it,
and may be made with drying oils or essential oils, though the
art of distilling these last cannot be traced back in Egypt earlier
than the Roman imperial period. (See Berthelot, La Chimie au
moyen dge, i. 138 (Paris, 1893). When Phny tells us (.\iv. 123)
that all resins are soluble in oil, we might think he was contem-
plating a varnish of the modern kind. Elsewhere, however (xxiv.
34), he prescribes such a solution as a sort of emoUient ointment
for wounds, so it is clear that the oil he has in view is non-drying
olive oil that would not make a varnish. In two passages of his
Natural History (xv. 24-32, xxiii. 79-96) Pliny discourses at
length on various oils, but does not refer to their drying properties.
There is really no direct evidence of the use among the Greeks
and Romans of drying oils and oil varnishes, though a recent
writer (Cremer, U titer suchun gen tiber den Beginn der Oelmalerei,
Diiss., 1899) has searched for it with desperate eagerness. The
chief purpose of painting for which such materials would have
been in demand is the painting of ships, but this we know was
carried out in the equaUy waterproof medium of wax, with which
resin or pitch was commingled by heat. The earliest mention of
the use of a drying oil in a process connected with painting is in the
medical writer Aetius. of the beginning of the 6th century a.d.,
who says that nut oil dries and forms a protective varnish
over gilding or encaustic painting. From this time onwards the
use of drying oils and varnishes in painting processes is well
established. The Lucca MS. of the 8th or 9th century a.d.
gives a receipe for a transparent varnish composed of linseed
Oil and resin. In the Mount Athos Handbook " peseri,"or boiled
linseed oil, appears in common use, and with resin is made into a
varnish. In the same treatise also we find a clear description
of oil painting in the modern sense; but since the dates of the
various portions of the Handbook are uncertain, we may refer
rather to Theophilus (about a.d. hoc), who indicates the same
process with equal clearness. The passages in Theophilus (i.
chs. XX. and xxvi.-xxviii.) are of the first importance for the
history of oil painting. He directs the artificer to take the
colours he wishes to apply, to grind them carefully without
water in oil of linseed prepared as he describes in ch. xx., and to
paint therewith flesh and drapery, beasts or birds or foliage,
just as he pleases. All kinds of pigments can be ground in the
oil and used on wooden panels, for the work must be put out in
the sun to dry. It is noteworthy that Theophilus (ch. xxvii.)
seems to confine this method of painting to movable works
(on panel, in opere ligneo, in his lanltmi rebus quae sole siccari
possunl) that can be carried out into the sun, but in ch. xxv. of
the more or less contemporary third book of Heraclius (Vienna
Quellenschriften, No. iv.) oil-paint may be dried either in the
sun or by artificial heat. Heraclius, moreover, knows how
to mix dryers (oxide of lead) with his oil, a device with which
rheophOus is not acquainted. Hence to the latter the defect
. ii the medium was its slow drying, and Theophilus recommends
as a quicker process the gum tempera already described. In
any case, whether the painting be in oil or tempera, the finished
panel must be varnished in the sun with " vernition " (ch. xxi.),
a varnish compounded by heat of linseed oil and a gum, which
is probably sandarac resin. The Mount Athos Handbook, § 53,
describes practically the same technique, but indicates it as
specially used for flesh, the inference being that the draperies
were painted in tempera or with wax. It is worth noting that
the well-known " black Madonnas," common in Italy as well
as in the lands of the Greek Church, may be thus explained.
They are Byzantine icons in which the flesh has been painted
in oil and the draperies in another technique. The oil has
darkened with age, while the tempera parts have remained in
contrast comparatively fresh. Some of them are probably the
earliest oil paintings extant.
Oil painting accordingly, though in an unsatisfactory form.
is established at least as early as a.d. hoo. What had been
its previous history? Here it is necessary to take note of the
interesting suggestion of Berger, that it was gradually evolved
in the early Christian centuries from the then dechning encaustic
technique of classical times. We learn from Dioscorides, who
dates rather later than the time of Augustus, that resin was
mixed with wax for the painting of ships, and when drying oils
came into use they would make with wax and resin a medium
requiring less heat to make it fluid than wax alone, and one
therefore more convenient for the brush-form of encaustic.
Berger suspects the presence of such a medium in some of the
mummy-case portraits, and points for confirmation to the
chemical analysis of some pigments found in the grave of a
painter at Heme St Hubert in Belgium of about the time of
Constantine the Great (i. and ii. 230 seq.). One part wax with
two to three parts drying (nut) oil he finds by experiment a
serviceable medium. Out of this changing wax-technique he
thinks there proceeded the use of drying oils and resins as media
in independence of wax. If we hesitate in the meantime to
regard this as more than a hypothesis, it is yet worthy of atten-
tion, for any hypothesis that suggests a plausible connexion
between phenomena the origin and relations of which are so
obscure deserves a friendly reception.
The Trattato of Cennino Cennini represents two or three
centuries of advance on the Schedula of Theophilus, and about
contemporary with it is the so-called Strassburg MS., which
gives a view of German practice just as the Trattato does of
Itahan. This MS., attention to which was first caUed by
Eastlake {Materials, i. 126 seq.), contains a remarkable recipe
for preparing " oil for the colours." Linseed or hempseed or
old nut oil is to be boiled with certain dryers, of which white
copperas (sulphate of zinc) is one. This, when bleached in the
sun, " will acquire a thick consistence, and also become as
transparent as a fine crystal. And this oil dries very fast, and
makes all colours beautifully clear and glossy besides. All
painters are not acquainted with it: from its excellence it is
called oleum preciosuni, since half an ounce is well worth a
shilling, and with this oil all colours are to be ground and
tempered," while as a final process a few drops of varnish
are to be added. The MS. probably dates rather before than
after 1400.
Cennino's treatise, written a little later, gives avowedly
the recipes and processes traditional in the school of Giotto
throughout the 14th century. He begins his account of oil
painting with the remark that it was an art much practised by
the " Germans," thus bearing out what was said at the com-
mencement of this section. He proceeds (chs. 90-94) to describe
an oil technique for walls and for panels that sounds quite
effective and modern. Linseed oil is to be bleached in the sun
and mixed with liquid varnish in the proportion of an ounce
of varnish to a pound of oil, and in this medium all colours are
to be ground. " When you would paint a drapery with the
three gradations," Cennino proceeds, " divide the tints and
place them each in its position with your'_brush of squirrel hair,
fusing one colour with another so that the pigments are thickly
laid. Then wait certain days, come again and see how the
paint covers, and repaint where needful. And in this way
paint flesh or anything you please, and likewise mountains,
trees and anything else." In other chapters Cennino recom-
mends certain portions of a painting in tempera to be put in in oO,
and nowhere does he give a hint that the work in oU gave
any trouble through its unwillingness to dry. His medium
appears, however, to have been thick, and perhaps somewhat
viscous (ch. 92). This combination of oil paint and tempera
on the same piece is a matter, as we shall presently see, of some
significance.
In the De re aedificatoria of L. B. Alberti (written about
1450), vi. 9, there is a mention of " a new discovery of laying
on colours with oil of linseed so that they resist for ever all
injuries from weather and climate," which may have some
reference to so-called " German " practice.
The next Italian writer w:ho says anything to the purpose is
494
PAINTING
[TECHNIQUE
Filarete, who wrote a long treatise on architecture and the arts
of design about 1464. It is published in the Vienna Quellen-
schriften, neue Folge, No. III. Like Cennino, Filarete (loc. cit.
p. 641 ) speaks of oil painting as speciaUy practised in " Germany,"
and says it is a fine art when anyone knows how to compass it.
The medium is oil of linseed. " But is not this very thick?"
he imagines some one objecting. " Yes, but there is a way of
thinning it; I do not quite know how; but it will be stood out in a
vessel and clarify itself. I understand however that there is a
quicker way of managing this — but let this pass, and let us go
on to the method of painting." Filarete's evident uncertainty
about a process, which may be that of the Strassburg MS. for
producing oleum preciostim, and his reference to " Germany,"
inchnes us to look elsewhere than to Italy for knowledge about
the oil technique. As a fact the evidence of the recipe books
is borne out remarkably by that of other records which show
that a great deal of oil painting of one kind or another went
on in northern lands from the 13th century onwards. These
records are partly in the form of accounts, showing large quan-
tities of oil and resins furnished for the use of painters engaged
in extensive works of decoration; and partly in the form of
contracts for executing pictures " in good oil colours." It is
true that oil might be merely employed in mordants for gilding
or in varnishes, and for oil painting merely in house-decorator
fashion over wood, or for colouring statues and reliefs in stone;
nevertheless, with a use of proper critical methods, it has been
possible for M. Dalbon and others to establish incontestably
the employment in artistic wall and panel-painting of drying
oils and varnishes before the 15th century, both north and, to a
lesser extent, south of the Alps. These passages have been
too often quoted to be cited here. (See Eastlake, Materials,
p. 46 seq.; Berger, Beitrage iii. 206 seq., &c.) The earliest of the
accounts, an Enghsh one, is dated 1239: " The king (Henry III.)
to his treasurer and chamberlains. Pay from our treasury to
Odo the goldsmith and Edward his son one hundred and seven-
teen shiUings and tenpence for oil, sandarac resin, and colours
bought, and for pictures executed in the Queen's Chamber at
Westminster." Another, about 1275 {temp. Edward I.) runs:
" To Robert King, for one cartload of charcoal for drying the
painting in the King's Chamber, Ills VHId." In Flanders
in 1304 there is an account (Dalbon, p. 43): " Pour 10 los d'oile
acatie pour faire destrempe as coideurs," in 1373-1374 one for
XIII libvres d'oile de Unnis a faire couleurs " (p. 45). This was
for the use of a certain painter Loys, who executed mural
compositions of which some of the subjects are recorded. In
the matter of contracts, Dalbon (p. 52) prints one of 1320 pre-
scribing figure and landscape subjects, to be executed " en la
meilleur maniere que il pourront estre faites en painture," and
concluding, " et seront toutes ces choses faites a huille," and he
points con\'incingly to such wording as a proof that the
work here under consideration must be regarded as artistic
figure-painting and not mere house decoration. Lastly, just
before 1400, the painter Jehan Malouel receives in 1399 oil with
colours for " la peinture de plusieicrs tables et tableaux d'autel,"
for the Carthusian convent of Champmol near Dijon, which
proves the use of oil for panel as well as for mural painting.
The further question about the survival of actual remains
of work of the class just noticed is a very difficult one. There
seems no reason why all this mural and panel work in oil of the
14th century should have perished, unless the medium was
faulty, and, as is natural, many attempts have been made to
identify extant examples as representing these early phases of
the oil technique. Mural work we need not perhaps expect to
find, for we know from the later experience of the Italians of
the 1 6th century that it was difiicidt even then to find a safe
method for oil painting on plaster. With panels preservation
would be more likely, and it is always possible that some datable
work of the kind may be identified that will carry the monumental
history of oil painting back into the 14th century. An exhi-
bition of early English painted panels was held in 1896 in the
rooms of the Society of Antiquaries of London, and some good
judges believed at the time that certain 14th-century panels from
St Michael at Plea, Norwich, were in oil, but this cannot be
regarded as estabUshed.
If such then be the early history of oil painting, what attitude
are we to adopt in face of the famous statement by Vasari that
the technique was the invention of the Flemish painter Van
Eyck in the year 1410? The statement was first made in the
2ist chapter of Vasari 's Introduction to his Lives of the Artists
(1550), and runs as follows: " Fu una hellissima inventione, ed un
gran' commoditd all' arte della pitlura, il trovare il color ilo a olio.
Di che fu prima inventore in Fiandra Giovanni da Bruggia (Jan
van Eyck). In the Ufe of AntoneUo da Messina, in the same
edition, Vasari dresses up the bare fact he here relates, and gives
it the personal anecdotal turn that accords with his hterary
methods. Here the " invention " follows on the incident of the
splitting of a tempera panel varnished in oil, that according to
traditional practice Van Eyck had put out in the sun to dry.
This artist then turned his attention to devising some means for
avoiding such mischances for the future, and, in Vasari's words,
" being not less dissatisfied with the varnish than with the
process of tempera painting, he began to devise means for
preparing a kind of varnish which should dry in the shade, so
as to avoid having to place his pictures in the sun. Having
made experiments with many things both pure and mixed
together, he at last found that hnseed and nut oil, among the
many which he had tested, were more drying than all the rest.
These, therefore, boiled with other mixtures of his, made him •
the varnish which he had long desired." This varnish Vasari I
goes on to say he mixed with the colours and found that it
" lit up the colours so powerfully that it gave a gloss of itself,"
without any after-coat of varnish.
Such is the famous passage in Vasari that has probably given
rise to more controversy than any similar statement in the litera-
ture of the arts. The question is, in what did the " invention "
of the Van Eycks, Hubert and Jan his younger brother, consist?
and the first answer that would occur to anyone knowing alike
the earlier history of the oO medium and Vasari's anecdotal
predilections is the answer " There was no invention at all."
The drying properties of linseed and nut oil and the way to
increase these had long been known, as had also the preparation
of sandarac oil-varnish, as well as a colourless (spirit?) varnish of
which there is mention in accounts prior to the 15th century
(Dalbon, p. 93). The mixing of varnish with oil for a medium
was also known, and indeed the oleum preciosum may be the real
" invention " of which Alberti and FUarete had only vaguely
heard, and of which the Van Eycks later on received the credit.
The epitaphs for the tombs of the two Van Eycks make no mention
of such a feat as Vasari ascribes to them, and it is quite open to
anyone to take up the position that it was no improvement in
technique that brought to the Van Eycks their fame in connexion
with oil painting, but rather an artistic improvement that
consisted in using a traditional process to execute pictures which
in design, finish, beauty and glow of colour far surpassed every-
thing previously produced in the northern schools. Phny
writes of the works of a Greek painter of about 400 B.C. that they
were the first that had the power " to rivet the gaze of the
spectator," and in like manner we may say of the " Adoration
of the Lamb " by the Van Eycks, the titular firstfruits of the
oil painter's technique, that it impressed the world of its time
so mightily through its artistic power and beauty as to elevate
to a sort of mystic importance the very method in which the
paints were mixed. There is much force in this view, but at the
same time it is impossible to deny to the Van Eycks the credit
of technical improvements. For one thing, an artist who has
an exceptional feeling for colour, texture and dehcacy of fim'sh
will certainly pay special attention to his technical media; for
another, the Van Eycks had a reputation long before Vasari's
time for researches into these media. In 1456, fifteen years after
the death of the younger brother, Bartolommeo Facio, of
Spezzia, wrote a tract De viris illustribus in which he speaks
of a certain " Joannus Gallicus," who can be identified as Jan
van Eyck. as specially " learned in those arts which contributed
to the making of a picture, and was on that account credited
TECHNIQUE!
PAINTING
495
with the discovery of many things in the properties of colours,
which he had learned from ancient traditions recorded by Pliny
and other writers." P'ilarete (c. 1464) also knew of the repute of
Jan van Eyck in connexion with the oil technique. Hence we
may credit the Van Eycks with certain technical improvements
on traditional practices and preparations in the oil technique,
though these can hardly be termed " inventions," while their
artistic achievement was great enough to force into prominence
whatever in the technical department they had accomplished.
Another and a more important question remains behind:
What was, in fact, the practice in the matter of oil painting in
vogue before the Van Eycks, altered or at any rate perfected
by them and their successors, and in general use up to the time
of Vasari; and how was it related to the older more widely
diffused painting " a tempera " ?
It is indisputable that the oil painting of the Van Eycks and
the early Flemish school, together with that of the Florentines
and Umbrians, and indeed of all the Italians up to Vasari's
time, save the Venetians, Correggio, and some other north
Italians, does not greatly differ in artistic effect, nor, as far as can
be judged, in handling, from earlier or contemporary temperas.
For example, at Venice in the 15th century, Crivelli paints
always in tempera, Cima in oils, but the character of their surface
is almost the same, and if anything the tempera is richer in effect
than the oil. The contrary is no doubt the case with the tempera
" Madonna with the Violet " in the Priests' Seminary at Cologne
when compared with the somewhat later " Dombild," also by
Stephan Lochner, which is believed to be painted in oils, but the
two are still in technical character very nearly akin. The fact
is that tempera panels were usually coated with an oil varnish,
necessarily of a somewhat warm tint, and we could hardly expect
to distinguish them from oil pictures painted in or covered by
varnish, unless there were a difference in the handling of the
pigments. The method of handling appears however to be on
the whole the same, and there are many who believe that in all
essentials it is the same. Tempera panels, as we have learned
from Cennino, were not only varnished but in parts might be
painted in oils (ch. 143), and it is one view of the technique of the
early Flemings that it was only an over-painting in oils over a
preparation in tempera. Berger is of the opinion that the process
was something between the two, that is to say, that it was oil
tempera, the medium being an emulsion of oil and water through
the intermediary of a gum. Such a medium would, as he points
out {Beitrdgc, III. 247 seq.), combine the thinness and limpidity in
manipulation characteristic of a water tempera with the property
of drying hard and impervious to moisture. This is of course
only a theory. Of far more weight is the suggestion made by
Principal Laurie, of Edinburgh, who has carried on for years a
series of careful experiments in the various pigments and media
employed in oil painting. As one result of these experiments
he has found that the ordinary drying oils and oil varnishes do
not, as used to be assumed, " lock up " or completely cover and
protect pigments so as to prevent the access of moisture and the
gases of the atmosphere, but that this function is far more effec-
tively performed by hard pine-balsams, such as Canada balsam,
dissolved in an essential oil and so made into a varnish or painting
medium. In pictures by Van Eyck Principal Laurie has detected
what he believes to be the use of pigments of a notoriously
fugitive character, and he is convinced that the most effectual
medium for preserving these in the condition in which they have
come down to us would be a natural pine-balsam, with probably
a small proportion of drying oil; he suggests therefore that the
introduction of these ingredients may be the real secret of the Van
Eyck technique. There is as yet no proof that the Van Eycks
really used such a medium, though it is a preparation possible
at their time, and when thinned by a process of emulsification
with egg, as Dr Laurie suggests, would be a serviceable one; but
they and the other early oil painters certainly used a method, and
in all probability media, that did not differ greatly as regards
manipulation from those in vogue in tempera.
From the aesthetic point of view therefore we have to regard
early oil painting as only another form of the older tempera,
expressing exactly the same artistic ideals and dominated by the
same view of the relation of art to nature. To Vasari the artistic
advantageof the oil medium was, first, its convenience, and, next,
the depth and brilliancy it lent to the colours, which he says it
" kindled," while at the same time it lent itself to a soft fusing
of tints in manipulation, so that artists could give to their figures
in this technique the greatest charm and beauty combined with
a force that made them seem to stand out in relief from the paneL
Such a description applies very justly to work like that of the
Van Eycks in the " Adoration of the Lamb," or the later panels
of Anlonello da Messina, who, according to Vasari's often-
repeated story, introduced the Flemish system of oil-painting into
Venice. The description does not however apply to the freer,
more sweeping, more passionate handling of the brush by the
greatest of the Venetians such as Titian or \'eronese, and still
less to the oil painting of 17th-century masters like Rubens or
Rembrandt or Velazquez. It is quite clear that whatever
improvements in oil technique were due to the early Flemings,
oil painting in the modern sense owes still more to the Venetians,
who first taught the world the full artistic possibilities of the
process. Giovanni Bellini, whose noble altarpiece in S. Pietro
at Murano may be called, in a phrase once applied to another of
his pictures, " the canon of V'enetian art," is probably entitled
to be called the father of modern oil painting. Beginning as a
painter in tempera and adopting the new process about 1475,
Bellini was able so far to master the new medium that he handed
it on with all its possibilities indicated to Giorgione, Palma and
Titian. That Venetian oil painting however, with all its briDiancy
and freedom, was a child of the older tempera technique is shown
by its characteristic method, which consisted in an under-paint-
ing in dead colour, over which were superimposed the transparent
glazes that secured the characteristic Venetian richness of colour-
ing. Now all the recent writers on the Van Eyck technique agree
that, whatever were the exact media employed, the tempera
tradition, and perhaps the tempera vehicles, were maintained for
the underpainting. In the old tempera-panel technique of
Cennino there was a monochrome underpainting in a greenish
pigment, over which the flesh tints were spread in thin layers so
as never completely to obliterate the ground. Such an under-
painting in a few simple colours, black, white and red, was
employed by Titian and others of the Venetians, and over it
were laid the rich juicy transparent pigments, till " little by
little he would have covered with real living flesh these first
abstracts of his intention " (Boschini). There is some evidence
that in many cases these underpaintings were in tempera, which
would have the advantage of drying more quickly than under-
paintings in oil, and Boschini {Le Ricchc minerc ddla piitura
veneziana, 1674) e.xpressly says that the blues in Venetian
paintings, e.g. by Veronese, were painted often a guazzo.
There was a reason, however, why the Venetians would alter the
traditional practice of the Flemish forerunners. The latter
were almost entirely panel painters, while the Venetians used
canvas. Now certain media, like the hard pine-balsams which
Dr Laurie thinks were the basis of the Van Eyck medium, are
suitable for the immovable surfaces of a well-grounded panel,
but would be liable to crack on canvas which is more or less
yielding. Hence the tougher oil vehicles were in advanced
\'enetian painting exclusively employed.
This distinction between the thin transparent pigments and
those of an opaque body, which is as old as oil painting in any
form, becomes in the hands of Bellini and the later ^'enetians the
fundamental principle of the technique. The full advantage of
this thinness and transparency is gained by the use of the
pigments in question as " glazes " over a previously laid solid
impasto. This impasto may be modelled up in monochrome or
in any desired tints chosen to work in with the colours of the
superimposed glazes. Effects of colour of great depth and bril-
liancy may thus be obtained, and after the glaze has been floated
over the surface a touch of the thumb, where the underpainting
is loaded and lights are required, will so far thin it as to let the
underlying colour show through and blend with the deeper tint
of the glaze in the shadows. Thus in the noble Veronese in
496
PAINTING
[TECHNIQUE
the London National Gallery, called the " Consecration of St
Nicholas," the kneeling figure of the saint is robed in green with
sleeves of golden orange. This latter colour is evidently carried
through as underpainting over the whole draped portions of
the figure, the green being then floated over and so manipulated
that the golden tint shows through in parts and gives the high
fights on the folds.
Again the relation of the two kinds of pigment may be reversed,
and the full-bodied ones mixed with white may be struck into a
previously laid transparent tint. The practice of painting into a
wet glaze or rubbing was especially characteristic of the later
Flemings, with Rubens at their head, and this again, though a
polar opposite to that of the Venetians, is also derived from the
earlier tempera, or modified tempera, techniques. The older
tempera panels, when finished, were, as we have seen, covered
with a coating of oil varnish generally of a warm golden hue, and
in some parts they were, as Cennino tells us, glazed with trans-
parent oil paint. Now Van Mander tells us in the introduction to
his Schilderboek of 1604, verse 17, that the older Flemish and
German oil painters. Van Eyck, Diirer and others, were accus-
tomed, over a slightly painted monochrome of water-colour in
which the drawing was carefully made out, to lay a thin coat of
semi-transparent flesh tint in oil, through which the under-
painting was still visible, and to use this as the ground for their
subsequent operations. In the fully matured practice of Rubens
this thin glaze became a complete painting of the shadows in
rubbings of deep rich transparent oily pigment, into which the
half-tones and the lights were painted while it was still wet.
Descamps, in his Vie des pcintrcs flamands (Paris, 1753), describes
Rubens's method of laying in his shadows without any use of
white, which he called the poison of this part of the picture, and
then painting into them with solid pigment to secure modelling
by touches laid boldly side by side, and afterwards tenderly
fused by the brush. Over this preparation the artist would
return with the few decided strokes which are the distinctive
signs-manual of the great master. The characteristic advantages
of this method of work are, first, breadth, and second, speed.
The under tint, often of a rich soft umber or brown, being spread
equally over the canvas makes its presence felt throughout,
although all sorts of colours and textures may be painted into
it. Hence the whole preserves a unity of effect that is highly
pictorial. Further, as the whole beauty of the work depends
on the skill of hand by which the solid pigment is partly sunk
into the glaze at the shadow side, while it comes out drier and
stronger in the fights, and as this must be done rightly at once or
not at all, the process under a hand like that of Rubens is a
singularly rapid one. Exquisite are the effects thus gained when
the under tint is allowed to peep through here and there, blending
with the soUd touches to produce the subtlest effects of tone and
colour.
Of these two distinct and indeed contrasted methods of
handling oil pigment, with solid or with transparent under-
painting, that of the Flemings has had most effect on later
practice. The technique dominated on the whole the French
school of the i8th century, and has had a good deal of influence
on the painting of Scotland. In general, however, the oil
painting of the 17th and succeeding centuries has not been
bound by any distinctive rules and methods. Artists have felt
themselves free, perhaps to an undue extent, in their choice of
media, and it must be admitted that very good results have been
achieved by the use of the simplest vehicles that have been known
-throughout the whole history of the art. If Rembrandt begin
in the Flemish technique, Velazquez uses at first solid under-
paintings of a somewhat heavy kind, but when these masters
attain to full command of their media they paint apparently
without any special system, obtaining the results they desired,
now by one process and now again by another, but always
working in a free untrammelled spirit, and treating the materials
in the spirit of a master rather than of a slave. In modern
painting generally we can no longer speak of established processes
and methods of work, for every artist claims the right to experi-
ment at his will, and to produce his result in the way that suits
his own individuality and the special nature of the task before
him.
§ 45. Water - Colour Painting. — (Cosmo Monkhouse, The
Earlier English Water-Colour Painters, 2nd ed., London, 1897;
Redgrave, A Century of Painters; and Hamerton, The Graphic
Arts, contain chapters on this subject.)
Water-colour painting, as has been said, is only a particular
form of tempera, in which the pigments are mixed with gum
to make them adhere, and often with honey or glycerin to
prevent them drying too fast. The surface operated on is for
the most part paper, though " miniature " painting is in water-
colour on ivory. The technique was in use for the illustrated
papyrus rolls in ancient Egypt, and the illuminated MSS. of
the medieval period. As a rule the pigments used in the MSS.
were mixed with white and were opaque or " body " colours,
while water-colour painting in the modern sense is mostly trans-
parent, though the body-colour technique is also employed.
There is no historical connexion between the water-colour
painting on the vellum of medieval MSS. and the modern
practice. Modern water-colour painting is a development
rather from the drawings, which the painters from the 1 5th to the
17th century were constantly executing in the most varied media.
Among the processes employed was the reinforcement of an
outline drawing with the pen by means of a shght wash of the
same colour, generally a brown. In these so-called pen-and-
wash drawings artists fike Rembrandt were fond of recording
their impressions of nature, and the water-colour picture was
evolved through the gradual development in importance of the
wash as distinct from the line, and by the gradual addition to it
of colour. It is true that we find some of the old masters
occasionally executing fully-tinted water-colour drawings quite
in a modern spirit. There are landscape studies in body-colour
of this kind by Diirer and by Rubens. These are, however, of
the nature of accidents, and the real development of the tech-
nique did not begin till the 18th century, when it was worked
out, for the most part in England, by artists of whom the most
important were Paul Sandby and John Robert Cozens, who
flourished during the latter half of the i8th century. First the
wash, which had been originally quite flat, and a mere adjunct
to the pen outline, received a certain amount of modelling, and
the advance was quickly made to a complete monochrome in
which the firm outline still played an important part. The
element of colour was first introduced in the form of neutral
tints, a transparent wash of cool grey being used for the sky
and distance, and a comparatively warm tint of brown for the
foreground. " The progress of Enghsh water-colour," writes
Mr Monkhouse, " was from monochrome through neutral tint
to full colour." Cozens produced some beautiful atmospheric
effects with these neutral tints, though the rendering of nature
was only conventional, but it was reserved for the second genera-
tion of English water-colour artists to develop the full resources
of the technique. This generation is represented centrally by
Thomas Girtin (1775-1802) and J. M. W. Turner (1775-1851),
the latter of whom is by far the greatest representative of the
art that has hitherto appeared. To Girtin, who died young
and whose genius, like that of Masaccio, developed early, is due
the distinction of creating water-colour painting as an art
deahng with the tones and colours of nature as they had been
dealt with in the older media. W. H. Pyne, a contemporary
water-colour artist who also wrote on the art, says of Girtin that
he " prepared his drawings on the same principle which had
hitherto been confined to painting in oil, namely, laying in the
object upon his paper with the local colour, and shading the same
with the individual tint of its own shadow. Previous to the
practice of Turner and Girtin, drawings were shaded first
entirely through, whatever their component parts — houses,
cattle, trees, mountains, foregrounds, middle-ground and dis-
tances, all with black or grey, and these objects were after-
wards stained or tinted, enriched or finished, as is now the custom
to colour prints. It was the new practice, introduced by these
distinguished artists, that acquired for designs in water-colours
upon paper the title of paintings."
RECENT SCHOOLS]
PAINTING
497
Girtin " opened the gates of the art " and Turner entered in.
If the palette of the former was still restricted, Turner exhausted
all the resources of the colour box, and moreover enriched the
art by adding to the traditional transparent washes the effects
to be gained from the use of body colour. Body colours, how-
ever, were not only laid on by Turner with the solid impaste of the
medieval illuminations. He was an adept at dragging thin
films of them over a tinted ground so as to secure the subtle
colour effects which can also be won in pastel. It would be
useless to attempt any account of the technical methods of
Turner or of the more modern practitioners in the art, for as in
modern oil painting so here, each artist feels at liberty to adopt
any media and processes which seem to promise the result he
has in view. The varieties of paper used in modern water-colour
practice are very numerous, and the idiosyncrasy of each artist
expresses itself in the way he will manipulate his ground;
superinduce one over the other his transparent washes; load with
sohd body colour; sponge or scratch the paper, or adopt any of
the hundred devices in which modern practice of painting is so
rife. (G. B. B.)
General Authorities on Technique.— Hamerton, The Graphic
Arts: A Treatise on the Varieties of Drawing, Painting and Engraving
(London, 1882), a work combining technical and artistic informa-
tion, is the best single book on this subject. More archaeological
is Berger, Beitrage zur Entwickelungs-Geschichte der Maltechnik
(Munich, 1897-1904; partly in second editions. The last part is
yet to come). The series Quellenschriften fiir Kunstgeschichte und
Kunsttechnik des Mittclalters mid der Renaissance (Vienna, various
dates from 1871) contains many publications of much value,
among them being, i., Cennino Cennini, Das Buck von der Knnst,
German trans, of the Trattato, with note by Ilg; vii., Theophilus,
Schedula diversarum artium, Ger. trans, by Ilg. Cennino's
Trattato has also been edited in English by Mrs Herringham
(London, 1899). Mrs Merrifield, Ancient Practice of Painting
(2 vols., London, 1849), and Sir Charles Eastlake, Materials for a
History of Oil Painting (2 vols., 1849 and 1869), are valuable
standard works. Information as to Byzantine processes is to be
found in the Mount Athos Handbook in " Manuel d'iconographie
chretienne grecque et latine," by Didron the elder (Paris, 1845).
Church, The Chemistry of Paints and Painting (:^rAed., London, 1901),
is by far the best book on its subject. Vasari on Technique, trans, by
Miss Maclehose and edited with commentary by Baldwin Brown
(London, 1907), contains a good deal of information. Paul Schultze-
Naumburg, Die Technik der Malerei (Leipzig, no date); Vibert,
La Science de la peinture (Paris, 1890), may also be mentioned.
Recent Schools of Painting
British.
At the beginning of the last quarter of the 19th century
British art was held to be in a vigorous and authoritative
position. During the years immediately preceding k had been
developing with regularity and had displayed a vitality which
seemed to be full of promise. It was supported by a large array
of capable workers; it had gained the widest recognition from the
public; and it was curiously free from those internal conflicts
which diminish the strength of an appeal for popular apprecia-
tion. There were then few sharp divergences or subdivisions
of an important kind. The leadership of the Royal Academy
was generally conceded, and its relations with the mass of
outside artists were little wanting in cordiality. One of the chief
reasons for this understanding was that at this time an almost
unprecedented approval was enjoyed by nearly all classes of
painters. Picture-collecting had become a general fashion,
and even the youngest workers received encouragement directly
they gave evidence of a reasonable share of capacity. The
demand was equal to the supply; and though the number of
men who were adopting the artistic profession was rapidly
increasing, there seemed little danger of over-production.
Pictorial art had established upon all sorts of people a hold too
strong, as it seemed, to be affected by change of fashion. All
pointed in the direction of a permanent prosperity.
Subsequent events provided a curious commentary on the
anticipations which were reasonable enough in 1S75. That
year is now seen to have been, not the beginning of an era
of unexampled success for British pictorial art, but rather the
culminating point of preceding activity. During the period
which has succeeded we have witnessed a rapid decline in the
The
Grosveaor
Oallery
and the
Academy,
popular interest in picture-painting and a marked alteration in
the conditions under which artists have had to work. In the
place of the former sympathy between the public and the
producers, there grew up something which almost approached
indifference to their best and sincerest efforts. Simultaneously
there developed a great amount of internal dissension and of
antagonism between different sections of the art community.
As an effect of these two causes, a new set of circumstances
came into existence, and the aspect of the British school under-
went a radical change. Many art workers found other ways of
using their energies. The slackening of the popular demand
inclined them to experiment, and to test forms of practice which
formerly were not accorded serious attention, and it led to the
formation of detached hostile groups of artists always ready
to contend over details of technical procedure. Restlessness
became the dominant characteristic of the British school, along
with some intolerance of the popular lack of sympathy.
The first sign of the coming change appeared very soon after
1875. The right of the Royal Academy to define and direct the
policy of the British school was disputed in 1877,
when the Grosvenor Gallery was started " with the
intention of giving special advantages of exhibition
to artists of established reputation, some of whom
have previously been imperfectly known to the
public." This exhibition gallery was designed not so much as a
rival to the Academy, as to provide a place where could be
collected the works of those men who did not care to make their
appeal to the public through the medium of a large and hetero-
geneous exhibition. As a rallying place for the few unusual
painters, standing apart from their fellow^s in conviction and
method, it had good reason for existence; and that it was not
regarded at Burlington House as a rival was proved by the fact
that among the contributors to the first exhibition were included
Sir Francis Grant, the President of the Royal Academy, and such
artists as Leighton, Millais, G. F. Watts, Alma-Tadema, G. D.
Leslie and E. J. Poynter, who were at the time Academicians or
Associates. With them, however, appeared such men as
Burne-Jones, Holman Hunt, Walter Crane, W. B. Richmond
and J. McN. Whistler, who had not heretofore obtained the
pubhcity to which they were entitled by the exceptional quality
and intention of their work. There was doubtless some sugges-
tion that the Academy was not keeping touch with the more
important art movements, for shortly after the opening of the
Grosvenor Gallery there began that attack upon the oflicial art
leaders which has been one of the most noteworthy incidents in
recent art history in Great Britain. The initial stage of this
conflict ended about 1SS6, when the vehemence of the attack
had been weakened, partly by the withdrawal of some of the
more prominent " outsiders," who had meanwhile been elected
into the Academy, and partly by the formation of smaller
societies, which afforded the more " advanced " of the younger
men the opportunities which they desired for the exposition of
their views. In a modified form, however, the antagonism
between the Academy and the outsiders has continued. The
various protesting art association continues to work in most
matters independently of one another, with the common belief
that the dominant influence of Burlington House is not exercised
entirely as it should be for the promotion of the best interests
of British art, and that it maintains tradition as against the
development of individualism and a " new style."
The agitation in all branches of art effort was not entirely
without result even inside Burlington House. Some of the
older academic views were modified, and changes seriously
discussed, which formerly would have been rejected as opposed
to all the traditions of the society. Its calmness under attack,
and its ostentatious disregard of the demands made upon it by
the younger and more strenuous outsiders, have veiled a great
deal of shrewd observation of passing events. It may be said
that the Academy has known when to break up an organization
in which it recognized a possible source of danger, by selecting
the ablest leaders of the opposition to fill vacancies in its own
ranks; it has given places on its walls to the works of those
498
PAINTING
[BRITISH
reformers who were not unwilling to be represented in the annual
exhibitions; and it has, without seeming to yield to clamour,
responded perceptibly to the pressure of professional opinion.
In so doing, though it has not checked the progress of the
changing fashion by which the popular liking for pictorial art
has been diverted into other channels, it has kept its hold upon
the public, and has not to any appreciable extent weakened its
position of authority.
It is doubtful whether a more definite participation by the
Academy in the controversies of the period would have been of
chaa d ^^^ ^^^ ^ ^ means of prolonging the former good
Coaditloas relations between artists and the collectors of works
of British of art. The change is the result of something more
•^'*' than the failure of one art society to fulfil its entire
mission. The steady falling o£f in the demand for modern
pictures has been due to a combination of causes which have
been powerful enough to alter nearly all the conditions under
which British painters have to work. For example, the older
collectors, who had for some years anterior to 1875 bought up
eagerly most of the more important canvases which came within
their reach, could find no more room in their galleries for further
additions; again, artists, with the idea of profiting to the utmost
by the keenness of the competition among the buyers, had forced
up their prices to the highest limits. But the most active of all
causes was that the younger generation of collectors did not show
the same incHnation that had swayed their predecessors to limit
their attention to modern pictorial art. They turned more and
more from pictures to other forms of artistic eflfort. They built
themselves houses in which the possibility of hanging large
canvases was not contemplated, and they began to call upon the
craftsman and the decorator to supply them with what was
necessary for the adornment of their homes. At first this
modification in the popular taste was scarcely perceptible, but
with every successive year it became more marked in its
effect.
Latterly more money has been spent by one class of collectors
upon pictures than was available even in the best of the times
which have passed away; but this lavish e.xpenditure has been
devoted not to the acquisition of works by modern men, but to
the purchase of examples of the old masters. Herein may often
be recognized the wish to become possessed of objects which
have a fictitious value in consequence of their rarity, or which
are " sound investments." Evidence of the existence of this
spirit among collectors is seen in the prevailing eagerness to
acquire works which inadequately represent some famous
master, or are even ascribed to him on grounds not always
credible. The productions of minor men, such as Henry
Morland, who had never been ranked among the masters,
have received an amount of attention quite out of proportion
to what merits they possess, if only they can be proved to be
scarce examples, or historically notorious. AU this implies
in the creed of the art patron a change which has necessarily
reacted on living painters and on the conditions of their art
production.
These, then, are the conclusions to which we are led by a
comparison of the movements which affected the British school
between 1875 and the beginning of the 20th century.
■ To a wide appreciation of all types of pictorial
art succeeded a grudging and careless estimate of the
value of the bulk of artistic endeavour. Only a few branches
of production are still encouraged by anything approaching an
efficient demand. Portraiture is the mainstay of the majority
of the figure painters; it has never lost its popularity, and may be
said to have maintained satisfactorily its hold upon all classes
of society, for the desire to possess personal records is very
general and is independent of any art fashion. It has persisted
through all the changes of view which have been increasingly
active in recent years. Episodical art, illustrating sentimental
motives or incidents with some touch of dramatic
Jl^" action, has remained popular, because it has some
degree of literary interest; but imaginative works and
pictures which have been produced chiefly as expressions of an
Portraiture. ,
original regard for nature, or of some unusual conviction as to
technical details, have found comparatively few admirers. The
designers, however, and the workers in the decorative arts have
found opportunities which formerly were denied to
them. They have had more scope for the display 4^°™ ^"
of their ingenuity and more inducement to exercise
their powers of invention. A vigorous and influential school of
design developed which promised to evolve work of originality
and excellence. British designers gained a hearing abroad, and
earned emphatic approval in countries where a sound decora-
tive tradition had been maintained for centuries.
The one dominant influence, that of the Pre-Raphaelite
Brotherhood, which in the 'fifties was altering the whole com-
plexion of British art, had begun to wane early in Wane of
the 'seventies, and it was rapidly being replaced P™-
by another scarcely less distinctive. The younger ^f ***''^
■ r • 1 1 -1 1 r „ Itism and
generation of artists had weaned, even before 1875, piseof
of the pre-Raphaelite precision, and were impatient French
of the restrictions imposed upon their freedom of ^"^''«'"«-
technical expression by a method of practice which required
laborious apphcation and unquestioning obedience to a rather
formal code of regulations. They yearned for greater freedom
and boldness, and for a better chance of asserting their individual
capacities. So they gave way to a strong reaction against the
creed of their immediate predecessors, and cut themselves
deliberately adrift.
With the craving of young artists for new forms of technique
came also the idea that the " old-master traditions " were
opposed to the exact interpretation of nature, and were based
too much upon convention to be adapted for the needs of men
who believed that absolute reahsm was the one thing worth
aiming at in picture-production. So Paris instead of Rome
became the educational centre. There was to British students,
dissatisfied with the half-hearted and imperfect systems of
teaching with which they were tantalized at home, a peculiarly
exhilarating atmosphere in the French studios — an amount of
enthusiasm and a love of art for its own sake without parallel
elsewhere. They saw in operation principles which led by the
right sequence of stages to sure and certain results. In these
circumstances they allowed their sympathies with French
methods to become rather exaggerated, and were somewhat
reckless in their adoption of both the good and bad qualities
of so attractive a school.
At first the results of this breaking away from all the older
educational customs were not wholly satisfactory. British
students came back from France better craftsmen, stronger and
sounder draughtsmen, more skilful manipulators, and with an
infinitely more correct appreciation of refinements of tone-
management than they had ever possessed before; but they
brought back also a disproportionate amount of French manner-
ism and a number of affectations which sat awkwardly upon
them. In the first flush of their conversion they went further
than was wise or necessary, for they changed their motives as
well as their methods. The quietness of subject and reserve
of manner which had been hitherto eminently characteristic
of the British school were abandoned for foreign sensationalism
and exaggeration of effect. An affectation of extreme vivacity,
a liking for theatrical suggestion, even an inclination towards
coarse presentation of unpleasant incidents from modern Ufe
— all of which could be found in the paintings of the French
artists who were then recognized as leaders — must be noted as
importations from the Paris studios. They were the source of
a distinct degeneration in the artistic taste, and they introduced
into British pictorial practice certain unnatural tendencies.
Scarcely less evident was the depreciation in the instinctive
colour-sense of British painters, which was brought about by
the adoption of the French habit of regarding strict accuracy
of tone-relation as the one important thing to aim at. Before
this there had been a preference for rich and sumptuous har-
monies and for chromatic effects which were rather compromises
with, than exact renderings of, nature; but as the foreign
influence grew more active, these pleasant adaptations, inspired
BRITISH]
PAINTING
499
by a sensuous love of colour for its own sake, were abandoned
for more scientific statements. The colder and cruder tone-
studies of the modern Frenchman became the models upon
which the younger artists based themselves, and the standards
against which they measured their own success. " Actuality "
was gained, but much of the poetry, the delicacy, and the
subtle charm which had distinguished British colourists were
lost.
For some while there was a danger that the art of Great
Britain might become hybrid, with the French strain predomi-
Danger of nating. So many students had succumbed to the
theFreacb fascination of a system of training which seemed to
Influence, supply them with a perfect equipment on all points,
that they were inclined to despise not only the educational
methods of their own country, but also the inherent charac-
teristics of British taste. The result was that the exhibitions
were full of pictures which presented English people and
English landscape in a purely arbitrary and artificial manner,
strictly in accordance with a French convention which was out
of sympathy with British instincts, and indeed, with British
facts. Ultimately a discreet middle course was found between
the extreme application of the science of the French art schools
and the comparative irresponsibility in technical matters which
had so long existed in the British Isles. In the careers of men
like Stanhope Forbes, H. S. Tuke, Frank Bramley, and other
prominent members of the school, many illustrations are pro-
vided of the way in which this readjustment has been effected.
Their pictures, if taken in a sufiiciently long sequence, summarize
instructively the course of the movement which became active
about 1875. They prove how valuable the interposition of
France has been in the matter of artistic education, and how
much Englishmen have improved in their understanding of the
technique of painting.
One noteworthy outcome of the triumph of common sense
over fanaticism must be mentioned. Now that the exact
Weakenlag relation which French teaching should bear to British
of the thought has been adjusted, an inclination to revive
the more typical of the forms of pictorial expression
which have had their vogue in the past is becoming
increasingly evident. Picturesque domesticity is taking the
place of theatrical sensation, the desire to select and represent
what is more than ordinarily beautiful is ousting the former
preference for what was brutal and ugly, the effort to please
is once again stronger than the intention to surprise or shock
the art lover. Even the Pre-Raphaelite theories and practices
are being reconstructed, and quite a considerable group of young
artists has sprung up who are avowed believers in the principles
which were advocated so strenuously in 1850.
To French intervention can be ascribed the rise and progress
of several movements which have had results of more than
Groups ordinary moment. There was a few years ago much
within the banding together of men who believed strongly in
the importance of asserting plainly their belief in
the doctrines to which they had been converted
abroad; and as a consequence of this desire for an offensive and
defensive association, many detached groups were formed within
the boundaries of the British school. Each of these groups
had some peculiar tenet, and each one had a small orbit of its
own in which it revolved, without concerning itself overmuch
about what might be going on outside. Roughly, there were
three classes into which the more thoughtful British artists
could then be divided. One included those men who were in
the main French in sympathy and manner; another consisted
of those who were not insensible to the value of the foreign
training, but yet did not wish to surrender entirely their faith
in the British tradition; and the third, and smallest, was made up
of a few individuals who were independent of all assistance from
without, and had sufficient force of character to ignore what was
going on in the art world. In this third class there was practi-
cally no common point of view: each man chose his own direction
and followed it as he thought best, and each one was prepared
to stand or fall by the opinion which he had formed as to the true
French
Influence,
British
School,
function of the painter. Necessarily, in such a gathering there
were several notable personalities who may fairly be reckoned
among the best of English modern masters.
Perhaps the most conspicuous of the groups was the gathering
of painters who established themselves in the Cornish village of
Newlyn (q.v.). This group— " The Newlyn School," as jhe Newlyo
it was called — was afterwards much modified, and school
many of its most cherished beliefs were considerably
altered. In its beginning it was essentially French in atmo-
sphere, and advocated not only strict adherence to realism in
choice and treatment of subject, but also the subordination of
colour to tone-gradation, and the observance of certain technical
details, such as the exclusive use of flat brushes and the laying on
of pigments in square touches. The colony was formed, as it were,
in stages; and as the school is to be reckoned in the future history
of the British school, the order in which the adherents arrived may
here i)e set on record. Edwin Harris came first, and was joined
by Walter Langley. Then, in the following order, came Ralph
Todd, L. Suthers, Fred Hall, Frank Bramley and T. C. Gotch, and
Percy Craft and Stanhope Forbes together. H. Detmold and
Chevallier Tayler next arrived; then Miss Elizabeth Armstrong
(Mrs Stanhope Forbes), F. Bourdillon, W. Fortescue and Norman
Garstin. Ayerst Ingram, H. S. Tuke, H. Martin and F. Millard
were later visitors. Stanhope Forbes (b. 1857) was trained at the
Lambeth School and at the Royal Academy, and afterwards in
Bonnat's studio in Paris. His best known pictures are " A Fish
Sale on a Cornish Beach " (1885), " Soldiers and Sailors " (189O,
" Forging the Anchor " (1892), and " The Smithy " (1895). He was
elected A.R.A. in 1892, and became full Member in 1910. Frank
Bramley (b. 1867) studied art in the Lincoln School of Art and at
Antwerp. He gained much popularity by his pictures, " A Hopeless
Dawn " (1888), " For of such is the Kingdom of Heaven " (1891),
and " After the Storm " (1896J, and was elected an Associate in
1894. Of late years he had made a very definite departure from
the technical methods which he followed in his earlier period.
T. C. Gotch (b. 1854) had a varied art training, for he worked at
the Slade School, then at Antwerp, and finally in Paris under
Jean Paul Laurens. He did not long remain faithful to the Newlyn
creed, but diverged about 1890 into a kind of decorative symbolism,
and for some years devoted himself entirely to pictures of this type.
The other men who must be ranked as supporters of the school
adhered closely enough to the principles which were exemplified
in the works of the leaders of the movement. They were faithful
realists, sincere observers of the facts of the life with which they
were brought in contact, and quite earnest in their efforts to paint
what they saw, without modification or idealization.
Another group which received its inspiration directly from
France was the Impressionist school (see Impressionism). This
group never had any distinct organization like that of j-^j^ ^^,
the French Soci^te des Impressionistes, but among the presslonlst
members of it there was a general agreement on points school.
of procedure. They based themselves, more or less,
upon prominent French artists like Manet, Renoir, Pissarro, and
Claude Monet, and owed not a little to the example of J. A. M'N.
Whistler, whose own art may be said to be in a great measure a
product of Paris. One of the fundamental principles of their
practice was the subdivision of colour masses into their component
parts, and the rendering of gradated tints by the ju.xtaposition of
touches of pure colour upon the canvas, rather than by attempting
to match them by previously mixing them on the palette. In
pictures so painted greater luminosity and more subtlety of aerial
effects can be obtained. The works of the British Impressionists
have been seen mostly in the exhibitions of the New English Art
Club. This society was founded in 1885 by a number y^,^ ^^^
of young artists who wished for facilities for exhibition EagUsh
which they felt were denied to them in the other ^^ Club.
galleries. It drew the greater number of its earlier
supporters from the men who had been trained in foreign schools,
and a complete list of the contributors to its exhibitions includes
the names of many of the best known of the younger painters.
It was the meeting-place of numerous groups which advocated one
or other of the new creeds, for among its members or exhibitors
have been P. Wilson Steer, Fred Brown, J. S. Sargent {q.v.),
Solomon J. Solomon, Stanhope Forbes, T. C. Gotch, Frank Bramley,
Arthur Hacker, Francis Bate, Moffat Lindner, J. L. Henry, W. VV.
Russell, George Thomson, Arthur Tomson, Henry Tonks, C. W.
Furse, R. Anning Bell, Walter Osborne, Laurence Housman,
J. J. Shannon, W. L. Wyllie, H. S. Tuke, Maurice Greiffenhagen,
G. P. Jacomb Hood, Alfred Parsons, Alfred East, J. Buxton Knight,
C. H. Shannon, Mark Fisher, Walter Sickert, W. Strang, Frank
Short, Edward Stott, Mortimer Menpes, Alfred Hartley, William
Stott, J. R. Reid, Mouat Loudan, T. B. Kennington, H. Muhrman,
A. D. Peppercorn, George Clausen and J. A. M'N. Whistler, and a
number of the Scottish artists, like J. Lavery, J. Guthrie, George
Henry, James Paterson, A. Roche, E. A. Walton, J. E. Christie and
E. A. Hornel. A number of the men who have been more or less
actively identified with it have been elected members of the Royal
Academy, so that it may fairly claim to have e.\ercised a definite
influence upon the tendencies of modern art. It has .certainly
500
PAINTING
[BRITISH
done much to prove the extent of the foreign influence upon the
British school.
In its wider sense the Impressionist school may be said to include
now all those students of nature who strive for the representation
of broad eiTects rather than minute details, who look at the subject
before them largely and comprehensively, and ignore all minor
matters which would be likely to interfere with the simplicity
of the pictorial rendering. To it can be assigned a number of
artists who have never adopted, or have definitely abandoned,
the prismatic analysis of colour advocated by the French Impres-
sionists. These men were headed by J. A. iVl'N. Whistler (?.».), born
in America in 1835, and trained in Paris under Gleyre. His pictures
have always been remarkable for their beauty of colour combina-
tion, and for their sensitive management of subtleties of tone.
They gained for the artist a place among the chief modern
executants, and have attracted to him a host of followers. Other
notable painters who have places in the school are Mark Fisher,
an American landscape painter who studied for a while in Gleyre's
studio, one of the ablest interpreters in England of effects of sun-
light and breezy atmosphere; A. D. Peppercorn, a pupil of Ger6me,
who makes landscape a medium for the expression of a dignified
sense of design and a carefully simplified appreciation of contrasts
of tone; and P. Wilson Steer, an artist who, began as a follower of
Monet, and based upon his training in the Ecole des Beaux Arts a
style of his own, which he displays effectively in both landscapes
and figure pictures.
The International Society of Sculptors, Painters, and Gravers,
inaugurated in 1898, although not by its nature confined to British
art and artists, who compose little more than half of
The later- ^^^ electorate, has its home in London. It succeeds in
national j^.^ object ^f setting before the British public the most
Society. modern and eccentric expressions of the art of the chief
European countries. Its exhibitions are striking and the con-
tributions for the most part serious and interesting; but while the
freedom of the artist is insisted on it is doubtful if the more exag-
gerated displays by rebellious painters and sculptors have had much
influence on the native school. The presidents have been J. A.
M'N. Whistler and Auguste Rodin, and the vice-presidents John
Lavery and William Strang: these personalities, considered along
with their views and their vigour, sufficiently indicate the spirit and
the politics of the society.
Generally speaking, the very large class of artists who fell only
to a limited extent under the spell of French teaching includes
most of the figure and landscape men and practically
p^'^t '■^^ whole of the portrait painters. In all sections of
a a ers. fjgy^g painting individual workers in improved techni-
cal methods have appeared, but most of them have gradually lost
their distinguishing peculiarities of manner, and have year by
year assimilated themselves more closely to their less advanced
brethren. The section in which their energetic propagandism has
been most effective is certainly that of imaginative composition.
A definite mark has been made there by men like S. J. Solomon
(b. i860; A.R.A. 1896; R.A. 1906)., trained at the Royal Academy,
the Munich Academy and the Ecole des Beaux Arts in Paris,
and widely known by such pictures as " Samson " (1887), " The
Judgment of Paris" (1890) and the "Birth of Love" (1895);
and Arthur Hacker (b. 1858; A.R.A. 1894; R.A. 1910), educated
at the Academy and in Bonnat's studio, and the painter of a con-
siderable series of semi-historical and symbolical canvases. They
exercised a considerable influence upon their contemporaries, and
introduced some new elements into the later practice of the school.
At the same time admirably effective work has been done in
this section and others by many painters who have kept much
more closely in touch with the older type of aesthetic belief, and
have not associated themselves openly with any of the newer
movements. Among the more prominent of these figure painters
there are, or have been, some excellent craftsmen, whose con-
tributions to the record of native British art can be accepted as
full of permanent interest. In the school of historical incident
good work was done by Sir John Gilbert (18 17-1897; R.A. 1876),
a robust and ingenious illustrator of romantic motives, with a
never-failing capacity for picturesque invention; John Pettie
(1839-1893; R.A. 1873), a fine colourist and a clever manipulator,
whose scenes from the life of past centuries were full of rare
vitality; P. H. Calderon (i 833-1 898; R..A. 1867), a graceful and
sincere artist not wanting in originality; and H. Stacy Marks
(1829-1898; R.A. 1879), who treated medieval motives with a
touch of real humour. Besides these, there are Sir J. D. Linton
(b. 1840), who has produced noteworthy compositions in oil and
water colours; Frank Dicksee (b. 1853; A. R.. A. 188 1 ; R.A. 1891),
who has gained wide popularity by pictures in which romance
and sentiment are combined in equal proportions; A. C. Gow
(b. 1848; R.A. 1881), whose "Cromwell at Dunbar" (1886),
"Flight of James II. after the Battle of the Boyne " (1888),
and "Crossing the Bidassoa " (1896) may be noted as typical
examples of his performance; J. Seymour Lucas (b. 1849; A.R.A.
1886; R.A. 1898), trained at the Royal Academy Schools, and a
brilliant painter of what may be called the by-play of history;
W. Dendy Sadler (b. 1854), trained partly in London and partly
at Diisseldorf, and well known by his quaintly humorous renderings
of the lighter side of life in the olden times; G. H. Boughton
(born in England, but educated first in America and afterwards
in Paris; A.R.A. 1879; R.A. 1896), a specialist in paintings of
old and modern Dutch subjects; the Hon. John Collier (b. 1850),
trained at the Slade School, at Munich, and in Paris, and a capable
painter both of the nude figure and of costume; and Edwin
A. Abbey, an American (b. 1852), educated at the Pennsylvania
Academy of the Fine Arts. Abbey came to England in 1876
with a great reputation as an illustrator, and did not begin to
exhibit oil pictures until 1890; he was elected an Academician in
1898. Then there are to be noted classicists like Lord Leighton,
Sir L. Alma-Tadema, and Sir E. J. Poynter's students of the
East like Frederick Goodall (b. 1822; A.R.A. 1853; R.A. 1863;
d. 1904), and idealists like Sir W. B. Richmond, K.C.B.; R.A. 1895
— all of whom have done much to uphold the reputation of the
British school for strength of accomplishment and variety of
motive.
The painters of sentiment have in the main adhered closely to
the tradition which has been handed down through successive
generations. Among these may be noted Marcus Stone „ , ,
(b. 1840), elected an Academician in 1887, an original g^**"* °'
artist whose dainty fancies are familiar to students of ''" '"eot.
modern art. His pictures nearly all appeared in the exhibitions of
the Royal Academy. Another popular artist is G. D. Leslie (b. 1835),
elected an Associate in 1868 and an Academician in 1876, who
has been responsible for a number of domestic old-world subject-
pictures remarkable for freshness of treatment and delicacy of
feeling. The list may also be held to include Henry Woods
(b. 1846; A.R.A. 1882; R.A. 1893), and since 1877 a painter
of scenes from Venetian life; R. W. Macbeth (b. 1848; A.R.A.
1883; R.A. 1903), whose elegant treatment of rustic subjects
displays a very attractive individuality. Among the painters of
sentiment should also be included Sir Luke Fildes (b. 1844),
educated at the South Kensington and Ro^al Academy Schools,
elected an Academician in 1887, the painter of such famous
pictures as " The Casual Ward " (1874), " The Widower " (1876),
" The Return of the Penitent " (1879), and " The Doctor " (1892);
and Sir Hubert von Herkomer, C.V.O. (b. 1849; A.R.A. 1879; R.A.
1890; knighted 1907), famous not only by his many memorable can-
vases and by his extraordinary versatility in the arts, but also as a
teacher and a leader in a number of educational movements.
Not many military pictures of high merit have been produced
during the period. The artists, indeed, who occupy themselves
with this class of art are not numerous, and they
mostly devote their energies to illustrati%-e pictures „ , ^
rather than to large canvases. Lady Butler (nee " ''^'
Elizabeth Thompson), whose " Roll Call," exhibited in 1874,
brought her instant popularity, continued to paint subjects of
the same type, among which " Quatre Bras " (1875), " The
Defence of Rorke's Drift" (1881), "The Camel Corps" (1891)
and " The Dawn of Waterloo " (1895) are perhaps the most worthy
of record. Ernest Crofts (b. 1847; A.R.A. 1878; R.A. 1896),
trained in London and Diisseldorf, has taken a prominent position
by such pictures as " Napoleon at Ligny " (1875), " Napoleon
leaving Moscow" (1887), "The Capture of a French. Battery by
the 53rd Regiment at Waterloo " (1896), and by many similar
representations of historical battles. Occasional pictures have
come also from A. C. Gow, R. Caton WoodviUe, W. B. WoUen,
J. P. Beadle, John Charlton, and a few more men who are better
known by their work in other directions.
The number of artists who have devoted the greater part of
their energies to portraiture has been steadily on the increase.
Most of the men who have taken definite rank a-iiongp . .,
the figure painters have made reputations by their
portraits also, but there are many others who have kept almost
exclusively to this branch of practice. Into the first division
come such noted artists as Sir John Millais, Sir E. J. Poynter,
G. F. Watts, Sir Luke Fildes, Sir Hubert von Herkomer, Sir
L. Alma-Tadema, Sir W. B. Richmond, Seymour Lucas, the Hon.
John Collier, S. J. Solomon, Arthur Hacker, Sir W. Q. Orchardson,
J. A. M'N. Whistler, Frank Dicksee, Stanhope Forbes, Frank
Bramley, H. S. Tuke, T. C. Gotch, P. W. Steer, John Bacon and
Frank HoU. In the second must be reckoned J. S. Sargent
(A.R.A. 1894; R.A. 1897), an American citizen (b. 1856), a pupil
of Carolus Duran, who after 1885 was recognized as one of the
most brilliant painters of the day; J. J. Shannon, also an American
(b. 1862), trained at the South Kensington School, and elected
an Associate in 1897, a graceful and accomplished artist, with a
sound technical method and a delightful sense of style; A. S. Cope
(b. 1857), trained in Paris, and elected an Associate in 1899, who
carries on soundly the better traditions of the British school;
James Sant (b. 1820), elected an Academician in 1870, a strong
favourite of the public throughout a long career; W. W.
Ouless (b. 1848; A.R.A. 1877; R.A. 1881), trained in the Royal
Academy Schools, an industrious and prolific worker; H. T. Wells
(b. 1828; A.R.A. 1866; R.A. 1870), trained in London and Paris,
who produced a long series of portraits and portrait groups, and
many miniatures; W. Llewellyn (b. i860), educated at the South
Kensington Schools and in Cormon's studio in Paris, an able
draughtsman and a thorough executant; C. W. Furse iq.v.), trained
iBRITISH]
PAINTING
501
first in the Slade School under Professor Legros and afterwards in
Paris, whose early death removed a master of his art; and others
like Walter Osborne, Richard Jack, Glyn Philpot and Gerald Kelly.
In the class of figure painters, who are individual in their work,
and owe little or nothing to the suggestions of foreign teachers, a
number of artists can be enumerated who have in common
little besides a sincere desire to express their personal conviction
/ '" their own way. Among them are some of the
p. most distinguished of modern artists, who stand out
Pl"7rs as the unquestioned chiefs of the school. Sir John Millais
^ " ^ ' occupies a place in this group by virtue of his admirable
pictorial work, and with him are W. Holman Hunt, Dante Gabriel
Rossetti, G. f . Watts, Sir Edward Burnc-Jones, Albert Moore and
Ford Madox Brown, each one of whom may be regarded as a leader.
There are also J. M. Strudwick (b. 1849), R. Spencer Stanhope
(d. 1908) and Evelyn de Morgan, followers of Burne-Jones, and
J. W. Waterhouse (A.R.A. 1885; R.A. 1895), in many ways the
most original and inspired of English imaginative painters; and,
again, M. Greiffenhagen, F. Cayley Robinson and Mrs Swynnerton.
Into this class come also the decorative painters, Walter Crane
(b. 1845), a prolific illustrator and picture-painter and
Decorative ^.j^^ producer of an extraordinary amoimt of work in
Palaters. ^jj branches of decoration; Frank Brangwyn, whose
pictures and designs are marked by fine qualities of execution
and by much sumptuousness of colour; and several others, like
H. J. Draper, Harold Speed, R. Anning Bell, Gerald Moira and
G. Spencer Watson. As a branch of the decorative school, a small
group of artists who have revived the practice of tempera-painting
must also be noted. It includes Mrs Adrian Stokes, J. D. Batten,
J. E. Southall, Arthur Gaskin, and a few others with well-marked
decorative tendencies.
During recent years a movement has begun which apparently
aims at the revival of Pre-Raphaelitism. It is headed by a few
young artists, whose methods show a mingling
The New together of the precision of the 19th-century Pre-
„™' ... Raphaelites and a kind of decorative formality. The
ap ae e j^q^j influential of the artists concerned in the formation
of this new school is J. Byam Shaw (b. 1872), whose
originality and quaintness of fancy give to his pictures a more than
ordinary degree of persuasiveness. A strong colourist and an able
draughtsman, he possesses in a high degree the faculty of imaginative
expression, allied with humour that never degenerates into farce.
His strongest preference is for symbolical subjects which embody
some moral lesson. Other prominent members of the group are
F. Cadogan Cowper (A.R.A. 1907) and Miss Eleanor Fortescue-
Brickdale, who is in manner much like Byam Shaw, but yet does
not sink her individuality in mere imitative effort.
The painters of landscapes and sea-pictures have for the most
part been little affected by the unrest which has caused so many
new departures in figure-work. A love of nature has
p r/'^"''* filways been one of the best British characteristics,
a n ers. ^^^ j^ 1^^^ proved itself to be strong enough to keep
those artists who seek their inspiration out of doors from falling
to any great e.xtent under the control of particular technical
fashions. Therefore there is in the school of " open-air " painting
little evidence of any change in point of view, or of the growth of any
modern feeling at variance with that by which masters of landscape
were swayed a century or more ago. Impressionism has gained a
few adherents, and the French Barbizon school — itself created in
response to a suggestion from England — has reacted upon a section
of the younger artists. But, on the whole, in this branch of art
the British school has gained in power and confidence, without
surrendering that sturdy independence which in the past produced
such momentous results. The absence of any common convention,
or of any set pattern of landscape which would lead to uniformity
of etTort, has left the students of nature free to express themselves
in a personal way. The most devout believers in the value of French
training, and in the infallibility of the dogmas which emanate from
the Paris studios, have not, except in rare instances, demanded any
radical remodelling of the British landscape school on French lines,
as local conditions affecting the practice of this branch of art make
impossible all drastic alterations. Most workers in the front rank
can claim to be judged on individual merits, and not as members
of a particular coterie. Still, it is convenient to divide the members
of the landscape school into such classes as realists, romanticists
and subjective painters of landscape.
Among the most notable of the first class are H. W. B. Davis
(b. 1883; A.R.A. 1873; R.A. 1877), the painter of a long series of
„ , . , . dainty scenes which suggest happily the charm of
L^ dscaoe ■'"''''' England; Peter Graham, elected an Academician
'in 1881, who has alternated for the greater part of his
working life between Scottish moorland subjects, with cattle
wandering on bare hillsides and pictures of coast scenery, with
sea-gulls perched on dark rocks; David Murray (b. 1849; A.R.A.
1891; R.A. 1905), an artist whose career has been marked by
consistent effort to interpret nature's suggestions with dignity and
intelligence; Sir Ernest A. Waterlow (b. 1850; A.R.A. 1890; R.A.
1903), trained in the Royal Academy and afterwards President of
the Royal Society of Painters in Water-Colours, a graceful painter,
with a tender colour feeling and an excellent technical style; Yeend
King (b. 1855), trained partly in England, and partly in Paris under
Bonnat and Cormon, a sound craftsman who made a reputation by
landscapes in which are introduced groups of figures on a fairly
important scale; Alfred Parsons (b. 1847), elected an Associate in
1897, who paints rich river scenery with careful regard for actuality
and with much minuteness and cxquisiteness of detail, especially
in the rendering of llowers; and Frank Walton (b. 1840), who chooses,
as a rule, landscape motives which enable him to display unusual
powers of accurate draughtsmanship. To the same class of realists
belonged Vicat Cole, R.A.; Birket Foster, J. W. Oakes, A.R.A.;
Keeley Halswellc, and perhaps Alfred W. Hunt, though in his case
realism was tempered by a delicate poetic imagination.
The romanticists and pastoral painters have in many cases been
perceptibly affected by the example of the Barbizon school, but they
owe much to such famous Englishmen as Cecil Lawson,
John Linnell (both of whom died in 1882), George '^°"'^"'
Mason (A.R.A. 1868; d. 1872) and Frederick Walker *""
(A.R.A. 1871; d. 1875). The most prominent later
Pastoral
Palaters.
member of the group is, perhaps. Sir Alfred East
(b. 1849), trained first in the Glasgow School of Art and after-
wards in Paris, elected an Associate in 1899, a painter endowed
with an exceptional faculty for suggesting the poetry of nature
and with an admirable sense of decorative arrangement; but
there are, besides, Leslie Thomson (b. 1851), whose art is especially
sound and sincere; J. Aumonier, a pastoral painter with very
refined appreciation of subtleties of aerial colour; C. W. Wyllie,
a painter of delicate vision and charm of presentation; J. S. Hill,
whose sombre landscapes are distinguished in design and impressive
in their depth of tone; R. W. Allan (b. 1852), who uses a robust
technical method with equal skill in landscapes and coast sub-
jects; J. Buxton Knight (b, 1842; d. 1908), a vigorous manipulator,
with a liking for rich harmonies and low tones; Joseph Knight
(b. 1838; d. 1909), whose well drawn and broadly painted pictures
in oil and water-colour have been for many years appreciated
by lovers of unaffected nature; Lionel P. Smythe (A.R.A.
1898), a colourist who handles exquisitely the most delicate atmo-
spheric effects and is unusually successful in his rendering of
diffused daylight; J. W. North (A.R.A. in 1893), a painter of
fanciful landscapes in which definition of form is subordinated to
modulations of decorative colour; Claude Hayes, who studied in the
Royal Academy Schools, and carried on the tradition established
by David Cox and his contemporaries; J. L. Pickering, a lover of
dramatic light-and-shade contrasts and a student of romantic moun-
tain scenery; A. D. Peppercorn, who gives breadth and dignity
with sombre colour and delicate gradation of tone; Adrian Stokes
(b. 1854; A.R.A. 1910) and M. Ridley Corbet (who died in 1902, only
a few months after his election as an Associate of the Royal Academy),
a classicist in landscape, in whose pictures can be perceived a definite
reflection of the teaching of Professor Costa, the Italian master.
There must also be noted, as leaders among the pastoral painters,
George Clausen (b. 1852), trained first in the South Kensington
School and afterwards in Paris under Bouguereau and Robert-
Fleury, and elected an Associate in 1895 and R.A. in 1908, who
began as a strict realist and afterwards developed into a rustic
idealist; H. H. La Thangue, trained in the Royal Academy Schools
and in Paris, elected an Associate in 1898, an artist of amazing
technical vigour and an uncompromising interpreter of rural
subjects; Edward Stott (A.R..^. 1906), trained in Paris under
Carolus Duran and Cabanel, who paints delicately the more poetic
aspects of the life of the fields; J. Arnesby Brown (b. 1866;
A.R.A. 1903); Oliver Hall, Albert Goodwin, A. Friedenson and
others.
The painters of landscape subjectively considered, who conven-
tionalize nature with the idea of giving to their pictures a kind
of sentimental as distinguished from emotional sug-„ t, ^i
gestion, are most strikingly represented by B. W. r am/scane
Leader (b. 1831), trained in the Worcester School
of Design and in the Royal Academy Schools, and elected an
Academician in 1898. He became a strong favourite of the
public, and his academic and precise technical methods were
widely admired by the many people who are not satisfied
with unaffected transcriptions of natural scenes and of the passion
of nature.
In marine painting no one has appeared to rival Henry Moore,
perhaps the greatest student of wave-forms the world has seen ;
but good work has been done by the late Edwin uaHae
Hayes, an Irish painter, whose powers showed no sign paintins
of failure up to his death in 1904. after some half- *'
century of continuous labour; W. L. Wyllie (b. 1851 ; A.R.A. 1889;
R.A. T907), trained in the Royal Academv Schools, who paints sea
and shipping with intelligent understanding; T. Somerscales, a self-
taught artist, with an intimate knowledge of the ocean derived from
long actual experience as a sailor; and especially C. Napier Hemy
(b. 1841; A.R.A. 1898; R.-A. 1910), trained at the Antwerp
Academy and in the studio of Baron Leys, a powerful manipulator,
with a preference for the dramatic aspects of his subject. J. C.
Hook (d. 1907), retained into old age the subtle qualities which
made his pictures notable among the best productions of the British
school. Mention must be made of John Brett (1830-1902; A.R.A.
1881), the one Pre-Raphaelite sea painter, and Hamilton Macallum
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(1841-1896), who painted rippling water in bright sunlight with
delightful delicacy and charm of manner.
The school of animal painting is a small one, and includes only a
few of marked ability. The chief members include Briton Riviere,
(b. 1840; A.R.A. 1878; R.A. 1881), one of the most imaginative
and inventive of living artists; J. M. Swan (1847-1910; A.R.A.
1894; R.A. 1905), trained first at Lambeth, and afterwards in Paris
under Gerome and Fremiet, a skilful manipulator and a
Palntfag. sensitive draughtsman, and especially remarkable for his
intimate understanding of animal character, mainly of
thefelidae (see also Sculpture) ; J.T. Nettleship (1841-1 902), trained
chiefly in the Slade School, whose studies of the greater beasts of
prey are admirably sincere and well painted; Miss Lucy Kemp-
Welch (b. 1869), trained in the Herkomer School at Bushey, who
paints horses with unusual power; and John Charlton (b. 1849),
trained in the South Kensington School, also well known by his
pictures of horses and dogs.
There are local schools which claim attention because of the
value of their contributions to the aggregation of British art.
The most active of these belong to the Scottish school,
&hools. the centres of Glasgow, Edinburgh, and Aberdeen,
which have produced some of the most distinguished
British artists. The Royal Academy of London, indeed, with
most of the other leading art societies, has been largely recruited
from Scotland. There have been added to its modern roll the
names of W. Q. Orchardson. Peter Graham, J. MacWhirter,
J. Pettie, Erskine Nichol, T. Faed, David Murray, Colin Hunter,
R. W. Macbeth, D. Farquharson, J. Farquharson, George Henry:
all of them painters of well-established reputation; and there are
many other well-known Scottish artists who have made London
their headquarters, like Arthur Melville, a portrait and subject-
painter and a masterly water-colourist ; E. A. Walton, who is
equally successful with portraits, landscapes, and decorative com-
positions; J. Coutts-Michie, who alternates between portraiture
and landscapes of admirable quality; John Lorimer, who has
exhibited a number of excellent subject-pictures and many fine
portraits; T. Graham, an unafTected painter of sentiment, and
a good colourist; Grosvenor Thomas, known best by his freely
handled and expressive landscapes; T. Austen Brown, who paints
semi-decorative pastorals with unusual vigour of statement; John
Lavery, who has taken rank amongst the best of recent portrait
painters; and Robert Brough, another portrait painter of vigour,
with a subtle sense of colour, whose early and tragic death cut short
a promising career. The most notable of the men who remained
in Scotland include Alexander Roche, whose remarkable capacity
has brought him many successes in portraiture, figure compositions,
and decorative paintings on a large scale ; W. Y. MacGregor, a leader
of the school of landscape painters, fine in style and a master of
effect ; D. Y. Cameron, an admirable oil-painter and a famous etcher ;
and Sir James Guthrie, P.R.S.A. well known for his excellent
portraits; James Paterson, R. B. Nisbet and Robert Noble, all
landscape painters of marked originality and sound technical
method; W. McTaggart (d. 1910), the brilliant impressionist; E. A.
Hornel and W. Hole, decorative painters who have produced many
canvases remarkable for robust originality and rare breadth
of treatment; W. Mouncey, a landscape painter who united the
dignity of the Barbizon school with a typically Scottish freedom of
expression; and Sir George Reid, ex-P.R.S.A., one of the ablest
and most distinguished of portrait painters.
The water-colour painters can fairly be said to have kept
unchanged the essential qualities of their particular form of practice.
They have departed scarcely at all from the executive
methods which have been recognized as correct for
nearly a century, but they have amplified them and have
adapted them to a greater range of accomplishment, developing, it
may be added, the " blottesque " or the accidental manner suggestive
of summary decision. Latterly water-colour painting has come
to rival oils in its application to all sorts of subjects; and it is used
now with absolute freedom by a very large number of skilful artists.
Many of the men who have done the best work in this medium
are known as oil painters of the highest rank; and among living
workers the same capacity to excel in either mode of expression is
by no means uncommon. There have been in recent times such
masters as Sir John Gilbert, Sir E. Burne-Jones, Ford Madox Brown,
Dante Gabriel Rossetti, A. W. Hunt, H. G. Hine, Henry Moore,
Albert Moore, C. E. HoUoway, and perhaps should be included
E. M. Wimperis, whose water-colours are at least as worthy of
admiration as their oil pictures. As water-colourists, much credit
is due to Sir E. J. Poynter for his landscapes, portraits, and
figure drawings; Sir L. Alma-Tadema for his minutely detailed
classic subjects; Sir J. D. Linton for his historical and romantic
compositions; Sir E. A. Waterlow for his delicately expressive
landscapes; Sir Hubert von Herkomer for his admirably handled
figure subjects; George Clausen for pastorals charming in sentiment
and distinguished by fine qualities of colour; J. Aumonier, A. D.
Peppercorn, J. S. Hill, J. W. North, Leslie Thomson, Frank Walton
and R. W. Allan for landscapes of special excellence; E. J.
Gregory (d. 1909), and Cadogan Cowper, for figure compositions
painted with amazing sureness of touch ; Alfred Parsons for land-
scapes and flower studies; J. R. Reid, W. L. Wyllie, E. Hayes and
Water-
Colour,
C. N. Hemy for sea and coast pictures; R. W. Macbeth, Claude
Hayes and Lionel Smythe for rustic scenes with figures in the open
air; J. M. Swan for paintings of animals; and G. H. Boughton for
costume subjects and delicately poetic fancies. Besides, there is
a long list of noteworthy painters whose reputations have been
chiefly or entirely made by their successful management of water-
colour, and into this list come Birket Foster, the head of the old-
fashioned school of dainty rusticity ; Carl Haag, a wonderful manipu-
lator, who occupied himself almost exclusively with Eastern subjects;
Thomas Collier, A. W. Weedon, H. B. Brabazon, G. A. Fripp, P. J.
Naftel, G. P. Boyce, Albert Goodwin, R. Thorne-Waite, F. G. Cotman,
Harry Hine, Clarence Whaite and Bernard Evans, whose landscapes
show thorough understanding of nature and distinctive individuality
of method; Mrs Allingham, an artist of e.xquisite refinement, whose
idealizations of country' life have a more than ordinary degree of
merit; Clara Montalba, an able painter of impressions of Venice;
Kate Greenaway, unrivalled as an interpreter of the graces of child-
hood, and endowed with the rarest originality; Mrs Stanhope
Forbes, an accomplished executant of well-imagined romantic
motives; and J. R. Weguelin, one of the most facile and expressive
painters of fantastic figure subjects. By the aid of these artists, and
many others of at least equal ability, such as J. Crawhall, J. Pater-
son, R. Little, Edwin Alexander, Arthur Rackham and J. Walter
West, traditions worthy of all respect have been maintained sincerely
and with intelligent discrimination; and to their efforts has been
accorded a larger measure of popular support than is bestowed
upon any other form of pictorial production.
See Richard Muther, History of Modern Painting (Eng. ed.,
1895); R. de la Sizeranne, English Contemporary Art (Eng. ed.,
1898); Ernest Chesneau, The English School of Painting (2nd Eng.
ed., 1885); Clement and Hutton, Artists of the iQth Century (Boston,
U.S.A., 1885); David Martin and F. Newbery, The Glasgow School
of Painting (1897); W. D. McKay, R.S.A., The Scottish School of
Painting (London, 1906) ; E. Pinnington, George Paul Chalmers and
the Art of his Time (1896); Gleeson White, The Master Painters of
Britain (1897); E. T. Cook, A Popular Handbook to the National
Gallery, vol. ii. (1901) ; J. E. Hodgson, R.A., Fifty Years of British Art
(1887); A. G. Temple, Painting in the Queen's Reign (1897); Cosmo
Monkhouse, British Contemporary Artists (1899); G. R. Redgrave,
History of Water-Colour Painting in England iy^o-i88Q (1889).
Also the Transactions of the National Association for the Advance-
ment of Art (Liverpool, 1888; Edinburgh, 1889; and Birmingham,
1890); the magazines devoted to the arts; and the principal
reviews, such as " English Art in the Victorian Age " (Quarterly
Review, January 1898). The Year's Art (1879-1910; ed. A. C. R.
Carter) is an invaluable annual publication fully and accurately
chronicling the art institutions and art movements in Great
Britain. (M. H. S.)
France
The period between 1870 and the opening of the 20th century
was singularly important in the history of France, and conse-
quently of her art. The internal life of the people developed on
new lines with a vigour that left a deep mark on the outcome
of mental effort. Literature was foremost in this new movement.
The novels of Balzac, Zola, Flaubert, the brothers de Goncourt,
Daudet, Guy de Maupassant and the plays of Alexandre Dumas
Jils, filled as they are with the scientific spirit and social atmo-
sphere of the time, opened the eyes of the young generation to
appreciation of the visible beauty and the spiritual poetry of
the world around them, and helped them to view it with more
attentive eyes, more insight and more emotion. The aim of art
was also to emancipate itself, by the growing efforts of indepen-
dent artists, from the slavery of tradition, and to devote itself
to a more personal contemplation and knowledge of contem-
porary life under every aspect. Modern French art tends to
become more and more the art of the people — a mixture of
naturalism and poetry, deriving its inspiration, by preference,
from the world of the working man; no longer appealing only to
a restricted and more or less fastidious public, but, on the
contrary, adapting its aesthetic or moral teaching to popular
apprehension. The whole past was not, of course, wiped out.
The younger generation had to learn and profit by the lessons
taught by their great precursors. To understand the true
character of this recent development of French art it is needful,
therefore, to glance at the past.
W^e need not dwell on the individual authorities who constitute
the official hierarchy of the contemporary French school; these
masters belong for the most part, by the date of their best work,
to a former generation. Starting in many cases from very
opposite points, but reconcOed and united by time, they carried
on, during the last quarter of the iqth centur>', with more or less
distinction, the inevitable evolution of their personal gifts.
FRENCH]
PAINTING
503
We still see the works of some of the staunch Romanticists:
Jean Gigoux (d. 1892), Robert-Fleury (d. 1890), Jules Dupre
(d. 1889), Lami (d. 1890), Cabat (d. 1893) and Isabey (d. 1886);
and with these, though they did not follow quite the same road,
may be named Frangais (d. 1897) and Charles Jacquc (d. 1894).
Next to them, Meissonier (d. 1891) crowded into the last twenty
yearsof his life a mass of work which, for the most part, enhanced
his fame; and Rosa Bonheur (d. 1899), working in retirement
up to the age of seventy-seven, went on her accustomed way
unmoved by external changes. Hebert, Harpignics, Ziem and
Paul Flandrin survived. Among the generation which grew
up under the Second Empire we find men of great intelligence
and distinction; some, like Alexandre Cabanel (1824-1889), by
pictures of historical genre, in a somewhat insipid and conven-
tional style, but more particularly by female portraits, firm in
flesh-painting and aristocratic in feeling; others, like Paul
Baudry (1828-1886, q.v.), whose large decorative works, with
their pure and lofty elegance, secured him lasting fame, and whose
allegorical compositions were particularly remarkable; not less
so his portraits, at first vivid, glowing and golden, but at the end
of his life, under the influence of the new atmosphere, cooler in
tone, but more eager, nervous and restless in feeling. Leon
Gerome (b. 1824, q.v.) was the originator, during the Second
Empire, of the neo-Greek idea, an Orientalist and painter of
historic genre, whose somewhat arid instinct for archaeological
precision and finish developed to better ends in sculpture during
later years. WiUiam Bouguereau (b. 1825, q.v.) painl:ed symbolical
and allegorical subjects in a sentimental style. Jules Lefebvre
(b. 1836) had a brilliant career as a portrait painter, combined,
in his earlier years, with admirable studies of the nude. These
were followed by Benjamin Constant (d. 1902), a clever painter
of past ages in the East and of modern Oriental life, who latterly
directed his powers of vigorous and rapid brushwork to portrait-
painting; Fernand Cormon, the inventive chronicler of primeval
Gaul, and a solid and learned portrait painter; Aime Morot, a
man of versatile gifts, a painter of portraits full of life and ease.
These formed the heart of the Institut. On the other hand,
we find a group who betray a close affinity with the realist
party — rejecting, like them, tradition at second-hand, though
returning for direct teaching to some of the great masters: Leon
Bonnat (b. 1833), educated in Spain, and preserving through a
long series of official portraits an evident worship of the great
realists of that nation; and again, under the same influence,
Jean Paul Laurens (b. 1837), who has infused some return of
vitality into historical painting by his clear and individual
conceptions and realistic treatment. Jean Jacques Henner
(b. 1829, q.v.), standing even more apart, lived in a Correggio-
like dream of pale nude forms in dim landscape scenery; his
love of exquisite texture, and his unvarying sense of beauty, with
his refined dilettantism, Unk him on each side to the great groups
of realists and idealists.
About the middle of the 19th century, after the vehement
disputes between the partisans of line and the votaries of colour,
otherwise the Classic and the Romantic schools, when a younger
generation was resting from these follies, exhausted, weary,
devoid even of any fine technique, two groups slowly formed on
the opposite sides of the horizon — seers or dreamers, both
protesting in different ways against the collapse of the French
school, and against the alleged indifference and sceptical eclecti-
cism of the painters who were regarded as the leaders. This was
a revolt from the academic and conservative tradition. One
was the group of original and nature-loving painters, keen and
devoted observers of men and things, therealists, made illustrious
by the three great personalities of Corot {q.v.), Millet (q.v.) and
Courbet {q.v.), the real originators of French contemporary art.
The other was the group of men of imagination, the idealists,
who, in the pursuit of perfect beauty and an ideal moral standard,
reverted to the dissimilar visions of Delacroix and Ingres, the
ideals of rhythm as opposed to harmony, of style versus passion,
which Theodore Chasseriau had endeavoured to combine.
Round Puvis de Chavannes {q.v.) and Gustave Moreau {q.v.)
we find a group of artists who, in spite of the fascination exerted
of their intelligence by the great works of the old masters,
especially the early I'"lorentines and Venetians, would not accept
the old technique, but strove to record in splendid imagery the
wonders of the spiritual life, or claimed, by studying contem-
porary individuals, to reveal the psychology of modern minds.
Among them were Gustave Ricard (1821-1873), whose portraits,
suggesting the mystical charm sometimes of Leonardo and
sometimes of Rembrandt, are full of deep unullered vitality;
Elie Delaunay (1828-1891), serious and expressive in his heroic
compositions, keen and striking in his portraits; Eugene
Fromenlin (i 820-1 876), acute but subtle and silvery, a man of
elegant mind, the writer of Les Mailres d'autrefois, of Sahel and
of Le Sahara, the discoverer — artistically — of Algeria. And
round the loud and showy individuality of Courbet — healthy,
nevertheless, and inspiring — a group was gathered of men less
judicious, but more stirring, more truculent, thoroughly original,
but not less reverent to the old masters than they were defiant
of contemporary authorities. They were even more ardent for
a strong technique, but the masters who attracted them were
the Dutch, the Flemish, the Venetians, who, like themselves,
had aimed at recording the life of their day. Among these was
Franfois Bonvin (1817-1887), who, following Granet, carried
on the evolution of a subdivision of genre, the study of domestic
interiors. This Drolling, too, had done, early in the 19th century,
his predecessors in France being Chardin and Le Nain. This
class of subjects has not merely absorbed all genre-painting,
but has become a very important factor in the presentment of
modern life. Bonvin painted asylums, convent-life, studios,
laboratories and schools. Alphonse Legros {q.v.), painter,
sculptor and etcher, who settled in London, was of the same
school, though independent in his individuality, celebrating
with his brush and etching-needle the life of the poor and
humble, and even of the vagabond and beggar. There were
also Bracquemond, the reviver of the craft of etching; Fantin-
Latour, the painter of highly romantic Wagnerian dreams,
figure compositions grouped after the Dutch manner, and flower-
pieces not surpassed in his day. Ribot, again, and Vollon,
daring and dashing in their handling of the brush; Guillaume
Regamey, one of the few military painters gifted with the epic
sense; and even Carolus Duran, who, after painting " Murdered "
(in the Lille Museum), combined with the professional duties
of an official teacher a briUiant career as a portrait painter. A
later member of this group, attracted to it by student friendship
in the little drawing-school which under Lecoq de Boisbaudran
competed in a modest way with the Ecole des Beaux Arts, was
J. C. Cazin, well known afterwards as a pronounced idealist.
Finally, there was Manet, a connecting link between the realists
and the impressionists. These two radiant focuses of imagina-
tion and of observation respectively were to be seen still intact
during the later period, as represented by the most energetic of
the masters who upheld them.
After the catastrophe of 1870, French art appeared to be
reawakened by the disasters of the country; and at the great
exhibition in Vienna in 1873 Count Andrassy exclaimed to Leon
Bonnat, " After such a terrible crisis you are up again, and
victorious ! " Immense energy prevailed in the studios, and
money poured into France in consequence. The output increased
rapidly, and at the same time study became more strenuous,
and ambition grew bolder and more manly. Renewed activity
stirred in the pubUc academies, and a crowd of foreign students
came to learn. Two great facts give a characteristic stamp to
this new revival of French art: I. In the class of imaginative
painting, the renewed impulse towards monumental or decorative
work. II. In the class of nature studies, the growth of land-
scape painting, which developed along two parallel Lines —
Impressionism; and III. the " Open-air " school.
I. Decoration. — In decorative painting two men were the soul
of the movement: Puvis de Chavannes and Philippe de Chenne-
vieres Pointel. As we look back on the last years of the Second
Empire we see decorative painting sunk in profound lethargy.
After Delacroix, Chasseriau and Hippolyte Flandrin, and the
completion of the great works in the Palais Bourbon, the Senate
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House, the Cour des Comptes and a few churches — St Sulpice,
St Vincent de Paul and St Germain des Pres — no serious attempts
had been made in this direction. Excepting in the Hotel de
Ville, where Cabanel was winning his first laurels, and in the
Opera House, a work that was progressing in silence, a few
chapels only were decorated with paintings in the manner of
easel pictures. But two famous exceptions led to a decorative
revival: Puvis de Chavannes's splendid scheme of decoration at
Amiens (all, with the exception of the last composition, which is
dated 1SS2, executed without break between 1861 and 1867),
and his work at Marseilles and at Poitiers; Baudry, with his
ceiling in the Opera House, begun in 1866 but not shown to the
public till 1874. There was also a movement for reviving
French taste in the industrial arts by following the example of
systematic teaching set by some foreign countries, more particu-
larly by England. Decorative painting felt the same impulse.
Philippe de Chennevieres, curator of the Luxembourg Gallery
and directeur des Beaux Arts (from 1874 till 1879), determined
to encourage it by setting up a great rivalry between the most
distinguished painters, like that which had stimulated the zeal
of the artists of the Italian Renaissance. Taking up the task
already attempted by Chenavard under the Republic of 1848,
but abandoned in consequence of political changes, M. de
Chennevieres commissioned a select number of artists to decorate
the walls of the Pantheon. The panels were to record certain
events in the history of France, with due regard to the sacred
character of the building. Twelve of the most noted painters
were named, with a liberal breadth of selection so as to include
the most dissimilar styles: Millet and Meissonier, of whom one
refused and the other did not carry out the work; Cabanel and
Puvis de Chavannes. The last-named was the first to begin, in
1878, and he too was the painter who put the crowning end to
this great work in 1898. His pictures of the " Childhood of
Ste Genevieve " (the patron saint of Paris), simple, full of feeling
and of innocent charm, appropriate to a popular legend, with
their airy Parisian landscape under a pallid sky, made a deep
impression. Thenceforward Puvis de Chavannes had a constantly
growing influence over younger men. His magnificent work at
Amiens, " Ludus pro Patria " (1881-1882), at Lyons and at
Rouen, in the Sorbonne and the Hotel de Ville, for the Public
Library at Boston, U.S.A., and on to his last composition, " The
Old Age of Ste Genevieve," upheld to the end of the loth century
the sense of lofty purpose in decorative painting. Besides
the Pantheon, which gave the first impetus to the movement,
Philippe de Chennevieres found other buildings to be decorated:
the Luxembourg, the Palace of the Legion of Honour and that
of the Council of State. The paintings in the Palais de Justice,
the Sorbonne, the Hotel de Ville, the College of Pharmacy,
the Natural History Museum, the Opera Comique, and many
more, bear witness to this grand revival of mural painting.
Every kind of talent was employed — historical painters, portrait
painters, painters of allegory, of fancy scenes, of real life and of
landscape. Among the most important were: J. P. Laurens
and Benjamin Constant, Bonnat and Carolus Duran, Cormon
and Humbert, Joseph Blanc and L. Olivier Merson, Roll and
Gervex, Besnard and Carriere, Harpignies and Pointelin, Raphael
Collin and Henri Martin.
II. Impressionism. — In 1S74 common cause was made by a
group of artists drawn together by sympathetic views and a
craving for independence. Various in their tastes, they concen-
trated from every point of the compass to protest, like their
precursors the realists, against the narrow views of academic
teaching. Some had romantic proclivities, as the Dutchman
Jongkindt, who played an important part in founding this
group; others were followers of Daubigny, of Corotorof Millet;
some came from the realistic party, whose influence and effort
this new set was to carry on. Among these, fidouard Manet
(i 83 2-1883) holds a leading place ; indeed, his influence, in spite of
— or perhaps as a result of — much abuse, extended beyond his
circle even so far as to affect academic teaching itself. He was
first a pupil of Couture, and then, after Courbot, his real masters
were the Spaniards — Velasquez, El Greco and Goya — all of whom
he closely studied at the beginning of his career; but he soon
felt the influence of Millet and of Corot. With a keen power of
observation, he refined and lightened his style, striving for a
subtle rendering of the exact relations of tone and values in
light and atmosphere. With him, forming the original group,
as represented by the Caillebotte collection in the Luxembourg,
we find some landscape painters: Claude Monet, the painter of
pure dayhght, and the artist who bj' the title of one of his
pictures, " An Impression," gave rise to the designation accepted
by the group; Camille Pissarro, who at one time carried to an
extreme the principle of dotting with pure tints, known as
poinlillisme, or dotwork; Sislcy, Cezanne and others. Among
those who by preference studied the human figure were Edgard
Degas {q.v.) and Auguste Renoir. After long and violent
antagonism, such as had already greeted the earlier innovators,
these painters, in spite of many protests, were officially recog-
nized both at the Luxembourg and at the great Exhibition of
1900. Their aims have been various, some painting Man and
some Nature. In the former case they claim to have gone back
to the principle of the greatest artists and tried to record the
life of their own time. Manet, Degas and Renoir have shown us
aspects of city or vulgar life which had been left to genre-painting
or caricature, but which they have represented with the charm
of pathos, or with the bitter irony of their own mood, frank
transcripts of life with a feeling for style. For those who painted
the scenery of nature there was an even wider field. They
brought to their work a new visual sense, released from the cling-
ing memories of past art; they endeavoured to fix the transient
effects of moving life, changing under the subtlest and most
fugitive effects of light and atmosphere,andtheplayof what may
be called the elements of motion — sunshine, air and clouds —
caring less for the exact transcript of motionless objects, which
had hitherto been almost exclusively studied, such as the soil,
trees and rocks, the inanimate features of the landscape. They
introduced a fresh lightness of key, which had been too sub-
servient to the relations of values; they discovered for their ends
a new class of subjects essentially modern: towns, streets,
raUway stations, factories, coal-mines, ironworks and smoke,
which they represent with an intelligent adaptation of Japanese
art, taking new and audacious points of view, constantly
varying the position of their horizon. This is indeed the very
acme of naturalism, the last possible stage of modern landscape,
covering the whole field of observation, doubling back to the
starting-point of imagination. Notwithstanding — or because
of — the outcry, of these views, peculiarities and tendencies
soon penetrated schools and studios. Three artists in particular
became conspicuous among the most individual and most
independent spirits: Besnard, who had taken the Grand Prix
de Rome, and carried to the highest pitch his inexhaustible
and charming fancy in studies of the figure under the most
unexpected play of light; Carriere, a pupil of Cabanel, who
sought and found in mysterious gloom the softened spirit of
the humble, the warm caress of motherhood; and Raffaelli, a
pupil of Gerome, who brought to light the unrecognized pic-
turesqueness of the lowest depths of humanity.
III. The " Plein-air," or Open-air, School. — The same causes
explain the rise of the particular class of work thus commonly
designated. Between Millet and Courbet, both redolent of the
romantic and naturalistic influences of their time, though apart
from them, stands an artist who had some share in establishing
the continuity of the line of painters who combined figure-
painting with landscape. This is Jules Breton (b. 1827, g.v.).
More supple than his fellows, less harsh and less wilful, caring
more for form and charm, he found it easier to treat " masses,"
and contributed to diffuse a taste for the artistic presentment
and glorification of field labour. He was the chief link between
a past style and Jules Bastien-Lepage (1848-1884, g.v.), who was
in fact the founder of the school of open-air painting, a com-
promise between the academic manner and the new revolutionary
ideas, a sort of academic continuation of the naturalistic evolu-
tion, which therefore exerted considerable influence on contem-
porary art. As a pupil of Cabanel and the Academy schools.
FRENCH]
PAINTING
505
enamoured of rustic life, he absorbed at an early stage, though
not without hesitation, the love of atmospheric effects character-
istic of Corot and of Manet. In his open-air heads and rural
scenes he is seen as a conscientious nature worshipper, accurate
and sincere, and, like Millet, imbued with a touch of mysticism
which becomes even more evident in his immediate pupils.
Round him there arose a little galaxy of painters, some more
faithful to tradition, some followers of the best innovators,
who firmly tread this path of light and modern hfe. These are
Butin, Duez and Renouf, Roll and Gervex, Dagnan-Bouveret,
Friant, Adolphe and Victor Binet and many more.
Immediately after the Exhibition of 1889 an event took place
which was not without effect on the progress of French art.
This was the schism in the Salon. The audacious work of the
Societe Nationale des Beaux Arts, which left anything that
the Impressionists could do far behind, had accustomed the eyes
of the public to the most daring attempts, while the numerous
contributions of foreigners, especially from the north, where art
aimed solely at a direct presentment of daily life, was a fresh
encouragement to the study of modern conditions and of the
lower classes. But, at the same time, the encroachment on
space at the Exhibition (where no limit of number was imposed)
by mere studies, hastened the reaction against the extravagances
of the degenerate followers of Courbet, Manet and Bastien-
Lepage. Remonstrances arose against their perverse and
narrow-minded devotion to " truth," or rather to minute
exactitude, their pedantry and affectation of documentation;
sometimes derived from some old colourists who had not re-
nounced their former ideal, sometimes from younger men
impelled unconsciously by literature, which had as usual pre-
ceded art in the revolt. The protest was seen, too, in a modified
treatment of landscape, which took on the warmer colours of
sunset, and in a choice of religious subjects, such as a pardon,
or a funeral, or a ceremonial benediction, and generally of more
human and more pathetic scenes.
Bastien-Lepage, like his great precursor Millet, bore within him
the germs of a reaction against the movement he had helped to
promote. Dagnan-Bouveret, who began by painting " Sitting
for a Photograph " (now at Lyons) and " An Accident," after
painting " Le Pain benit," ended with " The Pilgrims to
Emmaus " and " The Last Supper." Friant, again, produced
scenes of woe, "All Saints' Day" and "Grief"; and their
younger successors, Henri Royer, Adler, Duvent and others,
who adhered to this tradition, accommodated it to a more
modern ideal, with more vivid colouring and more dramatic
composition.
Still, this normal development could have no perceptible
effect in modifying the purpose of painting. More was needed.
A strong craving for imaginative work was very generally felt,
and was reveahng itself not merely in France but in Belgium,
Scotland, America and Germany. This tendency ere long
resulted in groups forming round certain well-known figures.
Thus a group of refined dreamers, of poetic dilettanti and
harmonious colourists, assembled under the leading of Henri
Martin (a strange but attractive visionary, a pupil of Jean Paul
Laurens and direct heir to Puvis de Chavannes, from whom he
had much sound teaching) and of Aman-Jean, who had appeared
at the same time, starting, but with more reserve, in the same
direction. Some of this younger group afl'ected no specific
aim; the others, the larger number, leant towards contemporary
hfe, which they endeavoured to depict, especially its aspirations
and — according to the modern expression now in France of
common usage — its " state of soul " typified by melody of line
and the eloquent language of harmonies. Among them should
be named, as exhibitors in the salons and in the great Exhibition
of 1900, Ernest Laurent, Ridel and Hippolyte Fournier, M. and
Mme H. Duhem, Le Sidaner, Paul Steck, &c. On the other hand,
a second group had formed of sturdy and fervent naturahstic
painters, in some ways resembhng the school of 1855 of which
mention has been made; young and bold, sometimes over-bold,
enthusiastic and emotional, and bent on giving expression to
the Hfe of their own day, especially among the people, not merely
recording its exterior aspects but epitomizing its meaning by
broad and strong synthetical compositions. At their head stood
Cottet, who combined in himself the romantic fire and the feeling
for orchestrated colour of Delacroix with the incisive realism and
bold handling of Courbet; next, and very near to him, but more
objective in his treatment, Lutien Simon, a manly painter and
rich colourist. Both by preference painted heroic or pathetic
scenes from the hfe of Breton mariners. After them came Rene
Menard, a more lyrical artist, whose classical themes and land-
scape carried us back to Poussin and Dauchez, Prinet, Wery, &c.
Foreign influences had meanwhile proved stimulating to the
new tendencies in art. Sympathy with the populace derived
added impulse from the works of the Belgian painters Constantin
Meunier, Leon Frederic and Struys; a taste for strong and
expressive colouring was diffused by certain American artists,
pupils of Whistler, and yet more by a busy group of young
Scotsmen favourably welcomed in Paris. But the most unfore-
seen result of this reactionary movement was a sudden reversion
to tradition. The cry of the realists of every shade had been for
" Nature ! " The newcomers raised the opposition cry of " The
Old Masters! " And in their name a protest was made against
the narrowness of the documentary school of art, a demand for
some loftier scheme of conventionality, and for a fuUer expression
of life, with its complex aspirations and visions. The spirit
of English Pre-Raphaehtism made its way in France by the
medium of translations from the Enghsh poets Shelley, Rossetti
and Swinburne, and the work of their followers Stephane
Mallarme and Le Sar Peladan; it gave rise to a httle artificial
impetus, which was furthered by the simultaneous but transient
rage for the works of Burne-Jones, which were exhibited with
his consent in some of the salons, and by the importation of
VVilham Morris's principles of decoration. The outcome was a
few small groups of symbohsts, the most famous being that of
the Rose >i* Croix, organized by Le Sar Peladan; then there was
Henri Martin, and the httle coterie of exhibitors attracted by a
dealer, the late M. le Bare de Bouttiville, in which Cottet was
for a short time entangled. But few interesting names are to
be identified: Dulac (d. 1S99), who became known chiefly for
his mystical hthographs in colour; Maurice Denis and Bonnard,
whose decorative compositions, with their refined and har-
monious colouring, are not devoid of charm; Vuillard, &c. But
it was in the school and studio of Gustave Moreau (1826-1898,
q.v.) that the fire of idealism burned most hotly. This excep-
tional man and rare painter, locked up in his solitude,
endeavoured, by a thorough and intelligent assimilation of aU
the traditions of the past, to find and create for himself a new
tongue — rich, nervous, eloquent, strong and resplendent — in
which to give utterance to the loftiest dreams that haunt the
modern soul. He revived every old myth and rejuvenated
every antique symbol, to represent in wonderful imagery all
the serene magnificence and all the terrible struggles of the
moral side of man, which he had explored to its lowest depths
and most heroic heights in man and woman, in poetry and in
death. Being appointed, towards the end of his life, to a
professorship in the Ecole des Beaux Arts, he regarded his
duties as a real apostleship, and his teaching soon spread from
his lecture-room and studio to those of the other masters. His
own work, though hardly known to his pupils at the time, at
first influenced their style; but, especially after his death, they
were quickly disgusted with their own detestable imitation of
subjects on which the master had set the stamp of his great
individuality; they deserted the fabulous world of the Greek
Olympus and the wonderful gardens of the Bible, to devote
them to a passionate expression of modern life. Desvallieres,
indeed, remained conspicuous in his original manner; Sabatte,
Maxence, Beronneau, Besson and many more happily worked
out their way on other hnes.
In trying to draw up the balance-sheet of French art at
the beginning of the 20th century, it were vain to try to enter
its work under the old-world headings of History, Genre, Por-
traits, Landscape. All the streams had burst their channels,
all the currents mingled. Historical painting, reinstated for a
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time by Puvis de Chavannes and J. P. Laurens, in which
Benjamin Constant and Cormon also distinguished themselves,
had but a few adherents who tried to maintain its dignity, either
in combination with landscape, like M. Tattegrain, or with the
ineffectual aid of archaeology, like M. Rochegrosse. At certain
times, especially just after 1870, the memory of the war gave
birth to a special genre of military subjects, under the distin-
guished guidance of Meissonier (q.v.), and the peculiar talents
of Alphonse de Neuville (q.v.), of Detaille (q.v.) and Protais.
This phase of contemporary history being exhausted, gave way
to pictures of military manoeuvres, or colonial wars and incidents
in recent history; it latterly went through a revival under a
demand for subjects from the Empire and the Revolution, in
consequence of the publication of many memoirs of those times.
Side by side with " history," religious art formerly tlourished
greatly; indeed, next to mythology, it was always dear to the
Academy. Apart from the subjects set for academical competi-
tions, there was only one little revival of any interest in this
kind. This was a sort of neo-evangelical offshoot, akin to the
literature and stress of religious discussion; and its leader, a man
of feeling rather than conviction, was J. C. Cazin (d. 1901).
Like Puvis de Chavannes, and under the intluence of Corot and
MiUet, of Hobbema, and yet more of Rembrandt, he attempted
to renew the vitality of history and legend by the added charm
of landscape and the introduction of more human, more living
and more modern, elements into the figures and accessories.
Following him, a little group developed this movement to
extravagance. The recognized leader at the beginning of the
20th century was Dagnan-Bouveret.
Through mythology and allegory we are brought back to real
life. No one now thinks in France of seeking any pretext for
displaying the nude beauty of woman. Henner, perhaps,
and Fantin-Latour, were the last to cherish a belief in Venus
and Artemis, in naiads and nymphs. Painters go direct to
the point nowadays; when they paint the nude, it is apart from
abstract fancies, and under realistic aspects. They are content
with the model. It is the living female. The whole motor
force of the time lies in the expression, under various aspects, of
real Ufe. This it is which has given such a soaring flight to the
two most primitive forms of the study of life, landscape and
portraiture. Portraits have in fact adopted every style that
can possibly be imagined: homely or fashionable, singly or in
groups, by the fire or out of doors, in some familiar attitude
and the surroundings of daily life, analytically precise, or
synthetically broad, a literal transcript or a bold epitome of
facts. As to landscape, no class of painting has been busier,
more alive or more productive. It has overflowed into every
other channel of art, giving them new spirit and a new hfe.
It has led the van in every struggle and won every victory.
Never was army more numerous or more various than that of
the landscape painters, nor more independent. All the traditions
find representatives among them, from Paul Flandrin to Rene
Menard. Naturalists, impressionists, open-air painters, learned
in analysis or potent in invention. We need only name
Harpignies, broadly decorative; Pointelin, thoughtful and
austere; and Cazin, grave and tender, to give a general idea
of the strength of the school.
Every quarter of the land has its painters: the north and the
south, Provence and Auvergne, Brittany, dear to the young
generation of colourists, the East, Algeria, Tunis — aU contribute
to form a French school of landscape, very living and daring,
of which, as successors of Fromentin and GuQlaumet, must be
named Dinet, Marius Perret, Paul Leroy and Girardot. But
it is more especially in the association of man and nature, in
painting simple folk and their struggle for life amid their natural
surroundings or by their homely hearth, in the glorification
of humble toil, that the latest French art finds its most
characteristic ideal life. (L. Be.)
Belgium
Belgium fills a great place in the realm of art; and while its
painters show a preference for simple subjects, their technique
is broad, rich and sound, the outcome of a fine tradition. Since
1855 international critics have been struck by the unity of effect
produced by the works of the Belgian school, as expressed more
especially by similarities of handling and colour. For the things
which distinguish all Belgian painters, even in their most un-
pictorial divagations, are a strong sense of contrast or harmony
of colouring, a free, bold style of brushwork, and a preference
for rich and solid painting. It is the tradition of the old Flemish
school. It would be more correct, indeed, to say traditions;
for the modifications of each tendency, inevitably reviving when
the success of another has exhausted itself, constantly show a
reversion either to the domestic " Primitives " (or, as we might
say, Pre-Raphaelites) of the Bruges school, or to the " decora-
tive " painters of the later time at Antwerp, and no veneer of
modern taste will ever succeed in masking this traditional
perennial groundwork. In this way the prevailing authority
of the French painter Louis David may be accounted for; as
acknowledged at Brussels at the beginning of the 19th century,
it was a reaction in antagonism to the heavy and flabby work
of the late Antwerp school, an unconscious reversion perhaps
to the finish and minuteness of the early painters of Bruges.
Indeed, in France, Ingres, himself David's most devoted disciple,
was reproached with trying to revive the Gothic art of Jean de
Bruges. Then, when David's followers produced only cold and
feeble work, Wappers arose to restore the methods of another
tradition, for which he secured a conspicuous triumph. Classical
tinsel made way, indeed, for romantic tinsel. The new art
was as conventional as the old, but it had the advantage of
being adaptable to the taste for show and splendour which
characterizes the nation, and it also admitted the presentment
of certain historical personages who survived in the memory
of the people. The inevitable reaction from this theatrical
art, with its affectation of noble sentiments, was to brutal realism.
Baron Henri Leys (q.v.) initiated it, and the crudity of his style
gave rise to a behef in a systematic purpose of supplanting the
Latin tradition by Germanic sentimentahty. Leys's archaic
realism was transformed at Brussels into a reaUsm of observation
and modern thought, in the painting of Charles de Groux.
The influence of Leys on this artist was merely superficial; .
for though he, too, affected painful subjects, it was because they I
appealed to his compassion. The principle represented by de '
Groux was destined to pioneer the school in a better way; at
the same time, from another side the authority of Courbet, the
French realist, who had been for some time in Brussels, and that
of the great landscape painters of the Fontainebleau school,
had suggested to artists a more attentive study of nature and a
remarkable reversion in technique to bolder and firmer handling.
At this time, among other remarkable men, Alfred Stevens
appeared on the scene, the finished artist of whom Camilla
Lemonnier truly said that he was " of the race of great painters,
and, like them, careful of finish " — that in him " the eye, the
hand and the brain all co-operated for the mysterious elabora-
tion " of impasto, colour and chiaroscuro, and " the least
touch was an operation of the mind." A brief period ensued
during which the greater number of Belgian artists were carried
away by the material charms of brushwork and paint. The
striving after brilliant efforts of colour which had characterized
the painters of the last generation then gave way to a devout
study of values; and at the same time it is to be noted that in
Belgium, as in France, landscape painters were the first to
discover the possibihty of giving new life to the interpretation
of nature by simplicity and sincerity of expression. They
tried to render their exact sensations; and we saw, as has been
said, " an increasingly predominant revelation of instinctive
feeling in aU classes of painting." Artists took an impartial
interest in all they saw, and the endeavour to paint well
eliminated the hope of expressing a high ideal; they now sought
only to utter in a work of art the impression made on them by
an external fact; and, too often, the strength of the effort
degenerated into brutality.
These new influences, which, in spite of the conservative
school, had by degrees modified the aspect of Belgian art in
BELGIUM]
PAINTING
507
general, led to the founation at Brussels of an association under
the name of the Free Society of Fine Arts. This group of painters
had a marked influence on the development of the school, and
hand in hand with the pupils of Portaels — a teacher of sober
methods, caring more for sound practice than for theories —
it encouraged not merely the expression of deep and domestic
feeling which we find in the works of Leys and de Groux, but
also the endeavour to paint nature in the broad light of open air.
The example of the Free Society found imitators; various artistic
groups were formed to organize exhibitions where new works
could be seen and studied irrespective of the influence of dealers,
or of the conservatism of the authorities which was increasingly
conspicuous in the oflicial galleries; tiU what had at first been
regarded as a mere audacious and fantastic demonstration
assumed the dignity of respectable effort. The " Cercle dcs
Vingt " (" The Twenty Club ") also exerted a marked influence.
By introducing into its exhibitions works by the greatest foreign
artists it released Belgian art from the uniformity which some
too patriotic theorists would fain have imposed. The famous
" principle of individuality in art " was asserted there in a really
remarkable manner, for side by side with the experiments of
painters bent on producing certain effects of light hung the
works of men who clung to literary or abstract subjects. Other
groups, again, were formed on the same hnes; but then came
the inevitable reaction from these elaborations of quivering
light and subtle expression, pushed, as it seemed, to an extreme.
The youngest generation of Brussels painters, in revolt against
the lights and ultra-refinements of their immediate predecessors,
seem to take pleasure in a return to gums and bitumen, and to
seek the violent effects so dear to the romantic painters of a
past time.
Brussels is the real centre of art in Belgium. Antwerp, the
home of Rubens, is resting on the memory of past glories, after
vainly trying to uphold the ideal formerly held in honour by
Flemish painters. And yet, so great is the prestige of this
ancient reputation, that Antwerp even now attracts artists
from every land, and more especially the dealers who go thither
to buy pictures as a common form of merchandise. At Ghent
the wonderful energy of the authorities who get up the triennial
exhibitions makes these the most interesting provincial shows
of their kind; other towns, as Liege, Tournay, Namur, Mons and
Spa also have periodical exhibitions.
From 1830, in the early days of the Belgian school of painting,
we may observe a tendency to seek for the fullest qualities of
colour, with delicate gradations of light and shade. In this Wappcrs
led the way. At a time when his teachers in the Antwerp Academy
would recognize nothing but the heavy brown tones of old paintings,
he was already representing the transparent shadows of natural
daylight. But heroic and sentimental romanticism was already
making way for the serious expression of domestic and popular
feeling, and thenceforward the prominence assumed by genre, and
yet more by landscape, led to a deeper and more direct study of the
various aspects of nature. At the same time a special sense of
colour was the leading characteristic of the artists of the time, and
it was truly said that " the ambition to be a fine painter was stronger
than the desire for scrupulous exactitude." Artists evidently aimed,
in the first place, at a solid impasto and glowing colour; an under-
tone, ruddy and golden, gleamed through the paler and more real
hues of the over-painting. In this way we may certainly recognize
the influence of the French colourists of Courbct's time; just as we
may trace the influence of the grey tone prevalent in Manet's day
in the effort to paint with more simple truth and fewer tricks of
recipe, which became evident when the " Free Society " was founded
at Brussels, and the pupils from Portaels's studio came to the front.
Among the artists who were then working the following must
be named (with their best works in the Brussels Gallery) : Alfred
Stevens iq.v.), an incomparably charming painter, characterized
by exquisite harmony of colour and marvellous dexterity with the
brush. In the Brussels Gallery are his " The Lady in Pink," " The
Studio," "The Widow," "A Painter and his Model," and " The
Lady-Bird." Joseph Stevens, his brother, a master-painter of dogs,
broad in his draughtsmanship, and painting in strong touches
of colour, is represented by " The Dog-Market," " Brussels — •
Morning," "A Dog before a Mirror"; Henri de Braekelecr, the
nephew and pupil of Leys, a fine painter of interiors, in warm and
golden tones, by " The Geographer," " A Farm — Interior," " A
Shop"; Lievin de Winne, a portrait painter, sober in style and
refined in execution, by "Leopold I., King of the Belgians";
Florent Willems, archaic and elegant, by " The Wedding Dress ";
Euggne Smits, a refined colourist, always working with the thought
of Venice in his mind, by " 'I'hc Procession of the Seasons "; Louis
Dubois, a powerful colourist with a full brush, striving to resemble
Courbet, by " Storks," " Fish " ; Alfred Verw6c, a fine animal painter,
with special love for a sheeny silkiness of texture, by " The Estuary
of the Scheldt," " The Fair Land of Flanders," " A Zeeland Team " ;
Alfred Verhaeren, a pupil of L. Dubois, by some "Interiors";
Fclicicn Rops, an extraordinary artist, precise in drawing, sensual
and incisive, by " A Parisienne '; F^lix ter Linden, a restless, refined
nature, always trying new subtleties of the brush and palette-knife,
by " Captives." Amongst other painters may be named Camille
van Camp, Gustave de Jonghe, Franz Verhas, and his brother Jan
Verhas, the painter of the popular " School Feast " in the Brussels
Gallery; and Jan van Beers, the clever painter of female coquct-
tishness, represented by pictures in the Antwerp Gallery.
As landscape painters, the chief are: Hippolyte Boulenger, a
refined draughtsman and a delicate colourist, represented in the
Brussels Gallery by " View of Dinant," " The Avenue of Old
Hornbeams at Tervueren," "The Meuse at Hastifere " ; Alfred de
Knyff , noble and elegant, by " The Marl Pit," " A Heath — Campine " ;
Joseph Coosemans, by "A Marsh — Campine"; Jules Montigny,
by " Wet Weather "; Alph. Asselbergs, by " A Marsh — Campine."
There are also Xavier and Ci5sar de Cock, painters in light gay
tones of colour; Gustave Den Duyts, a lover of melancholy twilight,
represented in the same gallery by "A Winter Evening"; Mme
Marie CoUart, a seeker after the more melancholy and concentrated
impressions of nature, by " The Old Orchard "; and Baron Jules
Gocthals.
Of the Antwerp school, Frangois Lamorinifire, archaic and minute,
has in the Brussels Gallery his " View from Edeghem," and there
is also Th6odore Verstraete, sentimental, or frenzied.
As marine painters: Paul Jean Clays, who delights in vivid
effects of colour, is represented at Brussels by " The Antwerp
Roadstead," "Calm on the Scheldt"; Louis Artan, who prefers
dark and powerful effects, by " The North Sea," besides Robert
Mols, A. Bouvier, and Lemayeur.
As painters of town scenery may be named F. Stroobant, a
draughtsman rather than a painter, who is represented in the
Brussels Gallery by " The Grande Place at Brussels," and J. B.
Van More, a colourist chiefly, by " The Cathedral at Belem."
The flower painter, Jean Robie, has in the Brussels Gallery
" Flowers and Fruit."
Jean Portaels, the painter of " A Box at the Theatre," at Budapest,
is represented in the Brussels Gallery by " The Daughter of Sion
Insulted "; fimile Wauters, a master of free and solid brushwork,
equally skilled in portraiture, historical composition and decorative
portrait painting, by "The Madness of Hugo van der Goes";
Edouard Agneessens, a genuine painter, with breadth of vision and
facile execution, by portraits; Andr6 Hennebicq, a painter of his-
torical subjects, by " Labourers in the Campagna, Rome "; Isidore
Verheydcn, a landscapist and portrait painter, by " Woodcutters ";
Eugene Verdyen and fimile Charlet should be mentioned, and the
landscape painter Henri van der Hecht, whose " On the Sand-
hills " is in the Brussels Gallery.
The principal landscape painters of what is known as the
" neutral tint " school {I'&ole du gris) are: Theodore Baron, faith-
ful to the sterner features of Belgian scener>', represented in the
Brussels Gallery by " A Winter Scene — Condroz "; Adrien Joseph
Heymans, a careful student of singular effects of light, by " Spring-
time"; Jacques Rosseels, a painter of the cheerful brightness of
the Flemish country, by " A Heath," besides Isidore Meyers and
Florent Crabeels.
Some figure painters who may be added to this group are:
Charles Hermans, whose picture " Dawn " (Brussels Gallery),
exhibited in 1875, betrays the ascendancy of the principles upheld
by the Free Society of Fine Arts; Jean de la Hoese, who has since
made portraits his special line; Emile Sacrd; L^on Philippet, repre-
sented in the Brussels Gallery by " The Murdered Man "; and Jan
Stobbaerts, a masterly painter, powerful but coarse, by " A Farm —
Interior."
Three more artists were destined to greater fame: Constantin
Meunier, a highly respected artist, equally a painter and a sculptor,
known as the Millet of the Flemish workman, who has depicted
with noble feeling his admiration and pity for one contemporary
state of the human race, and who is represented in the Brussels
Gallery by "The Peasants' War"; Xavier Mellerj', who tries to
express in works of high artistic merit the inner life of men and
things, and personifications of thought, by "A Drawing"; and
Alexandre Struys, a strong and clever painter, expressing his
sympathy with poverty and misfortune in works of remarkable
ability.
Besides these, Charles Verlat, a powerful and skilled artist,
painted a vast variety of subjects; his teaching was influential in
the Antwerp Academy. In the Brussels Gallen,' he is represented
by " Godfrey de Bouillon at the Siege of Jerusalem," " A Flock of
Sheep attacked by an Eagle"; Alfred Cluyscnaar, whose aim is to
produce decorative work on an enormous scale, by "Canossa";
Albrccht de Vriendt, by " Homage done to Charles V. as a Child ";
Juliaan de Vriendt, by " A Christmas Carol "; Victor Lagye, by
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PAINTING
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" The Witch." Franz Vinck, Wilhelm Geets, Karl Oorns, and P.
van dcr Ouderaa, endeavour to perpetuate, while softening down,
the style of historical painting so definitely formulated by Leys.
Finally, Joseph Stallaert, a painter of classical subjects, is represented
in the Brussels Gallery by " The Death of Dido." Eugene Devaux,
a remarkable draughtsman, should also be named.
Works by all those artists were to be seen in the Historical
Exhibition of Belgian Art at Brussels, 1880. Camille Lemonnier,
in his History of the Fine Arts in Belgitim, discussed this Exhibition
ver>' fully, pointing out three distinct periods in the history of the
century. The first, romantic, literarj' and artificial, extended from
1830 till nearly 1850; the second was a period of transition, domestic
in feeling, gradually developing to realism in the course of about
twenty years; the third began in the 'seventies, a time of careful
study, especially in landscape. This was followed by the beginning
of a fourth period, characterized by a freer sense of light and
atmosphere.
Apart from the exclusive tendency, inevitable under bureaucratic
administration, the mere arrangement on an antiquated plan of
the great academic salons was unsuited to the display of works
intended to represent individual feeling or peculiarities of pictorial
treatment. Hence it was that a great many painters came to
prefer smaller and more eclectic shows, leading to the fashion,
which still persists, of exhibitions by clubs or associations. The
Fine Arts Club at Brussels had long since afforded opportunities
for showing the pictures of the Societe Libre, founded in 1868,
which were condemned by the authorities as tending to " revolu-
tionize " art. After this, two associations of young painters were
formed at Brussels with a view to organizing their own exhibitions.
The " Chrysatide " Club was founded in 1875, and the " Essor "
(the " Soaring ") Club in 1876. In 1882, however, the Essor
obtained leave to open their exhibition in a room in the Palais
des Beaux Arts at Brussels. This tolerance was all the more
appreciated by the younger party because a new departure was
in course of development, again a modification in the effort to
represent light in painting. The " neutral tint " school had given
way to the school of " whiteness "; a luminous effect was to be
sought by a free use of brilliant colour with a very full brush. But
ere long this method proved unsatisfactory, and attention was
now turned towards a "sincerer and acuter perception of local
values"; and again the influence of certain French painters was
brought to bear — those of the group headed by C. Monet, preparing
for that of the French painter G. Seurat, the first who carried into
practice the systematic decomposition of colour by the process
known as pointillisme (the intimate juxtaposition of dots of colour).
In 1884, in consequence of a division in the Essor Club, the " XX "
Club waSjfounded, who, though thus limiting their number, reserved
the right of " issuing yearly invitations, and thus testifying the
sympathy they felt with the most independent artists of Belgium
and with those foreign painters with whom they had the most
pronounced affinity." For ten years the exhibitions of the " XX,"
whose careful and artistic arrangements were in themselves admir-
able, were the fount in Belgium of discussions on art. The limit
of its existence to ten years was determined when the club was
formed ; but as it was desirable that the principle of liberty in art
should still be held in honour, M. Octave ]\Iaus, the secretary of the
" XX " Club, organized the exhibitions of the Libre esthetiqne in
and since 1894. Other clubs had been formed in Brussels: the Fine
Art Society in 1891 and the " Furrow " (le Sillon) in 1893. In 1894
another breach in the Essor Club, which, growing very weak, was
soon to disappear — as the " Art Union " and the Voorwaerts Club had
done — led to the formation of the Society " for Art " {pour Farl);
and in 1896 a party of that club established a salon of idealist art
which favoured an exaggeration of the intellectual tendency already
begun in the exhibitions of the " XX." Subsequently, in the
exhibitions of the Sillon and of the Labeur Clubs (founded in 1898)
a reaction set in, in favour of heavy brown tones and ponderous
composition. At Antwerp the influence of the local societies — the
" Als Ik Kan," the Independent Art Club, and the " XIII " — was
less sensibly felt ; it was, however, enough to confirm certain waverers
in the direction of purely disinterested eft'ort.
It would be impossible to classify into definite groups those
painters whose first distinctive appearance was subsequent to the
Historical Exhibition in 1880. Only an approximate grouping
can be attempted by assigning each to the association in whose
exhibitions he made the best display of what he aimed at expressing.
Thus it was chiefly in the rooms of the Essor Club that works were
shown by the following: L. Frederic, a remarkable painter, combin-
ing wonderful facility of e.xecution with a sincerely simple sentiment
of homely pathos, represented at the Brussels Gallery by " Chalk
Sellers " ; E. Hoeterickx, a painter of crowds in the streets and parks;
F. Seghers, a pleasing colourist, who had made flower-painting his
speciality; two animal painters, F. van Leemputten, " Return from
Work " (Brussels Gallery), and E. van Damme-Sylva, as well as the
marine painter, A. Marcette. The landscape painters include J. de
Greet, almost brutal in style, " The Pool at Rouge-Cloitre " (Brussels
Gallery), C. Wolles, and Hamesse. L. Houyoux, F. Halkett, L.
Herbo are known for their portraits. And there are E. van Gelder,
J. Maynf, A. Crespin, a learned decorative painter and E. Duyck,
a graceful draughtsman, " A Dream " (Brussels Gallery). As
designers may be named A. Heins, a clever illustrator, and A. Lynen,
of a thoroughly Brussels type, keenly observant and satirical.
At the exhibitions of the " XX " were pictures by the following:
Fernand Khnopff (" Memories," a pastel, in Brussels Gallery),
an admirer of the refined domesticity of English contemporary art,
and of mystical art, as represented by Gustave Moreau; H. van
der Velde, a well-known exponent of the new methods in applied
art; J. Ensor, a whimsical nature, loving strange combinations of
colour and inconsequent fancies (Brussels Gallery: " The Lamp
Man "); Th. van Rysselberghe, a clever painter, especially in the
technique of dot painting {pointillisme) ; W. Schlobach, a remarkable
colourist of uncertain tendencies; Henry de Groux, son of Ch. de
Groux, a seer of visions represented in violent tones and workman-
ship; G. Vogels, a painter of thaw and rain; G. van Strydoneck, R.
Wytsman, J. Delvin, F. Charlet, Mile A. Boch, all of whom have
striven to bring light into their pictures; W. Finch and G. Lemmen.
To the triennial salons, to the exhibitions of the " Artistic " clubs,
to the House of Art (Maison d'art), at Brussels, and to the various
Antwerp clubs, the following have contributed: F. Courtens, Ros-
seels's brilliant pupil, an astonishing painter with a heavy impasto
(Brussels Gallery: " Coming out of Church ") ; J. de Lalaing, full of
lofty aims, but showing in his painting the qualities of a sculptor
(Brussels Gallery: " A Prehistoric Hunter "); E. Claus, a lover of
bright colour, and a genuine landscape painter (Brussels Gallery:
" A Flock on the Road ") ; A. Baertsoen, who delights in the quiet
corners of old Flemish towns; H. Evenepoel, a fine artist whose
premature death deprived the Belgian school of a highly distin-
guished personality (Brussels Gallery : " Child at Play ") ; G. Vanaise,
a painter of huge historical subjects; Ch. Mertens, a refined artist;
E. Motte, an interesting painter with a love of archaic methods
(Brussels Gallery: " A Girl's Head "); A. Leveque, an accomplished
draughtsman with a distinctive touch ; L. Wolles, an admirable
draughtsman; J. Leempoels, elaborate and minute; H. Richir, a
portrait painter; J. van den Eeckhout, a clever pupil of Verheyden;
J. Rosier, a skilful follower of Verlat; L. Abry, a painter of military
subjects; E. Carpentier, E. Vanhove, Luyten and Desmeth.
Essentially of the Antwerp School are F. van Kuyck, P. Verhaert,
de Jans, and Brunin of Ghent, Ch. Doudelet, C. Montald and van
Biesbroeck.
There is a group of artists at Liege whose sincerity and high
technical qualities have been recognized : A. Donnay, A. Rassenfosse,
E. Berchmans, F. Marechal, Dewitte. Of lady painters: Mmes
E. Beernaert, L. H^ger and J. Wytsman paint landscape; Mmes
B. Art, A. Ronner, G. Meunier and M. De Bievre paint flowers.
Mmes A. d'Anethan, Lambert de Rothschild, M. Philippson, H.
Calais and M. A. Marcotte paint figures and portraits.
The chief exhibitors at the Societe. pour I'art have been A.
Ciamberlani, a painter of large decorative compositions in subdued
tones; H. Ottevaere, a painter of night or twilight landscapes;
O. Coppens, R. Janssens and A. Hannotiau, who study old houses,
deserted churches and dead cities; F. Baes, an excellent pupil of
Frederic Fabry, O. and J. Dierickx, painters of decorative figures;
H. Meunier, an ingeniously decorative draughtsman; J, Delville,
founder of the salons of idealist art.
Leading exhibitors at the Voorwaerts Club have been E. Laermans,
a strange artist, as it were a Daumier with anchylose joints, but a
colourist (Brussels Gallery: "A Flemish Peasant"); V. Gilsoul, a
clever pupil of Courtens (Brussels Gallery: " The Kennel ") ; J. du
Jardin, the writer of L'Art flamand, an important critical work
illustrated by J. Middeleer.
Contributors to the exhibitions of the Sillon Club comprise G. M.
Stevens, P. Verdussen, P. Matthieu, J. Gouweloos, Bastien, Blieck,
Wagemansand Smeers;and V. Mignot, ingenious in designing posters.
At the exhibitions of water-colours have been seen the works
of Huberti, F. Binge, V. Uytterschaut, Stacquet and H. Cassiers,
who work with light washes or a clever use of body colour; Hagemans,
who paints with broad washes; Delaunois, the painter of mysterious
interiors; Th. Lybaert, minute in his brushwork; M. Romberg and
Titz, correct draughtsmen.
Since 1870 several important works of decorative painting in
public buildings have been carried out in Belgium. Guffens,
Swerts and Pauwels have succumbed to the influences of German
art, often cold and stiff; A. and J. Devriendt, V. Lagye, W. Geets
and Van der Ouderaa have followed more or less in the footsteps
of Leys. J. Stallaert has cleverly revived a classic style. Emile
Wauters and A. Hennebicq have adopted the traditions of Historical
Painting; and so too have L. Gallait, A. Cluysenaar, J. de Lalaing
and A. Bourland, though with a more decorative sense of conception
and treatment. But of all these works, certainly the most remark-
able in its artistic and intelligent fitness is that of M. Delbeke, in the
market-hall at Ypres.
See Camille Lemonnier, Histoire des arts en Belgique; A. J.
Wauters, La Peintitre flamande; J. du Jardin, L'Art flamand.
(F. K.*)
Holland
The entire Impressionist movement of the end of the 19th
century failed to exercise the slightest influence upon the Dutch.
They are only modern in so far as they again resort to the
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509
classics of their Fatherland. For a whole generation Josef
Israels was at the head of Dutch art. Born in 1827 at Groningen,
the son of a money-changer, he walked every day in his early
years, with a hnen money-bag under his arm, to the great banking
house of Mesdag, a son of which became later the famous marine
painter. During his student days in Amsterdam he lived
in the Ghetto, in the house of a poor but orthodox Jewish
family. He hungered in Paris, and was derided as a Jew in
the Delaroche school there. Such were the experiences of
Ufe that formed his character. In Zantvoort, the Kttle fishing
village close to Haarlem, he made a similar discovery to that
which Millet had already made at Barbizon. In the solitude
of the remote village he discovered that not only in the pages
of history, but also in everyday life, there are tragedies. Having
at first only painted historical subjects, he now began to depict
the hard struggle of the seafaring man, and the joys and griefs
of the poor. He commenced the long series of pictures that for
thirty years and more occupied the place of honour in all Dutch
exhibitions. They do not contain a story that can be rendered
into words; they only tell the tale of everyday hfe. Old women,
with rough, toil-worn hands and good-natured wrinkled faces,
sit comfortably at the stove. Weatherbeaten seamen wade
through the water, splashed by the waves as they drag along
the heavy anchors. A peasant child learns how to walk by the
aid of a little cart. Again, the dawning light falls softly upon
a peaceful deathbed, on which an old woman has just breathed
her last. A sad and resigned melancholy characterizes and
pervades all his works. His toilers do not stand up straight;
they are broken, without hope, and humble, and jaccompUsh
their appointed task without pleasure and without interest.
He paints human beings upon whom the oppressions of centuries
are resting; eyes that neither gaze on the present nor into the
future, but back on to the long, painful past. A Jew, bearing
the Ghetto yet in his bosom, is talking to us; and in his painting
of the lowly and oppressed he recounts the story of his own
youth and the history of his own race.
The younger painters have divided Israels' subjects among
them. Each has his own little field, which he tills and cultivates
with industry and good sense; and paints one picture, to be
repeated again and again during his hfetime. Christoph
Birschop, born in Friesland, settled as an artist in the land of
his birth, where the national costumes are so picturesque, with
golden chains, lace caps and silver embroidered bodices. As in
de Hoogh's pictures, the golden Ught streams through the window
upon the floor, upon deep crimson table-covers; and upon a few
silent human beings, whose lives are passed in dreamy monotony.
Gerk Henkes paints the fogs of the canals, with boats gliding
peacefully along. Albert Neuhuys selects simple family scenes,
in cosy rooms with the sunhght peeping stealthily through the
windows. Adolf Cortz, a pupil of Israels, loves the pale vapour
of autumn, grey-green plains and dusty country roads, with
silvery thistles and pale yellow flowers. The landscape painters,
also, have more in common with the old Dutch classic masters
than with the Parisian Impressionists. There, on the hill,
Rembrandt's windmill slowly flaps its wings; there Potter's
cows ruminate solemnly as they lie on the grass. There are
no coruscation and dazzling brightness, only the grey-brownish
mellowness that Van Goyen affected. Anton Mauve, Jacob
Maris and Willem Maris (d. 1910), are the best known landscape
men. Others are Mesdag, de Haas, Apol, KHnkenberg, Bastert,
Blommers, de Kock, Bosboom, Ten Kate, du Chattel, Ter
Meulen, Sande-Bakhuyzen. They all paint Dutch coast scenery,
Dutch fields, and Dutch cattle, in excellent keeping with the
old-master school, and with phlegmatic repose.
A few of the younger masters introduced a certain amount
of movement into this distinguished, though somewhat somni-
ferous, excellence. Breitner and Isaak Israels seem to belong
rather to Manet's school than to that of Holland. The " suburb "
pictures of W. Tholen, the flat landscapes bathed in light by
Paul Joseph Gabriel, and Jan Veth's and Havermann's im-
pressionistic portraits prove that, even among the Dutch, there
are artists who experiment. Jan Toorop has even attained
the proud distinction of being the enfant terrible of modern
exhibitions, and his works appear to belong rather to the art
of the old Assyrians than to the igth century. But those who
will endeavour to enter into their artistic spirit will soon discover
that Toorop is deserving of more than a mere shrug of the
shoulder; they will find that he is a great painter, who indepen-
dently pursues original aims. At the present time all criticism
of art is determined by the "line." All caprices and whims
of the " hne " arc now ridden as much to death, and with the
same enthusiasm, as were formerly those of " light." Toorop
occupies one of the first places among those whose only aim
consists in allowing the " line " to talk and make music. His
astonishing power of physical expression may be noted. With
what simple means, for example, he renders in his picture of the
" Sphinx " all phases of hysterical desire; in that of " The Three
Brides " nunlike resignation, chaste devotion and unbridled
voluptuousness. If his mastery over gesture, the glance of the
eye, be remarked — how each feature, each movement of the hand
and head, each raising and closing of the eyelid, exactly expresses
what it is intended to express — Toorop's pictures will no more
be scoffed at than those of Giotto, but he will be recognized as
one of the greatest masters of the " line " that the 19th century
produced.
See Max Rooses, Dutch Painters 0} the Nineteenth Century (Eng.
ed., London, 1898-1901). (R.Mr.J
Germany
The German school of painting, like that of France, entered
on a new phase after the Franco-German War of 1870. An
empire had been built up of the agglomeration of separate
states. Germany needed no longer to gaze back admiringly
at older and greater epochs. The historical painter became
neglected. Not the heroic deeds of the past, but the political
glories of the new empire were to be immortalized. This
transition is particularly noticeable in the work of Adolf von
Menzel. At the time of political stagnation he had recorded
on his canvas the glories of Prussia in the past. Now that the
present had achieved an importance of its own, he painted
"The Coronation of King William at Konigsberg" and "King
William's Departure for the Army "; and ultimately he became
the painter of popular subjects. The motley throng in the
streets had a special fascination for him, and he loved to draw
the crowd pushing its eager way to hsten to a band on the
promenade, in the market, at the doors of a theatre, or the
windows of a cafe. He discovered the poetry of the builder's
yard and the workshop. In the " Moderne Cyklopen " (iron-
works), painted in 1876, he left a monumental mark in the history
of German art; for in this picture he depicts a simple incident
in daily hfe, without any attempt at genre; and this was indeed
the characteristic of his work for the next few years. Humorous
anecdote, as represented by Knaus (b. 1829), Vautier (1829-
1898), Defregger (b. 1835) and Griitzner (b. 1846), found little
acceptance. Serious representations of modern hfe were required;
resort was made to all the expedients of the great painters,
and the 'seventies were years of artistic study for Germany.
Every great colourist in the past was thoroughly studied and
his secrets discovered. In Germany, Wilhelm Leibl (b. 1844),
holds the same prominent place that Courbet does in France.
Leibl, like Courlaet, {q.v.), showed that the task of painting is
not to narrate, but to depict by the most convincing means
at its disposal. He even went farther than Courbet in close
scrutiny of nature. With loving patience he strove to translate
into colour everything that his keen eye observed: he studied
nature with the devotion of the medieval artist. No feeling,
strictly speaking, is discernible in his work. His greatest
pictures are only of quiet life, with human accessories, and his
painful accuracy divests his pictures of poetry. But when he
first appeared, he was necessary. His painting of " Three
Peasant Women in Church " is a grand documentary work
of that period, whose first aim was to conquer the picturesque.
Leibl taught artists to study detail, to master the secrets of
flower, leaf and stalk.
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PAINTING
[GERMANY
A great number of pupils were encouraged by him to gain
such a thorough mastery of every detail of technique as to be
enabled to paint pictures that were thoroughly good in workman-
ship, irrespective of genre or anecdote. Among these, W.
Triibner (b. 1851) stands pre-eminently as a painter. His works
during the 'seventies are among the best painting done at
Munich during that period; they are full and rich in colour,
broad and bold in their treatment of the subject. A contem-
porary of his was Bruno Piglhein (b. 1848), a German Chaplin
in this Courbet group, not heavy and matter-of-fact, but bold
and witty. He revived the art of pastel painting and pointed
the way to a new style in panoramic and decorative painting,
whilst infusing beauty and grace into all his works.
The movement in applied arts which began at this time is
also important. The revival of the German Empire led to a
renaissance in German taste. The " old German dwelling-
rooms," which now became the fashion, could only be hung
with pictures in keeping with the style of the old masters, and
this entailed a closer study and imitation of their works than
had hitherto been customary. Wilhelm Diez (b. 1839) at the
head of the group, was as well acquainted with the epoch
from Durer and Holbein to Ostade and Rembrandt as any art
historian. In Harburger (b. 1846) Adrian Brouwer lived once
more; and in Lofitz (b. 1845) Quintin Matsys. Claus Meyer
(b. 1846) imitated all the artistic tricks of Pieter de Hooch and
Van der Neer of Delft. Holbein's costume studies were at first
models for Fritz August Kaulbach (b. 1850). Later, he extended
his studies to Dolci and Van Dyck, to Watteau and Gainsborough.
Adolf Lier (1827-1882) applied the beauty of tone beloved by
the old masters to landscape. Von Lenbach's works show the
zenith of old-master talent in Germany. He had educated
himself as a copyist of classical masterpieces, and passed through
a schooUng in the study of old masters such as none of his contem-
poraries had enjoyed. The copies which, as a young man, he
made for Count Schach in Italy and Spain are among the best
the brush has ever accomplished. Titian and Rubens, Velazquez
and Giorgione, were imitated by him with equal success. In
like manner he gave to his own works their distinguished old-
master charm. More than all other painters of historical
subjects, Lenbach enjoys the distinction of having been the
historian of his epoch. He gave the great men of the era of
the emperor William I. the form in which they will live in
German history, and beauty of colour is blended in all these
pictures with their brilliant evidence of thought. The aspirations
of a whole generation to restore the technique of the old masters
found their realization in Lenbach.
Such was the position of things when there was imported from
France the desire to paint light and sun. It was argued that
the views which the old masters held concerning colour were in
glaring contradiction to what the eye actually saw. The old
masters, it was said, paid particular attention to the conditions of
light and shade under which they did their work. The golden
character of the Italian Renaissance was traceable to the old
cathedrals lighted by stained-glass windows. The light and shade
of the Netherlands were in keeping with the light and shadow of
the artists' studios lighted by little panes, and due partly to the
fact that their pictures were intended to hang in dreamy, brown
panelled chambers. But was this golden or brown hght suitable
for the 19th century? Were we not illogical, when for the sake
of reproducing the tones of the old masters, we darkened our
studios and shut out the dayhght by coloured glass windows
and heavy curtains? Was not hght one of the greatest acquisi-
tions of recent times? When the Dutch painted the world
used only httle panes of glass. Now the daylight streamed
into our rooms through great white sheets of crystal. When
our grandfathers lived there were only candles and oil lamps.
Now we had gas and electric light. Instead of imitating the old
masters, let us paint the colouristic charms that were unknown
to them. Let us do honour to the new marvels of colour.
With such arguments as were advanced in France, did artists
in Germany adopt the plein-air and abandon older methods;
and a development like that which took place in France after
the days of Manet ensued in Germany also. Dayhght, which
had so long been kept down, was now to be reproduced as clear
and bright. After the art of painting strong effects full of day-
light had been grappled with, other and more difficult problems
of light effects were attempted. After the full blaze of sunshine
had been successfully reproduced, such effects as the haze of
early morning, the sultry vaporous atmosphere of the thunder-
storm, the mysterious night, the blue-grey dawn, the dehcate
colours of variegated Chinese lanterns, the scintillation of gas
and lamplight, and the dreamy twihght in the interior were
dealt with.
Max Liebermann (b. 1849) was the first to join the new de-
parture. In Paris he had learnt technique. Holland, the country
of fogs, inspired him with the love for atmospheric effects,
and its scenes of simple life provided him with many subjects.
Perhaps the " Net Menders " in the Hamburg Kunsthalle is
most typical of Liebermann's art. Frank Skarbina (b. 1849),
who was the second to join the new movement in Berhn, pro-
ceeded to studies of twQight and artificial light effects.
Hans Herrman (b. 1858), who settled himself on quays and
ports; Hugo Volgel, who endeavoured to utihze scenes from
contemporary life for decorative pictures; and the two landscape
painters, Ludwig Dettmann (b. 1865) and Walther Leistikow
(b. 1S65), are other representatives of modern Berlin art. Carls-
ruhe, in the 'eighties, produced some modern pictures of great
merit, when Gustav Schonleber (b. 1851) and Herrmann Baisch
(b. 1846) showed daintily conceived pictures of Dutch landscapes.
In later years Count Leopold Kalckreuth (b. 1855), whose
powerfully conceived representations of peasant hfe belong to
the best productions of German realism, and Victor Weishaupt
(b. 1848), the animal painter, removed thence to Stuttgart,
the residence also of Otto Reiniger (b. 1863), a landscape painter
of great originahty. At Dresden we find Gotthard Kuehl
(b. 1850), long domiciled in Paris, who was one of the first to accept
Manet's teaching. In North Germany, Worpswede became
a German Barbizon; Ende (b. i860), Vogeler, and Vinnen
(b. 1863) also worked there. In Weimar, two landscape painters
of great refinement must be mentioned — Theodor Hagen
(b. 1842) and Gleichen-Russwurm (b. 1866). As far back as
the 'seventies they rendered ploughed fields, hills enveloped in
thin vapour at sunrise, waving fields of corn, and apple trees
in full bloom trembling in the rays of the evening glow with
a dehcate understanding of natural effects.
But Munich still remains the headquarters of German art,
which is there the first of aU interests and pervades all circles.
Almost all those who are working in other German towns receive
in that city their inspirations and have indeed remained its
citizens in heart. The international exhibitions have given
a great European tone and impulse to creative work. Among
the elders, Albert von Keller (b. 1S41) has perhaps the greatest
originahty. He is one of those who practised the art of the
brush as long ago as the 'seventies, and painted, not for the
sake of historical subjects or for genre, but for the sole love of
his art. He painted everything, never restricted himself to
any fixed programme, and never became trivial. He is perhaps
in Germany the only painter of female portraits who has caught
in his pictures a httle of the charm that betrays itself in the
expression and movements of the modern woman. In the works
of Freiherr von Habermann (b. 1S49) this refinement of senti-
ment, as expressed in colour, is combined with a stiU more
decided shade of eccentricity. Already in his " Child of Sorrow,"
which hangs in the National Gallery at Berhn, he struck that
painful chord that always remained his favourite. However
dift'erent the subjects he has painted, a morbid note pervades
them all.
In Heinrich Ziigel (b. 1850), the Munich school possesses an
animal painter who rivals the great Frenchmen in original power.
Ludwig Dill (b. 1848), whom one must still count as " Dachauer,"
in spite of his migration to Carlsruhe, had for some time past
been famous as a painter of Venice, the lagoons and Chioggia,
when the impressionist movement became for him the starting-
point of a new development. He strove for still brighter light,
GERMANY]
PAINTING
511
tried to realize the most subtle shades of colour, and raised
himself from a painter of natural impressions to free and poetical
lyricism. Arthur Langhammer (b. 1855), Ludwig Herterich, Leo
Samberger(b. 185 1), Hans von Bartels (b. 1856), Wilhelm Keller-
Reutlinger (b. 1854), Beno Becker, Louis Corinth (b. 1858),
Max Slevogt, are others that may be mentioned among the
later Munich artists.
Fritz von Uhde (b. 1848) occupies a peculiar position as being
the first to apply the principles of naturalism to religious art.
Immediately before him, Eduard von Gebhardt (b. 1838) had
gone back to the angular style of the old northern masters,
that of Roger van der Weyden and Albert Diirer, believing
he could draw the old Biblical events closer to present times
by relating them in Luther's language and representing them
as taking place in the most powerful epoch of German ecclesi-
astical history. Now that historical paintings had been dis-
possessed by modern and contemporary subjects, it followed
also that scenes from the life of Christ had to be laid in modern
times. "I do not assert that only the commonplace occurrences
of everyday life can be painted. If the historical past be painted,
it should be represented in human garb corresponding to the
life we see about us, in the surroundings of our own country,
peopled with the people moving before our very eyes, just as
if the drama had only been enacted the previous evening."
Thus wrote Bastien-Lepage in 1879, when creating his " Jeanne
d'Arc," and in this sense did Uhde paint. But besides the
charm of feeling expressed in the subtlest hues, there is also the
charm of the noble line.
At the time when, in England, Rossetti and Burne-Jones,
and, in France, Puvis de Chavannes and Gustave Moreau,
stepped into the foreground, in Germany Feuerbach (1829-1880),
Mar6es (1837-1887), Thoma (b. 1839), and Bocklin (1827-1901)
were discovered. Feuerbach's life was one series of privations
and disappointments. His " Banquet of Plato," " Song of
Spring," " Iphigenia " and " Pieta," and his " Medea " and
" Battle of the Amazons, " met with but scant recognition on
their appearance. To some they appeared to lack sentiment,
to others they were " not sufficiently German." When he died
in Venice in 1880, he had become a stranger to his contemporaries.
But posterity accorded him the laurel that his own age had
denied him. Just those points in his pictures to which exception
had been taken during his lifetime, the great solemn restfulness
of his colouring and the calm dignity of his contours, made him
appear contemporary.
Hans von Marees fulfilled a similar mission in the sphere of
decorative art; his, likewise, was a talent that was not discovered
until after his death. He is most in touch with Puvis de
Chavannes. But the result was different. Puvis was recognized
on his first appearance. Marees never had a chance of revealing
his real strength. He was only 28 years of age when he first
went to Rome; there in 1873, he was commissioned to paint some
pictures for the walls of the Zoological Station at Naples. After
that time, nothing more was heard of him until 1891, when four
years after his death the works he had left behind him were ex-
hibited and presented to the gallery of Schleissheim. The value
of these works of art must not be sought in their technique. The
art of Puvis rests on a firm realistic foundation, but Marees
had finished his studies of nature too prematurely for the correct-
ness of his drawing. In spite of this defect, they encourage
as well as excite, owing to the principle which underlies them, and
which they share in equal degree with those of Puvis. Like
Puvis, Marees repudiated all illuminating efforts whereby forms
might be brought into relief. He only retained what was
intrinsically essential, the large lines in nature, as well as those
of the human frame.
Next to these artists stands Hans Thoma, like one of the
great masters of Diirer's time. In Marees and Feuerbach's
works there is the solemn grandeur of the fresco; in those of
Thoma there is nothing of Southern loveliness, but something
of the homeliness of the old German art of woodcut; nay,
something philistine, rustic, patriarchal — the simplicity of heart
and childlike innocence that entrance us in German folklore.
in the paintings of Moritz von Schwind (1804-1871) and
Ludwig Richtcr (1803-1884). He had grown up at Bernau,
a small village of the Black Forest. Blossoming fruit-trees
and silver brooks, green meadows and solitary peasants' cottages,
silent valleys and warm summer evenings, grazing cattle and
the cackle of the farmyard, all lived in his memory when he
went to Weimar to study the painter's art. This pious faith-
fulness to the home of his birth and touching affection for the
scenes of his childhood pervade all his art and are its leading
feature. Even when depicting classical subjects, the mytho-
logical marvels of the ocean and centaurs, Thoma still remains
the simple-hearted German, who, like Cranach, conceives
antiquity as a romantic fairy tale, as the legendary period of
chivalry.
Whether it be correct to place Bocklin (q.v.) in the same
category with these painters, or whether he has a right to a
separate place, posterity may decide. The great art of the old
masters has weighed heavily upon the development of that of
our own age. Even the idealists, who have been mentioned,
trace their pedigree back to the old masters. However modern
in conception, they are to all intents and purposes " old " as
regards the form they employed to express their modern ideas.
Bocklin has no ancestor in the history of art; no stroke of his
brush reminds us of a leader. No one can think of tracing him
back to the Academy of Diisseldorf, to Lessing, or Schorner,
as his first teacher. Even less can he be called an imitator of
the old masters. His works are the result of nature in her
different aspects; they have not their origin in literary or histori-
cal suggestion. The catalogue of his conceptions, of landscape
in varying moods, is inexhaustible. But landscape does not
suffice to express his resources. Knights on the quest for
adventure, Saracens storming flaming citadels, Tritons chasing
the daughters of Neptune in the billowy waves; such were the
subjects which appealed to him. He endowed all fanciful
beings that people the atmosphere, that live in the trees, on lonely
rocks, or that move and have their being in the slimy bottom
of the sea, with body and soul, and placed a second world at
the side of the world of actuality. Yet this universe of phantasy
was too narrow for the master mind. If it be asked who created
on the continent of Europe the most fervid religious paintings
of the 19th century; who alone exhausted the entire scale of
sensations, from the placidity of repose to the sublimity of hero-
ism, from the gayest laughter to tragedy; who possessed the
most solemn and most serious language of form and, at the same
time, the greatest poetry of colour — the name of Bocklin will
most probably form the answer.
These masters were for their younger brethren the pioneers
into a new world of art. It was momentous for the painter's
art that in Germany, no less than in England and France, a
new movement at this time set in — the so-called " arts and
crafts." Hitherto the various branches of art had followed
different courses. The most beautiful paintings were often
hung in surroundings grievously lacking in taste. Now arose
the ambition to make the room itself a work of art. The picture,
as such, now no more stands in the foreground, but the different
arts strive together to form a single piece of art. The picture
is regarded as merely a decorative accessory.
Among the younger painters still to be mentioned. Max
Klinger (b. 1857) is perhaps the most brilliant. He had begun
with the etching-needle, and by its aid gave us entire novels, crisp
little dramas of everyday life. But this realism was only a
preliminary phase enabling him to pass on to a great independent
art of form. His great picture, " Christ in Olympus," combines
beauty of form with deep philosophical meaning. Ibsen in
1873, in his Emperor and Galilean, talked of a " third realm,"
combining heathen beauty with Christian profundity. Klinger's
" Christ in Olympus " strikes the beholder as the realization
of this idea. Stuck (b. 1S63) shares with him the Hellenic
serenity of form, the classical simplicity. Apart from this,
his pictures are thoroughly different. It might almost be said
"Klinger is the Nazarene who stepped into Olympus"; the
thoughtful, deep son of the North who carries profound physical
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problems into the beauty-loving Hellenic worship of the
senses. Stuck's art is, also, almost classical in its insensi-
bility and petriiied coldness. In his first picture (1889) " The
Guardian of Paradise " he painted a slim wiry angel, who, like
Donatello's " St George," in calm confidence and self-assurance
points the sword before him. And similar rigid figures standing
erect in steadiness — always portraits of himself^recur again
and again in his works. Even his religious pictures — the
" Pieta " and " The Crucifixion " — are, in reality, antique.
One would seek in vain in them for the piety of the old masters
or the Germanic fervour of Uhde. Grand in style and line,
firm, solemn, serious in arrangement, they are yet hard and cold
in conception.
Ludwig von Hoffmann (b. 1861) stands next to him, a gentle,
dreamy German. In Stuck's work everything is strong and
rugged: here aU is soft and round. There the massiveness
of sculpture and stiff heraldic lines: here all dissolved into
variegated fairy tales, glowing harmonies. However classical
he may appear, yet it is only the old yearning of the Germani
for Hesperia — the song of Mignon — that rings throughout
his works; the longing to emerge from the mist and the fog
into the light, from the humdrum of everyday Life into the
remote fabulous world of fairydom, the longing to escape from
sin and attain perfect innocence.
There are numerous others deserving of mention besides those
already discussed. Josef Sattler (d. 1867), Melchior Lechter
(b. 1S71), and Otto Greiner (b. 1869), and hkewise those who,
such as Von Berlepsch (b. 1852) and Otto Eckmann (b. 1865),
devoted their energies again to " appUed art."
See R. Muther, The History of Modern Painting (London, 1895);
Deutsches Kunstler-Lexikon der Cegenwart in biographischen Skizzen
(Leipzig, 1898); Mrs de la Mazeliere, La Peinture allemande an
XIX' siecle (Paris, 1900). (R. Mr.)
AuSTRI.A-HuNG.'iRY
"In Austria the influence of Makart (1840-1884) was predomi-
nant in the school of painting during the last quarter of the loth
century. He personified the classical expression of an epoch,
when a long period of colour-blindness was followed by an
intoxication of colour. Whilst Piloty's ambition stopped short
at the presentation of correct historical pictures, his pupil, Makart
felt himself a real painter. He does not interpret either deep
thought or historical events, nor does he group his pictures
together to suit the views of the art student. His work is
essentially that of a colourist. Whatever his subject may be,
whether he depicts " The Plague in Florence," " The Nuptials
of Caterina Cornaro," " The Triumphal Entry of Charles V.,"
" The Bark of Cleopatra," or " The Five Senses," " The Chase of
Diana," or " The Chase of the Amazons," his pictures are
romances of brilUant dresses and human flesh. A few studies
of the nude and sketches of colour, in which he merely touched
the notes that were to be combined into chords, were the sole
preliminaries he required for his historical paintings. Draperies,
jewels, and voluptuous female forms, flowers, fruit, fishes and
marble— everything that is full of life and sensuous emotion,
and shines and glitters, he heaps together into gorgeous still-
life. And because by this picturesque sensuousness he restored
to Austrian art a long-lost national pecuharity, his appearance
on the scene was as epoch-making as if some strong power had
shifted the centre of gravity of all current views and ideas.
In estimating Makart, however, we must not dwell on his
pictures alone. He did more than merely paint — he lived them.
Almost prematurely he dreamed the beautiful dream which
in later days came nearer realization, that no art can exist
apart from life — that life itself must be made an art. His
studio, not without reason, was called his most beautiful work
of art. Whithersoever his travels led him — to Granada, Algiers,
or Cairo — he made extensive purchases, and refreshed his eye
with the luscious splendour of rich silks and the soft lustrous
hues of velvets. He made collections of carved ivory and
Egyptian mummies. Gobelins, armour and weapons, old chests,
antique sculpture, golden brocades with glittering embroideries,
encrusted coverlets and the precious textures of the East,
columns, pictures, trophies of all ages and all climes. He
scattered money broadcast in striving to realize his dream of
beauty — to pass one night, one hour, in the world of Rubens,
so bright in colour, so princely in splendour.
Uniting as he did these artistic qualities in his own person —
not only because he was a painter, but because in no other
besides did the great yearning for aesthetic culture find such
powerful utterance — Makart exercised an influence in Austria
far transcending the actual sphere of the painter's art. An
intense fascination went forth from the little man with the black
beard and penetrating glance. At that time Makart dominated
not merely Viennese art, but likewise the whole cultured life of
the capital. Not only the Makart hat and the Makart bouquet
made their pilgrimage through the world, he became also the
motive power in all intellectual spheres. When Charlotte
Wolter acted Cleopatra or Messalina on the stage, she not only
wore dresses specially sketched for her by Makart, but she also
spoke in Makart 's style, just as Hamerhng wrote in it. A
veritable Makart fever had, indeed, taken possession of Vienna.
No other painter of the 19th century was so popular, the life
of none other was surrounded by such princely sumptuousness.
The scene when, during the festivals of 1879, he headed the
procession of artists past the imperial box, mounted on a white
steed glittering with gold, the Rubens hat with white feathers
on his head, amidst the boisterous acclamations of the populace,
is unique in the modern history of art. It is the greatest homage
that a Philistine century ever offered an artist.
The life of August von Pettenkofen (1821-1889), who should,
after Makart, be accounted the greatest Austrian painter of
the last quarter of the 19th century, was passed much more
modestly and serenely. He had grown up on one of his father's
estates in GaHcia, and had been a cavalry officer before becoming
a painter. His place in Austria is that of Mcnzel in Germany.
With Pettenkofen a new style appeared. The representation
of modern subjects now began to take the place of historical
painting, wliich had for so long a time been the ruling taste;
not in the sense of the old-fashioned genre picture, but in that
of artistic refined painting. Here, again, the distinctive Austrian
note can be easily recognized. Pettenkofen's people are lazy,
and yawn. All is contemplative and peaceful, fuU of dreamy,
sleepy repose.
But neither Pettenkofen nor Makart has found followers.
The great movement which, originating with Manet, took place
in other centres of art, passed Austria by without leaving a
trace. Hans Canon (b. 1829), who in his pictures transported
the characters of the " Griinderzeit " to Venice of bygone days,
and reproduced them as Venetian nobles and ladies of quality,
is also a painter of note. So likewise is Rudolf Alt (b. 1812),
still active with the brush in 1902. a refined painter in water-
colours, who reproduces the beauties of Old Vienna in his subtle
architectural sketches. Leopold Karl Midler (1834-1892),
who had lived in Cairo with IMakart, found his sphere of art in
the variegated world of the Nile, and his ethnographical exact-
ness, combined with his delicate colouring, made him for a long
while much in request as a painter of Oriental scenes, and a
popular iUustrator of Egyptological works. Emil Schindler
was a great landscape painter, who often rose from faithful
interpretation of nature to an almost heroic height. Heinrich
von Angeli (b. 1840), again, furnished — as he continued to do —
the European courts with his representative pictures, combining
refined conception with smooth elegant technique. These
are the only artists who during the 'eighties rose above local
mediocrity. After Makart died in 1S84, the sun of Austrian
art seemed to have set. Stagnation reigned supreme.
Only since the " Secession " from the old Society of Artists
{Kiinstlergcnossenschaft), which took place in 1896, has the
former artistic life recommenced in \'ienna. Theodor von
Hermann, long domiciled in Paris, was the gifted initiator of the
new movement, and succeeded in rousing a storm of discontent
among the rising school of Viennese artists. They found a
literar>' champion in their hero's father, who pleaded in eloquent
language for a new Austrian culture. In November 1898 the
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513
Secessionists opened their first exhibition in a building creeled
by Josef Olbriick on the Wienerzeil. At first the importance
of these exhibitions lay almost exclusively in the fact that the
Viennese were thus given an opportunity of making acquaintance
with the famous foreign masters, Puvis de Chavannes, Segantini,
Bcsnard, Brangwyn, Meunier, Khnopff, Henri Martin, Vischer,
who had until then been practically unknown in Austria, so
that the public only then realized the inferiority of their country-
men's artistic work. Thus while acquainting the Viennese public
with the strivings of European art, the Secession endeavoured
at the same time to produce, in rivalry with foreigners,
works of equal artistic merit. Leading foreign masters now
joined the movement, and Vienna, which had so long stood
aside, through inability to be represented worthily at interna-
tional exhibitions, became once more a factor in contemporary
European art.
Among the painters of the Secession, Gustav Klint possesses,
perhaps, the most powerful original talent. Refined portraits,
subtle landscapes and decorative pictures, painted for the
Tumba Palace and for the Vienna Hof Museum, first brought
his name before the world. But he became famous in conse-
quence of the controversy which arose around his picture
" Philosophy." He had been commissioned to paint the large
ceiling piece for the " aula " of the Vienna University, and
instead of selecting a classical subject he essayed an independent
work. The heavens open; golden and silvery stars twinkle;
sparks of light gleam; masses of green cloud and vapour form
clusters; naked human forms float about; a fiery head, crowned
with laurel, gazes on the scene with large, serious eyes. Science
climbs down to the sources of Truth: yet Truth always remains
the inscrutable Sphinx. Klint paid the penalty of his bold
originality by his work remaining dark and incomprehensible to
most people. It has, notwithstanding, an historical importance
for Austria corresponding to that which similar works of Besnard
have for France. It embodies the first attempt to place monu-
mental painting upon a purely colouristic basis, and to portray
allegorical subjects as pure visions of colour. After Klint,
Josef Engelhart (b. 1864) is deserving of notice. He is the true
painter of Viennese life. On his first appearance his art was
centred in his native place, and was strong in local colour, which
was lacking in refinement. To acquire subtlety, he studied
the great foreign masters and became a clever juggler with the
brush, showing as much dexterity as any of them. Yet this
virtuosity meant, in his case, only a good schoohng, which
should enable him to return with improved means to those
subjects best suited to his talent. His works are artistic, but
at the same time distinctly local.
Carl Moll (b. 1861) understands how to render with equal
skill the play of light in a room and that of the sunbeams upon
the fresh green grass. The rural pictures of Rist produce a
fresh, cool and sunny effect upon the eye; like a refreshing
draught from a cool mountain spring — a piece of Norway on
Austrian soil. Zettel's landscapes are almost too markedly
Swiss in colour and conception. Julius von KoUmann worked
a long time in Paris and London, and acquired, in intercourse
with the great foreign painters — notably Carriere and Watts —
an exquisitely refined taste, an almost hyperaesthetical sense
for discreetly toned-down colour and for the music of the line.
In Friedrich Konig, M. von Schwind's romantic vein is revived.
Even the simplest scenes from nature appear under his hand
as enchanted groves whispering secrets. Everything is true
and, at the same time, dreamy and mysterious. The mythical
beings of old German legends — dragons and enchanted princesses
— peer through the forest thicket. Ernst Nowak (b. 1851),
compared with him, is a sturdy painter, who knows his business
well. He sings no delicate lyric. When one stands close by,
his pictures appear like masonry — like reliefs. Seen from, a
distance, the blotches of colour unite into large powerful forms.
Bernatzik understands how to interpret with great subtlety
twihght moods — moonshine struggling with the light of street
lamps, or with the dawn. Ticky followed Henri Martin in
painting solemn forest pictures. Ferdinand Andre leans towards
ihe austere power of Millet. He tells us in his work of labour
in l\v: fields, of bronzed faces and hands callous with toil; and
es[)ccially must his charcoal drawings be mentioned, in which
the colour overlays the forms like light vapour, and which,
small as they are, have a sculptural effect. Auchentelier —
known for his female studies — and Hiinisch and Otto Friedrich
(b. 1862), refined and subtle as landscape painters, must also
be mentioned.
In rivalry with the Secession, the " Kiinstlergenossenschaft "
has taken a fresh upward flight. Among figure painters,
Dclug, Goltz (b. 1857), Hirschl and Veith are conspicuous; but
still greater fascination is exercised by landscape painters such
as Amesadan, Charlcmont, &c., whose works show Austrian art
in its most amiable aspect. Apart from Austrians proper, there
are also representatives of the other nationalities which compose
" the monarchy of many tongues." Bohemia takes the lead
with a celebrity of European reputation — Ciabriel Max (b. 1840),
who, although of Piloty's school and residing in Munich, never
repudiated his Bohemian origin. The days of his youth were
passed in Prague; and Prague, the medieval, with its narrow
winding alleys, is the most mysterious of aU Austrian cities,
enveloped in the breath of old memories and bygone legends.
From this soil Max drew the mysterious fragrance that char-
acterizes his pictures. His earliest work, the " Female Martyr
on the Cross " (1867), struck that sweetly painful, half-torment-
ing, half-enchanting keynote that has since remained distinc-
tively his. Commonplace historical painting received at Max's
hands an entirely new nuance. The morbidness of the mortuary
and the lunatic asylum, interspersed with spectres — something
perverse, unnatural and heartrending — this is the true note
of his art. His martyrs are never men — only delicate girls and
helpless women. His colouring corresponds to his subjects. The
sensations his pictures produce are akin to those which the sight
of a beautiful girl lying in a mortuary, or the prison scene in
Faust enacted in real life, might be expected to excite. He
even appKes the results of hypnotism and spiritualism to
Biblical characters. In many of his pictures refinement in
the selection of effects is missing. By over-production Max
has himself vulgarized his art. Yet, despite his manner of
depicting the mysteries of the realms of shadows, and the
intrusion of the spirit-world into realism, he remains a
modern master. A new province — the spectral — was opened
up by him to art.
Hans Schwaiger is the real raconteur of Bohemian legends.
He, likewise, passed his youth in a small Bohemian village,
over which old memories stiU brooded. In Hradec, places
upon which the gallows had stood were still pointed out. The
lonely corridors and passages of the ruined castle were haunted
by the shades of its old possessors. This is the mood that led
Schwaiger to legend-painting. But underlying his fairy tales
there are the gallows or the alchemy of F"aust. The landscape
with its gloomy skies, the wooden huts, turrets, dwarfed trees —
such are ever the accompaniments of his figures.
Of the younger generation of painters, Emil Orlick (b. 1870)
seems to be the most versatile. Having acquired technique
in Paris and Munich, he practically discovered Old Prague to
the world of art. The dark little alleys of the ancient town,
swarming with life compressed within their narrow compass,
fascinated him. In order to retain and convey all the impressions
that crowded in upon him in such superabundant plenitude,
he learned how to use the knife of the wood-carver, the needle
of the etcher, and the pencil of the lithographer. His studio more
resembles the workshop of a printer than the atelier of a painter.
In the field of lithography he has attained remarkable results.
Orlick has also made his own everything that can be learned
from the Japanese. Besides these masters, Albert Hynais, the
creator of decorative pictures almost Parisian in conception,
must be mentioned. The landscape painters Wickener, Jansa,
Slavicek, and Hudecek relate, in gentle melancholy tones of colour,
the atmosphere and sohtude of the wide plains of Bohemia.
In Poland, painting has its home at Cracow. Down to the
year 1893 Johann Matejko was living there, in the capacity
XX. 17
514
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[ITALY
of director of the Academy. His pictures are remarkable for
their originality and almost brutal force, and differ very widely
from the conventional productions of historical painters. At
the close of the 19th century Axentowicz, Olga Hojnanska,
Mehoffer, Stanislawski and Wyotkowski attracted attention.
Although apparently laying much less stress on their Polish
nationality than their Russian countrymen, their works proclaim
the soul of the Polish nation, with its chivalrous gallantry and
mute resigned grief, in a much purer form.
Hungary in the spring of 1899 lost him whom it revered as
the greatest of its painters — Michael Munkacsy. Long before
his death his brush had become idle. To the younger generation,
which seeks different aims, his name has become almost synony-
mous with a wrongly-conceived old-masterly coloration, and with
sensation painting and hollowness. " The Last Day of the
Condemned Prisoner," his first youthful picture, contained
the programme of his art. Then came " The Last Moments
of Mozart," and " Milton dictating Paradise Lost." These
titles summon up before our eyes a period of all that is false
in eclectic art, dominated by Delaroche and Piloty. Even the
simple subjects of the Gospel were treated by Munkacsy in
Piloty's meretricious style. " Christ before PiJate," "Ecce
Homo," " The Crucifixion " — all these are gala representations,
costume get-up, and, to that extent, a pious lie. But when we
condemn the faults of his period, his personal merit must not
be forgotten. When he first came to the fore, ostentation of
feeling was the fashion. Munkacsy is, in this respect, the
genuine son of the period. He was not one of those who are
strong enough to swim against the stream. Instead of raising
others to his level, he descended to theirs. But he has the merit
of having painted spectacular scenes, such as the period demanded,
with genuine artistic power. Like Rahl, Ribot, Roybet and
Makart, he was a maitre-peintrc, a born genius with the brush.
Von Uhde and Liebermann were disciples of his school. And
if these two painters have left that period behind them, and
if independent natural sight has followed upon the imitation
of the old masters, it is Munkacsy who enabled them to take
the leap. (R. Mr.)
Italy
Modern Italy has produced one artist who towers over all
the others, Giovanni Segantini {q.v.). Segantini owes as little
to his period of study in Milan as Millet did to his sojourn at
Delaroche's school. Both derived from their teachers a complete
mastery of technique, and as soon as they were in possession of
all the aids to art, they discarded them in order to begin
afresh. Each painted what he had painted as a youth. They
dwelt far from the busy world — Millet in Barbizon, Segantini
at Val d' Albola, 5000 feet above the sea-level. They are equally
closely allied in art. Millet, who rejected all the artifice of
embellishment and perceived only beauty in things as they
are, learned to see in the human body a heroic grandeur, in the
movements of peasants a majestic rhythm, which none before
him had discovered. Although representing peasants, his works
resemble sacred pictures, so grand are they in their sublime
solemn simplicity. The same is true of Segantini's works. Like
Millet, he found his vocation in observing the hfe of poor,
humble people, and the rough grandeur of nature, at all seasons
and all hours. As there is in Millet's, so also is there in Segan-
tini's work a primitive, almost classical, simplicity of execution
corresponding to the simplicity of the subjects treated. His
pictures, with their cold sOvery colouring, remind us of the
wax-painting of old times and of the mosaic style of the middle
ages. They are made up of small scintillating strokes; they
are stony and look hard like steel. This technique alone, which
touches in principle but not in effect, that of the pointillisies,
permitted of his rendering what he wished to render, the stony
crags of Alpine scenery, the thin scintillating air, the firm steel-
like outlines. Finally, he passed from realistic subjects to
thoughtful. Biblical and symbolical works. His "Annuncia-
tion," the " Divine Youth," and the " Massacre of the Innocents "
were products of an art that had abandoned the firm ground
of naturalism and aimed at conquering supernatural worlds.
This new aim he was unable to realize. He left the " Panorama
of the Engadine," intended for the Paris Exhibition, in an
unfinished state behind him. He died in his 42nd year, his
head full of plans for the future. Modern Italy lost in
him its greatest artist, and the history of art one of the rare
geniuses.
Few words will suffice for the other Italian painters. The
soil that had yielded down to Tiepolo's days such an abundant
harvest was apparently in need of rest during the 19th century.
At the Paris Exhibition of 1867 About called Italy " the tomb
of art," and indeed until quite recent times Italian painting
has had the character of mere pretty saleable goods. Francesco
Vinea, Tito Conti, and Federigo Andreotti painted with tireless
activity sleek drapery pictures, with Renaissance lords and
smiling Renaissance ladies in them. Apart from such subjects,
the comic, genre or anecdote ruled the fashion — somewhat
coarse in colour and of a merrier tendency than is suitable for
pictures of good taste. It was not until nearly the end of the
igth century that there was an increase in the number of
painters who aim at real achievement. At the Paris Exhibition
of 1900 only Detti's " Chest " and Signorini's " Cardinal "
pictures reminded one of the comedy subjects formerly in vogue.
The younger masters employ neither " drapery-mummeries "
nor spicy anecdote. They paint the Itahan country people
with refined artistic discernment, though scarcely with the
naturalism of northern nations. Apparently the calm, serious,
ascetic, austere art initiated by Millet is foreign to the nature of
this volatile, colour-loving people. Southern fire and delight
in brilliant hues are especially characteristic of the Neapolitans.
A tangle of baldacchinos, priests and choir boys, peasants
making obeisance and kneeling during the passing of the Host,
weddings, horse-races and country festivals, everything spark-
ling with colour and glowing in Neapohtan sunhght — such are
the contents of Paolo Michetti's, Vincenzo Capri's, and Edoardo
Dalbono's pictures. But Michetti, from being an adherent of
this glittering art, has found his way to the monumental style.
The Venetians acknowledge and honour as their leader Giacomo
Favretto, who died very young. He painted drapery pictures,
like most artists of the 'eighties, but they were never lacka-
daisical, never commonplace. The Venice of Canaletto and
Goldoni, the magic city surrounded by the glamour of bygone
splendour, rose again under Favretto's hands to fairylike
radiance.
The older masters, Signorini, Tito Tommasi, Dall 'oca Branca,
who depict the Piedmontese landscape, the light on the lagoons,
and the colour charm of Venetian streets with so refined a touch,
have numerous followers, whose pictures likewise testify to
the seriousness that again took possession of Italian painters
after a long period of purely commercial artistic industry.
Side by side with these native Italians two others must be
mentioned, who occupy an important place as interpreters of
Parisian elegance and French art-history. Giuseppe de Nittis
(born in Naples; died in Paris 1884) was principaDy known by
his representations of French street hfe. The figures that
enlivened his pictures were as full of charm as his rendering of
atmospheric effects was refined. Giovanni Boldini, a Ferrarese
living in Paris, also painted street scenes, full of throbbing life.
But he excelled, besides, as a portrait-painter of ladies and
children. He realized the aim of the Parisian Impressionists,
which was to render life, and not merely mute repose. He
understood in a masterly fashion how to catch the rapid move-
ment of the head, the fleetest expression, the sparkling of the
eye, a pretty gesture. From his pictures posterity wiU learn
as much about the sensuous life of the 19th century as Greuze
has told us about that of the 18th.
Among those who have been the leaders of modern Italian
art, not already mentioned, are Domenico MorelH, Giovanni
Costa, landscape painter; Sartorio, an Itahan Pre-Raphaelite;
Pasini, painter of the East; Muzzioh, a follower of Alma-
Tadema; Barabino, historical painter; and most striking and
original of all, Monticelli, whose glow of colours was often
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PAINTING
515
obtained, not only by palette-knife painting, but by squeezing
the colour straight from the tubes on to the canvas.
See Ashton R. Willard, History of Modern Italian Art (London,
1898). (R- Mr.)
Spain and Portugal
Modern Spanish painting began with Mariano Fortuny {q.v),
who, dying as long ago as 1874, nevertheless left his mark even
on the following generation of artists. During his residence
in Paris in 1866 he had been strongly influenced by Meissonier,
and subsequently selected similar subjects — scenes in iSth-
century costume. In Fortuny, however, the French painter's
elaborate finish is associated with something more intense
and vivid, indicative of the southern Latin temperament. He
collected in his studio in Rome the most artistic examples of
medieval industry. The objects among which he lived he also
painted with incisive spirit as a setting for elegant figures from
the world of Wattcau and of Goya, which are thrown into his
pictures with amazing dash and sparkle; and this love of dazzling
kaleidoscopic variety has animated his successors. Academic
teaching tries to encourage historical painting. Hence, since
the 'seventies, the chief paintings produced in Spain have been
huge historical works, which have made the round of European
exhibitions and then been collected in the Gallery of Modern
Art at Madrid. There may be seen " The Mad Queen Juana,"
by Pradilla; " The Conversion of the Duke of Gandia," by
Moreno Carbonero; " The Bell of Huesca," by Casado; " The
Last Day of Numantia," by Vera; " Ines de Castro," by Cabello.
It is possible, of course, to discern in the love of the horrible
displayed in these pictures an element of the national character,
for in the land of bull-fights even painting turns to murder
and sudden death, poison and the rope. However, at least
we must admit the great power revealed, and recognize the
audacious colouring. But in point of fact these works are
only variants on those executed in France from the time of
Delaroche to Jean Paul Laurens, and tell their story in the
style that was current in Parisian studios in the 'sixties. What
is called the national garb of Spain is mainly the cast-off fashion
of Paris. After all this magniloquent work Fortuny's rococo
became the rage. The same painters who had produced the
great historical pictures were now content to take up a brilliant
and dazzling miniature style; either, like Fortuny himself, using
small and motley figures in baroque subjects, or adapting the
modern national life of Spain to the rococo style.
Here again we observe the acrobatic dexterity with which
the painters, Pradilla especially, use the brush. But here again
there is nothing essentially new — only a repetition of what
Fortuny had already done twenty years before. The Spanish
school, therefore, presented a very old-fashioned aspect at the
Paris Exhibition of 1900. The pictures shown there were
mostly wild or emotional. Bedouins fighting, an antique
quadriga flying past, the inhabitants of Pompeii hastily en-
deavouring to escape from the lava torrent, Don Quixote's
Rosinante hanging to the sail of the windmill, and the terrors
of the Day of Judgment were the subjects; Alvarez Dumont,
Benlliure y Gil, Ulpiano Checa, Manuel Ramirez Ibanez and
Moreno Carbonero were the painters. Among the huge canvases,
a number of small pictures, things of no importance, were
scattered, which showed only a genre-like wit. Spain is a
somewhat barren land in modern art. There painting, although
active, is blind to life and to the treasures of art which lie un-
heeded in the road. Only one artist, Agrasot, during the
'seventies painted pictures of Spanish low life of great sincerity;
and much later two young painters appeared who energetically
threw themselves into the modern movement. One was Sorolla
y Bastida, by whom there is a large fishing picture in the
Luxembourg, which in its stern gravity might be the work of
a Northern painter; the other was Ignacio Zuloaga, in whom
Goya seems to live again. Old women, girls of the people, and
cocottes especially, he has painted with admirable spirit and with
breadth. Spain, which has taken so little part in the great move-
ment since Manet's time, only repeating in old-fashioned guise
things which are falsely regarded as national, seems at last to
possess in Zuloaga an artist at once modern and genuinely
national.
Portugal took an almost lower place in the Paris Exhibition.
For whereas the historical Spanish school has endeavoured
to be modern to some extent, at least in colour, the Portuguese
cling to the blue-plush and red-velvet splendours of Delarothe
in all their crudity. Weak pictures of monks and of visions are
produced in numbers, together with genre pictures depicting
the popular life of Portugal, spiced to the taste of the tourist.
There are the younger men who aim at availing themselves of
the efforts of the open-air painters; but even as followers of the
Parisians they only say now what the French were saying long
years ago through Bastien-Lepage, Puvis dc Chavannes and
Adrien Dumont. There is always a Frenchman behind the
Portuguese, who guides his brush and sets his model. The only
painter formed in the school is Carlos Rcis, whose vast canvas
" Sunset " has much in common with the first huge peasant
pictures painted in Germany by Count Kalckreuth. One painter
there is, however, who is quite independent and wholly Portu-
guese, a worthy successor of the great old masters of his native
land, and this is Columbano, whose portraits of actors have a spark
of the genius which inspired the works of Velazquez and Goya.
See A. G. Temple, Modern Spanish Painting (1908). (R. Mr.)
Denmark
Denmark resembles Holland in this: that in both, nature
presents little luxury of emphasized colour or accentuated
majesty of form. Broad flats are everywhere to be seen —
vague, almost indefinable, in outline. Danish art is as
demure and staid as the Danish landscape. As in Holland,
the painters make no bold experiments, attempt no pretentious
subjects, no rich colouring, nothing sportive or light. Like
the Dutch, the Danes are somewhat sluggishly tranquil, loving
dim twilight and the swirling mist. But Denmark is a leaner
land than Holland, less moist and more thinly inhabited, so
that its art lacks the comfortable self-satisfied character of
Dutch art. It betrays rather a tremulous longing, a pleasing
melancholy and delight in dreams, a trembling dread of contact
with coarse and stern reality. It was only for a time, early in
the 'seventies, that a touch of cosmopolitanism affected Danish
art. The phase of grandiose historical painting and anecdotic
genre was experienced there, as in every other country. In
Karl Bloch (b. 1834), Denmark had a historical painter in some
respects parallel with the German Piloty; in Axel Helsted
(b. 1847), a genre painter reminding us of Ludwig Knaus. The
two artists Laurits Tuxen (b. 1853) and Peter Kroyer (b. 1851),
who are most nearly allied to Manet and Bastien-Lepage, have
a sort of elegance that is almost Parisian. Kroyer, especially,
has bold inventiveness and amazing skill. Open-air effects
and twilight moods, the glare of sunshine and artificial light,
he has painted with equal mastery. In portraiture, too, he
stands alone. The two large pictures in which he recorded a
" Meeting of the Committee of the Copenhagen Exhibition,
1887," and a " Meeting of the Copenhagen Academy of Sciences,"
are modern works which in power of expression may almost
compare with those of Frans Hals. Such versatihty and facile
elegance are to be found in no other Danish painter. At the
period of historic painting it was significant that next to Bloch,
the cosmopolitan, came Kristian Zahrtmann (b. 1843), who
painted scenes from the life of Eleonora Christina, a Danish
heroine (daughter of Christian IV.), with the utmost simplicity,
and without any emotional or theatrical pathos. This touching
feeling for home and country is the keynote of Danish art. The
Dane has now no sentiment but that of home; his country, once
so powerful, has become but a small one, and has lost its political
importance. Hence he clings to the little that is left to him
with melancholy tenderness. Viggo Johansen (b. 1851), with
his gentle dreaminess, is the best representative of modern
Danish home-life. He shows us dark sitting-rooms, where a
quiet party has met around the tea-table. " An Evening at
Home," "The Christmas Tree," " Grandmother's Birthday,"
are typical subjects, and all have the same fresh and fragrant
5i6
PAINTING
[SWEDEN: NORWAY
charm. He is also one of the best Danish landscape painters.
The silvery atmosphere and sad, mysterious stillness of the
island-realm rest on Johansen's pictures. Not less satisfactory
in their little world are the rest: Holsoe (b. 1866), Lauritz Ring
(b. 1S54), Haslund, Syberg (b. 1862), Irminger (b. 1850), and
listed paint the pleasant life of Copenhagen. In Skagen, a
fishing town at the extreme end of Jutland, we find painters
of sea life: Michael Ancher (b. 1849), Anna Ancher (b. 1859),
and C. Locher (b. 185 1). The landscape painters Viggo Pederson
(b. 1854), Philipsen (b. 1840), Julius Paulsen (b. i860), Johan
Rohde (b. 1S56) have made their home in the villages round
Copenhagen. Each has his own individuality and sees nature
with his own eyes, and yet in all we find the same sober tone,
the same gentle, tearful melancholy. The new Idealism has,
however, been discernible in Denmark. Joakim Skovgaard
(b. 1856), with his " Christ among the Dead " and " Pool of
Bethesda," is trying to endow Denmark with a monumental
type of art. Harald Slott-MoUer (b. 1864) and J. F. Willumsen
(b. 1863) affect a highly symbolical style. But even more than
these painters, who aim at reproducing ancient folk-tales
through the medium of modern mysticism, two others claim
our attention, by the infusion into the old tradition of a very
modern view of beauty approaching that of Whistler and of
Carriere: one is Ejnar Nielsen, whose portraits have a peculiar,
refined strain of gentle Danish melancholy; the other, V. Ham-
mershoj, who has an exquisite sense of tone, and paints the
magical eflfect of light in half-darkened rooms. Among the
more noteworthy portrait painters, Aug. Jerndorff and Otto
Bache should be included; and among the more decorative
artists, L. Frolich; while Hans Tegner may be considered the
greatest illustrator of his day. (R. Mr.)
Sweden
There is as great a difference between Danish and Swedish
art as between Copenhagen and Stockholm. Copenhagen
is a homely provincial town and life is confined to home circles.
In Stockholm we find the whirl of life and all the elegance of
a capital. It has been styled the Paris of the North, and its art
also wears this cosmopolitan aspect. Diisseldorf, where in the
"sixties most painters studied their art, appeared to latter-day
artists too provincial. Munich and, to a still greater extent,
Paris became their " AJma Mater," Salmson (1843-1894) and
Hagborg (b. 1852), who were first initiated into naturalism in
Paris, adopted this city for a domicile. They paint the fishermen
of Brittany and the peasants of Picardy; and even when appar-
ently interpreting Sweden, they only clothe their Parisian models
in a Swedish garb. Those who returned to Stockholm turned
their Parisian art into a Swedish art, but they have remained
cosmopolitan until this day. Whilst there is something prosy
and homely about Danish art, that of Sweden displays nervous
elegance and cosmopolitan polish. Simphcity is in her eyes
humdrum; she prefers light and brilliant notes. There, a natural-
ness and simplicity allows us to forget the diiSculties of the
brush: here, we chiefly receive the impression of a cleverly
solved problem. There, the greatest moderation in colour, a
soft all-pervading grey: here, a cunning play with delicate
tones and gradations — a striving to render the most difficult
effects of light with obedient hand. This tendency is particularly
marked in the case of the landscape painters: Per Ekstrom
(b. 1S44), Niels Kreuger (b. 1858), Karl Nordstrom (b. 1865),
Prince Eugen of Sweden (b. 1855), Axel Sjoberg Wallander
(b. 1862), and Wahlberg (b. 1864). Nature in Sweden has not
the idyllic softness, the veiled elegiac character, it displays in
Denmark. It is more coquettish, southern and French, and the
painters regard it also with French eyes.
As a painter of animals, Bruno Liljefors (b. i860) created a
sensation by his surprising pictures. Whatever his subjects
— quails, capercailzies, dogs, hares, magpies or thrushes — he
has caught the fleetest motions and the most transitory effects
of light with the cleverness of a Japanese. With this exception,
the Swedish painters cannot be classified according to " subjects."
They are " virtuosi," calling every technical aspect of art their
own — as well in fresco as in portrait painting. Oscar Bjorek
(b. i860), Ernst Josephson (b. 1851), Georg Pauli (b. 1855),
Richard Bergh (b. i858),HannaHirsch now Pauli (b. 1864) are
the best-known names. Carl Larsson's (b. 1853) decorative
panneaux fascinate by their easy lightness and coquettish grace
of execution. AnderZorn{b. i860), with his dazzling virtuosity,
is as typical of Swedish as the prosaic simplicity of Johansen
is of Danish art. His marine pictures, with their undulating
waves and naked forms bathed in Ught, belong to the most
surprising examples of the cleverness with which modern art
can stereotype quivering motions; and the same boldness in
handling his subjects, which triumphs over difficulties, makes his
" interiors," his portraits and etchings, objects of admiration
to every painter's eye. In his " Dance before the Window "
all is vivacity and motion. His portrait of a " Peasant Woman "
is a powerful harmony of sparkling yeUow-red tones of colour.
Besides these older masters who cleave to the most dazzling
light effects, there are the younger artists of the school of Carl
Larsson, who aspire more to decorative effects on a grander scale.
Gustav Fjalslad (b. 1868) exhibited a picture in the Paris
Exhibition of 1900 that stood out like mosaic among its sur-
roundings. And great similarity in method has Hermann
Normann, who, as a landscape painter, also imitates the classic
style. (R. Me.)
Norway
We enter a new world when in picture-galleries we pass to the
Norwegian from the Swedish section. From the great city we
are transported to nature, solemn and solitary, into a land of
silence, where a rude, sparse population, a race of fishermen,
snatches a scanty sustenance from the sea. The Norwegians
also contributed for a time to the international market in works
of art. They sent mainly genre pictures telling of the manners
and customs of their country, or landscapes depicting the
phenomena of Northern scenery. Adolf Tidemand (1814-1876)
introduced his countrymen — the peasants and fishermen of the
Northern coast — to the European public. We are introduced
to Norwegian Christmas customs, accompany the Norseman
on his nocturnal fishing expeditions, join the " Brudefaerd "
across the Hardanger fjord, sit as disciples at the feet of the
Norwegian sacristan. Ferdinand Fagerlin (b. 1825) and Hans
Dahl are two other painters who, educated at Diisseldorf and
settled in Germany, introduced the style of Knaus and Vautier
to Norwegian art circles. Knud Badde (1808-1879), Hans Gude
(b. 1825), Niels Bj6rnsen Moller, Morten-Miiller (b. 1828),
Ludvig Munthe (1843-1896), and Adelsten Normann (b. 1848)
are known as excellent landscape painters, who have faithfully
portrayed the majestic mountain scenery and black pine forests
of their native land, the cliffs that enclose the fjords, and the
sparkling snowfields of the land of the midnight sun. But the
time when actuality had to be well seasoned, and every picture
was bound to have a spice of genre or the attraction of something
out of the common to make it palatable, is past and gone. As
early as the 'sixties Bjornson was president of a Norwegian
society which made it its chief business to wage war against the
shallow conventionalities of the Diisseldorf school. Ibsen was
vice-president. In the works of the more modern artists there
is not a single trace of Diisseldorf influence. Especially in
the 'eighties, when naturalism was at its zenith, we find the
Norwegians its boldest devotees. They portrayed life as they
found it, without embellishment; they did not trouble about
plastic elegance, but painted the land of their home and its people
in a direct, rough-hewn style. Like the people we meet in the
North, giants with stalwart iron frames, callous hands, and sun-
burnt faces, with their sou'-westers and blue blouses, who
resemble sons of a bygone heroic age, have the painters them-
selves — notably Niels Gustav Wentzel (b. 1859), Svend Jorgen-
sen (b. 1861), Kolstoe (b. i860). Christian Krohg — something
primitive in the directness, in, one might almost say, the bar-
barous brutality with which they approach their subjects. They
preferred the most glaring effects of plcin-air; they revelled in
all the hues of the rainbow.
But these very uncouth fellows, who treated the figures in
their pictures with such rough directness, painted even in those
J
RUSSIA: BALKAN STATES]
PAINTING
517
days landscapes with great refinement; not the midnight sun
and the precipitous cliffs of the fjords, by which foreigners were
sought to be impressed, but austere, simple nature, as it lies in
deathhke and spectral repose — lonely meres, whose surface is
unruffled by the keel of any boat, where no human being is
visible, where no sound is audible; the hour of twilight, when the
sun has disappeared behind the mountains, and all is chill and
drear; the winter, when an icy blast sweeps over the crisp snow-
fields; the spring, almost like winter, with its bare branches
and its thin young shoots. Such were their themes, and
painters like Amaldus Nilsen (b. 1838), Edif Petersen (b. 1852),
Christian Skredsvig (b. 1854), Fritz Thaulow (b. 1848), and
Gerhard Munthe (b. 1849) arrested public attention by their
exhibition of pictures of this character.
Latterly these painters have become more civilized, and
have emancipated themselves from their early uncouthness.
Jorgensen, Krohg, Kolstoe, Soot, Gustav Wentzel, no longer
paint those herculean sailors and fishermen, those pictures of
giants that formerly gave to Norwegian exhibitions their peculiar
character. Elegance has taken possession of the Norwegian
palette. This transformation began with Fritz Thaulow, and
indeed his art threatened to relapse somewhat into routine, and
even the ripples of his waters to sparkle somewhat coquettishly.
Borgen (b. 1852), Hennig (b. 1871), Hjerlow (b. 1863), and
Stenersen (b. 1862) were gifted recruits of the ranks of Norwegian
painters, whilst Halfdan Strom (b. 1863), who depicts rays of
light issuing from silent windows and streaming and quivering
over solitary landscapes, dark blue streams and ponds, nocturnal
skies, variegated female dresses, contrasting as spots of colour
with dark green meadows, has a delicacy in colouring that
recalls Cazin. Gerhard Munthe, who, as we have seen, first
made a name by his delicate vernal scenery, has turned his
attention to the classical side of art; and, finally Erik Werensk-
jold (b. 185s), who was also first known by his landscapes and
scenes of country life, afterwards gained success as an illustrator
of Norwegian folk-lore. (R. Mr.)
Russia
Until late in the igth century modern Russian painting was
unknown to western Europe. What had been seen of it in
international exhibitions showed the traditions of primitive
European art, with a distinct vein of barbarism. In the early
'fifties, painters were less bent on art than on political agitation;
they used the brush as a means of propaganda in favour of
some political idea. Peroff showed us the miserable condition
of the serfs, the wastefulness and profligacy of the nobility.
Vereschagin made himself the advocate of the soldier, painting
the horrors of war long before the tsar's manifesto preached
universal disarmament. Art suffered from this praiseworthy
misapplication; many pictures were painted, but very few rose
to the level of modern achievement in point of technique.
It was only by the St Petersburg art journal Mir Iskustwa,
and by a small exhibition arranged at Munich in 1892 by a group
of Russian landscape painters, that it was realized that a younger
Russian school had arisen, fully equipped with the methods of
modern technique, and depicting Russian life with the stamp of
individuality. At the Paris E.xhibition of 1900 the productions
of this young Russian school were seen with surprise. A
florescence similiar to that which literature displayed in Pushkin,
Dostoievsky and Tolstoy seemed to be beginning for Russian
painting. Some of these young painters rushed into art with
unbridled zest, painting with primitive force and boldness.
They produced historical pictures, almost barbaric but of
striking force; representations of the life of the people full of
deep and hopeless gloom; the poor driven by the police and
huddled together in dull indifference; the popes tramping across
the lonely steppes, prayer-book in hand; peasants muttering
prayers before a crucifix. There is great pathos in " The
Karamasow Brothers," or " The Power of Darkness." At the
same time we feel that a long-inherited tradition pervades all
Russia. We find a characteristic ecclesiastical art, far removed
from the productions of the fin de siecle, in which the rigid
tradition of the Byzantines of the 3rd century still survives.
And, finally, there are landscapes almost Danish in their bloodless,
dreamy tenderness. Among the historical painters Elias Repin
is the most impressive. In his pictures, " Ivan the Cruel,"
" The Cossacks' Reply to the Sultan," and " The Miracle of
Saint Nicholas," may be seen — what is so rare in historical
painting — genuine purpose and style. Terror is rendered with
Shakespearean power; the boldness with which he has recon-
stituted the past, and the power of pictorial psychology which
has enabled him to give new life to his figures, are equally
striking in " Sowing on the Volga " and " The Village Pro-
cession." He was the first to paint subjects of contemporary
life, and the work, while thoroughly Russian, has high technical
qualities — the sense of oppression, subjection and gloom is all-
pervading. But he does not " point the moral," as Peroff did;
he paints simply but sympathetically what he sees, and this lends
his pictures something of the resigned melancholy of Russian
songs. Even more impressive than Repin is Philippe Maliavine.
He had rendered peasants, stalwart figures of powerful build ; and,
in a picture called " Laughter," Macbeth-like women, wrajjpcd
in rags of fiery red, are thrown on the canvas with astonishing
power. Among religious painters Victor Vasnezov, the powerful
decorator of the dome in the church of St Vladimir at Kiev, is
the most distinguished figure. These paintings seem to have
been executed in the very spirit of the Russian church; blazing
with gold, they depend for much of their effect upon barbaric
splendour. But Vasnezov has painted other things: " The
Scythians," fighting with lance and battle-axe; horsemen making
their way across the pathless steppe; and woods and landscapes
pervaded by romantic charm, the home of the spirits of Russian
legend. Next to Vasnezov is Michael Nesterov, a painter also of
monks and saints, but as different from him as Zurbaran from
the mosaic workers of Venice; and Valentin Serov, powerful in
portraiture and fascinating in his landscape. It is to be remarked
that although these artists are austere and unpohshed in their
figure-painting, they paint landscape with delicate refinement.
Schischkin and VassiUev were the first to paint their native
land in aU simplicity, and it is in landscape that Russian art at
the present time still shows its most pleasing work. Savrassov
depicts tender spring effects; Kuindshi light birch-copses full of
quivering light; Sudkovski interprets the solemn majesty of the
sea; Albert Benois paints in water-colour delicate Finnish
scenery; ApoUinaris Vasnezov has recorded the dismal wastes
of Siberia, its dark plains and endless primeval forest, with
powerful simplicity.
A special province in Russian art must be assigned to the
Poles. It is diflicult indeed to share to the full the admiration
fell in Warsaw for the Polish painters. It is there firmly believed
that Poland has a school of its own, owing nothing to Russia,
Austria or Germany; an art which embodies all the chivalry and
all the suffering of that land. The accessories are Pohsh, and
so are the costumes. Jan Chelminski, Wojcliech Gerson,
Constantine Gorski, Apolonius Kendzrierski, Joseph Ryszkievicz
and Roman Szvoinicki are the principal artists. We see in
their pictures a great deal of fighting, a great deal of weeping;
but what there is peculiar to the Poles in the expression or
technique of their works it is hard to discover.
Finland, on the other hand, is thoroughly modern. Belonging
by descent to Sweden rather than to Russia, its painters' views
of art also resemble those of the " Parisians of the North."
They display no ungoverned power, but rather supple elegance.
The play of light and the caprice of sunshine are rendered with
much subtlety. Albert Edelfeldt is the most versatile artist
of the group; Axel Gallen, at first naturalistic, developed into a
decorative artist of fine style; Eero Jaernefelt charms with his
airy studies and brilliant landscapes. Magnus Enckcll, Pekka
Halonen and Victor Vesterholm sustain the school with work
remarkable for sober and tasteful feeling. (R. Mr.)
Balkan States
LTntil quite recent times the Balkan States had no part at
all in the history of art. But at the Paris Exhibition of looo it
was noted with surprise that even in south-eastern Europe
5i8
PAINTING
[UNITED STATES
there was a certain pulsation of new life. And there were also
signs that painting in the Balkans, which hitherto had appeared
only as a reflex of Paris and Munich art, would ere long assume
a definite national character. At this Exhibition Bulgaria
seemed to be the most backward of aU, its painters still represent-
ing the manners and customs of their country in the style of
the illustrated papers. Market-places are seen, where women
with golden chains, half-nude boys and old Jews are moving
about; or cemeteries, with orthodox clergy praying and women
sobbing; military pageants, wine harvests and horse fairs, old
men performing the national dance, and topers jesting with
brown-eyed girls. Such are the subjects that Anton Mittoff,
Raymund Ulrich and Jaroslav Vesin paint. More original is
Mvkuicka. In his most important work he represented the late
princess of Bulgaria sitting on a throne, solemn and stately, in
the background mosaics rich in gild, tall slim liHcs at her side.
In his other pictures he painted BibUcal landscapes, battlefields
wrapped in sulphurous smoke, and old Rabbis — all with a certain
uncouth barbaric power. The Bulgarian painters have not as
yet arrived at the aesthetic phase. One of the best among them,
who paints dehcate pale green landscapes, is Charalampi Ilieff;
and Nicholas Michailoff, at Munich, has executed pictures,
representing nymphs, that arrest attention by their delicate tone
and their beautiful colouring.
Quite modern was the effect of the small Croatian-Slavonic
GaUery in the Exhibition. Looking at the pictures there, the
visitor might imagine himself on the banks of the Seine rather
than in the East. The French saying, " Faire des Whistler,
/aire des Dagnan, faire dcs Carrierc," is eminently applicable to
their work. Vlaho Bukovak, Nicola Masic, Csiks and Medovic all
paint very modern pictures, and in excellent taste, only it is
surprising to find upon them Croatian and not Parisian signatures.
Precisely the same judgment must be passed with regard to
Rumania. Most of the painters live in Paris or Munich, have
sought their inspiration at the feet of the advanced masters
there, and paint, as pupils of these masters, pictures just as
good in taste, just as cosmopolitan and equally devoid of char-
acter. Irene Deschly, a pupil of Carriere, illustrates the songs
of Frangois Coppee; Verona Gargouromin is devoted to the pale
symbohsm of Dagnan-Bouveret. Nicolas Grant paints bright
landscapes, with apple trees with their pink blossoms, hke
Darnoye. Nicolas Gropeano appears as the double of Aman-
Jean, with his female heads and pictures from fairy tales. Olga
Koruca studied under Puvis de Chavannes, and painted Cleo-
patra quite in the tone of her master. A landscape by A. Segall
was the only work that appeared to be really Rumanian,
representing thatched huts.
Servia is in striking contrast to Rumania. No trace of modern
influence has penetrated to her. There historical painting,
such as was in vogue in France and Germany a generation ago,
is the order of the day. Risto Voucanovitch paints his scenes
from Servian history in brown; Paul Ivanovitch his in greyish
plein-air. But in spite of this pale painting, the latter's works
have no modern effect — as little as the sharply-drawn small
landscapes of his brother Svatislav Ivanovitch. (R. Mr.)
United States
The history of painting in the United States practically
fcegan with the 19th century. The earlier years of the nation
were devoted to establishing government, subduing the land
and the aborigines, building a commonwealth out of primeval
nature; and naturally enough the aesthetic things of life received
not too much consideration. In Colonial times the graphic
arts existed, to be sure, but in a feeble way. Painting was made
up of portraits of prominent people; only an occasional artist
was disposed towards historical pictures; but the total result
added httle to the sum of art or to the tale of history. The first
artist of importance was J. S. Copley (1737-1815), with whom
painting in A.merica really began. Benjamin West (1738-1820)
belongs in the same period, though he spent most of his life in
England, and finally became President of the Royal Academy.
As a painter he is not to be ranked so high as Copley. In the
early part of the 19th century two men, John Trumbull (1756-
1843), a historical painter of importance, and Gilbert Stuart
(1755-1828), a pre-eminent portrait painter, were the leaders;
and after them came John Vanderlyn (1776-1852), Washington
AUston (1779-1843), Rembrandt Peale (1787-1860), J. W.
Jarvis (1780-1834), Thomas Sully (born in England, 1 783-1872)
— men of importance in their day. The style of all this early
art was modelled upon that of the British school, and indeed
most of the men had studied in England under the mastership
of West, Lawrence and others. The middle or second period
of painting in the United States began with the landscape work
of Thomas Doughty (1793-1856) and Thomas Cole (1801-1848).
It was not a refined or cultivated work, for the men were in great
measure self-taught, but at least it was original and distinctly
American. In subject and in spirit it was perhaps too panoramic
and pompous; but in the hands of A. B. Durand (1796-1886),
J. F. Kensett (1818-1872) and F. E. Church (1826-1900), it was
modified in scale and improved in technique.
A group of painters called the Hudson River school finally
emerged. To this school some of the strongest landscape
painters in the United States owe their inspiration, though in
almost every case there has been the modifying influence of
foreign study. Contemporary with Cole came the portrait
painters Chester Harding (1792-1866), C. L. Elliott (1812-1868),
Henry Inman (1801-1846), William Page (1811-1885), G. P. A.
Healy (1813-1894), Daniel Huntington and W. S. Mount (1807-
1868), one of the earliest genre painters. Foreign art had been
followed to good advantage by most of these painters, and as a
result some excellent portraits were produced. The excellence
of the work was not, however, appreciated by the public generaUy
because art knowledge was not at that time a pubhc possession.
Little was required of the portrait painter beyond a recognizable
likeness. A little later the teachings of the Dtisseldorf school
began to have an influence upon American art through Leutze
(1816-1868), who was a German pupil of Lessing, and went to
America to paint historical scenes from the War of Independence.
But the foreign influence of the time to make the most impression
came from France in 1855 with two American pupils of Couture
— W. M. Hunt (1824-1879) and Thomas Hicks (1823-1890).
Hunt had also been a pupU of Millet at Barbizon, and was the
real introducer of the Barbizon painters to the American people.
After his return to Boston his teaching and example had much
weight in moulding artistic opinion. He, more than any other,
turned the rising generation of painters towards the Paris schools.
Contemporary with Hunt and following him were a number of
painters, some self-taught and some schooled in Europe, who
brought American art to a high standard of excellence. George
Fuller (1822-1884), Eastman Johnson, Elihu Vedder, produced
work of much merit; and John La Farge and Winslow Homer
were unquestionably the foremost painters in the United States
at the opening of the 20th century. In landscape the three
strongest men have passed away — A. H. Wyant, George Inness,
and Homer Martin. Swain Gifford, Edward Gay, Thomas Moran,
Jervis McEntee, Albert Bierstadt, are other landscape painters
of note who belonged to the middle period and reflected the
traditions of the Hudson River school to some extent. With
the Centennial Exhibition at Philadelphia in 1876 a widespread
and momentous movement in American art began to shape
itself. The display of pictures at Philadelphia, the national
prosperity, and the sudden development of the wealth of the
United States had doubtless much to do with it. Many young
men from all parts of the country took up the study of art and
began going abroad for instruction in the schools at Munich,
and, later, at Paris. Before 18S0 some of them had returned
to the United States and founded schools and societies of art, like
the Art Students' League and the Society of American Artists.
The movement spread to the Western cities, and in a few years
museums and art schools began to appear in all the prominent J
towns, and a national interest in art was awakened. After \
1870 the predominant influence, as regards technical training,
was French. Many students still go to Paris to complete their
studies, though there is a large body of accomphshed painters
teaching in the home schools, with satisfactory results as regards
PAISIELLO— PAISLEY
519
the work of their pupils. From their French training, many of
the American artists have been charged v.'ith echoing Parisian
art; and the charge is partly true. They have accepted French
methods because they think them the best, but their subjects
and motives are sufTiciently original.
Under separate biographical headings a number of modern
American artists are noticed. Some of the greatest Americans
however can hardly be said to belong to any American school.
James McNeill Whistler, though American-born, is an example
of the modern man without a country. E. A. Abbey, John S.
Sargent, Mark Fisher and J. J. Shannon are American only by
birth. They became resident in London and must be regarded
as cosmopolitan in their methods and themes. This may be
said with equal truth of many painters resident in Paris and else-
where on the Continent. However good as art it may be, there
is nothing distinctively American about the work of W. T.
Dannat, Alexander Harrison, George Hitchcock, Gari Melchers,
C. S. Pearce, E. L. Weeks, J. L. Stewart and Walter Gay. If
they owe allegiance to any centre or city, it is to Paris rather than
to New York.
During the last quarter of the 19th century much effort and
money were devoted to the establishment of institutions like the
Metropolitan Museum in New York, the Carnegie Museum at
Pittsburg, and the Art Institute in Chicago. Every city of
importance in the United States now has its gallery of paintings.
Schools of technical training and societies of artists likewise
exist wherever there are important galleries. Exhibitions
during the winter season and at great national expositions give
abundant opportunity for rising talent to display itself; and, in
addition, there has been a growing public patronage of painting,
as shown by the extensive mural decorations in the Congressional
Library building at Washington, in the Boston Public Library,
in many colleges and churches, in courts of justice, in the recep-
tion-rooms of large hotels, in theatres and elsewhere.
(J. C. VAN D.)
PAISIELLO (or Paesiello), GIOVANNI (1741-1816), Italian
musical composer, was born at Tarento on the qth of May 1741.
The beauty of his voice attracted so much attention that in
1754 he was removed from the Jesuit college at Tarento to the
Conservatorio di S. Onofrio at Naples, where he studied under
Durante, and in process of time rose to the position of assistant
master. For the theatre of the Conservatorio, which he left
in 1763, he wrote some intermezzi, one of which attracted so
much notice that he was invited to write two operas, La Pupilla
and // Hondo al Rovescio, for Bologna, and a third, II Marchese
di Tulipano, for Rome. His reputation being now firmly
established, he settled for some years at Naples, where, notwith-
standing the popularity of Piccini, Cimarosa and Guglielmi,
of whose triumphs he was bitterly jealous, he produced a series
of highly successful operas, one of which, L'Idolo cinese, made
a deep impression upon the Neapolitan public. In 1 7 7 2 he began
to write church music, and composed a requiem for Gennara
Borbone. In the same year he married Cecilia Pallini, with
whom he lived in continued happiness. In 1776 Paisiello was
invited by the empress Catherine II. to St Petersburg, where he
remained for eight years, producing, among other charming
works, his masterpiece, II Barhicre di Shnglia, which soon
attained a European reputation. The fate of this dehghtful
opera marks an epoch in the history of Italian art; for with it
the gentle suavity cultivated by the masters of the i8th century
died out to make room for the dazzling brilliancy of a later period.
When, in 1816, Rossini set the same Ubretto to music, under the
title of Almaviva, it was hissed from the stage; but it made its
way, nevertheless, and under its changed title, // Barbicre, is now
acknowledged as Rossini's greatest work, while Paisiello's opera is
consigned to oblivion — a strange instance of poetical vengeance,
since Paisiello himself had many years previously endeavoured
to ecKpse the fame of Pergolesi by resetting the libretto of his
famous intermezzo. La Serva padrona.
Paisiello quitted Russia in 1784, and, ifter producing // Re
Teodoro at Vienna, entered the service of Ferdinand IV. at
Naples, where he composed many of his best operas, including
Nina and La Molinara. After many vicissitudes, resulting from
political and dynastic changes, he was invited to Paris (1802) by
Napoleon, whose favour he had won five years previously by a
march composed for the funeral of General Hoche. Napoleon
treated him munificently, while cruelly neglecting two far greater
composers, Cherubini and Mehul, to whom the new favourite
transferred the hatred he had formerly borne to Cimarosa,
Guglielmi and Piccini. Paisiello conducted the music of the
court in the Tuileries with a stipend of 10,000 francs and 4800
for lodging, but he entirely failed to conciliate the Parisian
pubHc, who received his opera Proserpine so coldly that, in 1803,
he requested and with some difliculty obtained permission to
return to Italy, upon the plea of his wife's ill health. On his
arrival at Naples Paisiello was reinstated in his former appoint-
ments by Joseph Bonaparte and Murat, but he had taxed his
genius beyond its strength, and was unable to meet the demands
now made upon it for new ideas. His prospects, too, were
precarious. The power of the Bonaparte family was tottering
to its fall; and Paisiello's fortunes fell with it. The death of his
wife in 181 5 tried him severely. His health failed rapidly, and
constitutional jealousy of the popularity of others was a source
of worry and vexation. He died on the sth of June 1816.
Paisiello's operas (of which he is known to have composed 94)
abound with melodies, the graceful beauty of which is still
warmly appreciated. Perhaps the best known of these airs
is the famous " Nel cor piu " from La Molinara, immortalized by
Beethoven's delightful variations. His church music was very
voluminous, comprising eight masses, besides many smaller
works; he also produced fifty-one instrumental compositions
and many detached pieces. MS. scores of many of his operas were
presented to the library of the British Museum by Dragonetti.
The library of the Gerolamini at Naples possesses an interesting
MS. compilation recording Paisiello's opinions on contemporary
composers, and exhibiting him as a somewhat severe critic, especially
of the work of Pergolesi. His Life has been written by F. Schizze
(Milan, 1833).
PAISLEY, CLAUD HAMILTON, Lord (c. 1543-1622), Scot-
tish politician, was a younger son of the 2nd earl of Arran.
In 1553 he received the lands of the abbey of Paisley, and in
1568 he aided Mary Queen of Scots to escape from Lochleven
castle, afterwards fighting for her at the battle of Langside.
His estates having been forfeited on account of these proceedings,
Hamilton was concerned in the murder of the regent Murray
in 1570, and also in that of the regent Lennox in the following
year; but in 1573 he recovered his estates. Then in 1579 the
council decided to arrest Claud and his brother John (afterwards
1st marquess of Hamilton) and to punish them for their past
misdeeds; but the brothers escaped to England, where Elizabeth
used them as pawns in the diplomatic game, and later Claud
lived for a short time in France. Returning to Scotland in
1586 and mixing again in politics, Hamilton sought to reconcile
James VI. with his mother; he was in communication with
Philip II. of Spain in the interests of Mary and the Roman
Catholic religion, and neither the failure of Anthony Babington's
plot nor even the defeat of the Spanish .Armada put an end to
these intrigues. In 1589 some of his letters were seized and he
suffered a short imprisonment, after which he practically dis-
appeared from public life. Hamilton, who was created a
Scottish baron as Lord Paisley in 1587, was insane during his
concluding years. His eldest son James was created earl of
;\bercorn {q.v.) in 1606.
PAISLEY, a municipal and pohce burgh of Renfrewshire.
Scotland, on the White Cart, 3 m. from its junction with the
Clyde, 7 m. W. by S. of Glasgow by the Glasgow & South-Western
and Caledonian railways. Pop. (1891), 66,425; (looi) 70.363.
In 1791 the river, which bisects the town, was made navigable
for vessels of 50 tons and further deepened a century later. It
is crossed by several bridges — including the .'\bercorn, St James's
and the Abbey Bridges — and two railway viaducts. The old
town, on the west bank of the stream, contains most of the
principal warehouses and mills; the new town, begun towards
the end of the i8th century, occupies much of the level ground
520
PAITA
that once formed the domains of the abbey. To the munificence
of its citizens the town owes many of its finest public buildings.
Opposite to the abbey church (see below) stands the town hall
(1879-18S2), which originated in a bequest by George Aitken
Clark (1S23-1873), and was completed by his relatives, the
thread manufacturers of Anchor Mills. The new county build-
ings (1891) possess a handsome council hall, and the castellated
municipal buildings (181S-1821) were the former county
buildings; the sheriff court house (1885) in St James Street, and
the free hbrary and museum (including a picture gallery) at the
head of High Street, were erected (1869-1872) by Sir Peter
Coats (1808-1890). In Oakshaw Street stands the observatory
(1883), thegift of Thomas Coats (180Q-18S3). Besides numerous
board schools, the educational establishments include the John
Neilson Endowed Institute (1852) on Oakshaw Hill, the grammar
school (founded, 1576; rebuilt, 1864), and the academy for
secondary education, and the technical college, in George Street.
Among charitable institutions are the Royal Alexandra Infirmary,
the Victoria Eye Infirmary (presented by Provost Mackenzie
in 1899), the burgh asylum at Riccartsbar, the Abbey Poorhouse
(including hospital and lunatic wards), the fever hospital and
reception house, the Infectious Diseases Hospital and the
Gleniffer Home for Incurables. The Thomas Coats Memorial
Church, belonging to the Baptist body, erected by the Coals
family from designs by H. J. Blanc, R.S.A., is one of the finest
modern ecclesiastical structures in Scotland. It is an Early
English and Decorated cruciform building of red sandstone,
with a tower surmounted by a beautiful open-work crown.
Of parks and open spaces there are in the south, Brodie Park
(22 acres), presented in 1871 by Robert Brodie; towards the
north Fountain Gardens (7I acres), the gift of Thomas Coats
and named from the handsome iron fountain standing in the
centre; in the north-west, St James Park (40 acres), with a race-
course (racing dates from 1620, when the earl of Abercorn and
the Town Council gave silver bells for the prize); Dunn Square
and the old quarry grounds converted and adorned; and Moss
Plantation beyond the north-western boundary. There are
the cemeteries at Hawkhead and at the west side of the town.
Under the Reform Act of 1832 the burgh returns one member to
Parliament. The town is governed by a council, with provost
and bailies, and owns the gas and water supplies and the electric
hghting. In the abbey precincts are statues to the poet Robert
Tannahill (1774-1810) and Alexander Wilson (1766-1813), the
American ornithologist, both of whom were born in Paisley, and,
elsewhere, to Robert Burns, George Aitkin Clark, Thomas Coats
and Sir Peter Coats.
Paisley has been an important manufacturing centre since
the beginning of the i8th century, but the earlier linen, lawn and
silk-gauze industries have become extinct, and even the famous
Paisley shawls (imitation cashmere), the sale of which at one
time exceeded £1,000,000 yearly in value, have ceased to be
woven. The manufacture of linen thread, introduced about
1720 by Christian Shaw, daughter of the laird of Bargarran, gave
way in 181 2 to that of cotton thread, which has since grown
to be the leading industry of the town. The Ferguslie mills
(J. & P. Coats) and Anchor mills (Clark & Company) are now
the dominant factors in the combination that controls the
greater part of the thread trade of the world and together employ
10,000 hands. Other thriving industries include bleaching,
dyeing, calico-printing, weaving (carpets, shawls, tartans),
engineering, tanning, iron and brass founding, brewing, dis-
tilling, and the making of starch, cornflour, soap, marmalade
and other preserves, besides some shipbuilding in the yards on
the left bank of the White Cart.
The abbey was founded in 1163 as a Cluniac monastery by
Walter Fitzalan, first High Steward of Scotland, the ancestor
of the Scottish royal family of Stuart, and dedicated to the
Virgin, St James, St Milburga of Much Wenlock in Shropshire
(whence came the first monks) and St Mirinus (St Mirren), the
patron-saint of Paisley, who is supposed to have been a con-
temporary of St Columba. The monastery became an abbey
in 1219, was destroyed by the English under Aymer de Valence,
earl of Pembroke, in 1307, and rebuilt in the latter half of the
14th century, the Stuarts endowing it lavishly. At the
Reformation (1561) the fabric was greatly injured by the slh
earl of Glencairn and the Protestants, who dismantled the
altar, stripped the church of images and relics, and are even
alleged to have burnt it. About the same date the central
spire, 300 ft. high, built during the abbacy of John Hamilton
(1511-1571), afterwards archbishop of St Andrews, collapsed,
dcmoHshing the choir and north transept. In 1553 Lord Claud
Hamilton, then a boy of ten, was made abbot, and the abbacy
and monastery were erected into a temporal lordship in his
favour in 1587. The abbey lands, after passing from his son
the earl of Abercorn to the earl of Angus and then to Lord
Dundonald, were purchased in 1764 by the 8th earl of Abercorn,
who intended making the abbey his residence, but let the
ground for building purposes. The abbey church originally
consisted of a nave, choir without aisles, and transepts. The
nave, in the Transitional and Decorated styles, with a rich mid-
Pointed triforium of broad round arches, has been restored, and
used as the parish church since 1862. The graceful west front
has a deeply recessed Early Pointed doorway, surmounted by
traceried windows and, above these, by a handsome Decorated
stained-glass window of fire fights. Of the choir only the
foundations remain to indicate its extent; at the east end stood
the high altar before which Robert III. was interred in 1406.
Over his grave a monument to the memory of the Royal House
of Stuart was placed here by Queen Victoria (1888). The
restored north transept has a window of remarkable beauty.
The south transept contains St Mirren's chapel (founded in
1499), which is also caUed the " Sounding Aisle " from its
echo. The chapel contains the tombs of abbot John Hamilton
and of the children of the ist lord Paisley, and the recumbent
effigy of Marjory, daughter of Robert Bruce, who married
Walter, the Steward, and was killed while hunting at Knock
Hill between Renfrew and Paisley (1316).
About 3 m. S. of Paisley are the pleasant braes of Gleniffer,
sung by Tannahill, and 25 m. S.E., occupying a hill on the left
bank of the Leven, stand the ruins of Crookston Castle. The
castle is at least as old as the 12th century and belonged to
Robert de Croc, who witnessed the charter of the foundation
of Paisley Abbey. In the following century it passed into
the possession of a branch of the Stewarts, who retained it
until the murder of Darnley (1567). Afterwards it changed
hands several times, but was finally acquired from the Montrose
family by Sir John Maxwell of Pollok.
The Romans effected a settlement in Paisley in a.d. 84, and
built a fort called Vandiiara on the high ground (Oakshaw Hill)
to the west of the White Cart. The place seems to have been
first known as Paslet or Passeleth, and was assigned along with
certain lands in Renfrewshire to Walter Fitzalan, founder of
the abbey. The village grew up round the abbey, and by the
iSth century had become sufliciently important to excite the
jealousy of the neighbouring burgh of Renfrew. To protect it J
from molestation Abbot Schaw (or Shaw) induced James IV., f
a frequent visitor, to erect it into a burgh of barony in 1488, a
charter which gave it the right to return a member to the Scots
parfiament.
See Chartulary of the Monastery of Paisley, published by the Mait-
lind Club (1832); J. Cameron Lees, The Abbey of Paisley (1878);
Swan, Description of the Town and Abbey of Paisley (1835); and
Robert Brown, History of Paisley (1886).
PAITA, or Payta, a seaport of northern Peru, chief town of
the province of Paita in the department of Piura. Pop. (1906
estimate), 3800. The town has one of the best natural harbours
of the Peruvian coast, is a port of call for the regular mail
steamers between Valparaiso and Panama, and is the port of
the departmental capital, Piura, with which it is connected by
a railway 60 m. long. It is also the Pacific terminus of the
railway across the Andes to Puerto Limon, on the Maranon,
or upper Amazon. Paita faces on the bay of Paita, and is J
sheltered from southerly winds by a headland called Punta "
Paita and by a large hiU called the SUla de Paita. The water
PAJOL— PAKOKKU
5^1
supply is brought from the river Chira (17 m. distant). The
exports include cotton, tobacco, petroleum, cattle, hides and
straw hats. Paita dates from the early years of the Spanish
Conquest, and was a prosperous port in colonial times. It was
nearly destroyed by Lord Anson's fleet in 1741.
PAJOL, CLAUDE PIERRE, Count (1772-1844), French
cavalry general, was born at Besanfon. The son of an advocate,
he was intended to follow his father's profession, but the events
of 1780 turned his mind in another direction. Joining the
battalion of Besangon, he took part in the political events of
that year, and in 1791 went to the army of the Upper Rhine
with a volunteer battalion. He took part in the campaign
of 1792 and was one of the stormers at Hochheim (:793). From
Custine's staff he was transferred to that of Kleber, with whom
he took part in the Sambre and Rhine Campaigns (1794-96).
After serving with Hoche and Massena in Germany and Switzer-
land (1797-99), Pajol took a cavalry command under Moreau
for the campaign on the upper Rhine. In the short years of
peace Pajol, now colonel, was successively envoy to the Batavian
Republic, and delegate at Napoleon's coronation. In 1805, the
emperor employed him with the Hght cavalry. He distin-
guished himself at Austerlitz, and, after serving for a short time
in Italy, he rejoined the gnuidc tinnec as a general of brigade,
in time to take part in the campaign of Friedland. Next year
(1808) he was made a baron of the Empire. In 1809 he served
on the Danube, and in the Russian War of 181 2 led a division,
and afterwards a corps, of cavalry. He survived the retreat,
but his health was so broken that he retired to his native town
of Besangon for a time. He was back again in active service,
however, in time to be present at Dresden, at which battle he
played a conspicuous part. In 1814 he commanded a corps of
all arms in the Seine Valley. On the fall of Napoleon, Pajol
gave in his adhesion to the Restoration government, but he
rejoined his old master immediately upon his return to France.
His (I) corps of cavalry played a prominent part in the campaign
of 181 s, both at Ligny and in the advance on the Wavre under
Grouchy. On receiving the news of Waterloo, Pajol disengaged
his command, and by a skilful retreat brought it safe and unbeaten
to Paris. There he and his men played an active part in the
actions which ended the war. The Bourbons, on their return,
dismissed him, though this treatment was not, compared to
that meted out to Ney and others, excessively harsh. In 1S30
he took part in the overthrow of Charles X. He suppressed,
sternly and vigorously, emeutes in Paris in 1831 and 1832, 1834
and 1839. A general, and a peer of France, he was put on the
retired list in 1842, and died two years later.
His son, Count Charles Paul Victor Pajol (1821-1891),
entered the army and had reached the rank of general of division
when he was involved in the catastrophe of Metz (1S70). He
retired in 1877. Besides being a good soldier, he was a sculptor
of some merit, who executed statues of his father and of Napoleon,
and he wrote a life of his father and a history of the wars under
Louis XV. (Paris 1881-1891).
See Count C. P. V. Pajol: Pajol general en chef (Paris, 1874);
Thomas, Les Grands cavaliers du premier empire (Paris, 1892); and
Choppin, in the Journal des sciences militaires (i8go).
PAJOU, AUGUSTIN (i 730-1809), French sculptor, was born in
Paris on the 19th of September 1730. At eighteen he won the
Prix de Rome; at thirty he exhibited his Phiton tenant Cerhcre
enchdine (now in the Louvre). His portrait busts of Buff&n
and of Madame Du Barry (1773), and his statuette of Bossuet
(all in the Louvre), are amongst his best works. When B.
Poyet constructed the Fontaine des Innocents from the earher
edifice of P. Lescot (see Goujon) Pajou provided a number of
new figures for the work. Mention should also be made of his
bust of Carlin Bertinazzi (1763) at the Comedie Franfaise, and
the monument of Marie Leczinska, queen of Poland (in the
Salon of 1769). Pajou died in Paris on the 8th of May 1809.
PAKHOI, or Peihai, a city and treaty port of China, in the
west of the province of Kwang-tung, situated on a bay of the
Gulf of Tong-king, formed by the peninsula running south-west
from Lien-chow, in 21° 30' N., 109° 10' E. Pop. about 25,000.
Dating only from about 1820-1830, and at first little better than
a nest of pirates, Pakhoi rapidly grew into commercial import-
ance, owing partly to the comiilcte freedom which it enjoyed from
taxation, and partly to the diversion of trade produced by
the T'ai-p'ing rebellion. The establishment of a Chinese custom-
house and the opening of the ports of Hanoi and Haiphong
for a time threatened to injure its prospects; but, foreign trade
being permitted in 1876-1877, it began in 1879 to be regularly
visited by foreign steamers. The Chinese town stands on the
peninsula and faces due north. From the bluff, on which all
the foreign community lives, a partly cultivated plain extends.
Liquid indigo, sugar, aniseed and aniseed oil, cassia-lignea and
cassia oil, cuttle-fish and hides are the chief exports. With
Macao especially an extensive junk trade is carried on. A large
number of the inhaliitants engage in fishing and fish-curing.
The preparation of dried fish is a speciality of Pakhoi, the fish
being exported to Hong Kong.
PAKINGTON, the name of a famous English Worcestershire
family, now represented by the barony of Hampton. Sir John
Pakington (d. 1560) was a successful lawyer and a favourite
at court, and Henry VIII. enriched him with estates, including
that of Westwood in Worcestershire. His grandnephew and
heir. Sir John Pakington (1549-1625), was another prominent
courtier, Queen Elizabeth's " lusty Pakington," famous for his
magnificence of living. His son John (1600-1624) was created
a baronet in 1620. His son, Sir John, the second baronet (1620-
1680), played an active part on the royaUst side in the troubles
of the Great Rebellion and the Commonwealth, and was taken
prisoner at Worcester in 1651; Lady Dorothy, his wife (d. 1679),
daughter of the lord keeper Thomas Coventry, was famous for
her learning, and was long credited with the authorship of The
Whole Duty of Man (1658), which has more recently been
attributed to Richard AUestree {q.v.). Their grandson. Sir
John, the 4th baronet (1671-1727) was a pronounced high Tory
and was very prominent in political life; for long he was regarded
as the original of Addison's Sir Roger de Coverley, but the
reasons for this supposition are now regarded as inadequate.
The baronetcy became extinct with the death of Sir John
Pakington, the 8th baronet, in January 1830, but it was revived
in 1846 for his maternal nephew and heir, John Somicrsel
Pakington (1799-1880), whose name was originally Russell.
Born on the 20th of February 1799 and educated at Eton and
at Oriel College, Oxford, Pakington had a long career as an active
and industrious Conservative politician, being member of parlia-
ment for Droitwich from 1837 to 1874. He was secretary for
war and the colonies in 1852; first lord of the admiralty in 1858-
1859 and again in 1S66-1867; and secretary of state for war in
1S67-1S68. In 1874 he was created Baron Hampton, and he died
in London on the oth of April iSSo. From 1S75 until his death
Hampton was chief civil service commissioner. In 1906 his
grandson Herbert Stuart (b. 1883) became 4th baron Hampton.
It is interesting to note that in 1520 Henry VIII. granted Sir
John Pakington the right of wearing his hat in the royal presence.
PAKOKKU, a district in the Minbu division of Upper Burma,
lying west of the Irrawaddy river and south of Mandalay, with
the line of the Chin hills as a general boundary on the west. It
has an area of 6210 sq. m. and a population (1901) of 356,489.
The part of the district along the Irrawaddy and Chindwin
rivers is alluvial. Beyond this, however, the country rises
gradually to the low Shinmadaung and Tangyi ridges, where it
is very arid. To the westward there is a rapid drop to the well-
watered valley of the Yaw River, and then a rise o\-er broken,
dry country before the valleys of the Myit-tha and Mon rivers
are reached. The principal products are millet, sesamum and
sugar produced from toddy-palms in the riverain districts,
which also grow rice, grain, peas and beans. Tobacco and
vegetables are also produced in some quantity, and maize is
grown largely for the sake of the husk, which is used for native
cheroot-wrappers, under the name of yawpct. The Yenangyat
oil-fields, which produce quantities of petroleum, are in the
south of the district, and iron used to be worked in a small
way. There are 11 51 sq. m. of reserved forests in the
XX. 17 a
522
PAL— PALACIO VALDES
district. A good deal of teak and cutch is worked out. The
cutch of the Yaw country is particularly esteemed. The average
rainfall does not exceed 35 in. annually, and in many places
water has to be carted for miles. West of the Pondaung ridge,
however, under the Chin hills, the rainfall exceeds 50 inches.
The heat in May and June is very great, and the thermometer
rises considerably above 100° F. in the shade.
The great majority of the population is Burmese, but in Yaw
there is a pecuhar race called Taungthas, who claim to be quite
distinct from both Burmese and Chins. In 1901 the Taungthas
numbered 5700.
The headquarters town, Pakokku, stands on the right bank of
the Irrawaddy, and has grown into importance since the British
occupation. It is the great boat-building centre of Upper
Burma. The population in 1901 was 19,456. It may be
described as the emporium of the trade of the Chindwin and
Yaw river valleys. The steamers of the Irrawaddy Flotilla
Company call here regularly, and it is the starting-point for the
vessels plying on the Chindwin.
PAL, KRISTO DAS (1839-1S84), Indian publicist, was born in
Calcutta in 1839, of the Teli or oil-man's caste, which ranks low
in the Hindu social hierarchy. He received an English education
at the Oriental Seminary and the Hindu Metropolitan College,
and at an early age devoted himself to journalism. In 1861 he was
appointed assistant secretary (and afterwards secretary) to the
British Indian Association, a board of Bengal landlords, which
numbered among its members some of the most cultured men of
the day. At about the same time he became editor of the
Hindu Patriot, originally started in 1853 and conducted with
ability and zeal by Harish Chandra Mukerji until his death in
1861. This journal having been transferred by a trust deed to
some members of the British Indian Association, it henceforth
became to some extent an organ of that body. Thus Kristo
Das Pal had rare opportunities for proving his abilities and
independence during an eventful career of twenty-two years.
In 1863 he was appointed justice of the peace and municipal
commissioner of Calcutta. In 1872 he was made a member of
the Bengal legislative council, where his practical good sense and
moderation were much appreciated by successive lieutenant-
governors. His opposition, however, to the Calcutta Municipal
Bill of 1876, which first recognized the elective system, was
attributed to his prejudice in favour of the " classes " against
the " masses." In 1878 he received the decoration of CLE.
In 1883 he was appointed a member of the viceroy's legislative
council. In the discussions on the Rent Bill, which came up for
consideration before the councU, Kristo Das Pal, as secretary
to the British Indian Association, necessarily took the side of
the landlords. He died on the 24th of July 1884. Speaking
after his death. Lord Ripon said: " By this melancholy event we
have lost from among us a colleague of distinguished ability,
from whom we had on all occasions received assistance, of which
I readily acknowledge the value. . . . Mr Kristo Das Pal owed
the honourable position to which he had attained to his own
exertions. His intellectual attainments were of a high order,
his rhetorical gifts were acknowledged by all who heard him,
and were enhanced when addressing this council by his thorough
mastery over the EngHsh language." A full length statue of
him was unveiled by Lord Elgin at Calcutta in 1894.
See N. N. Ghose, Kristo Das Pal, a Study (Calcutta, 1887).
PALACE (Lat. Palatiiim, the name given by Augustus to his
residence on the Palatine Hill), primarily the residence of a
sovereign or prince, but in England, Spain and France extended
to the residence of a bishop, and in the latter country to buildings
appropriated to the public service, such as courts of justice, &c.
In Italy the name is given to royal residences, to public buildings,
and to such large mansions as in France are either known as
chateaux if in the country, or hotels if in Paris.
The earliest palaces in Egypt are those built in the rear of the
Temple of Karnak by Thothmes III. and near the Temple of
Medinet Habu, both in Thebes; the earliest in Greece are those
at Cnossus and Phaestus in Crete {c. 1500 B.C.), and at Tiryns in
the citadel (c 1200 B.C.). The most remarkable series are those
erected by the Assyrians at Nimroud, Koyunjik and Khorsabad
(859-667 B.C.), which were followed by the Persian palaces at
Persepolis and Susa; the Parthian palaces at Al Hadhr and
Diarbekr; and the Sassanian palaces of Serbistan, Firuzabad
and Ctesiphon. The only palace known of the late Greek style
is that found at Palatitza in Macedonia. Of the Roman period
there are many examples, beginning with those on the Palatine
Hill commenced by Augustus, continued and added to by his
successors, Tiberius, Caligula, Domitian, Hadrian and Septimus
Severus, which covered an area of over 1,000,000 sq. ft. The
villa of Hadrian was virtually an immense palace, the buildings
of which extended over 7 m. in length; of more modest propor-
tions are the palace of Diocletian at Spalato and a fine example
at Treves in Germany. The palace of the Hebdomon at Con-
stantinople, and a fragment at Ravenna of Theodoric's work, are
all that remain of Byzantine palaces. Of Romanesque work the
only examples are those at Gelnhausen built by Barbarossa, and
the Wartburg in Germany. In the Gothic style in Italy, the
best known examples are the ducal palace at Venice, and the
Palazzi Vecchio and del Podesta (BargeUo) at Florence; in
France, the palace of the popes at Avignon, and the episcopal
palaces of Beauvais, Laon, Poitiers and Lisieux; in England, the
bishops' palaces of Wells, Norwich, Lincoln, portions of Edward
the Confessor's palace at Westminster, and Wolsey's palace at
Hampton Court; while such great country mansions as the
" castles " of Alnwick, KenQworth, Warwick, Rochester,
Raglan and Stokesay, or Haddon Hall, come in the same
category though the name is not employed. Belonging to the
Mahommedan style are the palaces of the Alhambra and the
Alcazar in Spain. Of I the Renaissance period, nimierous
palaces exist in every country, the more important examples
in Italy being those of the Vatican, the Quirinal and the
Cancellaria, in Rome; the Caprarola near Rome; the palace of
Caserta near Naples; the Pitti at Florence; the Palazzo del Te
at Mantua; the court and eastern portion of the ducal palace
of Venice, and the numerous examples of the Grand Canal;
in France, the Louvre, the TuUeries (destroyed), and the
Luxembourg, in Paris; Versailles and St Germain-en-Laye; and
the chateaux of la Rochefoucauld, Fontainebleau, Chambord,
Blois, Amboise, Chenonceaux and other palaces on the Loire;
in Germany, the castle of Heidelberg, and the Zwinger palace
at Dresden; in Spain, the palace of Charles V. at Grenada, the
Escorial and the palace of Madrid; in England, the palace of
Vv'hitehall by Inigo Jones, of which only the banqueting hall was
built, Windsor Castle, Blenheim, Chatsworth, Hampton Court;
and in Scotland, the palaces of Holyrood and Linlithgow.
PALACIO VALDES, ARMANDO (1853- ), Spanish novelist
and critic, was born at Entralgo, in the province of Asturias, on
the 4th of October 1853. His first writings were printed in tke
Revista Europca. These were pungent essays, remarkable for
independent judgment and refined humour, and found so much
favour with the public that the young beginner was soon ap-
pointed editor of the Revista. The best of his critical work is
collected in Los Oradores del Atcneo (1878), Los Novelistas
espanoles (187S), Nuevo viaje al Parnaso and La Literatura en 1881
(1882), this last being written in collaboration with Leopoldo Alas.
In 1881 he published a novel. El Seiiorito Octavio, which shows an
uncommon power of observation, and the promise of better
things to come. In Marta y Maria (1883), a portrayal of the
struggle between religious vocation and earthly passion, some-
what in the manner of Valera, Palacio Valdes achieved a very
popular triumph which placed him in the first rank of contem-
porary Spanish novelists. El Idilio de un cnfermo (1884), a
most interesting fragment of autobiography, has scarcely met
with the recognition which it deserves: perhaps because the
pathos of the story is too unadorned. The pubhcation of
Pereda's Sotilcza is doubtless responsible for the conception of
Jose (1885), in which Palacio Valdes gives a realistic picture of
the manners and customs of seafaring folk, creates the two
convincing characters whom he names Jose and Leonarda, and
embellishes the whole with passages of animated description
barely inferior to the finest penned by Pereda himself. The
PALACKY— PALAEMON
523
emotional imagination of the writer expressed itself anew in
the charming story Riverita (1886), one of whose attractive
characters develops into the heroine of Maximina (1887);
and from Maximina, in its turn, is taken the novice who figures
as a professed nun among the personages of La Hermana San
Sidpicio (1889), in which the love-passages between Zeferino
Sanjurjo and Gloria Bermddez are set off with elaborate,
romantic descriptions of Seville. El Cuarto podcr (1888) is, as
its name implies, concerned with the details, not always edifying,
of journalistic life. Two novels issued in i8g2, La Espuma and
La Fe, were enthusiastically praised in foreign countries, but
in Spain their reception was cold. The explanation is to be
found in the fact that the first of these books is an avowed satire
on the Spanish aristocracy, and that the second was construed
into an attack upon the Roman Catholic Church. During the
acrimonious discussion which followed the publication of La
Espuma, it was frequently asserted that the artist had improvised
a fantastic caricature of originals whom he had never seen; yet
as the characters in Coloma's Pequeneccs are painted in darker
tones, and as the very critics who were foremost in charging
Palacio Valdes with incompetence and ignorance are almost
unanimous in praising Coloma's fidelity, it is manifest that the
indictment against La Espuma cannot be maintained. Subse-
quently Palacio Valdes returned to his earlier and better manner
in Los Majos de Cddiz (i8g6) and in La Algeria del Capitdn Ribol
(1899). In these novels, and still more in Tristdn, 6 el pesimismo
(1906), he frees himself from the reproach of undue submission
to French influences. In any case he takes a prominent place in
modern Spanish literature as a keen analyst of emotion and a
sympathetic, delicate, humorous observer. (J. F.-K.)
PALACKt, FRANTISEK [Francis] (i 798-1876), Czech
historian and politician, was born on the 14th of June 1798 at
Hodslavice (Hotzendorf) in Moravia. His ancestors had been
members of the community of the Bohemian Brethren, and had
secretly maintained their Protestant belief throughout the
period of religious persecution, eventually giving their adherence
to the Augsburg confession as approximate to their original
faith. Palacky's father was a schoolmaster and a man of some
learning. The son was sent in 181 2 to the Protestant gymnasium
at Pressburg, where he came in contact with the philologist
Safafik and became a zealous student of the Slav languages.
After some years spent in private teaching Palacky settled in
1823 at Prague. Here he found a warm friend in Dobrovsky,
whose good relations with the Austrian authorities shielded him
from the hostihty shown by the government to students of Slav
subjects. Dobrovsky introduced him to Count Sternberg and
his brother Francis, both of whom took an enthusiastic interest
in Bohemian history. Count Francis was the principal founder
of the Society of the Bohemian Museum, devoted to the collection
of documents bearing on Bohemian history, with the object of
reawakening national sentiment by the study of the national
records. Pubhc interest in the movement was stirnulated in 1825
by the new Journal of the Bohemian Museum {Casopis ccskeho
Musea) of which Palacky was the first editor. The journal was
at first pubhshed in Czech and German, and the Czech edition
survived to become the most important literary organ of
Bohemia. Palacky had received a modest appointment as archi-
vist to Count Sternberg and in 1829 the Bohemian estates sought
to confer on him the title of historiographer of Bohemia, with a
small salary, but it was ten years before the consent of the Vien-
nese authorities was obtained. Meanwhile the estates, with the
tardy assent of Vienna, had undertaken to pay the expenses of
publishing Palacky's capital work, The History of the Bohemian
People (s vols., 1836-1867). This book, which comes down to the
year 1526 and the extinction of Czech independence, was founded
on laborious research in the local archives of Bohemia and in
the Kbraries of the chief cities of Europe, and remains the stan-
dard authority. The first volume was printed in German in
1836, and subsequently translated into Czech. The publication
of the work was hindered by the poUce-censorship, which was
especially active in criticizing his account of the Hussite move-
ment. Palacky, though entirely national and Protestant in
his sympathies, was careful to avoid an uncritical approbation
of the Reformers' methods, but his statements were held by the
authorities to be dangerous to the Catholic faith. He was
therefore compelled to make excisions from his narrative and
to accept as integral parts of his work passages interpolated by
the censors. After the abolirion of the pohce-censorship in
1848 he published a new edition, completed in 1876, restoring
the original form of the work. The fairest and most considerable
of Palacky's antagonists in the controversy aroused by his
narrative of the early reformation in Bohemia was Baron
Helfert, who received a brief from Vienna to write his Hus tend
Hieronymus (1853) to counteract the impression made by
Palacky's History. K. A. K. Hofler, a German professor of
history at Prague, edited the historical authorities for the
period in a similar sense in his Geschichte der hussitischen
Bewegung in Bohmen. Palacky repUed in his Geschichte dcs
H ussilcnlhumes und Professor Lojfler (Prague, 1868) and Zur
bohmischen Gcschichlschrcibung (Prague, 1871).
The revolution of 1848 forced the historian into practical
politics. He was deputed to the Reichstag which sat at
Kromefice (Kremsier) in the autumn of that year, and was a
member of the Slav congress at Prague. He refused to take
part in the preliminary parliament consisting of 500 former
deputies to the diet, which met at Frankfort, on the ground that
as a Czech he had no interest in German affairs. He was at
this time in favour of a strong Austrian empire, which should
consist of a federation of the southern German and the Slav
states, allowing of the retention of their individual rights.
These views met with some degree of consideration at Vienna,
and Palacky was even offered a portfolio in the Pillersdorf
cabinet. The collapse of the federal idea and the definite
triumph of the party of reaction in 1852 led to his retirement
from politics. After the hberal concessions of i860 and 1861,
however, he became a hfe member of the Austrian senate. His
views met with small support from the assembly, and with the
exception of a short period after the decree of September 1871,
by which the emperor raised hopes for Bohemian self-govern-
ment, he ceased to appear in the senate from 186 1 onwards. In
the Bohemian Landtag he became the acknowledged leader of
the nationaUst-federal party. He sought the establishment of
a Czech kingdom which should include Bohemia, Moravia and
Silesia, and in his zeal for Czech autonomy he even entered into
an alliance with the Conservative nobility and with the extreme
Catholics. He attended the Panslavist congress at Moscow in
1S67. He died at Prague on the 26th of May 1876.
Among his more important smaller historical works are: Wiirdi-
gung der alien bohmischen Geschichtschreiber (Prague, 1830), dealing
with authors of many of whose works were then inaccessible to
Czech students; Archiv cesky (6 vols., Prague, 1840-1872); Urkund-
liche Beitrdge zur Geschichte des Hussitenkriegs (2 vols., Prague,
1872-1874); Documenta magistri Joliannis Hus vitam, doctrinam,
causam . . . illustrantia (Prague, 1869). With Safarik he wrote
Anfdnge der bohmischen Dichtkunst (Pressburg, 1818) and Die
dltesten Denkmdler der bdhmisclien Sprache (Prague, 1840). Three
volumes of his Czech articles and essays were published as Radhost
(3 vols., Prague, 1871-1873). For accounts of Palacky see an article
by Saint Rene Taillandier in the Revue des deux mondes (.•\pril, 1855) ;
Count Liitzow, Lectures on the Historians of Bohemia (London, 1905).
PALADIN (Lat. palatinus), strictly a courtier, a member of
a royal household, one connected with a palace. From being
applied to the famous twelve peers of Charlemagne, the word
became a general term in romance for knights of great prowess.
PALAEMON, QUINTUS REMMIUS, Roman grammarian, a
native of Vicentia, lived in the reigns of Tiberius and Claudius.
From Suetonius (De grammaticis, 23) we learn that he was
originally a slave who obtained his freedom and taught grammar
at Rome. Though a man of profligate and arrogant character,
he enjoyed a great reputation as a teacher; Quintflian and
Persius are said to have been his pupils. His lost Ars (Juvenal,
vii. 215), a system of grammar much used in his own time and
largely drawn upon by later grammarians, contained rules for
correct diction, illustrative quotations and treated of barbarisms
and solecisms (Juvenal vi. 452). An extant Ars grammatica
(discovered by Jovianus Pontanus in the isth century) and
524
PALAEOBOTANY
[PALAEOZOIC
other unimportant treatises on similar subjects have been
wrongly ascribed to him.
See C. Marschall, De Remmii Palaemonis libris grammaticis
(1887); " Latin Grammar in the First Century " by H. Nettleship
in Journal of Philology, vol. xv. (1886) ; J. E. Sandys, Hist, of Classical
Scholarship (2nd ed., 1906).
PALAEOBOTANY. In the present article the subject of
vegetable palaeontology is treated from a botanical point of
view. The science of botany is concerned with the vegetable
kingdom as a whole, and not merely with the tlora now living.
The remains of the plants of former periods, which have come
down to us in the fossilized state, are almost always fragmentary,
and often imperfectly preserved; but their investigation is of
the ut,most importance to the botanist, as affording the only
direct evidence of the past history of vegetable organisms.
Since the pubhcation of the Origin of Species the general accep-
tance of the doctrine of evolution has given a vastly increased
significance to palaeontological data. The determination of the
course of descent has now become the ultimate problem for
the systematist: this is an historical question, and the historical
documents available are the remains of the ancient organisms
preserved in the rocks. The palaeobotanist thus endeavours to
trace the history of plants in the past, with the hope of throwing
light on their natural affinities and on the origin of the various
groups. His investigations must embrace not only the compara-
tive morphology and anatomy of fossil plants, but also their
distribution over the earth's surface at different periods — a part
of the subject which, besides its direct biological interest, has
obvious bearings on ancient chmatology and geography.
Preservation. — Before considering the results of palaeobotanical
research, some account must be given of the way in which the
evidence is presented, or, in other words, of the modes of preservation
of vegetable remains. These fall under two main heads. On the
one hand, there is the mode of preservation which gives rise to casts,
moulds and generally impressions, exhibiting the superficial features
of the specimen. The great majority of vegetable fossils are of
this kind, and the term incrustation is used as a general term to
cover all such methods of fossilization. On the other hand, there
are specimens in which the tissues of the plant have been permeated
by some mineral in solution, which, subsequently setting hard,
has fixed and preserved the internal structure, often with astonishing
perfection of detail. This second method of fossilization is termed
petrifaction. In the case of incrustation the whole substance of
the fossilized specimen — e.g., a stem of Sigillaria — may be replaced
by mineral matter, such as sandstone or shale, giving a cast of the
whole, on the outer surface of which the external markings, such as
the bases of leaves and the scars left by their fall, are visible in their
natural form. Usually the original organic substance remains as a
thin carbonaceous layer forming the surface of the cast, but some-
times it has entirely disappeared. The surrounding matrix will of
course show the mould of the cast, with its elevations and depressions
reversed. In the case of thin, flat organs such as leaves, the whole
organ may be spread out in the plane of stratification, leaving its
impress on the overlying and underlying layers. Here there has
not necessarily been any replacement of organic by inorganic
material; the whole leaf, for example, may remain, though reduced
to a carbonaceous film. In such carbonaceous impression not
only are the form and markings, such as venation, perfectly pre-
served, but something of the actual structure may remain. The
cuticularized epidermis, especially, is often thus preserved, and may
be removed by the use of appropriate reagents and examined
microscopically. If sporangia and spores are present they also
may persist in a perfectly recognizable form, and in fact much
of our knowledge of the fructification of fossil f^erns and similar
plants has been derived from specimens of this kind.
In many cases internal casts have been formed, some large cavity,
such as a fistular pith, having become filled with mineral substance,
which has taken the impress of the surrounding structures, such as
the wood. The common casts of Calamites arc of this nature,
representing the form of the hollow medulla, and bearing on their
surface the print of the nodal constrictions and of the ridges and
furrows on the inner surface of the wood. The whole organic sub-
stance may have been removed, or may persist merely as a thin
carbonaceous layer. Mistakes have often arisen from confusing
these medullary casts with those of the stem as a whole.
Although some information as to minute structure may often be
gleaned from the carbonaceous coating of impressions, the fossils
preserved by petrifaction are the main source of our knowledge
of the structural characters of ancient plants. The chemical bodies
which have played the most important part as agents of petrifaction
are silicic acid and calcium carbonate, though other substances,
such as magnesium carbonate, calcium sulphate and ferric oxide
have also been concerned, either as the chief constituents of petrifac-
tions, or mixed with other bodies. A large number of the most
important remains of plants with structure preserved are silicious;
this is the case, for example, with the famous French Permo-Carbon-
iferous fossils of St Etienne, Autun, &c., which in the hands of
Brongniart, Renault and others have yielded such brilliant scientific
results. At a more recent horizon, the siHcified specimens of the
Mesozoic Gymnosperms from Great Britain, France, and especially
North America, are no less important. Calcified specimens are
especially characteristic of the British Carboniferous formation;
their preservation is equally perfect with that of the siHcified fossils,
and their investigation by \Vitham, Binney, Williamson and others
has proved no less fertile. In the Coal Measures of England and of
certain German and Austrian districts (e.g. Langendreer in West-
phalia; Ostrau in Moravia), calcareous nodules, crowded with
vegetable fragments of every kind, occur in certain mines embedded
in the substance of the coal and representing its raw material in
a petrified condition. Even the most delicate tissues, such as
cambium and phloem, the endosperm of seeds, or the formative
tissue of the growing-point, are frequently preserved cell for cell,
both in calcareous and sihcious material. As a rule, the petrified
remains, all-important for the revelation of structure, are fragmen-
tary, and give little idea of the habit or external characters of the
plants from which they were derived. Hence they must be brought
into relation with the specimens preserved as casts or impressions,
in order to gain a better conception of the plant as a whole. This
is often a difficult task, and generally the fragmentary nature of
practically all vegetable fossils is the chief hindrance to their in-
vestigation. Owing to this, it has become the common practice
of palaeobotanists to give distinct generic names to detached parts
of plants which may even have belonged to one and the same
species. Thus the roots of Sigillaria are called Stigmaria, detached
leaves Sigillariophyllum, and the fructifications Sigillariostrobus;
the name Sigillaria applies to the stem, which, however, when old
and partly decorticated has been called Syringodendron, while its
woody cylinder has often been described under the name Diploxylon.
This naming of portions of plants, however objectionable, is often
not to be avoided ; for detached organs constantly have to be de-
scribed long before their relation to other parts is established —
which, indeed, may never be accomplished. For example, the
form and structure of Stigmaria have long been well known; but it
is seldom possible to determine whether a given Stigmaria belonged
to Sigillaria, Lepidodendron or some other genus. The correct
piecing together of the fragmentary remains is one of the first
problems of the palaeobotanist, and the gradual disappearance of
superfluous names affords a fair measure of the progress of his
science. The recent advance of fossil botany has depended in a
very great degree on the study of petrified specimens with their
structure preserved; so far, at least, as the older strata are con-
cerned, it is, as a rule, only with the help of specimens showing
structure that any safe conclusions as to the affinities of fossil
plants can be arrived at.
The subject of coal (q.v.) is treated elsewhere. Here it need
only be said that the masses of vegetable substance, more or less
carbonized and chemically altered, of which coal is composed,
frequently contain cells and fragments of tissue in a condition
recognizable under the microscope, as for example spores (some-
times present in great quantities), elements of the wood, fibres of
the bark, &c. These remnants, however, though interesting as
revealing something of the sources of coal, are too fragmentary
and imperfect to be of any botanical importance. In lignite, on
the other hand, the organized structure is sometimes excellently
preserved. In the Wealden of Belgium, for example, specimens
of Ferns and Coniferae occur, in the form of lignite, which can be
sectioned, like recent plants, with a razor, and exhibit an almost
unaltered structure.
I. — Palaeozoic
The present section is concerned with the botany of the
Palaeozoic age, from the oldest rocks in which vegetable remains
have been found up to the close of the Permian period. The
Glossopteris flora of India and the southern hemisphere, the age
of which has been disputed, but is now regarded as for the most
part Permo-Carboniferous, is, however, dealt with in the succeed-
ing section, in connexion with the Mesozoic floras. The various
groups of plants represented in the Palaeozoic rocks will first be
considered in systematic order, after which some account will be
given of the succession and distribution of the various floras
during the period.
In dealing with the plants of such remote epochs, the relative
importance of the various groups, so far as they are known to
us, is naturally very different from that which they assume at
the present day. There is no evidence that the Angiospermous
flowering plants, now the dominant class, existed during the
Palaeozoic period; they do not appear tiU far on in the Mesozoic
epoch, and their earher history is as yet entirely unknown. On
the other hand, fern-like seed-plants, known as Pteridosperms,
PALAEOZOIC]
PALAEOBOTANY
525
and Gymnosperms belonging almost entirely to families now
extinct, were abundant, while the Pteridophyta attained a
development exceeding anything that they can now show.
Among the lower classes of plants we have scarcely any know-
ledge of Palaeozoic Bryophyta; Fungi were probably abundant,
but their remains give us little information; while, even among
the Algae, which are better represented, well characterized
specimens are scanty.
With few exceptions, the remains of Palaeozoic Algae are of
comparatively little botanical interest. A vast number of " species "
have been described, but, as has been said, " by far the
Algae. greater number of the supposed fossil Algae have no
. claim to be regarded as authentic records of this class of Thallo-
phytes " (Seward, 1898). The investigations of Nathorst, William-
son and others have shown that a very large proportion of the
casts and impressions attributed to Algae had in all probability a
totally different origin. Some represent the tracks or burrows of
worms, crustaceans or other animals; others, the course of rills of
water on a sandy or muddy shore; others, again, the marks left on
the bottom by bodies drifted along by the waves. In cases ol
doubt, evidence may be obtained from traces of organic structure,
from the presence of carbonaceous matter, or, as Zeiller has pointed
out, by the remains of animals such as Bryozoa being attached to
the cast, showing that it represents a solid body and not a mere
cavity or furrow. Evidence from traces of organization is alone
conclusive; the presence of carbonaceous matter, though a useful
indication, may be deceptive, for the organic substance may have
been derived from other sources than the body which left the im-
pression. The mere external form of the supposed Algae is rarely
so characteristic as to afford satisfactory evidence of their nature.
Some of the better-attested examples, among which are a few of
considerable interest, may now be considered. Of Cyanophyceae,
as we should expect, the Palaeozoic remains are very doubtful.
Gloioconis, found by Renault in a coprolitc of Permian age, was
regarded by him as a Cyanophycean allied to Gloeocapsa ; this may
be so, but the argument drawn from the absence of nuclei, con-
sidering the extreme rarity of recognizable nuclei even in the best
preserved fossil tissues, can hardly be taken seriously. GirvaneUa,
found in Cambrian, Ordovician and Silurian rocks, as well as in
later deposits, appears to have played a part in the origination of
oolitic rock-structure. It consists of minute interwoven tubular
filaments, and has been variously interpreted as possibly repre-
senting the sheaths of a Cyanophycean Alga, and as constituting
a Siphoneous thallus of the type of the Codieae. The non-cellular
order Siphoneae is fairly well represented in Palaeozoic strata,
especially by calcareous verticillate forms referable to the family
Dasycladeae; the separate tubular joints of the articulated thallus,
bearing the prints of the whorled branches, are sometimes cylindrical
{Arlhroporclla, Vermiporella, &c.), sometimes oval (Sycidium) or
spherical (Cydocrinus). These forms, and others like them, go
back to the Silurian and Ordovician; while GyroporeUa, from the
Permian, is another fairly characteristic Siphoneous type. There
can be no doubt that the verticillate Siphoneae, a group much
isolated among recent organisms, are among the most ancient
families of plants. The gigantic Netnatophyciis, to be described
below, has been regarded as having Siphoneous affinities. Little
trace of Confervaceae has been found; Conferviles chantransioides,
apparently consisting of branched cellular filaments, may perhaps
■represent a Cambrian Confervoid. Cladiscothallus, from the Culm
of Russia, in which the filaments are united to form hemispherical
or globular tufts, has been compared by Renault to a Chaelophora.
This is one of the somewhat doubtful Algae occurring in boghead
coal or torbanite, a carbonaceous rock the nature of which has been
much disputed, in the law courts as well as in scientific literature.
The boghead of Scotland, Autun and New South Wales is regarded
' by Renault and Bertrand as mainly composed of gelatinous Algae
{Pila and Reinschia), having a hollow, saccate thallus formed of a
■single layer of cells. It may appear surprising that a body con-
taining 65 % of carbon should be so largely made up of gelatinous
Algae in a comparatively little altered condition, but the material
is rich in bitumen, which seems to have replaced the water con-
tained in the organisms when alive. It has recently been stated,
however, that the supposed Algae are in reality the mcgaspores of
Vascular Cryptogams. Scarcely anything is known of Palaeozoic
Florideae; Solenopora, ranging from the Ordovician to the Jurassic,
resembles, in the structure of its thallus, with definite zones of
growth, Corallinaceae such as Lilhothamnion , and may probably
be of the same nature. A branched filamentous organism from the
Lower Carboniferous of Scotland, described by Kidston under the
name of Bylbotrephis worstonierisis, shows some remains of cellular
structure, and may probably be a true Alga, resembling some of
■ the filamentous Florideae in habit.
Apart from the multitude of supposed fossil Algae described as
" Fucoids " but usually not of Algal nature, and never presenting
[determinable characters, very little remains that can be referred
to Palaeozoic Brown Algae. The most striking of all fossil Algae,
however, Nematophvcus, mav possiblv be a Phaeophycean. The
by Dawson in 1856 in the Lower and Middle Devonian of Canada,
and was described by him as a Conifer under the name of
Frotolaxites. Carruthers, however, in 1872 established its Algal
nature, and gave it the more appropriate name of Nemalophycus.
In N. Logani the stem, which is found in a silicified state, may
be as much as 3 ft. in diameter. The tissue is made up of large,
unseptate, occasionally branching tubes, with an undulating
vertical course, among which much smaller tubes are irregularly
interwoven. Radially placed gaps in the tissue (at first errone-
ously interpreted as medullary rays, but subsequently more aptly
compared to the air-spaces of large Algae) contain very sparse
hyphae, which here branch more freely than elsewhere. The con-
centric rings of growth, which form a characteristic feature, are
due to periodic variations in the size of the larger tubes. Transver.se
septa have occasionally, but rarely, been detected in the smaller
hyphae. Penhallow maintains that these smaller tubes arise as
branches from the larger, but other observers have failed to confirm
this. In N. Storriei, from the Silurian (Wenlock) of South Wales,
described by Barber, there is no sharp differentiation of the two
kinds of tubes; they are rarely observed to branch, except in the
gaps, which in this species are not radially directed. In N. Orloni
(Penhallow), from the Devonian of Canada, the tubes are quite
uniform, and there are no spaces or concentric rings. The tubes
have their cavity dilated at intervals, and Penhallow has therefore
compared them with the trumpet-hyphae of Laminariaceae, but no
transverse septa are anywhere visible. Several other species have
been described. Carruthers compared the usually non-cellular struc-
ture of Nemalophycus with that of Siphoneae such &s Halimeda,
while recognizing the points of resemblance to Laminariaceae
{e.g. Lessonia) in the dimensions of the stem and its concentric
rings of growth. Later writers, influenced by the occasional
occurrence of transverse walls in the smaller hyphae, have laid more
stress on Laminariaceous affinities. The existence of these gigantic
Algae in Palaeozoic times, attested by such well-preserved specimens,
is a fact of great interest, though their systematic position is still
an open question. Pachylheca, a spherical organism, usually about
the size of a small pea, found in rocks of Silurian and Devonian
age, has been much investigated and discussed, without any
decisive light having been thrown on its nature. It was once
regarded as connected with Nemalophycus (with which it sometimes
occurs in association), possibly as its fructification. For this view
however, there is no evidence, though the tissues of the two fossils
are somewhat similar. Pachylheca is formed of cellular filaments
resembling those of a Cladophora, irregularly interwoven in the
central region, radiating towards the periphery, and often forked.
In one case the spherical thallus was found seated in a cup-like
receptacle. There can be little doubt of the Algal nature of the
fossil, but beyond this it is impossible at present to carry its
determination.
On the whole, it cannot be said that the Palaeozoic remains have
as yet thrown much light on the evolution of the Algae, though we
may not be prepared to maintain, with Zeiller, that plants of this
class appear never to have assumed a form very different from that
which they present at the present day.
The first evidence for the existence of Palaeozoic Bacteria was
obtained in 1879 by Van Tieghem, who found, that in silicified
vegetable remains from the Coal Measures of St Etienne o ^t H
the cellulose membranes showed traces of subjection to sea.
butyric fermentation, such as is produced at the present day by
Bacillus Amylobacter \ he also claimed to have detected the organism
itself. Since that time a number of fossil Bacteria, mainly from
Palaeozoic strata, have been described by Renault, occurring in all
kinds of fossilized vegetable and animal debris. The supposed
Micrococci present little that is characteristic; the more definite,
rod-like form of the Bacilli offers a better means of recognition,
though far from an infallible one; in a few cases dark granules,
suggestive of endospores, have been found within the rods. On
the whole, the occurrence of Bacteria in Palaeozoic times — so
probable a priori — may be taken as established, though the attempt
to discriminate species among them is probably futile.
Fungi were no doubt abundant among Palaeozoic vegetation.
In examining the tissues of fossil plants of that epoch nothing is
more common than to meet with mycelial hyphae in f ri
and among the cells; in many cases the hyphae are "
septate, showing that the higher Fungi (Mycomycetes), as distin-
guished from the more algoid Phycomycetes, already existed. An
endophytic Fungus referred to the latter group {Peronosporiles
anliquarius, W. Smith) bears very definite terminal, or intercalary,
spherical vesicles, which may probably be regarded as reproductive
organs — either oogonia or sporangia. A minute Fungus bearing
sporangia, found by Renault in the wood of a Lepidodendron, antl
named by him Oochytrium Lepidodendri, is referred with much
probability to the Chytridincae. Conceptacles contaning Spores,
and strongly suggesting the Chytridineous Fungus Urophiyelis,
have recently been found, in petrified material, on the leaves of an
Alethopteris, which appears to have undergone decay before fossiliza-
tion set in. Small spores, almost certainly those of Fungi, are
very common in the petrified tissues of Palaeozoic plants. Spherical
sacs, bearing forked spines, described by Williamson under the
name of ZygosporiUs, are frequent, usually in an isolated state.
526
PALAEOBOTANY
[PALAEOZOIC
Professor Seward, however, has found a Zygosporiies in situ, termin-
ating an apparently fungal hypha: he suggests a possible comparison
with the mould Mucor. Bodies closely resembling the perithecia of
Sphaeriaceous Fungi have often been observed on impressions of
Palaeozoic plants, and may probably belong to the group indicated.
Professor F. E. Weiss has obtained interesting evidence that the
symbiotic association between roots and Fungi, known as " Myco-
rhiza," already occurred among Carboniferous plants. The few
and incomplete data which we at present possess as to Palaeozoic
Fungi do not as yet justify any inferences as to the evolution of
these plants. The writer is not aware of any evidence for the
occurrence of Palaeozoic Lichens.
The important class of the Bryophyta, which, on theoretical
grounds, is commonly regarded as more primitive than the
Pteridophyta, is as yet scarcely represented among
ryop yta. j.jjq^^j. fossils of Palaeozoic age. In the Lower
Carboniferous of Scotland Mr Kidston has found several speci-
mens of a large dichotomous thaUus, with a very distinct midrib ;
the specimens, referred to the provisional genus Thallites, much
resemble the larger thalloid Liverworts. Similar fossils have
been described from still older rocks. In one or two cases
Palaeozoic plants, resembling the true Mosses in habit, have
been discovered; the best example is the Musettes polyirichaceus
of Renault and Zeiller, from the Coal Measures of Commentry.
In the absence, however, both of reproductive organs and of
anatomical structure, it cannot be said that there is at present
conclusive evidence for the existence of either Hepaticae or
Musci in Palaeozoic times.
Our knowledge of the Vascular Cryptograms of the Palaeozoic
period, though recent discoveries have somewhat reduced their
relative importance, is still more extensive than of any
doahyia Other class of plants, and in fact it is here that the
evidence of Palaeontology first becomes of essential
importance to the botanist. They extend back through the
Devonian, possibly to the Silurian system, but the systematic
summary now to be given is based primarily on the rich materials
afforded by the Carboniferous and Permian formations, from
which our detailed knowledge of Palaeozoic plants has been
chiefly derived.
In addition to the three classes, Equisetales, Lycopodiales and
Filicales, under which recent Pteridophytes naturally group
themselves, a fourth class, Sphenophyllales, existed in Palaeozoic
times, clearly related to the Horsetails and more remotely to
the Ferns and perhaps the Club-mosses, but with peculiarities
of its own demanding an independent position. We further find
that, whereas the Ferns of the present day form a well-defined
and even isolated class, this was not the case at the time when
the primary rocks were deposited. A great group of Palaeozoic
fossils, showing evident affinity to Ferns, has proved to consist
of seed-bearing plants allied to Gymnosperms, especially Cj'cads.
This important class of plants will be described at the beginning
of the Spermophyta under the name Pteridospermeae. The
arrangement which we shall adopt for the Palaeozoic Pterido-
phyta is therefore as follows: —
I. Equisetales. II. SpJicnophyllales.
III. Lycopodiaks. IV. Filicales.
We must bear in mind that throughout the Palaeozoic period,
and indeed far beyond it, vascular plants, so far as the existing
evidence shows, were represented only by the Pteridophyta,
Pteridosperms and Gymnosperms. Although the history of the
Angiosperms may probably go much further back than present
records show, there is no reason to suppose that they were
present, as such, amongst the Palaeozoic vegetation. Con-
sequently, the Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms and their allies had
the field to themselves, so far as regards the higher plants, and
filled places in nature which have now for the most part been
seized on by families of more modern origin. Hence it is not
surprising to find that the early Vascular Cryptograms were,
beyond comparison, more varied and more highly organized than
their displaced and often degraded successors. It is among the
fossils of the Palaeozoic rocks that we first learn the possibilities
of Pteridophytic organization.
I. Equisetales. — This class, represented in the recent flora
by the single genus Equiseium, with about twenty species, was
one of the dominant groups of plants in Carboniferous times.
The Calamarieae, now known to have been the chief Palaeozoic
representatives of the Horsetail stock, attained the dimensions
of trees, reaching, according to Grand' Eury, a height of from
30 to 60 metres, and showed in all respects a higher and more
varied organization than their recent successors.
Their remains occur in three principal forms of preservation,
(i) carbonaceous impressions of the leafy branches, the fructifi-
cations and other parts; (2) casts of the stem; these are usually
internal, or medullary casts, as described above. Around the cast
the organic tissues may be represented by a carbonaceous layer,
on the outer surface of which the external features, such as the
remains of leaves, can sometimes be traced. More usually, however,
the carbonaceous film is thin, and merely shows the impress of the
medullary cast within; (3) petrified specimens of all parts — stem,
roots, leaves and fructifications — showing the internal structure,
more or less perfectly preserved. The correlation of these various
remains presents considerable difficulties. Casts surrounded by
wood, with its structure preserved, have sometimes been found,
and have established their true relations. The position of the
branches is shown both on casts and in petrified specimens, and has
helped in their identification, while the petrified remains some-
times show enough of the external characters to allow of their
correlation with impressions. Fructifications have often been
found in connexion with leafy shoots, and the anatomical structure
of the axis in sterile and fertile specimens has proved a valuable
means of identification.
In habit the Calamarieae appear to have borne, on the whole,
a general resemblance to the recent Equisetaceae, in spite of their
enormously greater bulk. The leaves were constantly in whorls,
and were usually of comparatively small size and of simple form.
In the oldest known Calamarian, however, Archaeocalamites
(Devonian and Lower Carboniferous), the leaves were repeatedly
forked. There is evidence that in some, at least, of the Calamarieae
the leaves of each verticil were united at the base to form a sheath.
The free lamina, however, was always considerably more developed
than in the recent family; in form it was usually linear or narrowly
lanceolate. Different genera have been founded on leaf-bearing
branches of Calamarieae; apart from Archaeocalamites, already
mentioned, and Autophyllites (Grand' Eury), in both of which the
leaves were dichotomous, we have Annularia, Asterophyllites and
Calamocladiis (in Grand' Eury's limited sense), with simple leaves.
In some species of Annularia the e.xtremely delicate ultimate twigs,
bearing whorls of small lanceolate leaves, give a characteristic
habit, suggesting that they may have belonged to herbaceous
plants; other Annulariae, however, have been traced with certainty
into connexion with the stems of large Catamites. In Astero-
phyllites, the generic distinction of which from Annularia is not
always clear, the narrow linear leaves are in crowded whorls, and
the ultimate branches distichously arranged; in the Calamocladus
of Grand' Eury — characteristic of the Upper Coal Measures — the
whorls are more remote, and the twigs polystichous in arrange-
ment. In all these groups a leaf-sheath has been recognized.
The distribution of the branches on the main stem shows
considerable variations, on which genera or sub-genera have been
founded by C. E. Weiss. In Arclmeocalamites, which certainly
deserves generic rank, the branches may occur on every node,
but only in certain parts of the stem; the ribs of successive inter-
nodes do not alternate, but are continuous, indicating that the
leaves were superposed. Using Calamites as a generic name for
all those Calamarian stems in which the ribs alternate at the nodes,
we have, on Weiss's system, the following sub-genera: Stylocalam-
ites, branches rare and irregularly arranged; Calamitina, branches
in regular verticils, limited to certain nodes, which surmount
specially short internodes; Eucalamites, branches present on every
node. These distinctions can be recognized on petrified specimens,
as well as on the casts, but their taxonomic value is somewhat
doubtful. In many Calamites there is evidence that the aerial
stem sprang from a horizontal rhizome, as in the common species
C. {Stylocalamites) Siickowi; in other specimens the aerial stem has
an independent, rooting base.
The anatomical structure of all parts of the plant is now known,
in various Calamarieae, thanks more especially to the work of
Williamson in England and of Renault in France. The stem has a
structure which may be briefly characterized as that of an Equisetum
with secondary growth in thickness (fig. I, Plate). The usually
fistular pith is surrounded by a ring of collateral vascular bundle,
(see Anatomy of Plants, and Pteridophyta), each of which,
with rare exceptions, has an intercellular canal at its inner edge,
containing the disorganized spiral tracheae, just as in the recent
genus. The corte.x is often preserved ; in certain cases it was
strengthened by hypodermal strands of fibres, as in Equisetum.
It is only in the rare cases where a very young twig is preserved
that the primary structure of the stem is found unaltered. In all
the larger specimens a broad zone of wood, with its elements in
radial series, had been added. This secondary wood, in the true
Calamites (Arthropitys, Goeppert), has a simple structure com-
parable to that of the simplest Coniferous woods; it is made up
PALAEOBOTANY
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XX. 526.
PALAEOZOIC]
PALAEOBOTANY
527
entirely of radial bands of tracheides interspersed with medullary
rays. The pitting of the tracheides is more or less scalariform in
character, and is limited to the radial walls. In favourable cases
remains of the cambium are found on the outer border of the wood,
and phloem is also present in the normal position, though it
does not seem to have attained any considerable thickness. In the
old stems the primary cortex was replaced by periderm, giving
rise to a thick mass of bark. The above description applies to
the stems of Calamites in the narrower sense [Arthropitys of the
French authors), to which the specimens from the British Coal
Measures mostly belong. Archaeocalamites appears to have had a
similar structure, but in some specimens from the Lower Carbon-
iferous of Burntisland, provisionally named Protocalamites petty-
curensis, centripetal wood was present in the stem. In Calamoden-
dron (Upper Coal Measures) the wood has a more complex structure
than in Calamites, the principal rays including radial tracts of
fibrous tissue, in addition to the usual parenchyma. Arlhrodendron
(Lower Coal Measures) approaches Calamode?idron in this respect.
The longitudinal course of the vascular bundles and their relation
to the leaves in Calamarieae generally followed the Equisetum type,
though more variable and sometimes more complex. The attach-
ment of the branches was immediately above the node, and usually
between two foliar traces, as in the recent genus. Where the
structure of the leaves is preserved it proves to be of an extremely
simple type; the narrow lamina is traversed by a single vascular
bundle, separated by a sheath from the surrounding palisade-
parenchyma. Stomata of the same structure as in Equisetum have
been detected in the epidermis.
The roots (formerly described as a separate genus, Astromyelon)
were borne directly on the nodes, not on short lateral branches as
in Equisetum. They are of similar structure in all known Cala-
marieae, the main roots having a large pith, while the rootlets had
little or none. The structure is in all respects that typical of roots,
as shown by the centripetal primary wood, and the alternation of
xylem and phloem groups observable in exceptionally favourable
young specimens. A striking feature is the presence of large,
radiating intercellular cavities in the cortex, suggesting an aquatic
habit. The young roots show a double endodermis, just as in the
recent Equisetum.
A considerable number of Calamarian fructifications are known,
preserved, some as carbonaceous impressions, others as petrified
specimens, exhibiting the internal structure. In many cases the cones
have been found in connexion with branches bearing characteristic
Calamarian foliage. Almost all strobili of the Calamarieae are
constructed on the same general lines as those of Equisetum, with
which some agree exactly; in most, however, the organization
was more complex, the complexity consisting in the intercalation
of whorls of sterile bracts, between those of the sporangiophores.
In several cases heterospory, unknown among recent Equisetaceae,
has been demonstrated in their Palaeozoic representatives.
Four main types of structure may be distinguished among
Calamarian strobili.
I. Calamostachys, Schimper. Here the whorls of peltate spor-
angiophores alternate regularly with those of sterile bracts, the
former being inserted on the axis
midway between the latter (fig. 2).
The sporangiophores, which are
usually half as numerous in each
verticil as the bracts, have the same
form as in Equisetum, but each bears
four sporangia only. The spores
are frequently found to be still united
in tetrads. In some species, e.g. the
British C. Binneyana, numerous
specimens have been examined and
only one kind of spore observed ;
here, then, there is a strong pre-
sumption that the species was
homosporous. In other cases, how-
ever, e.g. C. Casheana, Will., two
-sp kinds of spore occur, in different
sporangia, but on the same strobilus
and even on the same sporangiophore.
The megaspores, of which there are
many in the megasporangium, have
^. , . ,. - , a diameter about three times that of
grammatic longitudmal sec- the microspores. The abortion of
tion of the cone, showmg ^^rtain spores, which is known to
the a.vis^ {ax) bearing al er- ^ave taken place both in the homo-
nate whorls of bracts (ir) q^cus C. Binneyana and in the
and peltate sporangiophores niegasporangia of 'C. Casheana, may
{sp) with their sporangia ^hrow some light on the origin of the
(jm) The upturned tips of heterosporous condition. The bracts
the bracts are only _ shown ^ere sometimes coherent in their
in every alternate verticil. i^^^r part {e.g. C. Binneyana), some-
times free {e.g. C. Ludwigi) ; in all
cases their free extremities formed a protection to the fertile
whorl above. In some continental species (e.g. C. Grand' Euryi,
Ren.) radial membranous plates hung down from each verticil of
bracts, forming compartments in which the subjacent sporangio-
Fig. 2. — Calamostachys. Dia-
phores were enclosed. The anatomy of the axis is essentially
similar to that of a young Calamarian twig, with some variations
in detail. Strobili of the Calamostachys type occur in connexion
both with Annularia and Asterophyllites foliage.
2. Palaeostachya, Weiss. Here, as in the previous genus, sterile
and fertile verticils are ranged alternately on the axis of the cone.
The main difference is that in Palaeostachya the sporangiophores,
instead of standing midway between the whorls of bracts, are
inserted immediately above them, springing, as it were, from the
axil of the sterile verticil (fig. 3, A). This singular arrangement
has suggested doubts as to the correctness of the current inter-
pretation of the Equisetaceous sporangiophore as a modified leaf
8m
cue
ax
(After Renault. Scott, 5/»JiVs.)
Fig. 3.
A, Palaeostachya. Diagrammatic longitudinal section of cone,
showing the axis (ax) bearing the bracts {br) with peltate sporangio-
phores {sp) springing from their axils; sm, sporangia.
B, Archaeocalamites. Part of cone, showing the axis {ax) bearing
peltate sporangiophores {sp) without bracts ; sm, sporangia.
(cf. Cheirostrubus below). In most other respects the two genera
agree; there is evidence for the occurrence of heterospory in some
strobili referred to Palaeostachya. The anatomy of the axis is
that of a young branch of a Calamite. According to Grand' Eury,
the Palaeostachya fructification was most commonly associated with
Asterophyllites foliage. The external aspect of a Palaeostachya is
shown in fig. 4 {Plate).
3. Equisetum type of strobilus. In certain cases the strobili of
Palaeozoic Calamarieae appear to have had essentially the same
organization as in the recent genus, the axis bearing sporangio-
phores only, without intercalated bracts. It is remarkable that
fructifications apparently of this kind have been found by Renault
in close association with the most ancient of the Calamarieae —
Archaeocalamites. In these strobili the peltate scales, like the
vegetative leaves of the plant, are in superposed verticils; each
appears to have borne four sporangia (fig. 3, B). Other cones,
however, namely, those known as Pothocites, have also been at-
tributed on good grounds to the genus Archaeocalamites; they are
long strobili, constricted at intervals, and it is probable that the
succession of fertile sporangiophores was interrupted here and
there by the intercalation of sterile bracts, which ma>- also have
been present, at long intervals, in Renault's species. Cones from
the Middle Coal Measures, described by Kidston under the name of
Equisetum Hemingwayi, but probably belonging to one of the
Calamarieae, bear a striking external resemblance to those of a
recent Equisetum.
4. Cingularia, Weiss. This form of strobilus, from the Coal
Measures of Germany, is imperfectly known, and its relation to
Calamarieae not beyond doubt. In the lax strobili the sporangio-
phores, w-hich are not peltate, but strap-shaped, were borne, as
C. E. Weiss first showed, immediately below the \crticils of bracts,
the position thus being the reverse of that in Palaeostachya.
The Palaeozoic Calamarieae, though so far surpassing recent
Equisetaceae, both in stature and comple.xity of organization,
clearly belonged to the same class of \'ascular Cryptogams.
There is no satisfactory evidence for attributing Phanerogamic
528
PALAEOBOTANY
[PALAEOZOIC
affinities to any members of the group, and the view, of which
Williamson was the chief advocate, that they form a homo-
geneous Cryptogamic family, is now fully established.
II. Sphenophyllales. — The class of Sphenophyllales, as known
to us at present, is of limited extent, embracing the two genera
Sphenophyllum and Cheirostrobus, which may serve as types of
two families within the class. The characters of Sphenophyllum
are known with some completeness, while our knowledge of
Cheirostrobus is confined to the fructification; the former will
therefore be described first.
I. Sphenophyllum. — The genus Sphenophyllum, of which a
number of species have been described, ranging probably from
the Middle Devonian, through the Carboniferous, to the Permian
or even the Lower Triassic, consisted of herbaceous plants of
moderate dimensions. The long, slender stems, somewhat tumid at
the nodes, were ribbed, the ribs running continuously through the
nodes, a fact correlated with the superposition of the whorled leaves,
the number of which in each verticil was some multiple of 3, and
usually 5. In the species on which the genus was founded the
leaves, as the generic name implies, are cuneate and entire, or
toothed on their anterior margin;' in other cases they are deeply
divided by dichotomy into narrow segments, or the whorl consists
of a larger number (up to 30) of apparently simple, linear leaves,
which may represent the segments of a smaller number. The
different forms of leaf may occur on the same plant, the deeply
divided foliage often characterizing the main stem, while the
cuneate leaves were borne on lateral shoots. A comparison,
formerly suggested, with the two forms of leaf in Batrachian
Ranunculi has not proved to hold good ; the idea of an aquatic
habit is contradicted by the anatomical structure, and the hypo-
thesis that the plants were of scandent growth is more probable.
The species of Sphenophyllum have a graceful appearance, which
has been compared with that of the trailing Galiums of hedgerows.
Branches sprang from the nodes, though perhaps not truly a.xillary
in position. The cones, more or less sharply differentiated, termin-
ated certain of the branches.
The anatomy of the stem of Sphenophyllum, investigated by
Renault, Williamson and others, is highly characteristic (fig. 5,
Plate). The stem is traversed liy a single stele, with solid wood,
without pith ; the primary xylem is triangular in section, the spiral
elements forming one or two groups at each angle, while the phloem
occupied the bays, so that the structure resembles that of a triarch
root. Two leaf-trace bundles started from each angle of the stele,
and forked, in passing through the cortex, to supply the veins of
the leaf, or its subdivisions. The
cortex was deeply furrowed on its
outer surface. The primary' structure
is only found unaltered in the
youngest stems; secondan,' growth
by means of a cambium set in very
early, xylem being formed internally
and phloem externally in a perfectly
normal manner. At the same time
a deep-seated periderm arose, by
which the primary cortex was soon
entirely cut oft". The secondary wood
in the Lower Carboniferous species,
5. insigne, has scalariform tracheides,
and is traversed by regular medullary
rays, but in the forms from later
horizons the tracheides are reticu-
lately pitted, and the rays are for
the most part replaced by a network
of xylem-parenchyma. There are no
recent stems with a structure quite
like that of .Sphenophyllum; so far
as the primary' structure is concerned,
the nearest approach is among the
Psiloteae, with which other characters
indicate some affinity; the base of the
stem in Psilotum forms some secon-
dary wood. The diarch roots of a
Sphenophyllum have been described
each (jy Renault, who has also investigated
Sphenophyllum
Diagram of cone in
Fig. 6.
Dawsoni.
longitudinal section.
ax. Axis.
br, Bracts.
sp, Sporangiophores,
bearing a sporangium, (hg "leaves; they were strongly" con-
^'"- . structed mechanically, and traversed
br , Whorl of bracts in surface i^^ slender \ascular bundles branching
view. dichotomoush-.
Fructification. — Williamson thoroughly worked out, in petrified
specimens, the organization of a cone which he named Bowmanjtes
Dawsoni; it was subsequently demonstrated by Zeiller that this
fructification belonged to a Sphenophyllum, the cones of the well-
known species S. cuneifolium having a practically identical structure.
The type of fructification described by Williamson and now named
Sphenophyllum Dawsoni consists of long cylindrical cones, in
external habit not unlike those of some Calamarieae. The axis,
' In 5. speciosum the leaves in a whorl were of unequal size.
which in structure resembles the vegetative stem in its primary
condition, bears numerous verticils of bracts, those of each verticil
being coherent in their lower part, so as to form a disc or cup, from
the margin of which the free limbs of the bracts arise. The spor-
angia, which are about twice as numerous as the bracts, are
seated singly on pedicels or sporangiophores springing from the
upper surface of the bract-verticil, near its insertion on the axis
(fig. 6). As a rule two sporangiophores belong to each bract. The
sporangium is attached to the enlarged distal end of its pedicel,
from which it hangs down, so as to suggest an anatropous ovule on
its funiculus. Dehiscence appears to have taken place at the free
end of the sporangium; the spores are numerous, and, so far as
observed, of one kind only. Each sporangiophore is traversed
throughout its length by a vascular bundle connected with that
which supplies the subtending bract. This form of fructification
appears, from Zeiller's researches, to have been common to several
species of Sphenophyllum, but others show important differences.
Thus Bowmanites Romeri, a fructification fully investigated by
Solms-Laubach, differs from S. Dawsoni in the fact that each
sporangiophore bears two sporangia, attached to a distal expansion
approaching the peltate scale of the Equisetales. It is thus proved
that the sporangiophore is not a mere sporangial stalk, but a dis-
tinct organ, in all probability representing a ventral lobe of the
subtending bract. The recently discovered species, Sphenophyllum
fertile, while resembling Bowmanites Romeri in its peltate, bispor-
angiate sporangiophores, is peculiar in the fact that both dorsal
and ventral lobes of the sporophyll were fertile, dividing in a palmate
manner into several branches, each of which constitutes a spor-
angiophore. Thus the sterile bracts of other species are here re-
placed by sjjorangium-bearing organs. In Sphenophyllum majus,
where the cones are less sharply defined, the forked bract bears
a group of four sporangia at the bifurcations, but their mode of
insertion has not yet l)cen made out.
2. Cheiroslrobeae. — The family Cheirostrobeae is only known from
the petrified fructification {Cheirostrobus pettycurensis) derived
from the Lower Carboniferous of Burntisland in Scotland. The
excellence of the preservation of the specimens has rendered it
possible to investigate the complex structure in detail. The cone
is of large size — 3-5 cm. in diameter; the stout axis bears numerous
whorls of compound sporophylls, the members of successive verticils
being superposed. The sporophj'Us, of which there are eleven or
6ooon
[^oli. Studies.)
Fig. 7. — Cheirostrobus. Diagram of cone, the upper part in
transverse, the lower in longitudinal section. In the transverse
section six sporophylls, each showing three segments, are
represented.
Sp.a, Section through sterile seg- /, Peltate expansions of sporan-
ments. giophores.
Sp.b, Section through sporangio- sni. Sporangia.
phores. v.b. Vascular bundles.
St, Laminaeof sterile segments, cy. Stele of a.xis (^4*).
In the longitudinal section the corresponding parts are shown.
twelve in a whorl, are each composed of six segments, three
being inferior or dorsal, and three superior or ventral. The
dorsal segments are sterile, corresponding to the bracts of Sphe-
nophyllum Dawsoni, while the ventral segments constitute pel-
tate sporangiophores, each bearing four sporangia, just as in a
PALAEOZOIC]
PALAEOBOTANY
529
Calamarian fructification (fig. 7). The great length and slender
proportions of the segments give the cone a pecuhar character,
but the relations of position appear to leave no doubt as to the
homologies with the fructification of Sphenophyllcac; as regards
the sporangiophores, Bowmanites Romeri occupies exactly the
middle place between 5. Dawsoni and Cheiroslrobus. The axis of
the cone in Cheiroslrobus contains a polyarch stele, with solid
wood, from the angles of which vascular bundles pass out, dividing
in the cortex, to supply the various segments of the sporophylls.
In the peduncle of the strobilus secondary tissues are formed.
While the anatomy has a somewhat Lycopodiaceous character,
the arrangement of the appendages is altogether that of the Spheno-
phylleae; at the same time Calamarian affinities arc indicated by
the characters of the sporangiophores and sporangia.
The Sphenophyllales as a whole are best regarded as a synthetic
group, combining certain characters of the Ferns and Lycopods
with those of the Equisctales, while showing marked peculiarities
of their own. Among existing plants their nearest affinities
would appear to be with Psiloteae, as indicated not merely by
the anatomy, but much more strongly by the way in which the
sporangia are borne. There is good reason to believe that the
ventral synangium of the Psiloteae corresponds to the ventral
sporangiophore with its sporangia in the Sphenophyllales.
Professor Thomas of Auckland, New Zealand, has brought
forward some interesting variations in Tmcsipteris which appear
to afford additional support to this view.
Pseudobornia. — Professor Nathorst has described a remarkable
Devonian plant, Pseudobornia ursina (from Bear Island, in the
Arctic Ocean), which shows affinity both with the Equisetalts
and Sphenophyllales. The stem is articulated and branched,
attaining a diameter of about 10 cm. The smaller branches bear
the whorled leaves, probably four in each verticil. The leaves
are highly compound, dividing dichotomously into several leaflets,
each of which is deeply pinnatifid, with fine segments. When
found detached these leaves were taken for the fronds of a Fern.
The fructification consists of long, lax spikes, with whorled sporo-
phylls; indications of megaspores have been detected in the
sporangia. The discoverer makes this plant the type of a new
class, the Pseudoborniales. At present only the external characters
are known.
III. Lycopodialcs. — In Palaeozoic ages the Lycopods formed
one of the dominant groups of plants, remarkable alike for the
number of species and for the great stature which many of them
attained. The best known of the Palaeozoic Lycopods were
trees, reaching 100 ft. or more in height, but side by side with
these gigantic representatives of the class, small herbaceous
Club-mosses, resembling those of the present day, also occurred.
Broadly speaking, the Palaeozoic Lycopods, whatever their
dimensions, show a general agreement in habit and structure
with our living forms, though often attaining a much higher
grade of organization. We will first take the arborescent
Lycopods, as in every respect the more important group. They
may all be classed under the one family Lepidodendreae, which
is here taken to include SigiUaria.
Lepidodetidreae. — The genus Lepidodendron, with very numerous
species, ranging from the Devonian to the Permian, consisted of
trees, with a tall upright shaft, bearing a dense crown of dicho-
tomous branches, clothed with simple narrow leaves, ranged in
some complex spiral phyllotaxis. In
some cases the foliage is preserved
ill situ; more often, however, especially
in the main stem and larger branches,
the leaves had been shed, leaving
behind them their scars and persistent
bases, on which the characteristic
sculpturing of the Lepidodendroid
surface depends. The cones, often
of large size, were either terminal on
the^smaller twigs, or, it is alleged, borne
laterally on special branches of con-
(After Stur. Scott, Studies.) siderable dimensions. At its base the
Fig. 8. — Leaf-base of a Le/Ji- main stem terminated in dichotomous
dodendron.
s.c, Scar left by the leaf.
v.b., Print of vascularbundle.
p,p, Parichnos.
/, Ligule.
a,a, Superficial prints below
scar.
roots or rhizophores, bearing numer-
ous rootlets. To these underground
organs the name Stigmaria is applied;
they are not clearly distinguishable
from the corresponding parts of
SigiUaria. The numerous described
species of Lepidodendroti are founded
on the peculiarities of the leaf-
cushions and scars, as shown on casts or impressions of the stem.
The usually crowded leaf -cushions are spirally arranged, and present
no obvious orthostichies, thus differing from those of SigiUaria.
Each leaf-cushion is slightly prominent ; towards its upper end is
the diamond-shaped or triangular scar left by the fall of the actual
loaf (fig. 8). On the scar are three prints, the central one alone
representing the vascular bundle, while the lateral prints (parichnos)
mark the position of merely parenchymatous strands. In the
median line, immediately above the leaf-scar, is a print representing
the ligule, or rather the pit in which it was seated. On the flanks
of the cushion, below the scar, are two superficial prints, perhaps
comparable to lenticels. In the genus Lepidophloios the leaf-cushions
are more prominent than in Lepidodendron, and their greatest
diameter is in the transverse direction; on the older stems the
leaf-scar lies towards the lower side of the cushion. The genus
Bothrodendron, going back to the Upper Devonian, differs from
Lepidodendron in its minute leaf-scars and the absence of leaf-
cushions, the scars being flush with the smooth surface of the stem.
In the Lower Carboniferous of central Russia beds of coal occur
consisting of the cuticles of a Bothrodendron, which are not fossilized,
but retain the consistency and chemical composition of similar tissues
in recent plants.
The anatomy of Lepidodendron and its immediate allies is now
well known in a number of species; the Carboniferous rocks of
Great Britain are especially rich in petrified specimens, which
formed the subject of Williamson's extensive investigations. The
stem is in all cases monostelic; in most of the forms the central
cylinder underwent secondary growth, and the distinction between
primary and secondary wood is very sharply marked. In L.
Harcourtii, however, the species earliest investigated (by Witham,
1833, and Brongniart, 1837), and in one or two other species, no
secondary wood has yet been found. The primary wood of
Lepidodendron forms a continuous cylinder, not broken up into
distinct bundles; its development was clearly centripetal, the spiral
elements forming more or less prominent peripheral groups. In
the larger stems of most species there was a central pith, but in
certain of the smaller branches, and throughout the stem in some
species (L. rhodumnense, L. selaginoides), the wood was solid. A
single leaf-trace, usually collateral in structure, passed out into
each leaf. The primary structure of the stem was thus of a simple
Lycopodiaceous type, resembling on a larger scale what we find
in the upright stem of Selaginella spinosa. In most species (e.g.
L. selaginoides, L. Wunschianum, L. VeUheimianum) secondary
gro\vth in thickness took place, and secondary wood was added,
(Scott, Studies,)
Fig. g. — Lepidodendron VeUheimianum. Transverse section of stem.
p. Pith, almost destroyed. ph. Phloem and pericycle.
.V, Zone of primary wood. br. Stele of a branch.
px, Protoxylem. pd. Periderm.
x'. Secondary wood. Lb, Leaf-bases.
The primary cortex between stele and periderm has perished. (X42.)
in the centrifugal direction, showing -a regular radial arrangement,
with medullary rays between the series of tracheides (fig. 9). The
tissue thus formed often attained a considerable thickness. While
530
PALAEOBOTANY
[PALAEOZOIC
primary phloem can be recognized with certainty in favourable
cases, the question of the formation of secondary phloem by the
cambium is not yet fully cleared up. In the Lepidodendron Juli-
ginosum of Williamson, shown by its leaf-bases to have been a
Lepidophloios, the secondary wood is very irregular, and consists
largely of parenchyma. The same is the case in Lepidodendron
obovalum, one of the few species in which both external and internal
characters are known. The occurrence of secondary growth in
these plants, demonstrated by Williamson's researches, is a point
of great interest. Some analogy among recent Lycopods is afforded
by the stem of Isoeles, and by the base of the stem in Selaginella
spinosa; in the fossils the process was of a more normal type, but
some of its details need further investigation. The cortex, often
sharply differentiated into sclerotic and parenchymatous zones, is
bordered externally by the persistent leaf-bases. The development
of periderm was a constant feature, and this tissue attained a great
thickness, consisting chiefly of a phelloderm, produced on the inner
side of the formative layer, and no doubt subserving a mechanical
function.
The structure of a Bothrodendron has recently been investigated
and proves to be identical with that of the petrified stem which
Williamson named Lepidodendron munduin. The anatomy is of
the usual meduUate Lepidodendroid type; no secondary growth
has yet been detected in the stem.
The most interesting point in the structure of the leaf-base is
the presence of a ligule, like that of Isoetes or Selaginella, which
was seated in a deep pit, opening on the upper surface of the
cushion, just above the insertion of the lamina. The latter
shows marked xerophytic adaptations; the single vascular bundle
was surrounded by a sheath of short tracheides, and the stomata
were sheltered in two deep furrows of the lower surface.
The cones of Lepidodendron and its immediate allies are for
the most part grouped under the name Lepidostrobus. These cones,
varying from an inch to a foot in length, according to the species,
were borne either on the ordinary twigs, or, as was conjectured,
on the special branches ( Ulodendron and Ilalonia) above referred
to. In Ulodendron the large circular, distichously arranged prints
were supposed to have been formed by the pressure of the bases of
sessile cones, though this interpretation of the scars is open to
doubt, and it is now more probable that they bore deciduous
vegetative branches; in the Halonial branches characteristic of
the genus Lepidophloios the tubercles may perhaps mark the points of
insertion of pedunculate strobili. The organization of Lepido-
strobus is essentially that of a Lycopodiaceous cone. The axis,
which in anatomical structure resembles a vegetative twig, bears
numerous spirally arranged sporophylls, each of which carries a
single large sporangium on
its upper surface (fig. lo).
The sporophyll, usually
almost horizontal in position,
has an upturned lamina
beyond the sporangium, and
a shorter dorsal lobe, so
that the form of the whole
is somewhat peltate. A
ligule is present immediately
below the lamina, its position
showing that the whole of
the elongated horizontal
pedicel on which the spor-
angium is seated corresponds
to the short base of a
Fig. id. — Lepidostrobus. Diagram of vegetative leaf. The spor-
cone, in longitudinal section. angia, usually of very large
ax, Axis, bearing the sporophylls (i/j/O, size compared with those of
on each of which a sporangium most recent Lycopods, have
(sm) is seated. a palisade-like outer wall,
Ig, Ligule. and contain either an im-
The upper sporangia contain numer- mense number of minute
ous microspores; in each of the lower spores or a very small number
sporangia four megaspores are shown, of exceedingly large spores
(fig. lo). It is very doubtful
whether any homosporous Lepidostrobi existed, but there is reason
to believe that here, as in the closely allied Lepidocarpon, micro-
sporangia and megasporangia were in some cases borne on different
strobili. In other species {e.g. in the cone attributed to the Lower
Carboniferous Lepidodendron Vellheimianum) the arrangement was
that usual in Selaginella, the microsporangia occurring above and
the megasporangia below in the same strobilus (diagram, fig. lo).
The genus Spencerites (Lower Coal Measures) differs from Lepido-
strobus mainly in the insertion of the sporangium, which, instead
of being attached along the whole upper surface of the sporophyll,
was connected with an outgrowth on its upper surface bya small
neck of tissue towards the distal end. The spores of this genus
are curiously winged, and intermediate in size between the micro-
spores and megaspores of Lepidostrobus; the question of homospor>'
or heterospory is not yet decided. The cones of Bothrodendron and
another form named Mesostrobus are in some respects intermediate
between Lepidostrobus and Spencerites. A more important devi-
ation from ordinary Lepidostroboid structure is shown by the
genus Lepidocarpon, from the English Coal Measures and the
Lower Carboniferous of Scotland. In this fructification the organiza-
tion is at first altogether
that of a Lepidostrobus;
in each megasporangium,
however, only a single
megaspore came to matu-
rity, occupying almost the
whole of the sporangial
cavity (see fig. 12), but
accompanied by the re-
mains of its three abortive
sister cells. An integu-
ment grew up from the
superior surface of the
sporophyll, completely en-
veloping the sporangium,
except for a narrow cre-
vice left open along the
top. In favourable cases
the prothallus is found
preserved, within the
functional megaspore or em-
bryo-sac, and the whole
appearance, especially as Yiq, n— Lepidocarpon LomaxiLma.-
seen in a section tangential grammatic section of " seed " in plane
to the strobilus, is then ^^ ^j^n^^ j^g j^^ sj^obilus.
remarkably seed-like (see °„ ^ n
diagram, fig. 11). j\,q sph,Sporophy\\
seed-like body was de- . ■
tached as a whole from the *'
cone, and in this con- "*'
dition was known for many '^'
under the name of ^"'
years
Its vascular bundle.
Integument.
Micropylar crevice.
Base.
Wall of sporangium.
Cardiocarpon 'anomalum, »»«' Membrane of functional mega-
having been wrongly identi- ^^°^l^ .J'^^"]' '^ ^''^^^ ^y ^^^
fied %vith a true Gymno- prothallus,^.
spermous seed so named by Carruthers. The analogies with
a seed are obvious; the chief difference is in the micropyle,
which is not tubular, but forms a long
crevice, running in a direction radial to
the strobilus. Lepidocarpon affords a
striking instance of homoplastic modifi-
cation, for there is no reason to suppose
that the Lycopods were on the line of
descent of any existing Spermophyta.
In a male cone, probably belonging to
Lepidocarpon Lomaxi, the microspor-
angia are provided with incomplete
integuments.
Another case of a " seed-bearing "
Lycopod has lately been discovered by
Miss Benson in Miadesmia membranacea,
a slender Selaginella-like plant from the
Lower Coal Measures of Lancashire. The
female fructification is in the form of a
rather lax strobilus. Each sporophyll
bears a megasporangium, attached to its
upper surface at the proximal end, con-
taining a single large megaspore (fig. 13).
The megasporangium is enclosed in an
integument, which completely envelopes
it, leaving only a narrow micropyle at
the distal end (fig. 13). The long ten-
tacles of the integument may have
served to facilitate pollination. The
seed-like character of the organ is even
more striking in Miadesmia than in
Lepidocarpon. There seems to be no
near affinity between these genera, in
which the seed-habit must have arisen
independently.
Sigillaria. — The great genus Sigillaria,
even richer in " species " than Lepido- Lomaxii. Sporangium and
dendron, ranges throughout the Carbon- sporophj-U before deve-
iferous, but has not yet been detected lopment of integument,
in earlier rocks. The Sigillariae, like the (X about 12.)
Lepidodendra, were large trees, but must cu, Lateral cushions on
have differed from those of the previous sporophyll.
group in habit, for they appear to have j,j_ Vascular bundle,
branched sparingly or not at all, the jc^_ Palisade layer of spor-
lofty upright shaft terminating, like angium-wall.
some modern Xanthorrhaea, in a great jj,;^ Inner layer of wall.
sheaf_ of long, grass-like leaves. The a, ' Base of sporangium.
strobili_ were stalked, and borne on ^g_ Membrane of mega-
the main stem, among the leaves. The spore or embryo-sac.
roots, or at least their functional repre-
sentatives, resembled those of Lepidodendron. The chief distinctive
character of Sigillaria lies in the arrangement of the leaf-scars,
which form conspicuous vertical series on the surface of the stem.
(Scott, Studies.)
Fig. 12. — Lepidocarpon
PALAEOZOIC]
PALAEOBOTANY
531
In one great division of the genus — the Eusigillariae — the stems
are ribbed, each rib bearing a vertical row of leaf-scars; the ribbed
Sigillariae were formerly divided into two sub-genera — Rhytidolepis,
From a drawing by Mrs D. H. Scott. Scott, Studies.)
Fig. 13. — Miadesmia membranacea. Radial longitudinal section
of seed-like organ. (X about 30.)
I, Lamina of sporophyll. Ig, Ligules.
vb, Vascular bundle. sm, Sporangium-wall.
V, Velum or integument. m, Membrane of megaspore.
t. Tentacles,
with the scars on each rib rather widely spaced, and Favularia,
where they are approximated and separated by transverse furrows,
each rib thus consisting
of a series of contiguous
leaf-bases. This dis-
tinction, however, has
proved to have no con-
stant taxonomic value,
for both arrangements
may occur on different
parts of the same speci-
men. The species with-
out ribs — Subsigillariae
La — were in like manner
^ grouped under the two
V.o sub-genera Clathraria
and Leiodermaria ; in
the former each scar is
seated on a prominent
cushion, while in the
latter the surface of the
stem (as in Bolhroden-
dron) is perfectly smooth.
Here also the distinction
(After Weiss. Scott. Studies.) ' has proved not to hold
good, o. Drardi, tor
Fig. i^.—Sigillana Brardi. Part of sur- example, showing both
face of stem,^ showing five leaf-scars, conditions on the same
(X Ij.) stem. All these names,
vb, Print of vascular bundle. however, are still in use
pa, Parichnos. a.s descriptive terms.
Ig, Ligule. Generally, the Eusigil-
lariae are characteristic of the older Carboniferous strata, the
Subsigillariae of the Upper Coal Measures and Permian. The leaf-
scars throughout the genus show essentially the same prints as in
Lepidodendron, differing only in details, and here also a ligule was
present (fig- 14).
The anatomy of Sigillaria is not so well known as that of Lepido-
dendron, for specimens showing structure are comparatively rare,
a fact which may be correlated with the infrequency of branching
in the genus. The structure of a Clathrarian Sigillaria (5. Menardi),
from the Permian of Autun, was accurately described by Brong-
niart as long ago as 1839, and a similar species, 5. spinulosa
( = S. Brardi) was investigated by Renault in 1875, but it was long
before we had any trustworthy data for the anatomy of the ribbed
forms. This gap in our knowledge has now been filled up, owing
to Bertrand's investigation of a specimen referred by him to S.
elongata, followed by the detailed researches of Kidston and Arber
on Sigillaria elegans, scutellata and mamillaris. The structure
of the ribbed Sigillariae, as at present known, essentially resembles
that of a medullate Lepidodendron, though the ring of primary
wood is narrower. Its outer margin is crenulated, the leaf-traces
being given off from the middle of each bay. Secondary wood was
formed in abundance, precisely as in most species of Lepidodendron.
In the Subsigillarian species 5. Menardi the primary wood is broken
up into distinct bundles, while in S. spinttlosa their separation is
sometimes incomplete. The secondary cortex or periderm attained
a great development, and in some cases shows considerable differen-
tiation. On the whole, the anatomy of Sigillaria is closely related to
that of the preceding group, and in fact a continuous series can be
traced from the anatomically simplest species of Lepidodendron to
the most modified Sigillariae. The leaves of Sigillaria are in some
cases almost identical in structure with those of Lepidodendron,
but in certain species (5. scutellata and 5. mamillaris) there is
evidence that they were of the Sigillariopsis type, the leaf lieing
traversed by two parallel vascular strands, derived from the bifurca-
tion of the leaf-trace.
The nature of the fructification of Sigillaria was first satisfactorily
determined in 1884 by Zeiller, who found the characteristic Sigil-
larian leaf-scars on the peduncles of certain large strobili (Sigillario-
strobus). The cones, of which .several species have been described,
bear a strong general resemblance to Lepidostrobus, differing some-
what in the form of the sporophylls and some other details. The
megaspores (reaching 2 mm. or more in diameter) were found
lying loose on the sporophylls by Zeiller; the sporangia containing
them were first observed by Kidston, in a species from the Coal
Measures of Yorkshire. That the cones were heterosporous there
can be no doubt, though little is known as yet of the microsporangia.
The discovery of Sigillariostrobus, which was the fructification of
Subsigillariae as well as of the ribbed species, has finally determined
the question of the affinities of the genus, once keenly discussed;
Sigillaria is now clearly jjroved to have been a genus of hetero-
sporous Lycopods, with the closest affinities to Lepidodendron.
Stigmaria. — On present evidence there is no satisfactory dis-
tinction to be drawn between the subterranean organs of Sigil-
laria and those of Lepidodendron and its immediate allies, though
some progress in the identification of special forms of Stigmaria
has recently been made. These organs, to which the name Stig-
maria was given by Brongniart, have been found in connexion
with the upright stems both of Sigillaria and Lepidodendron. In
the Coal Measures they commonly occur in the underclay beneath
the coal-seams. Complete specimens of the stumps show that
from the base of the aerial stem four Stigmarian branches were
given off, which took a horizontal or obliquely descending course,
forking at least twice. These main Stigmarian axes may be 2 to
3 ft. in diameter at the base, and 30 or 40 ft. in length. Their
surface is studded with the characteristic scars of their appendages
or rootlets, which radiated in all directions into the mud. Petrified
specimens of the main Stigmaria are frequent, and those of its
rootlets extraordinarily abundant. The two parts are very different
in structure: in the main axis, as shown in the common Coal
Measure form Stigmaria ficoides, the centre was occupied by the
pith, which was surrounded by a zone of wood, centrifugalK
developed throughout. In other species, however, the centripetal
primary xylem is represented. Phloem, surrounding the wood,
is recognizable in good specimens; in the cortex the main feature
is the great development of periderm. The rootlets, which branched
by dichotomy, contain a slender monarch stele exactly like that
in the roots of Isoctes and some Selaginellae at the present day;
they possessed, however, a complex absorptive apparatus, consist-
ing of lateral strands of xylem, connecting the stele with tracheal
plates in the outer cortex. The morphology of Stigmaria has been
much discussed; possil)ly the main axes, which do not agree per-
fectly either with rhizomes or roots, may best be regarded as
comparable with the rhizophores of Selaginellae; they have also
been compared with the embryonic stem, or protocorm, of certain
species of Lycopodium; the homologies of the appendages with the
roots of recent Lycopods appear manifest. It has been maintained
by some palaeobotanists that the aerial stems of Sigillaria arose
as buds on a creeping rhizome, but the evidence for this conclusion
is as yet unconvincing.
Lycopoditeae. — LInder this name are included the fossil Lycopods
of herbaceous habit, which occur occasionally, from the Devonian
onwards. One such plant, Miadesmia, has already been referred
to, as one of the seed-bearing Lycopods. In some Lycopoditeae
the leaves were all of one kind, while others were heterophyllous,
like most species of Selaginella. The genus Selaginellites, Zeiller,
is now used to include those forms in which the fructification has
proved to be heterosfjorous. In Selaginellites Suissei there was a
definite strobilus bearing both micro- and megasporangia ; in each
of the latter from 16 to 24 megaspores were contained; in Selaginel-
lites primaevus, however, the number of megaspores was only 4,
and the resemblance to a recent Selaginella was thus complete.
Selaginellites elongatvs, another heterosporous species, is remarkable
for having no differentiated strobilus, a condition not known in
the recent genus. The antiquity of the Selaginella type indicates
that this group had no direct connexion with the Lepidodendreae,
but sprang from a distinct and equally ancient herbaceous stock.
There is, however, some evidence that Isoetes, which in several
respects agrees more nearly with the Lepidodendreae, may actually
represent their last degenerate sur\'ivors (see Pleuromeia, in § II.,
Mesozoic). No homosporous Lycopoditeae have as yet been
recognized.
IV. Filicales. — Of all Vascular Cryptogams the Ferns have
best maintained their position down to the present day. L'ntil
recently it has been supposed that the class was well represented
in the Palaeozoic period, and, indeed, that it was relatively, and
perhaps absolutely far richer in species even than in the recent
flora. Within the last few years, however, the position has
completely changed, and the majority of the supposed Palaeozoic
532
PALAEOBOTANY
[PALAEOZOIC
Ferns are now commonly regarded as more probably seed-bearing
plants, a conclusion for which, in certain cases, there is already
convincing evidence. The great majority of specimens of fossil
, fern-hke plants are preserved in the form of carbonaceous
impressions of fronds, often of remarkable perfection and beauty.
The characters shown by such specimens, however, when, as is
usually the case, they are in the barren state, are notoriously
unstable, or of small ta.xonomic value, among recent plants.
Hence palaeobotanists have found it necessary to adopt a purely
artificial system of classification, based on form and venation
of the frond, in the absence of adequate data for a more natural
grouping. The well-known form-genera Pecopteris, Spheno-
pteris. Odontoptcris, &c., are of this provisional nature. The
majority of these fronds have now fallen under suspicion and
can no longer be accepted as those of Ferns; the indications
often point to their having belonged to fern-like Spermophyta,
as will be shown below.
It has thus become very difficult to decide what Palaeozoic
plants should still be referred to the Fihces. The fructifications
by themselves are not necessarily decisive, for in certain cases
the supposed sporangia of Marattiaceous Ferns have turned out
to be in reaUty the microsporangia or poUen-sacs of seed-bearing
plants (Pteridosperms). It is, however, probable that a con-
siderable group of true Ferns, aUied to Marattiaceae, existed in
Palaeozoic times, side by side with simpler forms. In one respect
the fronds of many Palaeozoic Ferns and Pteridosperms were
peculiar, namely, in the presence on their rachis, and at the base
of their pinnae, of anomalous leaflets, often totally different in
form and venation from the ordinary pinnules. These curious
appendages (Aphlebiae), at first regarded as parasitic growths,
have been compared with the feathery outgrowths which occur
on the rachis in the Cyatheaceous genus Hcmitelia, and with the
anomalous pinnules found in certain species of Gleichenia, at the
points of bifurcation of the frond.
Marattiaceae. — A considerable number of the Palaeozoic fern-like
plants show indications — more or less decisive — of Marattiaceous
affinities; some account of this group will first be given. The
reference of these ferns to the family Marattiaceae, so restricted in
the recent flora, rests, of course, primarily on evidence drawn
from the fructifications. Typically Marattiaceous sori, consisting
of exannulate sporangia united to form synangia, are frequent,
and are almost always found on fronds with the character of
Pecopteris. large, repeatedly pinnate leaves, resembling those of
Cyatheaceae or some species of Nephrodium. In certain cases the
anatomical structure of these leaves is known, and found to agree
generally with that of recent coriaceous fern-fronds. The petiole
was usually traversed by a single vascular bundle, hippocrepiform
in section — a marked point of difference from the more complex
petioles of recent Marattiaceae. There is evidence that in many
cases these Pecopteroid fronds belonged to arborescent plants, the
stems on which they were borne reaching a height of as much as
60 ft. These stems, known as Megaphytum when the leaves were
in two rows, and as Caulopteris in the case of polystichous arrange-
ment, are frequent, especially in the Permian of the Continent;
when petrified, so that their internal structure is preserved, the
name Psaronius is employed. The structure is often a complex one,
the central region containing an elaborate system of numerous
anastomosing steles, accompanied by sclerenchyma ; the cortex is
permeated or coated by a multitude of adventitious roots, forming
a thick envelope to the stem. The whole structure bears a general
resemblance to that of recent Marattiaceae, though differing in
detail. We will now describe some of the fructifications, which
are grouped under generic names of their own; these genera, as
having a more natural basis, tend to supersede the artificial groups
founded on vegetative characters. The genus Asterotheca includes
a number of Ferns, chiefly of Coal Measure age, with fronds of the
Pecopteris type. The sori, or synangia, ranged in two series on
the under-side of the fertile pinnules, are circular, each consisting
of 3 to 6 sporangia, attached to a central receptacle and partly
united to each other (fig. 15, A); the sporangia separated when
mature, dehiscing by a ventral slit. Stur's genus Hawlea (fig. 15, H),
characterized by the separation of the sporangia, may only re-
present an advanced stage of an Asterotheca. In Ptychocarptis the
fusion of the sporangia to form the synangium was much rnorc
complete; Scolecopteris resembles Asterotheca, but each synangium
is stalked. In all these genera there is an obvious similarity to the
synangia of Kauljussia, while in some respects Marattia or Danaea
is approached. In another Pecopteroid genus, Sturiella, the
synangia resemble those of Asterotheca, but each sporangium is
provided with a band of enlarged cells of the nature of an annulus
ifig. .-IS, D). As a similar differentiation, though less marked.
appears in the recent genus Angiopteris, the presumption is in
favour of the Marattiaceous affinities of Sturiella, which also shows
some relation to the genus Corynepteris (see below, Botryopterideae).
In the genus Danaeites, from the Coal Measures of the Saar, the
synangia are much like those of the recent Danaea, each sporangium
opening by an apical pore. In the Grand' Eurya of Stur the spor-
angia appear to have been free from each other, as in Angiopteris.
On the whole there is thus good evidence for the frequency of
Marattiaceae in the Palaeozoic period, though the possibility that
the fructifications may really represent the microsporangia of
fern-like spermophytes must always be borne in mind. In a certain
number of genera the reference to Marattiaceae is much more
doubtful. In Dactylotheca, for example (fig. 15, C), a Pecopteroid
(.-Uter various authors. Scott, Studies.)
Fig. 15. — Group of Palaeozoic fructifications of Ferns or
Pteridosperms.
A, Asterotheca. i. Pinnule bearing 8 synangia. 2, Synangium in
side view. 3, In section, magnified.
B, RenauUia. i, Fertile pinnule, nat. size. 2, Sporangium,
enlarged.
C, Dactylotheca, as in B.
D, Sturiella. Section of pinnule and synangium. a. Vascular
bundle; c, hairs; b, d, annulus, magnified.
E, Oligocarpia. Sorus in surface-view, magnified.
F, Crossotheca. Fertile pinnule, bearing several tufts of micro-
sporangia, magnified.
G, Senjtenbergia. Group of annulate sporangia, magnified.
W, Hawlea. Synangium after dehiscence, magnified.
J, Urnatopteris. I, Part of fertile pinna, nat. size. 2, Sporangia,
showing apical pores, magnified.
Of the above. A, D, E, G and H, probably belong to true Ferns;
F is the male fructification of a Pteridosperm (Lyginodendron) ; the
rest are of doubtful nature.
genus, ranging throughout the Carboniferous, the elongated spor-
angia individually resemble those of Marattiaceae, but they are
completely isolated, the characteristic grouping in sori being absent;
the same remark applies to the Sphenopteroid RenauUia of Zeiller
(fig. 15, B); the foliage of Sphenopteris, one of the most extensive
of Palaeozoic frond-genera, with many different types of fructifica-
tion, resembled that of various species of Asplenium or Davallia.
In many fern-like plants of this period the fronds were dimorphic,
the fertile leaves or pinnae having a form quite diff'erent from
tliat of the vegetative portions. This was the case in Urnatopteris
(Kidston), with Sphenopteroid sterile foliage; the sporangia, borne
on the filiform pinnules of the fertile rachis, appear to have dehisced
by an apical pore (fig. 15, J). The magnificent Devonian Fern
Archaeopteris hibernica, with a somewhat Adiantiform habit, bore
special fertile pinnae; the fructification is still imperfectly under-
stood, but the presence of stipules, observed by Kidston, has been
adduced in support of Marattiaceous affinities. In all these cases
there is reason to suspect that the plants may have been Pterido-
sperms, rather than Ferns.
PALAEOZOIC]
PALAEOBOTANY
533
Other Families. — The Marattiaceae are the only recent family of
Ferns which can be supposed to have existed in anything like its
present form in Palaeozoic times. Of other recent orders the
indications are meagre and dubious, and there can be no doubt
that a large proportion of Ferns from the older rocks (in so far as
they were Ferns at all) belonged to families quite distinct from any
which we recognize in the flora of our own day. Little or nothing
is known of Palaeozoic Ophioglossaceae. Certain fructifications
have been referred to Gleicheniaceae (Oligocarpia, fig. 15, Ej,
Schizaeaceae (Senftenbergia, fig. 15, G), Hymenophyliaccae and
Usmundaceae, and on good grounds, so far as the external characters
of the sporangia are concerned; our knowledge of most of the Ferns
in question is, however, far too incomplete to justify us in asserting
that they actually belonged to the families indicated. In the case
of the Osmundaceae there is good evidence, from anatomical char-
acters, for tracing the family back to the Palaeozoic; their oldest
members show a distinct relationship to the Botryopterideae, de-
scribed in the next paragraph. Numerous more or less isolated
fern-sporangia occur in the petrified material of the Carboniferous
formation; the presence of an annulus is a frequent character
among these specimens, while synangic sori are rare; it is thus
certain that families remote from the Marattiaceae were abundantly
represented during this period.
Botryopterideae. — The family Botryopterideae, first discovered by
Renault, stands out with striking clearness among the Palaeozoic
^ Ferns, and differs widely from any
group now in existence. The Botry-
opterideae are chiefly known from
petrified specimens; in the genus
Botryopteris and certain species of
Zygopteris we have a fairly complete
knowledge of all parts of the plant.
The type-genus Botryopteris, repre-
sented in the Permo-Carboniferous of
France and in both the Lower and
Upper Carboniferous of Great Britain,
had a rhizome, with a very simple
monostelic structure, bearing spirally
arranged compound leaves, with lobcd
pinnules, probably of a somewhat
fleshy texture. In the French
(After Renault.)
Fig. 16. — Zygopteris piunata.
A, Group of sporangia, in species, B. forensis, the plant
surface view.
B, Single sporangium
covered with characteristic jointed
_ - ^ . hairs, which have served to identify
transverse section, showmg the various organs on which they
annulus on both sides, occur. The sporangia were large pyii-
magnified. form sacs, shortly stalked, and borne
in tufts on the branches of the fertile rachis, which developed no
lamina. Each sporangium had, on one side only, a longitudinal
or slightly oblique annulus, several cells in width ; the numerous
spores were all of the same size; certain differences among them,
which have been interpreted as indicating heterospory, have now
proved to depend merely on the state of preservation. The genus
Zygopteris, of which numerous Carboniferous and Permian species
are known, likewise had a monostelic stem, but the structure of
its vascular cylinder was somewhat complex, resembling that of
the most highly differentiated Hymenophyllaceae, with which some
species of Zygopteris also agreed in the presence of axillary shoots.
There is evidence that the stem in some species was a climbing
one; the pinnate lea^'es, arranged on the stem in a two-fifths
spiral, were dimorphic, the sterile fronds resembling some forms of
(From a drawing by Mrs D. H. Scott. Scott, 5(i«;»ej.)
Fig. 17. — Stauropteris oldhamia. Three sporangia borne on
branchlets of the rachis. In A the stomium {st) or place of dehiscence
is shown. B is cut tangentially. In C, p is the palisade tissue of
the rachis. (X about 35.)
Sphenopteris. The petioles have a somewhat complex structure,
the bundle often having, in transverse section, the form of an
H ; it has been proposed to subdivide the genus on the details of
the petiolar structure. It is characteristic of Zygopteris and its
near allies that two rows of pinme were borne on each side of the
rachis, at least in the fertile fronds. On the fertile rachis the
sporangia were borne in tufts, much as in the preceding genus;
they were still larger, reaching 2-5 mm. in length, and had a multi-
senate annulus, extending, however, to both sides of the sporangium
(sec fig. 16, A and B). In .Stauropteris, a genus showing some
affinity with Zygopteris, the branched rachis of the fertile frond
terminates in fine branchlets, each bearing a single, spherical
sporangium, without any differentiated annulus (fig. 17}. The
spores in the sporangia have been found in a germinating
condition; the stages of germination correspond closely with
those observed in recent homosporous ferns (fig. 18). This fact
strongly confirms the conclusion, drawn from morphological and
anatomical characters, that the Botryopterideae were true Ferns.
The genus Corynepteris of Baily is interesting from the fact
that its sporangia, while individually similar to those of Zygo-
pteris, were grouped in .sori or synangia, resembling those ol^ an
Asterotheca. The family Botryopterideae appears to have included
a number of other genera, though in most cases the evidence from
vegetative structure is alone available. The genus Diplolabis of
Renault, shows much in common with Zygopteris as regards ana-
tomical structure, but resembles Corynepteris in possessing a synangic
fructification. The genus Asterochlaena of Corda with a deeply-
lobed stele, goes back to the Devonian. The family as a whole
is of great interest, as presenting points of contact with various
recent orders, especially Hymenophyllaceae, Osmundaceae and
Ophioglossaceae; the group appears to have been a synthetic one,
belonging to a primitive stock (the Primofilices of Arber) from
which the later Fern families may have SDrung.
A number of genera of Palaeozoic " fern-fronds " have been
described, of the fructification of which nothing is known. This
is the case, for example, with Diplotmema, a genus only differing
from Sphenopteris in the dichotomy of the primary pinnae, and
with Mariopleris, which bears a similar relation to Pccopteris.
The same holds good of the Pecopteroid Ferns included under
Callipieris and Callipteridium. In such cases, as will be
explained below, there is a strong presumption that the fronds
were not those of Ferns, but of seed-bearing plants of the new-
class Pteridospermeae.
On the present evidence it appears that the class Fihcales
was well represented in the Palaeozoic flora, though by no means
so dominant as was formerly supposed. The simpler Ferns
(Primofihces) of the period are for the most part referred to the
remarkable family Botryopterideae, a group very distinct from
— C
(From a drawing by Mr L. A. Boodle. Scott, Studies.)
Fig. 18. — Stauropteris oldhamia. Four germinating spores from
the interior of a sporangium. All four are putting out rhizoids. In
C, lying horizontally, an additional cell has been cut off between
rhizoid and spore. (X 335.)
any of the more modern families, though showing analogies with
them in various directions. On the other hand there was the
far more complex Marattiaceous type, strikingly similar in both
vegetative and reproductive characters to the recent members
of the family. Although doubts have lately been cast on the
authenticity of Palaeozoic Marattiaceae owing to the difficulty
in distinguishing between their fructifications and the pollen-
bearing organs of Pteridosperms, the anatomical evidence (stem
of Psaronius) strongly confirms the opinion that a considerable
group of these Ferns existed.
Spermophyta. — The Pteridospermeae, for which Potonie's
name Cycadofilices is still sometimes used, include all the
fern-like plants which, on the evidence available, appear to
534
PALAEOBOTANY
[PALAEOZOIC
Pterldo-
spermeae,
have been reproduced by means of seeds. The cases in which
such evidence is decisive are but few, namely, Lyginodendron
oldhamium, Neuropteris helerophylla, Pecopleris Pluck-
eneti, Aneimites fertilis a.nd Aneimites knuifolius. In
the first-named plant the structure, both of the vege-
tative and reproductive organs, is known, and the evidence, from
comparison and association, is sufficiently strong. In the other
cases there is direct proof of continuity between seed and plant,
but only the external characters are known. In a great number
of forms, amounting to a majority of the Palaeozoic plants of
fern-like habit, the indirect evidence is in favour of their having
possessed seeds. We will begin with the Lyginodendreae, a
group in which the anatomical characters indicated a systematic
position between Ferns and Cycads, long before the reproductive
organs were discovered.
Lyginodendreae. — Of the genus Heterangium, which still stands
very near the true Ferns, several species are known, the oldest
c Lt
(.Mter Williamson. Scott, Studies.)
Fig. 19. — Heterangium Grievii. Restoration of Stem, shown partly
in transverse and longitudinal section, partly in surface view.
X, Primary wood. hy, Hypoderma.
*', Secondary wood. /./, /.(, Leaf-traces.
p.c. Phloem and pericycle. r, Adventitious root. Several
c, Cortex. leaf-bases are shown.
being H. Grievii, of Williamson, from the Lower Carboniferous of
Scotland. This plant had a long, somewhat slender, ridged stem,
the ridges corresponding to the decurrent bases of the spirally
arranged leaves (fig. 19). The specimens on which the genus
was founded are petrified, showing structure rather than habit,
but conclusive evidence has now been obtained that the foliage of
H. Grievii was of the type of Sphenopteris {D i plotmema) elegans
(fig. 20), and was thus in appearance altogether that of a Fern,
with somewhat the habit of an Asplenium. The stem has a single
stele, resembling in general primary structure that of one of the
simpler species of Gleichenia; there is no pith, the wood extending
to the centre of the stele. The leaf-traces, where they traverse
the cortex, have the structure of the foliar bundles in Cycads, for
they are of the collateral type, and their .\ylem is mesarch, the
spiral elements lying in the interior of the ligneous strand. The
leaf-traces can be distinguished as distinct strands at the periphery
of the stele, as shown in fig. 21. Most of the specimens had
formed a zone of secondary wood and phloem resembling the
corresponding tissues in a recent Cycad; the similarity extended
to minute histological details, as is shown especially in H. tiliaeoides,
a Coal Measures species, where the preservation is remarkably
perfect. The cortex was strongly constructed mechanically; in
addition to the strands of fibres at the periphery, horizontal plates
of stone-cells were present in the inner cortex, giving both stem
and petiole a transversely striated appearance, which has served
to identify the different parts of the plant, even in the carbonized
condition (cf. figs. 19 and 20). The single vascular bundle which
traversed the petiole and its branches was concentric, the leaves
resembling those of Ferns in structure as well as in habit. Heter-
angium shows, on the whole, a decided preponderance of Filicinean
vegetative characters, though in the leaf-traces and the secondary
tissues the Cycads are approached. The organs of reproduction
are not yet known, though there is a probability that an associated
seed allied to Lagenostoma (see below) belonged to Heterangium.
In the Coal Measure genus Megaloxylon, oi Seward, which in
structure bears a general resemblance to Heterangium, the primary
wood consists for the most part of short wide tracheides; probably,
(After Stur. Scott, Studies.)
Fig. 20. — Sphenopteris elegans (foliage of Heterangium Grievii).
Part of frond, (f nat. size.)
as the secondary tissues increased, it had become superfluous for
conducting purposes, and was adapted rather for water-storage.
In the genus Lyginodendron, of which L. oldhamium, from the
(Scott, Studies.)
Fig. 21. — Heterangium Grievii. Part of the stele of the stem in
transverse section, showing a primary xylem-strand and adjacent
tissues (X I35-)
px, Protoxylem of strand. c.p. Conjunctive tissue.
X, Centripetal. x^ Secondary wood.
*', Centrifugal primary wood. cb, Cambium.
mx. Part of the internal wood. ph'. Phloem.
PALAEOZOIC]
PALAEOBOTANY
535
Coal Measures, is now the best-known of all Palaeozoic plants, the
central wood has disappeared altogether and is replaced by pith;
the primary wood is only represented in the leaf-trace strands,
which form a ring of distinct collateral bundles around the pith;
(From a model after Oliver.)
Fig. 23. — Lagenostoma Loinaxii (the seed of Lyginodendron).
Restoration of a seed, enclosed in the lobed cupule, which bears
numerous glands. (X about 15.)
thus the " medullate-monostelic " structure characteristic of the
higher plants was already attained. The individual bundles,
however, have the same structure as in Heterangium, and agree
(From a photograph. Scott, Studies.)
Fig. 24. — Capitate gland on the cupule of Lagenostoma Lomaxii.
(X 70.)
closely with the foliar bundles of Cycads. The secondary tissues,
which are highly developed, are also of a Cycadean character
(fig. 22, Plate). The vegetative organs of the plant are very
completely known; the foliage has proved to be that of a Spheno-
pteris, identical with the species long known under the name of
5. Honinghausi, Apart from the important advance shown in the
anatomy of the stem, Lyginodendron agrees structurally with
Heterangium. There is reason to believe that Lyginodendron old-
hamium was a climbing plant comparable in some respects to such
recent Ferns as Davallia aculeata. The roots were at first like those of
Marattiaceae but grew in thickness like the roots of Gymnosperms.
The first definite evidence of the mode of reproduction of
Lyginodendron oldhamium was due to F. W. Oliver, who in 1903
identified the seed, Lagenostoma Lomaxii, by means of the glands
on its cupule, which agree exactly with those on the associated leaves
and stems of the plant (cf. figs. 24 and 25). No similar glands are
known on any other Palaeozoic plant. Lagenostoma Lomaxii is a
small barrel-shaped seed (5-5 by 4-25 mm. when mature) enclosed in a
husk or cupule, which completely enveloped it when young, but was
ultimately open (figs. 23 and 26 and fig. 27 from another species).
The seed was stalked, and there is an exact agreement in structure
between the vascular strands of the stalk and cupule of the seed,
and those of the rachis and leaflets of Lyginodendron, thus con-
firming the evidence from the glands. The seed itself is of a
Cycadean type, and radially symmetrical. The single integument
is united to the nucellus, except at the top, and is traversed by
about nine vascular strands. In the apex of the nucellus, as in
most Palaeozoic seeds and in recent Cycads, a pollen-chamber, for
the reception of the pollen-grains or microspores, is excavated
(fig. 26). In Lagenostoma the pollen-chamber has a peculiar
.Jmi
\f^'
{ From a photograph. Scott, Studies.)
Fig. 25. — Capitate Gland on the Petiole of Lyginodendron
oldhamium. (X 70-)
structure, a solid column of tissue rising up in the middle, leaving
only a narrow annular crevice, in which pollen-grains are found.
The neck of the flask-shaped pollen-chamber projected a little
from the micropyle and no doubt received the pollen directly.
The seed, which need not be described in further detail, was a
highly organized structure, showing little trace of the cr>ptogamic
megasporangium from which we must suppose it to have been
derived. From the structure of the seed-bearing stalk, and from
the analogy of the similar form Lagenostoma Sindairi (fig. 27) it
appears that the seed was borne on a leaf, or part of a leaf, reduced
to a branched rachis.
The male organs of Lyginodendron were discovered by Kidston,
a year or two after the seeds were identified. They are of the t>'pe
known as Crossotheca, formerly regarded as a Marattiaceous fructi-
fication. The genus is characterized by the arrangement of the
sporangia, which hang down from the lower surface of the little
oval fertile leaflets, the whole resembling an epaulet with its fringe
(fig. 15, F; fig. 28). In the case of Lyginodendron the Crosso-
theca occurs in connexion with the vegetative parts of the frond.
Each fertile pinnule bore six, or rarely seven fusiform microspor-
angia, described as bilocular: not improbably each may represent
a synangium The microspores are tetrahedral. This is the first
case in which the pollen-bearing organs of a Pteridosperm have
been identified with certainty
It will be seen that, while the seeds of Lyginodendron were of an
536
PALAEOBOTANY
[PALAEOZOIC
advanced Cycadean type, the microsporangiate organs were more
like those of a Fern, the reproductive organs thus showing the
same combination of characters which appears in the vegetative
A, Micropylar region.
B, Body of seed.
C, Chalazal region.
_B D, Stalk.
c, Cupule, surrounding
seed.
vb, Vascular bundles of
stalk, cupule and
integument.
cp, " Canopy," or water-
reservoir, at top of
integument.
pc, Cavity of pollen-
chamber.
cc, Central column.
ape, Aperture of pollen-
chamber.
(After Oliver. Scott, Studies.)
Fig. 26. — Lagenostoma Lomaxii. Diagram of seed in median
longitudinal section,
structure. The family Calamopityeae, allied anatomically to Lygino-
dendreae, is of Devonian and Lower Carboniferous age.
Cycadoxyleae. — A few Coal Measure and Permian stems (Cycad-
oxylon and Ptychoxylon) resemble Lyginodendron in the general
character of their tissues, but show a marked reduction of the
primary wood, together with
an extensive development of
anomalous wood and bast
around the pith, a peculiarity
which appears as an individual
variation in some specimens
of Lyginodendroyi oldhamium.
It is probable that these stems
belonged to plants with the
fructification and foliage of
Cycads, taking that group in
the widest sense. It is only
quite at the close of the
Palaeozoic period that Cycads
begin to appear. The Lygino-
dendreae type of structure, how-
ever, appears to have formed
the transition not only to the
Cycadales, but also to the ex-
tinct family Cordaiteae, the
characteristic Palaeozoic Gym-
nosperms (see p. 107).
MeduUoseae. — In some re-
spects the most remarkable
family of the Cycad-fern
alliance is that of the Mcdul-
loseae, seed-bearing plants often
of great size, with a fern-like
foliage, and a singularly com-
(AlterArber. Scou, Snulles.) ., plex anatomical Structure with-
FiG. 27.— Lagenostoma Sinclain. outparallelamongrecentplants.
Two seeds, enclosed in lobed cupules Some of the MeduUoseae must
and borne on branches of the rachis. have had a habit not unlike
\^ 50 that of tree-ferns, with com-
pound leaves of enormous dimensions, belonging to various frond-
genera — especially, as has now been proved, to Aleihopteris and
Neuropteris; these are among the most abundant of the Car-
boniferous fronds commonly attributed to Ferns, and extend
back to the Devonian. In habit some species of Alethopleris
resembled the recent Angiopteris, while the Neuropteris foliage
may be compared with that of an Osmunda. The Medullosa
stems have been found chiefly in the Permo-Carboniferous of
France and Germany, but a Coal Measures species {M. anglica)
has been discovered in Lancashire. The great anatomical charac-
teristic of the stem of tho MeduUoseae is its polystelic structure
with secondary development of wood and bast around each stele.
In M. anglica, the simplest species known, the steles are uniform.
and usually only three in number; the structure of the stem is
essentially that of a polystelic Heterangium. In the Permo-
Carboniferous species, such as
M. stellata and M. Leuckarti, the
arrangement is morecomplicated,
the steles showing a differentia-
tion into a central and a peri-
pheral system ; the secondary
growth was e.xtensive and un-
equal, usually attaining its maxi-
mum on the outer side of the
peripheral steles. In certain
cases the structure was further
complicated by the appearance
of extrafascicular zones exterior
to the whole stelar system.
The spirally arranged petioles
(Myeloxylon) were of great size,
and their decurrent bases clothed
the surface of the stem ; their
structure is closely similar to that
of recent Cycadean petioles; in
fact, the leaves generally, like
those of Stangeria at the present
day, while fern-like in habit,
were Cycadean in structure. In
the case of Medullosa anglica we
(From a sketch after Kidston. Scott,
Studies.)
Fig. 28. — Crossotheca Honing-
hausi, the male fructification of
Lyginodendron. Fertile leaflets,
bearing sporangia, and sterile
leaflets on the rachis of the same
leaf. (X 2.)
have an almost complete knowledge of the vegetative organs —
stem, leaf and root ; Cycadean characters no doubt predominate,
but the primary organization of the stem was that of a polystelic
Fern. In the new genus Sutcliffia, also from the Coal Measures of
Lancashire, the stem had a single, large central stele, from which
smaller strands were given off, forming a kind of network, which
gave rise to the numerous concentric leaf-traces which entered the
I ■:
(After Kidston. Scott, Studies.)
Fig. 29. — Neuropteris Iteterophylla. Seed, attached to a branch of
the rachis bearing two vegetative leaflets. (X 2.)
petioles. This plant may be regarded as anatomically the most
primitive of the MeduUoseae.
In one member of the MeduUoseae, there is direct evidence of
reproduction by seeds, for in Neuropteris heterophylla Kidston has
demonstrated that large seeds, of the size of a hazel-nut, were
borne on the frond (fig. 29). In this case the internal structure is
not known, but another seed, Trigonocarpus Parkinsoni, associated
with, and probably belonging to, the Alethopterid species, Medullosa
anglica, occurs in the petrified condition and has been fully investi-
gated. This is a large seed, with a ver>' long micropyle; it has a
beaked pollen-chamber, and a complex integument made up of
hard and fleshy layers, closely resembling the seed of a modern
Cycad; the nucellus, however, was free from the integument, each
PALAEOZOIC]
PALAEOBOTANY
537
having its own vascular system. Various other seeds of the same
type are known, and in a great number of instances Grand' liury
has found the fronds of Neuropterideae (Medulloseae) in close asso-
ciation with definite species of seeds, so there can l^e little doubt
that the whole family was seed-bearing. Very little is known at
present of the male organs. Some authors have been so^ much
impressed by the similarity of this extinct family to the Cycads,
that they have regarded them as being on the direct line of descent
of the latter group; it is more probable, however, that they formed
a short divergent phylum, distinct, though not remote, from the
Cycadean stock.
Pecopterideac. — It has now been established that the form-genus
Pecopteris, once regarded as representing the typical Marattiaceous
foliage, was in part made up of seed-bearing plants. In 1905
Grand' Eury discovered the seeds of Pecopteris Pluckeneli, an
Upper Coal Measure species, attached, in immense numbers, to
the fronds, which are but little modified as compared with the
ordinary vegetative foliage. The seeds are flat and winged, closely
resembling those of some Cordaiteac (see below). Another form of
fructification, com.pared to the sori of Dicksonia, appears to represent
the male organs. There is reason to believe that other species of
Pecopteris and siinilar genera, (CaUipteris and Mariopteris) bore
seeds, though the artificial group Fccopterideae probably also
includes the fronds of true Marattiaceous P^rns.
Aneimileae. — The genus Aneimites, resembling the Maidenhair
Ferns in habit, has now been tran.sferred to the Pteridosperms,
the seeds having been discovered in 1904 by David White. In
A.ferlilis, from the Pottsville beds (Millstone Grit) of West Virginia,
the rhomboidal seeds, flattened and winged like those of Cordaiteae,
are borne terminally on the lateral pinnae of a frond, which else-
where bears the characteristic cuneiform leaflets. Continuity be-
tween seeds and frond was also demonstrated in another species,
A. tenuifolius. The allied genus Eremopteris occurs in association
with seeds of a similar platyspermic type.
The Pteridosperms, of which only a few examples have been
considered, evidently constituted a group of vast extent in
Palaeozoic times. In a large majority of the Fern-like fossils
of that period the evidence is in favour of reproduction by seeds,
rather than by the cryptogamic methods of the true Ferns.
The class, though clearly allied to the typical Gymnospcrms,
may be kept distinct for the present on account of the relatively
primitive characters shown in the anatomy and morphology, and
may be provisionally defined as follows: plants resembling Ferns
in habit and in many anatomical characters, but bearing seeds
of a Cycadean type; seeds and microsporangia borne on fronds
only slightly modified as compared with the vegetative leaves.
Gymnospermous remains are common in Palaeozoic strata
from the Devonian onwards. The investigations of the last
quarter of the 19th century established that these
early representatives of the class did not, as a rule,
belong to any of its existing families, but formed for
the most part a distinct group, that of the Cordaitales, which has
long since died out. Specimens of true Cycads or Conifers are rare
or doubtful until we come to the latest Palaeozoic rocks. Our
knowledge of the Cordaiteae (the typical family of the class Cordai-
tales) is chiefly due to the French investigators. Grand' Eury and
Renault, who successfully brought into connexion the various
fragmentary remains, and made known their exact structure.
Cordaitales. — The discovery of the fossil trunks and of their
rooted bases has shown that the Cordaiteae were large trees, reaching
30 metres or more in height; the lofty shaft bore a dense crown of
branches, clothed with long simple leaves, spirally arranged. Fig. 30,
founded on one of Grand' Eury's restorations, gives an idea of the
habit of a tree of the genus Dorycordaites, characterized by its
lanceolate acute leaves; in the typical Cordaites they were of a
blunter shape, while in Poacordaites they were narrow and grass-
like. The leaves as a rule far exceeded in size those of any of the
Coniferae, attaining in some species a length of a metre. Of living
genera, Agathis (to which the Kauri Pine of New Zealand belongs)
probably comes nearest to the extinct family in habit, though at
a long interval. The stem resembled that of Cycads in having a
large pith, sometimes as much as 4 in. in diameter; the wood,
however, was dense, and had the structure of that of an Araucarian
Conifer; specimens of the wood have accordingly been commonly
referred to the genus Araucarioxylon, and at one time the idea
prevailed that wood of this type indicated actual affinity with
Araucarieae. Other characters, however, prove that the Cordaiteae
were remote from that family, and the name Araucarioxylon is
best limited to wood from later horizons, where a near relationship
to Araucarieae is more probable.' In some cases the external
' Endlicher's name Dadoxylon is conveniently used for Palaeozoic
specimens of the kind in question when nothing beyond the wood-
structure is known.
QymaO'
sperms.
tissues of the Cordaitcan stem are well preserved; the cortex pos-
.sc'ssed a system of hypodermal strands of fibres, comparable to
those found in the Lyginodendreae. In most cases the leaf-traces
passcfl out from the stem in pairs, as in the recent Ginkgo; dividing
up further as they entered the leaf-base. In many Cordaiteae the
))ith was discoid, i.e. fislnlar and iiartitioned by frequent diaphragms,
as in .some species of Pinus and other plants at the present day.
The curious, transversely-ribbed fo.ssils known as .Sternhergia or
Artisia have proved to be casts of the medullary cavity of Cor-
daiteae; their true nature was first demonstrated by Williamson
in 1850. In those stems which have been referred with certainty
to the Cordaiteae there is no centripetal wood ; the spiral elements
are adjacent to the pith, as in a recent Conifer or Cycad ; certain
stems, however, are known which connect this type of structure
with that of the Lyginodendreae; this, for example, is the case in
the Permian genus Poroxylon, investigated by Bcrtrand ami Renault,
which in general structure has much in common with Cordaiteae,
but possesses strands of primary wood, mainly centripetal, at the
{After Grand' Eury, raodiBed. Scott, Sludia.)
Fig. 30. — Dorycordaites. Restoration, showing roots, trunk
and branches bearing long lanceolate leaves and fructifications.
The trunk is shown too short.
boundary of the pith, as in the case in Lyginodendron . Stems
(Mesoxylon) intermediate in structure between Poroxylon and
Cordaites have lately been discovered in the English Coal Measures.
Corresponding strands of primary .xylem have been observed in
stems of the genus Pitys (Witham), of Lower Carboniferous age,
which consisted of large trees, probably closely allied to Cordaites.
There appears, in fact, so far as stem-structure is concerned, to
have been no sharp break between the typical Palaeozoic Gymno-
spcrms and pronounced Pteridosperms such as Lyginodendron.
The long, parallel-veined leaves of the Cordaiteae, which were
commonly referred to Monocotyledons before their structure or
connexion with other parts of the plant was known, have been
shown by Renault to have essentially the same anatomy as a
single leaflet of a Cycad such as Zamia. The vascular bundles,
in particular, show precisely the characteristic collateral mesarch
or exarch structure which is so constant in the recent family (see
Anatomy of Plants). In fact, if the foliage alone were taken into
account, the Cordaiteae might be described as simple-leaved Cycads.
The reproductive organs, however, show that the two groups were
53«
PALAEOBOTANY
[PALAEOZOIC
in reality very distinct. Both male and female inflorescences
have frequently been found in connexion with leaf-bearing branches
(see restoration, fig. 30). The inflorescence is usually a spike
bearing lateral cones or catkins, arranged sometimes distichously,
sometimes in a spiral order. The investigation of silicified
specimens has, in the hands of Renault, yielded striking results.
A longitudinal section of a male Cordaianthus (the name applied to
isolated fructifications) is shown in fig. 31, A, Plate. The organ
figured is one of the catkins (about a centimetre in length) which
were borne laterally on the spike. Some of the stamens are inserted
between the bracts, in an apparently axillary position, while others
are grouped about the apex of the axis. Each stamen consists
of a long filament, bearing several erect, cylindrical pollen-sacs at
its summit (cf. fig. 31, B, Plate). Some of the pollen-sacs had
dehisced, while others still retained their pollen. The stamens are
probably best compared with those of Ginkgo, but they have also
been interpreted as corresponding to the male " flowers " of the
Gnetaceae. In any case the morphology of the male Cordaitean
fructification is clearly very remote from that of any of the Cycads or
ar
(All after Renaalt )
Fig. 32. — Cordaianthus.
A, C. Williamsoni. Part of longitudinal section of ? catkin; a,
axis, showing v. bundles in tangential section; br, bracts; d, short
axillary shoot, bearing a bracteole and a terminal ovule; i, integu-
ment ; n, nucellus of ovule; ov, another ovule seen from the outside.
(X about 10.)
B, C. Grand' Euryi. Nucellus of an ovule; p.c, pollen-chamber;
s, canal leading to p.c; p, pollen-grains in p.c; p', do. in canal.
(X about 30.) _
C, C. Grand' Euryi. Lower part of canal, enlarged; 0, cavity of
canal, surrounded by a sheath of cells, dilated towards the bottom
of canal, in which a large pollen-grain is caught ; ex, exterior of pollen-
grain; in, internal group of prothallial or antheridial cells. (X 150.)
D, Cycadinocarpus augustodunensis. Upper part of seed, in longi-
tudinal section; i, integument; mi, micropyle; n, remains of
nucellus; p.c, pollen-chamber (containing pollen-grains), with its
canal extending up to the micropyle; pr, part of prothallus;
ar, archegonia. All figures magnified.
true Coniferae, though some resemblance to the stamens of Arau-
carieae rnay be traced. The female inflorescences vary considerably
in organization; in some species the axis of the spike bears solitary
ovules, each accompanied by a few bracts, while in others the lateral
appendages are catkins, each containing from two to several ovules.
In the catkin shown in longitudinal section in fig. 32, A, it appears
that each ovule was borne terminally, on an extremely short axillary
shoot, as in^ Taxiis among recent Gymnosperms. The ovule con-
sists of an integument (regarded by some writers as double) en-
closing the nucellus. In the upper part of the nucellus is a cavity
or pollen-chamber, with a narrow canal leading into it, precisely
as in the ovules of Stangeria or other Cycads at the present day
(fig. 32, B). Within the pollen-chamber, and in the canal, pollen-
grains are found, agreeing with those in the anthers, but usually
of larger size (fig. 32, C). It was in this case that Renault first
made the exceedingly interesting discovery that each pollen-grain
contains a group of cells, presumably representing an antheridium
(fig. 32, C). Recent observations have completely confirmed
Renault's interpretation of the facts, on which some doubt had been
cast. In the isolated seeds of Cordaitales and Pteridosperms,
pollen-grains are often found within the pollen-chamber, and the
pluricellular structure of these pollen-grains has been repeatedly
demonstrated. In the light of our present knowledge of Ginkgo
and the Cycads, there can scarcely be a doubt that spermatozoids
were formed in the cells of the antheridium of the Cordaitean
pollen-grain and that of other Palaeozoic Spermophyta; the antheri-
dium is much more developed than in any recent Gymnosperm,
and it may be doubted whether any pollen-tube was formed. The
morphology of the female inflorescence of Cordaiteae has not yet
been cleared up, but Taxus and Ginkgo among recent plants appear
to offer the nearest analogies. Much further investigation will
be needed before the homologijs between Cordaitean cones and
the fructifications of the higher Crj'ptogams can be established.
Anatomically the connexion of the family with the Pteridosperms
(and through them, presumably, with some primitive group of
Ferns) seems clear, but we have as yet no indications of the stages in
the evolution of their reproductive organs. The class Cordaitales
extends back to the Devonian, and it must be borne in mind that
our knowledge of their fructifications is practically limited to
representatives from the latest Palaeozoic horizons.
Isolated fossil seeds are common in the Carboniferous and Permian
strata; in all cases they are of the orthotropous type, and resemble
the seeds of Cycads or Ginkgo more nearly than those of any other
living plants. Their internal structure is sometimes admirably
preserved, so that the endosperm with its archegonia is clearly
shown (fig. 32, D). It is a curious fact that in no case has an
embryo been found in any of these seeds; probably fertilization
took place after they were shed, and was followed immediately by
germination. There is good evidence that many of the seeds
belonged to Cordaitales, especially those seeds which had a flattened
form, such as Cardiocarpus, Cycadinocarpus, Samaropsis, &:c.
Seeds of this kind have been found in connexion with the Cordai-
anthus inflorescences; the winged seeds of Samaropsis, borne on long
pedicels, are attributed by Grand' Eury to the genus Dorycordaites.
Many other forms of seed, and especially those which show radial
symmetry, as for example Trigonocarptis, Slephanospermum and
Lagenostoma belonged, as we have seen, to some of the plants
grouped under Pteridospermeae, though other Pteridosperms had
flattened seeds not as yet distinguishable from those of Cordaitales.
The abundance and variety of Palaeozoic seeds, still so often of
undetermined nature, indicate the vast extent of the sperraophytic
flora of that period.
The modern Gym-nospermous orders have but few authentic
representatives in Palaeozoic rocks. The history of the Ginkgoales
will be found in the Mesozoic section of this article (see also
Gymnosperms) ; their nearest Palaeozoic representatives " were
probably members of the Cordaitales, an extinct stock with which
the Ginkgoaceae are closely connected " (Seward). Remains
referable to Cycadophyta, so extraordinarily abundant in the suc-
ceeding period, are scanty. The curious genus Dolerophyllum
(Saporta) may be mentioned in this connexion. This genus, from
the Permo-Carboniferous of Autun, is represented by large, fleshy,
rcniform leaves or leaflets, with radiating dichotomous venation;
the vascular bundles have in all respects the structure of those in the
leaves of Cycads or Cordaiteae. The male sporophylls are similar
in form to the vegetative leaves, but smaller; sunk in their paren-
chyma are numerous tubular loculi, containing large pollen-grains,
which are pluricellular like those of Cordaitcs ; the female fructifica-
tion had not yet been identified with certainty. The curious male
sporophylls may perhaps be remotely comparable to those recently
discovered in Mesozoic Cycadophyta, of the group Bennettiteae.
Some leaves of Cycadean habit (e.g. Pterophyllum, Sphenozamiles)
occur in the Coal Measures and Permian, and it is possible that
the obscure Coal Measure genus Noeggerathia may have Cycadean
affinities. A fructification from the Permian of Autun, named
Cycadospadix milleryensis by Renault, appears to belong to this
family.
Now that the numerous specimens of wood formerly referred to
Coniferae are known to have belonged to distinct orders, but few
true Palaeozoic Conifers remain to be considered. The most
important are the upper Coal Measure or Permian genera Walchia,
Ullmannia and Pagiophyllum, all of which resembled certain
Araucarieae in habit. In the case of Walchia there is some evidence
as to the fructifications, which in one species (W. filiciformis)
appear to be comparable to female Araucarian cones. There
are also some anatomical points of agreement with that
family. It is probable, however, that under the same generic
name very heterogeneous plants have been confounded. In
the case of Ullmannia the anatomical structure of the leaf,
investigated by Solms-Laubach, proves at any rate that the tree
was Coniferous.
There is no proof of the existence of Gnetaceae in Palaeozoic times.
The very remarkable plumose seeds described by Renault under the
name Gnetopsis are of uncertain affinity, but have much in common
with Lagenostoma, the seed of Lyginodendron.
MESOZOIC]
PALAEOBOTANY
539
Succession of Floras.
Our knowledge of vegetation older than the Carboniferous
is still far too scanty for any satisfactory history of the Palaeozoic
Floras to be even attempted; a few, however, of the facts may
be advantageously recapitulated in chronological order.
No recognizable plant-remains, if we accept one or two
doubtful Algal specimens, have so far been yielded by the
Cambrian. From the Ordovician and Silurian, however, a
certain number of authentic remains of Algae (among many more
that are questionable) have been investigated; they are for the
most part either verticillate Siphonae, or the large — possibly
Laminariaceous — Algae named Nematophycus, with the problem-
atical but perhaps allied Packythcca. The evidence for terrestrial
SUurian vegetation is still dubious; apart from some obscure
North American specimens, the true nature of which is not
established, Potonie has described well-characterized Pterido-
phytes (such as the fern-like Sphcnoptcridium and Bothrodcndron
among Lycopods) from supposed Silurian strata in North
Germany; the horizon, however, appears to be open to much
doubt, and the specimens agree so nearly with some from the
Lower Carboniferous as to render their Silurian age difficult
of credence. The high development of the terrestrial flora in
Devonian times renders it probable that land-plants existed far
back in the Silurian ages, or still earlier. Even in the Lower
Devonian, Ferns and Lepidodendreae have been recognized; the
Middle and Upper Devonian beds contain a flora in which all
the chief groups of Carboniferous plants are already represented.
Considering the comparative meagreness of the Devonian record,
we can scarcely doubt that the vegetation of that period, if
adequately known, would prove to have been practically as
rich as that of the succeeding age. Among Devonian plants,
Equisetales, including not only Archaeocalamiks, but forms
referred to Asterophyllites and Annularia, occur; Sphenophyllum
is known from Devonian strata in North America and Bear
Island, and Pseudobornia from the latter; Lycopods are repre-
sented by Bothrodcndron and Lcpidodendron; a typical Lcpido-
strobus, with structure preserved, has lately been found in the
Upper Devonian of Kentucky. Fern-like plants such as
Sphenopterideae, Archaeopteris and Aneiniites, with occasional
arborescent Pecopterideae, are frequent; many of the genera,
including Alethopteris, Neuropteris and Megalopteris, probably
belonged, not to true Ferns, but to Pteridosperms; although our
knowledge of internal structure is stUl comparatively scanty,
there is evidence to prove that such plants were already present, as
for example, the genus Calamopitys. The presence of Cordaitean
leaves indicates that Gymnosperms of high organization
already existed, a striking fact, showing the immense anti-
quity of this class compared with the angiospermous flowering
plants.
Any detailed account of the horizons of Carboniferous plants
would carry us much too far. For our present purpose we may
divide the formation into Lower Carboniferous and Lower and
Upper Coal Measures. In the Lower Carboniferous (Culm of
Continental authors) many Devonian types survive — e.g.
Archaeocalamites, Bothrodetidron, Archaeopteris, Megalopteris,
&c. Among fern-like fronds Diplotmema and Rhacopteris are
characteristic. Some of the Lepidodendreae appear to approach
Sigillariae in external characters. Sphenophylleae are still
rare; it is to this horizon that the isolated type Cheiroslrobus
belongs. Many specimens with structure preserved are known
from the Lower Carboniferous, and among them Pteridosperms
{Heterangium, Calamopitys, Cladoxylon, Protopitys) are well
represented, if we may judge by the anatomical characters. Of
Gymnosperms we have Cordaitean leaves, and the stems known
as Pitys, which probably belonged to the same family.
The Lower Coal Measures (Westphalian) have an enormously
rich flora, embracing most of the types referred to in our system-
atic description. Calamarieae with the Arthropitys type of
stem-structure abound, and Sphenophylleae are now well
represented. Bothrodcndron still survives, but Lcpidodendron,
Lepidophloios, and the ribbed Sigillariae are the characteristic
Lycopods. The heterogeneous " Ferns " grouped under Spheno-
pterideae are especially abundant. Ferns of the genera referred
to Marattiaceae are common, but arborescent stems of the
Psaronius type are still comparatively rare. Numerous fronds
such as Alethopteris Neuropteris, Mariopleris, &c., belonged to
Pteridosperms, of which specimens showing structure are fre-
quent in certain beds. Cordaites, Dorycordaites a.nd many stems
of the Mesoxylon type represent Gymnosperms; the seeds of
Pteridosperms and Cordaitcae begin to be common. The
Upper Coal Measures (Stephanian) are characterized among the
Calamarieae, now more than ever abundant, by the prevalence
of the Calamodendreae; new species of Sphenophylhitn make
their appearance; among the Lycopods, Lcpidodendron and its
immediate allies diminish, and smooth-barked Sigillariae are
the characteristic representatives. " Ferns " and Pteridosperms
are even more strongly represented than before, and this is the
age in which the supposed Marattiaceous tree-ferns reached their
maximum development. Among Pteridosperms it is the family
MeduUoseae which is especially characteristic. Cordaiteae still
increase, and Gymnospermous seeds become extraordinarily
abundant. In the Upper Coal Measures the first Cycadophyta
and Coniferae make their appearance. The Permian, so far at
least as its lower beds are concerned, shows little change from
the Stephanian; Conifers of the Walchia type are especially
characteristic. The remarkable Permo-Carboniferous flora of
India and the southern hemisphere is 'described in the next
section of this article. During the earlier part of the Carboni-
ferous epoch the vegetation of the world appears to have been
remarkably uniform ; while the deposition of the Coal Measures,
however, was in progress, a differentiation of floral regions began.
The sketch given above extends, for the later periods, to the
vegetation of the northern hemisphere only.
Authorities. — Potonie, Lehrbuch der Pflanzenpaldontologie
(Berlin, 1899); Renault, Cotirs de botanique fossile, vols, i.-iv.
(Paris, 1881-1885) ; Scott, Studies in Fossil Botany (2nd ed., London,
1908-1909); " The present Position of Palaeozoic Botany," in Pro-
gressus rei botanicae. Band I. (Jena, 1907); Seward, Fossil Plants
(in course of publication), vol. i. (Cambridge, 1898), vol. ii. (1910);
Solms-Laubach, Introduction to Fossil Botany (Oxford, 1892);
Zeiller, Elements de paleobotanique (Paris, 1900). In these general
works references to all important memoirs will be found.
(D. H. S.)
II. — Mesozoic
The period dealt with in this section does not strictly corre-
spond with that which it is customary to include within the
limits of the Mesozoic system. The Mesozoic era, as defined
in geological textbooks, includes the Triassic, Jurassic and
Cretaceous epochs; but from the point of view of the evolution
of plants and the succession of floras, this division is not the most
natural or most convenient. Our aim is not simply to give a
summary of the most striking botanical features of the several
floras that have left traces in the sedimentary rocks, but rather
to attempt to foUow the different phases in the development of
the vegetation of the world, as expressed in the contrasts
exhibited by a comparison of the vegetation of the Coal period
forests with that of the succeeding Mesozoic era up to the close
of the Wealden period.
Towards the close of the Palaeozoic era, as represented by
the Upper Carboniferous and Permian plant-bearing strata,
the vegetation of the northern hemisphere and that of several
regions in the southern hemisphere, consisted of numerous types
of Vascular Cryptogams, with some members of the Gymno-
spermae, and several genera referred to the Pteridospermae and
Cycadofilices (see section I. Palaeozoic). In the succeeding
Permian period the vegetation retained for the most part the
same general character; some of the Carboniferous genera died
out, and a few new types made their appearance. The Upper
Carboniferous and Permian plants may be grouped together as
constituting a Permo-Carboniferous flora characterized by an
abundance of arborescent Vascular Cryptogams and of an extinct
class of plants to which the name Pteridosperms has recently
been assigned — plants exhibiting a combination of Cycadean
and filicinean characters and distinguished by the production
of true gymnospermous seeds of a complex type. This flora
had a wide distribution in North America, Europe and parts of
540
PALAEOBOTANY
Asia; it extended to China and to the Zambesi region of tropical
Africa (Map A, I. and II.).
On the other hand, the plant-beds of the Permo-Carboniferous
age in South Africa, South America, India and Australia demon-
strate the existence of a widely distributed vegetation
Oossop e s ^.jji(-[jag]-ggsi]^j^gg with the Upper Carboniferous and
Permian vegetation of the north, but differs from
it to such an extent as to constitute a distinct flora. We must
begin by briefly considering this southern Palaeozoic province
if we would trace the Mesozoic floras to their origin, and
obtain a connected view of the vegetation of the globe as it
existed in late Palaeozoic times and at the beginning of the
succeeding era.
In Australia, South America and South Africa a few plants have
been found which agree closely with Lower Carboniferous types of
the northern hemisphere. In New South Wales, for example, we
have such genera as Rhacopteris and Lepidodendron represented
by species very similar to those recorded from Lower Carboniferous
or Culm rocks in Germany, Austria, England, Spitzbergen, North
and South America and elsewhere. It is, in short, clear that the
Culm flora, as we know it in the northern hemisphere, existed in
the extreme south, and it is probable that during the earlier part
of the Carboniferous period the vegetation of the world was uniform
in character. We may possibly go a step farther, and assume that
the climatic conditions under which the Culm plants of the Arctic
regions flourished were not very different from those which prevailed
in Europe, Asia, Chile and South Australia. From strata in New
South Wales overlying Devonian and Lower Carboniferous rocks
certain plants were discovered in the early part of the 19th century
which were compared with European Jurassic genera, and for
several years it was believed that these plant-beds belonged to the
Mesozoic period. These supposed Mesozoic plants include certain
genera which are of special interest. Foremost among these is
the genus Clossopteris (fig. l), applied by Brongniart in 1828 to
sub-lanceolate or tongue-shaped leaves from India and Australia,
Fig. I. — Clossopteris frond, with portion enlarged to show the venation.
(Natural size = 36 cm. in length.) From Lower Gondwana rocks of India.
which have generally been regarded as the fronds of ferns character-
ized by a central midrib giving off lateral veins which repeatedly
anastomose and form a network, like that in the leaves of Antra-
phyum, an existing member of the Polypodiaceae. The stems, long
known from Australia and India as Vertebraria, have in recent years
been proved to be the rhizomes of Clossopteris. It is only recently
that undoubted sporangia have been found in clote association with
Clossopteris leaves. The genus possessed small broadly oval or
triangular leaves in addition to the large fronds like that shown in
fig. I ; it was with the smaller leaves that Mr Arber discovered
sporangia exhibiting certain points of resemblance to the micro-
sporangia of modern Cycads. We cannot as yet say whether these
bodies represent a somewhat unusual type of fern sporangium or
whether they are microsporangia: if the latter supposition is
correct the plant must have been heterosporous; but we are still
without evidence on this point. Associated with Clossopteris occurs
another fern, Gangamopteris, usually recognized by the absence
of a well marked midrib, though this character does not always
afford a satisfactory distinguishing feature. In view of recent
discoveries which have demonstrated the Pteridosperm nature of
many supposed ferns of Palaeozoic age, we must admit the possi-
bility that the term fern as applied to Clossopteris and Gav^amopteris
may be incorrect. An Equisetaceous plant, which Brongniart
named Phyllotheca in 1828, is another member of the same
flora; this type bears a close resemblance to Eqttisetnm in the
long internodes and the whorled leaves encircling the nodes,
but differs in the looser leaf-sheaths and in the long spreading
filiform leaf-segments, as also in the structure of the cones.
Phyllotheca has been recognized in Europe in strata of Palaeozoic
age, and Professor ZeiUer has discovered a new species — P. Rallii —
in Upper Carboniferous rocks in Asia Minor ("Map A, \TI.), which
points to a close agreement between this genus and the well-known
Palaeozoic Annularia. Phyllotheca occurs also in Jurassic rocks
in Italy and in Siberian strata originally described as Jurassic, but
which Zeiller has shown are no doubt of Permian age. Some
examples of this genus, described by Etheridge from Permo-Carboni-
ferous beds in New South Wales, differ in some respects from the
ordinary form, and bear a superficial resemblance to the Equise-
[MESOZOIC
taceous genus Cingularia from the Coal Measures of Germany.
Other genera characteristic of this southern flora are mentioned
later. The extraordinary abundance of Clossopteris in Permo-
Carboniferous rocks of Australia, and in strata of the same age in
India and South Africa, gave rise to the term " Clossopteris flora "
for the assemblage of plants obtained from southern hemisphere
rocks overlying beds containing Devonian and Lower Carboniferous
fossils. The Clossopteris flora of Australia occurs in certain regions
in association with deposits which are now recognized as true boulder-
beds, formed during widespread glacial conditions. In India the
same flora occurs in a thick series of fresh-water sediments, known
as the Lower Gondwana system, including basal boulder-beds like
those of Australia. Similar glacial deposits occur also in South
America, and members of the Clossopteris flora have been discovered
in Brazil and elsewhere. In South Africa, Clossopteris, Cangamo-
pteris and other genera, identical with those from Australia and
India, are abundantly represented, and here again, as in India and
South America, the plants are found in association with extensive
deposits of undoubted glacial origin. To state the case in a few
words: there is in South Africa, South America, Australia and
India an extensive series of sediments containing Clossopteris,
Cangamopteris and other genera, and including beds full of ice-
scratched boulders. These strata are homota.xial with Permo-
Carboniferous rocks in Europe and North America, as determined
by the order of succession of the rocks, and by the occurrence of
typical Palaeozoic shells in associated marine deposits. The most
important evidence on which this conclusion is based is afforded
by the occurrence of European forms of Carboniferous shells in
marine strata in New South Wales, which are intercalated between
Coal Measures containing members of the Glossopteris flora, and
by the discovery of similar shells, many of which are identical with
the Australian species, in strata in the north-west of India and in
Afghanistan, forming part of a thick series of marine beds known
as the Salt Range group. This group of sediments in the extra-
peninsular area of India includes a basal boulder-ued, referred on
convincing evidence to the same geological horizon as the glacial
deposits of the Indian peninsula (Talchir boulder-beds), South
Africa (Eeca boulder- beds), Australia and Tasmania (Bacchus Marsh
boulder-beds, &c.), and South America, which are asso-
ciated with Glossopteris-bearing strata. We have a flora
of wide distribution in South Africa, South America, Borneo,
Australia, Tasmania and India which is clearly of Permo-
Carboniferous age, but which differs in its composition from
the flora of the same age in other parts of the world. This
flora appears to have abruptly succeeded an older flora in
Australia and elsewhere, which was precisely similar to that
of Lower Carboniferous age in the northern hemisphere.
The frequent occurrence of ice-formed deposits at the base
of the beds in which Glossopteris and other genera make
their appearance, almost necessitates the conclusion that
the change in the character of the vegetation was con-
_ nected with a lowering of temperature and the prevalence
of glacial conditions over a wide area in India and the southern
hemisphere. There can be little doubt that the Indian Lower
Gondwana rocks, in which the boulder-beds and the Glossopteris
flora occur, must be regarded as belonging to a vast continental
area of which remnants are preserved in Australia, South Africa
and South America. This continental area has been described as
" Gondwana Land," a tract of enormous extent occupying an area,
part of which has since given place to a southern ocean, while
detached masses persist as portions of more modern continents,
which have enabled us to read in their fossil plants and ice-scratched
boulders the records of a lost continent in which the Mesozoic
vegetation of the northern hemisphere had its birth. Of the rocks
of this southern continent those of the Indian Gondwana system
are the richest in fossil plants; the most prominent types recorded
from these Permo-Carboniferous strata are Glossopteris, Cangaino-
pteris, species referred to Sphenopteris, Pecopteris, Macrotaeniopteris
and other Ferns; Schizoneura (fig. 2) and Phyllotheca among the
Equisetales, Naeggerathiopsis and Euryphyllum, probably members
of the Cordaitales {q.v. in section I. Palaeozoic) ; Glossozamites and
Pterophyllum among the Cycadales, and various vegetative shoots
recalling those of the coniferous genus Voltzia, a well-known Permian
and Triassic plant of northern latitudes. The genera Lepidodendron,
Sigillaria, Sligtnaria, or Calamites, which played so great a share in
the vegetation of the same age in the northern hemisphere, have
not been recognized among the Palaeozoic forms of India, but
examples of Sigillaria, Lepidodendron and Bothrodendron are known
to have existed in South Africa in the Permo-Carboniferous era.
We may next inquire what types occur in the Glossopteris flora
agreeing more or less closely with members of the rich Permo-
Carboniferous vegetation of the north. The genus Sphenophylhim,
abundant in the Coal Measures and Permian rocks of Europe and
America, is represented by a single species recorded from India,
Sphenophyllum speciosum (fig. 3), and a doubtful species from South
Africa; Annularia, another common northern genus, is recorded
from Australia, and the closely allied Phyllotheca constitutes another
link between the two Permo-Carboniferous floras. The genus
Cordaites may be compared, and indeed is probably identical with,
certain forms recorded from India, South America, South Africa
MESOZOIC]
PALAEOBOTANY
541
and Australia. While a few similar or even identical types may
be recognized in both floras, there can be no doubt that, during
a considerable period subsequent to that represented by the Lower
Carboniferous or Culm rocks, there existed two distinct floras, one
of which had its headquarters in the northern hemisphere, while
the other flourished in a vast continental area in the south. Recent
discoveries have shown that representatives of the two floras
coexisted in certain regions; there was, in fact, a dovetailing between
strata in Europe. In the Tongking area, therefore, a flora existed during
the Khaetic period consisting in part of genera which are abundant
in the older Glossopteris beds of the south, and in part of well-
known constituents of European Rhaetic floras. A characteristic
member of the southern botanical province, Schizoneura gondwan-
ensis (fig. 2) of India, is represented also by a closely allied if not
an identical species — S. paradoxa — in the Lower Trias (Kunter)
sandstones of the Vosges Mountains, associated with European
_, ' go. Too ~ »Q '^^ ^ ' "^0"
I, II.
III.
Map a.— Gi— Gs,
Upper Carboniferous plants of the northern
hemisphere facies, in the Zambesi district
and in China.
Rhaetic flora of Tongking {Glossopteris, &c. ;
associated with northern types).
IV. Carboniferous plants (prov. Kansu).
V. Glossopteris, &c., in Permian rocks in prov.
Vologda,
the northern and southern botanical provinces. In 1895 Professor
Zeiller described several plants from the province of Rio Grande do
Sul in South America (Map A, G2), including a few typical members
of the Glossopteris flora associated with a European species, Lepido-
phloios laricinus, one of the characteristic types of the Coal period,
and with certain ferns resembling some
species from European Permian rocks. A
similar association was found also in
Argentine rocks by K^urtz (Map A, Gi), and
from South Africa Sigillaria Brardi, Psygmo-
phyllum, Bothrodendron and other northern
types are recorded irt company with Glosso-
pteris, Glangamopleris and Naeggeralhiopsis.
The Coal-bearing strata which occupy a
considerable area in China (Map A, II.),
contain abundant samples of a vegetation
which appears to have agreed in their main
features with the Permo-Carboniferous floras
of the nortnern hemisphere. In his account
of some plants from the Coal Measures of
Kansu (Map A, IV.) Dr Krasser has drawn
attention to the apparent identity of certain
leaf-fragments with those of Naeggeralhiopsis
Hislopi, a typical member of the Glossopteris
flora; but this plant, so far as the evidence
of vegetative leaves may be of value, differs
in no essential respects from certain species
of a European genus Cordaites. A com-
paratively rich fossil flora was described in
1 882 from Tongking (Map A, 1 II . by Professor Zeiller — and this author
has recently made important additions to his original account — which
demonstrates an admixture of Glossopteris types with others which
were recognized as identical with plants characteristic of Rhaetic
Glossopteris Flora.
VI. Permian (Pechora valley).
VII. Upper Carboniferous (Herakleion).
VIII. Rhaetic (Honduras).
IX. Lower Jurassic, Upper Gondwana (Argentine).
X. Rhaetic (Persia).
XI. Triassic — Cretaceous.
species which do not occur in the Glossopteris flora. Another plant
found in the Vosges sandstones — Neuropteridium grandifolium — is
also closely allied to species of the same " fern " recorded from the
(After Feistmantel.)
Fig. 2. — Schizon-
eura gondwanensis
from Lower Gond-
wana rocks, India.
Fig
(After Feistmantel.)
A. B.
. — Sphenophyllum speciosum. From Lower Gondwana
rocks, India.
A. nat. size. B. leaflet enlarged.
Lower Gondwana strata of India (fig. 4), South America and South
Africa. These two instances — the Tongking beds of Rhaetic age
and the Bunter sandstoijes of. the Vosges — afford evidence of a.
542
PALAEOBOTANY
[MESOZOIC
(After Feistmantel.)
Fig. 4. — Neuropleri-
northern extension of Glossopteris types and their association with
European species. In 1898 an important discovery was made by
Professor Amalitzky, which carries us a step further in our search for
a connexion between the northern and
southern floras. Amalitzky found in
beds of Upper Permian age in the pro-
vince of Vologda (Russia) (Map A, V.)
species of Glossopteris and Naeggerathi-
opsis typical members of the Glossopteris
flora, associated with species of the ferns
Taeniopleris, Callipteris and Sphenopteris,
a striking instance of a commingling in
the far north of the northern hemisphere
Permian species with migrants from
" Gondwana Land." This association of
types clearly points to a penetration of
representatives of the Glossopteris flora
to the north of Europe towards the close
of the Permian period. Evidence of the
same northern extension is supplied by
floras described by Schmalhausen from
Permian rocks in the Pechora valley
(Map A, VI.), the Siberian genus Rhip-
tozamites being very similar to, and pro-
bably genetically identical with, Naegger-
athiopsis of the Glossopteris flora. The
Permo - Carboniferous beds of South
Africa, India and Australia are succeeded
by other plant-bearing strata, containing
numerous species agreeing closely with
members of the Rhaetic and Jurassic
floras of the northern hemisphere. These
post-Permian floras, as represented by
the Upper Gondwana beds of India and
dium validum From corresponding strata in Australia, South
Lower Gondwana rocks, Africa, and South America, differ but
jjjfjj^ slightly from the northern noras, and
point to a uniformity in the Rhaetic
and Jurassic vegetation which is in contrast to the existence of two
botanical provinces during the latter part of the Palaeozoic period.
A few plants described by Potonie from German and Portuguese
East Africa demonstrate the occurrence of Glossopteris and a few
other genera, referred to a Permo-Triassic horizon, in a region slightly
to the north of Tete in the Zambesi district (Map A, I.), where
typical European plants agreeing with Upper Carboniferous types
were discovered several years ago, and described by Zeiller in 1882
and 1901. The existence of Upper Gondwana plants, resembling
Jurassic species from the Rajmahal beds of India, has been demon-
strated in the Argentine by Dr Kurtz.
Having seen how the Glossopteris flora of the south gradually
spread to the north in the Permian period, we may now take a
brief survey of the succession of floras in the northern
Floras" hemisphere, which have left traces in Mesozoic
rocks of North America, Europe and Asia. Our
knowledge of the Triassic vegetation is far from extensive; this
is no doubt due in part to the fact that the conditions under
which the Triassic rocks were deposited were not favourable
to the existence of a luxuriant vegetation. Moreover, the
Triassic rocks of southern Europe and other regions are typical
marine sediments. The Bunter sandstones of the Vosges have
afforded several species of Lower Triassic plants; these include
the Equisetaceous genus Schizoneura — a member also of the
Glossopteris flora — bipinnate fern fronds referred to the genus
Anomopteris, another fern, described originally as Neuroptcris
grandifolia, which agrees very closely with a southern hemisphere
type {Neuropleridium validum, fig. 4), some large Equisetaceous
stems apparently identical, except in size, with modern Horse-
tails. With these occur several Conifers, among others Voltzia
heterophylla and some twigs referred to the genus Albertia,
bearing large leaves like those of Agathis australis and some of
the Araucarias, also a few representatives of the Cycadales.
Among plants from Lower Triassic strata there are a few
which form connecting links with the older Permo-Carboniferous
flora; of these we have a species, described by Blanckenhon as
Sigillaria oculina, which may be correctly referred to that genus,
although an inspection of a plaster-cast of the type-specimen in
the Berlin Bergakademie left some doubt as to the sufficiency
of the evidence for adopting the generic name Sigillaria. Another
Triassic genus, Pleuromeia, is of interest as exhibiting, on the
one hand, a striking resemblance to the recent genus Isoeles,
from which it differs in its much larger stem, and on the other as
agreeing fairly closely with the Palaeozoic genera Lepidodendron
and Sigillaria. There is, however, a marked difference, as
regards the floras as a whole, between the uppermost Palaeozoic
flora of the northern hemisphere and such species as have been
recorded from Lower Triassic beds. There is evidence of a
distinct break in the succession of the northern floras which is
not apparent between the Permian and Trias floras of the south.
Passing over the few known species of plants from the middle
Trias (Muschelkalk) to the more abundant and more widely
spread Upper Triassic species as recorded from Germany,
Austria, Switzerland, North America and elsewhere, we find a
vegetation characterized chiefly by an abundance of Ferns and
Cycads, exhibiting the same general facies as that of the suc-
ceeding Rhaetic and Lower Jurassic floras. Among Cycads
may be mentioned species of Pterophyllum {e.g. P. Jaeger i),
represented by large pinnate fronds not unlike those of existing
species of Zamia, some Equisetaceous plants and numerous
Ferns which may be referred to such families as Gleicheniaceae,
Dipteridinae and Matonineae. Representatives of the Gink-
goales constitute characteristic members of the later Triassic
floras, and these, with other types, carry us on without any break
in continuity to the Rhaetic floras of Scania, Germany, Asia,
Chile, Tonkin and Honduras (Map A, VIII.), and to the Jurassic
and Wealden floras of many regions in both the north and
south hemispheres. A comparative view of the plants found in
various parts of the world, in beds ranging from the Upper
Trias to the top of the Jurassic system, reveals a striking uni-
formity in the vegetation both in northern and southern lati-
tudes during this long succession of ages. The Palaeozoic types
are barely represented; the arborescent Vascular Cryptogams
have been replaced by Cycads, Ginkgoales and Conifers as
the dominant classes, while Ferns continue to hold their own.
No undoubted Angiosperms have yet been found below the
Cretaceous system. From the close of the Permian period,
which marks the limit of the Upper Palaeozoic floras, to the
period immediately preceding the apparently sudden appearance
of Angiosperms, we have a succession of floras differing from one
another in certain minor details, but linked together by the
possession of many characters in common. It is impossible to
consider in detaO this long period in the history of plant-evolu-
tion, but we may briefly pass in review the most striking features
of the vegetation as exhibited in the dominant types of the
various classes of plants. Fragments of a Jurassic flora have
recently been discovered by Dr Andersson, a member of Norden-
skiold's Antarctic expedition, in Louis Philippe Land in lat.
63° 15' S. Among other well-known Jurassic genera Nathorst
has identified the following: Equiselites, Cladophlehis, Todiles,
Thinnfeldia, Otozamites, Williamsonia pecten, Araucarites. The
discovery of this Antarctic flora is a further demonstration of the
world-wide distribution of a uniform Jurassic flora.
Under the head of Algae there is little of primary importance to
record, but it is of interest to notice the occurrence of certain forms
which throw light on the antiquity of existing families Aiirae
of Algae. Species referred on good evidence to the
Charophyta are represented by a few casts of oogonia and stem
fragments, found in Jurassic and Wealden beds, which bear a striking
resemblance to existing species. There is some evidence for the
occurrence of similar Chara "fruits" in middle Triassic rocks;
some doubtful fossils from the much older Devonian rocks have also
been quoted as possible examples of the Charophyta. The oldest
known Diatoms are represented by some specimens found entangled
in the spicules of a Liassic sponge, and identified by Rothpletz as
species of the recent genus Pyxidicula. The calcareous Siphoneae
are represented by several forms, identified as species of Diplopora,
Triploporella, Neomeris and other genera, from strata ranging from
the lower Trias limestones of Tirol to the Cretaceous rocks of Mexico
and elsewhere. It is probable that the Jurassic Goniolina, described
from French localities, and other genera which need not be men-
tioned, may also be reckoned among the Mesozoic Siphoneae. A genus
Zonatrickites, compared with species of Cyanophyceae, has been
described as a Calcareous alga from Liassic limestones of Silesia.
The geological history of Mosses and Liverworts is at present
very incomplete, and founded on few and generally unsatisfactory
fragments. It is hardly too much to say that no Bry„„i,yt.
absolutely trustworthy examples of Mosses have so far
been found in Mesozoic strata. Of Liverworts there are a few
species, such as Palaeohepatica Rostafinskii from the Lower Jurassic
MESOZOIC]
PALAEOBOTANY
rocks of Cracow, Marchanlites ereclus from the Inferior Oolite rocks
of Yorkshire, and M. Zeilleri from the Wealden beds of Sussex.
These fossil Hepaticae are unfortunately founded only on sterile
fragments, and placed in the Liverworts on the strength of their
resemblance to the thallus of Marchantia and other recent genera.
The Palaeozoic Calamites were succeeded in the Triass'ic period
by large Equisetites, differing, so far as we know, in no essential
respect from existing Equisetums. The large stems
Bqu se- represented by casts of Triassic age, Equisetites arenaceus
taceae. ^^^ other species, probably possessed the power of
secondary growth in thickness; the cones were of the modern type,
and the rhizomes occasionally formed large underground tubers
like those frequently met with in Kquisetum arvense, E. sylvaticum
and ■ other species. Equisetites Muensteri is a characteristic and
fairly widely spread Rhaetic and Liassic species, having a com-
paratively slender stem, with leaf-sheaths consisting of a few broad
and short leaf-segments. Equisetites cotumnaris, a. common fossil
in the Jurassic plant-beds of the Yorkshire coast, represents another
type with relatively stout and occasionally branched vegetative
shoots, bearing leaf-sheaths very like those of Equiselum maximum
and other Horsetails. In the Wealden strata more slender forms
have been found — e.g. Equisetites Burchardti and E. Lyelli — in
England, Germany, Portugal, Japan and elsewhere, differing still
less in dimensions from modern species. Of other Equisetales
there are Schizoneura and Phyllotheca; the former first appears in
Lower Gondwana rocks as a member of the Glossopteris flora,
migrating at a later epoch into Europe, where it is represented by
a Triassic species. The latter genus ranges from Upper Carboni-
ferous to Jurassic rocks; it occurs in India, Australia, and elsewhere
in the " Gondwana Land " vegetation, as well as in Palaeozoic rocks
of Asia Minor, in Permian rocks of Siberia, and in Jurassic plant-beds
of Italy. This genus, like the allied Calamites, appears to have
possessed cones of more than one type; but we know little of the
structure of these Mesozoic Equisetaceous genera as compared with
our much more complete knowledge of Calamites and Archaeo-
calamites. (See section I., Palaeozoic.)
Reference has already been made to Sigillaria oculina and to
the genus Pleuromeia. Palaeobotanical literature contains several
records of species of Lycopodites and Selaginellites ;
Lycopo- nearly all of them are sterile fragments, bearing a more
dlales. ^j. [ggg close resemblance to living Club-Mosses and
Selaginellas, but lacking the more important reproductive organs.
Nathorst has recently described a new type of lycopodiaceous
cone, Lycostrobus Scotti, from Rhaetic rocks of Scania, from which
he obtained both megasporcs and microspores. An investigation by
Miss Sollas of a plant long known from Rhaetic rocks in the Severn
valley as Naiadita acuminata has shown that this genus is in all
probability a small lycopodiaceous plant, and neither a Moss nor
a Monocotyledon, as some writers have supposed. One of the best-
known European species is Lycopodites falcatus, originally described
by Lindley and Hutton from the Inferior Oolite of Yorkshire.
Among the large number of Mesozoic Ferns there are several
species founded on sterile fronds which possess but little interest
Pill from a botanical standpoint. Some plants, again, have
ca es, jjggn referred by certain authors to Ferns, while others have
relegated them to the Cycads. As examples of these doubtful forms
may be mentioned Thinnfeldia, characteristic of Rhaetic and Lower
Jurassic rocks; Dichopteris, represented by some exceptionally fine
Jurassic specimens, described by Zigno,
from Italy; and Ctenis, a genus chiefly
from Jurassic beds, founded on pinnate
fronds like those of Zamia and other
Cycads, with linear pinnae characterized
by anastomosing veins. Plants referred
to Schimper's genus Lomatopteris and to
Cycadopteris of Zigno afford instances of
the difficulty of distinguishing between the
foliage of Ferns and Cycads. The close
resemblance between specimens from
Jurassic rocks placed in one or other of
the genera Thinnfeldia, Dichopteris,
Cycadopteris, Sec, illustrates the
isatisfactory custom of founding new
names on imperfect fronds. It is of
interest to note that some leaf-fragments
recently found in Permian rocks of Kansas,
and placed in a new genus Glenopteris,
are hardly distinguishable from specimens
of Jurassic and Rhaetic age referred to
Thinnfeldia and other Mesozoic genera.
The difficulty of distinguishing between
Ferns and Cycads is a necessary conse-
quence of the common origin of these two
B^ ' classes; in Palaeozoic times the Cycado-
filicies and Pteridospermae (see section I.,
, „^ ''y'^- 5- . Palaeozoic) played a prominent part,
A, Oiozamttes Beam. ^nj ^^^^ among recent Cycads and Ferns
j'r : •^«"™''>''^»^- we still see a few indications of their close
Inferior Oolite, England, relationship. There is reason to believe
that compound or generalized types — partly Ferns and partly
543
Cycads — persisted into the Mesozoic era; but without more ana-
tomical knowledge than we at present possess, it is impossible to do
more than to point to a few indications afTorded by external, and
to a slight extent by internal structure, of the survival of Cycado-
filLcinean types. The genus Otozamites, which it is customary and
probably correct to include in the Cycadales, is represented by
certain species, such as Otozamites Beani (fig. 5, A), a characteristic
Yorkshire fossil of Jurassic age, which in the form of the frond, bearing
broad and relatively short pinnae, exhibits a striking agreement with
the sterile portions of the fronds of Aneimia rotundifolia, a member
of the fern family Schizaeaceac. Again, another species of the same
genus, 0. Bunburyanus (fig. 5, B), suggests a comparison with fern
fronds like that of the recent species Nephrolepis Duffi. The scaly
ramenta which occur in abundance on the leaf-stalk bases of fossil
Cycads constitute another fern-character surviving in Mesozoic Cyca-
dales. Without a fuller knowledge of internal structure and of the
reproductive organs, we are compelled to speak of some of the
Mesozoic plants as possibly Ferns or possibly Cycads, and not refer-
able with certainty to one or other class. It has been found useful
in some cases to examine microscopically the thin film of coal that
often covers the pinnae of fossil fronds, in order to determine the
form of the epidermal cells which may be preserved in the carbon-
ized cuticle; rectilinear epidermal cell-walls are usually considered
characteristic of Cycads, while cells with undulating walls are more
likely to belong to Ferns. This distinction does not, however, afford
a safe guide; the epidermal cells of some ferns, e.g. Angiopteris,
have straight walls, and occasionally the surface cells of a Cycadean
leaf-segment exhibit a fern-like character. Leaving out of account
the numerous sterile fronds which cannot be certainly referred to
particular families of Ferns, there are several genera which bear
evidence in their sori, and to some extent in the form of the leaf, of
their relationship to existing types.
The abundance of Palaeozoic plants with sporangia and sori of
the Marattiaceous type is in striking contrast to the scarcity of
Mesozoic ferns which can be reasonably included in the „
Marattiaceae. One of the few forms so far recorded . *™ "
is that known as Marallia Muensteri from Rhaetic aceae.
localities in Europe and Asia. Some species included in the genus
Danaeites or Danaeopsis from Jurassic rocks of Poland, Austria and
Switzerland may possibly be closely allied to the recent tropical
genus Danaea. Of the Ophioglossaceae there are no satisfactory
examples; one of the few fossils compared with a recent species,
Ophioglossum palmatum, was described several years ago from
Triassic rocks under the name Cheiropteris, but the resemblance is
one of external form only, and practically valueless as a taxonomic
criterion. It would appear that the eusporangiate Ferns suddenly
sank to very subordinate position after the Palaeozoic era.
The Osmundaceae, represented by a few forms of Palaeozoic age,
played a more prominent part in the Mesozoic floras. A species
described by Schenk from Rhaetic rocks of Franconia as
Acrostichites princeps is hardly distinguishable from
Todites Witliamsoni, a widely distributed species in
Inferior Oolite strata. This Jurassic species bore bipinnate fronds
not unlike those of the South African, Australian, and New Zealand
Fern Todea barbara, which were characterized by a stout rachis
and short broad pinnules bearing numerous large sporangia covering
the under surface of the lamina. Specimens of Todites have been
obtained from England, Poland, and elsewhere, sufficiently well
preserved to afford good
evidence of a correspon-
dence in the structure of
their sporangia with those
of recent Osmundaceae.
This Jurassic and Rhaetic
type occurs in England,
Germany, Poland, Italy,
East Greenland, North
America, Japan, China and
Persia (Map A, X.). Bi-
pinnate sterile fronds of
Todites have in some
instances been described
under the designation
Pecopteris whitbiensis. This
and other names, such as
Asplenium whitbiense, A.
nebbense, Asplenites Roes-
serti,&c.,ha.ve been given to
bipinnate fronds of a type
frequently met with in dif-
ferent genera and families
of recent Ferns, e.g. Onoclea
Struthiopteris, species of
Cyathea, Asplenium, Gym-
nogramme, &c. In most
cases the Rhaetic, Jurassic
andWealden Ferns included
under one or other of these
names are sterile, and can-
not be assigned to a particular family, but some are undoubtedly
Osmua-
daceae.
Fig. 6. — Cladophlebis denticiilata.
Inferior Oolite, England.
544
PALAEOBOTANY
[MESOZOIC
the leaves of Todites, a genus which may often be recognized by
the broad and relatively short bluntly-terminated pinnules. The
Jurassic species Cladophlebis denticulata (fig. 6), recorded from several
European localities, as well as from North America, Japan, China,
Australia, India and Persia, affords an instance of a common type
of bipinnatf frond similar to Todites WiUiamsoni, which has been
included in the Polypodiaceae; but such meagre evidence of the
soral characters as we possess also points to a comparison with
the recent fern Todea barbara. Our knowledge of the anatomy
of fossil Osmundaceae has recently been considerably extended
by Kidston and Gwynne-Vaughan. (For references, see Seward,
Fossil Plants, vol. ii., 1910.)
The Schizaeaceae include a widely spread species, originally named
Pecopteris exilis, and subsequently placed in a new genus, Klukia
(fig- ?)• which is characterized by tripinnate fronds with
Schlzae- gj^^^j linear ultimate segments, bearing a single row of
aceae. sporangia with an apical annulus (" monangic sori " of
Prantl) on either side of the midrib. This type occurs in Rhaetic
and Lower Jurassic rocks of
England, the Arctic regions,
Japan and elsewhere. Riiffor-
dia Goepperti, a Wealden type,
and probably a member of the
Schizaeaceae, has been re-
corded from England, Belgium,
and other European countries,
and Japan.
The Glcicheniaceae appear
to have been represented by
Triassic species in North
America and Europe, and more
abundantly in Jurassic, Weal-
den, or Lower Cretaceous rocks
in Belgium, Greenland, Poland
and elsewhere. Some excep-
tionally perfect fragments of
rhizomes have been found by Dr
C. Bommer of Brussels in some
Wealden deposits at Hainaut
in Belgium ; but these have not
yet been fully described. The
dichotomously-branchcd fronds
aielchea-
laceae.
Fig. 7. — Klukia exilis.
1-3, Sporangia enlarged.
4, Single fertile pinnule slightly
enlarged.
5, Fragment of pinna.
Inferior Oolite, England.
of the type represented by several recent species of Gleichenia, e.g.
G. dichotoma, &c., are abundant in Lower Cretaceous
plant-beds of Greenland, and suggest that in the latter
part of the Mesozoic period the Glcicheniaceae held a
position in the vegetation of the far north similar to that which
they now occupy in the southern tropics of India and other regions.
The recent Malayan genus Matonia (Map B, Matonia), represented
by two species, M. peciinata and M. sarmentosa, is clearly a survival
in southern latitudes of
a family which occupied
MatonI- an important
neae. place in the
Vegetation of the Rhaetic
Jurassic and Wealden
periods. The genera La-
copteris and Matonidium
(fig. 8) may be cited as
the two most important
types, both as regards
geographical and geo-
logical range, of this
Mesozoic family; these
ferns are recorded from
England, France, Bel-
gium, Germany, Austria,
Portugal, Poland and
Italy "(Map B, M,), also
from Greenland (Map B,
M2), Spitsbergen (Map B,
M'), and Persia (Map B,
M^). From the southern
Hemisphere, on the other
hand, we know of one or
two fragments only which
can reasonably be referred
to the Matonineae (Map
B, Ms), a fact which may
point to a northern origin
for this family with its
two surviving species
almost confined to the
Malayan region.
The recent genus, Dipteris, with its four existing species, occurring
chiefly in the Indo-Malayan region (Map B, Dipteris), is also a
modern survival of several Mesozoic types represented
DIpteH' |_jy gij^jj genera as Dictyophyllum (fig. 9), Hausntannia
■ and Camptopleris, which were abundant during the
Rhaetic and Jurassic periods in England, Germany, Sweden and
Fig. 8. — Matonidium Goepperti.
A. Summit of petiole.
B, Fertile pinnules.
Inferior Oolite, England.
(After Schenk.)
Fig. 9. — Dictyophyllum. Rhaetic
rocks of Europe and Asia.
elsewhere in Europe (Map B, D). Important additions to our
knowledge of the fertile leaves and rhizomes of certain Rhaetic
species of Dictyophyllum and other genera have recently been made
by Professor Nathorst of Stockholm, and Professor Richter of
Quedlinburg has made a thorough investigation of the vegetative
organs of Hausmannia, a genus possibly identical with Protorhipis,
which is abundant in Lower Cretaceous and other strata in various
European localities. The Dip-
teridinae are represented also
by species from Mesozoic rocks
of Persia (Map B, D2), Green-
land (Map B, D3), North
America (IJ4), South America
(D5) and China (De).
The Cyatheaceae constitute
another family of leptospor-
angiate Ferns
which had several O-aiAea-
representatives in '^^^•
Mesozoic floras. The numer-
ous species of fronds from
Jurassic and Wealden rocks
of North America and Europe
referred to Thyrsopteris, a
recent monotypic genus con-
fined to Juan Fernandez, are in
the majority of cases founded
on sterile leaves, and of little
or no botanical value. On
the other hand, there are
several fossil Ferns of Juras-
sic age possessing cup-like sori
like those of Thyrsopteris and
other Cyatheaceous Ferns,
which indicate a wide Mesozoic distribution for this family. Among
Jurassic species which should probably be classed as Cyatheaceae,
Coniopteris hymenophylloides is recorded from England, France,
Russia, Poland, Bornholm, Italy, the Arctic regions. North America,
Japan, China, Australia and India. A few tree-ferns which may be
included in this family — such as Protopteris — have been described
from Wealden and Lower Cretaceous rocks of England, Germany
and Austria. It is by no means easy in dealing with fossil ferns to
distinguish between certain Polypodiaceae — such as species of
Davallia — and members of the Cyatheaceae.
It is a striking fact that among the numerous Mesozoic Ferns
there are comparatively few that can with good reason be referred
to the Polypodiaceae, a family which plays so dominant p„iy.
a role at the present day. The frequent occurrence of „ndi'aceae
such names as Asplenium, Adiantum, Davallia, and
other Polypodiaceous genera in lists of fossil ferns is thoroughly
misleading. There are, indeed, a certain number of species which
show traces of sori like those of modern species of Asplenium and
other genera, but in most cases the names of recent ferns have been
used on insufficient grounds. The Wealden and Jurassic genus,
Onychiopsis of England, Portugal, Belgium, Germany, Japan, South
Africa and Australia, bears a close resemblance to the recent
Onychium [Cryptogamme). Other Jurassic Ferns described by
Raciborski from Poland suggest a comparison with Davallia.
The resemblance of the sporocarp-like bodies — discovered by
Nathorst in association with Rhaetic Sagenopteris leaves, and more
recently figured by Halle under a new generic name {Hydropter-
angium) — to the sporocarps of Marsilia is an argument in favour
of including Sagenopteris in the Hydropterideae. The majority of
the specimens included in the genus Cladophlebis, the Mesozoic
representative of the Palaeozoic Pecopteris type of frond, are known
only in a sterile condition, and cannot be assigned to their family
position. A Wealden plant, Weichselia Mantelli, is worthy of
mention as a species of very wide geographical distribution, and
one of the most characteristic members of the Wealden flora.
This type is distinguished by its large bipinnate fronds bearing
long and narrow pinnae with close-set pinnules, characterized by
the anastomosmg secondary veins. No traces of sori have so far
been found on the fronds. Similarly, the genus Sagenopteris,
characterized by a habit like that of Marsilia, and represented by
fronds consisting of a few spreading broadly oval or narrow segments,
with anastomosing veins, borne on the apex of a common petiole,
is abundant in rocks ranging from the Rhaetic to the Wealden, but
has not so far been satisfactorily placed. The evidence adduced
by Nathorst and some other writers is, however, not convincing;
until we find well-preserved sporocarps in connection with vege-
tative fronds we prefer to keep an open mind as regards the
position of Sagenopteris.
The abundance of Cycadean plants is one of the most striking
features of Mesozoic floras. In most cases we have only the evidence
of sterile fronds, and this is necessarily unsatisfactory; cy^adales.
but the occurrence of numerous stems and fertile shoots
demonstrates the wealth of Cycadean plants in many^ parts
of the world, more particularly during the Jurassic and Wealden
periods. From Palaeozoic rocks a few fronds have been described,
such as Pterophyllum Favoli, P. Combrayi, Plagiozamites and
MESOZOIC]
PALAEOBOTANY
545
Sphenozamites, chiefly from French localities, which are referred to I fronds, which there is good reason to refer to the Cycadales in
the Cycads because of their similarity to the pinnate fronds of Upper Triassic, Rhaetic, Jurassic and Wealden rocks in India,
modern Cycadaceae. In the succeeding Triassic system Cycadean I Australia, Japan, China and elsewhere in the southern hemisphere,
MapB
Ms, D, G, Distribution of the Matonhieae, Diptet idinae ,Ginkgoales.
Di-De, Distribution of the Dipteridinae. Gs
G1-G17, Distribution of the Ginkgoales G^
during the Mesozoic and Tertiary G7
Periods. Gg
Gi (Trias-Tertiary) ; G9
G2, G3 (Rhaetic-Jurassic) ; Gio
G) (Tertiary, Sakhalin I.); Gn
plants become much more abundant, especially in the Keuper period ;
from Rhaetic rocks a still greater number of types have been re-
corded, among which may be mentioned Nilssonia (fig. 10), Atiomo-
zamites, Plcrophylliim, Otozamiles, Cyeaditcs (fig. 11). The species
of Nilssonia shown in fig. 10 (A^. compta) is a characteristic member
of the Jurassic flora, practically identical with a form from Rhaetic
rocks described as Nilssonia polymorpha. The large frond of
Cycadites represented in fig. 11 (C Saportae) is from the Wealden
strata of Sussex, and possibly identical with Cycadites tenuisectus
from Portugal. In addition to these genera there are others, such
as Ctenozamites, Ctenis, and Podozamites, the position of which is
less certain. Ctenozamites occurs chiefly in the Rhaetic coal-bearing
beds of Scania, and has been found also in the Liassic clays of
(Jurassic) ;
(Jurassic and Tertiary) ;
(Jurassic) ;
(Rhaetic-Jurassic) ;
(Trias-Rhactic) ;
(Rhaetic, Chile) ;
(Trias) ;
as well in North America, Greenland, and other Arctic lands and
throughout Europe. It
G12 (Cretaceous-Tertiary) ;'"
Gu (Tertiary, Alaska) ;
Gu (Cretaceous-Tertiary) ;
Gi5 (Jurassic);
G16 (Jurassic, Spitsbergen) ;
G17 (Jurassic, Franz Josef Land).
, Inferior Oolite England
Dorsetshire and in the Inferior Oolite beds of Yorkshire, as well
as in Rhaetic strata in Persia and elsewhere ; it is characterized by
its bipinnate fronds, and may be compared with the recent Australian
genus Bowenia — peculiar among living Cycads in having bipinnate
fronds. Ctenis has been incorrectly placed among the ferns by some
authors, on account of the occurrence of supposed sporangia on its
pinnae; but there is reason to believe that these so-called sporangia
are probably nothing more than prominent papillose cells of the
epidermis. Podozamites (fig. 12) is usually considered to be a Cycad,
but the broad pinnae (or leaves) and their arrangement on the axis
suggests a possible relationship with the southern coniferous genus
Agathis, represented by the Kauri pine and other recent species.
The considerable variation in the size of the pinnae of Podozamites,
as represented by species from the Jurassic rocks in the Arctic regions
and various European localities, recalls the variation in length and
breadth of the leaves of Agathis. With regard to the distinguishing
features and the distribution of the numerous Cycadean leaves
of Mesozoic age, the most striking fact is the abundance of
noteworthy that Tertiary
plant-beds have yielded
hardly any specimens that
can be recognized as
Cycads.
A more important ques-
tion is. What knowlcdi,e
have we of the repro-
ductive organs and stems
of these fossil Cycads?
Cycadean stems have re-
cently been found
in great abund-
ance in Jurassic
and possibly higher
in Wyoming, South Dakota
and other parts of the Unitec
States. Cycadean stems have
been found also in the upper-
most Jurassic, Wealden and
Cretaceous rocks of England,
and other parts of the world.
An example of an Indian Cycadean
stem from Upper Gondwana rocks is
represented in fig. 13; the surface of
the trunk is covered with persistent
bases (fig. i;,, A) of the fronds known
as Ptilophyllum cutchense, which are
practically the same as the European
species Williamsonia pecten (fig. 17). In
a section of the stem (fig. 13, B) a large
pith is seen to occupy the axial region,
and this is surrounded by a zone of
secondary' wood, which appears to differ
from the characteristic wood of modern
Cycads (see Gymnosperms) in having
a more compact structure. It is in-
teresting to find that G. R. Wieland of
Lower
India
Fig. II. — Cycadites Sapor-
tae. Wealden, England.
XX. iS
546
PALAEOBOTANY
[MESOZOIC
Yale University lias noticed in some of the Cycadean stems from
the Black hills of Dakota and Wyoming that the wood appears to
possess a similar structure, differing in its narrower medullary rays
from the wood of modern Cycads. The lozenge-shaped areas
external to the axis of the stem represent the sections of petioles,
some of which are shown in fig. 13, A, attached to the stem. The
majority of Mesozoic stems agree in external appearance with those
of recent species of Encephalartos, Macrozamia, and some other
genera ; the trunk is encased in a mass of persistent petiole-bases
separated from one another by a dense felt or packing of scaly
ramenta. The structure of the leaf-stalks is like that of modern
y^'^i.^??^'
B
Fig. 12. — Podozatnites Fig. 13. — Cycadean stem,
lanceolatus. Inferior Oolite, from Upper Gondwana rocks,
England. India. A, Surface view; B,
Transverse section of stem.
Cycads, but the ramenta, instead of having the form of long uni-
cellular hairs like those on the petioles and bud-scales of existing
species are exactly like the paleae or ramental scales characteristic
of the majority of ferns. This fern-like character affords an inter-
esting sur\'ival of the close relationship between Cycads and Ferns.
Some examples of Jurassic C^'cadean stems from Wyoming are
characterized by an unusually rich development of ramental
scales; the ramenta from the old leaf-bases form an almost complete
covering over the surface of the trunk. Professor Lester Ward
has instituted a new generic name,
Cycadellu, for these woolly forms. In
a few cases the fossil stems show no
trace of any lateral flowering shoots,
and in that respect agree with modern
forms: an instance of this is afforded
by a large Cycadean trunk discovered
some years ago in one of the Portland
quarries, and named Cycadeoidea gigan-
lea (fig. 14). In this stem the flowers
may have been terminal, as in exist-
ing Cycads. As a rule, however, the
fossil stems show a marked difference
from modern forms in the possession
of lateral shoots given off from the
axils of leaves, and terminating in a
flower of complex structure containing
numerous orthotropous seeds. These
reproductive shoots differ in many
important respects from the flowers
of recent Cycads, and chiefly on this
account it is customary to include the
plants in a separate genus, Bennelt-
ites, and in a separate group — the
Bennettitales — distinct from that of
the Cycadales including the existing
Cycads. The best preserved specimens
of the true Bennettites type so far
described are from the Lower Green-
sand and Wealden of England, and
from Upper Mesozoic strata in North
America, Italy and France. A study
of the anatomical structure of the
vegetative stem, which on the whole
is very similar to that of recent
Cycads (fig. 15, I and 2), reveals
certain characters which are not met
The chief distinguishing feature
Fig. 14. — Cycadeoidea
gigantea. Portland rocks,
England.
with in modern Cycads.
afforded by the leaf -traces; in recent species (see Gymnosperms)
these pursue a somewhat complicated course as they pass
from the petiole towards the vascular cylinder of the stem,
but in Bennettites the vascular bundles from the leaves followed
a :.more direct course through the cortex of the stem (fig. 15,
3). .Among existing types the genus Macrozamia appears
to show the nearest approach to this simpler structure of the
leaf-traces. In a Floridan species of Zamia the leaf-traces
are described as characterized by a more direct course from the
stele of the stem to the leaves than in most modern genera, thus
agreeing more closely with the extinct Bennettites. The typical
Bennettites female flower (fig. 15, 4 and 7), as investigated in English,
French, Italian, and American specimens, may be briefly described
as a short lateral shoot or peduncle, arising in a leaf-axil and ter-
minating in a bluntly rounded apex, bearing numerous linear bracts
enclosing a central group of appendages, some of which consist of
slender pedicels traversed by a vascular strand and bearing a
single terminal ovule enclosed in an integument, which forms a
distal canal or micropyle. Associated with these seminiferous
pedicels occur sterile appendages consisting of slender stalks,
terminating in distal expansions, which form a fleshy covering over
the surface of the flower, leaving small apertures immediately above
the micropyles for the entrance of the pollen-grains. It has been
suggested by some authors that the almost complete investment of
the small Bennettites seeds by the surrounding swollen ends of the
interseminal scales (fig. 15, 7) represents an approach to the angio-
spermous ovary. In Bennettites the ovules are left exposed at the
apex, but they are by no means so distinctly gymnospermous as
in recent Cycads and Conifers. The seeds have in some cases been
preserved in wonderful perfection, enabling one to make out the
structure of the embryo, with its bluntly conical radicle and two
fleshy cotyledons filling the exalbuminous seed (fig. 15, 11).
Our knowledge of the reproductive organs of the Bennettitaceae
has until recently been confined to the female flowers, as described
by Carruthers, Solms-Laubach, Lignier, and others. The fortunate
discovery of several hundred Cycadean stems in the United States,
of Lower Cretaceous and Upper Jurassic age, has supplied abundant
material which has lately been investigated and is still receiving
attention at the hands of Mr Wieland. This investigator has
already published a well-illustrated account of his discoveries,
which give valuable information as to the morphology of the male
organs, and lead us to expect additional results in the future of
the greatest importance and interest. On some of the American
stems flowers have been found, borne at the ape.x of lateral shoots,
which possess fully developed male organs consisting of sporangia
with spores (pollen-grains), surrounding a conical central receptacle
bearing numerous small and probably functionless or immature
ovules (fig. 15, 10). The structure of this type of flower may be
briefly described as follows. In shape and size the flower is similar
to that long known as the female flower of Bennettites and William-
sonia. A number of hairy linear bracts enclose the whole; internal
to these occur 12 to 20 crowded pinnate leaves (sporophylls), with
their apical portions bent over towards the axis of the flower, the
bases of the petioles being fused laterally into a disk surrounding
the base of the conical receptacle. Numerous pairs of pinnules are
attached to the rachis of each sporophyll, and the larger pinnules
bear 20 1030 synangia (sori or plurilocular sporangia) (fig. I5,8andg).
The synangia consist of a stout wall composed of thick-walled cells,
succeeded by a layer of more delicate and smaller elements; and
internal to the wall occur two rows of sporangial loculi containing
microspores. When the synangia are ripe dehiscence takes place
alonga median line between the two rows of loculi. In size, position,
arrangement, and manner of dehiscence the sporangia bear a striking
resemblance to those of Marattia and Danaea among recent
Marattiaceae. The most important point elucidated by this
discovery is the very close correspondence of the male organs of
the Bennettites flower with the sporophylls and synangia of
Marattiaceous ferns — a further relic of the common origin of
Cycads and Ferns. It remains to be seen if the ovuliferous cone in
the centre of the flower represents simply a functionless gynoecium,
as in Welwitschia and abnormal cones of certain Coniferae, or if the
flowers were hermaphrodite, with both male and female organs
fully developed. We have a combination in the same flower of
stalked ovules, the structure of which has already been described,
and interseminal scales constituting a complex gynoecium, which
exhibits in certain features an approach to the angiospermous type,
and differs in structure from other Gymnosperm flowers, associated
with male organs constructed on a plan almost identical with that
of the sporophylls in Marattiaceae. In many of the flowers de-
scribed by Mr Wieland the structure is identical in essential
features with that of the female flowers of Bennettites Cibsonianus
described by Carruthers and by Solms-Laubach, and with that
of a French Liassic species described by Lignier; the whole consists
of a convex receptacle bearing mature seeds at the tips of pedicels
associated with interseminal scales (fig. 15, 7) as already described.
Mr Wieland's researches have, however, demonstrated the existence
in flowers of this type of the remains of a disk at the base of the
receptacle, between the receptacle and the surrounding bracts, to
which staminate leaves were originally attached. The flowers hither-
to regarded as female were in some cases at least hermaphrodite.
MESOZOIC]
PALAEOBOTANY
547
but the male organs had been thrown off before the complete
development of the gynoecium. This fact suggests the possibility
that the flowers described by Mr Wieland, in which the male
organs are mature and the gynoecium is composed of very short and
immature ovuliferous stalks and interseminal scales, arc not
essentially distinct from those which have lost the staminate leaves
Fig. 15.
I, Bennettitcs stem: portion of transverse section of stem; a, vascular
cylinder; b, leaf-traces; c, pith; d, cortex.
Bennettites stem, tangential section; e, flower-peduncles.
Bennetiites stem, leaf-traces attached to the vascular cylinder and
passing as simple strands through the cortex; d, cortex.
Williainsonia, Wealden, England.
Young leaf of Beiinellites.
Ramenta of Bennettites in transverse section.
T, Bennetiites, female flower in longitudinal section; /, apex of
y peduncle; g, bracts (shown in surface view in 4); h, seeds and
seminiferous pedicels; i, interseminal scales.
8, Bennettites , synangmm of male flower, showing line of dehiscence,
k, and microspores, /.
9, Synangium, in transverse section, showing sporangial groups,
m, and microspores, /.
10, Bennettites flower in vertical section, showing the central female
portion, «, two sporophylls bearing synangia (male), 0, and
hairy bracts, g.
II, Bennettites seed in longitudinal section, showing the dicoty-
'edonous embryo; p, cotyledons; r, radicle; i, testa.
3, after Carruthers; 5, 8, 9 and 10, after Wieland; 7, after Scott;
(I
II, after Sohns-Laubach.)
3nd possess mature seeds. It is probable that the flowers of
Bennettites were normally hermaphrodite, and they may have been
markedly protandrous. We cannot decide at present whether the
gynoecium in a flower, such as that represented in fig. 15, 7, has
partially aborted or whether it would have matured later after the
fall of the male organs.
It is clear that Bennettites differed in many essential respects
from the few modern survivors of the Cycadophyta. Fossil flowers
of a type more like that of modern Cycads are few in number, and
it is not by any means certain that all of those described as Cycadean
flowers and seeds were borne by plants which should be included
m the Cycadophyta; a few female flowers have been described
from Rhaetic rocks of Scania and elsewhere under the name Zamio-
i/fo6i/s— these consist of an axis with slender pedicels or carpophylls
given off at a wide angle and bearing two ovules at the distal end;
the structure is in fact similar to that of a Zamia female flower,
m which the internodes of the peduncle have been elongated so as
to give a looser arrangement to the carpels. It has been suggested
that one at least of the flowers, that originally described by Mr
Carruthers from the Inferior Oolite of Yorkshire as Beania gracilis,
may have been borne by a member of the Ginkgoales. From
Jurassic rocks of France and Italy a few imperfect specimens have
been described as carpels of Cycads, like those of the recent genus
Cycas (see ( ivMNOspERMs) ; while a few of these may have been
correctly identified, an inspection of some of the original examples
in the Paris collections leads one to express the opinion that others
are too imperfect to determine. Pinnate fronds of the Cycas type,
characterized by the presence of a midrib and no lateral veins in
the linear pinnae, are recorded from Rhaetic rocks of Germany,
from Wealden strata in England (fig. 11) and I'ortugal, and from
Liassic beds in Dorsetshire. One large s[)ecimen is figured liy
Heer from Lower Cretaceous rocks of Greenland, and by the side
of the frond is shown a carpel with lateral ovules, as in the female
flower of Cycas; but an examination of the type-specimen in the
Copenhagen Museum led the present writer to regard this supposed
carpel as valueless. Professor Nathorst, as the result of a more
recent examination of Ileer's specimen, found that the segments
of the frond are characterized by the presence of two parallel veins
instead of a single midrib, with a row of stomata between them;
for this type of Cycadean leaf he proposed the generic name Pseudo-
cycas. Another well-known Cycadean genus is Williamsonia, so
named by Mr Carruthers in 1870, and now applied to certain pinnate
fronds — e.g. those pre-
viously described as Za-
mites gigas (fig. 16), and
others known under such
names as Pterophyllum or
Plilophyllum pecteii, &.C.,
both common Jurassic
species — as well as to
stems bearing peduncles
with terminal oval flowers,
similar in form to those of
Bennettites. There is good
evidence for supporting
Professor Williamson's con-
clusions as to the organic
connexion between the
flowers, originally de-
scribed from Inferior Oolite
rocks of Yorkshire and sub-
sequently named William-
sonia (fig. 15, 4), and the
fronds of Zamites gigas,
now knownasWilliamsonia
gigas (fig. 16). There can
be little doubt that the
majority of the Cycadean
fronds of Jurassic and
Wealden age, which are
nearly always found de-
tached from the rest of
the plant, were borne on
stems of the Bennettites
type. Williamson was the
first to express the opinion
that the Bennettitean
flowers known as Williain-
sonia were borne on the
trunks which terminated in
a crown of pinnate fronds
of the type long known as
Zamites gigas; this view
was regarded by Saporta and others as incorrect, and the nature of
the Bennettitean foliage was left an open question. A re-examina-
tion of the English material in the museums of Paris and else-
where has confirmed Williamson's conclusions. Mr Wieland has
also described young bipinnate fronds, very like those of recent
species of Zamia and Enceplialartos, attached to a Bennettites
stem, and exhibiting the vernation characters of many recent
Cycads (fig. 15, 5). In Williamsonia the stem bore comparatively
long fertile shoots, which, in contrast to those of Bennettites, pro-
jected several inches beyond the surface of the main trunk, and
terminated in a flower which appears to have resembled those of
the true Bennettites. Nathorst has recently described specimens
of Williamsotiia from the Jurassic rocks of Whitby with micro-
Sporophylls like those of Wicland's species. Williamsonia occurs
in the Upper Gondwana rocks of India; it is recorded also from
strata ranging from the Rhaetic to the Lower Cretaceous period
in England, Portugal, Sweden, Bornholm, Greenland, Italv and
North America. Professor Nathorst has described another
type of stem _ from the Rhaetic beds of Scania. It consists
of a comparatively small and repeatedly forked axis bearing in
each fork a flower; the flowers, which are regarded as male and
female, appear to be similar to those of Bennettites. The leaves,
borne on the regions between the false dichotomies, are those of
Anomozamites minor, a type of Cycadean frond originally determined
Fig.
16. — Frond of Williamsonia gigas.
Inferior Oolite, England.
548
PALAEOBOTANY
[MESOZOIC
by Brongniart. The flowers, or some of them, were originally
described by Nathorst as Williamsonia angustifolia. This form of
stem, of a habit entirely different from that of recent Cycads and
extinct Beiinettites, points to the existence in the Mesozoic era of
another type of Gymnosperm allied to the Bennettitales
of the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods by its flowers,
but possessing a distinctive character in its vegetative
organs. There is no doubt that the Cycadophyta, using
the term suggested by Nathorst in 1902, was repre-
sented in the Mesozoic period by several distinct families
or classes which played a dominant part in the floras
of the world before the advent of the Angiosperms. In
addition to the bisporangiate reproductive shoots of
Bennettites, distinguished by many important features
from the flowers of recent Cycads, a few specimens of
flowers have been discovered exhibiting a much closer
resemblance to those of existing Cycads, e.g. Avdros-
trobus Bclduini from Bathonian rocks of France; Zamites
famitiaris, described many years ago by Corda, from
Lower Cretaceous rocks of Bohemia, and Androstrobus
Nathorsti, from Wealden beds in Sussex. The majority
of the species were, however, characterized by flowers of
a diff'erent type known as Bcnnettiles and Williamsonia.
The living Maidenhair-tree (Ginkgo biloba) (see Gym-
NOSPERMS) remains, like Matonia and Dipleris, among
the ferns, as an isolated relic in the midst
Giakgoales.oi recent vegetation. In Rhaetic, Jurassic
and Wealden floras, the Ginkgoales were
exceedingly abundant (Map B, Gi-Gn) ; in addition to
leaves agreeing almost exactly with those of the recent
species (fig. 18), there are others separated as a distinct
genus, Baiera (tig. 18, G), characterized by the greater
number and narrower form of the segments, which may
be best compared with such leaves as those of the
recent fern Actiniopteris and of certain species of Schizaea.
Male flowers, like those of Ginkgo biloba, but usually
characterized by a rather larger number of oval pollen-sacs on the
stamens, have been found in England, Germany, Siberia and
elsewhere in association with Ginkgo and Baiera foliage. The
occasional occurrence of three or even four pollen-sacs on the stamens
of the recent species affords a still closer agreement between the
e.\tinct and living types. Seeds like those of Ginkgo biloba have
also been recorded as fossils in Jurassic rocks, and it is possible
that the type of flower known as Beania, from the Inferior Oolite
rocks of Yorkshire, may have been borne by Ginkgo or Baiera.
and Wealden age, but an abundance of fossil wood {A raucarioxylon)
from Jurassic and Cretaceous strata in Europe, North America,
Madagascar and elsewhere agreeing with that of recent Araucarieae,
in addition to several well-preserved female flowers. C. A. Hollick
Fig. 17. — Fronds of Williamsonia pecteyi.
The regions from which satisfactory examples of Ginkgoales {Baiera
or Ginkgo) have been recorded are shown in Map B (Gi-Gn). Both
Tertiary and Mesozoic localities are indicated in the map.
An adequate account of fossil Mesozoic Conifers is impossible
within the limits of this article. Coniferous twigs are very common
in Mesozoic strata, but in most cases we are compelled
CottUerales, to refer them to provisional genera, as the evidence of
xegetative shoots alone is not sufficient to enable us to
determine their position within the Coniferae. There are, however,
several forms which it is reasonable to include in the Araucarieae;
that this family was to the fore in the vegetation of the Jurassic
period is unquestionable. We ha\'e not merely the striking
resemblance of vegetative shoots to those of recent species of
Araucaria and Agathis, e.g. species of Nageiopsis, abundantly
represented in the Upper Jurassic beds of the Potomac area in
North America, species of Pagiophyllum and other genera of Jurassic
Fig. 18. — Leaves of Ginkgoales.
A, Ginkgodium, Japan (Jurassic).
B, C, D, E, F, H, Ginkgo leaves. — B, from Franz Josef Land (Jurassic);
C, Greenland (Lower Cretaceous) ; D, Siberia (Jurassic) ; E, Germany
(Wealden); F, England (Jurassic); H, China (Rhaetic).
G, Baiera leaf. Inferior Oolite, England.
(A, after Yokoyama; B, after Nathorst; C, D, after Heer; E. after Schenk;
H, after Krasser. All the figures J nat. size.)
and E. C. Jeffrey have recently shown that some Lower Cretaceous
specimens of the well-known genus Brachyphyllum obtained from
Staten Island, N. Y., possess wood of the Araucarian type. This genus
has long been known as a common and widely spread Jurassic
and Cretaceous conifer, but owing to the absence of petrified speci-
mens and of well-preserved cones, it has been impossible to refer
it to a definite position in the Coniferales. It is now clear that some
at least of the species of Brachyphyllum must be referred to the
Araucarieae. In a recently published paper Seward and Ford
have given a general account of the Araucarieae, recent and extinct,
to which reference may be made for further details as to the
geological history of this ancient section of the Coniferales. Some
of the fossils referred to the genus Kaidocarpoti, and originally
described as monocotyledonous inflorescences, are undoubted
Araucarian cones; other cones of the same type have been placed
in the genus Cycadeostrobus and referred to Cycads. Araucarites
Hudlestoni, described by Mr Carruthers from the Coralline Oolite
rocks of Malton in Yorkshire; Araucarites sphaerocarpa from the
Inferior Oolite of Somerset; also another cone found in the North-
ampton Sands, which is probably specifically identical with A.
Hudlestoni, and named by Carruthers Kaidocarpoti ooliticum, afford
good illustrations of British Araucarian flowers. A flower of a
rather different type, Pseudaraiccaria major, exhibiting in the
occurrence of two seeds in each scale an approach to the cones of
Abietineae, has been described by Professor Fliche from Lower
Cretaceous rocks of Argonne. The well-known Whitby jet of
LIpper Liassic age appears to have been formed to a large extent
from Araucarian wood. Among the more abundant Conifers of
Jurassic age may be mentioned such genera as Thuytes and Cupres-
sites, which agree in their vegetative characters with members of
the Cupressineae, but our knowledge of the cones is far from satis-
factory. Many of the small female flowers borne on shoots with
foliage of the Cupressus type consist of spirally disposed and not
verticillate scales, e.g. Thuytes expansus, a common Jurassic species.
Fossil wood, described under the name Cupressinoxylon, has been
recorded from several Mesozoic horizons in Europe and elsewhere,
but this term has been employed in a wide sense as a designation
for a type of structure met with not only in the Cupressineae, but
in members of other families of Coniferae. The Abietineae do not
appear to have played a prominent part before the Wealden period ;
various older species, e.g. Rhaetic specimens from Scania, are
recorded, but it is not until we come to the Upper Jurassic and
Wealden periods that this modern family was abundantly repre-
sented. Fossil wood of the Pintles type (Pilyoxylon) has been
described from England, France, Germany, Sweden, Spitsbergen,
North America and elsewhere; some of the best British examples
have been obtained from the so-called Pine-raft, the remains of
water-logged and petrified wood of Lower Greensand age, seen at
low water near Brook Point in the Isle of Wight. Well-preserved
Abietineous female flowers have been obtained from the Wealden
rocks of England and Belgium, e.g. Pinites Dunkeri, P. Solmsi,
&c. ; specimens of seeds and vegetative shoots are recorded also
from Spitsbergen and other regions. Hollick and Jeffrey have
recently added to our knowledge of the anatomy of Cretaceous
MESOZOICJ
PALAEOBOTANY
549
species of Pinus, and Miss Slopes and Dr Fujii have made im-
portant contributions on the structure of Cretaceous plants from
Japan. Cones of Lower Cretaceous age have been described by
Fliche from Argonne, which bear a close resemblance to the female
flowers of recent species of Cedrus. The two surviving species of
Sequoia afford an illustration of the persistence of an old type, but
unfortunately most of the Mesozoic species referred to this genus
do not possess sufficiently perfect cones to confirm their identifica-
tion as examples of Sequoia. Some of the best examples of cones
and twigs referred to Sequoia are those described by Heer from
Cretaceous rocks of Greenland, and Professor D. P. Penhallow of
Montreal has described the anatomical structure of the stem of
Sequoia Langsdorfii, a Tertiary species occurring in Europe and
North America.
There are a few points suggested by a general survey of the
Mesozoic floras, which may be briefly touched on in conclusion.
In following the progress of plant-life through those periods in
the history of the earth of which records arc left in ancient sedi-
ments, seams of coal or old land-surfaces, we recognize at certain
stages a want of continuity between the floras of successive ages.
The imperfection of the geological record, considered from the
point of view of evolution, has been rendered familiar by Darwin's
remarkable chapter in the Origin of Species. Breaks in the chain
of life, as represented by gaps in the blurred and incomplete
documents afforded by fragmentary fossils, are a necessary
consequence of the general plan of geological evolution; they
mark missing chapters rather than sudden breaks in an evolu-
tionary series. On the other hand, a study of the plant-life of
past ages tends to the conviction that too much stress may be
laid on the imperfection of the geological record as a factor in
the interpretation of palaeontological data. The doctrine of
Uniformitarianism, as propounded by Lyell, served to establish
geology on a firmer and more rational basis than it had previously
possessed; but latterly the tendency has been to modify the
Lyellian view by an admission of the probability of a more
intense action of groups of forces at certain stages of the earth's
history. As a definite instance a short review may be given of
the evidence of palaeobotanical records as regards their bearing
on plant-evolution. Starting with the Permo-Carboniferous
vegetation, and omitting for the moment the Glossopteris flora,
we find a comparatively homogeneous flora of wide geographical
range, consisting to a large extent of arborescent lycopods,
calamites, and other vascular cryptogams, plants which occupied
a place comparable with that of Gymnosperms and Angiosperms
in our modern forests; with these were other types of the greatest
phylogenetic importance, which serve as finger-posts pointing
to lines of evolution of which we have but the faintest signs
among existing plants. Other types, again, which may be
referred to the Gymnosperms, played a not unimportant part in
the Palaeozoic vegetation. No conclusive proof has so far been
adduced of the existence in those days of the Cycads, nor is there
more than partial evidence of the occurrence of genera which
can be placed with confidence in any of the existing families of
Conifers. There are, moreover, no facts furnished by fossil
plants in support of the view that Angiosperms were represented
either in the low-lying forests or on the slopes of the mountains
of the Coal period. Passing higher up the geological series, we
find but scanty records of the vegetation that existed during the
closing ages of the Permian period, and of the plants which
witnessed the beginning of the Triassic period we have to be
content with the most fragmentary relics. It is in rocks of
Upper Triassic and Rhaetic age that abundant remains of rich
floras are met with, and an examination of the general features
of the vegetation reveals a striking contrast between the Lower
Mesozoic plants and those of the Palaeozoic period. Arborescent
Pteridophytes are barely represented, and such dominant
types as Lcpidodcndron, Sigillaria, Calamites and Sphenophyllum
have practically ceased to exist; Cycads and Conifers have
assumed the leading role, and the still luxuriant fern vegetation
has put on a different aspect. This description applies almost
equally to the floras of the succeeding Jurassic and Wealden
periods. The change to this newer type of vegetation was no
doubt less sudden than it appears as read from palaeobotanical
records, but the transition period between the Palaeozoic type
of vegetation and that which flourished in the Lower Mesozoic
era, and continued to the close of the Wealden age, was probably
characterized by rapid or almost sudden changes. In the
southern hemisphere the Glossopteris flora succeeded a Lower
Carboniferous vegetation with a rapidity similar to that which
marked the passage in the north from Palaeozoic to Mesozoic
floras. This apparently rapid alteration in the character of the
southern vegetation took place at an earlier period than that
which witnessed the transformation in the northern hemisphere.
The appearance of a new type of vegetation in India and the
southern hemisphere was probably connected with a widespread
lowering of temperature, to which reference has already been
made. It was from this Glossopteris flora that several types
gradually migrated across the equator, where they formed part
of the vegetation of more northern regions. The difference
between the Glossopteris flora and those which have left traces
in the Upper Gondwana rocks of India, in the Wianamatta antl
Hawkesbury beds of Australia, and in the Stormberg series of
South Africa is much less marked than that between the Permo-
Carboniferous flora of the northern hemisphere and the succeed-
ing Mesozoic vegetation. In other words, the change took place
at an earlier period in the south than in the north. To return to
the northern hemisphere, it is clear that the Wealden flora, as
represented by plants recorded from England, France, Belgium,
Portugal, Russia, Germany and other European regions, as also
from Japan and elsewhere, carries on, with minor differences,
the facies of the older Jurassic floras. It was at the close of the
Wealden period that a second evolutionary wave swept over the
vegetation of the world. This change is most strikingly illus-
trated by the inrush of Angiosperms, in the equally marked
decrease in the Cycads, and in the altered character of the ferns.
It would appear that in this case the new influence, supplied by
the advent of Angiosperms, had its origin in the north. Unfor-
tunately, our knowledge of the later floras in the southern hemi-
sphere is very incomplete, but a similar transformation appears
to have characterized the vegetation south of the equator.
As to the nature of the chief factors concerned in the two revolu-
tions in the vegetable kingdom, if it is admissible to use so strong
a term, only a guess can be hazarded. Physical conditions no
doubt played an important part, but whatever cause may have
had the greatest share in disturbing the equilibrium of evolu-
tionary forces, it would seem that the apparently sudden
appearance of Cycads and other types at the close of the Palaeo-
zoic period made a widespread and sudden impression on the
whole character of the vegetation. At a later stage — in post-
Wealden days — it was the appearance of Angiosperms, probably
in northern latitudes, that formed the chief motive power in
accelerating the transition in the facies of plant-life from that
which marked what we have called the Mesozoic floras, to the
vegetation of the Upper Cretaceous and Tertiary periods.
With the advent of Angiosperms began, as the late marquis of
Saporta expressed it, " Une revolution, ainsi rapide dans sa
marche qu'universelle dans ses etYets." From the floras of the
Tertiary age we pass by gradual stages to those which charac-
terize the present phase of evolutionary progress. Among
modern floras we find here and there isolated types, such as
Ginkgo, Sequoia, Matonia, Diptcris and the Cycads, persisting
as more successful survivals which have held their own through
the course of ages; these plants remain as vestiges from a remote
past, and as links connecting the vegetation of to-day with that
of the Mesozoic era.
Authorities. — Glossopteris Flora: Blanford, H. F., "On the
age and correlation of the Plant-bearing Series of India, &c.,"
Quarterly Journal Geol. Soc. xxxi. (1875); Feistmantel, "Fossil
Flora of the Gondwana System," Mem. Geol. Surv. India, vols, iii.,
&c. (1879, &c.) ; Seward, Fossil Plants as Tests oj Climate (Cambridge,
1892), with bibliography; "The Glossopteris Flora," Science Pro-
gress, with bibliography; "On the Association of Sigillaria and
Glossopteris in South Africa," Q.J.G.S.. vol. liii. (1897) ; E. A. N.
Arber, Catalogue of the Fossil Plants of the Glossopteris Flora in the
Department of Geology (British Museum, Nat. Hist., Brit. M-us.
Catalogue (London, 1905), with full bibliography; Medlicott and
Blanford, Afanaa/ of the Geology of India (2nd ed., Oldham, R. D.,
Calcutta, 1893); David. " Evidences of Glacial .Vtion in Australia
in Permo-Carbonifcrous time," Q.J.G.S.. vol. Hi. (1896),- Zcillcr,
Elements de paleoboiantque (Paris, 1900); Potoni6, " Fossile Pflanzen
550
PALAEOBOTANY
[TERTIARY
aus deutsch und portugiesisch Ostafrika," Deutsch-Ostafrika, vii.
(Berlin, 1900), with bibliography. General : Potonie, Lehrbuch dcr
Pflanzenpalaeontologie (Berlin, 1899) ; Scott, Studies in Fossil Botany
(1900) ; Seward, Fossil Plants (Cambridge: vol. i., 1898) ; vol. ii. 1910,
with bibliography; Zeiller, " Revue des travaux de paleontologie
vegetale," Rev. gen. hot. (1903) et seq. Catalogue of the Mesozoic
Plants in the British Museum, (a) " Wealden Flora," pts. i. and ii. ;
(6) "Jurassic Flora," pt. i. (1894-1901), pt. ii. (1904), with biblio-
graphy; " On the Structure and Affinities of Matonia pectinata, with
Notes on the Geological History of the Matonineae," Phil. Trans.
c.Kci. (1899); " On the Structure, &c., of Dipteris," ibid.cxciv. (1901,
with bibliography; Seward and Ford, " The Araucarieae, recent and
extinct," Phil. Trans. R. Soc. (London, 1906); G. R. Wicland,
"American Fossil Cycads," Publication Carnegie Instit. (Washington,
1906); Nathorst, " Palaobotanische Mitteil.," K. Svensk. Vetenskaps.
Akad. Hand, xlii., No. 5 (1907); The Norwegian North-Polar Expedi-
tion, iii. (1893-1896); " Fossil Plants from Franz Josef Land;" L. F.
Ward, " Status of the Mesozoic Floras of the United States,"
Twentieth Ann. Rep. Geol. Survey (Washington, 1900); Solnis-
Laubach, " Ueber das Genus Pleuromeia," Bol. Zeit. (1899) ; Newton
and Teall, " Notes on a Collection of Rocks and Fossils from Franz
Josef Land," Q.J.G.S. liii. (1897); HoUick and Jeffrey, "Studies of
Cretaceous Coniferous remains," Mem. New York Botanical Garden,
vol. iii. (1909) ; Stopes and Fujii, " Structure and Affinities of
Cretaceous Plants," Phil. Trans. R. Soc. (1910). References to im-
portant papers on Mesozoic botany will be found in the biblio-
graphies mentioned in the above list. (A. C. Se.)
III. — Tertiary
After the Wealden period, and before the deposition of the
lowest strata of the Chalk, so remarkable a change takes place
in the character of the vegetation that this break
Cr^aceoas ™ust be taken as, botanicaUy, the transition point
from a Secondary to a Tertiary flora. A flora
consisting entirely, with a single doubtful exception, of
Gymnosperms and Crj'ptogams gives place to one containing
many flowering plants; and these increase so rapidly that before
long they seem to have crowded out many of the earlier types,
and to have themselves become the dominant forms. Not only
do Angiosperms suddenly become dominant in all known plant-
bearing deposits of Upper Cretaceous age, but strangely enough
the earliest found seem to belong to living orders, and commonly
have been referred to existing genera. From Cretaceous times
onwards local distribution may change; yet the successive floras
can be analysed in the same way as, and compared with, the
living floras of different regions. World-wide floras, such as seem
to characterize some of the older periods, have ceased to be, and
plants are distributed more markedly according to geographical
provinces and in climatic zones. This being the case, it will be
most convenient to discuss the Tertiary floras in successive
order of appearance, since the main interest no longer lies in
the occurrence of strange extinct plants or of transitional forms
connecting orders now completely isolated.
The accurate correlation in time of the various scattered plant-
bearing deposits is a matter of considerable difiiculty, for plant-
remains are preserved principally in lacustrine strata laid down
in separate basins of small extent. This it is obvious must
commonly be the case, as most leaves and fruits are not calcu-
lated to drift far in the sea without injury or in abundance; nor
are they hkely as a rule to be associated with marine organisms.
Deposits containing marine fossils can be compared even when
widely separated, for the ocean is continuous and many marine
species are world-wide. Plants, on the other hand, hke land
and fresh-water animals, occupied areas which may or may not
have been continuous. Therefore, without a knowledge of the
physical geography of any particular period, we cannot know
whether like or unlike floras might be expected in neighbouring
areas during that period. If, however, we discover plant-
bearing strata interstratified with deposits containing marine
fossils, we can fix the period to which the plants belong, and may
be able to correlate them in distinct areas, even though the
floras be unlike. This clear stratigraphical evidence is, however,
so rarely found that much uncertainty still remains as to the
true age of several of the floras now to be described.
In rocks approximately equivalent to the Lower Greensand
of England, or slightly earlier, Angiosperms make their first
appearance; but as the only strata of this age in Britain are of
marine origin, we have to turn to other countries for the evidence.
The earliest Angiosperm yet found in Europe is a single mono-
cotyledonous leaf of doubtful affinities, named by Saporta
Alismacites primaevus (fig. 1), and found in the Valenginian
strata of Portugal. These deposits seem
to be equivalent to British Wealden rocks,
though in the latter, even in their upper
part, no trace of Angiosperms has been
discovered. No other undoubted Angio-
sperm has yet been discovered in Europe
in strata of this age, but Heer records a
poplar-like leaf from Urgonian strata, a
stage newer than the Valenginian, in
Greenland, and Saporta has described from
strata of the same date in Portugal a
Euphorbiaceous plant apparently closely
aUied to the hving Phyllanthus and named
by him Chofatia Francheti (fig. 2). We
must turn to North America for a fuller
knowledge of the earlist flowering-plants.
In S. Dakota a remarkable series has been discovered, lying
unmistakably between marine Upper Jurassic rocks below and
LIpper Cretaceous above. There has been a certain
amount of confusion as to the exact strata in which
Fig. I. — Alismacites
primaevus.
American
Cretaceous,
the plants occur, but this has now been cleared up
by the researches of Lester F. Ward, who has shown how the
Secondary flora gives place to one of Tertiary character.
The lower strata — i.e. those most allied to the Jurassic — contain
only Gymnosperms and Cr>-ptogaras. The next division (Dakota
No. 2 of Meek and Hayden)
contains Gymnosperms and Ferns
of Neocomian types, or even of
Neocomian species; but mingled
with these occur a few dicotyle-
donous leaves belonging to four
genera. The specimens are very
fragmentary, and all that can be
said is that one of the forms may
be allied to oak, another to fig, a
third to Sapindus, and the fourth
may perhaps be near to elm. The
" Potomac Formation " of Virginia
and Maryland is doubtless also
mainly of Neocomian age, for
though it rests unconformably on
much older strata, the successive
floras found in it are so allied to
those of S. Dakota as to leave little
doubt as to the general homotaxis
of the series. Lester Ward re-
cords no fewer than 737 distinct
forms, consisting chiefly of Ferns,
Cycads, Conifers and Dicotyledons,
the Ferns and Cycads being con- „, _ . _ , .
fined mainly to the Older Potomac,_ FiG. 2.—Choffatta Francheti.
while the Dicotyledons are principally represented in the Newer
Potomac, though occurring more rarely even down to the base of
the series. Six successive stages have been defined in the Potomac
formation. The Mount Vernon beds, w-hich occur about the middle
of the series, have as yet yielded only a small number of species,
though these include the most interesting early Angiosperms.
Among them are recorded a Casuarina, a leaf of Sagitlaria (which
however, as observed by Zeiller, may belong to Smilax), two species
of poplar-like leaves with remarkably cordate bases, Menispermites
(possibly a water-lily) and Celastrophyllum (perhaps allied to
Celastrus). Proteophyllum, found in the same bed, and also in the
Infra-Cretaceous of Portugal, seems to have belonged to a Protea-
ccous plant, though only leaves without fruits have yet been
discovered in deposits of this early date. Whatever doubt may be
left as to the exact botanical position of these early Lower Cretaceous
Angiosperms, it is clear that both Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons
are represented by several types of leaves, and that the flora ex-
tended over wide areas in North America and Greenland, and is
found again at a few points in Europe. There is yet no clear
evidence either of climatic zones or of the existence of geographical
provinces during this period.
The next strata, the Aquila Creek series, contain a well-marked
dicotyledonous flora, in which both the form and nervation of the
leaves begin to approximate to those of recent times. The leading
characteristic of this Middle Potomac flora is the proportion of
Dicotyledons. Notwithstanding this apparent passage-bed, there
is a marked difference between the Older and the Newer Potomac
floras, very few species passing from the one to the other. Only
15 out of 405 plants in the older series occur in the beds above,
TERTIARY]
PALAEOBOTANY
551
though already more than 350 species have Deen determined from
this newer series. The plants from the Amboy Clays, which form
the most important division of the Newer Potomac series and were
monographed in i«95 by J. S. Newberry, seem to belong to the com-
mencement of the Upper Cretaceous period. It is remarkable
that nearly 80% of the species are Dicotyledons, and that no
Monocotyledons have been found. The mere enumeration of the
genera will indicate how close the flowering plants are to living
forms. Newberry records Juglans, Myrica (7 species), Fopulus,
Salix (5 species), Quercus, Planera, Ficus (3 species), Persoonia
and another extinct Proteaceous genus named Proteoides, Magnolia
(7 species), Liriodendron (4 species), Menispermites, Laurus and
allied plants, Sassafras (3 species), Cinnamomum, Prunus, Hymenaea,
Dalbergia, Bauhinia, Caesalpinia, Fontainea, Colutea and other
Lcguminosae, Hex, Celastrus, Celastrophyllum (10 species), Acer.
Rhamniles, Paliuriis, Cissites, TiUaephyilum, Passiflora, Eucalyptus
(5 species), lledera, Aralia (8 species), Cornophyllum, Andromeda
(4 species), Myrsine, Sapolacites, Diospyros, Acerates, Viburnum
and various genera of uncertain affinities. The points that suggest
themselves with regard to this flora are, that it includes a fair
representation of the existing orders of warm-temperate deciduous
trees; that the more primitive types — such as the Amentaceae — do
not appear to preponderate to a greater extent than they do in the
existing temperate flora; that the assemblage somewhat suggests
American affinities; and that when we take into account deficient
collecting, local conditions, and the non-preservation of succulent
plants, there is no reason for saying that certain other orders must
have been absent. The great rarity of Monocotyledons is a common
characteristic of fossil floras known only, as this one is, from leaves
principally belonging to deciduous trees. With regard to suggested
American affinities, it must be borne in mind that the Neocomian
Angiosperms are little known except in America and in Greenland,
and that we therefore cannot yet say whether families now mainly
American were not formerly of world-wide distribution. We
know that this was the case with some, such as Liriodendron; and
in Eucalyptus we see the converse, where a genus formerly American
is now confined to a far distant region. The Neocomian flora has
been collected from an area extending over about 30° of latitude;
but there is little evidence of any corresponding climatic change.
We cannot yet say, however, that the deposits are exactly con-
temporaneous, and the great climatic variations that have taken
place in the northern hemisphere during the existence of our living
flora should make us hesitate to correlate too minutely from the
evidence of plants alone.
The highest division of the Dakota series (known as Dakota
No. i) which lies immediately beneath Upper Cretaceous strata
with marine fossils, contains a flora so like that of the Tertiary
deposits that only the clearest geological evidence has been con-
sidered sufficient to prove that Heer was wrong when he spoke of
the plants as Miocene. These highest plant-bearing strata rest,
according to Lester Ward, somewhat unconformably on the Dakota
No. 2; they show also a marked difference in the included plants.
The genera of Dicotyledons represented are Quercus, Sassafras,
Platanus, Celastrophyllum, Cissites, Viburnites.
In the central parts of North America the lacustrine plant-bearing
deposits are of enormous thickness, the Dakota scries being followed
by marine Cretaceous strata known as the Colorado and Montana
groups, and these .being succeeded conformably by a thousand feet
or more of lacustrine shales, sandstones and coal-seams, belonging
to the Laramie series. This also contains occasional marine Upper
Cretaceous fossils, as well as reptiles of Cretaceous types. An
extensive literature has grown up relating to these Laramie strata,
for owing to the Tertiary aspect of the contained plants, geologists
were slow to recognize that they could be truly contemporaneous
and interbedded with others yielding Cretaceous animals. In
addition to this, the earlier writers included in the Laramie series
many deposits now known to be of later date and truly Tertiary,
and the process of separation is even now only partially completed.
It will be safest in these circumstances to accept as our guide to
the true Laramie flora the carefully compiled " Catalogue " of
F. H. Knowlton. According to this catalogue, the true Laramie
flora includes about 250 species, more than half of which are
deciduous forest trees, herbaceous Dicotyledons, Monocotyledons
and Cryptogams, all being but poorly represented. Among the
few Monocotyledons are leaves and fruits of palms, and traces of
grasses and sedges. The Dicotyledons include several water-lilies,
a somewhat doubtful Trapa, and many genera of forest trees still
common in America. The genera best represented are Ficus
(21 species), Quercus (16 species), Poptilus (11 species), Rhamnus
(9 species), Platanus (8 species). Viburnum (7 species). Magnolia
(6 species), Cornus (5 species), Cinnamomum (5 species), Juglans
(4 species), Acer (4 species), Salix (4 species), Aralia (3 species),
Rhus (3 species). Sequoia (3 species). Of trees now extinct in
America, Eucalyptus and Ginkgo are perhaps the most noticeable.
So large a proportion of the trees still belongs to the flora of North
America that one is apt to overlook the fact that among the more
specialized plants some of the largest American orders, such as the
Compositae, are still missing from strata belonging to the Cretaceous
period.
The imjjerfection and want of continuity of the records in
Europe have made it necessary in dealing with the Cretaceous
floras for us to give the first place lo America. But
it is now advisable to return to Europe, where crvtac'ous.
Upper Cretaceous [)lants are not uncommon, and
the position of the deposits in the Cretaceous series can often
be fixed accurately by their close association with marine strata
belonging to definite subdivisions. As these divisions of
Cretaceous time will have to be referred to more than once, it
will be useful lo tabulate them, thus showing which plant-beds
seem to be referable to each, and what are the British strata
of like age. It has not yet been found possible so closely to
correlate the strata of Europe with those of America, where
distance has allowed geographical diiferences in both fauna
and flora to come into play; therefore, beyond the references to
Lower or Upper Cretaceous, no classification of the American
Cretaceous strata has here been given. In Europe the most
commonly accepted divisions of the Cretaceous period are as
follows: —
France, &c.
Danian
Senonian
Turonian
Cenomanian
England.
Wanting
LIppcr Chalk
Middle Chalk
Lower Chalk \
Upper Green-sand '
Gault
Lower Green-sand
Albian
Aptian
Valenginian
Urgonian
Wealden Neocomian
In the continental classification the deposits from the Gault
downwards are grouped as Lower Cretaceous; but in Great
Britain there is a strong break below the Gault and none above;
and the Gault is therefore classed as Upper Cretaceous. The
limits of the divisions in other places do not correspond, the
British and continental strata often being so unlike that it is
almost impossible to compare them. The doubt as to the exact
British equivalent of the Valenginian strata of Portugal, which
yield the earliest Dicotyledon, has already been alluded to.
The plant-bearing deposits next in age, which have yielded
Angiosperms, appear to belong to the Cenomanian, though from
Westphalia a few species belonging to the Cryptogams and
Gymnosperms, found in deposits correlated with the Gault,
have been described by Hosius and von der Marck.
In Great Britain the whole of the Upper Cretaceous strata are
of marine origin, and have yielded no land-plants beyond a few
fir-cones, drift-wood and rare Dicotyledonous leaves in the Lower '
Chalk. Most of the deposits which have yielded Angiosperms of
Cretaceous age in central Europe correspond in age with the English
Upper Chalk (Senonian), but a small Cenomanian flora has been
collected from the Unter Quader in Moravia. Heer described
from this deposit at Moletein 13 genera, of which 7 are still living,
containing 18 species, viz.: i fern, 4 Conifers, i palm, 2 figs, 1 Cred-
neria, 2 laurels, i Aralia, i Chondrophyllum (of uncertain affinities),
2 magnolias, 2 species of Myrtaceae and a species of w'alnut. Saxony
yields from strata of this period at Niederschoena 42 species, de-
scribed by Ettingshausen.
This small flora is most
remarkable, for no fewer
than 6 genera, containing
8 species, are referred to
the Proteaceae. The Cen-
omanian flora of Bohemia
is larger and equally pecu-
liar. Among the Dicotyle-
dons described by Velenov-
sky are the following : Cred-
neria (5 species), Araliaceae
(17 species), Proteaceae (8
species), Myrica (2 species),
Ficus (5 species), Quercus
(2 species), Magnoliaceae
(5 species), Bombaceae
(3 species), Laurineae
(2 species), Ebenaceae
(2 species), Verbenaceae,
Combretaceae, Sapindaceae
(2 species), Camelliaceae,
Ampclideae, Minioseae, pjg j. — Credneria Iriacuminata.
Caesalpinieae (5 species),
Eucalyptus (2 species), Pisonia, Pkillyrea, Rhus, Prunus, Bignoma,
552
PALAEOBOTANY
[TERTIARY
Laurus, Salix, Benthamia. To this list Bayer adds Aristotochia.
The Cenomanian flora of central Europe appears to be a sub-
tropical one, with marked approaches to the living flora of Australia.
The majority of its Dicotyledons belong to existing genera, but
one of the most prolific and characteristic Cretaceous forms is Cred-
neria (Fig. 3), a genus of doubtful affinities, which has been compared
by different authors to the poplars, planes, limes and other orders.
The Cretaceous plant-beds of Westphalia include both Upper
and Lower Senonian, the two floras being very distinct. Hosius
and von der Marck describe, for instance, 12 species of oak from
the Upper and 6 from the Lower strata, but no species is common
to the two. The same occurs with the figs, with 3 species above
and 8 below. The 6 species of Credneria are all confined to the older
deposits. In fact, not a single Dicotyledon is common to these
two closely allied divisions of the Cretaceous series; a circumstance
not easy to explain, when we see how well the oaks and figs are
represented in each. Four species of Dewalqiiea, a ranunculaceous
genus allied to the hellebore, make their appearance in the Upper
Senonian of Westphalia, other species occurring at Aix-la-Chapelle
in deposits of about the same age. The Senonian flora of the last-
named place, and that of Maestricht, are still only imperfectly
known. It is unnecessary to trace the variations of the Upper
Cretaceous flora from point to point ; but the discoveries within
the Arctic circle have been so surprising that attention must again
be called to them. Besides the Lower Cretaceous plants already
mentioned, Heer has described from Greenland a flora of Ceno-
manian age, and another belonging to the Senonian. The Ceno-
manian strata have yielded already 177 species, the different
groups being represented in these proportions: Cryptogams, 37, 30
of which are Ferns ; Cycads, 8 ; Conifers, 27 ; Monocotyledons, 8 ; Ape-
talous Dicotyledons, 31 ; other Dicotyledons, 66. The Senonian strata
have yielded 118 species, 21 of which are Cryptogams, 11 Conifers,
5 Monocotyledons, 75 Dicotyledons. Forest trees, especially oaks,
are plentiful, and many of the species are identical with those found
in Cretaceous deposits in more southern latitudes. Both of these
floras suggest, however, that the climate of Greenland was some-
what colder than that of Westphalia, though scarcely colder than
warm-temperate.
The Cretaceous deposits just described are followed by a series
of Tertiary formations, but in Europe the continuity between
Cretaceous and Tertiary is not quite complete. The Tertiary
formations have been assigned to six periods; these are termed —
Paleocene, Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene, Pliocene, Pleistocene,
and each has its own botanical peculiarities.
During the Paleocene period the plants were not markedly
different from those of the Upper Cretaceous. Its flora is still
but imperfectly known, for we are dependent on two
or three localities for the plants. There is found at
Sezanne, about 60 m. east of Paris, an isolated
deposit of calcareous tufa full of leaves, which gives a curious
insight into the vegetation which flourished in Paleocene times
around a waterfall. Sezanne yields Ferns in profusion, mingled
with other shade-loving plants such as would grow under the
trees in a moist ravine; its vegetation is comparable to that of
an island in the tropical seas. Monocotyledons are rare, the
only ones of much interest being some fragments of pandanaceous
leaves. The absence of Gymnosperms is noticeable. The
Proteaceae are also missing; but other Dicotyledons occur in
profusion, many of them being remarkable for the large size
of their deciduous leaves. Among the flowering plants are
Dewalquea, a ranunculaceous genus already mentioned as
occurring in the Upper Cretaceous, and numerous living genera
of forest-trees, such as occur throughout the Tertiary period,
and are readily comparable with living forms. Saporta has
described about seventy Dicotyledons, most of which are peculiar
to this locality.
The plant-bearing marls of Gelinden, near Liege, contain the
debris of a Paleocene forest. The trees seemed to have flourished
on neighbouring chalky heights. The most abundant species of
this forest were the oaks and chestnuts, of which a dozen have
been collected; laurels. Viburnum, ivy, several Aralias, Dewalquea,
a Thuja and several Ferns may be added. This flora is compared
by Saporta and Marion with that of southern Japan. Other de-
posits of this age in France have furnished plants of a more varied
aspect, including myrtles, araucarias, a bamboo and several fan-
leaved palms. Saporta points out the presence in these Paleocene
deposits of certain types common, on the one hand, to the American
Tertiary strata between the Missouri and the Rocky Mountains,
and on the other, to the Tertiary flora of Greenland. The Paleocene
deposits of Great Britain are of marine origin, and only yield pine-
cones and fragments of Osmunda.
Paleocene
Plants.
The British Eocene and Oligocene strata yield so large a flora,
and contain plant-beds belonging to so many different stages,
that it is unfortunate we have still no monograph
on the subject, the one commenced by Ettingshausen Eocene and
and Gardner in 1879 having reached no farther than ^"^rJat"
the Ferns and Gymnosperms. This deficiency Britain.
makes it impossible to deal adequately with the
British Eocene plants, most of the material being either
unpublished or needing re-examination.
In the earliest Eocene plant-beds, in the Woolwich and Reading
series, a small but interesting flora is found, which suggests a tem-
perate cHmate less warm than that of earlier or of later periods.
Leaves of planes are abundant, and among the plants recorded are
two figs, a laurel, a Robinia, a Grevillea and a palm. Ferns are scarce,
Ettingshausen and Gardner recording only Aneimia subcrelacea and
Pteris (?) Prestwichii. The only Gymnosperms determined are
Libocedrus adpressa, which is close to L. decurrens of the Yosemite,
and Taxodium europaeum. A few plants have been found in the
next stage, the Oldhaven beds, and among these are fig and
cinnamon. Gardner considers the plants to point to subtropical
conditions. The London Clay has yielded a large number of plants,
but most of the species are represented by fruits alone, not by
leaves. This circumstance makes it difficult to compare the flora
with that of other formations, for not only is it uncertain which
leaves and fruits belong to the same plant, but there is the additional
source of doubt, that different elements of the same flora may be
represented at different localities. Of some plants only the de-
ciduous leaves are likely to be preserved, whilst other succulent-
leaved forms will only be known from their woody fruits. Among
the 200 plants of the London Clay are no Ferns, but 6 genera of
Gymnosperms — viz. Callitris (2 species). Sequoia, Athrotaxis (?)
Ginkgo, Podocarpus, Pinus; and several genera of palms, of which
the tropical Nipa is the most abundant and most characteristic,
among the others being fan-palms of the genera Sabal and Chamae-
rops. The Dicotyledons need further study. Among the fruits
Ettingshausen records Quercus, Liquidambar, Laurus, Nyssa,
Diospyros, Symplocos, Magnolia, Victoria, Hightea, Sapindus,
Cupania, Eugenia, Eucalyptus, Amygdalus; he suggests that the
fruits of the London Clay of Sheppey may belong to the same
plants as the leaves found at Alum Bay in the Isle of Wight.
The next stage is represented by the Lower Bagshot leaf-beds
of Alum Bay. These pipeclays yield a varied flora, Ettingshausen
recording 274 species, belonging to 116 genera and 63 families.
Gardner, however, is unable to reconcile this estimated richness
with our knowledge of the flora, and surmises that fossil plants
from other localities must have been inadvertently included. He
considers the flora to be the most tropical of any that has so far
been studied in the northern hemisphere. Its most conspicuous
plants are Ficus Boiverbankii, Aralia primigenia, Comptonia
aciitiloba, Dryandra Bunburyi, Cassia Ungeri and the fruits of
Caesalpinia. The floras which it chiefly resembles are first, that
of Monte Bolca, and second, that of the Gres du Soissonais, which
latter Gardner thinks may be of the same age, and not earlier, as
is generally supposed. The total number of species found at Alum
Bay, according to this author, is only about 50 or 60.
To the Bagshot Sand succeeds the thick mass of sands with
intercalated plant-beds seen in Bournemouth cliffs. Each bed
yields peculiar forms, the total number of species amounting to
many hundred, most of them differing from those occurring in the
strata below. The plants suggest a comparison of the climate
and forests with those of the Malay Archipelago and tropical
America. At one place we find drifted fruits of Nipa, at another
Hightea and Anona. Other beds yield principally palms, willows,
laurels. Eucalyptus or Ferns; but there are no Cycads. As showing
the richness of this flora, we may mention that in the only orders
which have yet been monographed. Ferns are represented by 17
species and Gymnosperms by 10, though these are not the groups
best represented. Gardner speaks of the Bournemouth flora as
appearing to consist principally of trees or hard-wooded shrubs,
comparatively few remains of the herbaceous vegetation being
preserved. The higher Eocene strata of England — those above the
Bournemouth Beds — are of marine origin, and yield only drifted
fruits, principally fir-cones.
In the volcanic districts of the south-west of Scotland and the
north-east of Ireland plant-beds are found intercalated between
the lava-flows. These also, like the lignites of Bovey Tracey,
have been referred to the Miocene period, on the supposed evidence
of the plants; but more recent discoveries by Gardner tend to
throw doubt on this allocation, and suggest that, though of various
ages, the first-formed of these deposits may date back to early Eocene
times. The flora found in Mull points distinctly to temperate
conditions; but it is not yet clear whether this indicates a different
period from the subtropical flora of the south of England, or whether
the difference depends on latitude or local conditions. The plants
include a Fern, Onoclea hebridica, close to a living American form;
four Gymnosperms belonging to the genera Cryptomeria, Ginkgo,
TERTIARY]
PALAEOBOTANY
553
Fig. 4. — MacCiin-
tockia trinervata.
Taxus and Podocarpus; Dicotyledons of about 30 species, several
of which have been figured. Among the Dicotyledons may be
mentioned Platunus, Acer (?), Quercus (?),
Viburnum, Alnus, Magnolia, Corylus (?),
Castanea (?), Zizyphus, Fopulus and the nettle-
like Boehmeria anliqua. The absence if the
so-called cinnamon-leaves and the Smilaceae,
which always enter into the composition of
Middle Eocene and Oligocene floras, is notice-
able. The Irish strata yield two ferns; 7
Gymnosperms, Cupressus, Cryptomeria, Taxus,
Podocarpus, Pinus (2 species), Tsuga; and
leaves of about 25 Dicotyledons. The most
abundant leaf, according to Gardner, docs not
seem distinct from Celastrophyllum Benedeni,
of the Paleocene strata of Cielinden ; a water-
lily, Nelumbiimi Buchii, occurs also in Oligo-
cene beds on the Continent ; the species of
MacClintockia (fig. 4) is found both in the
Arctic floras and at Gelinden. Among the
other plants are an alder, an oak and a
doubtful cinnamon.
Leaving tl.ese Scottisli and Irish deposits
of doubtful age, we find in the Hampshire
Basin a thick series of fluviatile, lacustrine
and marine deposits undoubtedly of Lower
and Middle Oligocene date. Their flora is
still a singularly poor one, though plants have
been obtained at many different levels; they
perhaps indicate a somewhat cooler climate
than that of the Bournemouth series. Among
the more abundant plants are nucules cf
several species of Chara, and drifted fruits
and seeds of water-lilies, of Folliculites (now
generally referred to Straliotes) and of Limiio-
carpus (allied to Potamogeton) ; there is little
else mixed with these. Other seams are full
of the twigs and cones of Athrotaxis, a Conifer
now confined to Tasmania. Ferns are repre-
sented by Gleichenia, Lygodium and Cliryso-
dium Lanzaeanum, which last has a very wide
range in time ; Monocotyledons, by a Sabal
and a feather-palm, as well as by the two aquatic genera abo\e
mentioned; Gymnosperms. by the extinct araucarian genus Dolio-
strobus, by rare pine-cones, and by Athrotaxis. Dicotyledonous
leaves are not plentiful, the genera recorded being Andromeda,
Cinnaniomum, Zizyphus, Rhus, Viburnum.
The lignite deposits and pipe-clays of Bovey Tracey in Devon,
referred by Heer and Pengell>' to the Miocene period, were con-
sidered by Gardner to be of the same age as the Bournemouth beds
(Middle Eocene). Recent researches show, however, that Heer's
view was more nearly correct. The flora of Bovey is like that of
the lignite of the Wetterau, which is either highest Oligocene or
lowest Miocene. Several species of Nyssa are common to the
two districts, as are a climbing palm, two vines, a magnolia, &c.
The common tree at Bovey is Sequoia Couttsiae, which probably
grew in profusion in the sheltered valleys of Dartmoor, close to
the lake. Above these strata in Great Britain there is a complete
break, no species of plant ranging upwards into the next fossiliferous
division.
Space will not allow us to deal with the numerous scattered
deposits which have yielded Tertiary plants. It will be more to
the purpose to take distant areas, where the order of the strata
is clear, and compare the succession of the floras with
sTher" '•^^'- met, with in other geographical regions and in
France. other latitudes. For this study it will be most
convenient to take next south and central France,
for in that area can be found a series of plant-bearing strata in
which is preserved a nearly continuous history of the vegetation
from Upper Eocene down to Pliocene. The account is taken
mainly from the writings of Saporta.
The gypsum-deposit of Upper Eocene date at Aix in Provence
commences this series, and is remarkable for the variety and perfect
preservation of its organic remains. Among its Gymnosperms are
numerous Cupressineae of African affinity belonging to the genera
Callitris and Widdringtonia, and a juniper close to one indigenous
in Greece. Fan-palms, several species of dragon-tree and a banana,
like one living in Abyssinia, represent the more peculiar Mono-
cotyledons. Among the noticeable Dicotyledons are the Myricaceae,
Proteaceae, Laurineae, Bonibax, the Judas-tree, Acacia, Ailanthus,
while the most plentiful forms are the Araliaceae. Willows and
poplars, with a few other plants of more temperate regions, are
found rarely at Aix, and seemingly point to casual introduction
from surrounding mountains. In a general way, spiny plants,
with stiff branches and dry and coriaceous leaves, dominate the
flora, as they now do in Central Africa, to which region on the whole
Saporta considers the flora to be most allied.
The succeeding Oligocene flora appears to be more characterized
by a gradual replai( ment of the Eocene species by allied fcrms,
than by any marked change in the assemblage or in the climatic
conditions. It forms a perfectly gradual transition to the still newer
Miocene period, the newer sjiecies slowly appearing and increasing
in nuiTiber. Saporta considers that in central and southern
Europe the alternate dry and moist heat of the Eocene period
gave place to a climate more equally and more universally humid,
and that these conditions continued without material change into
the succeeding Miocene stage. Among the t> pes of vegetation
which make their appearance in Eurcpe during the Oligocene
period may be mentioned the Conifers Libocedrus salicornioides,
several species of Chamaecyparis and Heguoia, Taxodium dislichum
and Clyptostrobus europaeus. The palms iiuhide Sabal haeringiana,
S. major and Flabellaria. Among the Myricaceae several species of
Comptonia are common. These new-comers are all of American
type. Aquatic plants, especially water-lilies, are abundant and
varied ; the soil-dry Callitris and Widdringtonia become scarce.
Though we do not propose to deal with the other European
localities for Eocene and Oligocene plants, there is one district
to which attention should be drawn, on account of
the exceptional stale of preservation of the specimens. Amber"
On the Baltic shores of Prussia there is found a
quantity of amber, containing remains of insects and plants.
This is derived from strata of Oligocene age, and is particularly
valuable because it preserves perfectly various soft parts of the
plants, which are usually lost in fossil specimens. The tissues,
in fact, are preserved just as they would be in Canada balsam.
The amber yields such things as fallen flowers, perfect catkins
of oak, pollen grains and fungi. It enables us to determine
accurately orders and genera which otherwise are unknown in
the fossil state, and it thus aids us in forming a truer idea of the
flora of the period than can be formed at any locality where the
harder parts alone are recognizable. No doubt this amber
flora is still imperfectly known, but it is valuable as giving a
good idea of the vegetation, during Ohgocene times, of a mixed
wood of pine and oak, in which there is a mixture of herbaceous
and woody plants, such as would now be found under similar
conditions.
The plants of which the floral organs or perfect fruits are pre-
served include the amber-bearing Pinus succinifera, Smilax,
Phoenix, the spike of an aroid, 11 species of oak, 2 of chestnut,
a beech, Urticaceae, 2 cinnamons and Trianthera among the
Lauraceae, representatives of the Cistaceae, Ternstroemiaceae,
Dilleniaceae (3 species of Hibbertia), Geraniaceae {Geranium and
Erodium), Oxalidaceae, Acer, Celastraceae, Olacaceae, Pittosporateae,
Ilex (2 species), Euphorbiaceae, Umbelliferae {Chaerophyllum),
Saxifragaceae (3 genera), Hamamelidaceae, Rosaceae, Connaraceae,
Ericaceae (Andromeda and Clethra), Myrsinaceae (3 species),
Rubiaceae, Sambucus (2 species), Santalaceae, Loranthaceae (3
species). We here discover for the first time various living families
and genera, but there is still a noticeable absence of many of our
most prolific existing groups. Whether this deficiency is accidental
or real time will show.
The Miocene flora, which succeeds to that just described, is
well represented in Europe; but till recently there has been an
unfortunate tendency to refer Tertiary floras of all „
dates to the Miocene period, unless the geological
position of the strata was so clear as obviously to forbid this
assignment. Thus plant-beds in the basalt of Scotland and
Ireland were called Miocene; and in the Arctic regions and in
North America even plant-beds of Upper Cretaceous age were
referred to the same period. The reason for this was that some
of the first Tertiary floras to be examined were certainly Miocene,
and, when these plants had been studied, it was considered that
somewhat similar assemblages found elsewhere in deposits of
doubtful geological age must also be Miocene. For a long time
it was not recognized that changes in the marine fauna, on which
our geological classification mainly depends, correspond scarcely
at all with changes in the land plants. It was not suspected,
or the fact was ignored, that the break between Cretaceous and
Tertiary — made so conspicuous by striking changes in the
aquatic animals — had little or no importance in botanical
history. It was not realized that an Upper Cretaceous flora
needed critical examination to distinguish it from one of Miocene
age, and that the two periods were not characterized by a
XX. 18 a
554
PALAEOBOTANY
[TERTIARY
sweeping change of generic type, such as took place among the
marine invertebrates. It may appear absurd to a geologist that
any one could mistake a Cretaceous flora for one of Miocene
date, since the marine animals are completely different and the
differences are striking. In the case of the plants, however, the
Tertiary generic types in large part appeared in Upper Cretaceous
times. Few or no extinct types are to be found in these older
strata — there is nothing among the plants equivalent to the
unmistakably extinct Ammonites, Bclcmnites, and a hundred
other groups, and we only meet with constant variations in the
same genus or family, these variations having seldom any obvious
relation to phylogeny.
The Miocene period is unrepresented by any deposits in Great
Britain, unless the Bovey lignite should belong to its earliest stage;
we will therefore commence with the best known region — that of
central Europe and especially of Switzerland, whence a prolific
flora has been collected and described by Oswald Heer. The Miocene
lacustrine deposits are contained in a number of silted-up lake-
basins, which were successively formed and obliterated during the
uprise of the Alps and the continuous folding and bending of the
earth's crust which was so striking a feature of the period. These
undulations tended to transform valleys into chains of lakes, into
which the plants and animals of the surrounding area fell or were
washed. We thus find preserved in the Upper Miocene lacustrine
deposits of Switzerland a larger flora than is known from any
other period of similar length; in fact, an analysis of its composition
suggests that the Miocene flora of Switzerland must have been
both larger and more varied than that now living in the same
country. The best known locality for the Upper Miocene plants
is Oeningen, on the Lake of Constance, where have been collected
nearly 500 species of plants, the total number of Miocene plants
found in Switzerland being stated to be now over 900. Among
the characteristics of this Miocene flora are the large number of
families represented, the marked increase in the deciduous-leaved
plants, the gradual decrease in the number of palms and of tropical
plants, and the replacement of these latter by Mediterranean or
North American forms. According to Heer, the tropical forms
in the Swiss Miocene agree rather with Asiatic types, while the
subtropical and temperate plants are allied to forms now living in
the temperate zone in North America. Of the 920 species described
by Heer, 114 are Cryptogams and 806 flowering plants. Mosses
are extremely rare, Heer only describing 3 species. Vascular
Cryptogams still include one or two large horsetails with stems
over an inch thick, and also 37 species of Fern, amongst the most
interesting of which are 5 species belonging to the climbing Lygo-
dium, a genus now living in Java. The number of Ferns is just
equal to that now found in Switzerland. Cycads are only repre-
sented by fragments of two species, and this seems to be the last
appearance of Cycads in Europe. The Coniferae include no fewer
than 94 species of Cupressineae and 17 of Abieliyieae, including
several species of Sequoia. Monocotyledons form one-sixth of the
known Miocene flora, 25 of them being grasses and 39 sedges; but
most of these need further study, and are very insufficiently char-
acterized. Heer records one species of rice and four of millet.
Most of the other Monocotyledons call for little remark, though
among them is an Iris, a Bromelia and a ginger. Smilax, as in
earlier times, was common. Palms, referred to 11 species, are
found, though they seem to have decreased in abundance; of them
7 are fan-palms, the others including Phoenicitcs — a form allied
to the date — and a trailing palm, Calamopsis, allied to the canes
and rattans. Among the Dicotyledons, the Leguniinosae take the
first place with 131 species, including 'Acacia, Caesalpinia and
Cassia, each represented by several forms. The occurrence of 90
species of Amentaceae shows that, as the climate became less
tropical, the relative proportion of this group to the total flora
increased. Evergreen oaks are a marked characteristic of the
period, more than half the Swiss species being allied to living
American forms. Fig-trees referred to 17 species occur, all with
undivided leathery leaves; one is close to the banyan, another to
the indiarubber-tree. The Laurineae were plentiful, and include
various true laurels, camphor-trees, cinnamon, Persea and Sassafras.
The Proteaceae, according to Heer, are still common, the Australian
genera Hakea, Dryandra, Grevilka and Banksia, being represented.
Amongst gamopetalous plants several of our largest living families,
including Campantdaceae, Labiatae, Solanaceae and Primulaceae,
are still missing; and of Boragineae, Scrophidarineae, Genlianeae
and Caprifoliaceae there are only faint and doubtful indications.
The Compositae are represented by isolated fruits of various species.
Twining lianas are met with in a species of Bignonia; Utnbeltiferae
Ranunculaceae and Cruciferae, are represented by a few fruits.
These families, however, do not appear to have had anything like
their present importance in the temperate flora, though, as they
are mainly herbaceous plants with fruits of moderate hardness,
they may have decayed and left no trace. The American Liriodendron
still flourished in Europe. Water-lilies of the genera Nymphaea
and Nelumbium occur. Maples were still plentiful, 20 species
having been described. Rosaceae are rare, Crataegus, Prunus and
Amygdalus, being the only genera recorded. It is obvious that
many of these Swiss Miocene plants will need more close study
before their specific characters, or even their generic position, can
be accepted as thoroughly made out; still, this will not affect the
general composition of the flora, with its large proportion of de-
ciduous trees and evergreens, and its noticeable deficiency in many
of our largest living families.
From Europe it will be convenient to pass to a distant region
of similar latitude, so that we may see to what extent botanical
provinces existed in Eocene and Oligocene times. It Tertiary
so happens that the interior of temperate North ofNortb
America is almost the only region outside Europe in ■'»'''"'**
which a series of plant-bearing strata give a connected history
of these periods, and in which the plants have been collected
and studied. It is unfortunately still very difficult to correlate
even approximately the strata on the two sides of the Atlantic,
and there is great doubt as to what strata belong to each division
of the Tertiary period even in different parts of North America.
This diiSculty wOI disappear as the strata become better known;
but at present each of the silted-up lakes has to be studied separ-
ately, for we cannot expect so close a correspondence in their
faunas and floras as is found in the more crowded and smaller
basins in central Europe.
Perhaps the most striking characteristic of the Tertiary floras
of North America, as distinguished from those of Europe, is the
greater continuity in their history and greater connexion with the
existing flora of the same regions. This difference is readily ex-
plained when we remember that in Europe the main barriers which
stop migration, such as the Alps and the Mediterranean, run east
and west, while in America the only barriers of any importance
run north and south. In consequence of this peculiarity, climatic
or orographic changes in Europe tend to drive animals and plants T
into a cid de sac, from which there is no escape; but in America
similar climatic waves merely cause the species alternately to retreat
and advance. This difiiculty in migration is probably the reason
why the e.xisting European flora is so poor in large-fruited trees
compared with what it was in Miocene times or with the existing
flora of North America. In America the contrast between the
Eocene forests and those now living is much less striking, and this
fact has led to the wrong assumption that the present American
flora had its origin in the American continent. Such a conclusion
is by no means warranted by the facts, for in Tertiary times, as we
have seen, the European flora had a distinctly " American " facies.
Therefore the so-called American forms may have originated in
the Old World, or more probably, as Saporta suggests, in the polar
regions, whence they were driven by the increase of cold southwards
into Europe and into America. The American Tertiary flora is
so large, and the geology of the deposits is so intricate, that it is out
of the question to discuss them more fully within the limits of this
article. We may point out, however, that the early Tertiary floras
seem to indicate a much closer connexion and a greater community
of species than is found between the existing plants of Europe and
America. Or, rather, we should perhaps say that ancient floras
suggest recent dispersal from the place of origin, and less time in
which to vary and become modified by the loss of different groups
in the two continents. Geographical provinces are certainly
indicated by the Eocene flora of Europe and America, but these are
less marked than those now existing.
If we turn to a more isolated region, like Australia, we find
a Lower Eocene flora distinctly related to the existing flora of
Australia and not to that of other continents.
Australasia had then as now a pecuhar flora of its
own, though the former wide dispersal of the Proteaceae and
Myrtaceae, and also the large number of Amentaceae then found
in Australia, make the Eocene plants of Europe and Australia
much less unlike than are the present floras.
Within the Arctic circle a large number of Tertiary plants
have been collected. These were described by Heer, who
referred them to the Miocene period; he recognized, Arctic
in fact, two periods during which Angiosperms Regions.
flourished within the Arctic regions, the one Upper
Cretaceous, the other Miocene. To this view of the Miocene
age of the plant-bearing strata in Greenland and Spitsbergen
there are serious objections, which we will again refer to when
the flora has been described.
The Tertiary flora of Greenland is of great interest, from the
extremely high latitude at which the plants flourished, thirty of
the species having been collected so far north as lat. 81°. Taking
first this most northerly locality, in Grinnell Land, we find the flora
Australia.
TERTIARY]
PALAEOBOTANY
555
Pliocene.
to comprise 2 horsetails, 1 1 Conifers (including the living Pinus
Abies), 2 grasses, a sedge, 2 poplars, a willow, 2 birches, 2 hazels,
an elm, a Viburnum, a water-lily, and a lime. Such an assemblage
at the present day would suggest a latitude quite 25^ farther south;
but it shows decidedly colder conditions than any of the European
Eocene, Oligocene, or Miocene strata. From lat. 78° in Spitsbergen
Heer records 136 species of fossil plants. More to the south, at
Disco Island in lat. 70°, the Tertiary wood seem to have been
principally composed of planes and Sequoias; but a large number
of other genera occur, the total number of plants already recorded
being 137. From various parts of Greenland they now amount
to at least 280. Among the plants from Disco, more than a quarter
are also found in the Miocene of central Europe. The plants of
Disco include, besides the plane and Sequoia, such warm-temperate
trees as Ginkgo, oak, beech, poplar, maple, walnut, lime and
magnolia. If these different deposits are contemporaneous, as is
not improbable, there is a distinct change in the flora as we move
farther from the pole, which suggests that difference of latitude then
as now was accompanied by a difference in the flora. But if this
process is continuous from latitude to latitude, then we ought not
to look for a flora of equivalent age in the warm-temperate Miocene
deposits of central Europe, but should rather expect to find that the
temperate plants of Greenland were contemporaneous with a tropical
flora in central Europe. As Mr Starkie Gardner has pointed out, it
does not seem reasonable to assume that the same flora could have
ranged then through 40° of latitude; it is more probable that an
Eocene temperate flora found in the Arctic regions travelled south-
wards as the climate became cooler, till it became the Miocene
temperate flora of central Europe. Mr Gardner suggests, therefore,
that the plant-beds of Greenland and Spitsbergen represent the
period of greatest heat, and are therefore wrongly referred to the
Miocene. At present the evidence is scarcely sufficient to decide
the question, for if this view is right, we ought to find within the
Arctic circle truly Arctic floras equivalent to the cool Lower Eocene
and Miocene periods; but these have not yet been met with.
A steady decrease of temperature marked the Pliocene period
throughout Europe, and gradually brought the climatic con-
ditions into correspondence with those now existing,
till towards the end of the period neither climate
nor physical geography differed greatly from those now existing.
Concurrently with this change, the tropical and extinct forms
disappeared, and the flora approached more and more nearly
to that now existing in the districts where the fossil plants are
found, though in the older deposits, at any rate, the geographical
distribution still differed considerably from that now met with.
At last, in the latest Pliocene strata (often called " pre-Glacial ")
we find a flora consisting almost entirely of existing species
belonging to the Palaearctic regions, and nearly all still living
in the country where the fossils are found. This flora, however,
is associated with a fauna of large mammals, the majority of
which are extinct.
The plants of the Older Pliocene period are unknown in Great
Britain, and little known throughout Europe except in central
France and the Mediterranean region. The forests of central France
during this epoch showed, according to Saporta, a singular admixture
of living European species, with trees now characteristic of the
Canary Isles and of North America. For instance, of the living
species found at Meximieux, near Lyons, one is American, eight
at least belong to the Canaries (six being characteristic of those
islands), two are Asiatic, and ten still live in Europe. Taking into
account, however, the closest living allies of the fossil plants, we
find about equal affinities with the floras of Europe, America, and
Asia. There is also a decided resemblance to the earlier Miocene
flora. Among the more interesting plants of this deposit may be
mentioned Torreya niicijera, now Japanese; an evergreen oak close
to the common Querctis Ilex; Laurus canariensis, Apollonias
canariensis, Persea carolinensis, and Ilex canariensis ; Daphne pontica
(a plant of Asia Minor) ; a species of box, scarcely differing from the
English, and a bamboo. To this epoch, or perhaps to a stage
slightly later, and not to the Newer Pliocene period, as is generally
supposed, should probably be referred the lignite deposits of the
Val d'Arno. This lignite and the accompanying leaf-bearing clays
underlie and are apparently older than the strata with Newer Pliocene
mammals and moUusca. The only mammal actually associated
with the plants appears to be a species of tapir, a genus which in
Europe seems to be characteristically Miocene and Older Pliocene.
The plants of the Val d'Arno have been described by Ristori; they
consist mainly of deciduous trees, a large proportion of which are
known Miocene and early Pliocene forms, nearly all of them being
extinct. A markedly upland character is given to the flora of this
valley through the abundance of pines (g species) and oaks (16
species) which it contains; but this peculiarity is readily accounted
for by the steep slopes of the Apennines, which everywhere surround
and dominate the old lake-basin. Among the other noticeable
plants may be mentioned Betula (3 species), Alnus (2 species),
Carpmus, Fagus (4 species), Salix (4 species), Populus (2 species),
Platanus, Liquidambar, Planera, Ulmus (2 species), Ficus (2 species),
Persoonia, Laurus (5 species), Persea, Sassafras, Cinnamomum
(5 species), Oreodaphne, Diospyros (2 species), Andromeda, Magnolia,
Acer (3 species), Sapindus, Celaslrus (2 species). Ilex (^ species),
Rkamnus (3 species), Juglans (5 species), Carya (2 species), Rhus,
Myrtus, Cralaegtis, Prunus, Cassia (3 species). These plants suggest
a colder climate than that indicated by the i)lants of Meximieux —
they might, therefore, be thought to belong to a later period. The
difference, however, is probably fully accounted for when we take
into consideration the biting winds still felt in spring in the valley
of the Arno, and the probable large admixture of plants washed
down from the mountains above. Somewhat later Pliocene deposits
in the Val d'Arno, as well as the tuffs associated with the I'liocenc
volcanoes in central France, yield plants of a more familiar type, a
considerable proportion of them still living in the Mediterranean
region, though some are only now found at distant localities, and
others are extinct. The flora, however, is essentially Palaearctic,
American and Australian types having disappeared.
A somewhat later Pliocene flora is represented by the plants
found at Tegelen, near Venloo, on the borders of the Netherlands
and Germany. This deposit is of especial interest for the light it
throws on the origin of the existing flora of Britain. The Tegelen
plants are mainly north European; but there occur others of central
and south Europe, and various exotic and extinct forms, nearly all
of which, however, belong to the Palaearctic region, though some
may now be confined to widely separated parts of it. For instance,
Pierocarya caucasica does not grow nearer than the Caucasus,
where it is associated with the wild vine — also found at Tegelen;
Magnolia Kohus is confined to the north island of Japan; another
species of Magnolia cannot be identified and may be extinct. An
extinct water-lily, Euryale limbtirgensis, belongs to a monotypic genus
now confined to Assam and China; an e.xtinct sedge, Dulichium
vespiforme, belongs to a genus only living in America, though the
only living species once flourished also in Denmark; an extinct
species of water-aloe (Stratiotes elegans) makes a third genus, repre-
sented only by a single living species, which was evidently better
represented in Pliocene times. A large proportion of the plants,
however, may still be found living in Holland and Britain; but there
is a singular scarcity of Composites, though this order is fairly well
represented in British strata of slightly later date.
The latest Pliocene, or pre-Glacial, flora of northern Europe is
best known from the Cromer Forest-bed of Norfolk and Suffolk, a
fluvio-marine deposit which lies beneath the whole of the Glacial
deposits of these counties, and passes downwards into the Crag, many
of the animals actually associated with the plants being characteristic
Pliocene species which seem immediately afterwards to have been
exterminated by the increasing cold. The plants contained in the
Cromer Forest-bed, of which about 150 species have now been
determined, fall mainly into two groups — the forest-trees, and
marsh and aquatic plants. We know little or nothing at present
of the upland plants, or of those of dry or chalky soils. Forest trees
are well represented; they are, in fact, better known than in any of
the later English deposits. We find the living British species of
Rkamnus, maple, sloe, hawthorn, apple, white-beam, guelder-rose,
cornel, elm, birch, alder, hornbeam, hazel, oak, beech, willow, yew
and pine, and also the spruce. This is an assemblage that could not
well be found under conditions differing greatly from those now-
holding in Norfolk; there is an absence of both Arctic and south
European plants. The variety of trees shows that the climate was
mild and moist. Among the herbaceous plants we find, mingled
with a number that still live in Norfolk, Hypecoum procumbens,
the water-chestnut (Trapa natans), and Najas minor, none of which
is now British.
On the Norfolk coast another thin plant-bed occurs locally above
the Forest-bed and immediately beneath the Boulder Clay. This
deposit shows no trace of forest-trees, but it is full of remains of
Arctic mosses, and of the dwarf willow and birch; in short, it yields
the flora now found within the Arctic circle.
The incoming of the Glacial epoch does not appear to have
been accompanied by any acclimatization of the plants — the
species belonging to temperate Europe were locally _.
exterminated, and Arctic forms took their places.
The same Arctic flora reappears in deposits immediately
above the highest Boulder Clay, deposits formed after the ice
had passed away. These fossil Arctic plants have now been
found as far south as Bovey Tracey in Devonshire, where Pengefly
and Heer discovered the bear-berry and dwarf birch; London,
where also Betula nana occurs; and at Deuben in Sa.xony,
which lies nearly as far south as lat. 50°, but has yielded to
Professor Nathorst's researches several Arctic species of willow
and saxifrage. The cold period, however, was not continuous,
for both in Great Britain and on the continent of Europe, as
well as in Canada, it was broken by the recurrence of a milder
556
PALAEOGRAPHY
climate and the reappearance of a flora almost identical with
that now living in the same regions. This " inter-Glacial "
flora, though so like that now found in the district, has inter-
esting peculiarities. In England, for instance, it includes Acer
moiispessidanum, a southern maple which does not now extend
nearer than central Europe, and Cotoneastcr Pyracantha; also
Najas graminca and A'', minor, both southern forms not now
native of Britain. Brasscnia peltata, a water-hly found in the
warmer regions almost throughout the world, except in Europe,
occurs abundantly in north Germany, but not in Great Britain.
Similar inter- Glacial deposits in Tirol contain leaves of Rhodo-
dendron ponticum.
Space will not permit us to enter into any full discussion of
the recurrence of Glacial and inter-Glacial periods and the
influence they may have had on the flora. It is evident, how-
ever, that if climatic alternations, such as those just described,
are part of the normal routine that has gone on through all
geological periods, and are not merely confined to the latest,
then such changes must evidently have had great influence on
the evolution and geographical distribution both of species and
of floras. Whether this was so is a question still to be decided,
for in dealing with extinct floras it is diflicult to decide, except
in the most general way, to what climatic conditions they point.
We seem to find indications of long-period climatic oscillations
in Tertiary times, but none of the sudden invasion of an Arctic
flora, like that which occurred during more recent times. It
should not be forgotten, however, that an Arctic flora is mainly
distinguishable from a temperate one by its poverty and dwarfed
vegetation, its deciduous leaves and small fruits, rather than
by the occurrence of any characteristic genera or families.
Careful and long-continued study would therefore be needed
before we could say of any extinct dwarfed flora that it included
only plants which could withstand Arctic conditions.
Authorities. — H. Conwentz, Monographie der baltischen Bern-
sleinbdume (Danzig, 1890), Die Flora des Bernsteins, vol. ii. (1886);
Sir W. Dawson, Papers on the Cretaceous Plants of British North
America, Tram. Roy. Soc. Canada (1883-1896); C. von Ettings-
hausen, " Die Kreideflora von Niederschona in Sachsen," Sitz. k.
Akad. Wiss. Wien, math.-nat. CI., vol. Iv., Abth. i. (1867); " Report
on . . . Fossil Flora of Sheppy," Proc. Roy. Soc. xxix. 388 (1879);
" Report on . . . Fossil Flora of Alum Bay," ibid. xxx. 228 (1880) ;
C. von Ettingshauscn and J. S. Gardner, " Eocene Flora," vols. i.
and ii., Palaeont. Soc. (1879-1886); W. M. Fontaine, " The Potomac
or Younger Mesozoic Flora," U.S. Geological Survey, Monograph xv.
(1889) ; J. S. Gardner, Flora of Alum Bay, in " Geology of the Isle of
Wight," Mem. Geol. Survey (2nd ed., 1889); H. R. Goeppert and
A. Menge, Die Flora des Bernsteins iind ihre Beziehungen zur Flora
der Tertidrformation und der Gegenwarl, vol. i. (Danzig, 1883);
O. Heer, Flora tertiaria Helvetiae (3 vols., Winterthur, 1855-1859);
Flora fossilis arctica (7 vols., Zurich, 1868-1883), " Beitrage zur
Kreideflora, — (i) Flora von Moletein in Mahren," Neue Denkschr.
allgem. schweiz. Gesell. Naturwiss., vol. xxiii. m6m. 22 (Zurich,
1869-1872); Primaeval World in Switzerland (2 vols., 1876); F. H.
Knowlton, " Catalogue of the Cretaceous and Tertiary Plants of
North America," Bull. U.S. Geol. Survey (No. 152, 1898), " Flora
of the Montana Formation," ibid., No. 163 (1900); Krasser, " Die
fossile Kreideflora von Kunstadt in Mahren,' Beit, palcont. Geol.
Oesterreich-Ungarns, Bd. v. Hft. 3 (1896); Leo. Lesquereux,
" Contributions to the Fossil Flora of the Western Territories,"
Rep. U.S. Geol. Survey of the Territories, vols, vi., vii., viii. (1877-
1883), " The Flora of the Dakota Group," U.S. Geological Survey,
Monograph xvii. (1891); Meschinelli and Squinabol, Flora tertiaria
ilalica (1892); this book contains a full bibliography relating to
the Fossil Flora of Italy; J. S. Newberry, "The Flora of Amboy
Clays," U.S. Geological Survey, Monograph xxvi. (1895) ; Hosius and
von der Marck, " Die Flora der westphiilischen Kreideformation,"
Palaeontographica, vol. x.\vi. (1880), and supplement in ibid. vol.
xxxi. (1883) ; A. G. Nathorst, " Glacialflora in Sachsen, am iiusserstcn
Rande des nordischen Diluviums," Kongl. Vetenskaps-Akad. Fork.,
p. 519 (1894); Clement Reid, " Pliocene Deposits of Britain," Mem.
Geol. Survey (1890), Origin 0} the British Flora (1899); C. and E. M.
Reid, " The Fossil Flora of Tcgelen-sur-Meuse, near Venloo, in the
Province of Limburg," Verh. Kon. Akad. Wetensck. Amsterdam,
2e Sect. Dl. xiii. No. 6 (1907) ; " On the Pre-Glacial Flora of Britain,"
Journ. Linn. Soc. {Botany), xx.xviii. 206-227 (1908); G. de Saporta,
" Prodrome d'une flore fossile des Travertins anciens de Suzanne,"
Mem. soc. geol. France, 2nd series, vol. viii. p. 289 (1868); " Re-
cherches sur les v6getaux fossiles de Meximieux," Archiv. Mus.
hist. nat. Lyon, i. 131 (1876); Monde des plantes avant I'apparition
de I'homme (1879) ; " Etudes sur la vegetation du sud-est de la France
k I'^poque tertiare," Ann. sci. nat. (1862-1888); Flore fossile du
Portugal (Lisbon, 1894); G. de Saporta and A. F. Marion, " Essai
sur I'etat de la vegetation a I'epoque des marnes heersiennes de
Gelinden," Mem. cour. acad. roy. betgique, vol. xxxvii. No. 6 (1873),
and vol. xli. No. 3 (1878) ; J. Velenovsky, " Die Flora der bohmischen
Kreideformation," in Beitrage zur Paleontologie Oesterreich-Ungarns
und des Orients, vols, ii.-v. (1881-1885) ; Lester F. Ward, " Synopsis
of the Flora of the Laramie Group," 6th Report U.S. Geological
Survey, pp. 399-558 (1885); "The Geographical Distribution ot
Fossil Plants," 8(/j Report U.S. Geological Survey, pp. 663-960 (1889);
" The Potomac Formation," 15//! Report U.S. Geological Survey,
pp. 307-398 (1895); " Some Analogies in the Lower Cretaceous of
Europe and America," \6th Report U.S. Geological Survey, Pt. I., pp.
462-542 (1896); " The Cretaceous Formation of the Black Hills as
indicated by the Fossil Plants," igth Report U.S. Geological
Survey, Pt. II., pp. 521-946 (1899). (C. R.)
PALAEOGRAPHY (Gr. TraXaios, ancient, and ypd<j>ew, to
write), the science of ancient handwriting acquired from study
of surviving examples. While epigraphy is the science which
deals with inscriptions (q.v.) engraved on stone or metal or other
enduring material as memorials for future ages, palaeography
takes cognisance of writings of a literary, economic, or legal
nature written generally with stile, reed or pen, on tablets, rolls
or codices. The boundary, however, between the two sciences
is not always to be exactly defined. The fact that an inscription
occurs upon a hard material in a fixed position does not neces-
sarily bring it under the head of epigraphy. Such specimens of
writing as the graffiti or wall-scribblings of Pompeii and ancient
Rome belong as much to the one science as to the other; for
they neither occupy the position of inscriptions set up with
special design as epigraphical monuments, nor are they the
movable written documents with which we connect the idea
of palaeography. But such exceptions only slightly affect the
broad distinction just specified.
The scope of this article is to trace the history of Greek and
Latin palaeography from the earliest written documents in
those languages which have survived. In Greek palaeography
we have a subject which is self-contained. The Greek charac-
ter, in its pure form, was used for one language only; but the
universal study of that language throughout Europe and the
wide diffusion of its literature have been the cause of the
accumulation of Greek MSS. in every centre of learning. The
field of Latin palaeography is much wider, for the Roman
alphabet has made its way into every country of western
Europe, and the study of its various developments and changes
is essential for a proper understanding of the character which
we write.
Handwriting, like every other art, has its different phases
of growth, perfection and decay. A particular form of writing
is gradually developed, then takes a finished or caUigraphic
style and becomes the hand of Its period, then deteriorates,
breaks up and disappears, or only drags on an artificial exis-
tence, being meanwhile superseded by another style which, either
developed from the older hand or introduced independently,
runs the same course, and in its turn is displaced by a younger
rival. Thus in the history of Greek writing we see the literary
uncial hand passing from early forms into the calhgraphic stage,
and then driven out by the minuscule, which again goes through
a series of important changes. In Latin, the literary capital
and uncial hands give place to the smaller character; and this,
after running its course and developing national characteristics
in the different countries of the West, deteriorates and is super-
seded almost universally by the Italian hand of the Renaissance.
Bearing in mind these natural ciianges, it is evident that a
style of writing, once developed, is best at the period when it
is in general use, and that the oldest examples of that period
are the simplest, in which vigour and naturalness of handwriting
are predominant. On the other hand, the fine execution of a
MS. after the best period of the style has passed cannot conceal
deterioration. The imitative nature of the calligraphy is
detected both by the general impression on the eye, and by
uncertainty and inconsistencies in the forms of letters. It is
from a failure to keep in mind the natural laws of develop-
ment and change that early dates, to which they have no
title, have been given to imitative MSS.; and, on the other
GREEK PAPYRI]
PALAEOGRAPHY
55'
hand, even very ancient examples have been post-dated in an
incredible manner.
Down to the time of the introduction of printing, writing
ran in two lines — the natural cursive, and the set book-hand
which was evolved from it. Cursive writing was essential for
the ordinary business of life. MSS. written in the set book-hand
filled the place now occupied by printed books, the writing
being regular, the lines generally kept even by ruling or other
guides, and the texts provided with regular margins. The set
book-hand disappeared before the printing press; cursive
writing necessarily remains.
In the study of handwriting it is difficult to exaggerate
the great and enduring influence which the character of the
material employed for receiving the script has had upon the
formation of the written letters. The original use of clay by
the Babylonians and Assyrians as their writing material was
the primary cause of the wedge-shaped symbols which were
produced by the natural process of puncturing so stiff and
sluggish a substance. The clinging wa.xen surface of the tablets
of the Greeks and Romans superinduced a broken and discon-
nected style of writing. The comparatively frail surface of
papyrus called for a light touch and slenderly built charac-
ters. With the introduction of the smooth and hard-surfaced
vellum, firmer and heavier letters, with marked contrasts of
fine and thick strokes, became possible, and thence became the
fashion. In the task which lies before us we shall have to deal
mainly with MSS. written on the two very different materials,
papyrus and vellum, and we shall find to how great an extent
the general character and the detailed development of Greek
and Latin writing, particularly for literary purposes, has been
affected by the two materials.
The history of the ancient papyrus roll and of its successor,
the medieval vellum codex, and the particulars of the mechanical
arrangement of texts and other details appertaining to the
evolution of the written book are described in the article
Manuscript. In the present article our attention is confined
to the history of the script.
The papyrus period of our subject, as regards literary works,
ranges generally from the end of the 4th century B.C. to the 4th
century of our era, when the papyrus roll as the vehicle for
literature was superseded by the vellum codex. The vellum
period extends from the 4th century to the 15th century, when
the rise of the art of printing was the doom of the written book.
Yet it must not be imagined that there is a hard and fast line
separating the papyrus period from the vellum period. In the
early centuries of our era there was a transitional period when
the use of the two materials overlapped. The employment
of vellum for literary purposes began tentatively quite at the
beginning of that era; nor did the use of papyrus absolutely
cease with the 4th century. But that century marks definitely
the period when the change had become generally accepted.
In the case of non-literary documents, written in cursive
hands, the papyrus period covers a still wider field. These docu-
ments range from the 3rd century B.C. down to the 7th century,
and a certain number of examples even extend into the 8th
century. The survival of cursive papyrus documents in large
numbers is due to the fact that they are chiefly written in
Egypt, where papyrus was the common writing material and
where climatic conditions ensured their preservation. On
the other hand, early cursive documents on vellum are scarce,
for it must be borne in mind that, even allowing for the loss
of such documents attributable to the perishable nature of
that material in the humid climates of Europe, papyrus and
waxen tablets were also the usual writing materials of the
Greeks and Romans. The importance of the survival of Greek
cursive papyri to so late a period is very great, for it enables
us to trace the development of the Greek literary minuscule
handwriting of the gth century in a direct line from the cursive
script of the papyri centuries earlier.
Greek Writing. I. — The Papyri
In no branch of our subject has so great a development been
effected since about 1875 as in that of the palaeography of
Greek papyri. Before that time our knowledge was very
limited. The material was comparatively meagre; and, though
its increase was certainly only a matter of time, yet the most
sanguine would hardly have dared to foretell the remarkable
abundance of documents which the excavations of a few years
would bring to light.
The history of Greek writing on papyrus can now be followed
with more or less fullness of material for a thousand years.
Actual dated examples range from the late years of the 4th
century B.C. to the 7th century a.d. We have a fair knowledge
of the leading features of the writing of the 3rd and 2nd centuries
B.C.; a less perfect acquaintance with those of the isl century
B.C. For the first four centuries of the Christian era there is
a fairly continuous series of documents; of the 5th century
only a few examples have as yet been recovered, but there is
an abundance of material for the 6th and early 7th centuries.
Thus it will be seen that, while for some periods we may be
justified in drawing certain conclusions and laying down certain
rules, for others we are still in an imperfect state of knowledge.
But our knowledge will no doubt almost yearly become more
exact, as fresh material is brought to light from the excavations
which are now continually proceeding; and those periods in
which the lack of papyri breaks the chain of evidence will sooner
or later be as fully represented as the rest. The material
certainly lies buried in the sands; it is our misfortune that the
exact sites have not yet been struck.
The first discovery of Greek papyri was made in Europe in
1752, when the excavations on the site of Herculaneum yielded
a number of charred rolls, which proved to be of a literary
character. All subsequent discoveries we owe to Egypt; and
it is to be observed that the papyri which are found in that
country have come down to us under different conditions.
Some, generally of a literary nature, w^ere carefully deposited
with the bodies of their owners in the tomb with the express
intention of being preserved; hence such MSS. in several
instances have come to our hands in fairly perfect condition.
On the other hand, by far the larger number of those recently
brought to light have been found on the sites of towns and
villages, particularly in the district of the Fayflm, where they
had been either accidentally lost or purposely thrown aside
as of no value, or had even been used up as material for other
purposes besides their original one. These are consequently for
the most part in an imperfect and even fragmentary condition,
although not a few of them have proved to be of the highest
palaeographical and literary importance.
The date of the first find of Greek papyri in Egypt was in
1778, when some forty or fifty rolls were discovered by some
native diggers, who, however, kept only one of them. After
this scarcely anything appeared until the year 1820, when was
found on the site of the Serapeum at Memphis, as it was
reported, a group of documents of the 2nd centur\- B.C. Then
followed a fruitful period, when several important literary
papyri were secured: in 1821, the Bankes Homer, containing
the last book of the Iliad; in 1847, the roll containing the
Lycophron and other orations of Hypereides; in 1849 and
1850, the Harris Homer, bk. xviii. of the Iliad, and a MS. of
bks. ii.-iv.; and, in 1856, the Funeral Oration of Hypereides.
But the great bulk of the Greek papyri from Egypt is the result
of excavations undertaken during the last quarter of the igth
century and down to the present day. Within this time four
very important discoveries of documents in large quantities
have taken place. In 1877 a great mass of papyri was found
on the site of Arsinoe in the Fayum, being chiefly of a non-
literary nature, and unfortunately in a very fragmentary .state;
they are also late in date, being of the Byzantine period. The
greater number passed into the possession of the Archduke
Rainer, and are now at Vienna; the rest are divided between
London, Oxford, Paris and Berlin. After an interval this
find was followed by the recovery in i8g2, in the same neigh-
bourhood, and chiefly on the site of a village named Socnopaei
Nesus, of an extensive series of documents of the Roman period,
558
PALAEOGRAPHY
[GREEK PAPYRI
ranging from the ist century to the middle of the 3rd century.
These papyri, being of an earlier date and in better condition
than the Arsinoite collection, are consequently of greater
palaeographical value. Most of them are now in Berlin; many
are in the British Museum; and some are at Vienna, Geneva
and elsewhere. The third and fourth great finds, and the most
important of all, were made by Messrs Grenfell and Hunt when
excavating, in the seasons 1896-1897 and 1905-1906, for the
Egypt Exploration Fund, at Behnesa, the ancient Oxyrhynchus.
Thousands of papyri were here recovered, including, among the
non-literary material, a number of rolls in good condition, and
comprising also a great store of fragments of literary works,
among which occur the now well-known " Logia," or " Sayings
of Our Lord," and fragments of the Scriptures, and in some
instances of not inconsiderable portions of the writings of
various classical authors. This great collection ranges in date
from the 2nd century B.C. to the 7th century A.D.; but in what
proportion the documents fall to the several centuries cannot
be determined until the series of volumes in which they are
to be described for the Graeco-Roman branch of the Egypt
Exploration Fund shall have made some substantial progress.
These four great collections of miscellaneous documents have
been supplemented by finds of other groups, which fit into
them and serve to make more complete the chronological
series. Such are the correspondence of a Roman officer named
Abinnaeus, of the middle of the 4th century, shared between
the British Museum and the library of Geneva in the year 1892;
a miscellaneous collection, ranging from the 2nd century B.C.
to the 3rd or 4th century A.D., acquired for the Egypt Explora-
tion Fund and published by that society {Fayum Towns and
their Papyri, 1900); another collection obtained for the same
society from the cartonnage of mummy-cases dating back to
the 3rd century B.C. {The Hiheh Papyri, 1906); and a series
recovered from excavations at Tebtunis for the University
of California {The Tebtunis Papyri, 1902, 1906), generally of
the 2nd century B.C. But of these lesser groups by far the
most interesting is that which Mr Flinders Petrie extracted, in
18S9-1890, from a set of mummy-cases found in the necropolis
of the village of Gurob in the Fayum. In the manufacture of
these coffins numbers of inscribed papyri had been employed.
The fragments thus recovered proved to be some of the most
valuable documents for the history of Greek palaeography
hitherto found, supplying us with examples of writing of the
3rd century B.C. in fairly ample numbers, and thus carrying
back our fuller knowledge of the subject to a period which up
to that time had remained almost a blank. Besides miscel-
laneous documents, there are included the remains of registers
of wills entered up from time to time by different scribes, and
thus affording a variety of handwritings for study; and, further,
the value of the collection is enhanced by the presence of
fragments of the Phaedo and Laches of Plato, and of the lost
Antiope of Euripides and of other classical works.
The last decade of the 19th century was also distinguished
by the recovery of several literary works of the first importance,
inscribed on papyri which had been deposited with the dead,
and had thus remained in a fairly perfect condition. In 1889
the trustees of the British Museum acquired a copy of the lost
'Adrjvalwv IloXtreta of Aristotle — a papyrus of the mimes
of the poet Herodas, and a portion of the oration of Hypereides
against Philippides; and in 1896 they had the further good
fortune to secure a papyrus containing considerable portions
of the odes of Bacchylides, the contemporary of Pindar. And
to the series of the orations of Hypereides the Louvre was enabled
to add, in 1892, a MS. of the greater part of the oration against
Athenogenes.
But the most valuable discovery, from a palaeographical
point of view, took place in the present century. In 1902 a
papyrus roll containing the greater portion of the Persae, a
lyrical composition of Timotheus of Miletus, was found at
Abusir, near Memphis, and is now at Berlin. It is written in
a large hand of a style which had hitherto been known from a
document at Vienna entitled the " Curse of Artemisia," and
assigned to the early part of the 3rd century B.C.; and from
one or two other insignificant scraps. The new papyrus, how-
ever, appears to be even older, and may certainly be placed
in the later years of the 4th century B.C.: the most ancient
extant literary MS. in the Greek tongue. The ascription of
this papyrus to the 4th century B.C. has received confirmation
from the welcome discovery, in 1906, at Elephantine, of a
document (a marriage contract) of the year 31 1-3 10 B.C.,
which is written in the same style of book-hand characters
{Aegypt. Urkunden d. kgl. Musecn in Berlin, Elephantine Papyri,
1907). Of quite recent date also is the recovery of a con-
siderable part of a commentary on the Thaetetus of Plato,
written in a fine uncial hand of the 2nd century, now in Berlin.
Considerable fragments also of the PaeaH^ of Pindar of the ist or
2nd century; a papyrus containing an historical work attributed
to Theopompus or Cratippus, perhaps of the early 3rd century;
a copy of Plato's Symposium of the same period; and a portion
of the Panegyricus of Isocrates, written in an uncial hand of
the 2nd century, are printed in Part V. of the Oxyrhynchus
Papyri. Further, many leaves of a papyrus codex containing
fragments of four comedies of Menander were found in 1905
at Kom Ishkaou, the ancient Aphroditopolis. The recovery
of so many great classical works within a few years may be
accepted as an earnest of further finds of the same nature, now
that excavations are being carried on systematically in Egypt.
From a study of the material thus placed at our disposal
certain conclusions have been arrived at which satisfy us that
the periodical changes which passed over the character of
Greek writing as practised in Egypt coincide pretty nearly
with the changes in the political administration of the country.
The period of the rule of the Ptolemies from 323 to 30 B.C. has,
in general, its own style of writing, which we recognize as the
Ptolemaic; the period of Roman supremacy, beginning with
the conquest of Augustus and ending with the reorganization
of the empire by Diocletian in a.d. 284, is accompanied by a
characteristic Roman hand; and with the change of administra-
tion which placed Egypt under the Byzantine division of the
empire, and lasted down to the time of the Arab conquest in
A.D. 640, there is a corresponding change to the Byzantine class
of writing. These changes must obviously be attributed to the
influence of the official handwritings of the time. A change
of government naturally led to a change of the officials employed,
and with the change of officials would naturally follow a change
in the style of production of official documents. In illustration
of this view, it is enough to call to mind the instances of such
variations to be met with in the history of the palaeography of
medieval Europe, due in the same way to political causes. It
is interesting, too, to observe that in our own time the teaching
in schools of a particular type of handwriting which finds favour
in clerical examinations for the public service has not been
without its influence on the general handwriting of the people.
Classifying, then, the writing of the papyri into the three
groups — the Ptolemaic, the Roman, and the Byzantine — the next
step is to determine, by a closer examination of the documents,
the changes which characterize the several centuries traversed
by those groups. In doing this, we cannot apply the exact
terms which are employed in describing the MSS. of the middle
ages. We have to do with writing which has not yet been cast
into the formal literary moulds of the later times; and it has
therefore been found necessary, as well as convenient, to divide
the papyri simply into two series, representative of their contents
and not of their style of production — namely literary papyri
and non-literary papyri. Neither series, however, it is to be
remembered, has a style of writing peculiar to itself. While
the extant literary works are, as a rule, written with more or
less formality, no doubt by professional scribes for the book-
market, not a few of even the more valuable of them are copies
in the ordinary cursive hands of the day. Conversely, while
we find non-literary documents generally written in ordinary
cursive hands, whether by official scribes or by private individuals,
yet occasionally we meet with one produced in the formal style
more proper to literary examples. Again, while applying to
GREEK PAPYRI]
PALAEOGRAPHY
559
particular letters in papyri such technical terms as capitals,
or uncials, or minuscules, we cannot convey by those terms the
exact ideas which we convey when thus describing the
individual letters of medieval manuscripts. For the letters
of the papyrus period were not cast in finished moulds, while
the uncial writing and the minuscule writing of the middle
ages were settled literary hands. As will presently be seen,
the early medieval uncial hand of the vellum codices de-
veloped directly from the literary writing of the papyri; the
minuscule book-hand of the 9th century was a new type moulded
from the cursive into a fixed literary style.
Necessarily, the non-literary papyri are much more numerous
than the literary documents, and present a much greater
variety of handwriting, being in fact the result of the daily trans-
actions of ordinary life; and how very widespread was the know-
ledge of writing among the Greek-speaking population of Egypt is
sufficiently testified by the surviving examples, coming as they
do from the hands of all sorts and conditions of men. We will
first examine these specimens of the current handwriting of the
day before passing to the review of the more or less artificial
book-writing of the literary papyri.
Non-Literary, Cursive, Hands. — As already stated, the oldest
material for the study of Greek cursive writing is chiefly con-
tributed by the papyri discovered at Gurob. Among them are
not only the fragments of oflicial registers, which have been
mentioned, but also a variety of miscellaneous documents
relating to private affairs, and in various hands of the 3rd
century and early 2nd century B.C. The non-literary cursive
papyri bear actual dates ranging from 270 to 186 B.C. But
the discovery (1906) of papyri at Elephantine takes our dated
series of cursive documents back to 285-284 B.C.; and in this
collection also is the oldest dated Greek document yet found —
the marriage contract of the year 3 1 1-3 1 o B.C. , already mentioned.
In this instance, however, the writing is not cursive, but of the
literary type.
The leading characteristic of Greek cursive writing of the 3rd
century B.C. is its strength and facility. While it may not
compare with some later styles in the precise formation of
particular letters, yet' its freedom and spontaneous air lend it
a particular charm and please the eye, very much in the same
way that a scholar's practised and unconscious handwriting
of a good type is more attractive than the more exact formality
of a clerk's hand. The letters generally are widely spread and
shallow, and, particularly in the official hands, they are linked
together with horizontal connecting strokes to such an extent that
the text has almost the appearance of depending from a continuous
horizontal line. The extreme shallowness or flatness of many
of the letters is very striking. A significant indication of the
antiquity of Greek cursive writing is found in connexion with
the letter alpha, which is, even at this early period, in one of
its forms reduced to a mere angle or wedge.
A few lines from an official order (fig. i) of the year 250 B.C.
will serve to convey an idea of the trained cursive style of this
century: —
Fig. I. — Official Order, 250 B.C.
-i
( — Hs Toirovxov Kai. rrjs —
TtTpa Kai ilKOOTT]^
— Sets Tois drjcravpoLs eir —
— Ttrpa KM uKoaTr)s —
— ouiKov Kat Tovs (prifio —
— tx<i>payi.aafxtvo^ airoa — )
As a contrast to this excellent hand, we give a facsimile of a
section from a roughly written letter from a land steward to
his employer, of about the same date; —
Fig. 2. — Letter of a Land Steward, 3rd century B.C.
(exet 8vvis 7 txPVO-t^V^
Se Kai Trapa dvftois apra
j3as 5 Kpidoirvpuv avrov
tir-ayyeXop-tvov Kai 4>i\oTLixov
OVTOS yiVljXJKi bt KOL OTl
v&wp tKacTTOs T(jiV opwv rqv
apnreXov (j>vT€vontvr}v vpoTtpov)
Here there is none of the linking of the letters which is seen in
the other example: every letter stands distinct. But while
the individual letters are clumsily written, the same laws
govern their formation as in the other document. The shallow,
wide-spread mil, the cursive nu, the small Iheta, omikron, and
rho, are repeated. Here also is seen the tau, with its horizontal
stroke confined to the left of the vertical instead of crossing it,
and the undeveloped omega, which has the appearance of being
clipped — both forms being characteristic of the 3rd century b C.
The trained clerical hands of the 2nd century B.C. (fig. 3)
differ generally from those of the earlier century in a more
perfect and less cursive formation, the older shallow type
gradually disappearing, and the linking of letters by horizontal
strokes being less continuous. But the Ptolemaic character
marks the handwriting well through the century; and it is
only towards the close of that period and as the next century
is entered, that the hand begins to give way and to lose altogether
its linked style and the peculiar crispness of the strokes which
give it its distinctive appearance. The cursive hand in its
best style (e.g. A'^. et Extr. pis. xxviii., xxix.) is very graceful
and exact: —
Fig. 3. — Petition, 163-162 B.C.
(d(^ vpxov T)ixiv xp'J/^aTifo/if^a
ivXajieiav irpoopcofievoiv r]pwv 8f)
Towards the end of the Ptolemaic period material greatly
fails. There are very few extant cursive documents between
the years 80 and 20 B.C. But marks of decadence already
appear in the examples of the beginning of the ist century
B.C. The general character of the writing becomes slacker,
and the forms of individual letters are less exact. These imper-
fections prepare us for the great change which was to follow.
With the Roman period comes roundness of style, in
strong contrast to the stiffness and rigid linking of the Ptolemaic
hand. Curves take the place of straight strokes in the individual
letters, and even ligatures are formed in pliant sweeps of the
pen. This transition from the stiff to the flexible finds some-
thing of a parallel in the development of the curving and flexible
English charterhand of the 14th century from the rigid hand
of the 13th century; following, it would seem, the natural law
56o
PALAEOGRAPHY
[GREEK PAPYRI
of relaxation. Roundness of style, then, is characteristic of
Greek cursive writing in the papyri of the first three centuries
of the Christian era, however much individual hands, or groups
of hands, might vary among themselves.
A specimen (fig. 4) of cursive writing of the general Roman
type is selected from a papyrus (Brit. Mus. No. cx.xxi.) which
is of more than usual interest, as it is on the verso side of the
rolls of which it is composed that the text of Aristotle's
Constitution of Athens has been transcribed. It contains the
farming accounts of the baihff of Epimachus, son of Polydeuces,
the owner of an estate in the nome of Hermopohs in the gth
and loth years of the reign of Vespasian, that is a.d. 78-79: —
2s=>Tf ^N'^/ "JQ^ >.KN «><^ ^
Fig. 4. — Farm Accounts, a.d. 78-79.
{tTOVS ivdiKO-TOV O
ovt<jTra<TLavov at^aarov —
hairavai tov fj.ijvos x —
TO 8i avTOV €Tri.)xaxov t — )
In the second half of the ist centur>- two styles of handwriting
predominate in the cursive papyri. There is the clear and
flowing hand, which may be termed the ordinary working
hand; and there is also a small and very cursive style which
appears in private correspondence and in legal contracts.
The 2nd century foUows on the same hues as the ist century;
but with the 3rd century decadence sets in; the writing begins
to slope, and grows larger and rougher and tends to exaggeration.
This exaggeration of the writing of the later Roman period
leads the way to the pedantic exaggeration and formalism
characteristic of the Byzantine period. In this period the
general style of WTiting is on a larger scale than in the Roman;
exaggeration in the size of certain letters marks the progress
of the 4th century. Material is wanting for full illustration of
the changes effected in the 5th century; but the papyri of
the 6th century show a further advance in formalism, the
common stj'le being upright and compressed and full of flour-
ishes. In the 7th century the hand assumes a sloping style,
which always seems to accompany decadence, and grows very
irregular and straggling. A specimen of the fully developed
Byzantine hand of a legal type is here shown in a few lines from
a lease of a farm (fig. 5) in the 6th century (Brit. Mus. pap.
cxiii3):—
\/^A.'
Fig. 5. — Lease of a Farm, 6th century.
( — s avToiv TOV SiKai-ov t —
— s Kai aUTT/s Kai (K toov —
— iVTiuoi iitfrq rptia Ka —
— oj Ta Trpos 77)1' KoXXiep —
— at Ttiv dtaiv TOV ir — )
In the long range covered by the Greek papyri the formation
of individual letters necessarily varied under different influences;
but in not a few instances the original shapes were remarkably
maintained. From those which thus remained conservative
it is rash to attempt to draw conclusions as to the precise age of
the several documents in which they occur. On the other
hand, there are some which at certain periods adopted shapes
which were in vogue for a Umited time and then disappeared,
never to be resumed. Such forms can very properly be regarded
as sure guides to the palaeographer in assigning dates. We may
therefore take a brief survey of the Greek cursive alphabet of the
papyri and note some of the peculiarities of individual letters.
The incipient form of the alpha which gradually developed into
the minuscule letter of the middle ages may be traced back to
the Ptolemaic documents of the 2nd century B.C., but the more
cursive letter, which was a simple acute angle, representing only
two of the three strokes of which the primitive letter was com-
posed, was characteristic of the 3rd century B.C., and seems to
have gone out of use within the Ptolemaic period. The develop-
ment of the cursive beta is interesting. At the very beginning
we find two forms in use: the primitive capital letter and a
cursive shape somewhat resembling a small n, being in fact an
imperfectly written B in which the bows are slurred. This
form lasted through the Ptolemaic period. Then arose the
natural tendency to reverse the strokes and to form the letter
on the principle of u; but still the capital letter also continued
in use, so that through the Roman and Byzantine periods the
«-shape and the B-shape run on side by side. Analogously
the letter kappa, formed on somewhat the same Unes as the
beta, runs a similar course in developing a cursive !<-shaped
form by the side of the primitive capital. Delta remained
fairly true to its primitive form until the Byzantine period,
when the elongation of the head into a flourish led on to the
minuscule letter which is familiar to us in the medieval and
modern alphabet. Epsilon, the most frequently recurring
letter in Greek texts, departs less from its original rounded
uncial foim that might have been expected. Frequent and
varied as its cursive formations are, yet the original shape is
seldom quite disguised, the variations almost in all instances
arising from the devices of the scribe to dispose swiftly and
conveniently of the cross-bar by incorporating it with the rest
of the letter. The tendency to curtail the second vertical Limb
of eta, leading eventually to the /i-shape, is in evidence from the
first. But in the development of this letter we have one of the
instances of temporary forms which lasted only within a fi.xed
period. In the ist centur>', side by side with the more usual
form, there appears a modification of it, somewhat resembhng
the contemporary upsilon, consisting of a shallow horizontal
curve with a vertical limb slightly turned in at the foot, "O.
Its development from the original H is evident: the first vertical
limb is slurred, and survives only in the beginning of the hori-
zontal curve, while the cross-bar and the second vertical are
combined in the rest of the letter. This form was in general
use from the middle of the ist to the middle of the 2nd century,
becoming less common after about a.d. 160, and practically dis-
appearing about A.D. 200. The letters formed whoUy or in part by
circles or loops, theta, omikron, rho, phi, in the earlier centuries
have such circles or loops of a small size. Just as there is an
analogy between beta and kappa in their developments, as
already noticed, so also do mu and pi advance on somewhat
similar lines. From the earliest time there is a resemblance
between the broad shaUow forms of the two letters in the 3rd
century B.C., and particularly when they adopt the form of a
convex stroke the likeness is very close; and again, in both
Roman and Byzantine periods an H-shaped development appears
among the forms of both letters. There is also one phase in
the development of sigtna which affords a useful criterion for
GREEK PAPYRI]
PALAEOGRAPHY
561
fixing the date of documents within a fixed limit of time. In
the Ptolemaic period the letter, always of the C-form,is upright,
with a flattened horizontal head; in the Roman period a tendency
sets in to curve the head, and in the course of the :st century,
by the side of the old stiffer form of the letter, another more
cursive one appears, in which the head is drawn down more
and more in a curve, C C- This form is in common use from
the latter part of the ist century to the beginning of the 3rd
century. The cursive form of iau, in which the horizontal
stroke is kept to the left of the vertical limb, without crossing
it, is one of the early shapes of the letter. The formation of
the letter Xi in three distinct horizontal strokes is characteristic
of the Ptolemaic period, as distinguished from the later type
of letter in which the bars are more or less connected. Lastly,
the early Ptolemaic form of the co-shaped omega is noticeable
from having its second curve undeveloped, the letter having the
appearance of being clipped.
Literary Hands. — Literary papyri v/ritten in book-hands,
distinct from the cursive writing which has been under considera-
tion (and in which literary works were also occasionally written),
may be divided into two classes: those which were produced by
skilled scribes, and therefore presumably for the market, and
those which were written less elegantly, but still in a literary
hand, and were probably copied by or for scholars for their
own use.
Standing at the head of all, and holding that rank as the
only literary papyrus of any extent which may be placed in
the 4th century B.C., is the famous lyrical work of Timotheus
of Miletus, entitled the Pcrsae, which has already been referred
to and of which a section of a few lines is here reproduced: —
^< r* M<»rNrAArAArrt
AAM ZX TAA A-AAHPAT
rNTrfMrNTrrrAo
Fig. 6. — The Persae of Timotheus, late 4th century B.C.
( — ixa 4>a.T0 de KVfxaivoi — ■
— V diipiOii T€ vaei eXX —
— Tt -qfiav vtwv iroKva —
• — a^ovaijx Tvvpos 8t aida —
— s CTOvotvTa 5e aXyrj —
— a a yu es tXXaSa rjyav —
— yvvT€ fxiv Terpao — )
The hand, as will be seen, is rather heavy and irregular, but
written with facility and strength, and, though the papyrus,
perhaps, is not to be classed among the calligraphic productions
for the book market, it must rank as a well-written example
of the literary script of the time. Capital forms of letters
which afterwards assumed the rounded shapes known as uncial
are here conspicuous. The exactly formed alpha, the square
epsilon with projecting head-stroke, the irregular sigma, the small
theta and omikron are to be remarked. Indeed, the only letter
which departs essentially from the lapidary character of the
alphabet is the omega, here a half-cursive form but still retaining
the principle of the structure of the old horse-shoe letter and
quite distinct from the co-shape which was soon to be developed.
Of this type of writing are also the two non-literary documents
already mentioned above, viz. the " Curse of Artemisia " at
Vienna, and the marriage contract of the year 31 1-3 10 B.C.,
found at Elephantine. In the latter the sigma appears in the
rounded uncial form.
By rare good fortune important literary fragments were
recovered in the Gurob collection, which yielded the most
ancient dated cursive documents of the 3rd century B.C., so
that, almost from the beginning, we start with coeval specimens
of both the cursive and of the book-hand, and we are in a position
to compare the two styles on equal terms, and thus approxi-
mately to date the literary papyri. Palaeographically, this is
a matter of the first importance; for while cursive documents,
from their nature, in most instances bear actual dates, the
periods of literary examples have chiefly to be decided by
comparison, and often by conjecture.
The literary fragments from Gurob fall into the two groups
just indicated, MSS. written for sale and scholars' copies. Of
the former are some considerable portions of two works, the
Pkacdo of Plato and the lost Aniiopc of Euripides. Both are
written in carefully formed characters of a small type, but of
the two the Phacdo is the better executed. As the cursive frag-
ments among which they were found date back to before the
middle of the 3rd century B.C., it is reasonable to place these
literary remains also about the same period. Their survival
is a particularly interesting fact in the history of Greek palaeo-
graphy, for in them we have specimens of literary roUs which
may be fairly assumed to differ very little in appearance from the
manuscripts contemporary with the great classical authors of
Greece. Indeed, the Phacdo was probably written within a
hundred years of the death of the author.
In the facsimile (fig. 7) of a few lines from this papyrus here
placed before the reader, the characteristics of the Ptolemaic
cursive hand are also to some extent to be observed in the formal
book-hand: —
JAN/A )» i/v-pf) H'C^r^MMAhJAr^H
A f r ft « A| l^A I Aft fo j-rrcft A(rtAfA>: t
AFYfc A|rt/'Tfi-flivlAtMHAfrJ|AAAU,|
Fig. 7. — The Phaedo of Plato, 3rd century B.C.
( — (Tiwv Tvudovcra di eK tovtu>ix
— avaKoipeiV ocro/j yurj avayKt]
XPiT^Woii. auTriv 5 fis (avrrjv cv\
\(:y((jdai /cat adpOL^^fadat irapaKt
\€Via[d]ai. TnartUHV 5e p.T)btvL aXXcoi)
The general breadth of the square letters, the smallness of
the letters composed of circles and loops, and the particular
formation of such letters as pi and the clipped omega, are
repeated. But the approach also of many of the letters to the
lapidary capital forms, like those in the papyrus of Timotheus,
is to be remarked, such as the precisely shaped alpha, and the
epsilon in many instances made square with a long head-stroke.
This mixture of forms seems to indicate an advance in the
development of the book-hand of the 3rd century B.C., as
contrasted with the archaic style of the older Timotheus.
Of the 2nd century B.C. there are extant only two papyri
of literary works written in the formal book-hand, and both
are now preserved in the Louvre. The one, a dialectical treatise
containing quotations from classical authors, has long been
known. The other is the oration of Hypereides against Atheno-
genes, which is an acquisition of comparatively recent date.
The dialectical treatise must belong to the first half of the century,
as there is on the verso side of the papyrus writing subsequently
added in the year 160 B.C. The period of the Hypereides cannot
be so closely defined; but the existence on the verso of later
demotic writing, said to be of the Ptolemaic time, affords a limit,
and the MS. has been accordingly placed in the second half
of the century. While the writing of the earlier papyrus is of
a light and rather sloping character, that of the Hypereides
is firm and square and upright.
Passing to the ist century B.C., the papyri which have been
recovered from the ashes of Herculaneum come into account.
562
PALAEOGRAPHY
[GREEK PAPYRI
Many of them, the texts of which are of a philosophical nature,
are written in literary hands, and are conjectured to have
possibly formed part of the hbrary of their author, the philo-
sopher Philodemus; they are therefore placed about the middle
of the century. To the same time are assigned the remains
of a roll containing the oration of Hypereides against Phihppides
and the third Epistle of Demosthenes (Brit. Mus. papp. cxxxiii.,
cxxxiv.). But the most important addition to the period is
the handsomely Vvfritten papyrus containing the poems of
Bacchylides (iig. 8), which retains in the forms of the letters
much of the character of the Ptolemaic style, although for other
reasons it can hardly be placed earher than about the middle
of the century: —
6-Tc«-'.£s.f-r<»' tiw:eMjBYt
Fig. 8. — Bacchylides, ist century B.C.
(xetpQS avTHVoiv vpos avyas
iTTTroj/teos atKiov
TiKva dvaravoLO Xucrcras
Tap4>poi>os e^ayay(i.u
dv(J(j3 6e TOL (LKoai. /3ous
a^vyas (poi.vLKoTpi.x''-^)
With the latter half of the ist century B.C. we quit the Ptolemaic
period and pass to the consideration of the literary papyri of
the Roman period; and it is especially in this latter period that
our extended knowledge, acquired from recent discoveries, has
led to the modification of views formerly held with regard to
the dates to be attributed to certain important literary MSS.
As in the case of non-Kterary documents, the Kterary writing of
the Roman period differs from that of the Ptolemaic in adopting
rounded forms and greater uniformity in the size of the letters.
Just on the threshold of the Roman period, near the end of
the ist century B.C., stands a fragmentary papyrus of the last
two books of the Iliad, now in the British Museum (pap. cxxviii.),
which is of sufficient extent to be noted. Then, emerging on
the Christian era, we come upon a fine surviving specimen of
literary writing, which we have satisfactory reason for placing
near the beginning of the ist century. It is a fragment of the
third book of the Odyssey (fig. 9), the writing of which closely
resembles that of an official document (Brit. Mus. pap. ccchv.)
which happens to be written in a formal literary hand, and which
from internal evidence can be dated within a few years of the
close of the ist century B.C. There can be no hesitation, there-
fore, in grouping the Odyssey with that document. The contrast
between the round Roman style and the stiff and firm Ptolemaic
hands is here well shown in the facsimiles from this papyrus
(fig. 9) and the Pkacdo and Bacchylides: —
^eYX4 vc^^f-^ iKThsD wTCciM <).
cu c e® <^o 1 A jspATO Y JUAXkjj e m
rc <k p m A) ucu c2Le;<: e Y r X w Y (j) -V p
AM AerrNH xX-Ui 11 ciro w K ii
O^J^reofAe^OYCixi or? ec}>e
ajm AAi<kTnxcA^^xocnepiK<xx
n^p A.APAM ecTT? p ( An cncic [ c
ecXf(J)poKt^^NeBxiNe)e^mN
Fig. 9. — The Odyssey, beginning of Ist century.
(irat5es tpoL ayt rri'Ktpaxon —
^tv^ad v4> appar ayovre^ Lva —
0)5 fcpad 01 6 apa tov pa\a ptv —
KapiraXtpojs 5 e^ev^av v4> ap —
av 6e yvvri Tapirj anov Kai —
oi/'a re oia. edovai. 8i0Tpi4>€ —
OJ' 5 apa TJjXfyuaxos irepiKaX —
Trap 8 apa vfaropidris -KUcncF
cs &l4>P0V 5 avejiaive Kai -qv —
In a similar style of writing are two fragments of Hesiodic
poems recently pubhshed, with facsimiles, in the Sitzungsberkhte
(1900, p. 839) of the Berlin Academy. The earhest of the
two, now at Strassburg, may be assigned to the first half of the
ist century; the other, at Berlin, appears to be of the 2nd
century.
At this point two MSS. come into the series, in regard to which
there is now held to be reason for revising views formerly
entertained. The papyrus known as the Harris Homer (Brit.
Mus. pap. cvii.), containing portions of the eighteenth book
of the Iliad, which was formerly placed in the ist century B.C.,
it is thought should be now brought down to a later date, and
should be rather assigned to the ist century of the Christian
era. The great papyrus, too, of Hypereides, containing his
orations against Demosthenes and for Lycophron and Euxenip-
pus, which has been commonly placed also in the ist century
B.C., and by some even earlier, is now adjudged to belong to
the latter part of the ist century a.d.
Within the ist century also is placed a papyrus of great
literary interest, containing the mimes of the Alexandrian
writer Herodas, which was discovered a few years ago and is '
now in the British Museum. The writing of this MS. differs
from the usual type of literary hand, being a rough and ill-
formed uncial, inscribed on narrow, and therefore inexpensive,
papyrus; and if the roll were written for the market, it was a
cheap copy, if indeed it was not made for private use. Of the
same period is a papyrus of Isocrates, De pace (Brit. Mus. pap.
cxxxii.), written in two hands, the one more clerical than the
other; and two papyri of Homer, Iliad, iii.-iv. (Brit. Mus. pap. |
cxx.xvi.), and Iliad, xiii.-xiv. (Brit. ISIus. pap. dccxxxii.), the "
first in a rough uneducated hand, but the latter a fine specimen
of uncial writing. To about this period also is the Oxyrhynchus
Pindar to be attributed, that is to the close of the ist or beginning
of the 2nd century. Then follows another famous papyrus,
the Bankes Homer, containing the last book of the Iliad, which
belongs to the 2nd century and is also written in a careful style
of uncial writing. To these is to be added the beautiful papyrus
at Berlin, containing a commentary on the Theaetetus of Plato,
written in delicately formed uncials of excellent type of the
2nd century; and of the same age is the Pancgyricus of Isocrates
from Oxyrhynchus, in a round uncial hand. Three important
papyri of the Iliad, written in large round uncials, of the 2nd
century, are noticed below.
With regard to the later literary works on papyrus that have
been recovered, the period which they occupy is somewhat
uncertain. The following are, however, placed in the 3rd
century, during which a sloping literary hand seems to have
been developed, curiously anticipating a similar change which
took place in the course of development of the uncial writing
of the vellum MSS., the upright hand of the 4th to 6th centuries
being followed by a sloping hand in the 7th and Sth centuries:
a MS., now in the British Museum, of portions of bks. ii.-iv. of
the Iliad, written on eighteen leaves of papyrus, put together
in book-form, but inscribed on only one side; on the verso of
some of the leaves is a short grammatical treatise attributed to
Tryphon: portion of Iliad v., among the 0.xyrhynchus papyri
(No. ccxxiii.): a fragment of Plato's Laws (Ox. pap. xxiii.):
a papyrus of Isocrates, in Nicoclem, now at Marseilles: a frag-
ment of Ezekiel, in book-form, in the Bodleian Library: a
fragment of the " Shepherd " of Hermas at Berlin: and a
fragment of Juhus Africanus, the Helleiiica of Theopompus
or Cratippus, and the Symposium of Plato, all found at
Oxyrhynchus.
VELLUM CODICES]
PALAEOGRAPHY
563
Of the 3rd century also are some fragments which are palaeo-
graphically of interest, as they are written neither in the
recognized hterary hand nor in simple cursive, but in cursive
characters moulded and adapted in a set form for literary use —
thus anticipating the early stages of the development of the
minuscule book-hand of the 9th century from the cursive
writing of that time.
With the 3rd century the literary hand on papyrus appears
to lose most of its importance. We are within measurable
distance of the age of vellum, and of the formal uncial writing
of the vellum MSS. which is found in some existing examples
of the 4th century and in more abundant numbers of the 5lh
century. We have now to see how the connexion can be estab-
lished between the literary handwriting of the papyri and the
firmer and heavier hterary uncial writing of the vellum codices.
The literary hands on papyrus which have been reviewed above
are distinctly of the style inscribed with a light touch most
suitable to the comparatively frail material of papyrus. In
the Bankes Homer, however, one may detect some indication
of the fullness that characterizes the vellum uncial writing.
But it now appears that a larger and rounder hand was also
employed on papyrus at least as early as the ist century. In
proof of this we are able to cite a non-literary document (fig. 10)
bearing an actual date, which happens to be written in characters
that, exclusive of certain less formally-made letters, are of a
large uncial literary type. This writing, though not actually
of the finished style familiar to us in the early vellum MSS.,
yet resembles it so generally that it may be assumed, almost
as a certainty, that there was in the ist century a full literary
uncial hand formed on this pattern, which was the direct ancestor
of the vellum uncial. The tendency to employ at this period
a calligraphic style, as seen in the fragments of the Odyssey
and one of the Hesiodic poems mentioned above, supports this
assumption. The document now referred to is a deed of sale
written in the seventh year of Domitian, a.d. 8S (Brit. Mus.
pap. cxli.). The letters still retaining a cursive element are
alpha, ttpsilon, and in some instances cpsilon.
Q Tsi rTToxeMc^t2vj eref ne
^coi <?-! KTo-rro rrrM
xroTn e-e^ecoc ojcercu
erem n^^>i m A-noTttc
^TTorTiee^^ e^^A i co m
Fig. 10.— Deed of Sale, a.d. 88.
( — iv TTToXeixaLOL evepyi —
— ^1.0:1 KaL 17 TovTov yuv —
— V Tov TreSecos cos frco —
— iTOny pa<j>rii' airo ttjs —
■ — avTov wtdia tkaMV — )
As evidence in support of this view that the uncial hand of the
vellum MSS. is to be traced back to the period of the document
just quoted, we have the important papyrus found by Mr Flinders
Petrie at Hawara in Egypt, and now in the Bodleian Library,
which contains a portion of the second book of the Iliad. The
writing is of the large uncial type under consideration; and there
is now full reason for assigning it to the 2nd century at latest.
Before the discovery of the document of the year 88 there was
nothing to give a clue to the real period of the Homer; and
now the date which has been suggested is corroborated by a
fragm.ent of papyrus from Oxyrhynchus inscribed with some
Unes from the same book of the Iliad (fig. 11) in the same large
uncial type (Ox. Pap. vol. i. no. 20, pi. v.). In this latter instance
there can be no question of the early date of the writing as on
the verso of the papyrus accounts of the end of the 2nd century
or of the beginning of the 3rd century have been subsequently
added. Yet a third example of the same character has more
recently been found at Tebtunis [Tebt. Pap. vol. ii. no. 265,
pi. i.): again a considerable fragment of the second book of the
Iliad.
Thus, then, in the ist and 2nd centuries there was in use a
large uncial hand which was evidently the forerunner of the
literary uncial hand of the early vellum codices. It is also to
be noted that the literary examples just mentioned are MSS.
of Homer; and hence one is tempted to suggest that, as in the
production of sumptuous copies on papyrus of a work of such
universal popularity and veneration as the Iliad this large and
handsome uncial was .specially employed, so also the use of a
cuKi rAODCcxn-oArcrrGP
OCAKl KPCHJUAlJslGTCJUO
GlCecoKOCLXHCAJULGNO
Fig. II. — The Iliad, 2nd century.
( — Oiv yXi^aaa. iroKvairfp — •
— OS avqp (TTjyu iftrto o —
— tiadw KO(TiJ.ri<7aii€vo — )
similar type for the early vellum copies of the sacred text of
the Scriptures naturally followed.
Greek Writing. II. — The Vellum Codices
Uncial Writing. — It has been shown above how a round
uncial hand had been developing in Greek writing on papyrus
during the early centuries of the Christian era, and how even
as early as the 2nd century a well-formed uncial script was in
use, at least for sumptuous copies of so great and popular an
author as Homer. We have now to describe the uncial hand
as it appears in Greek MSS. written on vellum. This harder
and firmer and smoother material afforded to the scribes better
scope for a calligraphic style hardly possible on papyrus. With
the ascendancy of the vellum codex as the vehicle for literature,
the characters received the fixed and settled forms to which the
name of uncial is more exactly attached than to the fluctuating
letters of the early papyri. The term uncial has been borrowed
from the nomenclature of Latin palaeography' and applied to
Greek writing of the larger type, to distinguish it from the
minuscule or smaller character which succeeded it in vellum
MSS. of the 9th century. In Latin majuscule writing there
exist both capitals and uncials, each class distinct. In Greek
MSS. pure capital-letter writing was never employed (except
occasionally for ornamental titles at a late time). As distin-
guished from the square capitals of inscriptions, Greek uncial
writing has certain rounded letters, as a, e, c, co, modifica-
tions in others, and some letters extending above or below the
line.
It is not probable that vellum codices were in ordinary use
earlier than the 4th century; and it is in codices of that age that
the handsome caUigraphic uncial above referred to was developed.
A few years ago the 4th century was the earhest limit to which
palaeographers had dared to carry back any ancient vellum
codex inscribed in uncials. But the recovery of the Homeric
papyri written in the large uncials of the 2nd century has led
to a revision of former views on the date of one early vellum
MS. in particular. This MS. is the fragmentary Homer of the
Ambrosian Library at Milan, consisting of some fifty pieces of
vellum cut out of the original codex for the sake of the pictures
which they contain; and all of the text that has sur\'ived is
that which happened to be on the back of the pictures. The
Ambrosian Homer has hitherto been generallj' placed in the 5th
century, and the difference of the style of the writing from that
of the usual calhgraphic type of uncial MSS. of that time, which
had been remarked, was thought rather to indicate inferiority
in age. But the similarity of the character of the writing (taller
and more slender than is usual in vellum codices) to that of the
large uncials of the papyrus Homers of the 2nd century from
Hawara and Oxyrhynchus and Tebtunis is so striking that the
' St Jerome's often quoted words, " uncialibus, ut vulgo aiunt,
litteris " in his preface to the book of Job, have never been explained
satisfactorily. Of the character referred to as " uncial " there is
no question ; but the derivation of the term is not settled.
564
PALAEOGRAPHY
[VELLUM CODICES
Ambrosian Homer must be classed with them. Hence it is now
held that that MS. may certainly be as early as the 3rd century.
But, as that century was still within the period when papyrus
was the general vehicle for Greek literature, it may be asked
why that material should not in this instance also have been
used. The answer may fairly be ventured that vellum was
certainly a better material to receive the illustrative paintings,
and on that account was employed. The Ambrosian Homer
may therefore be regarded as a most interesting link between
the papyrus uncial of the 2nd century and the vellum uncial of
the 4th and 5th centuries.
With the introduction, then, of vellum as the general writing
material, the uncial characters entered on a new phase. The
light touch and delicate forms so characteristic of calligraphy
on papyrus gave place to a rounder and stronger hand, in which
the contrast of fine hair-lines and thickened down-strokes adds
so conspicuously to the beauty of the writing of early MSS.
on vellum. And here it may be remarked, with respect to the
attribution to particular periods of these early examples, that
we are not altogether on firm ground. Internal evidence, such,
for example, as the presence of the Eusebian Canons in a MS.
of the Gospel, assists us in fixing a limit of age, but when there
is no such support the dating of these early MSS. must be more
or less conjectural. It is not till the beginning of the 6th century
that we meet with an uncial MS. which can be approximately
dated ; and, taking this as a standard of comparison, we are enabled
to distinguish those which undoubtedly have the appearance
of greater age and to arrange them in some sort of chronological
order. But these codices are too few in number to afford material
in sufficient quantity for training the eye by familiarity with
a variety of hands of any one period — the only method which can
give entirely trustworthy results.
Among the earliest examples of vellum uncial MSS. are the
three famous codices of the Bible. Of these, the most ancient,
the Codex Vaticanus, is probably of the 4th century. The
writing must, in its original condition, have been very perfect
as a specimen of penmanship; but nearly the whole of the text
has been traced over by a later hand, perhaps in the loth or
nth century, and only such words or letters as were rejected as
readings have been left untouched. Written in triple columns,
in letters of uniform size, without enlarged initial letters to mark
even the beginnings of books, the MS. has all the simplicity
of extreme antiquity {Pal. Soc. pi. 104). The Codex Sinaiticus
{Pal. Soc. pi. 105) has also the same marks of age, and is judged
by its discoverer, Tischendorf, to be even more ancient than
the Vatican MS. In this, however, a comparison of the writing
of the two MSS. leads to the conclusion that he was mistaken.
The writing of the Codex Sinaiticus is not so pure as that of the
other MS., and, if that is a criterion of age, the Vatican MS.
holds the first place. In one particular the Codex Sinaiticus
has been thought to approach in form to its possible archetype
on papyrus. It is written with four columns to a page, the open
book thus presenting eight columns in sequence, and recalling
the long line of columns on an open roll. With regard to such
general outward resemblances between the later papyrus literary
rolls and the early vellum uncial MSS., we may cite such papyri
as the Berlin commentary on the Thcadctiis of Plato of the
2nd century and the Oxyrhynchus fragment of Julius Africanus
of the 3rd century as forerunners of the style in which the two
great codices here mentioned were cast.
The Codex Ale.xandrinus (fig. 12) is placed in the middle
of the 5th century. Here we have an advance on the style
of the other two codices. The MS. is written in double columns
only, and enlarged letters stand at the beginning of paragraphs.
But yet the writing is generally more elegant than that of the
Codex Sinaiticus. Examining these MSS. with a view to
ascertain the rules which guided the scribes in their work, we
find simplicity and regularity the leading features; the round
letters formed in symmetrical curves; t and C, &c., finishing
off in a hair-line sometimes thickened at the end into a dot;
horizontal strokes fine, those of f , H, and Q being either in the
middle or high in the letter; the base of A and the cross-stroke
of II also fine, and, as a rule, kept within the limits of the letters
and not projecting beyond. Here also may be noticed the
occurrence in the Codex Alexandrinus of Coptic forms of letters
{e.g. /^,)J_,,alp/!aandmu) inthetitlesofbooks,&c., confirmatory
of the tradition of the Egyptian origin of the MS.
T'e i< Kj «jo M c ovTnre r rrxxTo V K»
-TA ce r-> X vn ee I X i< Vo vx>ce r:fri
> *-» r~»exxBo»^ers.»aTOT-ovn PC
Fig. 12. — The Bible (Cod. Alex.), 5th century.
(reKTCOv (Tov irepLwaTovv
ras ev aXrjdfLa Kad(jis tvro
Xtjc tka^ofxtv airo tov Tr[aT]p[o]s) . — 2 John 4.
To the 5th century may also belong the palimpsest MS. of
the Bible, known from the upper text as the Codex Ephraemi,
at Paris (ed. Tischendorf, 1845), and the Octateuch (Codex
Sarravianus), whose extant leaves are divided between Paris,
Leiden and St Petersburg — both of which MSS. are probably
of Egyptian origin. Perhaps of the end of the 5th or beginning
of the 6th century is the illustrated Genesis of the Cottonian
Library, now unfortunately reduced to fragments by fire, but
once the finest example of its kind {Cat. Anc. MSS. i. pi. 8).
And to about the same time belong the Dio Cassius of the
Vatican (Silvestre, pi. 60) and the Pentateuch of the Bibliotheque
Nationale (ibid. pi. 61).
In the writing of uncial MSS. of the 6th century there is a
marked degeneration. The letters, though still round, are
generally of a larger character, more heavily formed, and not
so compactly written as in the preceding century. Horizontal
strokes {e.g. in A, II, T) are lengthened and finished off wiih
heavy points or finials. The earliest example of this period
which has to be noticed is the Dioscorides of Vienna (fig. 13),
which is of particular value for the study of the palaeography
of early vellum MSS. It is the first uncial example to which
an approximate date can be given. There is good evidence
to show that it was written early in the 6th century for Juliana
Anicia, daughter of Flavins Anicius Olybrius, emperor of the
West in 472. Here we already notice the characteristics of
uncial writings of the 6th century, to which reference has been
I ATTpO M H S<:H Vp<JL>MXTl
YnrCJJ H e M TeTM HTAI
eiNiTa)Trepi<j>6pei
Fig. 13. — Dioscorides, early 6th century.
( — itt irpojiriKri xpwixari
— \a\vT03v VTiT ixriTai.
— [xoiWaOov 5iTn}Kri /cat
— (XO^Ta TToXXas i4> w[v]
— ev T(j) irtpuptpti)
made. To this century also belong the palimpsest Homer
under a Syriac text in the British Museum {Cal. Anc. MSS.,
i. pi. 9) ; its companion volume, used by the same Syrian scribe,
in which are fragments of St Luke's Gospel (ibid., pi. 10); the
Dublin palimpsest fragments of St Matthew and Isaiah (T. K.
Abbot, Par Palimpsest, Dubl.), written in Egypt; the fragments
of the Pauline Epistles from Mount .\thos, some of which are
at Paris and others at Moscow (Silvestre, pis. 63, 64; Sabas,
pi. A), of which, however, the writing has been disfigured by
retracing at a later period; the Gospels (Cod. N) written in
silver and gold on purple vellum, whose leaves are scattered in
London (Cott. MS., Titus C. xv.), Rome, Vienna, St Petersburg,
and its native home, Patmos; the fragmentary Eusebian Canons
written on gilt vellum and highly ornamented, the sole remains
VELLUM CODICES]
PALAEOGRAPHY
565
of some sumptuous volume {Cat. Anc. MSS. i. pi. 11); the
Coislin Octateuch (Silvestre, pi. 65); the Genesis of Vienna,
and the Codex Rossanensis, and the recently recovered Codex
Sinopensis of the Gospels, instances of the very few early
illustrated MSS. which have survived. Of the same period
is the Codex Marchalianus of the Prophets, which, written in
Egypt, follows in its style the Coptic form of uncial.
Reference may here be made to certain early bilingual
Graeco-Latin uncial MSS., written in the 6th and 7th centuries,
which, however, have rather to be studied apart, or in connexion
with Latin palaeography; for the Greek letters of these MSS.
run more or less upon the lines of the Latin forms. The best
known of these examples are the Codex-Bezae of the New
Testament, at Cambridge (Pal. Soc. pis. 14, 15), and the Codex
Claromontanus of the Pauline Epistles, at Paris {Pal. Soc. pis.
63, 64), attributed to the 6th or 7th century; and the Laudian
MS. of the Acts of the Apostles {Pal. Soc. pi. 80) of the 7th century.
To these may be added the Harleian Glossary {Cat. Anc. MSS.
i. pi. 13), also of the 7th century. A later example, of the 8th
century, is the Graeco-Latin Psalter, at Paris, MS. Coislin 186
(Omont, Facs. des plus anciens MSS. grccs, pi. vii.).
An offshoot of early Greek uncial writing on vellum is seen in
the Moeso-Gothic alphabet which Ulfilas constructed for the
use of his countrymen in the 4th century, mainly from the
Greek letters. Of the few extant remains of Gothic MSS.
the oldest and most perfect is the Codex Argenteus of the Gospels,
at Upsala, of the 6th century {Pal. Soc. pi. 118), written in
characters which compare with purely written Greek MSS.
of the same period. Other Gothic fragments appear in the sloping
uncial hand seen in Greek MSS. of the 7th and following centuries.
About the year 600 Greek uncial writing passes into a new
stage. We leave the period of the round and enter on that of
the oval character. The letters £ , Q, Q, Q, instead of being
symmetrically formed on the lines of a circle, are made oval;
and other letters are laterally compressed into a narrow shape.
In the 7th century also the writing begins to slope to the right,
and accents are introduced and afterwards systematically
applied. This slanting style of uncials continues in use through
the 8th and gth and into the loth centuries, becoming heavier
as time goes on. In this class of writing there is again the same
dearth of dated MSS. as in the round uncial, to serve as standards
for the assignment of dates. We have to reach the gth century
before finding a single dated MS. in this kind of writing. It is
true that sloping Greek uncial writing is found in a few scattered
notes and glosses in Syriac MSS. which bear actual dates in
the 7th century, and they are so far useful as showing that this
hand was firmly established at that time; but they do not afford
sufficient material in quantity to be of really practical use for
comparison (see the tables of alphabets in Gardthausen's Griech.
Palaog.). Of more value are a few palimpsest fragments of the
Elements of Euclid and of Gospel Lectionaries which occur
also in the Syriac collection in the British Museum, and are
written in the 7th and 8th centuries. There is also in the
Vatican a MS. (Reg. 886) of the Theodosian code, which can
be assigned with fair accuracy to the close of the 7th century
(Gardth. Gr. Pal. p. 158), which, however, being calligraphically
written, retains some of the earlier rounder forms. This MS.
may be taken as an example of transitional style. In the
fragment of a mathematical treatise (fig. 14) from Bobio, form-
ing part of a MS. rewritten in the 8th century and assignable
to the previous century, the slanting writing is fully developed.
The formation of the letters is good, and conveys the impression
that the scribe was writing a hand quite natural to him: —
n^ »(T)KA(Tt tvp c Ay ^y\'^o e c T(P
Fig. 14. — Mathemat. Treatise, 7th century.
{irfMT\ov\ \i\fM\ 7[ap] iravrlos] arepiou crxmAaTOi]
irpos Ti fitreoipov ivxtptartp — )
It should be also noticed that in this MS. — a secular one —
there are numerous abbreviations (Wattenbach, Script, gr.
specim. tab. 8). An important document of this time is also
the fragment of papyrus in the Imperial Library at Vienna,
which bears the signatures of bishops and others to the acts
of the Council of Constantinople of 680. Some of the signatures
are in slanting uncials (Wattenb., Script, gr. specim., tabb.
12, 13; Gardth., Gr. Pal. tab. 1). Of the 8th century is the
collection of hymns (Brit. Mus., Add. MS. 26, 1 13) written without
breathings or accents {Cat. Anc. MSS. i. pi. 14). To the same
century belongs the Codex Marcianus, the Venetian MS. of the
Old Testament, which is marked with breathings and accents.
The plate reproduced from this MS. (Wattenb., Script, gr.
specim., tab. g) contains in the second column a few lines written
in round uncials, but in such a laboured style that nothing could
more clearly prove the discontinuance of that form of writing
as an ordinary hand. In the middle of the gth century at
length we find a MS. with a date in the Psalter of Bishop
Uspensky of the year 862 (Wattenb. Script, gr. specim., tab.
10). A httle later in date is the MS. of Gregory of Nazianzus,
written between 867 and 886 (Silvestre, pi. 71); and at the end
of the gth or beginning of the loth century stands a lectionary
in the Harleian collection {Cat. Anc. MSS. i. pi. 17). A valuable
series of examples is also given by Omont {Facsimiles des plus anc.
MSS. grecs. de la Bibl. Nat.). But by this time minuscule writing
was well established, and the use of the more inconvenient
uncial was henceforth almost entirely confined to church-service
books. Owing to this limitation uncial writing now underwent
a further calligraphic change. As the loth century advances
the sloping characters by degrees become more upright, and
with this resumption of their old position they begin in the
next century to cast off the compressed formation and again
become rounder. All this is simply the result of calligraphic
imitation. Bibles and service-books have always been the MSS.
in particular on which finely formed writing has been lavished;
and it was but natural that, when a style of writing fell into
general disuse, its continuance, where it did continue, should
become more and more traditional, and a work of copying rather
than of writing. In the loth century there are a few examples
bearing dates. There are facsimiles from three of them, viz.
a copy of the Gospels (fig. 15), in the Vatican, of g4g {New
Pal. Soc. pi. 105), the Curzon Lectionary of 980, and the Harleian
Lectionary of ggs {Pal. Soc. pis. 154, 26, 27). The Bodleian
commentary on the Psalter (D. 4, i) is likewise of great palaeo-
graphic value, being written partly in uncials and partly in
minuscules of the middle of the loth century (Gardth., Gr.
Pal. p. isg, tab. 2, col. 4). This late form of uncial writing
appears to have lasted to about the middle of the 12th century.
(Omont. Facs. pi. xxii.). From it was formed the Slavonic
writing in use at the present day: —
Fig. 15. — The Gospels (Vatican), a.d. 949.
{Xkywv + K[vpi\i iav dtXris'
dvvaaal fj.e Kada
piaai -\- Kai (KTtlvas
rriv Xf'PO ipparo
aiirov 6 t[7j<roi;]s Xtyuv)
Under the head of late uncial writing must be classed a few
bilingual Graeco-Latin MSS. which have survived, written in a
566
PALAEOGRAPHY
[VELLUM CODICES
bastard kind of uncial in the west of Europe. This writing
follows, wherever the shapes of the letters permit, the formation
of corresponding Latin characters — the purely Greek forms
being imitated in a clumsy fashion. Such AISS. are the Codex
Augiensis of Trinity College, Cambridge, of the end of the
9th century {Pal. Soc. pi. 127) and the Psalter of St Nicholas
of Cusa (pi. 128) and the Codex Sangallensis and Boernerianus
of the loth century (pi. 179). The same imitative characters
are used in quotations of Greek words in Latin MSS. of the
same periods.
Minuscule Writing. — The beautifully formed minuscule book-
hand, which practically superseded the uncial book-hand in
the 9th century, did not spring into existence all at once. Its
formation had been the work of centuries. It was the direct
descendant of the cursive Greek writing of the papyri. It has
been shown above, in tracing the progress of the non-literary,
cursive writing on papyrus, how the original forms of the letters
of the Greek alphabet went through various modifications,
always tending towards the creation of the forms which eventu-
ally settled down into the recognized minuscules or small letters
of the n.iddle ages and modern times. The development of these
modifications is apparent from the first; but it was in the Byzan-
tine period especially that the changes became more marked
and more rapid. All the minuscule forms, as we know them in
medieval literature, had been practically evolved by the end
of the 5th century, and in the course of the next two hundred
years those forms became more and more confirmed. In the
large formal cursive writing of the documents of the 6th and
7th centuries we can pick out the minuscule alphabet in the
rough. It only needed to be cast in a calligraphic mould to
become the book-hand minuscule, the later development of
which we have now to trace. This calligraphic mould seems
to have been found in the imperial chancery, from whence
issued documents written in a fine round minuscule hand on
an ample scale, as appears from one or two rare surviving ex-
amples attributed to the 8th and 9th centuries (see the facsimile
of an imperial letter, dated variously a.d. 756 or 839, in Watten-
bach, Script, grace, specim., pis. xiv., xv., and in Omont, Facs.
des plus anc. MSS. grecs. pis. xxvi., xxvii.; and Brit. Mus. papyrus
xxxii.). The fine hand only needed to be reduced in scale to
become the caligraphic minuscule book-hand of the vellum
MSS.
Thus, then, in the 9th century, the minuscule book-hand
came into general use for literature, and, with the finely prepared
vellum of the time ready to receive it, it assumed under the
pens of expert calligraphers the requisite cast, upright, regular
and symmetrical, which renders it in its earliest stages one of
the most beautiful forms of writing ever created.
Greek MSS. written in minuscules have been classed as follow:
(i) codices vetuslissimi, of the 9th century and to the middle
of the loth century; (2) vetusti, from the middle of the loth
to the middle of the 13th century; (3) recentiores, from the
middle of the 13th century to the fall of Constantinople, 1453; (4)
novclli, all after that date.
Of dated minuscule MSS. there is a not inconsiderable number
scattered among the different libraries of Europe. Gardthausen
(Gr. Pal. 344 seq.) gives a list of some thousand, ending at a.d.
1500. But, as might be expected, the majority belong to the
later classes. "^ Of the 9th century there are not ten which
actually bear dates and of these all but one belong to the latter
half of the century. In the loth century, however, the number
rises to nearly fifty, in the nth to more than a hundred.
In the period of codices vetuslissimi the minuscule hand is
distinguished by its simplicity and purity. The period has been
well described as the classic age of minuscules. The letters are
symmetrically formed; the writing is compact and upright, or
has even a slight tendency to slope to the left. In a word, the
beauty of this class of minuscule writing is unsurpassed. But
in addition to these general characteristics there are special
' In Omont's Facs. des MSS. grecs dates de la Bibl. Nat. will be
found a useful list of upwards of 300 facsimiles of dated Greek MSS.
(including uncials).
distinctions which belong to it. The minuscule character is
maintained intact, without intrusion of larger or uncial-formed
letters. With its cessation as the ordinary literary hand the
uncial character had not died out. We have seen that it was
still used for liturgical books. It likewise continued to survive
in a modified or half-uncial form for scholia, rubrics, titles, and
special purposes — as, for example, in the Bodleian Euclid
(fig. 16) — in minuscule written MSS. of the 9th and loth centuries.
These uses of the older character sufficed to keep it in remem-
brance, and it is therefore not a matter for surprise that some
of its forms should reappear and commingle with the simple
minuscule. This afterwards actually took place. But in the
period now under consideration, when the minuscule had been
cast into a new mould, and was, so to say, in the full vigour of
youth, extraneous forms were rigorously excluded.
■* f> ' • • ■ ' / •'
O-T^ro TOD p M N CT V TTpi Y"«> V "^H ^''fc
Y-fj-y ^tA -roi X Y r p (p 2 *tT> i V""^ }/ aj . «»
T'UOAAH CTV ■ CD s:^^ l*j •x'U c{-6-p 6-AJ TD^
•"TOJ ojTD-o • I ui H ^p Ia^j6-u 00 }j -aa~p i o-vi_o-nr
(/dJ joro \j\\a. •"rvyy-cujj o jy-nau . Txrp «> o"^//-
Fig. 16.— Euclid (Oxford), a.d. 888.
(aTroTOJJ' OMN STT TpLy6:vix)v €Trt —
OeroL laoinhjapaeari ra 7rpt(7juo[ra] —
jxtv eicrtra AHF P'J'Z rpiyuva. a —
TttOMN STT' ojcrre lai.]Ta crTipiair —
ra OTTO Ttov (ipr^ptvuiv TvpiapaTlicv] —
va 'icroinl'V rvyx^-^ovra' irpos dXX[rjXa] — )
The breathings also of this class are rectangular, in unison
with the careful and deliberate character of the writing; and
there is but slight , if any, separation of the words. ' In addition, as
far as has hitherto been observed, the letters run above, or stand
upon, the ruled lines, and do not depend from them as at a later
period. The exact time at which this latter mechanical change
took place cannot be named; like other changes it would natur-
ally establish itself by usage. But at least in the middle of
the loth century it seems to have been in use. In the Bodleian
MS. of Basil's homilies of 953 a.d. {Pal. Soc. pi. 82) the new
method is followed; and if we are to accept the date of the 9th
century ascribed to a MS. in the Ambrosian Library at Milan
(Wattenb., Script, gr. specim., tab. 17), in which the ruled
lines run above the writing, the practice was yet earlier. Certain
scribal peculiarities, however, about the MS. make us hesitate
to place it so early. In the Laurentian Herodotus (W and V.,
Exetnpla, tab. 31), which belongs to the loth century, sometimes
the one, sometimes the other system is followed in different
parts of the volume; and the same peculiarity happens in the
MS. of Gregory of Nazianzus of a.d. 972 in the British Museum
{Pal. Soc. pi. 2.5; Exempla, tab. 7). The second half of the loth
century therefore appears to be a period of transition in this
respect.
The earliest dated example of codices vetuslissimi is the copy
of the Gospels belonging to Bishop Uspensky, written in the
year 835. A facsimile is given by Gardthausen {Bcitrdge) and
repeated in the Exempla (tab. i). Better specimens have been
photographed from the Oxford Euchd of a.d. 888 {Pal. Soc.
pis. 65, 66; Exempla, tab. 2) from a MS. of Saints' Lives at Paris
of A.D. 890 (Omont, Facs. des MSS. gr. dates, pi. i), and from
the Oxford Plato (fig. 17) of a.d. S95 (Pal. Soc. pi. 81; Exempla,
tab. 3). Sabas {Specim. Palaeograph.), has also given two
facsimiles from MSS. of 880 and 899.
Of dated examples of the first half of the 10th century about a
dozen facsimiles are available.
After the middle of the loth century we enter on the period
of the codices vetusti, in which the writing becomes gradually
ROMAN CURSIVE]
PALAEOGRAPHY
567
less compact. The letters, so to say, open their ranks; and,
from this circumstance alone, MSS. of the second half of the
century may generally be distinguished from those fifty years
earhcr. But alterations also take place in the shapes of the
letters. Side by side with the purely minuscule forms those of
the uncial begin to reappear, the cause of which innovation
has already been explained. These uncial forms iirst show
OTOUTOoptaL ^uyyfiyU"- ^^ ^ctprfi-o f
Fig. 17. — Plato (Oxford), a.d. 895.
( — [/XfX]Xeis Trapd (piXrjPov dixi<^6aL vvvl.
— [an<f>]LapriT(LV. tav fxi] aoi. koto, vovv ^1
— [avy Ke<f>a\ai]ua(j}fxe6a tuaTipov: iravv fitv ovv:
— [et]vat 4'r]ai. to XQ'Pf"' Train ^ajtoij.
— [o]<Ta rod ykvovs tarl ToiiTou avixtpoiva'
— ecrri. /i?) ravra. dXXa to (j^poviiv. Kai to
— [to.] tovtuv av ^uyyevfi' Sojcti' re op)
themselves at the end of the line, the point at which most
changes first gained a footing, but by degrees they work back
into the text, and at length become recognized members of the
minuscule characters. In the nth and 12th centuries they are
well estabhshed, and become more and more prominent by the
large or stilted forms which they assume. The change, however,
in the general character of the writing of this class of codices
vctustl is very gradual, uniformity and evenness being well main-
tained, especially in church books. On the other hand, a hghter
and more cursive kind of minuscule is found contemporaneously
in MSS. generally of a secular nature. In this hand many of
the classical MSS. of the loth or nth centuries are written, as
the MS. of Aeschylus and Sophocles, the Odyssey and the
Apollonius Rhodius of the Laurentian Library at Florence, the
Anthologia Palatina of Heidelberg and Paris, the Hippocrates
of Venice {Exempla, tabb. 32-36, 38, 40), the Aristophanes of
Ravenna (Wattenb., Script, gr. spccim., tab. 26), the Strabo of
Paris (Omont, Facs. dcs plus anc. MSS. grecs, pi. 40), a Demos-
thenes (fig. i8) at Florence {Pal. Soc. ii. pi. 88, 89), &c. In a
facsimile from a Plutarch at Venice {Exempla, tab. 44), the
scribe is seen to change from the formal to the more cursive
hand. This style of writing is distinguishable by its light and
graceful character from the current writing into which the
minuscule degenerated at a later time.
^ '^ ^ . / '* ••
Fig. 18. — Demosthenes (Florence), early nth century.
{avtKuv Set \fybvTOiv t'IvOiv id\i\ti.v\ —
7rp6x«ipos X670J. cbs &pa Kai Trap' —
X'a7a6d tlpr^a<;p.tv 01 rives. oi'5[ef6s] —
X'd7aTn)ra)s tTriypafxiiaTos iv —
Tovd' vplv avayviJiatTai to fTrt[7pa;U/ja] — ■
rov \6yov w afipa adrivaloi)
The gradual rounding of the rectangular breathings takes
place in this period. In the nth century the smooth breathing,
which would most readily lend itself to this modification, first
appears in the new form. In the course of the 12th century
both breathings have lost the old square shape; and about the
same time contractions become more numerous, having been
at first confined to the end of the line.
When the period of codices recentiores commences, the Greek
Fig. 19. — The Odyssey, 13th century.
(?) dXueis ort Ipov (:vlKr]ao.s tov aKrjT-qv
oJs dpa </)coi'77CTas cr<f>e\as tWajiev ainap odvcrafvs
d/i<^iw/iou irpos yovva KaOi^eTO 5ouXixt^os)
minuscule hand undergoes extensive changes. The contrast
between MSS. of the 13th century and those of a hundred years
earlier is very marked. In the later examples the hand is generally
more straggUng, there is a greater number of exaggerated forms
of letters, and marks of contraction and accents are dashed on
more freely. There is altogether a sense of greater activity
and haste. The increasing demand for books created a larger
supply. Greater freedom and more variety appear in the
examples of this class, together with an increasing use of liga-
tures and contractions. The general introduction of paper
likewise assisted to break up the formal minuscule hand. To
this rougher material a rougher style of writing was suited.
Through the 14th and 15th centuries the decline of the set
minuscule rapidly advances. The writing becomes even more
involved and intricate, marks of contraction and accents are
combined with the letters in a single action of the pen, and the
general result is the production of a thoroughly cursive hand.
In some respects, however, the change was not so rapid. Church
books were stiU ordinarily written on veUum, which, as it became
scarcer in the market (owing to the injury done to the trade by
the competition of paper), was supphed from ancient codices
which lay ready to hand on the shelves of libraries; and in
these liturgical MSS. the more formal style of the minuscule was
StiU maintained. In the 14th century there even appears a
partial renaissance in the writing of Church MSS., modelled
to some extent on the hnes of the writing of the 12th century.
The resemblance, however, is only superficial; for no writer can
entirely disguise the character of the writing of his own time.
And lastly there was yet another check upon the absolute
disintegration of the minuscule book-hand in the 15th century
exercised by the professional scribes who worked in Italy, and
who in their caUigraphical productions reverted again to the
older style. The influence of the Renaissance is evident in
many of the MSS. of the Italian Greeks, which served as models
for the first Greek printing types.
The Greek minuscule book-hand had, then, by the end of the
15th century, become a cursive hand, from which the modern
current hand is directly derived. We last saw the ancient
cursive in use in the documents prior to the formation of the set
minuscule book-hand, and no doubt it continued in use concur-
rently with the book-hand. But, as the latter passed through
the transformations which have been traced, and gradually
assumed a more current style, it may not unreasonably be sup-
posed that it absorbed the cursive hand of the period, and with
it whatever elements may have survived of the old cursive
hand.
Latin Writing. I. — The Roman Cursive
The course of Latin palaeography runs on the same lines as
that of Greek palaeography. In regard to the former, as in
regard to the latter, the documents fall into two main divisions:
those which are written in the ordinary cursive hand of ever>'day
life, and those which are written in the formal book-hand of
literature. But Latin palaeography covers a wider ground than
Greek. Greek writing being limited to the expression of the one
568
PALAEOGRAPHY
[ROMAN CURSIVE
language of a single people has a comparatively narrow and
simple career. On the other hand, the Latin alphabet, having
been adopted by the nations of western Europe, underwent many
transformations in the course of development of the national
handwritings of the different peoples, and consequently had a
wide and varied career. But in one respect Latin palaeography
is at a disadvantage as compared with the sister branch. As we
have seen, Greek documents are extant dating back to the 4th
century B.C., and the development of Greek writing can be
fairly well illustrated by a series of examples of the succeeding
centuries. There is no such series of Latin documents available
to afford us the means of tracing the growth of Latin writing
to the same remote period. No Latin document, either of a
literary or of a non-literary character, has yet been recovered
which can be placed with certainty earher than the Christian
era. Egypt, while giving up hundreds and thousands of docu-
ments in Greek, has hitherto yielded but little in Latin, even of
the 1st century, and little too of the next following centuries.
Indeed, for our knowledge of Latin writing of the ist century
we still have to depend chiefly upon the results of excavations at
Pompeii and Herculaneum and in the Roman catacombs, upon
the wall-scribblings which have been laid bare, and upon the
waxen tablets and the few papyri which have thence been
recovered.
At the time when we come into touch with the first extant
examples of Roman writing, we find a few instances of a literary
or book-hand as well as a fairly extensive variety of cursive hands.
It will be convenient in the first place to examine the Roman
cursive writing during the early centuries of our era. Then, for
the moment suspending further research in this branch of our
subject, we shall proceed to describe the literary script and to
trace the development of the large form of book-hand, or majus-
cule writing, in its two divisions of capitals and uncials, and of the
intermediate styles composed of a mixture of large and small
letters, or consisting of a blend of the two classes of letters
which has received the name of half-uncial. Then we shall
turn to follow the development of the national hands, when it
will be necessary to come into touch again with the Roman
cursive, whence the western continental scripts were derived;
and so we shall proceed to the formation of the minuscule writing
of the middle ages.
The materials for the study of the early Roman cursive hand
have been found in the wall-scribblings, or graffiti, of Pompeii
and Herculaneum and Rome (collected in the Corp. inscr. lat.
vol. iv.); in the series of 127 libelli or waxen tablets, con-
sisting of perscripiiones and other deeds connected with sales
by auction and tax receipts discovered in the house of the
banker L. Caecilius Jucundus at Pompeii, and bearing dates
of A.D. 15, 27, and 53-62 (published in C.I.L. iv., supplement);
in a few scattered papyri from Egypt; and in a set of four-and-
twenty waxen tablets bearing dates ranging from a.d. 131 to
167, which were found in ancient mining works in the neigh-
bourhood of Alburnus Major (the modern Verespatak) in Dacia
(C. /. L. iii.).
It will have been observed that in the case of the above
documents there are three different kinds of material on which
they have been inscribed: the plaster surface of walls, the waxen
coatings of tablets, and the smooth surface of papyrus. The
two former may be classed together as being of a nature which
would offer a certain resistance to the free movement of the
stOus; while in the case of papyrus the writing-reed or pen
would run without impediment. Hence, in writing on the
former materials there was a natural tendency to form the
letters in disconnected strokes, to make them upright or even
inclined to the left, and to employ vertical strokes in preference.
The three following specimens from the graffiti and the two sets
of tablets will demonstrate the conservative character of this
kind of writing, covering as they do about a century and a half.
This conservativeness may suggest the probability that the hand
seen in the graffiti and the Pompeian tablets had not changed
very materially from that practised a century or more earlier, and
that it is practically the hand in which the Roman classical
writers composed their works. When examining the alphabet
of this early Roman cursive hand, we find (as we found in the
early Greek cursive) the first beginnings of the minuscule writing
of the middle ages. The slurring of the strokes, whereby the
bows of the capital letters were lost and their more exact forms
-r.
T^^\r\vK
'|-^ K>X..T-
-T
-Vv
VsAJ^V
Fig. 20. — Wall inscription, ist century.
(censio est nam noster
magna habet pecuni [am]).
Fig. 21. — Pompeian Tablet, a.d. 59.
(quinquaginta nummos nummo
libellas quinque ex reliquis
ob fuUonica . . . anni L. Verani
Hupsaei et Albuci Justi d.v.i.d. solut.)
Fig. 22. — Dacian Tablet, a.d. 167.
(descriptum et recognitum factum ex libello—
erat Alb[urno) maiori ad statione Resculi in quo scri —
id quod i[nfra] s[criptum] est)
modified, led the way to the gradual development of the small
letters. With regard to the particular forms of letters employed
in the waxen tablets, compare the tables in Corp. inscr. lat.,
vols, iii., iv. The letter A is formed by a main stroke supporting
an oblique stroke above it and the cross bar is either omitted,
or is indicated by a small vertical stroke dropping, as it were,
out of the letter.
The main stroke of B dwindles to a slight curve, and the two
bows are transformed into a long bent stroke so that the letter
takes the shape of a stilted a or of a d. The D is chiefly like the
uncial 6; the E is generally represented by the old form || found
in inscriptions and in the Faliscan alphabet. In the modified
form of G the first outline of the flat-headed g of later times
appears; H, by losing half of its second upright limb in the haste
of writing, comes near to being the small k. In the Pompeian
tablets M has the four-stroke form {||{. as in the graffiti; in the
Dacian tablets it is a rustic capital, sometimes almost an uncial
^- The hastily written is formed by two strokes both convex,
almost like a. As to the general character of the writing, it is
close and compressed, and has an inclination to the left. There
is also much combination or linking together of letters (Corp.
inscr. lat. iii. tab. A). These peculiarities may, in some measure,
be ascribed to the material and to the confined space at the
command of the writer. The same character of cursive writing
has also been found on a few tiles and potsherds inscribed with
alphabets or short sentences — the exercises of children at school
(Corp. inscr. lat. iii. 962).
In writing with the pen upon the smooth and unresisting
surface of papyrus, the scribe would naturally write a more
fluent hand. The disjointed writing of the graffiti and the
tablets was changed for one which gradually became more
consecutive and which naturally tended in course of time to
ROMAN CURSIVE]
PALAEOGRAPHY
569
slope to the right in the effort to be more current and to write
letters in connexion without lifting the pen. One of the earliest
available examples of Latin writing on papyrus to which an
approximate date can be assigned is a fragment at Berlin con-
taining portions of speeches delivered in the senate, said to be
of the reign of Claudius, a.d. 41-54 (Steffens, Lat. Pal. taf. loi).
The writing, though still somewhat restrained and admitting
but little linking of the letters, is yet of a more flowing character
than that of the contemporary tablets and graffiti.
We have to pass into the second century before finding the
most perfect Latin document on papyrus as yet discovered
(fig. 23). This is now in the British Museum, and records the
Fig. 23. — Sale of a slave, a.d. 166.
( — et si quis eum puerum
— cerit simplam pecuniam
— te dare stipulatus est Kabul
— Julius Priscus id fide sua
— C. Julius Antiochus mani — )
purchase of a slave-boy by an ofBcer in the Roman fleet of
Misenum stationed on the Syrian coast, a.d. 166 {Pal. Soc. i.
190; Archaeologia liv. p. 433). The writing of the body of the
document is in a formal cursive, generally of the same formation
as the inscriptions on the Dacian waxen tablets of the 2nd
century, as will be seen from the accompanying facsimile of a
few lines (fig. 23).
With this example of legal handwriting of the 2nd century
it is interesting to compare two specimens of more ordinary
cursive in different styles found in private letters of about the
same time. The first (fig. 24) is taken from a fragmentary
letter of the year 167 (Grenfell and Hunt, Greek Papyri,
2nd series, cviii.) and is a typical example of a hurried style.
Fig. 24. — Letter, a.d. 167.
(Octobrium ad PuUiinos ad —
interueniente Minucium — ■
ct Apuleium nepotem scribam —
nonis Octobris imp. Uero ter — )
The second (fig. 25) is from a letter written by one Aurelius
Archelaus to Julius Domitius, tribunus mililuin, recommending a
friend named Theon, of the 2nd century (Oxyrhyiichus Papyri,
{., xxxii.), an instance apparently of slow and imperfect penman-
ship, every letter painfully and separately formed, yet not in the
detached strokes characteristic of the writing of the grafliti and
the tablets.
In the examples above we recognize practically the same
alphabet as in the graffiti and tablets, but with certain excep-
tions, particularly in the shape of the letter E, which is either
normal or written very cursively as an acute-angled tick, and in
the reversion of other letters to the more normal capital forms.
There is not sufficient material to trace step by step the de-
velopment of the Roman cursive hand between the 2nd and the
5th centuries; but still, with the few scattered examples at hand,
there seems to be reason for conjecture that Latin writing on
papyrus passed through phases not very dissimilar to those of
Greek writing on the same material. For, when we emerge
from the 3rd century, we find an enlarged flowing hand, as in
the Latin translation of the fables of Babrius in a fragmentary
papyrus of the Amherst collection (No. xxvi.), ascribed lo the
3rd or 4th century, and in a letter of recommendation from an
Fio. 25. — -Letter, 2nd century.
(Jam tibi ct pristine common
daueram Theonem amicum
meum et mod[o qujoque puto
domine ut eum ant oculos
habeas tanquam me est c
nim tales omo ut ametur
a te)
Egyptian official of the 4th century, now at Strassburg {Archiv.
fUr Papynisjorschung, iii. 2. 16S); the handwriting of the latter
recalling the large style of the Greek cursive of the Byzantine
period (fig. 26). That there should be an affinity between the
writing of Greek and that of Latin papyri emanating from Egypt
is naturaUy to be expected.
Fig. 26. — Letter of recommendation, 4th century.
(Cum in omnibus bonis benigniftas] —
etiam scholasticos et ma.<ime qui —
[honojriiicentiae tuae traduntur quod — )
This exam.ple shows what an immense advance had by this time
been made in the formation of the minuscule hand, and but
little more is required for its completion. It is to be noted,
however, that the pecuhar old form of letter B with the loop
on the left still persists. But only a short time was now needed
to bring this letter also in a new shape into Une with the other
members of the grow'ing minuscule alphabet.
.'\t this point must be noticed a very interesting and important
class of the Roman cursive hand which stands apart from the
general line of development. This is the oflicial hand of the
Roman Chancery, which is unfortunately represented by only
two fragmentary papyri of the 5th century (fig. 27), and proves
to be a curious moulding of the cursive in a calligraphic style,
in which, however, the same characters appear as in other
Roman cursive documents, if somewhat disguised. The papyri
contain portions of two rescripts addressed to Egyptian officials,
and are said to have been found at Phile and Elephantine.
Both documents are in the same hand; and the fragments are
divided between the libraries of Paris and Leiden. For a time
the writing remained undcciphered, and Champollion-Figeac.
while publishing a facsimile (Charles ct AfSS. sur papyrus, 1840,
pi. 14), had to confess that he was unable to read it. Massmann,
however, with the experience gained in his work upon the
waxed tablets, succeeded without much difficulty in readin.g
the fragment at Leiden {Libellus aitrarius. p. 147). and was
570
PALAEOGRAPHY
[LITERARY HANDS
followed by M. de Wailly, who published the whole of the
fragments (Mem. de Vlnstitut (1842), xv. 399). Later, Momm-
senandjaffe have dealt with the text of the documents (Jahrbuch
des. gem. deiit. Rechls (1863), vi. 398), and compared in a table
the forms of the letters with those of the Dacian tablets.
Fig. 27. — Deed of the Imperial Chancery, 5th century,
(portionem ipsi dcbitam rcsarcire
nee uUum precatorem ex instrumento)
The characters are large, the Hne of writing being about
three-fourths of an inch deep, and the heads and tails of the
long letters are flourished; but the even slope of the strokes
imparts to the writing a certain uniform and graceful appearance.
As to the actual shape of the letters, as will be seen from the
reduced facsimile here given, there may be recognized in many of
them only a more current form of those which have been de-
scribed above. The A and R may be distinguished by noticing
the different angle at which the top strokes are appHed; the B,
to suit the requirements of the more current style, is no longer
the closed li-shaped letter of the tablets, but is open at the bow
and more nearly resembles a reversed b; the tall letters /, h, I,
and long ^ have developed loops; O and ;)-shaped U are very
small, and written high in the hne. The letters which seem to
differ essentially from those of the tablets are E, M, N. The
first of these is probably explained correctly by Jaffe as a develop-
ment of the earher || quickly written and looped, and may be
compared with the tick-shaped letter noticed above. The M
and N have been compared with the minuscule forms of the
Greek tnu and nu. as though the latter had been adopted; but
they may with better reason be explained as merely cursive
forms of the Latin capitals M and N. That this hand should
have retained so much of the older formation of the Roman
cursive is no doubt to be attributed to the fact of its being an
official style of writing which would conform to tradition.
To continue the development which we saw attained in the
letter of the 4th century above (fig. 26) we turn to the docu-
ments on papyrus from Ravenna, Naples, and other places in
Italy, which date from the 5th century and are written in a
looser and more straggling hand (fig. 28). Examples of this
hand will be found in largest numbers in Marini's work specially
treating of these documents (/ papiri diplomatki), and also in
the pubhcations of JMabiUon {De re diplomatica) Champollion-
Figeac (Chartes et MSS. siir papyrus), Massmann {Urkunden
in Ncapel uiid Arezso), Gloria (Paleografia), as well as in Facs.
oj Ancient Charters in the British Museum, pt. iv., 1S78, Nos.
45, 46, and in the Facsimiles of the Palaeographical Society.
if/fyv^^
Fig. 28. — Deed of Sale (Ravenna), a.d. 572.
(huius splendedissimae urbis)
The letter a has now lost all trace of the capital; it is the open
M-shaped minuscule, developed from the looped uncial (i>^ <^);
the b, throwing off the loop or curve on the left which gave it
the appearance of d, has at length developed one on the right,
and appears in the form famihar in modern writing; minuscule
m, n, and u are fuUy formed (the last never joining a following
letter, and thus always distinguishable from a) ; p, q, and r
approach to the long minuscules, and s, having acquired an
incipient tag, has taken the form 7 which it keeps long after.
This form of writing was widely used, and was not confined
to legal documents. It is found in grammatical works, as in
the second hand of the pahmpsest MS. of Licinianus {Cat. Anc.
MSS., pt. ii., pis. I, 2) of the 6th century, andinsuch volumes
as the Josephus of the Ambrosian Library of the 7th century
{Pal. Soc. pi. 59), and in the St Avitus of the 6th century and
other MSS. written in France. It is indeed only natural to
suppose that this, the most convenient, because cursive, hand,
should have been employed for ordinary working MSS. which
were in daily use. That so few of such MSS. should have sur-
vived is no doubt owing to the destruction of the greater number
by the wear and tear to which they were subjected.
Latin Writing. II. — Literary Hands
We have now to return to the 1st century, the date from
which we started in the investigation of the Roman cursive
writing, and take up the thread of the history of the book-hand
of Uterature, a few rare examples of which have survived from
the ruins of Herculaneum. That a Roman book-hand existed
at a still earlier period is quite certain. The analogy of the
survival of very ancient examples of a Greek literary hand
is a sufficient proof; and it is a mere truism to say that as soon
as there was a literature, there was likewise a book-hand for
its vehicle. No work could be submitted for sale in the market
that was not written in a style legible to all. Neatly written
copies were essential, and the creation of a formal kind of
writing fitted for the purpose naturally resulted. Such formal
script must, however, be always more or less artificial as com-
pared with the natural current hand of the time, and there
must always be an antagonism between the two styles of script;
and, as we have seen in Greek palaeography, the book-hand is
always subject to the invading influence of the natural hand.
Capital Writing. — Among the Herculaneum fragmentary
papyri, then, we find our earliest examples of the Roman Uter-
ary hand, which must be earher than a.d. 79, the year of the
destruction of the city; and those examples prove to us that the
usual literary hand was written in capital letters. Of these
letters there are two kinds — the square and the rustic. Square
capitals may be defined as those which have their horizontal
fines at right angles with the vertical strokes; rustic letters are
not less accurately formed, nor, as their title would seem to
imply, are they rough in character, but, being without the exact
finish of the square letters, and being more readily written, they
have the appearance of greater simplicity. In capital writing
the letters are not all of equal height ; F and L, and in the rustic
sometimes others, as B and R, overtop the rest. In the rustic
alphabet the forms are generally fighter and more slender, with
short horizontal strokes more or less oblique and wavy. Both
styles of capital writing were obviously borrowed from the
lapidary alphabets employed under the empire. Both styles
were used for public notices inscribed on the walls of Pompeii and
other places. But it has been observed that scribes with a
natural conservatism would perpetuate a style some time
longer in books than it might be used in inscriptions. We
should therefore be prepared to allow for this in ascribing a
date to a capital written MS., which might resemble an inscrip-
tion older by a century or more. Rustic capitals, on account
of their more convenient shape, came into more general use;
and the greater number of the early MSS. in capitals which have
survived are consequently found to be in this character. In the
E.vem.pla codium latinoriim of Zaugemeister and Wattenbach
are collected specimens of capital writing.
The literary fragments of papyrus from Herculaneum are
written generally in rustic capitals, either of the firm, sohd
character used in inscriptions, or of the fighter style employed
in the fragments of a poem on the battle of .\ctium (fig. 29).
As this poem is the earliest hterary work in Latin,of any extent,
wTitten in the book-hand, a specimen of the writing is here
given. Its period must necessarily he between the year 31 B.C.
the date of the battle and a.d. 79; and therefore we may place
it at least early in the 1st century.
That the rustic capital hand was generally adopted for finely
written literary MSS. from the period of our earliest examples
onwards through the centuries immediately following may be
LITERARY HANDS]
PALAEOGRAPHY
571
assumed from the fact of that character being found so widely in
favour when we come down to the period of the vcUum MSS.
Unfortunately no examples have survived to fill the gap between
the first century and the oldest of the vellum codices written in
rustic capitals of the 4th century. Of the three great MSS. of
Virgil preserved in the Vatican Library, which are written in
Fig. 29. — Poem on the Battle of Actium, early ist century,
(pracberetque suae —
qualis ad instantis —
signa tubae classesq —
est facies ea visa loci — )
this character, the first in date is that known as the Schedae
Vaticanae {Excmpla, tab. 13; Pal. Soc. pi. 116, 117), a MS.
famous for its series of well-finished illustrative paintings in
classical style; it is ascribed to the 4th century. The other two
MSS. are known as the Codex Romanus and the Codex Palatinus
(Excmpla, tab. 11, 12; Pal. Soc. pi. 113-115), and are now
generally assigned to the 5th century. All three MSS. no doubt
must always have been regarded as choice works; and the large
scale of the writing employed, particularly in the case of the
Romanus and the Palatinus, and the consequently magnificent
size of the MSS. when complete, must indicate an unusual
importance attaching to them. They were editions de luxe of
the great Roman poet. The writing of the Codex Palatinus
(Fig. 30) especially is most exact, and is manifestly modelled
on the best type of the rustic hand as seen in the inscriptions.
ifiuivAavii>rojJTm/AV5iADiKOuaco6i
I>131AAUIAiOirtQ5llitmcUIlUlOlDrU
Fig. 30. — Virgil (Cod. Palatinus) 5th century.
(Testaturque deos iterum se ad proelia cogi
Bis iam Italos hostis haec altera foedera)
In assigning dates to the earliest MSS. of capital-writing, one
feels the greatest hesitation, none of them bearing any internal
evidence to assist the process. It is not indeed until the close
of the 5th century that we reach firm ground — the Medicean
Virgil of Florence having in it sufficient proof of having been
written before the year 494. The writing is in delicately-
formed letters, rather more spaced out than in the earlier exam-
ples (Excmpla, tab. 10; Pal. Soc. pi. 86). Another ancient
MS. in rustic capitals is the Codex Bembinus of Terence of the
4th or 5th century (Excmpla, tab. 8, 0; Pal. Soc, pi. 135), a
volume which is also of particular interest on account of its
marginal annotations, written in an early form of small hand.
Among palimpsests the most notable is that of the Cicero In
Vcrrem of the Vatican (Exempla, tab. 4).
Of vellum MSS. in square capitals the examples are not so
early as those in the rustic character. Portions of a MS. of
Virgil in the square letter are preserved in the Vatican, and other
leaves of the same are at Berlin (Excmpla, tab. 14). Each page,
however, begins with a large coloured initial, a style of ornament-
ation which is never found in the very earhest MSS. The date
assigned to this MS. is therefore the end of the 4th century. In
very similar writing, but not quite so exact, are some fragments
of another MS. of Virgil in the library of St Gall, probably of a
rather later time (Excmpla, tab. 1417; Pal. Soc. p. 208).
[n the 6th century capital-writing enters on its period of
decadence, and the examples of it become imitative. Of this
period is the Paris Prudentius (Excmpla, tab. 15; Pal. Soc. pis.
29, 30) in rustic letters modelled on the old pattern of early
inscriptions, but with a very different result from that obtained
by the early scribes. A comparison of this volume svith such
MSS. as the Codex Romanus and the Codex Palatinus shows the
later date of the Prudentius in its widespread writing and in
certain inconsistencies in forms. Of the 7th century is (he
Turin Scdulius (Excmpla, tab. 16), a MS. in which uncial writing
also appears — the rough and misshapen letters being evidences
of the cessation of capital writing as a hand in common use.
The latest imitative example of an entire MS. in rustic capitals
is in the Utrecht Psalter, written in triple columns and copied,
to all appearance, from an ancient example, and illustrated with
pen drawings. This MS. may be assigned to the beginning
of the gth century. If there were no other internal evidence
of late date in the MS. the mixture of uncial letters with the
capitals would decide it. In the Psalter of St Augustine's
Canterbury, in the Cottonian Library (Pal. Soc. pi. 10; Cal.
Anc. MSS. ii. pis. 12, 13), some leaves at the beginning are
written in this imitative style early in the 8th century; and again
it is found in the Bencdictional of Bishop Aethelwold (Pal. Soc.
pi. 143) of the loth century. In the sumptuous MSS. of the
Carlovingian school it was continually used; and it survived for
such purposes as titles and colophons for some centuries, usually
in a degenerate form of the rustic letters.
Uncial Writing. — There was also another majuscule form of
writing, besides capitals, employed as a hterary book-hand
at an early date, but not coeval with the early period of capital
writing. This second book-hand was the so-called Uncial hand,
a modification of the capital form of writing, in which the
square angles of the original letters were rounded off and certain
new curved shapes were introduced, the characteristic letters
of the uncial alphabet being a, b, £, b, ro. The origin of some
of these rounded letters may be traced in certain forms of the
Roman cursive letters of the graffiti and the tablets. But a
considerable length of time elapsed before the fully developed
uncial alphabet was evolved from these incipient forms. In fact
it is only in the vellum MSS. that we first find the firmly written
literary uncial hand in perfect form. No doubt the new material,
vellum, with its smooth hard surface, immediately afforded the
means for the calligraphic perfection with which w-e find the
uncial writing inscribed in these codices.
From the occurrence of isolated uncial forms in inscriptions,
the actual period of growth of the finished literary hand has been
determined to lie between the later part of the 2nd century and
the 4th century. Uncial letters are especially prevalent in
Roman-African inscriptions of the 3rd century; but certain
letters of the uncial alphabet are not as yet therein matured;
minuscule forms of a few letters, particularly h and d, are employed.
The discovery also, at Oxyrhynchus, of a fragmentary pap>Tus
of the 3rd century, containing a portion of an epitome of Livy,
presents us with an example of the uncial hand in progress of
formation for literary purposes, the text being composed mainly
of letters of the uncial type, but including a certain proportion
of letters, as b, d, m, r, of the minuscule or small character. At
length in the 4th century, as already stated, the perfected uncial
literary alphabet is found in the vellum codices.
There are still extant a very large number of Latin uncial
MSS., a proof of the wide use of this form of literary writing in
the early middle ages.
The Excmpla of Zangemeister and Wattenbach, so often
quoted above, contains a series of facsimiles which illustrate
its progress through its career. The letter r^ has been adopted
by the editors as a test letter, in the earlier forms of which the
last limb is not curved or turned in. The letter € also in its
earlier and purer form has the cross stroke placed high. But,
as in every style of WTiting, when once developed, the earhest
examples are the best, being WTitten with a free hand and natural
stroke. The Gospels of Vercelli (E.xcmpla. tab. 20), said to have
been written by the hand of Eusebius himself, and which may
indeed be of his time, is one of the most ancient uncial MSS.
Its narrow columns and pure forms of letters have the stamp of
antiquity. To the 4th century also is assigned the palimpsest
Cicero De republica in the Vatican (Excmpla. tab. 17; Pal. Soc.
572
PALAEOGRAPHY
[NATIONAL HANDS
pi. i6o), a MS. written in fine large characters of the best type;
and a very ancient fragment of a commentary on an ante-Hiero-
nymian text, in three columns, has also survived at Fulda
{Exempla, tab. 21). Among the uncial MSS. of the 5th century
of which good photographic facsimiles are available are the two
famous codices of Livy, at Vienna (fig. 31) and Paris (Exempla,
tab. iS, 19; Pdl. Soc. pi. 31, 32, 183).
|xmTiBiiUAc|UAei<;NO
|lANnASXeCUlAR.ISBO
N A O r « N A(OIV.OS1 eNcJA*^
Fig. 31. — Livy (Vienna MS.), 5th century.
(lam tibi ilia quae igno
rantia saecularis bo
na opinatur ostendam)
To distinguish between uncial MSS. of the 5th and 6th centuries
is not very easy, for the character of the writing changes but
little, and is free from sign of weakness or wavering. It may,
however, be noticed that in MSS. which are assigned to the latter
century there is rather less compactness, and occasionally, as
the century advances, there is a slight tendency to artificiahty.
When the 7th century is reached there is every evidence that
uncial writing has entered on a new stage. The letters are more
roughly and carelessly formed, and the compactness of the
earlier style is altogether wanting. From this time down to
the age of Charlemagne there is a continual deterioration, the
writing of the Sth century being altogether misshapen. A more
exact but imitative hand was, however, at the same time em-
ployed, when occasion required, for the production of calli-
graphic MSS., such as BibUcal and liturgical books. Under the
encouragement given by Charlemagne to such works, splendid
uncial volumes were written in ornamental style, often in gold,
several of which have survived to this day.
Mixed and Half-Jincial Writing. — It is obvious that the majus-
cule styles of literary writing, viz. the square capital, the rustic
capital and the uncial, were of too elaborate and too stately
a character to serve all the many requirements of literature.
The capital hands, as we have seen, appear to have been
employed, at least in many instances, for codices produced on
a grand scale, and presumably for special occasions; and if the
uncial hand had a longer and wider career, yet in this case also
there must often have been a sense that the employment of
this fine character gave a special importance and value to the
MS. It is not improbable that the survival of so large a number
of uncial MSS. is due to the special care that they received at
the hands of their owners. Other more manageable styles of
writing were necessary, and concurrently with the majuscule
hands other forms were developing. The hand which bears the
name of Half-uncial was finally evolved, and had itself an
important career as a book-hand as well as exercising a large
influence on the medieval minuscule hand of literature.
From the first, as we have seen in the case of the graffiti and
the tablets, a mingling of capital forms and minuscule forms
was prevalent in the non-literary style of writing. There are
indications that the same minghng of the two streams was
allowed in writing of a literary character. It appears in a
rudimentary state in a papyrus fragment from Herculaneum
(Exempla, tab. 2 b); and it appears in the epitome of Livy of the
3rd century found at Oxyrhynchus, in which minuscule letters
are interspersed among the uncial text. From the regularity
and ease with which this MS. is written, it is to be assumed
that the mixed hand was ordinarily practised at that time. It
is often employed for marginal notes in the early vellum codices.
It is used for the text of the Verona Gains (Exempla, tab. 24)
of the 5th century, in which, besides the ordinary uncial shapes,
d is also found as a minuscule, r as the transitional r, and 5
as the tall letter v. Again, in the uncial Florentine Pandects
of the 6th century appears a hand which contains a large admix-
ture of minuscule forms (Exempla, tab. 54). From these and
other instances it is seen that in uncial MSS. of a secular nature,
as in works relating to law and grammar, the scribe did not feel
himself restricted to a uniform use of the larger letters, as he
would be in producing a church book or calligraphic MS.
But the mixed hand, although partaking something of the
nature of the Half-uncial hand, was not actually that form of
writing. The Half-uncial hand was not only a mingling of
uncial and minuscule forms, but also a blending of them, the
uncial element yielding more or less to the minuscule influence,
while the minuscule element was reacted upon by the uncial
sentiment of roundness and sweeping curves. In its full develop-
ment the Half-uncial, or Roman Half-uncial as it is also called,
were it not for a few lingering pure uncial forms, might equally
well be described as a large-type minuscule hand. It has, in
fact, been sometimes styled the pre-Carolingian minuscule.
An early form of this writing is found in the papyrus fragment
of Sallust's Catiline, perhaps of the early 5th century, recently
recovered at Oxyrhynchus. In vellum codices of the 5th, 6th
and 7th centuries Half-uncial writing of a very fine type is not
uncommon. It is used for the marginal scholia of the Bembine
Terence, of the 5th century. The MS. of the Fasti consulares,
at Verona, brought down to 494 a.d. (Exempla, tab. 30), is also
in this hand. But the earliest MS. of this class to which a more
approximate date can be given is the Hilary of St Peter's at
Rome (fig. 32), which was written in or before the year 509 or
510 (Exempla, tab. 52; Pal. Soc. pi. 136); the next is the Sul-
picius Severus of Verona, of 517 (Exempla, iah. 32); and of the
year 569 is a beautifully written MS. at Monte Cassino containing
a Biblical commentary [Exempla, tab. 3).
rMcuTiNONcuJfiajuoc^qmcoig
Fig. 32. — St Hilary, A.D. 509-510.
(episcopi manum innocente[m]—
[lin] guam non ad falsiloquiuin coeg[isti] —
nationem anterioris sententi[ae] — )
Other examples, of which good facsimiles may be consulted,
are the Corbie MS. of Canons, at Paris (Exempla, tab, 41, 42),
the St Severianus at Milan (Pal. Soc. pi. 161, 162), the Ashburn-
ham St Augustine (Pal. Soc. ii. 9), and the Paris St Augustine
(New. Pal. Soc. pi. 80), of the 6th century; and the Cologne MS.
of Canons (Exempla, tab. 44), and the Josephus (Pal. Soc. pi.
138) and St Ambrose (Pal. Soc. pi. 137) of Milan, of the 6th or
7th century.
The influence which the Half-uncial literary hand exercised
upon the minuscule book-writing of the 7th and Sth centuries
may be traced in greater or less degree in the continental MSS.
of that period. We shall find that it formed the basis for the
beautiful national handwritings of Ireland and Britain; and it
played an important part in the Carolingian reform of the book-
hand of the Prankish Empire.
Latin Writing. III. — The National Hands
We have now to follow the rise and development of the
national handwritings of western Europe, all of which were
derived from the Roman hand, but from different phases of
it. WhOe the Roman Empire was the central power controlling
its colonies and conquests, the Roman handwriting, however
far apart might be the several countries in which it was current,
remained practically one and the same. But, when the empire
was broken up and when independent nationalities arose upon
its ruins and advanced upon independent paths of civilization,
the handwriting inherited from Rome graduaUy assumed dis-
tinctive characters and took the complexions of the several
countries, unless from some accident the continuity of the effects
of the Roman occupation was disturbed, as it was in Britain
by the Saxon invasion. On the continent of western Europe,
in Italy, in Spain, in Gaul, the Roman cursive hand had become
the common form of writing, and it remained the framework on
which the national hands of those countries developed. Thus
NATIONAL HANDS]
PALAEOGRAPHY
573
grew the Lombardic hand of Italy, the Visigothic hand of Spain,
and the Merovingian and, later, the Carolingian hand of the
Frankish Empire. The earhest charters of the three national
divisions, written in cursive hands directly descending from
the Roman cursive, and dating generally from the 7th century,
still remained related in their general style. It was in the
book-hands, elaborated from the cursive character, that the
lines of national demarcation became more clearly defined,
although naturally there occur also many examples in mixed
styles which it is difficult to assign to one or another country.
Lombardic Writing. — The national handwriting of Italy did
not follow one and the same lines of development throughout
the peninsula. In ordinary documents the cursive hand which
is seen in the Ravenna deeds, the direct descendant of the
Roman cursive, continued in use, growing, in course of time,
more and more intricate and difficult to read, the earliest
e.\amples, down to the middle of the 9th century, being in the
large straggling character of their prototype. The illegible
scrawl into which the hand finally degenerated in notarial
instruments of southern Italy was at length suppressed by order
of Frederick II. (a. d. 12 10-12 50). But at an early date the
Lombardic book-hand was being formed out of this material.
In northern Italy new influences were brought into action by
Charlemagne's conquest, the independent growth of the native
hand was checked, and a mixed style in which the Merovingian
type was interwoven with the Italian was produced, to which
the name of Franco-Lombardic has been given (see below,
fig. 39). But in the Lombardic duchies of the south the native
Lombardic book-hand had an unimpeded growth. In such
centres as the monasteries of Monte Cassino near Naples and
La Cava near Salerno, it took in the 9th century a very exact
$c twy>c ejV ^^ cjiw jc|;rpmm e(V/ en-'
Fig. 33. — Exultat roll (Lombardic, 12th century).
([H]ec nox est de qua scriptum est Et
nox ut dies illuminabitur)
and uniform shape. From this date the attention which it
received as a calligraphic form of writing, accompanied with
accessory ornamentation of initial letters, brought it to a high
state of perfection in the nth century, when by the peculiar
treatment of the letters, they assume that strong contrast of
light and heavy strokes which when exaggerated, as it finally
became, received the name of broken Lombardic. This style
of hand lasted to the 13th century.
Papal Documents. — A word must be said in this place regard-
ing the independent development of the hands used in the papal
! 1 f
'V'
1 1 |<)1rB4-c *-t° 'tn
Fig. 34. — Bull of Pope John VIII. (much reduced, a.d. 876).
(Dei genctricis mariae filib —
haec igitur omnia quae huius praeccpti)
chancery, that great centre which had so wide an influence by
setting the pattern for the handsome round-hand writing which
became so characteristic of the Italian script. Specimens of a
special style of writing, founded on the Lombardic and called
littera romana (fig. 34) are to be seen in the early papal docu-
ments on papyrus dating from the latter part of the 8th century.
In the earliest examples it appears on a large scale, and has
rounded forms and sweeping strokes of a very bold character.
Derived from the official Roman hand, it has certain letters
peculiar to itself, such as the letter a made almost like a Greek
w, / in the form of a loop, and e as a circle with a knot at the top.
This hand may be followed in examples from a.d. 788 through
the 9th century (/^ijcj. (/c chartcs cl diplomcs, 1866; Ch. Figeac,
Charles cl doc. sur papyrus, i-xii.; Letronne, Diplom. merov. mlat.,
pi. 48. In a bull of Silvester II., dated in 999 {Bibl. I'Ec.
dcs chartcs, vol. xxxvii.), we find the hand becoming less round;
and at the end of the next century, under Urban II., in 1097
(Mabillon, De re dipl. suppl. p. 115) and 1098 (Sickel, Man.
graph. V. 4), it is in a curious angular style, which, however, then
disappears. During the nth and 12th centuries the imperial
chancery hand was also used for papal documents, and was in
turn displaced by the exact and calligraphic papal Italian hand
of the later middle ages.
Visigothic Writing. — The Visigothic writing of Spain ran a
course of development not unlike that of the Lombardic. In
the cursive hand attributed to the 7th century the Roman
cursive has undergone little change in form; but another century
developed a most distinctive character. In the 8th century
appears the set book-hand in an even and not difficult character,
marked by breadth of style and a good firm stroke. This style
is maintained through the 9th century with little change, except
that there is a growing tendency to calligraphy. In the loth
century the writing deteriorates; the letters are not so uniform,
and, when calligraphically written, are generally thinner in
stroke. The same changes which are discernible in all the hand-
writings of western Europe in the nth century are also to be
traced in the Visigothic hand — particularly as regards the
rather rigid character which it assumes. It continued in use
down to the beginning of the 12th century. Perhaps the most
characteristic letter of the book-hand is the ^-shaped g. The
following specimens (figs. 35, 36) illustrate the Visigothic as
written in a large heavy hand of the gth century (Cat. Anc.
MSS.'n. Plate 37), and in a calligraphic example of 1109 (Pal.
Sac. Plate 48).
Fig. 35. — Prayers, 9th century,
(tibi dulcedine proxi
morum et dignita
te opcrum perfectorura)
(ju^^ftntcab 4 cajftndiaujdflflbdltf^lu
baliuur ufauehuo jVucmT dipUtdruu
Fig. 36. — Beatus on the Apocalypse, a.d. 1109.
(patrum ct profefarum et sanctorum et apostoloncm
oue gemitibus ct tormenta desiderii sui
habuit usquequo fructuw ex plebe sua)
Merovingian. — The early writing of the Frankish Empire, to
which the title of Merovingian has been apphed, had a wider
range than the other two national hands already described. It
had a long career both for diplomatic and hterary purposes.
In this writing, as it appears in documents, we see that the
Roman cursive is subjected to a lateral pressure, so that the
letters received a curiously cramped appearance, while the heads
and tails are exaggerated to inordinate length.
Facsimiles of this hand, as used in the royal and imperial chan-
ceries, are to be found scattered in various works; but a complete
course of Merovingian diplomatic writing may be best studied
in Letrcmne's Diplomala, and in the Kaiscrurkundcn of Professors
Sybel and Sickel. In the earliest documents, commencing
in the 7th century and continuing to the middle of the Sth
574
PALAEOGRAPHY
[NATIONAL HANDS
century, the character is large and at first not so intricate as it
becomes later in this period. The writing then grows into a
more regular form, and in the 9th century a small hand is estab-
lished, which, however, stiU retains the exaggerated heads and
tails of letters. The direct course of this chancery hand may
then be followed in the imperial documents, which from the
l^^^-^iKH^fir^^Q^c^ifYu.
Fig. 37, — Merovingian diploma, a.d. 679-680.
(dedit in respunsis eo quod ipsa —
de annus triginta et uno inter ipso —
— ondam semper tenuerant et possiderant si — )
second half of the gth century are written in a hand more set
and evidently influenced by the Carolingian minuscule. This
form of writing, stiU accompanied by the lengthened strokes
already referred to, continued in force, subject, however, to
the varying changes which affected it in common with other
hands, into the 12th century. Its influence was felt as well in
France as in Germany and Italy; and certain of its charac-
teristics also appear in the court-hand which the Normans
brought with them into England.
The book-hand immediately derived from the early Mero-
vingian diplomatic hand is seen in MSS. of the 7th and 8th
centuries in a very neatly written but not very easy hand
{Cat. Anc. MSS. ii. Plates 29, 30; Arndt, SchriJUaJ. 28).
Fig. 38. — St Gregor>-'s Moralia, 7th century-.
Merovingian Writing, 7th century.
( — dam intra sinum sanc/ae eclesiae quasi uicinos ad —
positos increpant. Saepe uero arrogantes —
— dem quam tenent arrogantiam se fugire osten — )
But other varieties of the literary hand as written in France
are seen to be more closely allied to the Roman cursive. The
earliest example is found in the papjTus fragments of writings
of St Avitus and St Augustine of the 6th century [Etudes paleogr.
stir des papyrus du VI'"' siide, Geneva, 1866); and other later
MSS. by their diversity of writing show a development indepen-
dent of the cursive hand of the Merovingian charters. It is
among these MSS. that those examples already referred to occur
which more nearly resemble the Lombardic type.
f^mfutunic fubucn^tc Cmv^\fn<mr.^
Fig. 39. — Ecclesiastical Canons (Franco-Lombardic), 8th century,
(propter unitatem salua propriaetate na —
non sub una substantia conuenientes, neque —
— itam sed unum eundem filium. Unicum deum)
The uncial and half-uncial hands had also their influence in
the evolution of these Merovingian book-hands; and the mixture
of so many different forms accounts for the variety to be found
in the examples of the 7th and Sth centuries. In the Notice
sur un MS. Merovingicn d'Eiigyppus (1875) and the Notice sur
un MS. Merovingicn de la Bibl. d'Epinal (1878), Delisle has
given many valuable facsimiles in illustration of the different
hands in these two MSS. of the early part of the Sth century.
See also Exempla Codd. Lat. (tab. 57), and autotypes in Cat.
anc. MSS. u. There was, however, through all this period a
general progress towards a settled minuscule writing which only
required a master-hand to fix it in a purified and calligraphic
form. How this was effected will be described below, after
disposing of the early national writing of our own islands.
Irish Writing. — The early history of the palaeography of the
British Isles stands apart from that of the continental schools.
As was noticed above, the Roman handwriting which was used
by the Roman settlers in Britain and was imparted by them to
the native Britons was swept out of existence when the Saxon
invasion abruptly destroyed the continuity of Roman civiliza-
tion in these islands. Britain had to wait a long time for the
reappearance of Roman writing in the country; but it was
destined to reappear, though in a different phase, in book-form,
not in cursive form; and not directly, but through another
channel. That channel was Ireland.
It is evident that the civilization and learning which accom-
panied the establishment of an ancient Church in Ireland could
not exist without a written literature. The Roman mission-
aries would certainly in the first place have imported copies of
the Gospels and other books, and it cannot be doubted that
through intercourse with England the Irish would obtain con-
tinental MSS. in sufficient numbers to serve as models for their
scribes. From, geographical and political conditions, however,
no continuous intimacy with foreign countries was possible;
and we are consequently prepared to find a form of writing
borrowedin the first instance from a foreign school, but developed
under an independent national system. In Ireland we have an
instance how conservative writing may become, and how it will
hand on old forms of letters from one generation to another
when there is no exterior influence to act upon it. After once
obtaining its models, the Irish school of writing was left to work
out its own ideas, and continued to follow one direct line for
centuries. The subsequent English conquest had no effect upon
the national handwriting. Both peoples in the island pursued
their own course. In MSS. in the Irish language the Irish
character of writing was naturally employed; and the liturgical
books produced in Irish monasteries by Irish monks were written
in the same way. The grants and other deeds of the English
settlers were, on the other hand, drawn up by English scribes
in their then national writing. The Irish handwriting went on
in its even uninterrupted course; and its consequent unchanging
form makes it so difficult a matter to assign accurate dates to
Irish MSS.
The early Irish handwriting is of two classes — the round and
the pointed. The round hand is found in the earliest examples;
the pointed hand, which also was developed at an early period
became the general hand of the country, and survives in the
native writing of the present day. Of the earliest surviving
jSISS. written in Ireland none are found to be in pure uncial letters.
That uncial MSS. were introduced into the country by the early
missionaries can hardly be doubted, if we consider that that
character was so commonly employed as a bookhand, and
especially for sacred texts. Nor is it impossible that Irish
scribes may have practised this hand. The copy of the Gospels
in uncials, found in the tomb of St Kilian, and preserved at
Wiirzburg, has been quoted as an instance of Irish uncial. The
writing, however, is the ordinary uncial, and bears no marks
of Irish nationality {Exempla, tab. 58). The most ancient
examples are in half-uncial letters, so similar in character to the
continental half-uncial MSS. of Roman type noticed above, that
there can be no hesitation in deriving the Irish from the Roman
writing. We have only to compare the Irish ]\ISS. of the round
type with the continental MSS. to be convinced of the identity
of their styles of writing. There are unfortunately no means
of ascertaining the exact period when this style of hand was first
adopted in Ireland. Among the very earliest surviving exam-
ples none bears a fixed date; and it is impossible to accept the
traditional ascription of certain of them to particular saints of
NATIONAL HANDS]
PALAEOGRAPHY
575
Ireland, as St Patrick and St Columba. Such traditions are
notoriously unstable ground upon which to take up a position.
But an examination of certain examples will enable the palaeo-
grapher to arrive at certain conclusions. In Trinity College,
Dublin, is preserved a fragmentary copy of the Gospels {Nat.
MSS. Ireland, i. pi. ii.) vaguely assigned to a period from the
5th to the 7th century, and written in a round half-uncial hand
closely resembling the continental hand, but bearing the general
impress of its Irish origin. This MS. may perhaps be of the
early part of the 7th century.
Fig. 40. — Gospels, 7th century,
(ad ille dcintus respondens [dicit, Nojli mihi molestus esse, iam
osti[um clausum] est et pueri in cubiculo mecum [sunt])
Again, the Psalter {Nat. MSS. Ireland, i. pis. iii., iv.) tradi-
tionally ascribed to St Columba (d. 597), and perhaps of the 7th
century, is a calligraphic specimen of the same kind of writing.
The earliest examples of the continental half-uncial date back,
as has been seen above, to the 5th century. Now the hkencss
between the earliest foreign and Irish MSS. forbids us to assume
anything like collateral descent from a common and remote
stock. Two ditTerent national hands, although derived from
the same source, would not independently develop in the same
way, and it may accordingly be granted that the point of contact,
or the period at which the Irish scribes copied and adopted the
Roman half-uncial, was not very long, comparatively, before
the date of the now earliest surviving examples. Thfs would
take us back at least to the 6th century, in which period there
is sufficient evidence of literary activity in Ireland. The beauti-
ful Irish calUgraphy, ornamented with designs of marvellous
intricacy and brilliant colouring, which is seen in full vigour
at the end of the 7th century, indicates no small amount of
labour bestowed upon the cultivation of writing as an ornamental
art. It is indeed surprising that such excellence was so quickly
developed. The Book of Kells has been justly acknowledged
as the culminating example of Irish calligraphy {Nat. MSS. Ire-
land, i. ph. vii.-xwu.; Pal. Sac. pis. S5, 5(>)- The text is written
in the large soUd half-uncial hand which is again seen in the
Gospels of St Chad at Lichfield {Pal. Soc. pis. 20, 21, 35), and,
in a smaller form, in the EngHsh-written Lindisfarne Gospels
(see below). Having arrived at the calligraphic excellence just
referred to, the round hand appears to have been soon afterwards
superseded, for general use, by the pointed; for the character
of the large half-uncial writing of the Gospels of MacRegol, of
about the year 800 {Nat. MSS. Ireland, i. pis. x.xii.-xxiv. ;
Pal. Soc. pis. 90, 01), shows a very great deterioration from
the vigorous writing of the Book of Kells, indicative of want
of practice.
Traces of the existence of the pointed hand are early. It
is found in a fully developed stage in the Book of Kells itself
{Pal. Soc. pi. 88). This form of writing, which may be termed
the cursive hand of Ireland, differs in its origin from the national
cursive hands of the Continent. In the latter the old Roman
cursive has been shown to be the foundation. The Irish pointed
hand, on the contrary, had nothing to do with the Roman
cursive, but was simply a modification of the round hand, using
the same forms of letters, but subjecting them to a lateral
compression and drawing their limbs into points or hair-lines.
As this process is found developed in the Book of Kells, its
beginning may be fairly assigned to as early a time as the first
half of the 7th century; but for positive date there is the same
uncertainty as in regard to the first beginning of the round hand.
The Book of Dimma {Nat. MSS. Ireland, i. pis. xviii., xix.)
has been attributed to a scribe of about a.d. 650; but it appears
rather to be of the 8th century, if we may judge by the analogy
of English MSS. written in a similar hand. It is not in fact until
we reach the period of the Book of Armagh {Nat. MSS. Ireland,
pis. xxv.-xxix.), a MS. containing books of the New Testament
and other matter, and written by Ferdomnarh, a scribe who died
in the year 844, that we are on safe ground. Here is clearly
a pointed hand of the early part of the 9th century, very similar
to the English pointed hand of Mercian charters of the same
time. The MS. of the Gospels of MacDurnan, in the Lambeth
Library {Nat. MSS. Ireland, i. pis. xxx., xxxi.) is an example of
writing of the end of the 9th or beginning of the loth century,
showing a tendency to become more narrow and cramped. But
coming down to the MSS. of the nth or 12th centuries we find
a change. The pointed hand by this time has become moulded
into the angular and stereotyped form peculiar to Irish MSS. of
the later middle ages. From the 12th to the 15th centuries
there is a very gradual change. Indeed, a carefully written MS.
of late date may very well pass for an example older by a century
or more. A book of hymns of the nth or 12th century (Nat.
MSS. Ireland, i. pis. xxxii.-xxxvi.) may be referred to as a
good typical specimen of the Irish hand of that period; and the
Gospels of Maelbrighte, of a.d. IT38 {Nat. MSS. Ireland, i.
pis. xl.-xlii.; Pal. Soc. pi. 212), as a calligraphic one.
In Irish MSS. of the later period, the ink is black, and the
vellum, as a general rule, is coarse and discoloured, a defect
which may be attributed to inexperience in the art of preparing
the skins and to the effects of climate.
When a school of writing attained to the perfection which
marked that of Ireland at an early date, so far in advance of
other countries, it naturally followed that its influence should
be felt beyond it own borders. How the influence of the Irish
school asserted itself in England will be presently discussed.
But on the Continent also Irish monks carried their civihzing
power into different countries, and continued their native style
of writing in the monasteries which they founded. At such
centres as Luxeuil in France, Wiirzburg in Germany, St Gall in
Switzerland, and Bobbio in Italy, they were as busy in the pro-
duction of MSS. as they had been at home. At first such MSS.
were no doubt as distinctly Irish in their character as if written in
Ireland itself; but, after a time, as the bonds of connexion with
that country were weakened, the form of wTiting would become
rather traditional, and lose the elasticity of a native hand. As
the national styles also which were practised around them
became more perfected, the writing of the Irish houses wotUd
in turn be reacted on; and it is thus that the later MSS. produced
in those houses can be distinguished. Archaic forms are tradi-
tionally retained, but the spirit of the hand dies and the wTiting
becomes merely imitative.
English Writing. — In England there were two sources whence
a national hand could be derived. From St Colum.ba's founda-
tion in lona the Irish monks established monasteries in the
northern parts of Britain; and in the year 635 the Irish mis-
sionary Aidan founded the see of Lindisfarne or Holy Isle, where
there was estabhshed a school of writing destined to become
famous. In the south of England the Roman missionaries had
also brought into the country their own style of writing direct
from Rome, and taught it in the newly founded monasteries.
But their writing never became a national hand. Such a MS.
as the Canterbury Psalter in the Cottonian Library {Pal. Soc.
pi. 18) shows what could be done by Enghsh scribes in imitation
of Roman uncials; and the existence of so few early charters in
the same letters {Facs. of Anc. Charters, pt. i., Nos. i, 2, 7),
among the large number which have survived, goes to prove
how hmited was the influence of that form of writing. The
famous MS. of the Bible known as the Codex Amiatinus, now
at Florence, which was written in uiicials at Jarrow in Northum-
bria, about the year 7CX3, was almost certainly the work of foreign
scribes. On the other hand, the Irish style made progress
throughout England, and was adopted as the national hand,
developing in course of time certain local peculiarities, and lasting
as a distinct form of wTiting down to the time of the Norman
Conquest. But, while English scribes at first copied their Irish
models with faithful exactness, they soon learned to give to their
writing the stamp of a national character, and imparted to it the
elegance and strength which individualized the English hand for
many centuries to come.
/
PALAEOGRAPHY
[NATIONAL HANDS
As in Ireland, so here we have to follow the course of the round
hand as distinct from the pointed character. The earliest
and most beautiful MS. of the former class is the Lindisfarne
Gospels (tig. 41) or " Durham Book " in the Cottonian Library
{Pal. Soc. pis. 3-6, 22; Cat. Anc. MSS. pt. ii. pis. 8-11),
said to have been written by Eadfrith, bishop of Lindisfarne,
about the year 700. The text is in very e.xactly formed half-
uncials, differing but shghtly from the same characters in Irish
MSS., and is glossed in the Northumbrian dialect by Aldred, a
writer of the loth century.
.RCtTJum pajBLounin
pfca TTiTces quouiam
ipsi posiDebouc—
Fig. 41. — Lindisfarne Gospels, c. A.D. 700.
(regnum caelorum. Beati mites quoniam ipsi
posidebunt.
ric heofna
agnegad. )
isidebunt.
ric heofna eadge bidon d'a milde fortfon da
MSS. in the same solid half-uncial hand are still to be seen
in the Chapter Library of Durham, this style of writing having
been practised more especially in the north of England. But
in addition to this calligraphic book-writing, there was also a
lighter form of the round letters which was used for less sump-
tuous MSS. or for more ordinary occasions. Specimens of this
hand are found in the Durham Cassiodorus {Pal. Soc. pi. 164),
in the Canterbury Gospels {Pal. Soc. pi. 7; Cat. Anc. MSS.
pt. ii., pis. 17, 18), the Epinal Glossary {E. Eng. Text Soc),
and in a few charters {Facs. Anc. Charters, pt. i., 15; ii., 2, 3;
Pal. Soc. 10), one of which, of a.d. 778, written in Wessex,
is interesting as showing the extension of the round hand to the
southern parts of England. The examples here enumerated
are of the 8th and Qth centuries — the earlier ones being written
in a free natural hand, and those of later date bearing evidence
of decadence. Indeed the round hand was being rapidly dis-
placed by the more convenient pointed hand, which was in full
use in England in the middle of the 8th century. How late,
however, the more calligraphic round hand could be continued
under favouring circumstances is seen in the Liber Vitae or list
of benefactors of Durham {Cat. Anc. MSS. pt. ii., pi. 25; Pal.
Soc. pi. 23S), the writing of which would, from its beautiful
execution, be taken for that of the 8th century, did not internal
evidence prove it to be of about the year 840.
The pointed hand ran its course through the 8th, 9th, and loth
centuries, until English writing came under the influence of the
foreign minuscule. The leading characteristics of this hand in
the 8th century are regularity and breadth in the formation of
the letters and a calligraphic contrast of heavy and light strokes
— the hand being then at its best. In the gth century there is
greater lateral compression, although regularity and correct
formation are maintained. But in the loth century there are
signs of decadence. New forms are introduced, and there is a
disposition to be imitative. A test letter of this latter century
is found in the letter a with obliquely cut top, Q.
The course of the progressive changes in the pointed hand may
be followed in the Facsimiles of Ancient Charters in the British
Museum and in the Facsimiles of Anglo-Saxon MSS. of the
Rolls Series. The charters ' reproduced in these works have
survived in sufficient numbers to enable us not only to form a
fairly accurate knowledge of the criteria of their age, but also
to recognize local peculiarities of writing. The Mercian scribes
appear to have been very excellent penmen, writing a very
graceful hand with much delicate play in the strokes. On the
other hand the writing of Wessex was heavier and more straggling
and is in such strong contrast to the Mercian hand that its
examples may be easily detected with a little practice. Turning
to books in which the pointed hand was employed, a very beauti-
ful specimen, of the 8th century, is a copy of Bede's Ecclesiastical
History (fig. 42) in the University Library at Cambridge {Pal.
Soc. pis. 139, 140), which has in a marked degree that
breadth of style which has been referred to. Not much later is
another copy of the same work in the Cottonian Library {Pal.
Soc. pi. 141; Cat. Anc. MSS. pt. ii., pi. 19), from which the
following facsimile is taken.
Fig. 42. — Bc-dc, Sth century.
(tus sui tempora gerebat.
Uir uenerabilis oidiluuald, qui multis
annis in monasterio qaod dicitur Inhry )
For an example of the beginning of the 9th century, a MS. of
miscellanea, of a.d. 811-814, also in the Cottonian Library, may
be referred to {Pal. Soc. pi. 165; Cat. Anc. MSS. pt. ii.
Plate 24) ; and a very interesting MS. written in the Wessex
style is the Digby MS. 63 of the middle of the century {Pal.
Soc. pi. 168). As seen in the charters, the pointed writing
of the loth century assumes generally a larger size, and is rather
more artificial and calligraphic. A very beautiful example of
the book-hand of this period is found in the volume known as
the Durham Ritual {Pal. Soc. pi. 240), which, owing to the
care bestowed on the writing and the archaism of the style,
might at first sight pass for a MS. of higher antiquity.
In the latter part of the loth century the foreign set minuscule
hand began to make its way into England, consequent on
increased intercourse with the Continent and political changes
which followed. In the charters we find the foreign and native
hands on the same page: the body of the document, in Latin, in
Carolingian minuscules; the boundaries of the land conveyed, in
the English hand. The same practice was followed in books.
The charter (in book form) of King Eadgar to New Minster,
Winchester, a.d. 966 {Pal. Soc. pis. 46, 47), the Benedic-
tional of Bishop vEthelwold of Winchester (pis. 142, 144)
before a.d. 984, and the MS. of the Office of the Cross,
A.D. loi 2-1020 (pi. 60), also written in Winchester, are all
examples of the use of the foreign minuscule for Latin. The
change also which the national hand underwent at this period
may certainly be attributed to this foreign influence. The
pointed hand, strictly so-called, is replaced by a rounder or
rather square character, with lengthened strokes above and
below the line.
tnonmi iieyceyUiY ma^cu. jtax^ pimrizw^jc-
tyliri* cmplcrrel>eb€rL^cn cecrpii^itn^jwra
Fig. 43. — Chronicle, nth century,
(manan he waes his maega. sceard freonda ge
fylled on folcstede beslaegen aet s^cge. and his sunu
forlcet. on waelstowe wundum forgrunden.)
This style of writing becomes the ordinary English hand down
to the time of the Norman Conquest. That event extinguished
the national hand for official purposes — it disappears from
charters; and the already established use of the Carolingian
minuscule in Latin MSS. completed its exclusion as the hand-
writing of the learned. It cannot, however, be doubted that it
still lingered in those parts of the country where foreign
influence did not at once penetrate, and that Englishm.en still
continued to write their own language in their own style of
writing. But that the earlier distinctive national hand was
soon overpowered by foreign teaching is evident in English
MSS. of the 1 2th century, the writing of which is of the foreign
type, although the English letter thorn, Y, survived and continued
in use down to the 15th century, when it was transformed to y.
CAROLINGIAN REFORM]
PALAEOGRAPHY
57
/
Latin Writing. IV. — The Carolingian Reform and the
Medieval Minuscule Hand
It has been stated above that in the Merovingian MSS. of the
8th century there was evident progress towards a settled minu-
scule book-hand which only required a master hand to fix it in
a purified and calligraphic form. This was effected under
Charlemagne, in whose reign the revival of learning naturally
led to a reform in handwriting. An ordinance of the year ySg
required the revision of Church books; and a more correct
orthography and style of writing was the consequence. The
abbey of St Martin of Tours was one of the principal centres
from whence the reformation of the book-hand spread. Here,
from the year 796 to 804, Alcuin of York presided as abbot;
and it was specially under his direction that the Carolingian
minuscule writing took the simple and graceful form which was
gradually adopted to the exclusion of all other hands. In
carrying out this reformation we may well assume that Alcuin
brought to bear the results of the training which he had received
in his youth in the EngUsh school of writing, which had attained
to such proficiency, and that he was also beneficially influenced
by the fine examples of the Lombard school which he had seen
in Italy. In the new Carolingian minuscule all the uncouthness
of the later Merovingian hand disappears, and the simpler forms
of many of the letters found in the old Roman half-uncial and
minuscule hands are adopted. The character of Carolingian
writing through the qth and early part of the loth century
is one of general uniformity, with a contrast of light and
heavy strokes, the limbs of taU letters being clubbed or
thickened at the head by pressure on the pen. As to charac-
teristic letters (fig. 44) the j, following the old type, is, in the
Qth century, still frequently open, in the form of ic; the bows
of ,g are open, the letter somewhat resembling the numeral 3;
and there is little turning of the ends of letters, as m and 11.
'%cc*pCT-e; mirtixm coniu'rcrrj -cxvctm. .CJuX>a.
enim c^eccn<x/ce-cu.r— ae^u.^co efh- paj-icir
jLuxeTr»fili.u.m er^uocjJLuCnorncrtotufxnrrf
Fig. 44. — Gospels, 9th century.
(accipere mariam coniugem tuam quod
enim ex ea nascetur de spiritu sanclo est. Pariet
autem filium et uocabis nomen eius lejjfm)
In the loth century the clubbing of the tall letters becomes
less pronounced, and the writing generally assumes, so to say, a
thinner appearance. But a great change is noticeable in the
writing of the nth century. By this time the Carolingian
minuscule may be said to have put off its archaic form and to
develop into the more modern character of small letter. It
takes a more finished and accurate and more upright form, the
individual letters being drawn with much e.xactness, and gener-
ally on a rather larger scale than before. This style continues to
improve, and is reduced to a still more exact form of calligraphy
in the 12th century, which for absolute beauty of writing is
unsurpassed. In England especially (fig. 45) the writing of
this century is particularly fine.
Fig. 45. — Leviticus, a.d. 1176.
( — culos cum aruinulis suis adoleuit super
altare uituliim cum pelle et carnibus et
fimo cremans extra castra sicw/ precepemt dominws)
As, however, the demand for written works increased, the fine
round-hand of the 12th century could not be maintained.
Economy of material became necessary, and a smaller hand
■with more frequent contractions was the result. The larger and
more distinct writing of the nth and 12th centuries is now
replaced by a more cramped though still distinct hand, in which
the letters are more linked together by connecting strokes,
and are more laterally compressed. This style of writing is
characteristic of the 13th century. But. while the book-hand
of this period is a great advance upon that of a hundred years
earlier, there is no tendency to a cursive style. Every letter is
clearly formed, and generally on the old shapes. The particular
letters which show weakness are those made of a succession of
vertical strokes, as m, n, it. The new method of connecting
these strokes, by turning the ends and running on, made the
distinction of such letters difficult, as, for example, in such a
word as minimi. The ambiguity thus arising was partly
obviated by the use of a small oblique stroke over the letter i,
which, to mark the double letter, had been introduced as early
as the nth century. The dot on the letter came into fashion in
the 14th century.
tncib(Dtamta.andu(^nusnn^ m wa^iau
Vnsn3-Cgoatl7»ttftnc2t{jutmf9naneqp>
Fig. 46. — Bible, 13th century.
(Eligite hodie c[uod placet cui scruire potissimum
debeatis. Utrum diis (\mhus seruierjiH^ pu/res ues/ri in
mesopotamia, an diis amoreorMm in quorum terva.
haiitatis. Ego autem et domus niea seruicmus domino Respo«-
dhque popuhis et ait, Absit a nobis ut relinqwamz^j dominunt)
In MSS. of the 14th century minuscule writing becomes slacker,
and the consistency of formation of letters falters. There is a
tendency to write more cursively and without raising the pen,
as may be seen in the form of the letter a, of which the character-
istic shape at this time is El, with both bows closed, in contrast
with the earlier a. In this century, however, the hand still
remains fairly stiff and upright. In the 15th century it becomes
very angular and more and more cursive, but is at first kept
within bounds. In the course of the century, however, it grows
more slack and deformed, and the letters become continually
more cursive and misshapen. An exception, however, to this
disintegration of minuscule writing in the later centuries is to
be observed in church books. In these the old set hand of the
1 2th and 13th centuries was imitated and continued to be the
liturgical style of writing.
It is impossible to describe within limited space, and without
the aid of plentiful illustrations, all the varieties of handwriting
which were developed in the different countries of western
Europe, where the Carolingian minuscule was finally adopted
to the exclusion of the earlier national hands. In each country,
however, it acquired, in a greater or less degree, an individual
national stamp which can generally be recognized and which
serves to distinguish MSS. written in different locahties. A
broad line of distinction may be drawn between the writing of
northern and southern Europe from the 12th to the 15th century.
In the earlier part of this period the MSS. of England, northern
France and the Netherlands are closely connected. Indeed, in
the 12th and 13th centuries it is not always easy to decide as to
which of the three countries a particular IMS. may belong. As
a rule, perhaps, English MSS. are written with more sense of
gracefulness; those of the Netherlands in darker ink. From the
latter part of the 13th century, however, national character
begins to assert itself more distinctly. In southern Europe the
influence of the ItaUan school of writing is manifest in the MSS.
of the south of France in the 13th and 14th centuries, and also,
though later, in those of Spain. That elegant roundness of
letter which the Italian scribes seem to have inherited from the
bold characters of the early papal chancery, and more recently
from Lombardic models, was generally adopted in the book-hand
of those districts. It is especially noticeable in calligraphic
specimens, as in church books — the writing of Spanish MSS. in
this style being distinguished by the blackness of the ink.
The medieval minuscule writing of Germany stands apart. It
never attained to the beauty of the hands of either the north or
XX. 19
578
PALAEOGRAPHY
the south which have been just noticed ; and from its ruggedness
and slow development German MSS. have the appearance of
being older than they really are. The writing has also very
commonly a certain slope in the letters which compares unfavour-
ably with the upright and elegant hands of other countries. In
western Europe generally the minuscule hand thus nationalized
ran its course down to the time of the invention of printing,
when the so-called black letter, or set hand of the 15th century
in Germany and other countries, furnished models for the types.
But in Italy, with the revival of learning, a more refined taste
set in in the production of MSS., and scribes went back to an
earlier time in search of a better standard of writing. Hence,
in the first quarter of the 15th century, MSS. written on the lines
of the Italian hand of the early 12th century begin to appear,
and become continually more numerous. This revived hand was
brought to perfection soon after the middle of the century, just
at the right moment to be adopted by the early Italian printers,
and to be perpetuated by them in their types.
English Cursive Charter-Hands. — It must also not be forgotten
that by the side of the book-hand of the later middle ages there
was the cursive hand of everyday use. This is represented in
abundance in the large mass of charters and legal or domestic
documents which remains. Some notice has already been taken
of the development of the national cursive hands in the earliest
times. From the 12th century downwards these hands settled
into well defined and distinct styles peculiar to different countries,
and passed through systematic changes which can be recognized
as characteristic of particular periods. But, while the cursive
hand thus followed out its own course, it was still subject to the
same laws of change which governed the book-hand; and the
letters of the two styles did not differ at any period in their
organic formation. Confining our attention to the charter-
hand, or court-hand, practised in England, a few specimens may
be taken to show the principal changes which it developed. In
the 12th century the official hand which had been introduced
after the Norman Conquest is characterized by exaggeration
in the strokes above and tbelow the line, a legacy of the old
Roman cursive, as already noted. There is also a tendency to
form the tops of tall vertical strokes, as in h, h, I, with a notch or
cleft. The letters are well made and vigorous, though often
rugged.
T
Fig. 47. — Charter of Stephen, a.d. 1136-1139.
(et ministrti et omnibui fidelibHs suis Francis et
Rcgine uxoris mce et Eustachii filii
mei dedi et concessi ecclesie Beate Marie)
As the century advances, the long limbs are brought into
better proportion; and early in the 13th century a very delicate
fine-stroked hand comes into use, the cleaving of the tops being
now a regular system, and the branches formed by the cleft
falling in a curve on either side. This style remains the writing
of the reigns of John and Henry III.
Fig. 48. — Charter of Henry HI., a.d. 1259.
(uniuprsis presentes littfras inspecturis sah(tem. Noueritis quoA —
— ford et Essexie el Constabularium Angh'e et WiUe/Hn(m de FortibMX
— ad iurandum in animam noi/ram in presencia nostra, de pace)
Towards the latter part of the 13th century the letters grow
rounder; there is generally more contrast of light and heavy
strokes; and the cleft tops begin, as it were, to shed the branch
on the left.
mme atw prm itj ayoiQ Otxc imccSc /TRiSdc/rruwc oonrmcmc
nSbSs a Ctnnicncus duaiidnSb Tcnuci'iiB' ax ai\&jn ^(ltat6<Zb
Fig. 49. — Charter of Edward I., A.D. 1303.
(More cum pertmentiis in mora que vocatzir Inkelesmore continentem
— se in longitudine per medium more illius ab uno capite —
Abbas et Conuentus aliquando tenueruMt et quam prefatus Co — )
In the 14th century the changes thus introduced make further
progress, and the round letters and single-branched vertical
strokes become normal through the first half of the century.
Then, however, the regular formation begins to give way and
angularity sets in. Thus in the reign of Richard II. we have a
hand presenting a mi.xture of round and angular elements —
the letters retain their breadth but lose their curves. Hence, by
further decadence, results the angular hand of the 15th century,
at first compact, but alterwards straggling and iU-formed.
^H«if(i«v<r y^^i^ ^^ J*!"^ SrjW 1^^\S
Fig. 50. — English Charter, a.d. 1457.
(and fully to be endid, payinge yerely the seid —
successours in hand halfe yere afore that is —
next suyinge xxiij. s. iiij. d. by evene porciouns.)
In concluding these remarks on the medieval cursive English
writing, it is only necessary to remind the reader that the modern
English cursive hand owes its origin to the general introduction
into the west of the fine round Italian cursive hand of the i6th
century — one of the notable legacies bequeathed to us by the
wonderful age of the Renaissance.
Bibliography. — General {Greek and Latin):']. Astle, The
Origin and Progress of Writing (1803); E. M. Thompson, Handbook
of Greek and Roman Palaeography (3rd ed., 1906); J. B. Silvestre,
Pal&ographie universelle (1839-1841; and Eng. ed., 1850); Palaeo-
graphical Society, Facsimiles of MSS. and Inscriptions (two series,
1873-1883, 1884-1894); New Palaeographical Society, Facsimiles
of Ancient MSS., &c. (1903, &c.) ; Vitelli and Paoli, Collezione
fiorentina di facsimili paleografici greci e latini (1884-1897);
Westwood, Palaeographia sacra pictoria (1843-1845) ; F. G. Kenyon,
Facsimiles of Biblical MSS. in the Briiish Museum (1900).
Greek Palaeography: B. de Montfaucon, Palaeographia graeca
(1708); V. Gardthausen, Griechische Palaeographie (1879); W.
Wattenbach, Anleitung zur griechischen Palaeographie (1895);
F. G. Kenyon, The Palaeography of Greek Papyri (1899); N. Schow,
Charta papyracea ^raece scripta musei Borgiani Velitris (1788);
A. Peyron, Papyri graeci regii taur. mus. Aegypti (1826-1827);
J. Forshall, Greek Papyri in the Briiish Museum (1839) ; C. Leemans,
Papyri Graeci Mus. Lugd. Bat. (1843, 1885); C. Babington, 7"Ae
Orations of Hyperides for Lycophron and for Euxenippus (1853),
and The Funeral Oration of Hyperides over Leosthenes (1858);
W. Brunet de Presle, " Notices et te.xtes des papyrus grecs du Mus6e
du Louvre," &c. [torn, xviii. of Notices et exlraits des MSS. de la
Bibl. Imp.] (1865); J. Karabacek, Mittheilungcn aus der Sammlung
der Papyrus Erzherzog Rainer (1886), and Fiihrer durch die Aus-
stellung (1894); C. Wessely, Corpus papyrorum Raineri (1895, &c.);
J. P. Mahaffy, On the Flinders-Pelrie Papyri (1891-1905); U.
Wilcken, Tafeln zur dlteren griechischen Palaeographie (1891),
Griechische Urkunden (1892, &c.), Griechische Ostraka (1895), and
Archiv fiir Papyrusforschung (1900, &c.); F. G. Kenyon, Creek
Papyri in the British Museum (1893-1906), Greek Classical Texts
from Papyri in the British Museum (1891, 1892), Aristotle on the
Constitution of Alliens (1892), and The Poems of Bacchylides (1898);
E. Revillout, Le Playdoyer d'Hypiride conlre Alhenogene (1892);
Grenfell and Mahaffy, The Revenue Laws of Ptolemy Philadelphus
(1896); J. Nicole, Les Papyrus de Geneve (1896, &c.); Grenfell and
Hunt, The Oxyrhynchus Papyri (1898, &c.), Fayfim Towns (1900),
The Amherst Papyri (1900, 1901), and The Teblunis Papyri (1902,
&c.); C. Wessely, Papyrorum scripturae gfaecae specimina (1900);
U. von Wilamowitz-MoUendorff, Der Timotheus-Papyrus (1903);
H. Diels, Berliner Klassikertexte (1904, &c.); G. Vitelli, Papiri
fiorentini (1905, &c.); T. Reinach, Papyrus grecs et demotiques
(1905); Sabas, Specim. palaeogr. codd. graec. et slav. (1863); VV.
Wattenbach, Schriftlafeln zur Geschichte der griech. Schrift 1876),
PALAEOLITHIC— PALAEONTOLOGY
579
and Scriptural graecae specimina (1883); VVattenbach and von
Velsen, Exempla codd. graec. lilt, minusc. scriplorum (1878);
H. Omont, Facsim. des MSS. grecs dates de la bibl. nat. (i8gi),
Facsim. des plus anciens MSS. de la bibl. nat. (1892), and Facsim.
des MSS. grecs des xv. et xvi. necles (1887); A. Martin, Facsim.
des MSS. grecs d'Espagne (1891); O. Lehmann, Die tachygr. Abkiir-
zungen der griech. Handschriften; T. W. Allen, Notes on Abbreviations
in Greek MSS. (1889).
Latin Palaeography: J. Mabillon, De re diplomatica (1709);
Tassin and Toustain, Nouveau traili de diplomatique (i 750-1 765);
T. Madox, Formulare anglicanum (1702); G. Hickes, Linguartim
septent. thesaurus (1703-1705); F. S. MafFci, Istoria diplomatica
(1727); G. Marini, / Papiri diplomatici (1805); G. Besscl, Chronicon
gotwicense (1732); A. Fumagalli, Dclle Istituzioni diplomatiche
(1802); U. F. Kopp, Palaeographia critica (1817-1829); T. Sickd,
Schrifttaf. aus dem Nachlasse von U. F. von Kopp (1870); C. T. G.
Schonemann, Versuch eines vollstdnd. Systems der alt. Diplomatik
(1818); T. Sickel, Lehre von den Urkunden der ersten Karolinger
(1867); J. Ficker, Beitrage zur Urkundenlchre (1877-1888); N. de
Wailly, Elements de paleographie (1838); A. Chassant, Paleographie
des chartes, &c. (1885); L. Delislc, Melanges de paleographie, &c.
(1880), Etudes paleographiques, &c. (1886), Memoire sur I'Scole
calligraphique de Tours (1885); VV. Wattenbach, Anleitung zur
latein. Palaeographie (1886); A. Gloria, Compendia di paleografia,
&c. (1870); C. Paoli, Programma di paleografia lat. e di diplo-
matica (1888-1900); H. Bresslau, liandbuch der Urkundenlchre
(1889); M. Prou, Manuel de paleographie (1891); A. Giry, Manuel
de diplomatique (1894); F. Leist, Vrkundenlehre (1893); E. H. J.
Reusens, Elements de paleographie (1897-1899); W. Arndt, Schrift-
tafeln zur Erlernung der latein. Palaeographie (1887-1888); C.
Wessely, Schrifttaf. zur dlteren latein. Palaeographie (1898); F.
Stcffens, Latein. Palaeographie-Tafcln (1903, &c.); C. Zangemeister,
Inscriptiones pompeianae [C.i.L. iv.] (1871), and Tabulae ceratae
Pompeis repertae [C.I.L. iv.] (1898); Nicole and Morel, Archives
militaires du premier siecle (1900) ; J. F. Massmann, Libellus aurarius
sive tabulae ceratae (1841); T. Mommsen, Instrumenta dacica in
lab. cerat. conscripta [C.I.L. iii.] (18/3); A. ChampoUion-Figeac,
Chartes el MSS. sur papyrus (1840); J. A. Letronne, Diplomes et
chartes de I'ipoque merovingienne (1845-1866); J. Tardif, Facsim.
de chartes et diplomes merovingiens et carlovingiens (1866); von
Sybel and Sickel, Kaiserurkunden in Abbildungen (1880-1891);
J. Fflugk-Harttung, Specim. select, chart, pontiff, roman. (1885-
1887); Zangemeister and Wattenbach, Exempla codd. lat. litt.
majusc. scriplorum (1876-1879); E. Chatelain, Uncialis scriptura
codd. lat. (1901-1902); A. Champollion-Figeac, Paleographie des
classiqucs latins (1839); E Chatelain, Paleographie des classiques
latins (1884-1900); Musee des archives nationales (1872); Miisee des
archives departementales (1878); L. Delisle, Album palcographique
(1887); T. Sickel, Monumcnta graphica ex archiv. et bibl. imp.
austriaci collecta (1858-1882); W. Srhiim, Exempla codd. amplon.
erfurtensium (1882); A. Chroust, Deiikmdler der Schriftkunst des
Mittelalters (1899, &c.); Monaci and Paoli, Archivio paleogr. italiano
(1882-1890); M. Monaci, Facsimili di antichi manoscritti (1881-
1883); M. Morcaldi, Codex diplom. cavensis (1873, &c.); L. Tosti,
Bibliotheca casinensis (i 873-1 880); Paleografia artistica di Monte-
cassino (1876-1881); Ewald and Loewe, Exempla scripturae visi-
goticae (1883); C. Rodriguez, Bibliotheca universal de la polygraphia
espanola (1738); A. Merino, Escuela paleographica (1780); J.
Munos y Rivero, Paleografia visigoda (1881), Manual de paleografia
diplomatica espanola (1890), and Chrestomathia palaeographica
(1890); E. A. Bond, Facsim. of Ancient Charters in the British
Museum (1873-1878); W. B. Sanders, Facsim. of Anglo-Saxon MSS.
(charters) (1878-1884), and Facsim. of National MSS. of England
(1865-1868); Warner and Ellis, Facsim. of Royal and other Charters
in the British Museum (1903); C. Innes, Facsim. of National MSS.
of Scotland (1867-1S71); J. Anderson, Selectus diplomatum et
numismatum Scotiae thesaurus (1739); J. T. Gilbert, Facsim. of
National MSS. of Ireland (1874-1884); E. Chatelain, Introduction d
la lecture des notes tironiennes (1900); J. L. Walther, Lexicoji
Diplomaticum (1747); A. Chassant, Dictionnaire des abrcviations
latines et fran^aises (1884); A. Cappelli, Dizionario di abreviature
latine ed italiche (1889) ; L. Traubc, Nomina sacra (1907) ; A. Wright,
Court-Hand restored (1879); C. T. Martin, The Record Interpreter
(1892).
The application of photographic processes to the reproduction
of entire MSS. has received great impetus during the last few years,
and will certainly be widely extended in the future. Many of the
most ancient biblical and other MSS. have been thus reproduced ;
the librarians of the university of Leiden are issuing a great series
comprising several of the oldest classical MSS.; and under the
auspices of the pope and the Italian government famous MSS. in
the Vatican and other libraries in Italy are being published by this
method; not to mention the issue of various individual MSS. by
other corporate bodies or private persons. (E. M. T.)
PALAEOLITHIC (Gr. xaXatos, old, and XWos, stone), in anthro-
pology, the characteristic epithet of the Drift or early Stone Age
when Man shared the possession of Europe with the mammoth,
the cave-bear, the woolly-haired rhinoceros and other extinct
animals. The epoch is characterized by flint implements of
the rudest type and never polished. The fully authenlicated
remains of palaeolithic man are few, and discoveries are confined
to certain areas, e.g. France and north Italy. The reason is
that interment appears not to have been practised by the
river-drift hunters, and the only bones likely to be found would
be those accidentally preserved in caves or rock-shelters. The
first actual find of a palaeolithic implement w^as that of a rudely
fashioned flint in a sandbank at Menchecourt in 1841 by Boucher
de Perthes. Further discoveries have resulted in the division
of the Palaeolithic Age into various epochs or sequences according
to the faunas associated with the implements or the localities
where found. One classification makes three divisions for the
epoch, characterized respectively by the existence of the cave-
bear, the mammoth and reindeer; another, two, marked by
the prevalence of the mammoth and reindeer respectively.
These divisions are, however, unsatisfactory, as the fauna relied
on as characteristic must have existed synchronously. The
four epochs or culture-sequences of G. de Mortillet have met
with the most general acceptance. They are called from the
places in France where the most typical finds of palaeolithic
remains have been made — Chellian from Chellcs, a few miles east
of Paris; Mousterian from the cave of Moustier on the river
Vezere, Dordogne; Solutrian from the cave at Solutre near
Macon; and Madelenian from the rocky shelter of La Madeleine,
Dordogne.
PALAEOLOGUS, a Byzantine family name which first appears
in history about the middle of the nth century, when George
Palaeologus is mentioned among the prominent supporters of
Nicephorus Botaniates, and afterwards as having helped to
raise Alexius I. Comnenus to the throne in 1081 ; he is also noted
for his brave defence of Durazzo against the Normans in that
year. Michael Palaeologus, probably his son, was sent by
Manuel II. Comnenus into Italy as ambassador to the court of
Frederick I. in 1154; in the following year he took part in the
campaign against William of Sicily, and died at Bari in 1155.
A son or brother of Michael, named George, received from the
emperor Manuel the title of Sebastos, and was entrusted with
several important missions; it is uncertain whether he ought
to be identified with the George Palaeologus who took part in
the conspiracy which dethroned Isaac Angelus in favour of
Ale.xius Angelus in 1195. Andronicus Palaeologus Comnenus
was Great Domestic under Theodore Lascaris and John Vatatzes;
his eldest son by Irene Palaeologina, Michael (q.v.), became the
eighth emperor of that name in 1260, and was in turn followed
by his son Andronicus II. (1282-1328). Michael, the son of
Andronicus, and associated with him in the empire, died in 1320,
but left a son, Andronicus III., who reigned from 1328 to 1341;
John VI. (1355-1391), Manuel II. (1391-1425) and John VII.
(1425-1448) then followed in lineal succession; Constantine XI.
or XII., the last emperor of the East (1448-1453), was the younger
brother of John VII. Other brothers were Demetrius, prince of
the Morea until 1460, and Thomas, prince of Achaia, who died at
Rome in 1465. A daughter of Thomas, Zoe by name, married
Ivan III. of Russia. A younger branch of the Palaeologi
held the principality of Monferrat from 1305 to 1533, when it
became extinct.
Sec Roman Empire, Later, and articles on the separate rulers.
PALAEONTOLOGY (Gr. iraXatos, ancient, neut. pi. ovra,
beings, and \oyia, discourse, science), the science of extinct forms
of life. Like many other natural sciences, this study dawned
among the Greeks. It was retarded and took false directions
until the revival of learning in Italy. It became established as
a distinct branch in the beginning of the 19th century, and some-
what later received the appellation " palaeontology," which
was given independently by De BlainviUe and by Fischer von
Waldheim about 1834. In recent j-ears the science of vegetable
palaeontology has been given the distinct name of Palaeoboiany
{q.v.), so that " palaeontology " among biologists mainly refers
to zoology; but historically the two cannot be disconnected.
Palaeontology both borrow's from and sheds light upon
geology and other branches of the physical history of the earth,
,8o
PALAEONTOLOGYIOH/
each of which, such as palaeogeography or palaeometeorology,
is the more fascinating because of the large element of the un-
known, the need for constructive imagination, the appeal to
other branches of biological and physical investigation for
supplementary evidence, and the necessity of constant compari-
son with the present aspects of nature. The task of the palae-
ontologist thus begins with the appearance of life on the globe,
and ends in close relation to the studies of the archaeologist and
historian as well as of the zoologist and botanist. That wealth
of evidence which the zoologist enjoys, including environment
in all its aspects and anatomy in its perfection of organs and
tissues, the palaeontologist finds partially or wholly destroyed,
and his highest art is that of complete restoration of both the
past forms "and past environments of hfe (see Plates I. and II.;
figs. I, 2, 3, 4, 5). The degree of accuracy in such anatomical
and physiographic restorations from relatively imperfect
evidence will always represent the state of the science and the
degree of its approach toward being exact or complete.
Progress in the science also depends upon the pursuit of palae-
ontology as zoology and not as geology, because it was a mere
accident of birth which connected palaeontology so closely with
geology.
In order to illustrate the grateful services which palaeontology
through restoration may render to the related earth sciences
let us imagine a vast continent of the past wholly unknown in
its physical features, elevation, climate, configuration, but richly
represented by fossil remains. All the fossil plants and animals
of every kind are brought from this continent into a great
museum; the latitude, longitude and relative elevation of each
specimen are precisely recorded; a corps of investigators, having
the most exact and thorough training in zoology and botany,
and gifted with imagination, will soon begin to restore the
geographic and physiographic outhnes of the continent, its
fresh, brackish and salt-water confines, its seas, rivers and lakes,
its forests, uplands, plains, meadows and swamps, also to a
certain extent the cosmic relations of this continent, the amount
and duration of its sunshine, as well as something of the chemical
constitution of its atmosphere and the waters of its rivers and
seas; they will trace the progressive changes which took place in
the outlines of the continent and its surrounding oceans, following
the invasions of the land by the sea and the re-emergence of the
land and retreatal of the seashore; they will outhne the shoals
and deeps of its border seas, and trace the barriers which pre-
vented intermingling of the inhabitants of the various provinces
of the continent and the surrounding seas. From a study of
remains of themollusca, brachiopoda and other marine organisms
they will determine the shallow water (littoral) and deep water
(abyssal) regions of the surrounding oceans, and the clear or
muddy, salt, brackish or fresh character of its inland and
marginal seas; and even the physical conditions of the open sea
at the time wiU be ascertained.
In such manner Johannes Walther (Die Fauna der Solnhofener
Platlen Kalke Bionomisck betrachtet. Festschrift zum 7oten
Geburtstage von Ernst Haeckel, 1904) has restored the condi-
tions existing in the lagoons and atoll reefs of the Jurassic sea
of Solnhofen in Bavaria; he has traced the process of gradual
accumulation of the coral mud now constituting the fine litho-
graphic stones in the inter-reef region, and has recognized the
periodic laying bare of the mud surfaces thus formed; he has
determined the winds which carried the dust particles from the
not far distant land and brought the insects from the adjacent
Jurassic forests. Finally the presence of the flying lizards
{Pterydactylus, Rhamphorhynchus) and the ancient birds
{Archaeopteryx) is determined from rem.ains in a most wonderful
state of preservation in these ancient deposits.
Still another example of restoration, relating to the surface of
a continent, may be cited. It has been discovered that at the
beginning of the Eocene the lake of Rilly occupied a vast area
east of the present site of Paris; a water-course fell there in
cascades, and Munier-Chalmas has reconstructed all the details
of that singular locality; plants which loved moist places, such
a.s,Marchantia, Asplenium, the covered banks overshadowed by
lindens, laurels, magnolias and palms; there also were found
the vine and the ivy; mosses {Fontinalis) and Chara sheltered
the crayfish [Aslacus); insects and even flowers have left their
delicate impressions in the travertine which formed the borders
of this lake. The Oligocene lake basin of Florissant, Colorado,
has been reconstructed similarly by Samuel Hubbard Scudder
and T. D. A. Cockerell, including the plants of its shores, the
insects which lived upon them, the fluctuations of its level, and
many other characteristics of this extinct water body, now in the
heart of the arid region of the Rocky Mountains.
Such restorations are possible because of the intimate fitness
of animals and plants to their environment, and because such
fitness has distinguished certain forms of life from the Cambrian
to the present time; the species have altogether changed, but
the laws governing the Ufe of certain kinds of organisms have
remained exactly the same for the whole period of time assigned
to the duration of life; in fact, we read the conditions of the past
in a mirror of adaptation, often sadly tarnished and incomplete
owing to breaks in the palaeontological record, but constantly
becoming more polished by discoveries which increase the
understanding of life and its all-pervading relations to the
non-life. Therefore adaptation is the central principle of modern
palaeontology in its most comprehensive sense.
This conception of the science and its possibilities is the result
of very gradual advances since the beginning of the 19th century
in what is known as the method of palaeontology. The history
of this science, like that of all physical sciences, covers two
parallel lines of developinent which have acted and reacted upon
each other — namely, progress in exploration, research and
discovery, and progress in philosophic interpretation. Progress
in these two lines is by no means uniform; while, for example,
palaeontology enjoyed a sudden advance early in the 19th
century through the discoveries and researches of Cuvier, guided
by his genius as a comparative anatomist, it was checked by his
failure as a natural philosopher. The great philosophical
impulse was that given by Darwin in 1859 through his demon-
stration of the theory of descent, which gave tremendous zest
to the search for pedigrees (phylogeny) of the existing and
extinct types of animal and plant life. In future the philosophic
method of palaeontology must continue to advance step by
step with exploration; it would be a reproach to later generations
if they did not progress as far beyond the philosophic status
of Cuvier, Owen and even of Hu.xley and Cope, as the new
materials represent an advance upon the material opportunities
which came to them through exploration.
To set forth how best to do our thinking, rather than to
follow the triumphs achieved in any particular line of exploration,
and to present the point we have now reached in the method
or principles of palaeontology, is the chief purpose of this article.
The illustrations will be drawn both from vertebrate and
invertebrate palaeontology. In the latter branch the author
is wholly indebted to Professor Amadeus W. Grabau of Columbia
University. The subject will be treated in its biological aspects,
because the relations of palaeontology to historical and strati-
graphic geology are more appropriately considered under the
article Geology. See also, for botany, the article Palaeo-
BOTANY. We may first trace in outline the history of the birth
of palaeontological ideas, from the time of their first adum-
bration. But for full details reference must be made to the
treatises on the history of the science cited in the bibliography
at the end of the article.
I. — First Historic Period 1
The scientific recognition of fossils as connected with the past
history of the earth, from Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) to the beginning
of the igth century, in connexion with the rise of comparative
anatomy and geology. — The dawn of the science covers the first
observation of facts and the rudiments of true interpretation.
Among the Greeks, Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) Xenophon (430~3S7
B.C.) and Strabo (63 b.c.-a.d. 24) knew of the existence of fossils
and surmised in a crude way their relation to earth history.
Similar prophetic views are found among certain Roman
PALAEONTOLOGY
Plate I.
Fig. I. — An ichthyosaur (/. quadriscissus) containing in the body cavity thu partially preserved skeletons of seven young, proving that
the young of the animal developed within the maternal body and were brought forth alive; i.e. that the ichthyosaur was a
viviparous animal. (Specimen presented to the American Museum of Natural Ilistory liy the Royal Museum of Stuttgart through
Kherhnrd Fran.s.\
Professor Eberhard Fraas.)
Fig. 2. — A hypothetical pictorial
restoration of the mother
ichthyosaur accompanied by
five of its newly born young,
from the information furnished
by actual fossils.
(From a drawing by Charles R.
Knight made under the direction of
Professor Osborn.)
Fig. 3. — One of the most pertect of the many specimens discovered and prepared by Herr Bernard Hauff, and showing the extra-
ordinary preservation of the epidermis of the ichthyosaur, which gives the complete contour of the body in silhouette, the out-
lines of the paddles, of the remarkably fish-like tail, into the lower lobe of which the vertebral column extends, and the great
integumentary dorsal fin.
Materials for the Restoration of Ichthyosaurs. — This plate illustrates the exceptional opportunity afforded the palaeontologist through
the remarkably preserved remains of Ichthyosaurs in the quarries of Holzmaden near Stuttgart, Wurttemberg, excavated for many years
by Herr Bernard Haufif. (Illustrations reproduced by permission from specimens in the American Museum of Natural History, New York.)
XX. 580.
Plate II.
PALAEONTOLOGY
Fig. 4.-SKEL1:T0N OF ALLOSAURUS.
"^^^^.m^a^
s**,- . ,*>»'
Fig. 5. -restoration OF ALLOSAURUS.
Materials for the Restoration of Dinosaurs. — Carnivorous dinosaur (Allosaurus) of the Upper Jurassic period of North .-Xmerica, an ani-
mal closely related to the Mcnalosaunis type of England. The skeleton (fig. 4) was found nearly complete in the beds of the Morrison
formation, Upper Jurassic of central Wyoming. U.S..\. Near it was discovered the posterior portion of the skeleton of a giant herbivorous
dinosaur (Brontosaurus Marsh). It was observed that ten of the caudal vertebrae of the latter skeleton bore tooth marks and grooves
corresponding exactly with the sharp pointed teeth in the jaw of the carnivorous dinosaur. This proved that the great herbivorous
dinosaur had been preyed upon by its smaller carnivorous contemporary. Teeth of the carnivorous dinosaur scattered among the bones
of the herbivorous dinosaur completed the line of circumstantial evidence. Upon this testimony the restoration (fig. 5) of the Megalosaur
has been drawn by Charles R. Knight under the direction of Professor Osborn.
{Originals reproduced by permission of the American Museum of Natural History.)
PALAEONTOLOGY
581
writers. The pioneers of the science in the i6lh and 17th cen-
turies put forth anticipations of some of the well-known modern
principles, often followed by recantations, through deference
to prevailing religious or traditional beliefs. There were the
retarding influences of the Mosaic account of sudden creation,
and the belief that fossils represented relics of a universal deluge.
There were crude medieval notions that fossils were " freaks "
or " sports " of nature (lusus nalurac), or that they represented
failures of a creative force within the earth (a notion of Greek
and Arabic origin), or that larger and smaller fossils represented
the remains of races of giants or of pygmies (the mythical
idea).
As early as the middle of the 15th century Leonardo da Vinci
(1452-1519) recognized in seashells as well as in the teeth of
marine fishes proofs of ancient sea-levels on what are now the
summits of the Apennines. Successive observers in Italy,
notably Fracastoro (1483-1553), Fabio Colonna (1567-1640 or
1650) and Nicolaus Steno (1638-c. 1687), a Danish anatomist,
professor in Padua, advanced the still embryonic science and
set forth the principle of comparison of fossil with living forms.
Near the end of the 17th century Martin Lister (1638-1712),
examining the Mesozoic shell types of England, recognized the
great similarity as well as the differences between these and
modern species, and insisted on the need of close comparison
of fossil and living shells, yet he clung to the old view that
fossils were sports of nature. In Italy, where shells of the sub-
Apennine formations were discovered in the extensive quarrying
for the fortifications of cities, the close similarity between these
Tertiary and the modern species soon led to the established
recognition of their organic origin. In England Robert Hooke
(1635-1703) held to the theory of extinction of fossil forms, and
advanced the two most fertile ideas of deriving from fossils a
chronology, or series of time intervals in the earth's history, and
of primary changes of climate, to account for the former existence
of tropical species in England.
The i8th century witnessed the development of these sugges-
tions and the birth of many additional theories. Sir A. Geikie
assigns high rank to Jean Etienne Guettard (171 5-1786) for
his treatises on fossils, although admitting that he had no clear
idea of the sequence of formations. The theory of successive
formations was .soundly developing in the treatises of John
Woodward (1665-1728) in England, of Antonio Vallisnieri
(1661-1730) in Italy, and of Johann Gottlob Lehmann (d. 1767)
in Germany, who distinguished between the primary, or unfos-
siliferous, and secondary or fossiliferous, formations. The begin-
nings of palaeogeography followed those of palaeometeorology.
The Italian geologist Soldani distinguished (1758) between the
fossil fauna of the deep sea and of the shore-lines. In the same
year Johann Gesner (170Q-17Q0) set forth the theory of a great
period of time, which he estimated at 80,000 years, for the eleva-
tion of the shell-bearing levels of the Apennines to their present
height above the sea. The brilliant French naturalist Georges
Louis Leclerc, comte de Buffon (i 707-1 788), in Lcs Epoqurs de
la nature, included in his vast speculations the theory of alternate
submergence and emergence of the continents. Abraham
Gottlob Werner (i 750-181 7), the famous exponent of the aqueous
theory of earth formation, observed in successive geological
formations the gradual approach to the forms of existing species.
II. — Second Historic Period
Invertebrate palaeontology founded by Lamarck, vertebrate
palaeontology by Cuvier. Palaeontology connected with compara-
tive anatomy by Cuvier. Invertebrate fossils employed for the
definite division of all the great periods of time. — Although pre-
evolutionary, this was the heroic period of the science, extending
from the close of the i8th century to the publication of Darwin's
Origin of Species in 1859. Among the pioneers of this period
were the vertebrate zoologists and comparative anatomists
Peter Simon Pallas, Pieter Camper and Johann Friedrich
Blumenbach. Pallas (1741-1811) in his great journey (i 768-1 774)
through Siberia discovered the vast deposits of extinct mammoths
and rhinoceroses. Camper (1722-1789) contrasted (1777) the
Pleistocene and recent species of elephants and Blumenbach
(1752-1840) separated (1780) the mammoth from the exisUng
species as Elephas primigenitis. In 1793 Thomas Pennant
(1726-1798) distinguished the American mastodon as Elephas
americanus.
Political troubles and the dominating influence of Werner's
speculations checked palaeontology in Germany, while under the
leadership of Lamarck and Cuvier France came to the fore.
J. B. Lamarck (1744-1829) was the founder of invertebrate
palaeontology. The treatise which laid the foundation for all
subsequent invertebrate palaeontology was his memoir, Sur
lcs fossiles des environs de Paris . . . (1802-1806). Beginning
in 1793 he boldly advocated evolution, and further elaborated
five great principles — namely, the method of comparison of
extinct and existing forms, the broad sequence of formations
and succession of epochs, the correlation of geological horizons
by means of fossils, the climatic or environmental changes as
influencing the development of species, the inheritance of the
bodily modifications caused by change of habit and habitat.
As a natural philosopher he radically opposed Cuvier and was
distinctly a precursor of uniformitarianism, advocating the
hypothesis of slow changes and variations, both in living forms
and in their environment. His speculations on phylogeny,
or the descent of invertebrates and vertebrates, were, however,
most fantastic and bore no relation to palaeontological evidence.
It is most interesting to note that William Smith (i 769-1 839),
now known as the " father of historical geology," was born in
the same year as Cuvier. Observing for himself (1794-1800)
the stratigraphic value of fossils, he began to distinguish the
great Mesozoic formations of England (1801). Cuvier (1769-
1832) is famous as the founder of vertebrate palaeontology,
and with Alexandre Brongniart (1770-1847) as the author of the
first exact contribution to stratigraphic geology. Early trained
as a comparative anatomist, the discovery of Upper Eocene
mammals in the gypsum quarries of Montniartre found him
fully prepared (1798), and in 1812 appeared his Recherchcs sur
lcs ossemeus fossiles, brilliantly written and constituting the
foundation of the modern study of the extinct vertebrates.
Invulnerable in exact anatomical description and comparison,
he failed in all his philosophical generalizations, even in those
strictly within the domain of anatomy. His famous " law of
correlation," which by its apparent brilliancy added enormously
to his prestige, is not supported by modern philosophical ana-
tomy, and his services to stratigraphy were diminished by his
generalizations as to a succession of sudden extinctions and
renovations of life. His joint memoirs with Brongniart, Essai
snr la geographic mineralogiqiie des environs de Paris avec une carte
g^ognostique et des coupes de terrain (1808) and Description g^o-
logique des environs de Paris (1835) were based on the wonderful
succession of Tertiary faunas in the rocks of the Paris basin.
In Cuvier's defence Charles Deperet maintains that the extreme
theory of successive extinctions followed by a succession of
creations is attributable to Cuvier's followers rather than to the
master himself. Deperet points also that we owe to Cuvier the
first clear expression of the idea of the increasing organic per-
fection of all forms of life from the lower to the higher horizons,
and that, while he believed that extinctions were due to sudden
revolutions on the surface of the earth, he also set forth the
pregnant ideas that the renewals of animal life were by migration
from other regions unknown, and that these migrations were
favoured by alternate elevations and depressions which formed
various land routes between great continents and islands.
Thus Cuvier, following Buffon, clearly anticipated the modern
doctrine of faunal migrations. His reactionary and retarding
ideas as a special creationist and his advocacy of the cataclysmic
theory of change exerted a baneful influence until overthrown by
the uniformitarianism of James Hutton (1726-1797) and Charles
Lyell (1797-1875) and the evolutionism of Darwin.
The chief contributions of Cuvier's great philosophical
opponent, Etienne Geoffroy St Hilaire (1772-1844), are to be
found in his maintenance with Lamarck of the doctrine of the
mutability of species. In this connexion he developed his
582
PALAEONTOLOGY
special theory of saltations, or of sudden modifications of
structure through changes of environment, especially through the
direct influences of temperature and atmosphere. He clearly set
forth also the phenomena of analogous or parallel adaptation.
It was Alcide Dessalines d'Orbigny (1802-1857) who pushed
to an extreme Cuvier's ideas of the fixity of species and of
successive extinctions, and finally developed the wild hypothesis
of twenty-seven distinct creations. WhUe these views were
current in France, exaggerating and surpassing the thought of
Cuvier, they were strongly opposed in Germany by such authors
as Ernst Friedrich von Schlotheim (i 764-1832) and Heinrich
Georg Bronn (1800-1862); and the latter demonstrated that
certain species actually pass from one formation to another.
In the meantime the foundations of palaeobotany were being
laid (1804) by Ernst Friedrich von Schlotheim (1764-1832),
(1811) by Kaspar Maria Sternberg (1761-1838) and (1838) by
Theophile Brongniart (1801-1876).
Following Cuvier's Recherclies stir les ossemens fossiles, the
rich succession of Tertiary mammalian life was gradually
revealed to France through the explorations and descriptions
of such authors as Croizet, Jobert, de Christol, Eymar, Pomel
and Lartet, during a period of rather dry, systematic work,
which included, however, the broader generalizations of Henri
Marie Ducrotay de Blainville (177S-1850), and culminated in
the comprehensive treatises on Tertiary palaeontology of Paul
Gervais (1816-1879). Extending the knowledge of the extinct
mammals of Germany, the principal contributors were Georg
August Goldfuss (1782-1848), Georg Friedrich von Jaegar
(1785-1866), Felix F. Plieninger (1807-1873) and Johann Jacob
Kaup (1S03-1S73). As Cuvier founded the palaeontology of
mammals and reptiles, so Louis Agassiz's epoch-making works
Rcclierches sur les poissons fossiles (1833-1845) laid the secure
foundations of palaeichthyology, and were followed by Christian
Heinrich Pander's (1794-1865) classic memoirs on the fossil
fishes of Russia. In philosophy Agassiz was distinctly a disciple
of Cuvier and supporter of the doctrine of special creation, and
to a more limited extent of cataclysmic extinctions. Animals
of the next higher order, the amphibians of the coal measures
and the Permian, were first comprehensively treated in the
masterly memoirs of Christian Erich Hermann von Meyer
(1801-1869) beginning in 1829, especially in his Beitrdge ziir
Pclrefactcnkimde (1829-1830) and his Ziir Fauna der Vorwelt
(4 vols., 1845-1860). Successive discoveries gradually revealed
the world of extinct Reptilia;in 182 1 Charles Konig (i 784-1851),
the first keeper of the mineralogical collection in the British
Museum, described Ichthyosaurus from the Jurassic; in the
same year William Daniel Conybeare (1787-1857) described
Plesiosaurus; and a year later (1822) Mosasaurus; in 1824
William Buckland described the great carnivorous dinosaur
Megalosanrus; while Gideon Algernon Mantell (1790-1852) in
1848 announced the discovery of Iguanodon. Some of the fossil
Reptilia of P'rance were made known through St Hilaire's
researches on the Crocodilia (1831), and those of J. A. Deslong-
champs (1794-1867) and his son on the teleosaurs, or long-
snouted crocodiles. Materials accumulated far more rapidly,
however, than the power of generalization and classification.
Able as von Meyer was, his classification of the Reptilia failed
because based upon the single adaptive characters of foot
structure. The reptiles awaited a great classifier, and such a
one appeared in England in the person of Sir Richard Owen
(1804-1892), the direct successor of Cuvier and a comparative
anatomist of the first rank. Non-committal as regards evolu-
tion, he vastly broadened the field of vertebrate palaeontology
by his descriptions of the extinct fauna of England, of South
America (including especially the great edentates revealed by
the voyage of the " Beagle "), of Australia (the ancient and
modern marsupials) and of New Zealand (the great struthious
birds). His contributions on the Mesozoic reptiles of Great
Britain culminated in his complete rearrangement and classifi-
cation of this group, one of his greatest services to palaeontology.
Meanwhile the researches of Hugh Falconer (1808-1865) and of
Proby Thomas Cautley (1802-1871) in the sub-Himalayas
brought to light the marvellous fauna of the Siwalik hills of
India, published in Fauna antiqua Sivalensis (London, 1845)
and in the volumes of Falconer's individual researches. The
ancient life of the Atlantic border of North America was also
becoming known through the work of the pioneer vertebrate
palaeontologists Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826), Richard Harlan
(1796-1843), Jeffries Wyman (1814-1874) and Joseph Leidy
(1823-1891). This was followed by the revelation of the vast
ancient life of the western half of the American continent, which
was destined to revolutionize the science. The master works
of Joseph Leidy began with the first-fruits of western exploration
in 1847 and extended through a series of grand memoirs, culmina-
ting in 1874. Leidy adhered strictly to Cuvier's exact descriptive
methods, and while an evolutionist and recognizing clearly the
genetic relationships of the horses and other groups, he never
indulged in speculation.
The history of invertebrate palaeontology during the second
period is more closely connected with the rise of historic geology
and stratigraphy, especially with the settlement of the great
and minor time divisions of the earth's history. The path-
breaking works of Lamarck were soon followed by the monu-
mental treatise of Gerard Paul Deshayes (1795-1875) entitled
Descriptions des coquilles fossiles dcs environs de Paris (1824-
1837), the first of a series of great contributions by this and other
authors. These and other early monographs on the Tertiary
shells of the Paris basin, of the environs of Bordeaux, and of the
sub-Apennine formations of Italy, brought out the striking
distinctness of these faunas from each other and from other
molluscan faunas. Recognition of this threefo'd character
led Deshayes to establish a threefold division of the Tertiary
based on the percentage of molluscs belonging to types now
living found in each. To these divisions LyeU gave in 1833 the
names Eocene, Miocene and Pliocene.
James Hutton (1726-1797) had set forth (1788) the principle
that during all geological time there has been no essential
change in the character of events, and that uniformity of law is
perfectly consistent with mutability in the results. Lyell
marshalled all the observations he could collect in support of
this principle, teaching that the present is the key to the past,
and arraying all obtainable evidence against the cataclysmic
theories of Cuvier. He thus exerted a potent influence on
palaeontology through his persistent advocacy of uniformi-
tarianism, a doctrine with which Lamarck should also be credited.
As among the vertebrates, materials were accumulating rapidly
for the great generalizations which were to follow in the third
period. De Blainville added to the knowledge of the shells
of the Paris basin; Giovanni Battista Brocchi (1772-1826) in
1814, and Luigi Bellardi (1818-1889) and Giovanni Michelotti
(born 1812) in 1840, described the Pliocene molluscs of the sub-
Apennine formation of Italy; from Germany and Austria
appeared the epoch-making works of Heinrich Ernst Beyrich
(1815-1896) and of Moritz Hoernes (1815-1868).
We shall pass over here the labours of Adam Sedgwick
(1785-1873) and Sir Roderick !Murchison (1792-1871) in the
Palaeozoic of England, which because of their close relation to
stratigraphy more properly concern geology; but must mention
the grand contributions of Joachim Barrande (1799-1883),
published in his Systcme silurien du centre de la Boheme, the first
volume of which appeared in 1852. While establishing the
historic divisions of the Silurian in Bohemia, Barrande also
propounded his famous theory of " colonies," by which he
attempted to explain the aberrant occurrence of strata con-
taining animals of a more advanced stage among strata
containing earlier and more primitive faunas; his assumption
was that the second fauna had migrated from an unknown
neighbouring region. It is proved that the specific instances
on which Barrande's generalizations were founded were due to
his misinterpretation of the overturned and faulted strata, but
his conception of the simultaneous existence of two faunas, one
of more ancient and one of more modern type, and of their
alternation in a given area, was based on sound philosophical
principles and has been confirmed by more recent work.
PALAEONTOLOGY
583
The greatest generalization of this second period, however,
was that partly prepared for by d'Orbigny, as will be more fully
explained later in this article, and clearly expressed by Agassiz
— namely, the law of repetition of ancestral stages of life in the
course of the successive stages of individual development. This
law of recapitulation, subsequently termed the " biogenetic
law " by Ernest Haeckel, was the greatest philosophic contri-
bution of this period, and proved to be not only one of the
bulwarks of the evolution theory but one of the most
important principles in the method of palaeontology.
On the whole, as in the case of vertebrate palaeontology,
the pre-Darwinian period of invertebrate palaeontology was one
of rather dry systematic description, in which, however, the
applications of the science gradually extended to many regions
of the world and to all divisions of the kingdom of invertebrates.
III. — Third Historic Period
Beginning with the publication of Darwin's great works,
" Narrative of the Surveying Voyages of H. M.S. 'Adventure' and
' Beagle ' " (1839), and " On the Origin of Species by Means of
Natural Selection " (1859). — A review of the two first classic
works of Charles Robert Darwin (1809-1882) and of their
influence proves that he was the founder of modern palaeon-
tology. Principles of descent and other applications of uniformi-
tarianism which had been struggling for expression in the
writings of Lamarck, St Hilaire and de Blainville here found
their true interpretation, because the geological succession, the
rise, the migrations, the extinctions, were all connected with
the grand central idea of evolution from primordial forms.
A close study of the exact modes of evolution and of the
philosoph)' of evolution is the distinguishing feature of this
period. It appears from comparison of the work in the two
great divisions of vertebrate and invertebrate palaeontology
made for the first time in this article that in accuracy of observa-
tion and in close philosophical analysis of facts the students of
invertebrate palaeontology led the way. This was due to the
much greater completeness and abundance of material afforded
among invertebrate fossils, and it was manifested in the demon-
st' .on of two great principles or laws: first, the law of recapitu-
lation, which is found in its most ideal expression in the shells
of invertebrates; second, in the law of direct genetic succession
through very gradual modification. It is singular that the second
law is still ignored by many zoologists. Both laws were of
paramount importance, as direct evidence of Darwin's theory
of descent, which, it will be remembered, was at the time
regarded merely as an hypothesis. Nevertheless, the tracing
of phylogeny, or direct lines of descent, suddenly began to
attract far more interest than the naming and description of
species.
Tlie Law of Recapitulation. Acceleration. Retardation. — This
law, that in the stages of growth of individual development
(ontogeny), an animal repeats the stages of its ancestral evolution
(phylogeny) was, as we have stated, anticipated by d'Orbigny.
He recognized the fact that the shells of molluscs, which grow by
successive additions, preserve unchanged the whole series of
stages of their individual development, so that each shell of a
Cretaceous ammonite, for example, represents five stages of
progressive modification as follows: the first is the periode
embryonnaire, during which the shell is smooth; the second and
third represent periods of elaboration and ornamentation; the
fourth is a period of initial degeneration; the fifth and last a
period of degeneration when ornamentation becomes obsolete
and the exterior smooth again, as in the young. D'Orbigny,
being a special creationist, failed to recognize the bearing of
these individual stages on evolution. Alpheus Hyatt (1838-
1902) was the first to discover (1866) that these changes in the
form of the ammonite shell agreed closely with those which had
been passed through in the ancestral history of the ammonites.
In an epoch-making essay. On the Parallelism between the Dijfcrent
stages of Life in the individual and those in the entire group of the
Molluscous Order Tetrabranchiata (1866), and in a number of
subsequent memoirs, among which Genesis of the Arietidac (1889)
and Phylogeny of an Acquired Characteristic (1894) should be
mentioned, he laid the foundations, by methods of the most
exact analysis, for all future recapitulation work of invertebrate
palaeontologists. He showed that from each individual shell
of an ammonite the entire ancestral series may be reconstructed,
and that, while the earlier shcU-whorls retain the characters of
the adults of preceding members of the series, a shell in its own
adult stage adds a new character, which in turn becomes the
pre-adult character of the types which will succeed it; finally,
that this comparison between the revolutions of the life of an
individual and the life of the entire order of ammonites is wonder-
fully harmonious and precise. Moreover, the last stages of
individual life are prophetic not only of future rising and
progressing derivatives, but in the case of senile individuals of
future declining and degradational series.
Thus the recapitulation law, which had been built up indepen-
dently from the observations and speculations on vertebrates by
Lorenz Ofen (1779-1851), Johann Friedrich Meckel (1781-1833),
St Hilaire, Karl Ernst von Baer (1792-1876) and others, and had
been applied (1842-1843) by Karl Vogt (1817-1895) and Agassiz,
in their respective fields of observation, to comparison of indi-
vidual stages with the adults of the same group in preceding
geological periods, furnished the key to the determination of the
ancestry of the invertebrates generally.
Hyatt went further and demonstrated that ancestral characters
are passed through by successive descendants at a more and more
accelerated rate in each generation, thus giving time for the
appearance of new characters in the adult. His " law of
acceleration " together with the complementary " law of
retardation," or the slowing up in the development of certain
characters (first propounded by E. D. Cope), was also a philo-
-la-
-!b4-
-10 ^-
-2a-
■2b-
■ ih.
•2o.
■3c-
-3d-
3e-
-Id-(— 2d-|
-le-^2e-j
H-f 2fH 3f
-lS-|-2g4 3g
•lb-|-2h-| 3h \-
-43-
-4c-
-5d-
.4e-
■6e^
.6e
•6t-
4-
l&g
l-ogH
■7g-
■4b-
-Tb-
I |_l,_f-2, .\ !, 1
(From the American Naturalist.)
Fig. 6.
sophic contribution of the first importance (see fig. 6 and
Plate III., fig. 7).
In the same year, 1866, Franz Martin Hilgendorf (1839- )
studied the sheUs of Planorbis from the Miocene lake basin
underlying the present village of Steinheim in Wiirttemberg,
and introduced the method of examination of large numbers of
individual specimens, a method which has become of prime
importance in the science. He discovered the actual transmu-
tations in direct genetic series of species on the successive
deposition levels of the old lake basin. This study of direct
genetic series marked another great advance, and became possible
in invertebrate palaeontology long before it was introduced
among the vertebrates. Hyatt, in a re-examination of the
Steinheim deposits, proved that successive modifications occur
at the same level as well as in vertical succession. Melchior
Neumayr (1S45-1890) and C. M. Paul similarly demonstrated
genetic series of Paludina {Vivipara) in the Pliocene lakes of
Slavonia (1S75).
The Mutations of Waagen. Orthogenesis. — In 1S69 Wilhelm
Heinrich Waagen (i 841- 1900) entered the field with the study
of .Ammonites subradiatus. He proposed the term " mutations "
for the minute progressive changes of single characters in
definite directions as observed in successive stratigraphic levels.
Even when seen in minute features only he recognized them as
constant progressive characters or " chronologic varieties " in
584
PALAEONTOLOGY
contrast with contemporaneous or " geographic varieties,"
which he considered inconstant and of slight systematic value.
More recent analysis has shown, however, that certain modifica-
tions observed within the same stratigraphic level are really
grades of mutations which show divergences comparable to
those found in successive levels. The collective term " muta-
tion," as now employed by palaeontologists, signifies a type
modified to a slight degree in one or more of its characters along
a progressive or definite line of phyletic development. The
term " mutation " also applies to a single new character and for
distinction' may be known as "the mutation of Waagen."
This definitely directed evolution, or development in a few
determinable directions, has since been termed " orthogenetic
evolution," and is recognized by all workers in invertebrate
palaeontology and phylogeny as fundamental because the facts
of invertebrate palaeontology admit of no other interpretation.
Among the many who followed the method of attack first
outlined by Hyatt, or who independently discovered his
method, only a few can be mentioned here — namely, Waagen
(i86q), Neumayr (1871), Wiirttemberger (1880), Branco (1880),
Mojsisovics (1882), Buckman (1887), Karpinsky (1889), Jackson
(1890), Beecher (1890), Perrin-Smith (1897), Clarke (1898)
and Grabau (1904). Melchior Neurnayr, the great Austrian
palaeontologist, especially extended the philosophic foundations
of modern invertebrate palaeontology, and traced a number of
continuous genetic series (formcnreihe) in successive horizons.
He also demonstrated that mutations have this special or
distinctive character, that they repeat in the same direction
without oscillation or retrogression. He expressed great reserve
as to the causes of these mutations. He was the first to attempt
a comprehensive treatment of all invertebrates from the genetic
point of view; but unfortunately his great work, entitled
Die Stdmme des Thierrcichs (Vienna and Prague, 1889), was
uncompleted.
The absolute agreement in the results independently obtained
by these various investigators, the interpretation of individual
development as the guide to phyletic development, the
demonstration of continuous genetic series, each mutation
falling into its proper place and all showing a definite direction,
constitute contributions to biological philosophy of the first
importance, which have been little known or appreciated by
zoologists because of their pubUcation in monographs of very
special character.
Vertebrate Palaeontology after Danvin. — The impulse which
Darwin gave to vertebrate palaeontology was immediate and
unbounded, finding expression especially in the writings of
Thomas Henry Huxley (1825-1895) in England, of Jean Albert
Gaudry (b. 1827) in France, in America of Edward Drinker
Cope (1840-1897) and Othniel Charles Marsh (1831-1899).
Fine examples of the spirit of the period as apphed to extinct
Mammalia are Gaudry's Animaux Jossiles et geologie de I' Attique
(1862) on the Upper Miocene fauna of Pikermi near Athens, and
the remarkable memoirs of Vladimir Onufrievich Kowalevsky
(1842-1883), published in 1873. These works swept aside the dry
traditional fossil lore which had been accumulating in France and
Germany. They breathed the new spirit of the recognition of
adaptation and descent. In 1S67-1872 Milne Edwards published
his memoirs on the Miocene birds of central France. Huxley's
development of the method of palaeontology should be studied
in his collected memoirs (Scientific Memoirs of Thomas Henry
Huxley, 4 vols., 1898). In Kowalevsky 's Versuch einer natiir-
lichen Classification dcr Fossilen Huflhiere (1873) we find a model
union of detailed inductive study with theory and working
hypothesis. All these writers attacked the problem of descent,
and published prehminary phylogenies of such animals as the
horse, rhinoceros and elephant, which time has proved to be
of only general value and not at all comparable to the exact
phylogenetic series which were being established by invertebrate
palaeontologists. Phyletic gaps began to be filled in this general
way, however, by discovery, especially through remarkable
' The Dutch botanist, De Vries, has employed the term in another
sense, to mean a slight jump or saltation.
discoveries in North America by Leidy, Cope and Marsh, and the
ensuing phylogenies gave enormous prestige to palaeontology.
Cope's philosophic contributions to palaeontology began in
1868 (see essays in The Origin of the Fittest, New York, 1887, and
The Primary Factors of Organic Evolution, Chicago, 1896) with
the independent discovery and demonstration among verte-
brates of the laws of acceleration and retardation. To the law
of " recapitulation " he unfortunately applied Hyatt's term
" parallelism," a term which is used now in another sense. He
especially pointed out the laws of the " extinction of the
specialized " and " survival of the non-specialized " forms of
life, and challenged Darwin's principle of selection as an explana-
tion of the origin of adaptations by saying that the " survival
of the fittest " does not explain the " origin of the fittest." He
personally sought to demonstrate such origin, first, in the
existence of a specific internal growth force, which he termed
halhmic force, and second in the direct inheritance of acquired
mechanical modifications of the teeth and feet. He thus re-
vived Lamarck's views and helped to found the so-called neo-
Lamarckian school in America. To this school A. Hyatt, W. H.
Dall and many other invertebrate palaeontologists subscribed.
History of Discovery. Vertebrates. — In discovery the theatre
of interest has shifted from continent to continent, often in a
sensational manner. After a long period of gradual revelation of
the ancient life of Europe, extending eastward to Greece, eastern
Asia and to Australia, attention became centred on North
America, especially on Rocky Mountain exploration. New and
unheard-of orders of amphibians, reptiles and mammals came to
the surface of knowledge, revolutionizing thought, demonstrating
the evolution theory, and solving some of the most important
problems of descent. Especially noteworthy was the discovery
of birds with teeth both in Europe (Archaeopteryx) and in North
America (Hesperornis), of Eocene stages in the history of the
horse, and of the giant dinosauria of the Jurassic and Cretaceous
ill North America. Then the stage of novelty suddenly shifted
to South America, where after the pioneer labours of Darwin,
Owen and Burmeister, the field of our knowledge was suddenly
and vastly extended by explorations by the brothers Ameghino
(Carlos and Florentino). We were in the midst of more thorough
examination of the ancient world of Patagonia, of the Pampean
region and of its submerged sister continent Antarctica, when the
scene shifted to North Africa through the discoveries of Hugh
J. L. Beadnell and Charles W. Andrews. These latter discoveries
supply us with the ancestry of the elephants and many other
forms. They round out our knowledge of Tertiary history, but
leave the problems of the Cretaceous mammals and of their
relations to Tertiary mammals stiU unsolved. Similarly, the
Mesozoic reptiles have been traced successively to various parts
of the world from France, Germany, England, to North America
and South America, to Australia and New Zealand and to
northern Russia, from Cretaceous times back into the Permian,
and by latest reports into the Carboniferous.
Discovery of Invertebrates. — The most striking feature of
exploration for invertebrates, next to the world-wide extent to
which exploration has been carried on and results applied, is
the early appearance of life. Until comparatively recent times
the molluscs were considered as appearing on the hmits of the
Cambrian and Ordovician; but Charles D. Walcott has described
a tiny lamellibranch (Modioloides) from the inferior Cambrian,
and he reports the gastropod (?) genus Chuaria from the pre-
Cambrian. Cephalopod molluscs have been traced back to the
straight -shelled nautiloids of the genus Volborthella, while true
ammonites have been found in the inferior Permian of the Conti-
nent and by American palaeontologists in the true coal measures.
Similarly, early forms of the crustacean sub-class Merostomata
have been traced to the pre-Cambrian of North America.
Recent discoveries of vertebrates are of the same significance,
the most primitive fishes being traced to the Ordovician or
base of the Silurian,^ which proves that we shaU discover more
' Professor Bashford Dean doubts the fish characters of these
Ordovic Rocky Mountain forms. Freeh admits their fish character
but considers the rocks infaulted Devonic.
PALAEONIOLOGY
Plate III.
This series of feet represents the evolutionary succession
from the Eocene Hypohippiis (i) to the modern Equus (6)
seen in front and in side vi w. Tlic lop Ijone is the os calcis,
or hock bone, to which the tendon Achilles is attaclied. The
bottom bone is the terminal phalanx which is inserted in the
heart of the hoof.
Equus
caballus.
Merychippus
sp.
Merychippus
insinnis
(millc molar).
The stages are as follows :
1. Hypohippus, Lower Eocene.
2. Alesohippus, Lower Oligocene
3 Parahippus, Lower IMiocene.
4. Protohippus, Upper Miocene.
5. Neohipparion, Upper Miocene,
6. Equus, Pleistocene and recent.
The evolution consists first in progressive in-
crease in size; second, in the acceleration of the
median digit and retardation of the lateral digits,
the latter becoming more and more elevated from
the ground until finally in Equus (6) the\- are the
lateral splints, which in the embryonic condition
have vestigial cartilages attached
representing the last traces of the
lateral phalanges.
^ ^:
Parahippus
pawniensis.
Mesohippus
intermedius. '
Mesohippus
bairdi ?
Mesohippus
bairdi.
Modern
horse.
. Miocene.
Upper
Oligocene
(White
river for-
mation).
Oligocene
(White
river for-
mation).
r Middle
Eocene
Orohippus <
(Bridger
sp.
for-
. niation).
EohiPpits
Lower
Eocene
sp.
(Wind
ri\er for-
mation).
Eohippus
(Wasatch
sp.
for-
mation).
123-4 5 6
Fig. 7.— law OF ACCELERATION AND RETARDATION ILLUSTRATED IN
THE EVOLUTION OF THE HIND FEET OF THE HORSE.
(From photos lent by the American Museum of Natural History.)
XX. 584.
Fig. S.— TEN STACKS IN THE EVOLU-
TION OF THE SECOND UPPER
MOLAR TOOTH OF THE RIGHT
SIDE, ARRANGED ACCORDING TO
GEOLOGICAL LEVEL.
{Nos. I -Q from "American Equidae.")
Plate IV.
PALAEONTOLOGY
PALAEONTOLOGY
5«5
ancient chordates in the Cambrian or even prc-Cambrian. Thus
all recent discovery tends to carry the centres of origin and of
dispersal of all animal types farther and farther back in geological
time.
IV. — Relations of Palaeontology to Other Physical
Earth Sciences
Geology and Palaeophysiography. — Fossils are not absolute
timekeepers, because we have little idea of the rate of evolution;
they are only relative timekeepers, which enable us to check off
the period of deposition of one formation with that of another.
Huxley questioned the time value of fossils, but recent research
has tended to show that identity of species and of mutations is,
on the whole, a guide to synchroneity, though the general range
of vertebrate and invertebrate life as well as of plant life is
generally necessary for the establishment of approximate
synchronism. Since fossils afford an immediate and generally
a decisive clue to the mode of deposition of rocks, whether
marine, lacustrine, fluviatile, flood plain or aeolian, they lead
us naturally into palaeophysiography. Instances of marine
and lacustrine analysis have been cited above. The analysis
of continental faunas into those inhabiting rivers, lowlands,
forests, plains or uplands, affords a key to physiographic con-
ditions all through the Tertiary. For example, the famous
bone-beds of the Oligocene of South Dakota have been analysed
by W. D. Matthew, and are shown to contain ifuviatile or channel
beds with water and river-living forms, and neighbouring
flood-plain sediments containing remains of plains-living forms.
Thus we may complete the former physiographic picture of a
vast flood plain east of the Rocky Mountains, traversed by slowly
meandering streams.
As already intimated, our knowledge of palaeometcorology,
or of past climates, is derivable chiefly from fossils. Suggested
two centuries ago by Robert Hooke, this use of fossOs has in the
hands of Barrande, Neumayr, the marquis de Saporta (1805),
Oswald Heer (1809-1883), and an army of followers developed
into a sub-science of vast importance and interest. It is true
that a great variety of evidence is afforded by the composition
of the rocks, that glaciers have left their traces in glacial scratch-
ings and transported boulders, also that proofs of arid or semi-
arid conditions are found in the reddish colour of rocks in certain
portions of the Palaeozoic, Trias and Eocene; but fossils afford
the most precise and conclusive evidence as to the past history
of climate, because of the fact that adaptations to temperature
have remained constant for millions of years. All conclusions
derived from the various forms of animal and plant life should
be scrutinized closely and compared. The brilliant theories
of the palaeobotanist, Oswald Heer, as to the extension of a
sub-tropical climate to Europe and even to extreme northern
latitudes in Tertiary time, which have appealed to the imagina-
tion and found their way so widely into literature, are now
challenged by J. W. Gregory {Climatic Variations, their Extent
and Causes, International Geological Congress, Mexico, igo6),
who holds that the extent of climatic changes in past times has
been greatly exaggerated.
It is to palaeogeography and zoogeography in their reciprocal
relations that palaeontology has rendered the most unique
services. Geographers are practically helpless as historiaiis.
and problems of the former elevation and distribution of the
land and sea masses depend for their solution chiefly upon the
palaeontologist. With good reason geographers have given
reluctant consent to some of the bold restorations of ancient
continental outlines by palaeontologists; yet some of the greatest
achievements of recent science have been in this field. The
concurrence of botanical (Hooker, 1S47), zoological, and finally
of palaeontological evidence for the reconstruction of the
continent of Antarctica, is one of the greatest triumphs of
biological investigation. To the evidence advanced by a great
numberof authors comes the clinching testimony of the existence
of a number of varieties of Australian marsupials in Patagonia,
as originally discovered by Ameghino and more exactly described
by members of the Princeton Patagonian expedition staff; while
the fossil shells of the Eocene of Patagonia as analysed by
Ortmann give evidence of the existence of a continuous shore-
line, or at least of shallow-water areas, between Australia, New
Zealand and South America. This line of hypothesis and
demonstration is typical of the palaeogeographic methods
generally — namely, that vertebrate palaeontologists, impressed
by the sudden appearance of extinct forms of continental life,
demand land connexion or migration tracts from common
centres of origin and dispersal, while the invertebrate palaeon-
tologist alone is able to restore ancient coast-lines and determine
the extent and width of these tracts. Thus has been built up a
distinct and most important branch. The great contributors
to the palaeogeography of Europe are Neumayr and Eduard
Suess (b. 183 1 ), followed by Freeh, Canu, de Lapparent and
others. Neumayr was the first to attempt to restore the
grander earth outhnes of the earth as a whole in Jurassic times.
Suess outlined the ancient relations of Africa and Asia through
his " Gondwana Land," a land mass practically identical with
the " Lemuria " of zoologists. South American palaeogeography
has been traced by von Ihring into a northern land mass,
" Archelenis," and a southern mass, " Archiplata," the latter at
times united with an antarctic continent. Following the pioneer
studies of Dana, the American palaeontologists and strato-
graphers Bailey Willis, John M. Clarke, Charles Schuchert and
others have re-entered the study of the Palaeozoic geography
of the North American continent with work of astonishing
precision.
Zoogeography. — Closely connected with palaeogeography is
zoogeography, the animal distribution of past periods. The
science of zoogeography, founded by Humboldt, Edward Forbes,
Huxley, P. L. Sclater, Alfred Russel Wallace and others, largely
upon the present distribution of animal life, is now encountering
through palaeontology a new and fascinating series of problems.
In brief, it must connect living distribution with distribution in
past time, and develop a system which will be in harmony with
the main facts of zoology and palaeontology. The theory of
past migrations from continent to continent, suggested by
Cuvier to explain the replacement of the animal hfe which had
become extinct through sudden geologic changes, was prophetic
of one of the chief features of modern method — namely, the
tracing of migrations. With this has been connected the theory
of " centres of origin " or of the geographic regions where the
chief characters of great groups have been established. Among
invertebrates Barrande's doctrine of centres of origin was applied
by Hyatt to the genesis of the Arietidae (i88g); after studying
thousands of individuals from the principal deposits of Europe
he (lecided that the cradles of the various branches of this family
were the basins of the Cote d'Or and southern Germany.
Ortmann has traced the centre of dispersal of the fresh-water
Crawfish genera Cambarus, Potamobius and Cambaroides to
eastern Asia, where their common ancestors lived in Cretaceous
time. Similarly, among vertebrates the method of restoring past
centres of origin, largely originating with Edward Forbes, has
developed into a most distinct and important branch of historical
work. This branch of the science has reached the highest
development in its application to the history of the extinct
mammalia of the Tertiary through the original work of Cope and
Henri Filhol, which has been brought to a much higher degree
of exactness recently through the studies of H. F. Osborn,
Charles Deperet, W. D. Matthew and H. G. Stehlin.
V. — Relations of Palaeontology to other
Zoological Methods
Systematic Zoology. — It is obvious that the Linnaean binomial
terminology and its subsequent trinomial refinement for species,
sub-species, and varieties was adapted to express the dift'erences
between animals as they exist to-day, distributed contemporane-
ously over the surface of the earth, and that it is wholly inadapted
to express either the minute gradations of successive generic
series or the branchings of a genetically connected chain of
Hfe. Such gradations, termed " mutations " by Waagen, are
distinguished, as observed, in single characters; they are the
XX. 19 a
586
PALAEONTOLOGY
nuances, or grades of difference, whicti are the more gradual
the more finely we dissect the geologic column, while the terms
species, sub-species and variety are generally based upon a sum
of changes in several characters. Thus palaeontology has brought
to light an entirely new nomenclatural problem, which can only
be solved by resolutely adopting an entirely different principle.
which is essentially based on a theory of interrupted or dis-
continuous characters, is inapplicable.
Embryology and Ontogeny. — In following the discovery of the
law of recapitulation among palaeontologists we have clearly
stated the chief contribution of palaeontology to the science of
ontogeny — namely, the correspondences and differences between
THE EVOLUTION OF THE HORSE.
Formations in Western United Stales and Charadenslic Type of Horse in Each
Fore Fool
Hind Fool
Teeth
Tertiary
or
A^e of
Mammals
Equus
Prolohippus
Mesohippus
Prolorohippus
Hyracolhenum
(Eohippuj)
One Toe
Splinis of
2 "-'and i'^iiMi
One Toe
Splints of
2"-' and 4'-''di^llj
n
Three Toes
5idc loes
nol touching rhe ground
Three Toes
5ide loes
not louciiin^ Ihc 6raun(
Lon{-
Crowned,
Cement-
covered
Ttiree Toes
S.de loes
touching the ground;
splint of S'- di{jl
Three Toes
Side toes
toufiitnt tlie ground
Four Toes
Short-
(2^ Crowned,
WJ without
Cement
Four Toes
Splint of r- di^il
Three Toes
Splint of S'-'di^it.
, ( Cretaceous
A^e of \
Reptiles ) ., . .
/ Tna&sic
Jurassic ^^^'
Hypothetical Ancesiors with Five Toes on Eacli Fool
and Teeth like inose of Monkeys etc.
RefTiidticfd /'y fer*n\ssi6n of the Atntrican ituieum of Natural History
Fig. 9.
This revolution may be accomplished by adding the term
" mutation ascending " or " mutation descending " for the
minute steps of transformation, and the term phylum, as employed
in Germany, for the minor and major branches of genetic series.
Bit by bit mutations are added to each other in different single
characters until a sum or degree of mutations is reached which
no zoologist would hesitate to place in a separate species or in a
separate genus.
The minute gradations observed by Hyatt, Waagen and all
invertebrate palaeontologists, in the hard parts (shells) of
molluscs, &c., are analogous to the equally minute gradations
observed by vertebrate palaeontologists in the hard parts of rep-
tiles and mammals. The mutations of Waagen may possibly,
in fact, prove to be identical with the " definite variations " or
" rectigradations " observed by Osborn in the teeth of mammals.
For example, in the grinders of Eocene horses (see Plate HI., fig.
8 ; also fig. 9) in a lower horizon a cusp is adumbrated in shadowy
form, in a slightly higher horizon it is visible, in a still higher
horizon it is full-grown; and we honour this final stage by assign-
ing to the animal which bears it a new specific name. When a
number of such characters accumulate, we further honour them
by assigning a new generic name. This is exactly the nomen-
clature system laid down by Owen, Cope, Marsh and others,
although established without any understanding of the law of
mutation. But besides the innumerable characters which are
visible and measurable, there are probably thousands which
we cannot measure or which have not been discovered, since
every part of the organism enjoys its gradual and independent
evolution. In the face of the continuous series of characters
and types revealed by palaeontology, the Linnaean terminology.
the individual order of development and the ancestral order of
evolution. The mutual relations of palaeontology and embryo-
logy and comparative anatomy as means of determining the
ancestry of animals are most interesting. In tracing the
phylogeny, or ancestral history of organs, palaeontology affords
the only absolute criterion on the successive evolution of organs
in lime as well as of (progressive) evolution in form. From
comparative anatomy alone it is possible to arrange a series of
living forms which, although structurally a convincing array
because placed in a graded series, may be, nevertheless, in an
order inverse to that of the actual historical succession. The
most marked case of such inversion in comparative anatomy is
that of Carl Gegenbaur (1826-1903), who in arranging the fins
of fishes in support of his theory that the fin of the Australian
lung-fish {Ceratodus) was the most primitive (or Archipteryginm) ,
placed as the primordial type a fin which palaeontology has
proved to be one of the latest types if not the last. It is
equally true that palaeontological evidence has frequently failed
where we most sorely needed it. The student must therefore
resort to what may be called a tripod of evidence, derived from
the available facts of embryology, comparative anatomy and
palaeontology.
VI. — The Palaeontologist as Historian
The modes of change among animals, and methods of analysing
them. — As historian the palaeontologist always has before him
as one of his most fascinating problems phylogeny, or the
restoration of the great tree of animal descent. Were the
geologic record complete he would be able to trace the ancestry
of man and of all other animals back to their very beginnings
PALAEONTOLOGY
587
in the primordial protoplasm. Dealing with interrupted
evidence, however, it becomes necessary to exercise the closest
analysis and synthesis as part of his general art as a restorer.
The most fundamental distinction in analysis is that which
must be made between homogeny, or true hereditary rcscmblMice,
and those multiple forms of adaptive resemblance which are
variously known as cases of " analogy," " parallelism," " con-
vergence " and " homoplasy." Of these two kinds of genetic
and adaptive resemblance, homogeny is the warp composed of
the vertical, hereditary strands, which connect animals with
their ancestors and their successors, while analogy is the woof,
composed of the horizontal strands which tie animals together
by their superficial resemblances. This wide distinction between
similarity of descent and similarity of adaptation applies to
every organ, to all groups of organs, to animals as a whole, and
to all groups of animals. It is the old distinction between
homology and analogy on a grand scale.
Analogy, in its power of transforming unlike and unrelated
animals or unlike and unrelated parts of animals into likeness,
has done such miracles that the inference of kinship is often
almost irresistible. During the past century it was and even
now is the very " will-o'-the-wisp " of evolution, always tending
to lead the phylogenist astray. It is the first characteristic of
analogy that it is superficial. Thus the shark, the ichthyosaur.
(After a draving by Charles R. Knight, made under the direction ot Professor Osbom.)
Fig. 10. — Analogous or convergent evolution in Fish, Reptile
and Mammal.
The external similarity in the fore paddle and back fin of these
three marine animals is absolute, although they are totally unrelated
to each other, and have a totally different internal or skeletal
structure. It is one of the most striking cases known of the law of
analagous evolution.
A, Shark {Lamna cornuhka), with long lobe of tail upturned.
B, Ichthyosaur (Ichthyosaurus quadricissus), with fin-like paddles,
long lobe of tail down-turned.
C, Dolphin {Sotalia fluviatilis), with horizontal tail, fin or fluke.
and the dolphin (fig. 10) superficially resemble each other, but
if the outer form be removed this resemblance proves to be a
mere veneer of adaptation, because their internal skeletal parts
are as radically different as are their genetic relations, founded on
heredity. Analogy also produces equally remarkable internal
or skeletal transformations. The ingenuity of nature, however,
in adapting animals is not infinite, because the same devices are
repeatedly employed by her to accomplish the same adaptive ends
whether in fishes, reptiles, birds or mammals; thus she has
repeated herself at least twenty-four times in the evolution of
long-snouted rapacious swimming types of animals. The
grandest application of analogy is that observed in the adapta-
tions of groups of animals evolving on different continents, by
which their various divisions tend to mimic those on other
continents. Thus the collective fauna of ancient South America
mimics the independently evolved collective fauna of North
America, the collective fauna of modern Australia mimics
the collective fauna of the Lower Eocene of North America.
Exactly the same principles have developed on even a vaster
scale among the Invertebrata. Among the ammonites of the
Jurassic and Cretaceous periods types occur which in their
external appearance so closely resemble each other that they
could be taken for members of a single series, and not infrequently
have been taken for species of the same genus and even for the
same species; but their early stages of development and, in fact,
their entire individual history prove them to be distinct and
not infrequently to belong to widely separated genetic series.
Homogeny, in contrast, the " special homology " of Owen, is
the supreme test of kinship or of hereditary relationship, and thus
the basis of all sound reasoning in phylogeny. The two joints
of the thumb, for example, are homogenous throughout the whole
series of the pentadactylate, or five-fingered animals, from the
most primitive amphibian to man.
The conclusion is that the sum of homogenous parts, which
may be similar or dissimilar in external form according to their
similarity or diversity of function, and the recognition of former
similarities of adaptation (see below) are the true bases for the
critical determination of kinship and phylogeny.
Adaptation and the Independent Evolution of Parts. — Step by
step there have been established in palaeontology a number of
laws relating to the evolution of the parts of animals which
closely coincide with similar laws discovered by zoologists. All
are contained in the broad generalization that every part of an
animal, however minute, has its separate and independent basis
in the hereditary substance of the germ cells from which it is
derived and may enjoy consequently a separate and independent
history. The consequences of this principle when apphed to the
adaptations of animals bring us to the very antithesis of Cuvier's
supposed "law of correlation," for we find that, while the end
results of adaptation are such that all parts of an animal conspire
to make the whole adaptive, there is no fixed correlation either
in the form or rate of development of parts, and that it is there-
fore impossible for the palaeontologist to predict the anatomy of
an unknown animal from one of its parts only, unless the animal
happens to belong to a type generally familiar. For example,
among the land vertebrates the feet (associated with the structure
of the limbs and trunk) may take one of many lines of adaptation
to different media or habitat, either aquatic, terrestrial, arboreal
or aerial; while the teeth (associated with the structure of the
skull and jaws) also may take one of many lines of adaptation to
different kinds of food, whether herbivorous, insectivorous or
carnivorous. Through this independent adaptation of different
parts to their specific ends there have arisen among vertebrates
an almost unlimited number of combinations of foot and tooth
structure, the possibilities of which are illustrated in the accom-
panying diagram (see fig. ii;also PlatellL, fig. 8). As instances
of such combinations, some of the (probably herbivorous) Eocene
monkeys with arboreal limbs have teeth so difficult to distinguish
from those of the herbivorous ground-living Eocene horses with
cursorial limbs that at first in France and also in America they
were both classed with the hoofed animals. Again, directly
opposed to Cuvier's principle, we have discovered carnivores
with hoofs, such as Mcsanyx, and herbivores with sloth-like
claws, such as Chalicotherium. This latter animal is closely
related to one which Cuvier termed Pangolin gigantesque, and
had he restored it according to his " law of correlation " he would
have pictured a giant " scaly anteater," a type as wide as the
poles from the actual form of Chalicotherium, which in body,
limbs and teeth is a modified ungulate herbivore, related remotely
to the tapirs. In its claws alone does it resemble the giant
sloths.
This independence of adaptation applies to every detail of
structure; the six cusps of a grinding tooth may all evolve ahke,
or each may evolve independently and differently. Independent
evolution of parts is well shown among invertebrates, where the
shell of an ammonite, for example, may change markedly in
form without a corresponding change in suture, or vice versa.
588
PALAEONTOLOGY
Similarly, there is no correlation in the rate of evolution either
of adjoining or of separated parts; the middle digit of the foot
of the three-toed horse is accelerated in development, while the
lateral digits on either side are retarded. Many examples might
be cited among invertebrates also.
ADAPTIVE TYPES OF LIMBS AND FEET
VOLANT
/
FOSSORIAL /
ARBOREAL
Short-limbed, plantigrade, | AMBULATORY
pcntadactyl, unguicu- \ OR
late Stem I TERRESTRIAL
NATATORIAL
Amphibious
CURSORIAL
Digit igrade
Aquatic
Unguligrade
ADAPTIVE TYPES OF TEETH
OMNIVOROUS
■'•"i-^" fPish
CARNIVOROUS-^ Flesh
I Carrion
Grass
Herb
HERBIVOROUS^ Shrub
Fruit
Root
MYRMECOPHAGOUS
Dentition reduced
'--' •■' Stem INSECTIVOROUS
Law of the Independent Adaptive Evolution of Parts.
Fig. II. — Diagram demonstrating that there are an indefinite
number of combinations of various adaptive types of limbs and feet
with various adaptive types of teeth, and that there is no fixed
law of correlation between the two series of adaptations.
All these principles are consistent with Francis Galton's
law of particulate inheritance in heredity, and with the modern
doctrine of " unity of characters " held by students of Mendelian
phenomena.
Sudden versus Gradual Evolution of Parts. — There is a broad
and most interesting analogy between the evolution of parts of
animals and of groups of animals studied as a whole. Thus we
observe persistent organs and persistent types of animals,
analogous organs and analogous types of animals, and this
analogy apphes still further to the rival and more or less contra-
dictory hypotheses of the sudden as distinguished from the
gradual appearance of new parts or organs of animals, and the
sudden appearance of new types of animals. The first exponent
of the theory of sudden appearance of new parts and new
types, to our knowledge, was Geoffroy St Hilaire, who suggested
saltatory evolution through the direct action of the environ-
ment on development, as explaining the abrupt transitions in the
Mesozoic Crocodilia and the origin of the birds from the reptiles.
Waagen's law of mutation, or the appearance of new parts
or organs so gradually that they can be perceived only by
following them through successive geologic time stages, appears
to be directly contradictory to the saltation principle; it is cer-
tainly one of the most firmly estabUshed principles of palae-
ontology, and it constitutes the contribution par excellence of this
branch of zoology to the law of evolution, since it is obvious that
it could not possibly have been deduced from comparison of
living animals but only through the long perspective gained by
comparison of animals succeeding each other in time. The
essence of Waagen's law is orthogenesis, or evolution in a definite
direction, and, if there does exist an internal hereditary principle
controUing such orthogenetic evolution, there does not appear to
be any essential contradiction between its gradual operation in
the " mutations of Waagen " and its occasional hurried operation
in the " mutations of de Vries," which are by their definition
discontinuous or saltatory (Osborn, 1907).
VII. — Modes of Change in Animals as a Whole or in
Groups of Animals, and Methods of Analysing
Them.
I. Origin from Primitive or Stem Forms. — As already observed,
the same principles apply to groups of animals as to organs and
groups of organs; an organ originates in a primitive and un-
specialized stage, a group of animals originates in a primitive
or stem form. It was early perceived by Huxley, Cope and many
others that Cuvier's broad belief in a universal progression was
erroneous, and there developed the distinction between " per-
sistent primitive types " (Huxley) and " progressive types."
The theoretical existence of primitive or stem forms was clearly
perceived by Darwin, but the steps by which the stem form might
be restored were first clearly enunciated by Huxley in 1880
(" On the Application of Evolution to the Arrangement of the
V'ertebrata and more particularly of the Mammalia," Scient.
Mem. iv. 457) namely, by sharp separation of the primary or
stem characters from the secondary or adaptive characters in
all the known descendants or branches of a theoretical original
form. The sum of the primitive characters approximately
restores the primitive form; and the gaps in palaeontological
evidence are supplied by analysis of the available zoological,
embryological and anatomical evidence. Thus Huxley, with true
prophetic instinct, found that the sum of primitive characters
of aU the higher placental mammals points to a stem form of a
generalized insectivore type, a prophecy which has been fully
confirmed by the latest research. On the other hand, Huxley's
summation of the primitive characters of all the mammals
led him to an amphibian stem type, a prophecy which has proved
faulty because based on erroneous analysis and comparison.
More or less independently, Huxley, Kowalevsky and Cope
restored the stem ancestor of the hoofed animals, or ungulates,
a restoration which has been nearly fulfilled by the discovery,
in 1873, of the generalized type Phenacodus of northern Wyoming.
Similar anticipations and verifications among the invertebrates
have been made by Hyatt, Beecher, Jackson and others.
In certain cases the character stem forms actually survive
in unspecialized types. Thus the analysis of George Baur of the
ancestral form of the lizards, mosasaurs, dinosaurs, crocodiles
and phytosaurs led both to the generalized PalaeohaUeria of the
Permian and indirectly to the surviving Tuatera lizard of New
Zealand.
2. Adaptations to Alternations of Habitat. Law of Irreversi-
bility of Evolution. — In the long vicissitudes of time and proces-
sion of continental changes, animals have been subjected to
alternations of habitat either through their own migrations or
through the " migration of the environment itself," to employ
Van den Broeck's epigrammatic description of the profound and
sometimes sudden environmental changes which may take place
in a single locality. The traces of alternations of adaptations
corresponding to these alternations of habitat are recorded both
in palaeontology and anatomy, although often after the obscure
analogy of the earlier and later writings of a palimpsest. Huxley
in 1880 briefly suggested the arboreal origin, or primordial tree-
habitat of all the marsupials, a suggestion abundantly confirmed
by the detailed studies of Dollo and of Bensley, according to
which we may imagine the marsupials to have passed through
(i) a former terrestrial phase, followed by (2) a primary arboreal
phase — illustrated in the tree phalangers — followed by (3) a
secondary terrestrial phase — illustrated in the kangaroos and
wallabies — followed by (4) a secondary arboreal phase — illus-
trated in the tree kangaroos. Louis Dollo especially has
PALAEONTOLOGY
589
contributed most brilliant discussions of the theory of alter-
nations of habitat as applied to the interpretation of the anatomy
of the marsupials, of many kinds of fishes, of such reptiles as
the herbivorous dinosaurs of the Upper Cretaceous. He has
applied the theory with especial ingenuity to the interpretation
of the circular bony plates in the carapace of the aberrant
leather-back sea-turtles (Sphargidae) by prefacing an initial
land phase, in which the typical armature of land tortoises was
acquired, a first marine or pelagic phase, in which this armature
was lost, a third littoral or seashore phase, in which a new poly-
gonal armature was acquired, and a fourth resumed or secondary
marine phase, in which this polygonal armature began to
degenerate.
Each of these alternate life phases may leave some profound
modification, which is partially obscured but seldom wholly lost;
thus the tracing of the evidences ol former adaptations is of great
importance in phylogenetic study.
A very important evolutionary principle is that in such
secondary returns to primary phases lost organs are never
recovered, but new organs are acquired; hence the force of
Dollo's dictum that evolution is irreversible from the point of
view of structure, while frequently reversible, or recurrent, in
point of view of the conditions of environment and adaptation.
3. Adaptive Radiations of Groups, Continental and Local. —
Starting with the stem forms the descendants of which have
passed through either persistent or changed habitats, we reach
the underlying idea of the branching law of Lamarck or the law
of divergence of Darwin, and find it perhaps most clearly ex-
pressed in the words "adaptive radiation" (Osborn), which convey
the idea of radii in many directions. Among extinct Tertiary
mammals we can actually trace the giving off of these radii in
all directions, for taking advantage of every possibility to secure
food, to escape enemies and to reproduce kind; further, among
such well-known quadrupeds as the horses, rhinoceroses and
titanotheres, the modifications involved in these radiations can
be clearly traced. Thus the history of continental life presents
a picture of contemporaneous radiations in different parts of the
world and of a succession of radiations in the same parts. We
observe the contemporaneous and largely independent radiations
of the hoofed animals in South America, in Africa and in the
great ancient continent comprising Europe, Asia and North
America; we observe the Cretaceous radiation of hoofed animals
in the northern hemisphere, followed by a second radiation of
hoofed animals in the same region, in some cases one surviving
spur of an old radiation becoming the centre of a new one. As
a rule, the larger the geographic theatre the grander the radia-
tion. Successive discoveries have revealed certain grand centres,
such as (i) the marsupial radiation of Australia, (2) the little-
known Cretaceous radiation of placental mammals in the northern
hemisphere, which was probably connected in part with the
peopling of South America, (3) the Tertiary placental radiation
in the northern hemisphere, partly connected with Africa, {4) the
main Tertiary radiation in South America. Each of these
radiations produced a greater or less number of analogous
groups, and while originally independent the animals thus
evolving as autochthonous types finally mingled together as
migrant or invading types. We are thus working out gradually
the separate contributions of the land masses of North America,
South America, Europe, Asia, Africa, and of AustraUa to the
mammalian fauna of the world, a result which can be obtained
through palaeontology only.
4. Adaptive Local Radiation. — On a smaller scale are the local
adaptive radiations which occur through segregation of habit and
local isolation in the same general geographic region wherever
physiographic and climatic differences are sufficient to produce
local differences in food supply or other local factors of change.
This local divergence may proceed as rapidly as through wide
geographical segregation or isolation. This principle has been
demonstrated recently among Tertiary rhinoceroses and titano-
theres, in which remains of four or five genetic series in the same
geologic deposits have been discovered. We have proof that in
the Upper Miocene of Colorado there existed a forest-living horse,
or more persistent primitive type, which was contemporaneous
with and is found in the same deposits with the plains-living
horse (Neoliipparion) of the most advanced or specialized desert
type (see Plate IV., figs. 12, 13, 14, 15). In times of drought
these animals undoubtedly resorted to the same water-courses
for drink, and thus their fossilized remains are found associated.
5. The Law of Polyphylelic Evolution. The Sequence of Phyla
or Genetic Series. — There results from continental and local
adaptive radiations the presence in the same geographical region
of numerous distinct lines in a given group of animals. The
polyphyletic law was early demonstrated among invertebrates
by Neumayr (i88g) when he showed that the ammonite genus
Phylloceras follows not one but five distinct lines of evolu-
tion of unequal duration. The brachiopods, generally classed
collectively as Spirifer mucronatus, follow at least five distinct
lines of evolution in the Middle Devonian of North America,
while more than twenty divergent lines have been observed by
Grabau among the species of the gastropod genus Fusus in
Tertiary and recent times. Vertebrate palaeontologists were
slow to grasp this principle; while the early speculative phylo-
genies of the horse of Huxley and Marsh, for example, were
mostly displayed monophylelically, or in single lines of descent,
it is now recognized that the horses which were placed by Marsh
in a single series are really to be ranged in a great number of
contemporaneous but separate series, each but partially known,
and that the direct phylum which leads to the modern horse has
become a matter of far more difficult search. As early as 1862
Gaudry set forth this very polyphyletic principle in his tabular
phylogenies, but failed to carry it to its logical application. It
is now applied throughout the Vertebrata of both Mesozoic and
Cenozoic times. Among marine Mesozoic reptiles, each of the
groups broadly known as ichthyosaurs, plesiosaurs, mosasaurs
and crocodiles were polyphyletic in a marked degree. Among
land animals striking illustrations of this local polyphyletic law
are found in the existence of seven or eight contemporary series
of rhinoceroses, five or six contemporary series of horses, and
an equally numerous contemporary series of American Miocene
and Pliocene camels; in short, the polyphyletic condition is
the rule rather than the exception. It is displayed to-day among
the antelopes and to a limited degree among the zebras and
rhinoceroses of Africa, a continent which exhibits a survival
of the Miocene and Pliocene conditions of the northern
hemisphere.
6. Development of Analogous Progressive and Retrogressive
Groups. — Because of the repetition of analogous physiographic
and climatic conditions in regions widely separated both in time
and in space, we discover that continental and local adaptive
radiations result in the creation of analogous groups of radii
among aU the vertebrates and invertebrates. Illustrations of
this law were set forth by Cope as early as 1861 (see " Origin of
Genera," reprinted in the Origin of the Fittest, pp. 95-106) in
pointing out the extraordinary parallelisms between unrelated
groups of amphibians, reptiles and mammals. In the Jurassic
period there were no less than six orders of reptiles which
independently abandoned terrestrial life and acquired more or
less perfect adaptation to sea life. Nature, limited in her
resources for adaptation, fashioned so many of these animals in
like form that we have learned only recently to distinguish
similarities of analogous habit from the similitudes of real kinship.
From whatever order of Mammalia or Reptilia an animal may
be derived, prolonged aquatic adaptation will model its outer,
and finally its inner, structure according to certain advantageous
designs. The requirements of an elongate body moving through
the resistant medium of water are met by the evolution of similar
entrant and exit curves, and the bodies of most s-niftly moving
aquatic animals evolve into forms resembling the hulls of modern
sailing yachts (Bashford Dean). We owe especiaUy to Willy
Kukenthal, Eberhard Fraas, S.W. Williston and R. C. Osburn
a summary of those modifications of form to which aquatic life
invariably leads.
The law of analogy also operates in retrogression. A. Smith
Woodward has observed that the decline of many groups of
590
PALAEONTOLOGY
fishes is heralded by the tendency to assume elongate and finally
eel-shaped forms, as seen independently, for example, among
the declining Acanthodians or palaeozoic sharks, among the
modern crossopterygian Polyptcrus and Calamoichthys of the Nile,
in the modern dipneustan Lepidosiren and Protopierus, in the
Triassic chondrostean Belonorhynchus, as well as in the bow-fin
{Amia) and the garpike (Lepidoslcus).
Among invertebrates similar analogous groups also develop.
This is especially marked in retrogressive, though also well-
known in progressive series. The loss of the power to coil,
observed in the terminals of many declining series of gastropods
from the Cambrian to the present time, and the similar loss of
power among Natiloidea and Ammonoidea of many genetic
series, as well as the ostraean form assumed by various declining
series of pelecypods and by some brachiopods, may be cited as
examples.
7. Periods of Gradual Evolution of Groups. — It is certainly a
very striking fact that wherever we have been able to trace
genetic series, either of invertebrates or vertebrates, in closely
sequent geological horizons, or life zones, we find strong proof
of evolution through extremely gradual mutation simultaneously
affecting many parts of each organism, as set forth above. This
proof has been reached quite independently by a very large
number of observers studying a still greater variety of animals.
Such diverse organisms as brachiopods, ammonites, horses and
rhinoceroses absolutely conform to this law in all those rare
localities where we have been able to observe closely sequent
stages. The inference is almost irresistible that the law of gradual
transformation through minute continuous change is by far the
most universal; but many palaeontologists as well as zoologists
and botanists hold a contrary opinion.
8. Periods of Rapid Evolution of Groups. — The above law of
gradual evolution is perfectly consistent with a second principle,
namely, that at certain times evolution is much more rapid
than at others, and that organisms are accelerated or retarded in
development in a manner broadly analogous to the acceleration
or retardation of separate organs. Thus H. S. Williams observes
{Geological Biology, p. 268) that the evolution of those funda-
mental characters which mark differences between separate
classes, orders, sub-orders, and even families of organisms, took
place in relatively short periods of time. Among the brachiopods
the chief expansion of each tj-pe is at a relatively early period in
their life-history. Hyatt (1883) observed of the ammonites that
each group originated suddenly and spread out with great
rapidity. Deperet notes that the genus Neumayria, an ammonite
of the Kimmeridgian, suddenly branches out into an explosion''
of forms. Deperet also observes the contrast between periods
of quiescence and limited variability and periods of sudden
efflorescence. A. Smith Woodward (" Relations of Palaeontology
to Biology," Annals and Mag. Natural Hist., 1906, p. 317) notes
that the fundamental advances in the growth of fish life have
always been sudden, beginning with excessive vigour at the end
of long periods of apparent stagnation; while each advance has
been marked by the fixed and definite acquisition of some new
anatomical character or " expression point," a term first used
by Cope. One of the causes of these sudden advances is un-
doubtedly to be found in the acquisition of a new and extremely
useful character. Thus the perfect jaw and the perfect pair of
lateral fins when first acquired among the fishes favoured a very
rapid and for a time unchecked development. It by no means
follows, however, from this incontrovertible evidence that the
acquisition either of the jaw or of the lateral fins had not been in
itself an extremely gradual process.
Thus both invertebrate and vertebrate palaeontologists have
reached independently the conclusion that the evolution of
groups is not continuously at a uniform rate, but that there are,
especially in the beginnings of new phyla or at the time of
acquisition of new organs, sudden variations in the rate of evolu-
tion which have been termed variously " rhythmic," "pvilsating,"
" efflorescent," "intermittent " and even " explosive " (Deperet).
This varying rate of evolution has (illogically, we believe) been
compared with and advanced in support of the "mutation law
of De Vries,"or the theory of saltatory evolution, which we may-
next consider.
g. Hypothesis of the Sudden Appearance of New Paris or
Organs. — The rarity of really continuous series has naturally
led palaeontologists to support the hypothesis of brusque tran-
sitions of structure. As we have seen, this hypothesis was
fathered by Geoffroy St Hilaire in 1830 from his studies of Meso-
zoic Crocodilia, was sustained by Haldemann, and quite recently
has been revived by such eminent palaeontologists as Louis
DoUo and A. Smith Woodward. The evidence for it is not to be
confused mth that for the law of rapid efflorescence of groups
just considered. It should be remembered that palaeontology
is the most unfavourable field of all for observation and demon-
stration of sudden saltations or mutations of character, because
of the limited materials available for comparison and the rarity
of genetic series. It should be borne in mind, first, that wherever
a new animal suddenly appears or a new character suddenly
arises in a fossil horizon we must consider whether such appear-
ance maybe due to the non-discovery of transitional links with
older forms, or to the sudden invasion of a new type or new organ
which has gradually evolved elsewhere. The rapid variation of
certain groups of animals or the acceleration of certain organs is
also not evidence of the sudden appearance of new adaptive
characters. Such sudden appearances may be demonstrated
possibly in zoology and embryology but never can be demon-
strated by palaeontology, because of the incompleteness of the
geological record.
10. Decline or Senescence of Groups. — Periods of gradual
evolution and of efflorescence may be foUowed by stationary or
senescent conditions. In his history of the Arietidae Hyatt
points out that toward the close of the Cretaceous this entire
group of ammonites appears to have been affected with some
malady; the unroUed forms multiply, the septa are simplified,
the ornamentation becomes heavy, thick, and finally disappears
in the adult ; the entire group ends by dying out and leaving no
descendants. This is not due to environmental conditions
solely, because senescent branches of normal progressive groups
are found in aU geologic horizons, beginning, for gastropods, in
the Lower Cambrian. Among the ammonites the loss of power
to coU the shell is one feature of racial old age, and in others old
age is accompanied by closer coiling and loss of surface orna-
mentation, such as spines, ribs, spirals; while in other forms an
arresting of variability precedes extinction. Thus Williams has
observed that if we find a species breeding perfectly true we can
conceive it to have reached the end of its racial life period.
Brocchi and Daniel Rosa (iSgp) have developed the hypothesis
of the progressive reduction of variability. Such decline is by no
means a universal law of Hfe, however, because among many
of the continental vertebrates at least we observe extinctions
repeatedly occurring during the expression of maximum varia-
bility. Whereas among many ammonites and gastropods smooth
ness of the shell, following upon an ornamental youthful
condition, is generaUy a symptom of decline, among many other
invertebrates and vertebrates, as C. E. Beecher (1856-1905) has
pointed out (1898), many animals possessing hard parts tend
toward the close of their racial history to produce a superfluity
of dead matter, which accumulates in the form of spines among
invertebrates, and of horns among the land vertebrates, reaching
a maximum when the animals are really on the down-grade of
development.
11. The Extinction of Groups. — We have seen that different
lines vary in vitahty and in longevity, that from the earliest
times senescent branches are given off, that different lines vary
in the rate of evolution, that extinction is often heralded by
symptoms of racial old age, which, however, vary widely in
different groups. In general we find an analogy between the
development of groups and of organs; we discover that each
phyletic branch of certain organisms traverses a geologic career
comparable to the life of an individual, that we may often
distinguish, especially among invertebrates, a phase of youth, a
phase of maturity, a phase of senility or degeneration fore-
shadowing the extinction of a type.
PALAEOSPONDYLUS
591
Internal causes of extinction are to be found in exaggeration
of body size, in the hypertrophy or over-specialization of certain
organs, in the irreversibility of evolution, and possibly, although
this has not been demonstrated, in a progressive reduction of
variability. In a full analysis of this problem of internal and
external causes in relation to the Tertiary Mammalia, H. F.
Osborn (" Causes of Extinction of the Mammalia," Amer. Natur-
alist, 1906, pp. 76Q-795, 829-859) finds that foremost in the long
series of causes which lead to extinction are the grander environ-
mental changes, such as physiographic changes, diminished or
contracted land areas, substitution of insular for continental
conditions; changes of climate and secular lowering of temperature
accompanied by deforestation and checking of the food supply;
changes influencing the mating period as well as fertility; changes
causing increased humidity, which in turn favours enemies
among insect life. Similarly secular elevations of temperature,
either accompanied by moisture or desiccation, by increasing
droughts or by disturbance of the balance of nature, have been
followed by great waves of extinction of the Mammalia. In
the sphere of living environment, the varied evolution of plant
life, the periods of forestation and deforestation, the introduction
of deleterious plants simultaneously with harsh conditions of life
and enforced migration, as well as of mechanically dangerous
plants, are among the well-ascertained causes of diminution and
extinction. The evolution of insect life in driving animals from
feeding ranges and in the spread of disease probably has been a
prime cause of extinction. Food competition among mammals,
especially intensified on islands, and the introduction of Carnivora
constitute another class of causes. Great waves of extinction
have followed the long periods of the slow evolution of relatively
inadaptive types of tooth and foot structure, as first demon-
strated by Waldemar Kowalevsky; thus mammals are repeatedly
observed in a cul-de-sac of structure from which there is no escape
in an adaptive direction. Among still other causes are great
bulk, which proves fatal under certain new conditions; rela-
tively slow breeding; extreme specialization and development of
dominant organs, such as horns and tusks, on which for a time
selection centres to the detriment of more useful characters.
Little proof is afforded among the mammals of extinction
through arrested evolution or through the limiting of variation,
although such laws undoubtedly exist. One of the chief
deductions is that there are special dangers in numerical diminu-
tion of herds, which may arise from a chief or original cause
and be followed by a conspiracy of other causes which are cumu-
lative in effect. This survey of the phenomena of extinction in
one great class of animals certainly establishes the existence of an
almost infinite variety of causes, some of which are internal, some
external in origin, operating on animals of different kinds.
VIII. — Underlying Biological Principles as they
APPEAR TO THE PALAEONTOLOGIST
It follows from the above brief summary that palaeontology
affords a distinct and highly suggestive field of purely biological
research; that is, of the causes of evolution underlying the observ-
able modes which we have been describing. The net result
of observation is not favourable to the essentially Darwinian
view that the adaptive arises out of the fortuitous by selection,
but is rather favourable to the hypothesis of the existence of
some quite unknown intrinsic law of hfe which we are at present
totally unable to comprehend or even conceive. We have shown
that the direct observation of the origin of new characters in
palaeontology brings them within that domain of natural law
and order to which the evolution of the physical universe con-
forms. The nature of this law, which, upon the whole, appears
to be purposive or teleological in its operations, is altogether a
mystery which may or may not be illumined by future research.
In other words, the origin, or first appearance of new characters,
which is the essence of evolution, is an orderly process so far as
the vertebrate and invertebrate palaeontologist observes it.
The selection of organisms through the crucial test of fitness and
the shaping of the organic world is an orderly process when
contemplated on a grand scale, but of another kind; here the
test of fitness is supreme. The only inkling of possible underlying
principles in this orderly process is that there appears to be in
respect to certain characters a potentiality or a predisposition
through hereditary kinship to evolve in certain definite directions.
Yet there is strong evidence against the existence of any law in
the nature of an internal perfecting tendency which would
operate independently of external conditions. In other words,
a balance appears to be always sustained between the internal
(hereditary and ontogenetic) and the external (environmental
and selectional) factors of evolution.
BiHLiOGRAPHY. — Among the older works on the history of
palaeontology arc the treatises of Giovanni Batlista Brocchi (1772-
1826), Conchiologia fossile Subappenina . . . Disc, sui progressi
dcllo studio . . . 1S43 (Milan); of £lienne Jules d'Archiac, IJistoire
du progrcs de la gcologie de 1834 i 1862 (Paris, Sac. Giol. de France,
1847-1860); of Charles Lyell in his Principles 0} Geology. A clear
narrative of the work of many of the earlier contributors is found
in Founders of Geology, by Sir Archibald Geikie (London, 1897-
1905). The most comprehensive and up-to-date reference work
on the history of geology and palaeontology is Geschichte der Geologie
itnd Paldontologie, by Karl Alfred von Zittcl (Munich and Leipzig,
1899), the final life-work of this great authority, translated into
English in part by Maria M. Ogilvie-Gordon, entitled " History of
Geology and Palaeontology to the end of the 19th Century." The
succession of life from the earliest times as it was known at the close
of the last century was treated by the same author in his Handbuch
der Paldontologie (5 vols., Munich and Leipzig, 1876-1893). Abbre-
viated editions of this work have appeared from the author, Crund-
ziige der Paldontologie (Palaeozoologie) (Munich and Leipzig, 1895,
2nd ed., 1903), and in English form in Charles R. Eastman's Text-
Book of Palaeontology (1900-1902). A classic but unfinished work
describing the methods of invertebrate palaeontology is Die Sidmme
des Thierreichs (Vienna, 1889), by Melchior Neumayr. In France
admirable recent works are Eliments de Paleontologie, by Felix
Bernard (Paris, 1895), and the still more recent philosophical
treatise by Charles Dep^ret, Les Transformations du monde animal
(Paris, 1907). Huxley's researches, and especially his share in the
development of the philosophy of palaeontology', will be found in
his essays. The Scientific Memoirs of Thomas Henry Huxley (4 vols.,
London, 1898-1902). The whole subject is treated systematically
in Nicholson and Lydekker's A Manual of Palaeontology (2 vols.,
Edinburgh and London, 1889), and A. Smith Woodward's Outlines
of Vertebrate Palaeontology (Cambridge, 1898).
Among American contributions to vertebrate palaeontology, the
development of Cope's theories is to be found in the volumes of
his collected essays, The Origin of the Fittest (New York, 1887),
and The Primary Factors of Organic Evolution (Chicago, 1896). A
brief summary of the rise of vertebrate palaeontology is found in
the address of O. Marsh, entitled " History and Methods of Palaeonto-
logical Discovery " (American Association for the Advancement
of Science, 1879). The chief presentations of the methods of the
American school of invertebrate palaeontologists are to be found in
A. Hyatt's great memoir " Genesis of the Arietidae " {Smithsonian
Contr. to Knowledge, 673, 1889), in Hyatt's " Phylogeny of an
Acquired Characteristic " {Philosophical Soc. Proc, vol. xxxii.
1894), and in Geological Biology, by H.S.Williams (New York, 1895).
In preparing the present article the author has drawn freely on
his own addresses: see H. F. Osborn, " The Rise of the Mammalia
in North America " (Proc. Amer. Assn. Adv. Science, vol. xlii.,
'893), " Ten Years' Progress in the Mammalian Palaeontology of
North America " {Comptes rendus du 6' Congres intern, de zoologie,
session de Bern, 1904), " The Present Problems of Palaeontology "
(Address before Section of Zool. International Congress of Arts
and Science, St Louis, Sept. 1904), " The Causes of Extinction of
Mammalia " {Amer. Naturalist, xl. 769-795, 829-859, 1906).
(H. F. O.)
PALAEOSPONDYLUS, a small fish-like organism, of which
the skeleton is found fossil in the Middle Old Red Sandstone
From British Museum tjuide to Fossil Reptiles and Fishes, by
permission of the Trustees.
Palaeospondylus gunni, restored by Dr R. H. Traquair.
(Nearly twice nat. size.)
of Achanarras, near Thurso, Caithness. It was thus named
(Or. ancient vertebra) by Dr R. H. Traquair in 1890, in allusion
to its well-developed vertebral rings; and its structure was
592
PALAEOTHERIUM—PALAEPHATUS
studied in detail in 1903 by Professor and Miss Sollas, who
succeeded in making enlarged models of the fossO in wax.
The skeleton as preserved is carbonized, and indicates an eel-
shaped animal from 3 to 5 cm., in length. The skuU, which
must have consisted of hardened cartilage, exhibits pairs of
nasal and auditory capsules, with a giU-apparatus below its
hinder part, but no indications of ordinary jaws. The anterior
opening of the brain-case is surrounded by a ring of hard cirri.
A pair of " post-branchial plates " projects backwards from the
head. The vertebral axis shows a series of broad rings, with
distinct neural arches, but no ribs. Towards the end of the body
both neural and haemal arches are continued into forked
radial cartilages, which support a median fin. There are no
traces either of paired fins or of dermal armour. The affinities
of Palacospondylus are doubtful, but it is probably related to
the contemporaneous armoured Ostracoderms.
Referenxes. — R. H. Traquair, paper in Proc. Roy. PJiys. Soc.
Edin., xii. 312, (1894); W. J. Sollas and I. B. J. Sollas, paper in
Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. (1903 B.). (A. S. Wo.)
PALAEOTHERIUM {i.e. ancient animal), a name applied by
Cuvier to the remains of ungulate mammals recalling tapirs
in general appearance, from the Lower Oligocene gypsum
quarries of Paris. These were the first indications of the
tFrom the Paris gypsum.)
Restoration of Palaeotherium magnum. (About \ nat. size.)
occurrence in the fossil state of perissodactyle ungulates allied
to the horse, although it was long before the relationship was
recognized. The palaeotheres, which range in size from that
of a pig to that of a small rhinoceros, are now regarded as repre-
senting a family, Palaeotheriidac, nearly related to the horse-
tribe, and having, in fact, probably originated from the same
ancestral stock, namely, Hyracolheriiim of the Lower Eocene
(see Equidae). The connecting link with Hyracotherium was
formed by Pachynolophus (Propalacotheriimt), and the line
apparently terminated in Paloplotherium, which is also Ohgocene.
Representatives of the family occur in many parts of Europe,
but the typical genus is unknown in North America, where,
however, other forms occur.
Although palaeotheres resemble tapirs in general appearance,
they differ in having only three toes on the fore as well as on the
hind foot. The dentition normally comprises the typical series
of 44 teeth, although in some instances the first premolar is
wanting. The cheek-teeth are short-crowned, generally with
no cement, the upper molars having a W-shaped outer wall,
from which proceed two oblique transverse crests, while the lower
ones carry two crescents. Unlike the early horses, the later
premolars are as complex as the molars; and although there is a
well-marked gap between the canine and the premolars, there is
only a very short one between the former and the incisors. The
orbit is completely open behind. In other respects the palaeo-
theres resemble the ancestral horses. They were, however,
essentially marsh-dwelling animals, and exhibit no tendency to
the cursorial type of limb so characteristic of the horse-line. They
were, in fact, essentially inadaptive creatures, and hence rapidly
died out. (R.L.*)
PALAEOZOIC ERA, in geology, the oldest of the great time
divisions in which organic remains have left any clear record.
The three broad divisions — Palaeozoic, Mesozoic, Cainozoic —
which are employed by geologists to mark three stages in the
development of hfe on the earth, are based primarily upon the
fossil contents of the strata which, at one point or another, have
been continuously forming since the very earliest times. The
precise fine in the " record of the rocks " where the chronicle
of the Palaeozoic era closes and that of the Mesozoic era opens —
as in more recent historical documents — is a matter for editorial
caprice. The early geologists took the most natural dividing
lines that came within their knowledge, namely, the line of change
in general petrological characters, e.g. the " Transition Series "
{(Jbergaiigsgcbirgc), the name given to rocks approximately of
Palaeozoic age by A. G. Werner because they exhibited a transi-
tional stage between the older crystaUine rocks and the younger
non-crystaUine; later in Germany these same rocks were said to
have been formed in the " Kohlenperiode " by H. G. Bronn and
others, while in England H. T. de la Beche classed them as a
Carbonaceous and Greywacke group. Finally, the divisional time
separating the Palaeozoic record from that of the Mesozoic was
made to coincide with a great natural break or unconformity of
the strata. This was the most obvious course, for where such
a break occurred there would be the most marked differences
between the fossils found below and those found above the
physical discordance. The divisions in the fossil record having
been thus established, they must for convenience remain, but
their artificiality cannot be too strongly emphasized, for the
broad stratigraphical gaps and hthological groups which made
the divisions sharp and clear to the earher geologists are proved
to be absent in other regions, and fossils which were formerly
deemed characteristic of the Palaeozoic era are found in some
places to commingle with forms of strongly marked Mesozoic
type. In short, the record is more nearly complete than was
originally supposed.
The Palaeozoic or Primary era is divided into the following
periods or epochs: Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian,
Carboniferous and Permian. The fact that fossils found in the
rocks of the three earlier epochs — Cambrian, Ordovician, Sdurian
— have features in common, as distinguished from those in the
three later epochs has led certain authors to divide this era into
an earlier, Protozoic (Proterozoic) and a later Deuterozoic time.
The rocks of Palaeozoic age are mainly sandy and muddy
sediments with a considerable development of limestone in
places. These sediments have been altered to shales, slates,
quartzites, &c., and frequently they are found in a highly meta-
morphosed condition; in eastern North America, however, and
in north-east Europe they stOl maintain their horizontality and
primitive texture over large areas. The fossils of the earlier
Palaeozoic rocks are characterized by the abundance of trilobites,
graptolites, brachiopods, and the absence of all vertebrates except
in the upper strata; the later rocks of the era are distinguished by
the absence of graptolites, the gradual failing of the trilobites, the
continued predominance of brachiopods and tabulate corals, the
abundance of crinoids and the rapid development of placoderm
and heterocercal ganoid fishes and amphibians. The land plants
were all cryptogams, Lepidodendron, Sigillaria, followed by
Conifers and Cycads. It is obvious from the advanced stage of
development of the organisms found in the earliest of these
Palaeozoic rocks that the beginnings of Hfe must go much farther
back, and indeed organic remains have been found in rocks
older than the Cambrian; for convenience, therefore, the base
of the Cambrian is usually placed at the zone of the trilobite
Olenellus. (J.A.H.)
PALAEPHATUS, the author of a small extant treatise, entitled
Ilepi 'AttIcttuj' (On " Incredible Things "). It consists of a series
of rationalizing explanations of Greek legends, without any
attempt at arrangement or plan, and is probably an epitome,
composed in the Byzantine age, of some larger work, perhaps the
AiKjets tS)v fivOiKus elprqiifvuv, mentioned by Suidas as the
work of a grammarian of Egypt or Athens. Suidas himself
ascribes a Ilepi 'Att'lctoov, in five books, to Palaephatus of Paros or
Priene. The author was perhaps a contemporary of Euhemerus
(3rd century B.C.). Suidas mentions two other \vriters of the
name: (i) an epic poet of Athens, who lived before the time of
PALAESTRA— PALAMCOTTAH
593
Homer; (2) an historian of Abydus, an intimate friend of
Aristotle.
See edition by N. Festa, in Mythographi graeci (1902), in tlie
Teubner series, with valuable prolegomena supplementary to
Inlorno all' opuscolo di Palefato de incredibilibus (1890), by the
same writer.
PALAESTRA (Gr. TraXaiorpa) , the name apparently applied
by the Greeks to two kinds of places used for gymnastic and
athletic exercises. In the one case it seems confined to the places
where boys and youths received a general gymnastic training,
in the other to a part of a gymnasium where the athlctac, the
competitors in the public games, were trained in wresthng
(iraXateti', to wrestle) and boxing. The boys' palaestrae were
private institutions and generally bore the name of the manager
or of the founder; thus at Athens there was a palaestra of Taureas
(Plato, Charmidcs). The Romans used the terms gymnasium and
palaestra indiscriminately for any place where gymnastic exercises
were carried on.
PALAFOX DE MENDOZA, JUAN DE (1600-1659), Spanish
bishop, was born in Aragon. He was appointed in 1839 bishop
of Angelopolis (Puebla dc los Angeles) in Mexico, and there
honourably distinguished himself by his efforts to protect the
natives from Spanish cruelty, forbidding any methods of con-
version other than persuasion. In this he met with the uncom-
promising hostility of the Jesuits, whom in 1647 he laid under an
interdict. He twice, in 1647 and 1649, laid a formal complaint
against them at Rome. The pope, however, refused to approve
his censures, and aU he could obtain was a brief from Innocent X.
(May 14, 1648), commanding the Jesuits to respect the episcopal
jurisdiction. In 1653 the Jesuits succeeded in securing his trans-
lation to the little see of Osma in Old Castile. In 1694 Charles II.
of Spain petitioned for his canonization; but though this passed
through the preliminary stages, securing for Palafox the title
of " Venerable," it was ultimately defeated, under Pius VI.,
by the intervention of the Jesuits.
See Antonio Gonzalez de Resende, Vie de Palafox (French trans.,
Paris, 1690).
PALAFOX Y MELZI, JOSE DE (1780-1847), duke of Sara-
gossa, was the youngest son of an old Aragonese family.
Brought up at the Spanish court, he entered the guards at an
early age, and in 1808 as a sub-lieutenant accompanied Ferdinand
to Bayonne; but after vainly attempting, in company with
others, to secure Ferdinand's escape, he fled to Spain, and
after a short period of retirement placed himself at the head
of the patriot movement in Aragon. He was proclaimed by
the populace governor of Saragossa and captain-general of
Aragon (May 25, 1808). Despite the want of money and of
regular troops, he lost no time in declaring war against the French,
who had already overrun the neighbouring provinces of Catalonia
and Navarre, and soon afterwards the attack he had provoked
began. Saragossa as a fortress was both antiquated in design
and scantily provided with munitions and supplies, and the
defences resisted but a short time. But it was at that point
that the real resistance began. A week's street fighting made
the assailants masters of half the town, but Palafox's brother
succeeded in forcing a passage into the city with 3000 troops.
Stimulated by the appeals of Palafox and of the fierce and
resolute demagogues who ruled the mob, the inhabitants resolved
to contest possession of the remaining quarters of Saragossa
inch by inch, and if necessary to retire to the suburb across the
Ebro, destroying the bridge. The struggle, which was prolonged
for nine days longer, resulted in the withdrawal of the P'rench
(Aug. 14), after a siege which had lasted 61 days in all.
Palafox then attempted a short campaign in the open country,
but when Napoleon's own army entered Spain, and destroyed
one hostile army after another in a few weeks, Palafox was
forced back into Saragossa, where he sustained a still more
memorable second siege. This ended, after three months, in
the fall of the town, or rather the cessation of resistance, for the
town was in ruins and a pestilence had swept away many
thousands of the defenders. Palafox himself, suffering from
the epidemic, fell into the hands of the French and was kept
prisoner at Vincennes until December 1813. In June 1814 he
was confirmed in the office of captain-general of Aragon, but
soon afterwards withdrew from it, and ceased to take part in
public affairs. From 1820 to 1823 he commanded the royal
guard of King Ferdinand, but, taking the side of the Constitution
in the civil troubles which followed, he was stripped of all his
honours and offices by the king, whose restoration by French
bayonets was the triumph of reaction and absolutism. Palafox
remained in retirement for many years. He received the title
of duke of Saragossa from Queen Maria Christine. From 1836
he took part in military and political affairs as captain-general
of Aragon and a senator. He died at Madrid on the 15th of
February 1847.
A biographical notice of Palafox appeared in the Spanish trans-
lation of Thiers's Hist, des consulates de t'empire, b^- P. dc Madrago.
E'er the two sieges of Saragossa, see C. W. C. Oman, Peninsular
War, vol. i.; this account is both more accurate and more just
than Napier's.
PALAMAS, GREGORIUS (c. 1296-1359), Greek mystic and
chief apologist of the Hesychasts (q.v.), belonged to a dis-
tinguished Anatolian family, and his father held an important
position at Constantinople. Palamas at an early age retired
to Mt Athos, where he became acquainted with the mystical
theories of the Hesychasts. In 1326 he went to Skete near
Beroea, where he spent some years in isolation in a cell specially
built for him. His health having broken down, he returned to
Mt Athos, but, finding little relief, removed to Thessalonica.
About this time Barlaam, the Calabrian monk, began his attacks
upon the monks of Athos, and Palamas came forward as their
champion. In 1341 and 1351 he took part in the two synods
at Constantinople, which definitively secured the victory of the
Palamites. During the civil war between John Cantacuzene and
the Palaeologi, Palamas was imprisoned. After Cantacuzene's
victory in 1347, Palamas was released and appointed arch-
bishop of Thessalonica; being refused admittance by the
inhabitants, he retired to the island of Lemnos, but subsequently
obtained his see. Palamas endeavoured to justify the mysticism
of the Hesychasts on dogmatic grounds. The chief objects of
his attack were Barlaam, Gregorius Acindynus and Nicephorus
Gregoras.
Palamas was a prolific writer, but only a few of his works have
been published, most of which will be found in J. P. Migne, Patro-
logia graeca (cl., cli.). They consist of polemics against the Latins
and their doctrine of the Procession of the Holy Ghost; Hesychastic
writings; homilies; a life of St Peter (a monk of Athos) ; a rhetorical
essay Prosopopeia (ed. A. Jahn, 1884), containing the accusations
brought against the body by the soul, the defence made by the
body, and the final pronouncement of the judges in favour of the
body, on the ground that its sins are the result of inadequate teaching.
See the historical works of John Cantacuzene and Nicephorus
Gregoras, the Vila Palamae by Philotheus, and the encomium by
Nilus (both patriarchs of Constantinople) ; also C. Krumbachcr,
Ceschich'.e der byzantinischen Lilleratur (1897).
PALAMAU, a district of British India, in the Chota-Nagpur
division of Bengal. It was formed out of Lohardaga, in 1894,
and takes its name from a former state or chiefship. The
administrative headquarters are at Daltonganj: pop. (1901),
5837. It consists of the lower spurs of the Chota-Nagpur
plateau, sloping north to the valley of the Son. Area 4914
sq. m.; pop. (1901), 619,600, showing an increase of 3-8% in
the decade; average density, 126 persons per sq. m., being the
lowest in all Bengal. Palamau suffered severely from drought
in 1897. A branch of the East Indian railway from the Son
valley to the valuable coalfield near Daltonganj was opened in
1902. The only articles of export are jungle produce, such
as lac and tussur silk. The forests are unprofitable.
See Palamau District Gazetteer (Calcutta, 1907).
PALAMCOTTAH, a town of British India, in the Tinnevelly
district of Madras, on the opposite bank of the Tambraparni
river to Tinnevelly town, with which it shares a station on the
South Indian railway, 444 m. south of Madras. Pop. (1901),
39,545. It is the administrative headquarters of the district,
and also the chief centre of Christian missions in south India.
Among many educational institutions may be mentioned the
Sarah Tucker College for Women, founded in 1895.
594
PALAMEDES— PALATINATE
PALAMEDES, in Greek legend, son of Nauplius king of
Euboea, one of the heroes of the Trojan War, belonging to the
post-Homeric cycle of legends. During the siege of Troy, Aga-
memnon, Diomedes and Odysseus (who had been detected by
Palamedes in an attempt to escape going to Troy by shamming
madness) caused a letter containing money and purporting to
come from Priam to be concealed in his tent. They then
accused Palamedes of treasonable correspondence with the
enemy, and he was ordered to be stoned to death. His father
exacted a fearful vengeance from the Greeks on their way home,
by placing false lights on the promontory of Caphareus. The
story of Palamedes was first handled in the Cypria of Stasinus,
and formed the subject of lost plays by Aeschylus {Palamedes),
Sophocles {Nauplius), Euripides {Palamedes), of which some
fragments remain. Sophists and rhetoricians, such as Gorgias
and Alcidamas, amused themselves by writing declamations in
favour of or against him. Palamedes was regarded as the
inventor of the alphabet, lighthouses, weights and measures,
dice, backgammon and the discus.
See Euripides, Orestes, 432 and schol.; Ovid, Metam. xiii. 56;
Servius on Virgil, Aeneid, ii. 82, and Nettleship's note in Conington's
edition; Philostratus, Heroica, 11 ; Euripides, Frag. 581 ; for different
versions of his death see Dictys Cretensis ii. 15; Pausanias
ii. 20, 3;x. 31, 2; Dares Phr>gius, 28; monograph by O. Jahn
(Hamburg, 1836).
PALANPUR, a native state of India, in the Gujarat division
of Bombay, on the southern border of Rajputana. Area, 1766
sq. m.; pop. (1901), 222,627, showing a decrease of 19 % in the
decade. The country is mountainous, with much forest towards
the north, but undulating and open in the south and east. The
principal rivers are the Saraswati and Banas. The estimated
gross revenue is £50,000; tribute to the gaekwar of Baroda, £2564.
The chief, whose title is diwan, is an Afghan by descent. The state
is traversed by the main line of the Rajputana-Malwa railway,
and contains the British cantonment of Deesa. Wheat, rice
and sugar-cane are the chief products. The state has suffered
severely of recent years from plague. The town of Palanpur
is a railway junction for Deesa, 18 m. distant. Pop. (1901),
17.799-
Palanpur also gives its name to a political agency, or collection
of native states; total area, 6393 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 467,271,
showing a decrease of 28 % in the decade, due to the effects
of famine.
PALANQUIN (pronounced palankeen, a form in which it is
sometimes spelled), a covered Utter used in India and other
Eastern countries. It is usually some eight feet long by four feet
in width and depth, fitted with movable blinds or shutters, and
slung on poles carried by four bearers. Indian and Chinese
women of rank always travelled in palanqidm, and they were
largely used by European residents in India before the railways.
The norimono of Japan and the kiaotsu of China differ from the
Indian palanquin only in the method of attaching the poles to
the body of the conveyance. The word came into European
use through Port, palanqtiim, which represents an East Indian
word seen in several forms, e.g. Malay and Javanese palangki,
Hindostani palki, PaU pallanko, &c., all in the sense of Htter,
couch, bed. The Sansk. paryanka, couch, bed, the source of
all these words, is derived from pari, round, about, and anka,
hook. The New English Dictionary points out the curious
resemblance of these words with the Latin use of phalanga
(Gr. <^dXa7^) for a bearing or carrying pole, whence the Span.
palanca and palanquino, a bearer.
PALATE (Lat. palatum, possibly from the root of pascere,
to feed), the roof of the mouth in man and vertebrate animals.
The palate is divided into two parts, the anterior bony " hard
palate" (see Mouth), and the posterior fleshy " solt palate"
(see Pharynx). For the malformation consisting in a longi-
tudinal fissure in the roof of the mouth, see Cleft Palate.
PALATINATE (Ger. Pfalz), a name given generally to any
district ruled by a count palatine, but particularly to a district
of Germany, a province of the kingdom of Bavaria, lying west
of the Rhine. It is bounded on the N. by the Prussian Rhine
province and the Hessian province of Rhein-Hessen; on the E.
by Baden, from which it is separated by the Rhine; on the
S. by the imperial province of Alsace-Lorraine, from which it is
divided by the Lauter; and on the W. by the administrative
districts of Trier and Coblenz, belonging to the Prussian Rhine
province. It has an area of 2288 sq. m., and a population (1905)
of 885,280, showing a density of 386-9 to the square mile. As
regards religion, the inhabitants are fairly equally distributed
into Roman Catholics and Protestants.
The rivers in this fertile tract of country are the Rhine,
Lauter, Queich, Speirbach, Glan and BUes. The Vosges, and
their continuation the Hardt, run through the land from south
to north and divide it into the fertile and mild plain of the
Rhine, together with the slope of the Hardt range, on the east,
and the rather inclement district on the west, which, running
between the Saarbruck carboniferous mountains and the northern
spurs of the Hardt range, ends in a porphyrous cluster of hills,
the highest point of which is the Donnersberg (2254 ft.). The
country on the east side and on the slopes of the Hardt yield
a number of the most varied products, such as wine, fruit, corn,
vegetables, flax and tobacco. Cattle are reared in great
quantity and are of excellent quality. The mines yield iron,
coal, quicksilver and salt. The industries are very active,
especially in iron, machinery, paper, chemicals, shoes, woollen
goods, beer, leather and tobacco. The province is well served
by railway communication and, for purposes of administration,
is divided into the following 16 districts: Bergzabern,
Diirkheim, Fraiflienthal, Germersheim, Homburg, Kaisers-
lautern, Kirchheimbolanden, Kusel, Landau, Ludwigshafen,
Neustadt, Pirmasens, Rockenhausen, St Ingbert, Spires and
Zweibriicken. Spires (Speyer) is the seat of goverrmient, and
the chief industrial centres are Ludwigshafen on the Rhine,
which is the principal river port. Landau, and Neustadt, the
seat of the wine trade.
See A. Becker, Die Pfalz und die PJdlzer (Leipzig, 1857); Mehlis,
Fahrten durch die Pfalz (Augsburg, 1877); Kranz, Handbuch der
Pfalz (Spires, 1902); Hensen, Pfalzfuhrer (Neustadt, 1905); and
Naher, Die Biirgen der rheinischen Pfalz (Strassburg, 1887).
History. — The count palatine of the Rhine was a royal official
who is first mentioned in the loth century. The first count was
Hermann I., who ruled from 945 to 996, and although the office
was not hereditary it appears to have been held mainly by his
descendants until the death of Count Hermann III. in 11 55.
These counts had gradually extended their powers, had obtsiined
the right of advocacy over the archbishop of Trier and the
bishopric of Juliers, and ruled various isolated districts along
the Rhine. In 11 55 the German king, Frederick I., appointed
his step-brother Conrad as count palatine. Conrad took up
his residence at the castle of Juttenbuhel, near Heidelberg,
which became the capital of the Palatinate. In 1195 Conrad
was succeeded by his son-in-law Henry, son of Henry the Lion,
duke of Saxony, who was a loyal supporter of the emperor Henry
VI. After the latter's death in 1197 he assisted his own brother
Otto, afterwards the emperor Otto IV., in his attempts to gain
the German throne. Otto refused to reward Henry for this
support, so in 1204 he assisted his rival, the German king Philipj
but returned to Otto's side after Philip's murder in 1208. In
1 21 1 Henry abdicated in favour of his son Henry, who died uj
1 2 14, when the Palatinate was given by the German kirtg
Frederick II. to Otto, the infant son of Louis I., duke of Bavariu,
a member of the Wittelsbach family, who was betrothed to
Agnes, sister of the late count, Henry. The break-up of the
duchy of Franconia had increased the influence of the count
palatine of the Rhine, and the importance of his position among
the princes of the empire is shown by Roger of Hoveden, who,
writing of the election to the German throne in 1198, singles
out four princes as chief electors, among whom is the count
palatine of the Rhine. In the Sachsenspiegel, a collection of
German laws which was written before 1235, the count is given
as the butler (dapifer) of the emperor, the first place among the
lay electors.
The Palatinate was ruled by Louis of Bavaria on behalf of
his son until 1228, when it passed to Otto who ruled until his
death in 1253. Otto's possessions were soon afterwards divided,
PALATINE
595
and his elder son Louis II. received the Palatinate and Upper
Bavaria. Louis died in 1294 when these districts passed to
his son Rudolph I. (d. 1319), and subsequently to his grandson
Louis, afterwards the emperor Louis IV. By the Treaty of
Pavia in 1329, Louis granted the Palatinate to his nephews
Rudolph II. and Rupert I., who received from him at the same
time a portion of the duchy of Upper Bavaria, which was called
the upper Palatinate to distinguish it from the Rhenish, or
lower Palatinate. Rudolph died in 1353, after which Rupert
ruled alone until his death in 1390. In 1355 he had sold a
portion of the upper Palatinate to the emperor Charles IV.,
but by various purchases he increased the area of the Rhenish
Palatinate. His successor was his nephew Rupert II., who
bought from the German king Wenceslaus a portion of the
territory that his uncle had sold to Charles IV. He died in
1398 and was succeeded by his son Rupert III. In 1400 Rupert
was elected German king, and when he died in 1410 his posses-
sions were divided among his four sons: the eldest, Louis III.,
received the Rhenish Palatinate proper; the second son, John,
obtained the upper Palatinate; while the outlying districts of
Zweibriicken and Simmern passed to Stephen, and that of
Mosbach to Otto.
When the possessions of the house of Wittelsbach were
divided in 1255 and the branches of Bavaria and the Palatinate
were founded, a dispute arose over the exercise of the electoral
vote, and the question was not settled until in 1356 the Golden
Bull bestowed the privilege upon the count palatine of the
Rhine, who exercised it until 1623. The part played by Count
Frederick V., titular king of Bohemia, during the Thirty Years'
War induced the emperor Ferdinand II. to deprive him of his
vote and to transfer it to the duke of Bavaria, Maximilian I.
By the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 an eighth electorate
was created for the count palatine, to which was added the
office of treasurer. In 1777, however, the count resumed the
ancient position of his family in the electoral college, and
regained the office of steward which he retained until the formal
dissolution of the empire in 1806.
To return to the history of the Palatinate as divided into
four parts among the sons of the German king Rupert in 1410.
John, the second of these brothers, died in 1443, and his son
Christopher, having become king of Denmark in 1440, did not
inherit the upper Palatinate, which was again united with the
Rhenish Palatinate. Otto, the son of Otto (d. 1461), Rupert's
fourth son, who had obtained Mosbach, died without sons in
1499, and this line became extinct, leaving only the two remaining
lines with interests in the Rhenish Palatinate. After Rupert's
death this was governed by his eldest son, the'elector Louis III.
(d. 1436), and then by the latter's sons, Louis IV. (d. 1449) and
Frederick I. The elector Frederick, called the Victorious, was
one of the foremost princes of his time. His nephew and
successor, the elector Philip, carried on a war for the possession
of the duchy of Bavaria-Landshut, which had been bequeathed
to his son Rupert (d. 1504), but, when in 1507 an end was put to
this struggle, Rupert's son, Otto Henry, only received Neuburg
and Sulzbach. Louis V. and then Frederick II. succeeded
Philip, but both died without sons and Otto Henry became
elector. He too died without sons in 1559, when the senior
branch became extinct, leaving only the branch descended
from Rupert's third son, Stephen.
Already on Stephen's death in 1459 this family had been
divided into two branches, those of Simmern and of Zwei-
briicken, and in 1514 the latter branch had been divided into
the lines of Zweibriicken proper and of Veldentz. It was
Frederick, count palatine of Simmern, who succeeded to the
Palatinate on Otto Henry's death, becoming the elector
Frederick III. The new elector, a keen but not a very bigoted
Calvinist, was one of the most active of the Protestant princes.
His son and successor, Louis VI. (d. 1583), was a Lutheran,
but s.nother son, John Casimir, who ruled the electorate on
behalf of his young nephew, Frederick IV., from 1583 to 1592,
gave every encouragement to the Calvinists. A similar line
ot action was followed by Frederick IV. himself after 1592.
He was the founder and head of the Evangelical Union estab-
lished to combat the aggressive tendencies of the Roman
Catholics. His son, the elector Frederick V., accepted the throne
of Bohemia and thus brought on the Thirty Years' War. He
was quickly driven from that country, and his own electorate
was devastated by the Bavarians and Spaniards. At the peace
of Westphalia in 1648 the Palatinate was restored to I'rederick's
son, Charles Louis, but it was shorn of the upper Palatinate,
which Bavaria retained as the prize of war.
Scarcely had the Palatinate begun to recover when it was
attacked by Louis XIV. For six years (1673-79) the electo-
rate was devastated by the French troops, and even after the
Treaty of Nijmwegen it suffered from the aggressive policy of
Louis. In August 1680 the elector Charles Louis died, and
when his son and successor, Charles, followed him to the grave
five years later the ruling family became extinct in the senior
line. Mention has already been made of a division of this
family into two lines after 1459, and of a further division of the
Zweibriicken line in 15 14, when again two lines were founded.
The junior of these, that of Veldentz, became extinct in
1694, but the senior, that of Zweibriicken proper, was still very
flourishing. Under Count Wolfgang (d. 1560) it had pur-
chased Sulzbach and Neuburg in 1557, and in the person of his
grandson, Wolfgang William (d. 1653) it had secured the coveted
duchies of Juliers and Berg. It was Philip William of Neuburg,
the son of Wolfgang WiUiam, who became elector palatine
in succession to Charles in 1685.
The French king's brother, Philip, duke of Orleans, had
married Charlotte Elizabeth, a sister of the late elector Charles,
and consequently the French king claimed a part of Charles's
lands in 1680. His troops took Heidelberg and devastated the
Palatinate, while Philip William took refuge in Vienna, where
he died in 1690. Then in 1697, by the Treaty of Ryswick,
Louis abandoned his claim in return for a sum of money. Just
before this date the Palatinate began to be disturbed by troubles
about religion. The great majority of the inhabitants were
Protestants, but the family which succeeded in 1685 belonged
to the Roman Catholic Church. Philip William, however,
gave equal rights to aU his subjects, but under his son and
successor, the elector John William, the Protestants were
deprived of various civil rights until the intervention of Prussia
and of Brunswick in 1705 gave them some redress. The next
elector, a brother of the last one, w'as Charles Philip, who
removed his capital from Heidelberg to Mannheim in 1720.
He died without male issue in December 1742. His successor
was his kinsman, Charles Theodore, count palatine of Sulzbach,
a cadet of the Zweibriicken-Neuburg line, and now with the
exception of one or two small pieces the whole of the Palatinate
was united under one ruler. Charles Theodore was a prince of
refined and educated tastes and during his long reign his country
enjoyed prosperity. In 1777 on the extinction of the other
branch of the house of Wittelsbach, he became elector of
Bavaria, and the Palatinate was henceforward united with
Bavaria, the elector's capital being Munich. Charles Theodore
died without legitimate sons in 1799, and his successor was
Maximilian Joseph, a member of the Birkenfeld branch of the
Zweibriicken family, who later became king of Bavaria as
Ma.ximilian I.
In 1802 the elector was obliged to cede the portion of the
Palatinate lying on the left bank of the Rhine to France, and
other portions to Baden and to Hesse-Darmstadt. Much of
this, however, was regained in 181 5, and since that date the
Palatinate has formed part of the kingdom of Bavaria.
See Widder, Versuch einer vollstdndigen geographisch-hislorischen
Beschreibung der Kurfilrstlichen Pfalz (Frankfort, 1786-1788);
L. Hausser, Ceschichte der Rheinisrhen Pfalz (Heidelberg, 1845);
Nebenius, Ceschichte der Pfalz (Heidelberg, 1874) ; Giimbel, Ceschichte
der protestantischen Kirche der Pfalz (Kaiserslautern, 1885); the
Regesten der Pfalzgrafen am Rhein, i2i4-i$o8, edited by Koch
and Wille (Innsbruck, 1894); and Wild, Bilderatlas zur badisch-
pfdlzischen Ceschichte (Heidelberg, 1904).
PALATINE (from Lat. palatium, a palace,) pertaining to the
palace and therefore to the emperor, king or other sovereign
59^
PALATKA— PALAZZOLO ACREIDE
ruler. In the later Roman Empire certain officials attending
on the emperor, or discharging other duties at his court, were
called palatini; from the time of Constantine the Great the
term was also apphed to the soldiers stationed in or around the
capital to distinguish them from those stationed on the frontier
of the empire. In the East Roman Empire the word was used
to designate officials concerned with the administration of the
finances and the imperial lands.
This use of the word palatine was adopted by the Prankish
kings of the Merovingian dynasty. They employed a high
official, the comes palatinus, who at first assisted the king in his
judicial duties and at a later date discharged many of these
himself. Other counts palatine were employed on miUtary
and administrative work, and the system was maintained by
the Carolingian sovereigns. The word paladin, used to describe
the followers of Charlemagne, is a variant of palatine. A
Frankish capitulary of S82 and Hincmar, archbishop of Reims,
writing about the same time, testify to the extent to which the
judicial work of the Frankish Empire had passed into their hands,
and one grant of power was followed by another. Instead of
remaining near the person of the king, some of the counts
palatine were sent to various parts of his empire to act as
judges and governors, the districts ruled by them being called
palatinates. Being in a special sense the representatives of
the sovereign they were entrusted with more extended power
than the ordinary counts. Thus comes the later and more
general use of the word palatine, its appUcation as an adjective
to persons entrusted with special powers and also to the districts
over which these powers were exercised. By Henry the Fowler
and especially by Otto the Great, they were sent into all parts
of the country to support the royal authority by checking the
independent tendencies of the great tribal dukes. We hear
of a count palatine in Saxony, and of others in Lorraine, in
Bavaria and in Swabia, their duties being to administer the
royal estates in these duchies. The count palatine in Bavaria,
an office held by the family of Wittelsbach, became duke of this
land, the lower title being then merged in the higher one; and
with one other exception the German counts palatine soon became
insignificant, although, the office having become hereditary,
Pfalzgrafen were in existence until the dissolution of the Holy
Roman Empire in 1806. The exception was the count palatine
of the Rhine, who became one of the four lay electors and the
most important lay official of the empire. In the empire the
word count palatine was also used to designate the officials
who assisted the emperor to e.xercise the rights which were
reserved for his personal consideration. They were called
comiles palatini caesarii, or comiies sacri palatii; in German,
Hojpjalzgrafen .
From Germany the term palatine passed into England and
Scotland, into Hungary and Poland. It appears in England
about the end of the nth century, being applied by Ordericus
Vitalis, to Odo, bishop of Bayeux and earl of Kent. The word
palatine came in England to be applied to the earls, or rulers,
of certain counties, men who enjoyed exceptional powers.
Their exceptional position is thus described by Stubbs (Const.
Hist. vol. i.): They were "earldoms in which the earls were
endowed with the superiority of whole counties, so that all
the landholders held feudally of them, in which they received
the whole profits of the courts and exercised all the regalia or
royal rights, nominated the sheriffs, held their own councils
and acted as independent princes except in the owing of homage
and fealty to the king." The most important of the counties
palatine were Durham and Chester, the bishop of the one and
the earl of the other receiving special privileges from WiUiam I.
Chester had its own parliament, consisting of barons of the
county, and was not represented in the national assembly
until 1 54 1, while it retained some of its special privileges until
1830. The bishop of Durham retained temporal jurisdiction
over the county until 1836. Lancashire was made a county,
or duchy, palatine in 1351, and kept some of its special judicial
privileges until 1873. Thus for several centuries the king's
writs did not run in these three palatine counties, and at the
present day Lancashire and Durham have their own courts of
chancery. Owing to the ambiguous application of the word
palatine to Odo of Bayeux, it is doubtful whether Kent was ever
a palatine county; if so, it was one only for a few years,during
the nth century. Other palatine counties, which only retained
their exceptional position for a short time, were Shropshire,
the Isle of Ely, Hexhamshire in Northumbria, and Pembroke-
shire in Wales. In Ireland there were palatine districts, and
the seven original earldoms of Scotland occupied positions some-
what analogous to that of the English palatine counties.
In Hungary the important office of palatine (Magyar Nddor)
owes its inception to St Stephen. At first the head of the
judicial system, the palatine undertook other duties, and became
after the king the most important person in the realm. At
one time he was chosen by the king from among four candidates
named by the Diet. Under the later Habsburg rulers of Hungary
the office was several times held by a member of this family,
one of the palatines being the archduke Joseph. The office was
aboUshed after the revolution of 1848.
In Poland the governors of the provinces of the kingdom
were called palatines, and the provinces were sometimes called
palatinates.
In America certain districts colonized by English settlers
were treated as palatine provinces. In 1632 Cecilius Calvert,
and Lord Baltimore, received a charter from Charles I. giving
him palatine rights in Maryland. In 1639 Sir Ferdinando
Gorges, the lord of Maine, obtained one granting him as large
and ample prerogatives as were enjoyed by the bishop of Durham.
Carolina was another instance of a palatine province.
In addition to the authorities mentioned, see R. Schroder, Lehrbnch
der deutschen Rechtsgeschichte (Leipzig, 1902) ; C. Pfaff, Geschichte
des Pfalzgrafenamtes (Halle, 1847); G. T. Lapsley, The County
Palatine of Durham (New York, 1900), and D. J. Medley, English
Constitutional History (1907). (A. W. H.*)
PALATKA, a city and the county-seat of Putnam county,
Florida, U.S.A., in the N.E. part of the state, on the W. bank
of the St John's river, about 100 m. from its mouth, and at
the head of deep-water navigation. Pop. (1905, state census),
3950. Palatka is served by the [Georgia Southern & Florida
(of which it is the southern terminal), the Atlantic Coast Line,
and the Florida East Coast railways, and also has connexion by
water with Baltimore, New York and Boston. Palatka is
situated in a rich agricultural, orange-growing and timber region,
for which it is the distributing centre. Large quantities of
cypress lumber are shipped from Palatka. Palatka was incorpo-
rated as a town in 1853, and in 1872 was chartered as a city.
PALAVER (an adaptation of Port, palawa, a word or speech;
Ital. parola; Fr. parole, from the Low Lat. parabola, a parable,
story, talk; Gr. 7rapa/3oXi7, hterally "comparison"; the Low Lat.
parabolare, " to talk," gives Fr. parler, " to speak," whence
" parley," " parliament," &c.), the name used by the Portuguese
traders on the African coast for their conversations and bargain-
ing with the natives. It was introduced into English in the
i8th century through English sailors frequenting the Guinea
coast. It has now passed into general use among the negroes
of West and West Central Africa for any conference, either
among themselves or with foreigners. From the amount of
unnecessary talk characteristic of such meetings with natives,
the word is used of any idle or cajoUng talk.
PALAWARAM, a town of British India, in Chingleput district,
Madras, 11 m. S. of Madras city, with a station on the South
Indian railway; pop. (1901), 6416. Formerly called the presi-
dency cantonment, as containing the native garrison for Madras
city, it is now a depot for native infantry and the residence of
European pensioners. There are several tanneries.
PALAZZOLO ACREIDE, a town of Sicily, in the province
of Syracuse, 28 m. by road W. of it, 22S5 ft. above sea-level.
Pop. (1901), 14,840. The town occupies the site of the ancient
Acrae, founded by Syracuse about 664 B.C. It followed in the
main the fortunes of the mother city. In the treaty between
the Romans and Hiero II. in 263 B.C. it was assigned to the latter.
The ancient city lay on the hill above the modern town, the
O^ PALE— PALENCIA 'I
597
approach to it being defended by quarries, in which tombs of
all periods have been discovered. The auditorium of the small
theatre is well preserved, though nothing of the stage remains.
Close to it are ruins of other buildings, which bear, without
justitication, the names Naumachia, Odeum (perhaps a bath
establishment) and Palace of Hiero. The water supply was
obtained by subterranean aqueducts. In the cliffs of the Monte
Pineta to the south are other tomb chambers, and to the south
again are the curious bas-reliefs called Santoni or SanticeUi,
mutilated in the iqth century by a peasant proprietor, which
appear to be sepulchral also. Near here too is the necropolis of
the Acrocoro della Torre, where many sarcophagi have been
found. Five miles north lies Buscemi, near which a sacred
grotto has been discovered; and also a church cut in the rock
and surrounded by a cemetery.'
See G. Judica, Antichitd di Acre (Messina, 1819). (Baron Judica's
collection of antiquities was dispersed after his death.) J. Schu-
bring, Jahrbiuh fiir Philologie, Suppl. IV., 662-672.
PALE (through Fr. pal, from Lat. paliis, a stake, for paglus,
from the stem pag- of pangcre, to fix; " pole " is from the same
original source), a stake, particularly one of a closely set series
driven into the ground to form the defensive work known as
a " palisade "; also one of the lighter laths or strips of wood
set vertically and fastened to a horizontal rail to form a " paling."
Used as an historical term, a pale is a district marked off from
the surrounding country by a different system of government
and law or by definite boundaries. The best known of these
districts was the " English Pale " in Ireland, dating from the
reign of Henry II., although the word " pale " was not used in
this connexion until the latter part of the 14th century. The
Pale varied considerably, according to the strength or weakness
of the English authorities, and in the time of Henry VIII. was
bounded by a line drawn from Dundalk to Kells, thence to
Naas, and from Naas E. to Dalkey, embracing, that is, part
of the modern counties of Dublin, Louth, Meath, and Kildare.
The Pale existed until the complete subjugation of Ireland under
Elizabeth; the use of the word is frequent in Tudor times.
There was an " English Pale " or " Calais Pale " also in France
until 1558,1 extending from Gravelines to Wissant, and for a
short time under the Tudors an English Pale in Scotland.
In heraldry a " pale " is a band placed vertically in the
centre of a shield, hence " in pale " or " to impale " is used of
the marshalling of two coats side by side on a shield divided
vertically.
" Pale," in the sense of colourless, whitish, of a shade of colour
lighter than the normal, is derived through O. Fr. palle, mod. pate,
from Lat. pallidus, pallor, pallere; and in that of a baker's shovel,
or " peel " as it is sometimes called, from Lat. pala, spade, probably
connected with the root of pandere, to spread out.
PALEARIO, AONIO (c. 1 500-1 570), Italian humanist and
reformer, was born about 1500 at Veroh, in the Roman
Campagna. Other forms of his name are Antonio Delia Paglia,
A. Degli Pagliaricci. In 1520 he went to Rome, where he
entered the brilliant literary circle of Leo X. When Charles
of Bourbon stormed Rome in 1527 Paleario went first to Perugia
and then to Siena, where he settled as a teacher. In 1536 his
didactic poem in Latin hexameters, De immortalitate animariun,
was published at Lyons. It is divided into three books, the
first containing his proofs of the divine existence, and the
remaining two the theological and philosophical arguments for
immortality based on that postulate. The whole concludes with
a rhetorical description of the occurrences of the Second Advent.
In 1542 a tract, written by him and entitled Ddla Picnezza,
sufficienza, et satisfazione della passione di Christo, or Lihcllus
de morte Christi, was made by the Inquisition the basis of a
charge of heresy, from which, however, he successfully defended
himself. In Siena he wrote his Actio in pontijices rpmuiws
et eorum asseclas, a vigorous indictment, in twenty "testimonia,"
against what he now believed to be the fundamental error of
the Roman Church in subordinating Scripture to tradition,
as well as against various particular doctrines, such as that of
' P. Orsi in Notizie degli Scavi (1899), 452-471; Romische Quartal-
schrift (1898), 624-631.
purgatory; it was not, however, printed until after his death
(Leipzig, 1606). In 1546 he accepted a professorial chair at
Lucca, which he exchanged in 1555 for that of Greek and Latin
literature at Milan. Here about 1566 his enemies renewed their
activity, and in 1567 he was formally accused by Fra Angelo
the inquisitor of Milan. He was tried at Rome, condemned
to death in October 1569, and executed in July 1570.
An edition of his works (Ant. Palearii Veridani Opera), including
four books of Epistolae and twelve Orationes besides the De im-
mortalitate, was published at Lyons in 1552; this was followed by
two others, at Basel, and several after his death, the fullest being
that of Amsterdam, 1696. A work, entitled Benefizio di Crista
(" The Benefit of Christ's Death "), has been attributed to Paleario
on insufficient grounds. Lives by Gurlitt (Hamburg, 1805); Young
(2 vols., London, i860); Bonnet (Paris, 1862).
PALENCIA, an inland province of Spain, one of the eight into
which Old Castile was divided in 18,33; bounded on the N. by
Santander, E. by Burgos, S. by VaUadolid, and W. by Valladolid
and Leon. Pop. (igoo), 192,472; area, 3256 sq. m. The
surface of the province slopes graduaUy S. to the Duero (Douro)
valley. The principal rivers are the Pisuerga and the Carrion,
which unite at Dueiias and flow into the Duero at Valladolid.
The chief tributaries of the Pisuerga within the province are
the Arlanzon, the Burejo, the Cioza, and the united streams
of the Buedo and Abanades; the Carrion is joined on the right
by the Cueza. The north is traversed by the Cantabrian
Mountains, the highest summit being the culminating point of
the Sierra del Brezo (6355 ft.). There are extensive forests in
this region and the valleys afTord good pasturage. The remainder
of Palencia, the " Tierra de Campos," belongs to the great
Castilian table-land. In the south is a marsh or lake, known
as La Laguna de la Nava. The mountainous district abounds
in minerals, but only coal and small quantities of copper are
worked. The province is crossed in the south-east by the
trunk railway connecting Madrid with France via Irun, while
the line to Santander traverses it throughout from north to
south; there are also railways from the city of Palencia to
Leon, and across the north from Mataporquera in Santander
to La Robla in Leon. A branch of the Santander line gives
access to the Orbo coal-fields. The main highways are good;
the other roads often bad. The Canal de Castilla, begun in
1753, and completed in 1832, connects Alar del Rey with
Valladolid. Wheat and other cereals, vegetables, hemp and
flax are extensively grown, except in the mountainous districts.
Flour and wine are made in large quantities, and there are
manufactures of linen and woollen stuffs, oil, porcelain, leather,
paper and rugs. Palencia rugs are in great demand through-
out Spain. The only town with more than 5000 inhabitants is
Palencia (g-v.).
For the history, inhabitants, &c., see Castile.
PALENCIA, an episcopal city, and the capital of the Spanish
province of Palencia; on the left bank of the river Carrion, on
the Canal de Castilla, at the junction of railways from Leon
and Santander, and 7 m. N. by W. of Venta de Baiios on the
Madrid-Irun line. Pop. (1900), 15,940. Palencia is built in
the midst of the level plains called the Tierra de Campos, 2690 ft.
above sea-level. Three bridges across the Carrion afford access
to the modern suburbs on the right bank. The older and by
far the more important part of the city is protected on the west
by the river; on the other sides the old machicolated walls,
36 ft. high by 9 ft. in thickness, are in fairly good preservation,
and beautified by alamedas or promenades, which were laid out
in 1778. The cathedral was begun in 1321, finished in 1504, and
dedicated to St Antolin; it is a large building in the later and
florid Gothic style of Spain. The site was previously occupied
by a church erected by Sancho III. of Navarre and Castile
(1026-103 5) over the cave of St Antolin, which is stfll shown.
The cathedral contains some valuable paintings, old Flemish
tapestry, and beautiful carved woodwork and stonework. The
church of San Miguel is a good and fairly well-preserved example
of 13th-century work; that of San Francisco, of the same date,
is inferior and has suffered more from modernization. The
598
PALENQUE— PALERMO
hospital of San Lazaro is said to date in part from the time of
the Cid (q.v.), who here married Ximena in 1074.
Much has been done for education. Palencia has also hospitals,
a foundling refuge, barracks and a bull-ring. Local industries
include iron-founding, and the making of rugs, alcohol, leather,
soap, porcelain, linen, cotton, wool, machinery and matches.
Palencia, the Pallantia of Strabo and Ptolemy, was the chief
town of the Vaccaei. Its history during the Gothic and
Moorish periods is obscure; but it was a Castilian town of some
importance in the 12th and 13th centuries. The university
founded here in 1208 by Alphonso IX. was removed in 1239 to
Salamanca.
PALENQUE, the modern name of a deserted city in Mexico,
in the narrow valley of the Otolum, in the north part of the state
of Chiapas, 80 m. S. of the Gulf port of Carmen. About 30 m.
away, on the left bank of the Usumacinta river, stand the ruins
of Men-che or Lorillard city. The original name of Palenque
has been lost, and its present name is taken from the neighbour-
ing viUage, Santo Domingo del Palenque. Unlike the dead cities
of the Yucatan plains, Palenque is surrounded by wooded hUls
and overgrown by tropical vegetation.
There is less stone carving on the e.xterior walls, door jambs
and pillars of the buildings than on those of the Yucatan Penin-
sula; this is due to the harder and more uneven character of
the limestone. Probably owing to the same cause, there is less
cut stone in the walls, the Palenque builders using plaster to
obtain smooth surfaces. There is, however, considerable carving
on the interior walls, the best specimens being on the tablets,
affixed to the walls with plaster. Modelling in stucco was e.xten-
sively used. A few terra-cotta images have been found. Paint
and coloured washes were liberally used to cover plastered
surfaces and for ornamentation, and paints seem to have been
used to bind plastered surfaces. The Palenque builders
apparently used nothing but stone tools in their work.
The so-called Great Palace consists of a group of detached
buildings, apparently ten in number, standing on two platforms
of different elevations. Some of the interior structures and
the detached one on the lower southern terrace are in a fair
state of preservation. The plan of construction shows three
parallel walls enclosing two corridors covered with the peculiar
pointed arches or vaults characteristic of Palenque. The
buildings appear to have been erected at different periods.
A square tower rises from a central part of the platform to
a height of about 40 ft., divided into a solid masonry base and
three storeys connected by interior stairways. The Temple of
Inscriptions, one of the largest and best preserved, is distin-
guished chiefly for its tablets, which contain only hieroglyphics.
Sculptured slabs form balustrades to the steps leading up to
the temple, and its exterior is ornamented with figures in stucco,
the outer faces of the four pillars in front having life-size figures
of women with children in their arms. The small Temple of
Beau Relief stands on a narrow ledge of rock against the steep
slope of the mountain. Its most important feature is a large
stucco bas-relief, occupying a central position on the back
wall of the sanctuary. It consists of a single figure, seated
on a throne, beautifully modelled both in form, drapery and
ornaments, with the face turned to one side and the arms out-
stretched, and is reproduced by H. H. Bancroft. The temples
on the east side of the Otolum are distinguished by tall
narrow vaults, perforated by numerous square openings giving
the appearance of coarse lattice work. The Temple of the Sun
stands upon a comparatively low pyramidal foundation. The
interior consists of the usual pair of vaulted corridors. The
sacred tablet on the back wall of the sanctuary is carved in low
relief in limestone, and consists of two figures, apparently a priest
and his assistant making offerings. There are rows of hiero-
glyphics on the sides and over the central design. The Temple
of the Cross is a larger structure of similar design and construc-
tion. The tablet belonging to this temple has excited contro-
versy, because the design contains a representation of a Latin
cross. The Temple of the Cerro, called that of the Cross
No. 2, because its tablet is very similar to that just mentioned.
stands back against the slope of the mountain, and is in great
part a ruin. (For history and further details see Central
America; § Archaeology.)
PALERMO (Greek, Havopfios; Latin, Panhormus, Panormus),
a city of Sicily, capital of a province of the same name,
in the kingdom of Italy, and the see of an archbishop. Pop.
(1906), town 264,036, commune 323,747. The city stands
in the N.W. of the island, on a small bay looking E., the coast
forming the chord of a semicircle of mountains which hem in
the campagna of Palermo, caUed the Conca d'Oro. The most
striking point is the mountain of Hiercte, now called Pellegrino
(from the grotto of Santa Rosalia, a favourite place of pilgrimage)
at the N. of this semicircle; at the S.E. is the promontory of
Zaffarano, on which stood Soluntum {q.v.).
A neolithic settlement and necropolis were discovered in
1897 at the foot of Monte Pellegrino, on the N.E. side (E. Salinas
in Notizie degli Scavi, 1907, 307). Palermo has been commonly
thought to be an original Phoenician settlement of unknown
date (though its true Phoenician name is unknown), but Holm
{Archivio storio siciliano, 1880, iv. 421) has suggested that the
settlement was originally Greek.' There is no record of any
Greek colonies in that part of Sicily, and Panormus certainly
was Phoenician as far back as history can carry us. According
to Thucydides (vi. 2), as the Greeks colonized the E. of the
island, the Phoenicians withdrew to the N.W., and concentrated
themselves at Panormus, Motye, and Soluntum. Like the
other Phoenician colonies in the west, Panormus came under
the power of Carthage, and became the head of the Carthaginian
dominion in Sicily. As such it became the centre of that strife
between Europe and Africa, between Aryan and Semitic man,
in its later stages between Christendom and Islam, which forms
the great interest of Sicilian history. As the Semitic head of
Sicily, it stands opposed to Syracuse, the Greek head. Under
the Carthaginian it was the head of the Semitic part of Sicily;
when, under the Saracen all Sicily came under Semitic rule, it
was the chief seat of that rule. It was thrice won for Europe,
by Greek, Roman and Norman conquerors— in 276 B.C. by
the Epirot king Pyrrhus, in 254 B.C. by the Roman consuls
Aulus Atilius and Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio, and in a.d. 107 i
by Robert Guiscard and his brother Roger, the first count of
Sicily. After the conquest by Pyrrhus the city was soon
recovered by Carthage, but this first Greek occupation was the
beginning of a connexion with western Greece and its islands
which was revived under various forms in later times. After
the Roman conquest an attempt to recover the city for Carthage
was made in 250 B.C., which led only to a great Roman victory
(see Punic Wars). Later, in the First Punic War, Hamilcar
Barca was encamped for three years on Hiercte or Pellegrino,
but the Roman possession of the city was not disturbed. Panor-
mus received the privileges of autonomy and immunity from
taxation. It seems probable that at the end of the repubUc
the coinage for the west of Sicily was struck here (Mommsen,
Riiin. Munzwesen, 665). A colony was sent here by Augustus,
and the place remained of considerable importance, though
inferior to Catana. A fortunate chance has preserved to us
a large number of the inscriptions set up in the Forum (Mommsen,
Corpus inscr. lat. x. 752). The town was taken by the Vandal
Genseric in a.d. 440. It afterwards became a part of the East-
Gothic dominion, and was recovered for the empire by BeUsarius
in 53 J. It again remained a Roman possession for exactly
three hundred years, till it was taken by the Saracens in 835.
Panormus now became the Moslem capital. In 1062 the Pisan
fleet broke through the chain of the harbour and carried ofl
much spoil, which was spent on the building of the great church
of Pisa. After the Norman conquest the city remained for a
short time in the hands of the dukes of Apuha. But in 1093
half the city was ceded to Count Roger, and in 1122 the rest was
ceded to the second Roger. When he took the kingly title
in 1 130 it became " Prima sedes, corona regis, et regni caput."
' The coins bearing the name of njnD are no longer assigned to
Panormus; but certain coins with the name j"s (Ziz; about 410 B.C.)
belong to it.
PALERMO
599
During the Norman reigns Palermo was the main centre of Sicilian
history, especially during the disturbances in the reign of William
the Bad (1154-1166). The emperor Henry VI. entered ralermo
in 1 194, and it was the chief scene of his cruelties. In 11 98
his son Frederick, afterwards emperor, was crowned there.
After his death Palermo was for a moment a commonwealth.
It passed under the dominion of Charles of Anjou in 1266.
In the next year, when the greater part of Sicily revolted on
behalf of Conradin, Palermo was one of the few towns which
was held for Charles; but the famous Vespers of 1282 put an
Emery WAlkcr sc^
end to the Angevin dominion. From that time Palermo shared
in the many changes of the Sicilian kingdom. In 1535 Charles
V. landed there on his return from Tunis. The last kings
crowned at Palermo were Victor Amadeus of Savoy, in 1713,
and Charles III. of Bourbon, in 1735. The loss of Naples by
the Bourbons in 1798, and again in 1806, made Palermo once
more the seat of a separate Sicilian kingdom. The city rose
against Bourbon rule in 1820 and in 1848. In i860 came the
final deliverance, at the hands of Garibaldi; but with it came
also the yet fuller loss of the position of Palermo as the capital
of a kingdom of Sicily.
Site. — The original city was built on a tongue of land between
two inlets of the sea. There is no doubt that the present main
street, the Cassaro (Roma.n castrum, Arabic Kasr), Via Marmorea
or Via Toledo (Via Vittorio Emmanuele), represents the line
of the ancient town, with water on each side of it. Another
peninsula with one side to the open sea, meeting as it were
the main city at right angles, formed in Polybius's time the
Neapoiis, or new town, in Saracen times Khalesa, a name which
still survives in that of Calsa. But the two ancient harbours
have been dried up; the two peninsulas have met; the long
street has been extended to the present coast-line; a small inlet,
called the Cala, alone represents the old haven. The city kept
its ancient shape till after the time of the Norman kings. The
old state of things fully explains the name Havop/xos.
There are not many early remains in Palermo. The Phoeni-
cian and Greek antiquities in the museum do not belong to the
city itself. The earliest existing buildings date from the time
of the Norman kings, whose palaces and churches were built
in the Saracenic and Byzantine styles prevalent in the island.
Of Saracen works actually belonging to the time of Saracen
occupation there are no whole buildings remaining, but many
inscriptions and a good many columns, often inscribed with
passages from the Koran, which have been used up again in
later buildings, specially in the porch of the metropolitan church.
This last was built by Archbishop Walter {fl. 1 170) — an English-
man sent by Henry II. of England as tutor to William II. of
Sicily — and consecrated in 1185, on the site of an ancient basilica,
which on the Saracen conquest became a mosque, and on the
Norman conquest became a church again, first of the Greek and
then of the Latin rite. What remains of Walter's building is
a rich example of the Christian-Saracen style, disfigured, un-
fortunately, by the addition of a totaUy unsuitable dome by
Ferinando Fuga in 1781-1801. This church contains the tombs
of the emperor Frederick II. and his parents — massive sarcophagi
of red porphyry with canopies above them — and also the royal
throne, higher than that of the archbishop: for the king of Sicily,
as hereditary legate of the see of Rome, was the higher ecclesi-
astical officer of the two. But far the best example of the style
is the chapel of the king's palace (cappella palatina), at the west
end of the city. This is earher than Walter's church, being the
work of King Roger in 1143. The wonderful mosaics, the
wooden roof, elaborately fretted and painted, and the marble
incrustation of the lower part of the walls and the floor are
very fine. Of the palace itself the greater part was rebuilt and
added in Spanish times, but there are some other parts of Roger's
work left, specially the hall called Sala Normanna.
Alongside of the churches of this Christian-Saracen type,
there is another class which foUows the Byzantine type. Of
these the most perfect is the very small church of San Cataldo.
But the best, much altered, but now largely restored to its
former state, is the adjoining church of La Martorana, the work
of George of Antioch, King Roger's admiral. This is rich with
mosaics, among them the portraits of the king and the founder.
Both these and the royal chapel have several small cupolas, and
there is a still greater display in that way in the church of San
Giovanni degli Fremiti, which it is hard to believe never was a
mosque. It is the only church in Palermo with a bell-tower,
itself crowned with a cupola.
Most of these buildings are witnesses in different ways to the
peculiar position of Palermo in the 12th century as the " city
of the threefold tongue," Greek, Arabic, and Latin. King
Roger's sun- dial in the palace is commemorated in all three,
and it is to be noticed that the three inscriptions do not translate
one another. In private inscriptions a fourth tongue, the
Hebrew, is also often found. For in Palermo under the Norman
kings Christians of both rites, Mahommedans and Jews were
aU allowed to flourish after their several fashions. In Saracen
times there was a Slavonic quarter on the southern side of the
city, and there is still a colony of United Greeks, or more strictly
Albanians.
The series of Christian-Saracen buildings is continued in
the country houses of the kings which surround the city, La
Favara and Mimnerno, the works of Roger, and the better
known Ziza and Cuba, the works severally of WilHam the Bad
and William the Good. The Saracenic architecture and Arabic
inscriptions of these buildings have often caused them to be
taken for works of the ancient ameers; but the inscriptions of
6oo
PALES— PALESTINE
themselves prove their date. All these buildings are the genuine
work of Sicilian art, the art which had grown up in the island
through the presence of the two most civilized races of the
age, the Greek and the Saracen. Later in the 12th century
the Cistercians brought in a type of church which, without
any great change of mere style, has a very different effect, a
high choir taking in some sort the place of the cupola. The
greatest example of this is the neighbouring metropolitan church
of Monreale (q.v.) ; more closely connected with Palermo is the
church of San Spirito, outside the city on the south side, the
scene of the Vespers.
Domestic and civil buildings from the 12th century to the
15th abound in Palermo, and they present several types of
genuine national art, quite unlike anything in Italy. Of palaces
the finest is perhaps the massive Palazzo Chiaramonte, now
used as the courts of justice, erected subsequently to 1307.
One of the halls has interesting paintings of 1377-1380 on its
wooden ceiling; and in the upper storey of the court is a splendid
three-light Gothic window. The later houses employ a very
flat arch, the use of which goes on in some of the houses and
smaUer churches of the Renaissance. S. Maria deUa Catena
may be taken as an especially good example. But the general
aspect of the streets is later still, dating from mere Spanish
times. Still many of the houses are stately in their way, with
remarkable heavy balconies. The most striking point in the
city is the central space at the crossing of the main streets,
called the Quattro Cantoni. Two of the four are formed by
the ancient Via Marmorea, but the Via Macqueda, which
supplies the other two, was cut through a mass of small streets
in Spanish times.
The city walls are now to a great extent removed. Of the
gates only two remain, the Porta Nuova and the Porta Felice;
both are fine examples of the baroque style, the former was
erected in 1584 to commemorate the return of Charles V. fifty
years earlier, the latter in 1582. Outside the walls new quarters
have sprung up of recent years, and the Teatro Massimo and
the Politeama Garibaldi; the former (begun by G. B. Basile
and completed by his son in 1897) has room for 3200 spectators
and is the largest in Italy.
The museum of Palermo, the richest in the island, has been
transferred from the university to the former monastery of the
Filippini. Among the most important are the objects from
prehistoric tombs and the architectural fragments from Sehnus,
including several metopes with reliefs, which are of great impor-
tance as illustrating the development of Greek sculpture. None
of the numerous Greek vases and terra-cottas is quite of the first
class, though the collection is important. The bronzes are few,
but include the famous ram from Syracuse. There is also the
Casuccini collections of Etruscan sarcophagi, sepulchral urns
and pottery. Almost the only classical antiquities from Palermo
itself are Latin inscriptions of the imperial period, and two
large coloured mosaics with figures found in the Piazza Vittoria
in front of the royal palace in 1869: in 1906 excavations in the
same square led to the discovery of a large private house,
apparently of the 2nd or 3rd century A.D., to which these mosaics
no doubt belonged. Of greater local interest are the medieval
and Renaissance sculptures from Palermo itself, a large picture
gallery, and an extensive collection of Sicilian majolica, &c.
The university, founded in 1779, rose to importance in recent
years (from 300 students in 1872 to 1495 in 1897), but has
slightly lost in numbers since. The city wears a prosperous
and busy appearance. The Marina, or esplanade at the south
of the town, affords a fine sea front with a view of the bay;
near it are beautiful public gardens. In the immediate neigh-
bourhood of the city are the oldest church in or near Palermo,
the Lepers' church, founded by the first conqueror or deliverer.
Count Roger, and the bridge over the forsaken stream of the
Oreto, bunt in King Roger's day by the admiral George. There
are also some later medieval houses and towers of some impor-
tance. These all lie on to the south of the city, towards the
hill called Monte Griffone (Griffon-Greek), and the Giant's Cave,
which has furnished rich stores for the palaeontologist. On
the other side, towards PeUegrino, is the new harbour of Palermo,
round which a new quarter has sprung up, including a yard
capable of building ships up to 475 ft. in length, and a dry dock
for vessels up to 563 ft.
The steamship traffic at Palermo in 1906 amounted to 2035
vessels, with a total tonnage of 2,403,851 tons. Palermo is one of
the two headquarters (the other being Genoa) of the Navigazione
Generale Italiana, the chief Italian , steamship company. The
principal imports were 36,567 tons of timber (a large increase on
the normal figures), 21,401 'tons of wheat and 151,360 tons of
coal; while the chief exports were 116,400 gallons of wine, 37,835
tons of sumach and 122,023 tons of oranges and lemons. Finding
most of its valuable rates hypothecated to the meeting of old debts,
the municipality of Palermo has embarked upon municipal owner- .
ship and trading in various directions. |'
The plain of Palermo is very fertile, and well watered by springs
and streams, of the latter of which the Oreto is the chief. It is
planted with orange and lemon groves, the products of which are
largely exported, and with many palm-trees, the fruit of which,
however, does not attain maturity. It also contains many villas
of the wealthy inhabitants of Palermo, among the most beautiful
of which is La Favorita, at the foot of Monte PeUegrino on the
west, belonging to the Crown.
Authorities — Besides works dealing with Sicily generally, the
established local work on Palermo is Descrizione di Palermo antico,
by Salvatore Morso (2nd ed., Palermo, 1827). Modern research and
criticism have been applied in Die mitteldlterliche Kunst in Palermo,
by Anton Springer (Bonn, 1869); Historische Topographie von
Panormus, by Julius Schubring (Liibeck, 1870); Stiidii di storia
palermitana, by Adolf Holm (Palermo, 1880). See also " The
Normans in Palermo," in the third series of Historical Essays, by
E. A. Freeman (London, 1879). The description of Palermo in
the second volume of Gselfel's guide-book, Unter-Italien und Sicilien
(Leipzig), leaves nothing to wish for. Various articles in the
Archivio storico siciliano and the series of Documenti per servire
alia storia delta Sicilia, both published by the Societa siciliana per
la storia patria, may also be consulted. (E. A. F. ; T. As.)
PALES, an old Italian goddess of flocks and shepherds. The
festival called Parilia (less correctly Palilia) was celebrated
in her honour at Rome and in the country on the 21st of April.
In this festival Pales was invoked to grant protection and
increase to flocks and herds; the shepherds entreated forgiveness
for any unintentional profanation of holy places of which their
flocks might have been guilty, and leaped three times across
bonfires of hay and straw (Ovid, Fasti, iv. 731-805). The
Parilia was not only a herdsmen's festival, but was regarded
as the birthday celebration of Rome, which was supposed to
have been founded on the same day. Pales plays a very sub-
ordinate part in the religion of Rome, even the sex of the divinity
being uncertain. A male Pales was sometimes spoken of,
corresponding in some respects to Pan; the female Pales was
associated with Vesta and .Anna Perenna.
PALESTINE, a geographical name of rather loose apphcation.
Etymological strictness would require it to denote exclusively
the narrow strip of coast-land once occupied by the Philistines,
from whose name it is derived. It is, however, conventionally
used as a name for the territory which, in the Old Testament,
is claimed as the inheritance of the pre-e.xilic Hebrews; thus
it may be said generally to denote the southern third of the
province of Syria. Except in the west, where the country is
bordered by the Mediterranean Sea, the hmit of this territory
cannot be laid down on the map as a definite line. The modern
subdivisions under the jurisdiction of the Ottoman Empire are in
no sense conterminous with those of antiquity, and hence do not
afford a boundary by which Palestine can be separated exactly
from the rest of Syria in the north, or from the Sinaitic and
Arabian deserts in the south and east; nor are the records of
ancient boundaries sufficiently full and definite to make possible
the complete demarcation of the country. Even the convention
above referred to is inexact: it includes the Philistine territory,
claimed but never settled by the Hebrews, and excludes I he
outlying parts of the large area claimed in Num. xxxiv. as the
Hebrew possession (from the " River of Egypt " to Hamath).
However, the Hebrews themselves have preserved, in the
' The figures for 1905 (40,005 tons, almost entirely from Russia)
were abnormally high, while those for 1906 are correspondingly
below the average. . ,.. . ' . ,r.,i \i . u. : -.s •'•
PHYSICAL FEATURES]
PALESTINE
6oi
proverbial expression " from Dan to Beersheba " (Judg. xx.
1, &c.), an indication of the normal north-and-south limits of
their land; and in defining the area of the country under
discussion it is this indication which is generally followed.
Taking as a guide the natural features most nearly correspond-
ing to these outlying points, we may describe Palestine as the
strip of land extending along the eastern shore of the Mediter-
ranean Sea from the mouth of the Litany or Kasimiya River
(33° 20' N.) southward to the mouth of the Wadi Ghuzza; the
latter joins the sea in 31° 28' N., a short distance south of Gaza,
and runs thence in a south-easterly direction so as to include
on its northern side the site of Beersheba. Eastward there
is no such definite border. The River Jordan, it is true, marks
a line of delimitation between Western and Eastern Palestine; but
it is practically impossible to say where the latter ends and the
Arabian desert begins. Perhaps the line of the pilgrim road
from Damascus to Mecca is the most convenient possible
boundary. The total length of the region is about 140 m.; its
breadth west of the Jordan ranges from about 23 m. in the
north to about 80 m. in the south. According to the English
engineers who surveyed the country on behalf of the Pales-
tine Exploration Fund, the area of this part of the country is
about 6040 sq. m. East of the Jordan, owing to the want of
a proper survey, no figures so definite as these are available.
The limits adopted are from the south border of Hermon to
the mouth of the Mojib (Arnon), a distance of about 140 m.:
the whole area has been calculated to be about 3800 sq. m.
The territory of Palestine, Eastern and Western, is thus equal
to rather more than one-sixth the size of England.
There is no ancient geographical term that covers all this
area. Till the period of the Roman occupation it was subdivided
into independent provinces or kingdoms, different at different
times (such as Philistia, Canaan, Judah, Israel, Bashan, &c.),
but never united under one collective designation. The exten-
sion of the name of Palestine beyond the limits of Philistia
proper is not older than the Byzantine Period.
Physical Features. — Notwithstanding its small size, Palestine
presents a variety of geographical detail so unusual as to be in
itself sufficient to mark it out as a country of especial interest.
The bordering regions, moreover, are as varied in character as is
the country itself — sea to the west, a mountainous and sandy desert
to the south, a lofty steppe plateau to the east, and the great masses
of Lebanon to the north. In describing the general physical
features of the country, the most significant point to notice is
that (though it falls westward to the sea and rises eastward to an
elevated plain) the rise from west to east is not continuous, but is
sharply interrupted by the deep fissure of the Ghor or Jordan
valley; which, running from north to south — for the greater part
of its length depressed below sea-level — forms a division in the
country of both physical and political importance. In this respect
the function of the river Jordan in Palestine offers a strange
contrast, often remarked upon, to that of the Nile in Egypt. The
former is of no use for irrigation, except in the immediate neigh-
bourhood of its banks, and is a barrier to cross which involves the
labour of a considerable ascent at any point except its most northern
section. The latter is at once the great fertilizer and the great
highway of the country which it serves.
Western Palestine is a region intersected by groups of mountain
peaks and ranges, forming a southern extension of the Lebanon
system and running southward till they finally lose themselves
in the desert. The watershed of this system is so placed that from
two-thirds to three-fourths of the country is on its western side.
This fact, taken in connexion with the great depth of the depres-
sion of the Ghor below the Mediterranean — already 682 ft. at the
Sea of Galilee — has a peculiar effect on the configuration of the
country. On the west side the slope is gradual, especially in the
broad plain that skirts the coast for the greater part of its length ;
on the east side it is steep — precipitous indeed, towards the southern
end — and intersected by valleys worn to a tremendous depth by
the force of the torrents that once ran down them.
This territory of Western Palestine divides naturally into two
longitudinal strips — the maritime plain and the mountain region.
These it will be convenient to consider separately.
1. The Maritime Plain, which, with a few interruptions, extends
along the Mediterranean coast from Lebanon to Egypt, is a strip
of land of remarkable fertility. It is formed of raised beaches
and sea-beds, ranging from the Pliocene period downwards, and
resting on Upper Eocene sandstone. It varies greatly in width.
At the mouth of the Kasimiya it is some 4 m. across, and this
breadth it maintains to a short distance south of Tyre, where it
suddenly narrows; until, at Ras el-Abiad, it has been necessary to
cut a passage in the precipitous face of the cliff to allow the coast-
road to be carried past it. This ancient work is the well-known
" Ladder of Tyre." South of this promontory the plain begins
to widen again; on the latitude of Acre (Akka), from which this
part of the plain takes its name, it is from 4 to 5 m. across; while
farther south, at Haifa, it is of still greater width, and opens into
the extensive Merj Ibn 'Amir (Plain of Esdraelon) by which almost
the whole of Western Palestine is intersected. South of Haifa
the promontory of Carmel once more effaces the plain ; here the
passage along the coast is barely 200 yds. in width. At 'Athlit,
9 m. to the south, it is about 2 m.; from this point it expands uni-
formly to about 20 m., which is the breadth at the latitude of Ascalon.
South of this it is shut in and broken up by groups of low hills.
From the Kasimiya southwards the maritime plain is crossed by
numerous river-beds, with a few exceptions winter torrents only.
Among the perennial streams may be mentioned the Na'aman,
south of Acre; the Mukatta' Kishon, at Haifa; the Nahr ez-Zerka,
sometimes called the Crocodile River — so named from the crocodiles
still occasionally to be seen in it; the Nahr el-Falik; the 'Aujeh
a few miles north of Jaffa and the Nahr Rubin. The surface of
the plain rises gradually from the coast inland to an altitude of
about 200 ft. It is here and there diversified by small hills.
II. The Mountain Region, the great plain of Esdraelon, which
forms what from the earliest times has been recognized to be the
easiest entrance to the interior of thL- country, cuts abruptly
through the mountain system, and so divides it into two groups.
Each of these may be subdivided into two regions presenting their
own special peculiarities.
a. The Galilean Mountains, north of the plain of Esdraelon, fall
into two regions, divided by a line joining Acre with the north end
of the Sea of Galilee. The northern region (Upper Galilee) is
virtually an outlier of the Lebanon Mountains. At the north end
is an elevated plateau, draining into the Kasimiya. The mountains
are intersected by a complex system of valleys, of which some
thirty run down to the Mediterranean. The face toward the Jordan
valley is lofty and steep. The highest point is Jebcl Jermak,
3934 ft. above the sea; about it, on the eastern and northern
sides, are lofty plateaus. The region is fruitful, and in places well
wooded ; it is beyond question the most picturesque part of Palestine.
The southern region (Lower Galilee) shows somewhat different
characteristics. It consists of chains of comparatively low hills,
for the greater part running east and west, enclosing a number of
elevated plains. The principal of these plains is El-Buttauf, a
tract 400 to 500 ft. above sea-level, enclosed within hills 1700 ft.
high and measuring 9 m. east to west and 2 m. north to south.
It is marshy at its eastern end and very fertile. This is the plain
of Zebulun or Asochis, of antiquity. The plain of Tur'an, south-
east of El-Buttauf, is smaller, but equally fertile. Among the
principal mountains of this district may be named Jebel Tur'an,
1774 ft. and Jebel et-Tur (Tabor) 1843 ft.; the latter is an isolated
mass of regular shape which commands the plain of Esdraelon.
Eastward the country falls to the level of the Ghor by a succession
of steps, among which the lava-covered Sahel el-Ahma may be
mentioned, which lies west of the cliffs overhanging the Sea of
Galilee. The chief valleys of this region are the Nahr Na'aman
and its branches, which runs into the sea south of Acre, and the
Wadi Mukatta', or Kishon, which joins the sea at Haifa. On the
east may be mentioned the Wadi er-Rubadiya, Wadi el-Hamam and
Wadi Fajjas, flowing into the Sea of Galilee or else into the Jordan.
b. The great plain of Esdraelon is one of the most important and
striking of the natural features of Western Palestine. It is a large
triangle, having its corners at Jenin, Jebel et-Tur, and the outlet
of the Wadi Mukatta', by which last it communicates with the
sea-coast. On the south-west it is bounded by the range of hills
that terminates in the spur of Carrhel. The modern name, as
above-mentioned, is Merj Ibn 'Amir (" the meadow-land of the
son of "Amir"); in ancient times it was known as the Valley of
Jezreel, of which name Esdraelon is a Greek corruption; and by
another name (Har-Magedon) derived from that of the impor-
tant town of Megiddo — it is referred to symbolically in Rev.
xvi. 16. It is the great highway, and also the great battlefield, of
Palestine. At the village of Afuleh its altitude is 260 ft. above the
sea-level. In winter it is swampy, and in places almost impassable.
The fertility of this region is proverbial. There are several small
subsidiary plains that extend from it both north and south into the
surrounding mountain region; of these we need only mention a
broad valley running north-eastwards between Jebel Duhi. a range
15 m. long and 1690 ft. high, on the one side, and Mt Tabor
and the hills of Nazareth on the other side. East of the watershed
are a number of valleys running to the Ghor; the most remarkable
of these are the Wadi el-Bireh and the Wadi Jalud, the latter
containing the river that flows from the fine spring called 'Ain Jalud.
c. The second of the divisions into which we have grouped the
mountain system lies south of the plain of Esdraelon. This is
divisible into the districts of Samaria and Judaea. In the first of
these the mountain ranges are complex, appearing to radiate from
a centre at which lies Merj el-Ghuruk, a small plain about 4 m.
cast to west and 2 m. north to south. This plain has no outlet
and is marshy in the rainy season. Connected with it are other
small plains unnecessary to enumerate. For the greater part the
6o2
PALESTINE
[PHYSICAL FEATURES
principal mountains are near the watershed; they include Jebel
Fuku'a (Gilboa), a range that forms the watershed at the eastern
extremity of the plain of Esdraelon. The range of Carmel (highest
point i8io ft.) iTiust also be included in thisdistrict;it runs from the
A 34'jo'
/fnllu/ays ,
Principal Roads
Canals &. Aqueducts
fJulns ^
Biblical & Classical Name:
'A in = Spring
Bahr = Sea
Beit, Beth = House
J., Jebel = Mountain
Kefr = Village
Hh., Khan =; Inn
Hh.. Khurbet = Ruin
/v., Nahr= Riuer (perennial)
Has = Cape. Hvad
Tvll = f/lound
W. = Wad}. Watercourse
PALESTINE
Scale, 1:1,600.000
E.i"hsii M,l.:s
central point above mentioned — though interrupted by many
passes — to the end of the promontory which makes the harbour
of Haifa, at its foot, the best on the Palestine coast. The highest
mountains in the Samaria district are, however, in the neighbour-
hood of Nablus (Shechem). They include the rugged bare mass
of Gerizim (2849 ft.), the smoother cactus-clad cone of Ebal (3077),
and farther south Tell "Asur (3318) at which point begins the
Judaean range. On the eastern side of the watershed the most
important feature is perhaps the great valley system that connects
the Mukhnah (the plain south of Nablus) with the Ghor— be-
ginning with the impressive Wadi Bilan and proceeding through
the important and abundantly watered
Wadi Far'a. Tell 'Asur stands a short
distance north of Beitein (Bethel). South
of it is the long zigzag range known as
Jebel el-Kuds, named from Jerusalem
(el-Kuds) the chief town built upon it. The
highest point is Neby Samwil (Mizpah),
2935 ft- above the sea, north of Jerusalem.
This city itself stands at an altitude of
2500_ ft. To the south of it begins the
subdivision of the Judaean mountains now
known as Jebel el-Khalil, from Hebron
(el-Khalil), which stands in an elevated
basin some 500 ft. above the altitude of
Jerusalem; it is here that the Judaean
Mountains attain their greatest height.
South of Hebron the ridge gradually be-
comes lower, and finally breaks up and
loses itself in the southern desert.
On the west side of the watershed the
mountainous district extends about half
way to the sea, broken by deep valleys
and passes. Am,ong these the most im-
portant are the Wadi Selman (Valley ol
Aijalon) which seems to have been the
principal route to Jerusalem in ancient
times; the Wadi Isma'in south of this,
along which runs the modern carriage road
from Jaffa to Jerusalem; and the Wadi
es-Surar, a higher section of the bed of the
Nahr Rubin, along which now runs the
railway line; farther to the south we may
mention the Wadi es-Sunt, which opens
up the country from Tell es-Safi (Gath?)
eastward.
Between the mountainous country of
Judaea and the maritime plain is an un-
dulating region anciently known as the
Shephelah. It is composed of horizontal
strata of limestone, forming groups of hills
intersected by a network of small and
fertile valleys. In this region, which is
of great historical importance, are the re-
mains of many ancient cities. The ad-
jacent part of the maritime plain is com-
posed of a rich, light brown loamy soil.
Although cultivated with most primitive
appliances, and with little or no attempt
at irrigation or artificial fertilization, the
average yield is eight- to twelve-fold
annually. This part of the plain is (in
European nomenclature) divided into two
at about the latitude of Jaffa, that to the
north being the plain of Sarona (Sharon),
the southern half being the plain of the
Philistines.
On the east side of the watershed the
ground slopes rapidly from its height of
2500 ft. above sea-level to a maximum
depth of 1300 ft. below sea-level, within a
distance of about 20 m. It is a waste,
destitute of water and with but scanty
vegetation. It has never been brought
into cultivation; but in the first Christian
centuries the caves in its valleys were the
chosen refuge of Christian monasticism.
It descends to the level of the Ghor by
terraces, deeply cut through by profound
ravines such as the Wadi es-Suweinit, Wadi
Kelt, Wadi ed-Dabr, Wadi en-Nar (Kedron)
and Wadi el "Areijeh.
The southern district, which includes the
white marl region of Beersheba, was in
ancient times called the Negeb. It is a wide
steppe region which (though it contains
many remains of ancient towns and settle-
ments, and was evidently at one time a terri-
tory of great importance) is now almost en-
tirely inhabited by nomads. It should, however, be mentioned that the
Turkish government has developed a town at Beersheba, under
the jurisdiction of a Kaimmakara (lieutenant-governor), smce the
beginning of the 20th century. .
The Ghor or Jordan valley is treated in a separate article (see
Jordan). There has been no systematic sur\-ey of Eastern Palestine
such as was carried out in Western Palestine between 1875 and 18S0
: ,limu ,
PHYSICAL FEATURES]
PALESTINE
603
by the ofiRcers of the Palestine Exploration Fund. A good deal of
work has been done by individual travellers, but the material for
a full description of its physical character is as yet lacking. Two
great rivers, the Yarmuk (Hieromax) and the Zerka (Jabbok),
divide Eastern Palestine into three sections, namely Hauran
(Bashan, q.v.) with the Jaulan west of it; Jebel Ajlun (Gilead,
q.v.) ; and the Belk'a (the southern portion of Gilead and the ancient
territory of the tribe of Reuben). The latter extends southward
to the Mojib, which, as we have already seen, is the southern
boundary of Eastern Palestine.
It is a matter of dispute whether Hauran should be included
within Palestine proper, accepting its definition as the " ancient
Hebrew territory. ' It is a large volcanic region, entirely covered
with lava and other igneous rocks. Two remarkable rows of these
run in lines from north to south, through the region of the Jaulan
parallel to the Ghor, and from a long distance are conspicuous
features in the landscape. The soil is fertile, and there are many
remains of ancient wealth and civilization scattered over its surface.
South of the Yarmuk the formation is Cretaceous, Hauran basalt
being found only in the eastern portion. That region is much
more mountainous than Hauran. South of the Zerka the country
culminates in Jebel 'Osha, a peak of Jcbel Jil'ad (" the mountain
of Gilead "), 3596 ft. high. From this point southward the country
assumes the appearance which is familiar to those who have visited
Jerusalem — an elevated plateau, bounded on the west by the pre-
cipitous cliffs known as the mountains of Moab, with but a few peaks,
such as Jebel Shihan (2781 ft.) and Jebel Neba (Nebo, 2643 ft.), con-
spicuous above the level of the ridge by reason of superior height.
Geology. — The oldest rocks consist of gneiss and schist, penetrated
by dikes and bosses of granite, syenite, porphyry and other in-
trusive rocks. All of these are pre-Carboniferous in age and most
of them probably belong to the Archean period. They are gener-
ally concealed by later deposits, but are exposed to view along
the eastern margin of the Wadi Araba, at the foot of the plateau
of Edom. Similar rocks occur also at one or two places in the
desert of et-Tih, while towards the south they attain a greater
extension, forming nearly the whole of Sinai and of the hills on the
east side of the Gulf of Akaba. These ancient rocks, which form
the foundation of the country, are overlaid unconformably by a
series of conglomerates and sandstones, generally unfossiliferous
and often red or purple in colour, very similar in character to the
Nubian sandstone of Upper Egypt. In the midst of this series
there is an inconstant band of fossiliferous limestone, which has
been found in the Wadi Nasb and at other places on the southern
border of et-Tih, and also along the western escarpment of the
Edom plateau. The fossils include Syringopora, Zaphrentis,
Productus, Spirifer, &c., and belong to the Carboniferous. The
sandstone which lies below the limestone is also, no doubt, of
Carboniferous age; but the sandstone above is conformably over-
laid by Upper Cretaceous beds and is generally referred to the
Lower Cretaceous. No unconformity, however, has yet been
detected anywhere in the sandstone series, and in the absence of
fossils the upper sandstone may represent any period from the
Carboniferous to the Cretaceous. The Upper Cretaceous is repre-
sented by limestones with bands of chert, and contains Ammonites,
Baculites, Hippurites and other fossils. It covers by far the
greater part of Palestine, capping the table-lands of Moab and
Edom, and forming most of the high land between the Jordan and
the Mediterranean. It is overlaid towards the west by similar
limestones, which contain nummulites and belong to the Eocene
period; and these are followed near the coast by the calcareous
sandstone of Philistia, which is referred by Hull to the Upper
Eocene. Lava flows of basic character, belonging to the Tertiary
period, cover extensive areas in Jaulan and Hauran; and smaller
patches occur in the land of Moab and also west of the Jordan,
especially near the Sea of Gennesareth. Of Recent deposits the
most interesting are the raised beaches near the coast and the terraces
of the Jordan-Araba depression. The latter indicate that at one
period nearly the whole of this depression was filled with water
up to a level somewhat above that of the Mediterranean.
The geological structure of the country is very simple in its broad
features, but of exceptional interest. In general the stratified
deposits lie nearly flat and in regular conformable succession, the
lowest resting upon the floor of ancient crystalline rocks. There is,
however, a slight dip towards the west, so that the newest deposits
lie near the coast. Moreover, along the eastern side of the Jordan-
Araba valley there is a great fault, and on the eastern side of this
fault the whole series of rocks stands at a much higher level than
on the west. Consequently, west of the Jordan almost the whole
country is formed of the newer beds (LIpper Cretaceous and later),
while east of the Jordan the older rocks, sometimes down to the
Archean floor, are exposed at the foot of the plateau. The western
margin of the valley is possibly defined by another fault which has
not yet been detected; but in any case it is clear that the great
depression owes its extraordinary depth to faulting. A line of
depressions of similar character has been traced by E. Suess as far
south as Lake Nyasa.'
'See Lortet, La Mer MorU (Paris, 1877); E. Hull, Mount Seir,
Sinai and Western Palestine (London, 1885); and Memoir on the
Climate. — Palestine belongs to the sub-tropical zone: at the
summer solstice the sun is ten degrees south of the zenith. The length
of the day ranges from ten to fourteen hours. The great variety
of altitude and of surface characteristics gives rise to a considerable
number of local climatic peculiarities. On the maritime-plain the
mean annual temperature is 70° F., the normal extremes being
about 50° to about 90°. The harvest ripens about a fortnight
earlier than among the mountains. Citrons and oranges flourish,
as do melons and palms: the latter do not fruit abundantly, but
this is less the fault of climate than of carelessness in fertilization.
The rainfall is rather lower than among the mountains. In the
mountainous regions the mean annual temperature is about 62°,
but there is a great range of variation. In winter there are often
several degrees of frost, though snow very rarely lies for more
than a day or two. In summer the thermometer occasionally
registers as much as 100° in the shade, or even a degree or two
more; this however is exceptional, and 8o°-90° is a more normal
ma.vimum for the year. The rainfall is about 28 in., sometimes
less, and in exceptional years as much as 10 in. in excess of this
figure has been registered. The vine, fig and olive grow well in
this region. The climate of the Ghor, again, is different. Here the
thermometer may rise as high as 130°. The rainfall is scanty, but
as no civilized person inhabits the southern end of the Jordan valley
throughout the year, and it has hitherto proved impossible to
establish self-registering instruments, no systematic meteorological
observations have been taken. In Eastern Palestine there is even
a greater range of temperature; the loftier heights are covered in
winter with snow. The thermometer may range within twenty-four
hours from freezing-point to 80°.
The rainy season begins about the end of November, usually
with a heavy thunderstorm: the rain at this part of the year is
the " former rain " of the Old Testament. The earth, baked hard
by the summer heat, is thus softened, and ploughing begins at
once. The wettest month, as indicated by meteorological obser-
vation, is January; February is second to it, and December third;
March is also a very wet month. In April the rains come to an
end (the " latter rains ") and the winter crops receive their final
fertilization. The winter crops (barley and wheat) are harvested
from April to June. The summer crops (millet, sesame, figs,
melons, grapes, olives, &c.) are fertilized by the heavy " dews "
which are one of the most remarkable climatic features of the
country and to a large extent atone for the total lack of rain
for one half the year. These crops are harvested from August to
October.
Water Supply. — Notwithstanding the long drought, it must not
be supposed that Palestine is a waterless country, except in certain
districts. There are very few spots from which a spring of some
sort is not accessible. Perennial streams are, and in the recent
geological ages always have been, rare in the country. The whole
face of the land is pitted with ancient cisterns; indeed, many hillsides
and fields are on that account most dangerous to walk over by night,
except for those who are thoroughly familiar with the landmarks.
These cisterns are bell-shaped or bottle-shaped excavations, with
a narrow circular shaft in the top, hollowed in the rock and lined
with cement. Besides these, more ambitious works are to be found,
all now more or less ruined, in various parts of the country (see
Aqueducts: Ancient). Such are the aqueducts, of which remains
exist at Jericho, Caesarea and other places east and west of the
Jordan; but especially must be mentioned the enormous reservoirs
known as Solomon's Pools, in a valley between Jerusalem and
Hebron, by which the former city was supplied with water through
an elaborate system of conduits. Many of these aqueducts, as well
as countless numbers of now leaky cisterns, could with but little
trouble be brought into use again, and would greatly enhance the
fertility of the country. The most abundant springs in Palestine
are the sources of the Jordan at Banias and at Tell el-Kadi. A
considerable number of springs in the country are brackish, being
impregnated with chemicals of various kinds or (when near a town)
with sewage. The latter is the case of the Virgin's Fountain (Ain
Umm ed-Daraj), which is the only natural source of water in the
neighbourhood of Jerusalem.
Hot springs are found in various parts of the country, especially
at El-Hamma, about l m. south of Tiberias, where the water has a
temperature of 140° F. This is still used for curati\'e purposes,
as it was in the days of Herod, but it is neglected and dirty. The
spring of the Zerka Ma'in (Calirrhoe) has a temperature of 142° F.
There are also hot sulphur springs on the west side of the Dead Sea.
Those of El-Hamma, below Gadara, are from 104° to 120° F. in
temperature.
Fauna. — It has been calculated that about 595 different species
of vertebrate animals are recorded or still to be found in Palestine — •
about 113 being mammals (including a few now extinct), 348 birds
(including 30 species peculiar to the country-), 91 reptiles and 43
fishes. Of the invertebrata the number is unknown, but it must
be enormous. The most important domestic animals are the sheep
and the goat; the breed of oxen is small and poor. The camel, the
horse and the donkey are the draught animals: the flesh of the first
Geology and Geography of Arabia Petraea, Palestine and adjoining
Districts (London, 18S6).
6o4
PALESTINE
[POPULATION
is eaten by the poorer classes, as is also occasionally that of the
second. The dogs, which prowl in large numbers round the streets
of towns and villages, are scarcely domesticated; much the same
is true of the cats. Wild cats, cheetahs and leopards are found,
but they are now rare, especially the latter. The lion, which
inhabited the country in the time of the Hebrews, is now extinct.
The most important wild animals are the hyena, wolf (now compara-
tively rare), fox and jackal. Bats, various species of rodents, and
gazelles are very common, as is the ibex in the valleys of the Dead
Sea. Among the most characteristic birds may be mentioned eagles,
vultures, owls, partridges, bee-eaters and hoopoes; singing birds are
on the whole uncommon. Snakes — many of them venomous — are
numerous, and there are manj' varieties of lizards. The crocodile
is seen (but now very rarely) in the Nahr ez-Zerka. Scorpions and
large spiders are a universal pest.
Flora. — The flora of Palestine has a considerable range and variety,
owing to the variation in local climatic conditions. In the Jordan
valley the vegetation has a semi-tropical character, consonant with
the great heat, which here is normal. The coast-plain has another
type, i.e. the ordinary vegetation of the Mediterranean littoral. In
the mountains the flora is, naturally, scantier than in these two
more favoured regions, but even here there is a rich variety. In all
parts of the country the contrast between the landscape in early
spring and later, when the cessation of rains and the increase of
heat has burnt up the vegetation, is very remarkable.
Population. — The inhabitants of Palestine are composed of
a large number of elements, differing widely in ethnological
affinities, language and religion. It may be interesting to men-
tion, as an illustration of their heterogeneousness, that early
in the 20th century a list of no less than fifty languages, spoken
in Jerusalem as vernaculars, was there drawn up by a party
of men whose various official positions enabled them to possess
accurate information on the subject.' It is therefore no easy
task to write concisely and at the same time with sufficient
fullness on the ethnology of Palestine.
There are two classes into which the population of Palestine
can be divided — the nomadic and the sedentary. The former
is especially characteristic of Eastern Palestine, though Western
Palestine also contains its full share. The pure Arab origin
of the Bedouins is recognized in common conversation in the
country, the word " Arab " being almost restricted to denote
these wanderers, and seldom applied to the dwellers in towns
and villages. It should be mentioned that there is another,
entirely independent, nomad race, the despised Nowar, who
correspond to the gipsies or tinkers of European countries.
These people live under the poorest conditions, by doing smith's
work; they speak among themselves a Romani dialect, much
contaminated with Arabic in its vocabulary.
The sedentary population of the country villages — the fellahin,
or agriculturists — is, on the whole, comparatively unmixed;
but traces of various intrusive strains assert themselves. It
is by no means tmreasonable to suppose that there is a funda-
mental Canaanite element in this population: the " hewers
of wood and drawers of water " often remain undisturbed
through successive occupations of a land; and there is a remark-
able correspondence of type between many of the modern
fellahin and skeletons of ancient inhabitants which have been
recovered in the course of excavation. New elements no doubt
came in under the Assyrian, Persian and Roman dominations,
and in more recent times there has been much contamination.
The spread of Islam introduced a very considerable Neo- Arabian
infusion. Those from southern Arabia were known as the
Yaman tribe, those from northern Arabia the Kais (Qais).
These two divisions absorbed the previous peasant population,
and still nominally exist; down to the middle of the 19th century
they were a fruitful source of quarrels and of bloodshed. The
two great clans were further subdivided into families, but these
minor divisions are also being gradually broken down. In the
iqth century the short-lived Egyptian government introduced
into the population an element from that country which still
persists in the villages. These newcomers have not been
completely assimilated with the villagers among whom they
•_ • This list was intentionally made as exhaustive as possible, and
included some languages (such as Welsh) spoken by one or two
individual residents only. But even if, by omitting these accidental
items, the list be reduced to thirty, a sufficient number will be left
to indicate the cosmopolitan character of the city.
have found a home; the latter despise them, and discourage
intermarriage.
Some of the larger villages — notably Bethlehem — which have
always been leavened by Christianity, and with the develop-
ment of industry have become comparatively prosperous, show
tangible results of these happier circumstances in a higher
standard of physique among the men and of personal appearance
among the women. It is not uncommon in popular writings
to attribute this superiority to a crusader strain — a theory
which no one can possibly countenance who knows what miserable
degenerates the half-breed descendants of the crusaders rapidly
became, as a result of their immoral life and their ignorance of
the sanitary precautions necessary in a trying climate.
The population of the larger towns is of a much more complex
nature. In each there is primarily a large Arab element,
consisting for the greater part of members of important and
wealthy families. Thus, in Jerusalem, much of the local
influence is in the hands of the families of El-Khalidi, El-
Husseini and one or two others, who derive their descent from
the heroes of the early days of Islam. The Turkish element
is small, consisting e.xclusively of officials sent individually from
Constantinople. There are very large contingents from the
Mediterranean countries, especially Armenia, Greece and Italy,
principally engaged in trade. The extraordinary development
of Jewish colonization has since 1870 effected a revolution in
the balance of population in some parts of the country, notably
in Jerusalem. There are few residents in the country from the
more eastern parts of Asia — if we except the Turkoman settle-
ments in the Jaulan, a number of Persians, and a fairly large
Afghan colony that since 1905 has established itself in Jaffa.
The Mutawileh (Motawila), who form the majority of the
inhabitants of the villages north-west of Galilee, are probably
long-settled immigrants from Persia. .Some tribes of Kurds live
in tents and huts near Lake Huleh. If the inmates of the count-
less monastic establishments be excluded, comparatively few
from northern or western Europe will remain: the German
" Templar " colonies being perhaps the most important. There
must also be mentioned a Bosnian colony established at Caesarea
Palestina, and the Circassian settlements placed in certain
centres of Eastern Palestine by the Turkish government in
order to keep a restraint on the Bedouin: the latter are also
found in Galilee. There was formerly a large Sudanese and
Algerian element in the population of some of the large towns,
but these have been much reduced in numbers since the
beginning of the 20th century: the Algerians however still
maintain themselves in parts of Galilee.
The most interesting of all the non-Arab communities in the
country, however, is without doubt the Samaritan sect in
Nablus (Shechem) ; a gradually disappearing body, which has
maintained an independent existence from the time when they
were first settled by the Assyrians to occupy the land left waste
by the captivity of the kingdom of Israel.
The total population of the country is roughly estimated
at 650,000, but no authentic official census exists from which
satisfactory information on this point is obtainable. Some
two-thirds of this number are Moslems, the rest Christians of
various sects, and Jews. The largest town in Palestine is
Jerusalem, estimated to contain a population of about 60,000.
The other towns of above 10,000 inhabitants are Jaffa (45,000),
Gaza (35,000), Safed (30,000), Nablus (25,000), Kerak (20,000),
Hebron (18,500), Es-Salt (15,000), Acre (11,000), Nazareth
(11,000).
The above remarks apply to the permanent population.
They would be incomplete without a passing word on the
non-permanent elements which at certain seasons of the year
are in the principal centres the most conspicuous. Especially
in winter and early spring crowds of European and American
tourists, Russian pilgrims and Bokharan devotees jostle one
another in the streets in picturesque incongruity.
Political Divisions. — Under the Ottoman jurisdiction Palestine
has no independent existence. West of the Jordan, and to about
half-way between Nablus and Jerusalem, is the southern portion of
OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY]
PALESTINE
605
the vilayet or province of Beirut. South of this point is tlie sanjak'
of Jerusalem, to which Nazareth with its immediate neighbourhood is
added, so as to bring all the principal " Holy Places " under one
jurisdiction. East of the Jordan the country forms part of the
large vilayet of Syria, whose centre is at Damascus.
Communications. — Until 1892 communication through the country
was entirely by caravan, and this primitive method is still followed
over the greater part of its area. On the 26th of September of that
year a railway between Jaffa and Jerusalem, with five intermediate
stations, was opened, and has much facilitated transit between
the coast and the mountains of Judaea. A railway from Haifa
to Damascus was opened in 1905; it runs across the Plain of
Esdraelon, enters the Ghor at Beisan, then, turning northwards,
impinges on the Sea of (jalilee at Samakh, and runs up the valley of
the Varmuk to join, at ed-Der'a, the line of the third railway. This
was undertaken in 1901 to connect Damascus with Mecca; in 1906
it was finished as far as Ma'an, and in 1908 the section to Medina
was completed. Carriage-roads also began to be constructed
during the last decade of the 19th century. They are on the whole
carelessly made and maintained, and are liable to go badly and more
or less permanently out of repair in heavy rain. Of completed
roads the most important arc from Jaffa to Haifa, Jaffa to \ablus,
Jaffa to Jerusalem, Jaffa to Gaza; Jerusalem to Jericho, Jerusalem
to Bethlehem with a branch to Hebron, Jerusalem to Khan Labban
— ultimately to be e.xtended to Nablus; and Gaza to Beershcba.
Other roads have been begun in Galilee (^.g. Haifa to Tiberias and
to Jenin) ; but in this respect the northern province is far behind the
southern. For the rest there is a network of tracks, all practically
impassable by wheeled vehicles, extending over the country and
connecting the towns and villages one with another.
Industries. — There are no mines and few manufactures of impor-
tance in Palestine: the country is entirely agricultural. Although
the processes are primitive and improvements are discouraged,
both by the policy of the government and by an indolence and
suspiciousness of innovation natural to the people themselves,
fine crops of cereals are yielded, especially in the large wheat-lands
of Hauran. Besides wheat, the following crops are to a greater
or less extent cultivated — barley, millet, sesame, maize, beans, peas,
lentils, kursenni (a species of vetch used as camel-food) and, in some
parts of the country, tobacco. The agriculturist has many enemies
to contend with, the tax-gatherer being perhaps the most deadly;
and drought, earthquakes, rats and locusts have at all periods
been responsible for barren years.
The fruit trade is very considerable. The value of the oranges
exported from Jaffa in 1906 was £162,000; this amount increases
annually, and of course in addition a considerable quantity is
retained for home consumption. Besides these are grown melons,
mulberries, bananas, apricots, quinces, walnuts, lemons and citron.
The culture of the vine — formerly an important staple, as is proved
by the countless ancient wine-presses scattered over the rocky
hillsides of the whole country — fell to some extent into desuetude,
no doubt owing to the Moslem prohibition of wine-drinking. It is,
however, rapidly returning to favour, principally under Jewish
auspices, and numerous vineyards now e.xist at different centres.
All over the country are olive-trees, the fruit and oil of which are
a staple product of the country; the trade is however hampered
by an excessive tax on trees, which not only discourages plantation,
but has the unfortunate effect of encouraging destruction. Other
fruit trees are abundant, though less so than those we have men-
tioned: such are pomegranates, pears, almonds, peaches, and, in
the warmer part of the country, palms. Apples are few and poor
in quality. The kharrub (carob) is common and yields a fruit eaten
by the poorer classes.' Of ordinary table vegetables a considerable
quantity and variety are grown : such are the cabbage, cauliflower,
solanum (egg-plant), cucumber, hibiscus (bamieh), lettuce, carrot,
artichoke, &c. The potato is also grown in considerable quantities.
Beside the agricultural there is a considerable pastoral industry,
though it is principally confined to production for home consump-
tion. Sheep and goats are bred throughout the country; but the
breeding of the beasts of burden (donkeys, horses, camels) is chiefly
in the hands of the Bedouin.
Of the manufactures the following call for mention: pottery
(at Gaza, Ramleh and Jerusalem) ; soap (from olive oil, principally
at Nablus) ; we may perhaps also extend the term to include the
collecting of salt (from the Dead Sea). This last is a government
monopoly, but illicit manufacture and smuggling are highly
organized. Some of the minor industries, such as bee-keeping, are
practised with success by a few individuals. Other industries of
less importance are basket-making, weaving, and silk and cotton
' A sanjak is usually a subordinate division of a vilayet, but that
of Jerusalem has been independent ever since the Crimean War.
This change was made on account of the trouble involved in referring
all complications (arising from questions relating to the political
standing of the holy places) to the superior officials of Beirut or
Damascus, as had formerly been necessary.
'^Sometimes imagined to be the "locusts" eaten by John the
Baptist, on which account the tree is often called the locust-tree.
But it was the insect which John used to eat; it is still eaten by the
fellahin. , ',■■' ■
manufacture. Stone-quarrying has been fostered since 1900 by the
great development of building at Jerusalem and other places. Wine
is manufactured by severa-l of the German and Jewish colonies,
and by some of the monastic establishments. Regular industrial
work is however handicapped by competition with the tourist trade
in its several branches — acting as guides and camp servants, manu-
facture and sale of " souvenirs " (carved toys and trinklets in mother-
of-pearl and olive-wood, forged antiquities and the like), and the
analogous trade in ohjets de pieti (rosaries, crosses, crude religious
pictures, &c.) for pilgrims. Travellers in the country squander
their money recklessly, and these trades, at once easy and lucrative,
are thus fatally attractive to the indolent Syrian and prejudicial
to the best interests of the country. (R. A. S. M.)
History
I. — Old Testament History.
Palestine is essentially a land of small divisions, and its
configuration does not fit it to form a separate entity; it " has
never belonged to one nation and probably never will."' Its
position gives the key to its history. Along the west coast
ran the great road for traders and for the campaigns which have
made the land famous. The seaports (more especially in Syria,
including Phoenicia), were well known to the pirates, traders
and sea-powers of the Levant. The southernmost, Gaza, was
joined by a road to the mixed peoples of the Egyptian Delta,
and was also the port of the Arabian caravans. Arabia, in
its turn, opens out into both Babylonia and Palestine, and a
familiar route skirted the desert east of the Jordan into Syria
to Damascus and Hamath. Damascus is closely connected
with Galilee and Gilead, and has always been in contact with
Mesopotamia, Assyria, Asia Minor and Armenia. Thus Pales-
tine lay at the gate of Arabia and Egypt, and at the tail end of
a number of small states stretching up into Asia Minor; it was
encircled by the famous ancient civilizations of Babylonia,
Assyria, South Arabia and Egypt, of the Hittites of Asia Minor,
and of the Aegean peoples. Consequently its history cannot
be isolated from that of the surrounding lands. Recent research
in bringing to light considerable portions of long-forgotten ages
is revolutionizing those impressions which were based upon the
Old Testament — the sacred writings of a smaU fraction of this
great area; and a broad survey of the vicissitudes of this area
furnishes a truer perspective of the few centuries which concern
the biblical student.* The history of the Israelites is only one
aspect of the history of Palestine, and this is part of the history
of a very closely interrelated portion of a world sharing many
similar forms of thought and custom. It will be necessary
here to approach the subject from a point of view which is less
familiar to the bibKcal student, and to treat Palestine not merely
as the land of the Bible, but as a land which has played a part
in history for certainly more than 4000 years. The close of
Old Testament history (the book of Nehemiah) in the Persian
age forms a convenient division between ancient Palestine and
the career of the land under non-oriental influence during the
Greek and Roman ages. It also marks the cidmination of a
lengthy historical and religious development in the establish-
ment of Judaism and its inveterate rival Samaritanism. The
most important data bearing upon the first great period are
given elsewhere in this work, and it is proposed to offer here a
more general survey.^
To the prehistoric ages belong the palaeolithic and neolithic
flints, from the distribution of which an attempt might be made
to give a synthetic sketch of early Palestinian man.''
A burial cave at Gezer has revealed the existence ^^^'""'"^
of a race of slight build and stature, muscular, °'^'
with elongated crania, and thick and heavy skull-bones. The
' G. A. Smith, Hist. Geog. of the Holy Land, p. 58. This and the
author's art. " Trade and Commerce," Ency. Bib. vol. iv., and his
Jerusalem (London, 1907), are invaluable for the relation between
Palestinian geography and history. For the wider geographical
relations, see especially D. G. Hogarth, Nearer East (London, 1902).
* See especially the writings of H. Winckler, in the 3rd ed. of
Schrader's Keilinschriften und das Alte Test. (Berlin, 1903); his
Religionsgeschiclitlicher u. geschichtliclier Orient (1906), &c.
* See the articles on the surrounding countries and peoples,
and, for the biblical traditions, art. Jews.
' See H. Vincent, Canaan d'apr'es I' exploration recente (Paris,
1907). PP- .^74 sqq., also pp. 392-426.
6o6
PALESTINE
[OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY
people lived in caves or rude huts, and had domesticated animals
(sheep, cow, pig, goat), the bones of which they fashioned into
various implements. Physically they are quite distinct from
the normal type, also found at Gezer, which v/as taller, of
stronger build, with well-developed skulls, and is akin both
to the Sinaitic and Palestinian type illustrated upon Egyptian
monuments from c. 3000 B.C., and to the modern native.' The
study of Oriental ethnology in the light of history is stiU very
incomplete, but the regular trend of events points to a mixture
of races from the south (the home of the Semites) and the north.
At what period Palestine first became the " Semitic " land,
wliich it has always remained, is uncertain; nor can one decide
whether the characteristic megaUthic monuments, especially to
the east of the Jordan, are due to the first wave which introduced
the Semitic (Canaanite) dialect and the place-names. At all
events during the last centuries of the third millennium B.C.,
remarkable for the high state of civilization in Babylonia, Egypt
and Crete, Palestine shares in the active life and intercourse
of the age; and wliile its fertile fields are visited by Egypt,
Babylonia (under Gimil-Sin, Gudea and Sargon) claims some
supremacy over the west as far as the Mediterranean.
A more definite stage is reached in the period of the Hyksos
(c. 1700), the invaders of Egypt, whose Asiatic origin is sug-
gested inter alia by the proper-names which include
fSr/ii"<^. " Jacob " and " Anath " as deities.^ After their
expulsion it is very significant to find that Egypt
forthwith enters upon a series of campaigns in Palestine and
Syria as far as the Euphrates, and its successes over a district
whose political fate v-fas bound up with Assyria and Asia Minor
laid the foundation of a policy wliich became traditional. Apart
from rather disconnected details wliich belong properly to the
history of Babylonia and Egypt, it is not untO about the i6th
century B.C. that Palestine appears in the clear light of history,
and henceforth its course can be traced with some sort of con-
tinuity. Of fundamental importance are the Amarna cuneiform
tablets discovered in 1887, containing some of the pohtical
correspondence between Western Asia and Egypt for a few
years of the reigns of Amenophis III. and IV. (c. 1414-1360).'
The first Babylonian dynasty, now well known for its Kham-
murabi, belonged to the past, but the cuneiform script and
language are still used among the Hittites of Asia Minor (centring
at Boghaz-keui) and the kings of Syria and Palestine. Egypt
itself was now passing from its greatness, and the Hittites
iq.v.) — the term is open to some criticism — were its rivals for
the possession of the intervening lands. Peoples (apparently
Iranian) of Hittite connexion from the powerful state of Mitanni
(Northern Syria and Mesopotamia) had already left their mark
as far south as Jerusalem, as may be inferred from the personal
names,^ and to the intercourse with (apparently) Aegean
culture revealed by excavation, the letters add references
to mercenaries and bands from Meluhha (viz. Arabia),
Mesopotamia and the Levant. The diminutive cities of this
cosmopolitan Palestine were ruled by kings, not necessarily of the
native stock; some were appointed — and even anointed — by
the Egyptian king, and the small extent of these city-states is
obvious from the references to the kings of such near-lying sites
as Jerusalem, Gezer, Ashkelon and Lachish. Torn by mutual
jealousy and intrigue, and forming little confederations among
' For fuller treatment of the data see R. A. S. Macalister's complete
memoir of the Gezer excavations.
^ Reference may be made to Ed. Meyer's admirable survey of
Oriental history down to this age, Gesch. d. Altertums (Berlki,
1909), also to J. H. Breasted, Hist, of Egypt (London, 1906), bks.
i.-iv. ; and L. W. King, Hist, of Bab. and Ass vol. i. (London, 1910).
Some knowledge of the culture, religion, history and interrelations
over the area of which Palestine formed part is indispensable for
any careful study of the ages upon which we now enter.
' See the admirable edition by j. A. Knudtzon, with full notes
by O. Weber (Leipzig, 1907-1910). For their bearing on Palestine,
see especially P. Dhorme, Rev. biblique (1908), pp. 500-519; (1909),
PP- 50-73. 368-385. .
'Dhorme, op. cit. (1909), pp. 60 sqq.; H. R. Hall, Proc. Sac.
Bibl. Arch. (1909), xxxi. 233 seq.; Weber, op. cit., p. 1088 seq.;
cf. A. H. Sayce, Arch, of Cuneiform Inscr. (1907), pp. 193 sqq.
themselves, they were united by their common recognition of
the Egyptian suzerain, their court of appeal, or in some short-
lived attempt to withstand him. Apart from Jerusalem and
a few towns on the coast, the real weight lay to the north, and
especially in the state of Amor.' It is an age of internal dis-
organization and of heavy pressure by land and by sea from
Northern Syria and Asia Minor. The land seethes with excite-
ment, and Palestine, wavering between allegiance to Egypt and
intrigues with the great movements at its north, is unable to
take any independent line of action. The letters vividly describe
the approach of the enemy, and, in appealing to Egypt, abound
in protestations of loyalty, complaints of the disloyalty of other
kings and excuses for the writers' suspicious conduct. Of
exceptional interest are the letters from Jerusalem describing
the hostiUty of the maritime coast and the disturbances of the
Habiru (" allies "), a name which, though often equated with
that of the Hebrews, may have no ethnological or historical
significance.^ But Egypt was unable to help the loyahsts,
even ancient Mitanni lost its pohtical independence, and the
supremacy of the Hittites was assured. The history of the age
illustrated by the Amarna letters is continued in the tablets
found at Boghaz-keui, the capital of the old Hittite Empire.'
Subsequent Egyptian evidence records that Seti I. (c. 1320) of
the XlXth Dynasty led an expedition into Palestine, but
struggles with the Hittites continued until Rameses II. (c. 1300)
concluded with them an elaborate treaty wliich left him little
more than Palestine. Even this province was with difficulty
maintained: the disturbances in the Levant and in Asia Minor
(which belong to Aegean and Hittite history) and the revival
of Assyria were reshaping the pohtical history of Western Asia.
Under Rameses III. {c. 1200-1169) we may recognize another
age of disorganization in Palestine, in the movements with which
the Phihstines {q.v.) were concerned. Nevertheless, Egypt
seems to have enjoved a fresh spell of extended supremacy, and
Rameses apparently succeeded in recovering Palestine and
some part of Syria. But it was the close of a lengthy period
during which Egypt had endeavoured to keep Palestine detached
from Asia, and Palestine had reahzed the significance of a
powerful empire at its south-western border. Somewhat later
Tiglath-Pileser {c. 1 100) pushed the liniits of Assyrian suzerainty
westwards over the lands formerly held by the great Hittite
Empire. It is at this age, when the external evidence becomes
extremely fragmentary, that new pohtical movements were
inaugurated and new confederations of states sprang into
existence. Palestine had been poUtically part of Egypt or of
the Hittite Empire; we now reach the stage where it becomes
more closely identified with Israelite history.
Palestine had not as yet been absorbed by any of the great
powers with whose history and culture it had been so closely
bound up for so many centuries. In the "Amarna"
age the Httle kings had a certain measure of inde- period.
pendence, provided they guarded the royal caravan
routes, paid tribute, refrained from conspiracy, and generally
supported their suzerain and his agents. However profound
the influence of Babylonia may have been, excavation has
discovered comparatively few specific traces of it. Although
cuneiform was used, the Palestinian letters show that the native
language, as in the case of earUer proper-names, was most
nearly akin to the later " Canaanite " (Hebrew, Moabite and
Phoenician). In view of the relations subsisting among Pales-
tine, Mitanni and the Hittites, it is evident that Babylonian
'Amor (.^ss. Amurru, Bibl. Amorite), lay north of Lebanon and
behind Phoenicia; but the term fluctuates (Weber, op. cit.,
1 132 sqq.). See art. Amorites, and A. T. Clay, Amurru (Phila-
delphia, 1909).
« See H. Winckler, Altor. Forschung. (1902), iii. 22; W. M. MuUer
in I. Benzinger, Heb. Archdol. (1907), p. 445; B. Eerdmans, Alttest.
Stud. (1908), ii. 61 sqq.; Dhorme, op. cit. (1909), pp. 677 sqq. The
movement of the Habiru cannot be isolated from that represented
in other letters (where the enemy are not described by this term),
and their steps do not agree with those of the invading Israelites
in the book of Joshua f<7.D.).
• H. Winckler, Mitteil. d. deutschen Orient-Gesell. z. Btrltn (1907)
No. 35; cf. J. Garstang, Land of Hittites (London, 1910), 326 sqq.
OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY]
PALESTINE
607
Rellgioa.
influence could have entered indirectly; and until one can
determine how much is specifically Babylonian the analogies
and parallels cannot be made the ground for sweeping assertions.
The influence of a superior power upon the culture of a people
cannot of course be denied; but history proves that it depends
upon the resemblance between the two peoples and their
respective levels of thought, and that it is not necessarily either
deep or lasting. A better case might be made for Egypt; yet
notwithstanding the presence of its colonies, the cult of its
gods, the erection of temples or shrines, and the numerous
traces of intercourse exposed by excavation, Palestine was
Asiatic rather than Egyptian. Indeed Asiatic influence made
itself felt in Egypt before the Hyksos age, and later, and more
strongly, during the XVIIIth and following Dynasties, and
deities of Syro-Palestinian fame (Resheph, Baal, Anath, the
Baalath of Byblos, Kadesh, Astartc) found a hospitable welcome.
On the whole, there was everywhere a common foundation of
culture and thought, with local, tribal and national develop-
ments; and it is useful to observe the striking similarity of
religious phraseology throughout the Semitic sources, and its
similarity with the ideas in the Egyptian texts. And this
becomes more instructive when comparison is made between
cuneiform or Egyptian sources extending over many centuries
and particular groups of evidence (Amarna letters, Canaanite
and Aramaean inscriptions, the Old Testament and later Jewish
literature to the Talmud), and pursued to the customs and
beliefs of the same area to-day. The result is to emphasize
(a) the inveterate and indissoluble connexion between religious,
social and political life, {h) the differences between the ordinary
current religious conceptions and specific positive developments
of them, and (c) the vicissitudes of these particular growths in
their relation to history.'
There is reason to believe that the religion of Palestine in the
Amarna age was no inchoate or inarticulate belief; like the
material culture it had passed through the elementary
stages and was a fully established though not, perhaps,
a very advanced organism. There were doubtless then, as
later, numerous local deities, closely connected with local
districts, differing perhaps in name, but the centre of similar
ideas as regards their relations to their worshippers. Com-
mercial and political intercourse had also brought a knowledge
of other deities, who were worth venerating, or who were the
survivors of a former supremacy, or whose recognition was
enforced. It is particularly interesting to find in the Amarna
letters that the supremacy of Egypt meant also that of the
national god, and the loyal Palestinian kings acknowledge that
their land belonged to Egypt's king and god. In accordance
with what is now known to be a very widespread belief, the
kingship was a semi-divine function, and the Pharaoh was the
incarnation of Amon-Re. This would bring a greater coherence
of worship among the chaos of local cults. The petty kings
naturally recognize the identity of the Pharaoh, and they hail
him as their god and identify him with the heads of their own
pantheon. Thus he is called — in the cuneiform letters — their
Shamash or their Addu. The former, the sun-deity, god of
justice, &c., was already well known, to judge from Palestinian
place-names (Beth-Shemesh, &c.). The latter, storm or weather
god, or, in another aspect, god of rain and therefore of fertility,
is specifically West Asiatic, and may be equated with Hadad
and Ramman (see below). He is presumably the Baal who is
associated with thunder and lightning, and with the bull, and
who was familiar to the Egyptians of the XlXth and XXth
Dynasties in the adulations of their divine king. He is probably
also " the lord of the gods " (the head of a pantheon) invoked
in a private cuneiform tablet unearthed at Taanach.'' Besides
these gods, and others whose fame may be inferred (Dagon,
' Much confusion can be and has been caused by disregarding''(6)
and by supposing that the appearance of similar elements of thought
or custom implied the presence of similar more complete organisms
{e.g. totemism, astral religion, jurisprudence). Cf. p. 182, n. 4.
^ See, most recently, Ungnad's translation in H. Gressmann,
Ausgrahungen in Pal. u. d. A. T. (Tubingen, 1908), p. 19 seq. The
title " lord of heaven " — whether the Sun or Addu, there was a
Nebo, Nergal, &c.), there were the closely-related goddesses
Ashira and Ishtar-Astarte (the Old Testament Asherah and
Ashtoreth). Possibly the name Yahweh (see Jehovah) had
already entered Palestine, but it is not prominent, and if, as
in the case of certain other deities, the extension of the name
and cult went hand-in-hand with political circumstances, these
must be sought in the problems of the Hebrew monarchy.'
At an age when there were no great external empires to control
Palestine the Hebrew monarchy arose and claimed a premier
place amid its neighbours (c. 1000). How the small ifiseoftbe
rival districts with their petty kings were united Hebrew
into a kingdom under a single head is a disputed Monarchy.
question; the stages from the half-Hittite, half- Egyptian land
to the independent Hebrew state with its national god are an
unsolved problem. Biblical tradition quite plausibly represents
a mighty invasion of tribes who had come from Southern Palestine
and Northern Arabia (Elath, Ezion-geber) — but primarily from
Egypt — and, after a series of national " judges," established the
kingship. But no place can be found for this conquest, as it is
described, either before the " Amarna " age (the date, following
I Kings vi. i) or about the time of Rameses II. and Mineptah
(see Exod. i. 11); and if the latter king (c 1244) records the
subjugation of the people (? or land) " Israel," the comphcated
history of names does not guarantee the absolute identity
of this " Israel " either with the pure Israelite tribes which
invaded the land or with the intermixed people after this event
(see Jews: §§ 6-8). Whatever may have been the extent of this
invasion and the sequel, the rise and persistence of an inde-
pendent Palestinian kingdom was an event which concerned the
neighbouring states. Its stability and the necessary furtherance
of commerce, usual among Oriental kings, depended upon the
attitude of the maritime coast (Philistia and Phoenicia), Edom,
Moab, Ammon, Gilead and the Syrian states; and the biblical
and external records for the next four centuries (to 586) fre-
quently illustrate situations growing out of this interrelation.
The evidence of the course of these crucial years is unequal and
often sadly fragmentary, and is more conveniently noticed in
connexion with the biblical history (see Jews: §§ 9-17). A
conspicuous feature is the difficulty of maintaining this single
monarchy, which, however it originated, speedily became two
rival states (Judah and Israel). These are separated by a very
ambiguous frontier, and have their geographical and political
links to the south and north respectively. The balance of
power moves now to Israel and now to Judah, and tendencies
to internal disintegration are illustrated by the dynastic changes
in Israel and by the revolts and intrigues in both states. As
the power of the surrounding empires revived, these entered
again into Palestinian history. As regards Egypt, apart from
a few references in biblical history (e.g. to its interference in
Philistia and friendliness to Judah, see Philistine), the chief
event was the great invasion by Sheshonk (Shishak) in the
latter part of the loth century; but although it appears to be
an isolated campaign, contact with Egypt, to judge from the
archaeological results of the excavations, was never intermittent.
The next definite stage is the dynasty of the Israehte Omri {q.v.),
to whom is ascribed the founding of the city of Samaria. The
dynasty lasted nearly half a century, and is contemporary
with the expansion of Phoenicia, and presumably therefore
with some prominence of the south maritime coast. The royal
houses of Phoenicia, Israel and Judah were united by inter-
marriage, and the last two by joint undertakings in trade
and war (note also i Kings ix. 26 seq.). Meanwhile Assyria
was gradually establishing itself westwards, and a remarkable
confederation of the heirs of the old Hittite kingdom,
" kings of the land of ^atti " (the Assyrian term o/Issyria.
for the Hittites) was formed to oppose it. Southern
Asia Minor, Phoenicia, Ammon, the Syrian Desert and Israel
(under Omri's son " Ahab the Israelite ") sent their troops to
support Damascus which, in spite of the repeated efforts of
tendency to identify them — was perhaps known in Palestine, as it
certainly was in Egypt and among the Hittites.
' See S. A. Cook, Expositor, Aug. 1910, pp. 111-127.
6o8
PALESTINE
[OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY
Shalmaneser,'' was evidently able to hold its own from 854 to
839. The anti-Assyrian alliance was, as often in west Asia, a
temporary one, and the inveterate rivalries of the small states
are illustrated, in a striking manner, in the downfall of Omri's
dynasty and the rise of that of Jehu {S42-C. 745); in the bitter
onslaughts of Damascus upon Israel, leading nearly to its
annihilation; in an unsuccessful attack upon the king of Hamath
by Damascus, Cilicia and small states in north Syria; in an
Israelite expedition against Judah and Jerusalem (2 Kings
xiv. 13 seq.); and finally in the recovery and extension of
Israelite power — perhaps to Damascus — under Jeroboam II.
In such vicissitudes as these Palestinian history proceeds upon
a much larger scale than the national biblical records relate,
and the external evidence is of the greatest importance for the
hght it throws upon the varying situations. Syria could control
the situation, and it in turn was influenced by the ambitions of
Assyria, to whose advantage it was when the small states were
rent by mutual suspicion and hostihty. It is possible, too,
that, as the states did not scruple to take advantage of the
difficulties of their rivals, Assyria played a more prominent
part in keeping these jealousies alive than the evidence actually
states. Moreover, in the Hght of these moves and counter-
moves one must interpret the isolated or incomplete narratives
of Hebrew history.^ The repeated blows of Assyria did not pre-
vent the necessity of fresh expeditions, and later, Adad-Nirari III.
(812-783) claims as tributary the land of Hatti, Amor, Tyre,
Sidon, " the land of Omri " (Israel), Edom and Phihstia.
Israel at the death of Jeroboam was rent by divided factions,
whereas Judah (under Uzziah) has now become a powerful
kingdom, controUing both Philistia and the Edomite port of
Elath on the gulf of 'Akaba. The dependence of Judaean
sovereignty upon these districts was inevitable; the resources of
Jerusalem obviously did not rely upon the small district of
Judah alone. If Ammon also was tributary (2 Chron. xxvi. 8,
xxvii.), deahngs with Israel and perhaps Damascus could
probably be inferred.
A new period begins with Tiglath-Pileser IV. (745-728):
pro- and anti-Assyrian parties now make themselves felt, and
Predoml- when north Syria was taken in 738, Tyre, Sidon,
aaaceof Damascus (under Rezin), "Samaria" (under
Assyria. Menahem) and a queen of Aribi were among the tribu-
taries. It is possible that Judah (under Uzziah and Jotham)
had come to an understanding with Assyria; at all events Ahaz
was at once encircled by fierce attacks, and was only saved by
Tiglath-Pileser's campaign against Phihstia, north Israel and
Damascus. With the siege and faU of Damascus (733-32)
Assyria gained the north, and its supremacy was recognized by
the tribes of the Syrian desert and Arabia (Aribi, Tema, Sheba).
In 722 Samaria, though under an Assyrian vassal (Hoshea the
last king), joined with Philistia in revolt; in 720 it was alhed
with Gaza and Damascus, and the persistence of unrest is
evident when Sargon in 715 found it necessary to transport
into Samaria various peoples of the desert. Judah itself was
next involved in an anti-Assyrian league (with Edom, Moab
and Philistia), but apparently submitted in time; nevertheless
a decade later (701), after the change of dynasty in Assyria, it
participated in a great but unsuccessful effort from Phoenicia
to Philistia to shake off the yoke, and suffered disastrously.'
With the crushing blows upon Syria and Samaria the centre of
interest moves southwards and the history is influenced by
.Assyria's rival Babylonia (under Marduk-baladan and his
successors), by north Arabia and by Egypt. Henceforth
there is Kttle Samarian history, and of Judah, for nearly a
century, few poHtical events are recorded (Jews; § 16). Judah
was under Assyrian supremacy, and, although it was in-
volved with Arabians in the revolt planned by Babylonia
' Recently found to be the third of that name (H. W. Hogg, The
Interpreter, 1910, p. 329).
' So e.g. in references to Ammon, Damascus and Hamath, and
in Judaean relations with Philistia, Moab and Edom.
^ See art. Hezekiah. A recently published inscription of Sen-
nacherib (of 694 B.C.) mentions enslaved peoples from Philistia and
Tyre, but does not name Judah.
(against .^ssurbanipal), it appears to have been generally
quiescent.
At this stage disturbances, now by Aramaean tribes, now by
Arabia, combine with the new rise of Egypt and the weakness
of Assyria to mark a turning-point in the world's
history. Psammetichus (Psamtek) I. (663-609) with
Revival ot
Egypt.
Babyloalaa
his Greeks, Carians, lonians and soldiers from Pales-
line and Syria, re-established once more an Egyptian Empire,
and replaced the fluctuating relations between Palestine and
the small dynasts of the Delta by a settled policy. Trading
intercommunication in the Levant and the constant passage
to and fro of merchants brought Egypt to the front, and, in
an age of archaic revival, the effort was made to re-estabhsh
the ancient supremacy over Palestine and Syria. The precise
meaning of these changes for Palestinian history and Hfe can
only incompletely be perceived, and even the significance of the
great Scythian invasion and of the greater movements with which
it was connected is uncertain (see Scythia). At all events,
Egypt (under Necho, 609-593) prepared to take advantage of
the decay of Assyria, and marched into Asia. Judah (under
Josiah) was overthrown at Megiddo, where about nine centuries
previously the victory of Tethmoses (Thutmose) III. had made
Egypt supreme over Palestine and Syria. But Egypt was now
at once confronted by the Neo-Babylonian or Chaldean Empire
(under Nabopolassar), which, after annihilating Assyria with
the help of the Medians, naturally claimed a right to the
Mediterranean coast-lands. The defeat of Necho by Nebuchad-
rezzar at Carchemish (605) is one of the world-famous battles.
Although Syria and Palestine now became Babylonian, this
revival of the Egyptian Empire aroused hopes in Judah of
deliverance and led to revolts (under Jehoiachin
and Zedekiah), in which Judah was apparently not p^J^ig"
alone. ^ They culminated in the fall of this kingdom
in 586. Henceforth the history of Palestine is disconnected
and fragmentary, and the few known events of poUtical
importance are isolated and can be supplemented only by infer-
ences from the movements of Egypt, Philistia or Phoenicia,
or from the Old Testament. According to the Chaldean
Nabonidus (553) all the kings from Gaza to the Euphrates
assisted in his buildings, and the Chaldean policy generally
appears to have been favourable towards faithful vassals.
Cyrus meanwhile was rising to lead the Persians against Media.
After a career of success he captured Babylonia (553) and forth-
with claimed, in his famous inscription, the submission of Amor.
For the next 200 years Palestine remained part of the new
Persian Empire which, with all its ramifications on land and on
sea, embraced the civilized world from the Himalayas to the
Levant, until the advent of Alexander the Great (see Jews: § 19).
Very gradually the face of history underwent a complete change.
Egypt had resumed its earher connexions with the Levantine
heirs of the ancient Aegeans, the old empires of the Nearer
East had practically exhausted themselves, and Palestine passed
into the fresh life and thought of the Greeks.
In any consideration of the internal conditions in Palestine it
must be observed that there is a continuity of thought, custom
and culture which is independent of poHtical changes lateraal
and vicissitudes of names. With the establishment Coadiiloas.
of an independent monarchy Palestine did not enter Northera
into a new world. Whatever internal changes
ensued between the " Amarna " age and 1000 B.C., they have
not left their mark upon the course of culture iUustrated by the
excavations. These still indicate communication with Egypt
and the north (Syria, Asia Minor; Assyria and the Levant not
excluded), and even when a novel culture presents itself, as in
certain graves at Gezer, the affinities are with Cyprus and Asia
Minor (Caria) of about the nth or loth century.'' The use of
' Cf. Jer. xxvii. 2 seq., and the historj' of the Eg>-ptian Hophra
(Apries, 5S8-569)- _,. . . ^
* At present it is difficult as regards Palestme to distmguish
Aegean influence (direct and indirect) from that of .^sia Minor
generally. Only after the old Cretan (Minoan) culture had passed
its zenith and was already decadent does it suddenly appear in
Cyprus (H. R. Hall, Proc. Soc. Bibl. Arch. xxxi. 227).
OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY]
PALESTINE
609
iron came in about this time, perhaps from the north, and biblical
history (i Kings x. 28 seq., see the commentaries) even ascribes
to Solomon the import of horses from Kue and Musri (Cilicia
and Cappadocia). The cuneiform script, which continued in
Egypt during the XlXth and XXth Dynasties, was perhaps
still used in Palestine; it was doubtless familiar at least during
the Assyrian supremacy. But in the meanwhile the " North
Semitic " alphabet appears (from 850) with almost identical
forms in extreme north Syria (e.g. Sam'al), in Cyprus, Gezcr,
A, .. ^ t and in Moab. The type is very closely related to
Alphabet. , , , „ ,-L'^ , -i -' , . ,
the oldest European (Etruscan) forms, and, m a less
degree, to the "South Semitic" (old Minaean and Sabaean);
and since it at once begins (c. 700) to develop along separate
paths (Canaanite and Aramaean), it may be inferred that the
common ancestor was not of long derivation. This alphabet
stands in contrast to the old varying types of the Aegean and
Asia Minor area and can hardly be of local origin. Under what
historical circumstances it was first distriljuted over Palestine
and Syria is uncertain; it is a plausible conjecture that once
more the north is responsible.' Too Uttle is known of the north
as a factor in Palestinian development to allow hasty infer-
ences, but it is certainly noteworthy, at aU events, that the
names Amor and Hatti appear to move downwards, and that
" Hitlite " is appUed to Palestine and PhiUstia by the Assyrians,
and to Hebion in the Old Testament, and that Ezekiel (xvi. 3)
calls Canaanite Jerusalem the offspring of an Amorite and a
Hittite. It is to be observed, however, that the meaning of
geographical and ethnical terms for culture in general must
be properly tested — the term " Phoenician " is a conspicuous
case in point. Thus, in north Syria the art has Assyrian and
Hittite affinities, but is provincial and sometimes rough. Some
of the personal names are foreign and find analogues in Asia
Minor; but even as the Philistines appear in bibUcal history as
a" Semitic " people, so inscriptions from north Syria (c. 800-700)
are in Canaanite and early Aramaean dialects, and are in entire
agreement with " Semitic " thought and ideas. The deities too
generally bear famiUar names. In Sam'al the kings Panammu
and Q-r-1 have non-Semitic names (Carian), but the gods include
The (jods -^adad. El (God par excellence), Resheph and the
Sun-deity. In Hamath we meet with the Baal of
Heaven, Sun and Moon deities, gods of heaven and earth, and
others. A god " Most High " {'elyon) was perhaps already
known in Hamath.^ The " Baal of Heaven," reminiscent of
the Egyptian title " lord of heaven," given long before to
Resheph, appears in the pantheon of Tyre (c. 677). The
reference here is probably to the inveterate Hadad who, in his
Aramaean form Ramman (Rimmon), is found in Palestine.
Among the Hebrews, Yahweh, some of whose features associate
him with thunder, hghtiiing and storm, and v/ith the gifts of the
earth, has now become the national god, like the Moabite
Chemosh or the Ammonite Milcolm. (For the Edomite gods,
see Edom.) The name is known in the form Ya'u in north
Syria (Sth century), and, so far as the IsraeUte kings are con-
cerned, appears first in the family of Ahab. No images of
Yahweh or of earlier Canaanite deities have been unearthed;
but images belong to a relatively advanced stage in the
development of reUgion, and the aniconic stage may be repre-
sented by the sacred pillars and posts, by the small models of
heads of bulls, and by the evidence for calf-cults in the Old
Testament.^ Yahweh was by no means the only god. Inter-
' On the points of contact with old Cretan and Anatolian scripts
see A. J. Evans, 5cf;pto Minoa (Oxford, 1909), p. 80 sqq. The
persistence of evidence for the importance of Aegean and Asia
MinorC Hittite ") peoples in the study of Palestine and surrounding
lands is one of the most interesting features of recent discovery.
Cf. H. Hogarth, Ionia and the East (Oxford, 1909), pp. 64 sqq.;
E. Meyer, Gesch. d. Altertums, i. §§ 490, 523.
■ So Dhorme interprets the place-name t/r(light ol)-J.ii-le-e-ni
(Rev. Bibl. 19 10, p. 67).
' See Calf, Golden, and note the representation of a calf at
er-Rumman (Ramman = Hadad) in east Jordan (Gressmann
p. 35). It is obvious that the strict injunctions in Exod. xx. 4,
Deut. iv. 16 sqq., 23, 25, and otlier references to idolatry, are the
outcome of a reaction against images.
course and alliance introduced the cults of Chemosh, Milcom, the
Baal of Tyre and the Astarte of Sidon. Excavation has brought
to light figurines of the Egyptian Osiris, Lsis, Ptah, Anubis
and especially Bes. Assyrian conquest and domination in-
lluenced the cults at all events outside Judah and Israel, and
when Sargon sent skilled men to teach " the fear of (Jod and the
king " icyl. inscr. 72-74) the spread of Assyrian religious ideas
among the Hebrews themselves is to be expected. Certainly
about 600 the Queen of Heaven, who has Assyrian traits, was
a favourite object of veneration (Jer. vii. 18, xliv. 17-19, 25);
yet already a century earlier the goddess " Ishtar of heaven "
was worshipped by a desert tribe (see Ishmael), and the titles
" lady of heaven," " bride of the king of heaven," had been appHed
centuries before to west Asiatic goddesses (Anath, Kadesh,
Ashira, &c.). Although no goddess is associated with the
national god Yahweh, female deities abounded, as is amply
shown by the numerous plaques of the great mother-goddess
found in course of excavation. The picture which the evidence
furnishes is as fundamental for our conception of Palestine
during the monarchies as were the Amarna tablets for the age
before they arose. The external evidence does not point to
any intervening liiatus, and the archaeological data from the
excavations do not reveal any dislocation of earhcr conditions;
earUer forms have simply developed and the evolution is a pro-
gressive one. Down to and at the time of the Assyrian
supremacy, Palestine in religion and history was merely part
of the greater area of mingled peoples sharing the same charac-
teristics of custom and beUef. This docs not mean of course
that the religion had no ethical traits — ethical motives are
frequently found in the old Oriental religions — but they were
bound up with certain naturalistic conceptions of the relation
between deities and men, and herein lay their weakness.^
In the age of the Assyrian supremacy Palestine entered upon
a series of changes, lasting for about three centuries (from about
740), which were of the greatest significance for
its internal development. The sweeping conquests ^^''"^''''
of Assyria were "' as critical for religious as for civil Domination.
history."^ The brutal methods of warfare, the
cruel treatment of vanquished districts or cities, and the
redistribution of bodies of inhabitants, broke the old bonds
uniting deities, people and land. The framework of society
was shattered, communal hfe and religion were disorganized.
As the flood poured over Syria and flowed south, Israel (Samaria)
suffered grievously, and the gaps caused by war and deportation
were filled up by the introduction of new settlers by Sargon,
and by his successors in the 7th century. Unfortunately,
there is very little evidence in the bibhcal history for the sub-
sequent career of Samaria, but it is clear that the old Israel of
the dynasties of Omri and Jehu received crushing blows. The
fact that among the new settlers were desert tribes, suggests
the introduction, not merely of a simpler culture, but also of
simpler groups of ideas. In the nature of the case, as time
elapsed the new population must have taken root as securely
as — one must conclude — the invading Israelites had done some
centuries earher. As a matter of fact the prophets Jeremiah
and Ezekiel by no means regarded the population lying to the
north of Judah as strangers, and the latter in turn were ready
to share the Judaean distress at the fall of Jerusalem (Jer. xli. 5),
and in later years offered to assist in rebuilding Yahweh's
temple. Indeed, since the Samaritans subsequently accepted
the Pentateuch, and claimed to inherit the ancestral traditions
of the Israelite tribes, it is of no Httle value in the study of
Palestinian history to observe the manner in which this people
of singularly mixed origin so thoroughly assimilated itself to
the land and at first was virtually a Jewish sect. But Samaria
was not the only land to suffer. Judah, towards the close of
the 8th century, was obviously very closely bound up with
Philistia, Edom and Egypt; and this and Hezekiah's dealings
with the anti-Assyrian party at Ekron do not indicate that
any feeling of national exclusiveness, or any abhorrence of the
■• W. R. Smith, Rel. of the Semites (London, 1894), p. 58.
* Ibid. p. 35; cf. pp. 65, 77 sqq., 358.
6io
PALESTINE
[OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY
New
Condltloas,
" uncircumcised Pliilistines " predominated. From the descrip-
tion of Sennacherib's invasion it is clear that social and economic
conditions must have been seriously, perhaps radically disturbed/
and the quiescence of Judah during the next few decades implies
an internal weakness and a submission to Assyrian supremacy.
During the 7th century new movements were coming from
Arabia, and tribes growing ever more restless made an invasion
east of the Jordan through Edom, Moab and Ammon. Although
they were repulsed, this awakening of a land which has so often
fed Palestine and Syria, when viewed with the increasing
weakness of Assyria, and subsequent vicissitudes in the history
of the Edomites, Nabataeans and East Jordan tribes, forbids
us to treat the invasion as an isolated raid.^ Later, the fall of
the Judaean kingdom and the deportation of the leading classes
brought a new social upheaval. The land was not denuded,
and the fact that " some scores of thousands of Jews remained
in Judah through all the period of the exile,"^ even though
they were " the poorest of the land," revolutionizes ordinary
notions of this period. (See Jews: § 18). But the Judaean
historians have successfully concealed the course of events,
although, as has long been recognized, there was some movement
laaugura- upwards from the south of Judah of groups closely
tloa of related to Edomite and kindred peoples of South
Palestine and Northern Arabia. The immigrants,
like the new occupants of Samaria, gradually
assimilated themselves to the new soil; but the circumstances
can hardly be recovered, and even the relations between Judah
and Samaria can only be inferred. In the latter part of the
6th century we find some restoration, some revival of the old
monarchy in the person of Zerubbabel (520 B.C.); but again
the course of events is problematical (Jews, § 20).^ Not until
the middle of the 5th century do the biblical records (book of
Nehemiah) furnish a foundation for any reconstruction. Here
Jerusalem is in sore distress and in urgent need of reorganization.
Zerubbabel's age is of the past, and any attempt to revive
political aspirations is considered detrimental to the interests of
the surrounding peoples and of the Persian Empire. Scattered
evidence suggests that the Edomites were responsible for a new
catastrophe. Amid internal and external difficulties Nehemiah
proceeds to repair religious and social abuses, and there is an
important return of exiles from Babylonia. The ruUng classes
are related partly to the southern groups already mentioned
and partly to Samaria; but the kingship of old is replaced
by a high-priest, and, under the influence of Babylonian Jews
of the strictest principles, a breach was made between Judah
and Samaria which has never been healed (Jews: § 21 seq.).
Biblical history itself recognizes in the times of Artaxerxes,
Nehemiah and Ezra the commencement of a new era, and
although only too much remains obscure we have in these
centuries a series of vicissitudes which separate the old Palestine
of Egyptian, Hittite, Babylonian and Assyrian supremacy from
the land which was about to enter the circle of Greek and
Roman civilization. This division, it may be added, also seems
to leave its mark upon the lengthy archaeological history of
Palestine from the earliest times to the Byzantine age. There
is a certain poverty and decadence of art, a certain simplicity
of civilization and a decline in the shape and decoration of
pottery which seems to exhibit signs of derivation from skin
prototypes elsewhere associated with desert peoples. This
phase comes at a stage which severs the earlier phases (including
the " Amarna " age) from those which are very closely connected
' See G. A. Smith, Jerusalem, ii. 160, 196 seq.
^ See L. B. Paton, Early Hist, of Syria and Pal. (London, 1902),
p. 269; Winckler, Keilinschr. u. das A.T., p. 151.
^ G. A. Smith, Jerusalem, ii. 269.
*_0n ordinary historical grounds it is probable that there was a
political reorganization and a welding of the diverse elements
throughout the land (J. A. Montgomery, The Samaritans, Phila-
delphia, 1907; p. 62 seq.). There is internal literary support for
this in the criticism of Deuteronomy (which appears to have in
view a comprehensive Israel and Judah at this period), and of
various passages evidently earlier than Nehemiah's time (see
R. H. Kennett, Journ. of Theol. Stud., 1905, pp. 175-181; 1906,
pp. 486, 498).
with Seleucid and later times. Its appearance has been asso-'
elated with the invasion of the Israelites or with the estabhsh-
ment of the independent monarchy, but on very inadequate
grounds; and since it has been independently placed at the
latter part of the monarchy, its historical explanation may
presumably be found in that break in the career of Palestine
when peoples were changed and new organizations slowly grew
up.' The great significance of these vicissitudes for the course
of internal conditions in Palestine is evident when it is observed
that the subsequent cleavage between Judah and Samaria,
not earlier than the 5th century, presupposes an antecedent
common foundation which, in view of the history of the
monarchies, can hardly be earlier than the 7th century. These
centuries represent an age which the Jewish historians have
partly ignored (as regards Samaria) and partly obscured (as
regards the return from e.xile and the reconstruction of Judah);
but since this age stands at the head of an historical develop-
ment which leads on to Christianity and Rabbinical Judaism, it
is necessary to turn from Palestine as a land in order to notice
more particularly certain features of the Old Testament upon
which the foregoing evidence directly bears.
The Old Testament is essentially a Palestinian, an Oriental,
work and is entirely in accord with Oriental thought and
custom.'' Yet, in its characteristic religion and
legislation there are essential spiritual and ethical Reiizion.
peculiarities which give it a uniqueness and a perma-
nent value, the reality of which becomes more impressive when
the Old Testament is viewed, not merely from a Christian
or a Jewish teleology, but in the light of ancient, medieval and
modern Palestine. The ideas which characterize the Old
Testament are planted upon lower levels of thought, and they
appear in different aspects (legal, prophetical, historical) and
with certain developments both within its pages and in sub-
sequent literature. To ignore or to obscure the features which
are opposed to these ideas would be to ignore the witness of
external evidence and to obscure the old Testament itself.
The books were compiled and preserved for definite aims, and
their teaching is directed now to the needs of the people as a
whole — as in the ever popular stories of Genesis — now to the
inculcation of the lessons of the past, and now to matters of
ritual. They are addressed to a people whose mental processes
and philosophy were primitive; and since teaching, in order to
be communicable, must adapt itself to current behefs of God,
man and nature — and the inveterate conservatism of man
must be born in mind — the trend of ideas must not be confused
with the average standard of thought.' The teaching was not
necessarily presented in the form of an over-elaborated moral
lesson, but was associated with conceptions famihar to the land;
and when these conceptions are examined from the anthropo-
logical standpoint, they are fotmd to contain much that is
strange and even abhorrent to modern convictions of a purely
spiritual deity. There are moreover many traces of conflicting
ideas and ideals, of cruder beliefs and customs, and of attempts
to remove or elevate them. In Genesis and elsewhere there
are examples of popular thought which have not the character-
istic spirit of the prophets, and which, it is clear, could only
gradually be purified. The notion of a Yahweh scarcely less
limited in power than man, the naive view-s of supernatural
beings and their nearness to man, and the persistence of features
which stand relatively low in the scale of mental culture, only
serve to enhance the reality of the spirit which inspired the
endeavour to reform. There were rites and customs which
only after lapse of time were considered iniquitous. Magical
practices and forms of sacred prostitution and human sacrifice
were familiar, and the denunciations of the prophets and the
^For the late date, see F. Petrie, Tell-el-Hesy (1891), p. 47 seq.,
and Bliss and Macalister, Excavations in Palestine (1902), pp. 72,74,
loi, 124; and, for the suggestion in the text, S. A. Cook, Expositor,
(Aug. 1909), pp. 104-114.
* See, e.g., E. Sellin, Alttest. Relig. im Rahmen derandern altoriental-
ischen (Leipzig, 1908).
' On the characteristics of primitive thought, see G. F. Stout,
Manual of Psychology (London, 1907), Bk. IV., especially pp. 574-579.
OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY]
PALESTINE
6ii
lawgivers show very vividly the persistence of what was
current religion but was hostile to their teaching.' There is
an astonishing boisterousness (cf. Lam ii. 7), joviality and
sensualism, all in striking contrast to the austerity of nomad
asceticism. There is a ferocity and fanaticism which manifests
itself in the belief that war was a sacred campaign of deity
against deity. Even if the account of the " ban " (utter
destruction) at the Israelite conquest be unhistorical, it repre-
sents current ideas (cf. Josh. vi. 17 seq.; i Sam. xv. 3; 2 Kings
XV. 16; 2 Chron. xxv. 12 seq.), and implies imperfect vie\v's of
the Godhead at a more advanced stage of religion and morahty.
There are conflicting ideas of death and the dead, and among
them the belief in the very human feelings and needs of the
dead and in their inlluence for good or evil.^ Moreover, the
proximity of burial-place and sanctuary and the belief in the
kindly care of the famous dead for their descendants reflect
" primitive " and persisting ideas which find their
P°sces. parallel in the holy tombs of religious or secular
heroes in modern Palestine, and exemplify the
firmness of the hnk uniting local groups with local numens.
" The permanence of religion at holy places in the East "' is
one of the most important features in the relation betv/een
popular and national religion. The local centres will survive
political and historical vicissitudes and the changes of
national cults and sects, and may outlive the national deities.
The supernatural beings may change their name and may vary
externally under Greek, Roman, Mahommedan or Christian
influence; but their relation to the local groups remains essen-
tially the same, although there is no regression to earlier organic
connexions. The inveterate local, one may perhaps say
immediate, powers are felt to be nearer at hand than the national
deity, who is more closely bound up with the changing national
fortunes and with current philosophy. These smaller deities are,
as it were, telluric, and the territory of each is virtually
henotheistic — as also its traditions — and even as to-day the
saints or patrons enjoy a more real veneration among the
peasants than does the Allah of the orthodox, the long-estab-
lished worship of the ancient local beings always hampered
the reformers of Yahwisra (cf. Jer. ii. 28, xi. 13).^ Whether
they could be regarded as so many manifestations of a single
deity or as really distinct entities, there were at all events
similar and well understood relations between each and its
group; and although the cult was nature- worship and was
attended with a licentiousness which drew forth the denuncia-
tions of the prophets, this is only one aspect of the local deity's
place in the religious conceptions of his circle. The excavations
(at Gezer, Megiddo, Jericho, &c.) indicate a persisting gross
and cruel idolatry, utterly opposed to the demands of the law
and the prophets.^ Jerusalem and the surrounding district
have ominous heathen associations.^ Jerusalem itself lay off
' See generally E. Meyer, Gesch. d. Aliertums (Berlin, 1909), i.
§§ 342 sqq. Ceremonial licentiousness was perhaps of northern
origin (Meyer § 345), and as a preliminary to marriage seems to
have been known not only in Assyria (Herod, i. 199), but also in
Palestine ("a law of the Amorites"; Test, of Jiidah, ed. R. H.
Charles, xxii. 2); cf. E. S. Hartland, Anthropol. Essays . . .
E. B. Tylor (Oxford, 1907), pp. 189-202. (For miscellaneous
material see J. G. Frazer, ibid. pp. 101-174: "Folk-lore in the
Old Testament.")
- See P. Torge, Seelenglaubc u. UnsterUichkeitshoffnung im Allen
Ter4. (Leipzig, 1909).
' The title of an instructive essay by Sir W. M. Ramsay in the
Expositor, Nov. 1906, pp. 454 sqq. The whole subject involves also
the various forms and developments of hero- and saint-cults, on
which cf. E. Lucius, Anfdnge d. Heiligenkultus, &c. (Tubingen,
1904) ; P. Saintyves, Saints successeiirs des dieux (Paris, 1907)
< On the old Baals of Palestine, see H. P. Smith, in O. T. and
Semitic Studies in Memory of W. R. Harper (Chicago, 1908), i. 35-64.
For the persistence of the " high places," see G. F. Moore, Ency.
Bib. arts. " High Place," " Idolatry and Primitive Religion."
'Vincent, Canaan, p. 204; cf. S. R. Driver, Modern Research
as illustrating the Bible (London, 1909), pp. 60 sqq., 90.
" Viz. the shrines of Chemosh, Moloch, Baal of Tyre and Astarte
of Sidon (i Kings xi. 1-8; 2 Kings xi. 18, xxii:.); the valley of
Hinnom (see J. A. Montgomery, Journ. B'tbl. Lit. xxvii. i. 24-47);
and the place-names Anathoth (" Anaths "), Nob (Nebo?), Beth-
ninib, Beth-shemesh. The name Jerusalem may be compounded
the main line of intercourse and one may look for a certain con-
servatism in its famous Temple. Temples, shrines and lioly
places were no novelty in Palestine, and the in- Jerusalem
auguration of the great centre of Judaism is ascribed and the
to Solomon the son of the great conqueror David. T'""p''-
Phoenician aid was enlisted to build it, and the Egyptian
analogies to the construction accord with the known influence
of Egypt upon Phoenician art. It is the dwelling-place of the
deity, the centre of the nation and of the national hopes; the
fall of the Temple follows after Yahweh left it, it is rebuilt
and he returns (Zech. viii. 3). The Temple is merely part
of the royal palace and the government buildings (cf. Ezek.
xliii. 7 seq.), and this is as significant as the king's position
in its management. It is in keeping with the old conceptions
of the divine kingship, which, though they survive only
in isolated biblical references, live on in the ideals of the
Messianic king and his kingdom and in the post-exilic high
priest.' The Temple is built, ornamented and furnished
on lines which are quite incompatible with a spiritual
religion. Mythical features abound in the cherubim and
seraphim, the pillars of Jachin and Boaz, the mysterious
Nehushtan, the bronze-sea and the lavers. These agree with
the more or less clear allusions in the Old Testament to myths
of creation, Eden, deluge, mountain of gods. Titanic tolk,
world-dragons, heavenly hosts, &c., and also with the unearthed
seals, tablets, altars, &c. representing mythical ideas. The
ideas occur in varying forms from Egypt to Babylonia and point
to a considerable body of thought, which is not less impressive
when one takes into account the instances in the Old Testament
where myths have been rationalized, elevated, or otherwise re-
moved from their older forms (eg. the story of the birth of Moses,
accounts of creation and deluge, &c.), or when one observes the
subsequent uncompromising objection to a display of artistic
meaning, implying that it aroused definite conceptions. To
reinterpret all these features as mere symbols, the lumber of
ancient days, is to avoid the problem of their introduction into
the Temple, and to assume an advance of popular thought
which is not confirmed by the retention and fresh developments
of the old ideas both in the pseudepigraphical literature and in
the hterature of Rabbinical Judaism.* The horses of the sun-
god (2 Kings x.xiii. 11), too, belong to a group of ideas which
may perhaps be associated with the plan of the Temple and with
the old hymn of dedication (i Kings viii. 12 seq.). At all events,
when one considers the Babylonian-Assyrian conceptions of
Shamash as the supreme and righteous judge, god of truth and
justice, or the monotheism of Amenophis IV. and his fine hymn
to the sun-god, it is certain that a corresponding Palestinian
deity would not necessarily be without ethical and elevated
associations.^ In short, the place which the Temple held in
with that of a deity (VVinckler, Keil. u. A.T. 224 seq.; G. A. Smith,
Jerusalem, ii. 25 seq.), and the deity Sedek is curiously associated
with the names of the Jerusalem priests Zadok, Jehozadak (cf.
Melchizedek of Salem, Gen. xiv.), and the kings Adonizedek and
Zedekiah. The strange character of the names of the first kings in
Israel and Judah (Saul, David and Solomon), noticed already by
\. H. Sayce {Modern Review, 1884, pp. 158-169), cannot easily be
explained.
'See A. B. Davidson, Theol. of 0. T. (Edinburgh, 1904), p. 9;
J. G. Frazer, Adonis, Attis and Osiris (London, 1907), pp. 12 sqq..
401. Cf. the title " The Anointed of Yahweh," the simile " as a
messenger (angel) of Yahweh " (2 Sam. xiv. 17, xix. 27), and the
idea of the king as the embodiment of 'nis people's safety (2 Sam.
xxi. 17; Lam. iv. 20). This absence of the deification of the
king is characteristic of biblical religion which recognizes Yahweh
as the only king; see H. Gressmann, Urspriing d. israel.-jiid.
Eschatologie (Gottingen, 1905), pp. 250 sqq.
^ For examples of the persistence of the interrelated ideas — •
whether of astral significance or not is another question — see A.
Jeremias, Babylon im Neiien Test. (Leipzig, 1905), Das Alle Test, im
Lichte d. Allen Orients (1906) ; E. Bischoff, Bab. Astrales im Weltbilde
d. Thahmtd u. Midrasch (1907).
' Cf. for an excellent example of Oriental religious thought, the
fine Babylonian hymn to Ishtar (i.e. Astarte). L. W. King, Seven
Tablets nf Creation (London, 1907). pp. 222-237, ^"d the specimens in
R. W. Rogers, Rel of Bab. and Ass. in its Relations to Israel {Londoa
1908), pp. 142-184. On ethical conceptions of heathen deities, see
I. King. Development of Religion (New York, 1910), pp. 268-286,
6l2
PALESTINE
[OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY
religious thought (cf. especially Isaiah), the character of the
reforms ascribed to Josiah (2 Kings xxiii.), the pictures drawn
by Jeremiah and Ezekiel, and the latter's condemnation of the
half-Hittite, half-Amorite capital, combine with the events
of later history to prove that the religion of the national
sanctuary must not be too narrowly estimated from the
denunciations of more spiritual minds or from a priori views
of the inevitable concomitants of either henotheism or mono-
theism or of a lofty ethical teaching.
There is indeed a development, but it is none the less note-
worthy that the post-exihc priestly ritual preserves in the
Post-exWc worship of the universal and only God Yahweh,
Develop- rites, practices and ideas which can be understood
meats. ^^^y jj^ (.|^g light of other nature-religions, especially
that of Babylonia, with which there are striking parallels.' For
example, the ephod, an object of divination, is still retained, but
it is now restricted to the high-priest; and his position as head
of a theocratic state, and his ceremonial dress with its heathenish
associations presuppose a past monarchy.- Clad in almost
barbaric splendour (cf. Ecclus. xlv., 1., and Jos. .4;,'/. iii. 7, &c.)
he embodies the glory of the worshipping body like the kings of
old, and sometimes plays as important a part in the later
political history. Ihe priestly system., as represented in the
Pentateuch, is not fitted for the desert, where its initiation is
ascribed, but on independent internal critical grounds belongs
to the post-exilic age, where it stands at the head of further
developments. It is the adaptation of the prophets' conceptions
of Yahweh to old religious ideas, the building up of new concep-
tions upon an old basis, a fusion " between old heathen notions
and prophetic ideas," and " this fusion is characteristic of the
entire priestly law." ^ The priestly religion bound together
the community in a way that alone preserved Jewish mono-
theism; it stands at the head of a long, unintermittent history,
and it is to be viewed, not so much as the cUmax of Old Testa-
ment religion, but as one of a series of inseparable stages. In
concentrating the rehgious observances of the people upon
Jerusalem, its Temple and its priesthood, it became less spon-
taneous, and its services more remote from ordinary life. It
left room for rival schools and sects both within and without
the priestly circles, and for continued development of the
older and non-priestly thought. These reacted upon this
institutional religion, which readapted and reinterpreted itself
from time to time, and when they did not help to build up
another theology (as in Christianity), they ended by assuming
loo rigid and unprogressive a shape (see Qaraites), or, breaking
away from long-tried convention, became a mysticism with
mixed results (see K.\bbalah). While these vicissitudes take
us away froni Palestine, the course of native religious thought
is very significant for its relation to the earlier stages. Although
the national God was at once a transcendent ruler of the universe
and also near at hand to man, the unconscious religious feeling
found an outlet, not only in the splendid worship at Jerusalem,
but in the more immediate intercessors, divine agencies, and the
like; and when Judaism left its native soil the local supernatural
beings revived — as characteristically as when the old place-
names threw off their Greek dress — and they still survive, under
a veneer of Mahommedanism, as the modern representatives of
the Baals of the distant past.""
' The presence of parallels also in South Arabian and Phoenician
cults suggests that the old Palestinian ritual was in general agree-
ment with the Oriental religions. Specific influence on the part
of Babylonia is not excluded; but the absence of striking points
of agreement in other portions of the Old Testament may not be
due to anything else than the particular character of the circles
to which they belonged.
^ See C. Westphal, Jahwes Wohnsldtten (Giessen, 1908), pp. 137 sqq.
A. Jeremias, Hilprecht Anniversary Volume (1910), pp. 223-242,
and art. Costume: Oriental.
' C. G. Montefiore, in the Hibbert Lectures, 1892, p. 320, cf. p. 322
(" [the] marriage of heathen practice and monotheistic use is one
of the oddest and saddest features of the whole priestly code "),
cf. also p. 411, and, in general, Lectures vi.-ix.
■* See Clermont-Canneau, Pal. Explor. fund, Quart. Statem.
(1875). PP- 209 sqq.; C. R. Condcr, Tent Work in Palestine (London,
1878), ii. 218 sqq.; J. G. Frazer, op. cil.. p. 71, &c. ; H. Gressmann,
The uniqueness of the Old Testament religion is stamped
upon the Mosaic legislation, which combines in archaic manner
ritual, ethical and civil enactments. As a whole,
the economic conditions implied are pastoral and ^^^_
agricultural, and are relatively primitive; and the
general rudimentary character of the legal ideas appears in the
death penalty for the goring ox (Exod. xxi. 28), resort to ordeal
(Num. V. 11-31), and in the treatment of murder, family,
marriage, slaves and property. The use of writing is once
contemplated (the " bill of divorce," Deut. xxiv. 3), but not in
ordinary business; oaths and symbols are used instead of written
contracts, and the commercial law is notably scanty. The
simplicity of the legislation is also manifest in the land-system
in Lev. xxv., which imphes a fresh beginning and not a readjust-
ment of earUer laws. In property succession there
is a feeling of tribal aloofness which would not be Evolution
favourable to a central authority; and in fact the legal
machinery is rude, and the carrying out of the law depends not
so much upon courts and officials as upon religious considerations.
If there is a supreme court, it is priestly (Deut. xvii. S-13), and
the legislation is bound up with the worship of Yahweh, v.'ho
avenges wrong. This legislation appears as that of the
Israehtes, newly escaped from bondage in Egypt, joined by an
ethical covenant-relation with Yahweh, and waiting in the
desert to enter and conquer the land of their ancestors. But
it is remarkable that, although within the Old Testament itself
there are certain different backgrounds, important variations
and developments of law, these are relatively insignificant
when we consider the profound changes from the I5th-i3th
centuries (apparent by the period of the conquest) to the close of
Old Testament history. Yet, the conditions in Palestine during
the monarchies reveal grave and complex social problem.s,
marked class distinctions, and constant intercourse and commer-
cial enterprise. There was no place for tribal exclusiveness, and
the upkeep of a monarchy (including the Temple) and the
occasional payment of tribute would require duly appointed
ofticials and a central body. The pentateuchal laws relating to
women belong to the country rather than to town life (note the
picture of feminine luxury in Isa. iii. 16 sqq. ; cf . Amos iv. 1-3). In
general the pentateuchal legislation as a whole presupposes an
undeveloped state of society, and would have been inadequate
if not partly obsolete or unintelligible during the monarchies.*
But more elaborate legal usages had long been known outside
Palestine, and, to judge from the Talmud and the Syrian law-
code (c. 5th century A.D.), long prevailed. Oriental law is
primitive or advanced according to the social conditions, with
the result that antiquity of ideas is no criterion of date, and
modern desert custom is more archaic than the
great code of the Babylonian king Khammurabi ^^^
{c. 2000 B.C.). Common law is merely part of the
national Ufe, and where it is implicated with religion there is
no uniformity over an area comprising different groups of people.
In such a case there is resort to a controlling authority, whether
self-imposed (like the divine Pharaoh of the Amarna age), or
mutually agreed (as Mahomet and the Arabian clans).'' It
cannot be definitely said that the old Babylonian code was in
force in Palestine. On the other hand, it is known that it was
being diligently copied by Assur-bani-pal's scribes (yth century
B.C.), and in view of the circumstances of the Assyrian domina-
tion, it is probable that, so far as Palestinian economic conditions
permitted, a legislation more progressive than the Pentateuch
Paldstinas Erdgeruch in der Israel. Relig. (Berlin, 1909), pp. 16 sqq.
In the above, and in other respects also, a survey of the history of
Palestine suggests the necessity of modifying that " biological "
treatment of the development of thought which pays insufiiicient
attention to the persistence of the representatives of different
stages by the side of or after the disappearance of the higher stages;
see I. King, op. cit., pp. 204 sqq.
' Cf. J.-M. Lagrange, Hist. Crit. and the O. T. (London, 1905),
p. 176; H. M. Wiener, The Churchman (1908), p. 23.
^ See W. R. Smith, Rel. of Semites, p. 70, who compares the
judicial authority of Moses. Note also the British Indian legislation
imposed upon the various castes and creeds each with their peculiar
rites and customs.
OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY]
PALESTINE
613
was in use. The discovery at Gezer of Assyrian contract-
tablets (651 and 64S B.C.) — one relating to the sale of land by
a certain Nethaniah— at least suggests the prevalence of Assyrian
custom, and this is confirmed by the technical business methods
illustrated in Jer. xx.\ii. Moreover, among the Jewish families
settled in the sth century B.C. in Egypt (Elephantine) and
Babylonia (Nippur), the Babylonian-Assyrian principles are
in vogue, and the presumption that they were not unfamiliar
in Palestine is strengthened further by the otherwise unac-
countable appearance of Babylonian-Assyrian elements later in
:the Talmudic law. The denunciations in the prophetical writings
of gross injustice, oppression and maladministration seem to
presuppose definite laws, which either were ignored or which
fell with severity upon the poor and unfortunate. They point
to a considerable amount of written law, which was evidently
class-legislation of an oppressive character.' The Babylonian
code is essentially class-legislation, and from the point of view
of the ideahsm of the Old Testament prophets, which raises the
rights of humanity above everything else, the steps which the
code takes to safeguard the rights of property (slaves included
therein) would naturally seem harsh. The code also regulates
wages and prices, and shows a certain humanity towards debtors;
and here any failure to carry out these laws would obviously
be denounced. While the code, according to its own lights, aims
Prophets at strict justice rather than charity, the Old Testa-
aadthe ment has reforming aims, and the religious, legislative
Law. Q,.|jj social ideals are characterized by the insistence
upon a lofty moral and ethical standard. These ideals are more
religious than democratic. The appeal of the prophets, " is
not for better institutions but for better men, not for the abolition
of aristocratic privileges but for an honest and godly use of
them."^ The writers have in view a people with individual and
collective rights and responsibilities, united by feelings of the
deepest loyalty and kindliness and by common adherence to their
only God. There is a marked growth of refinement and of
ideas of morality, and a condemnation of the shameless vice and
oppression which went on amid a punctilious and splendid
worship. It is extremely significant that between the teaching
of the prophetical writings and the spirit of the Mosaic legislation
there is an unmistakable bond. The Mosaic law, in its reforming
aspect, is characterized by the denunciation of heathenism
and heathenish usages which belong to the old religion. There
is an insistence upon individual responsibility (Deut. xxiv. 16;
2 Kings xiv. 6; cf. Jer. xxxi. 29 seq.; Ezek. xviii., xxxiii.), the
more noteworthy when one considers the tenacity of the savage
talio and its retention, though with some modifications, in the
Babylonian code. There is a tendency to mitigate slavery, and
the law of fugitive slaves is a particularly instructive innovation
(Deut. xxiii. 15 seq., subsequently confined to the slave from
outside). Corporal punishment is kept within limits (xxv. 3),
but its very existence points to state-life rather than to the
desert. Some attempt is made to diminish the destructiveness
of war (xx. 10-20), but the passage is a remarkable illustration of
a barbarous age. The endeavour is also made to improve the
monarchy of the future (xvii. 14 sqq.), but mainly on religious
grounds, in order to diminish foreign intercourse. Noteworthy,
again, is the appeal to religious and ethical considerations in
order to prevent injustice to the widow and fatherless and to
unhappy debtors; statutory laws are either unknown, or, more
probably, are presupposed. The pentateuchal legislation as a
I c rf • ^^^o's '3 placed at the very beginning of Israelite
Problems. ' national history. Amid constant periods of apostasy
two epoch-making events stand out: (a) the redis-
covery of the Book of the Law (Deuteronomy is meant) in the
time of Josiah (2 Kings xxii.) followed by a reform of sundry
religious abuses dating from the foundation of the temple, and
(b) the promulgation by Ezra of the Law of Yahweh, the law of
Moses (Ezra. vii. 10, 14; Neh. viii. i), in the age of Nehemiah, at
the very close of biblical history. This legislation, endorsing
' O. C. Whitehouse, Century Bible, on Isa. x. i seq.
- See W. R. Smith, Old Test, in the Jew. Church (London, 1892),
PP- 348, 350 seq.
(in certain well-defined portions) priestly authority, excludes a
monarchy and stands at the head of a lengthy development in
the way of expansion and interpretation. Its true place in
biblical history has been the problem of generations of scholars,'
and the discovery (Dec. igoi-Jan. 1902) of the Babylonian code
has brought new problems of relationship and of external
influences. Although on various grounds there is a strong
probability that the code of Khammurabi must have been
known in Palestine at some period, the Old Testament does not
manifest such traces of the influence as might have been expected.
Pentateuchal law is relatively unprogressive. it is marked by a
characteristic simplicity, and by a spirit of reform, and the
persisting primitive social conditions implied do not harmonize
with other internal and external data. The existence of olhcr
laws, however, is to be presupposed, and there appear to be cases
where the Babylonian code lies in the background. An indepen-
dent authority concludes that " the co-existing likeness and
differences argue for an independent recension of ancient custom
deeply influenced by Babylonian law."'' The questions are
involved witli the reforming spirit in biblical religion and history.
On literary-historical grounds the Pentateuch in its present form
is post -exilic, posterior to the old monarchies and to the ideals of
the earlier prophetical writings. 1 he laws are (a) partly contem-
porary collections (chiefJy of a ritual and ceremonial character)
and (b) partly collections of older and different origin, though
now in post-exilic frames. The antiquity of certain principles
and details is undeniable — as also in the Talmud — but since
one must start from the organic connexions of the composite
sources, the problems necessitate proper attention to the
relation between the stages in the literary growth (working
backwards) and the vicissitudes which culminate in the post-
exilic age. The s;mplicity of the legislation (traditionally
associated with Moab and Sinai and with Kadesh in South
Palestine), the humanitarian and reforming spirit, the condem-
nation of abuses and customs are features which, in view of the
background and scope of Deuteronomy, can hardly be severed
from the internal events which connect Palestine of the Assyrian
supremacy with the time of Nehemiah.'
The introduction, spread and prominence of the 7!atne Yahweh,
the development of conceptions concerning his nature, his
supremacy over other gods and the lofty monotheism character
which denied a plurality of gods, are questions of o. T.
which, like the biblical legislative ideas, cannot be if'^'ory-
adequately examined within the narrow compass of the Old
Testament alone.
The biblical history is a " canonical " history which looks back
to the patriarchs, the exodus from Egypt, the law-giving and
the covenant with Yahweh at Sinai, the conquest of Palestine
by the Israelite tribes, the monarchy, the rival kingdoms, the
fall and exile of the northern tribes, and, later, of the southern
(Judah), and the reconstructions of Judah in the times of Cyrus,
Darius and Artaxer.xes. It is the first known example of
continuous historical writing (Genesis to Kings, Chronicles-Ezra-
Nehemiah), and represents a deliberate effort to go back from
' See Bible: Old Test. Criticism; Jews, §§ 16, 23.
■* C. H. VV. Johns, Hastings's Diet. Bible, v. 611 seq., who points
out that the intrusion of priestly power into the law courts is a recru-
descence under changed conditions of a state of things from which
the Babylonian code shows an emancipation nearly complete. The
view formerly maintained by the present writer (Laws of Moses and
Code of Hammurabi, 1903, pp. 204 sqq., 279 seq., &c.) relied upon the
difference between the exilic or post-exilic sources which unam-
biguously reflect Babylonian and related ideas, and the absence
in other biblical sources of the features which an earlier compre-
hensive Babylonian influence would have produced, and it incor-
rectly assumed that the explanation might be found in the ordinary
reconstructions of Israelite history. Cf. above, p. 1S2, n. i.
'" On the later history of the canonical law (Mishnah, Gemara,
&c.) see Talmud. The Talmud embodies law, which is related to
the Babylonian code not only in content but also sometimes in
spirit; see L. N. Dembitz, Jew. Quart. Rev. xix. (1906), pp. 109 sqq.
For the efforts of the Rabbis to improve the legal principles in
Galilee in the 2nd and 3rd centuries a.d., see A. Biichlcr, Publication
No. I, Jews' College, London. With the removal of Judaism from
Palestine and internal social changes the archaic primitive law re-
appeared, now influenced, however, by Mahommedan legislation.
I
6i4
PALESTINE
[OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY
the days when the Judaeans separated from the Samaritans
to the very beginning of the world. A characteristic tone per-
vades the history, even of the antediluvian age, from the creation
of Adam: or rather, the history of the earliest times has been
written under its influence. It reveals itself in the days of the
Patriarchs, before the " Amarna " age — or rather in the narra-
tives relating to these remote ancestors. It will be perceived
that an objective attitude to the subjective writings must be
adopted, the starting-point is the writings themselves and not
individual preconceptions of the authentic history which they
embody. Although there are various points of contact with
Palestinian external history, there is a failure to deal with some
events of obvious importance, and an emphasis upon others
which are less conspicuous in any broad survey of the land.
There are numerous conflicting details which unite to prove that
various sources have been used, and that the structure of the
compilation is a very intricate one, the steps in its growth being
extremely obscure.' In studying the internal peculiarities and
the different circles of thought involved, it is found that they
often imply written traditions which have a perspective different
from that in which they are now placed. As regards the pre-
monarchical period, some evidence points to a settlement
Pre- (apparently from Aramaean locahties) of the patri-
Moaarchicai archs, and of Israel (Jacob) and his sons, i.e. the
Period. " children of Israel." It ignores a descent into
Egypt and the subsequent invasion.^ The parallel account in
the book of Joshua of the entrance of the " children of Israel "
is, in its present form, the sequel to the journey of the people
along the east of Edom and Moab after the escape from Egypt,
and after a sojourn at Kadesh (Exodus-Deuteronomy). But
other evidence also points to an entrance from Kadesh into
Judah, and associates the kin of Moses, Kenites, Calebites and
others. Thus, the tradition of a residence in Egypt, implied
also in the stories of Joseph, has certainly become the
" canonical " %dew, but the recollection was not shared by all
the mixed peoples of Palestine; and to this difference of historical
background in the traditions must be added divergent traditions
of the earlier population. Traditions, oral and written, with
widely differing standpoints have been brought together and
merged. Moreover, the elaborate account of the vast invasion
and conquest, the expulsion, extermination and subjugation of
earlier inhabitants, and the occupation of cities and fields,
combine to form a picture which cannot be placed in Palestine
during the I5th-i2th centuries. It must not be denied that the
recollection of some invasion may have been greatly idealized
by late wTiters, but it happens that there were important immi-
grations and internal movements in the 8th-6th centuries, that
is to say, immediately preceding the post-exilic age, when this
composite account in the Pentateuch and Joshua reached its
present form. An enormous gap severs the pre-monarchical
period from this age, and while the tribal schemes and tribal tradi-
tions can hardly be traced during the monarchies, the inclusion
of Judah among the " sons " of Israel would not have originated
when Judah and Israel were rival kingdoms. Yet the tribes
survive in post-exiUc literature and their traditions develop
henceforth in Jubilees, Testament of the XII Patriarchs, &c.
During the changes from the 8th century onwards a non-
monarchical constitution naturally prevailed, first in the north
and then in the south, and while in the north the mingled
peoples of Samaria came to regard themselves as Israelite, the
southern portion, the tribe of Judah, proves in i Chron. ii. & iv.
to be largely of half-Edomite blood. A common ground previous
to the Samaritan schism is ignored; it is found only in the
period before the rival kingdoms. The political history of these
1 In the art. Jews, §§ 1-24, the biblical history is taken as the
foundation, and the internal historical difficulties are noticed from
stage to stage. In the present state of biblical historical criticism
this plan seemed more advisable than any attempt to reconstruct
the history; the necessity for some reconstruction will, however, be
clear to the reader on the grounds of both the internal intricacies and
the external evidence.
^ See, in the first instance, E. Meyer (and B. Luther), Die Israel-
ilen und ihre Nachbarsidmme (Halle, 1906); also art. Genesis.
monarchies in the book of Kings is singularly slight considering
the extensive body of tradition which may be pre-supposed,
e.g. for the reigns of Jeroboam II. and Uzziah, or
which may be inferred from the evidence for different „ ^
, , . . , . , Moaarchtes,
sources deahng with other periods. The scanty
political data in the annalistic notices of the north kingdom are
supplemented by more detailed narratives of a few years leading
up to the rise of the last dynasty, that of Jehu. The historical
problems involved point to a loss of perspective (Jews, § 11),
and the particular interest in the stories of Elijah and EUsha in an
historical work suggests that the political records passed through
the hands of communities whose interest lay in these figures.
Old tradition suggests the " schools of the prophets " at Jericho,
Gilgal and Bethel, and in fact the proximity of these places,
especially Bethel, to Judaean soil may be connected with the
friendly and sometimes markedly favourable attitude to Judah
in these narratives. The rise of the kingdom of Israel under
Saul is treated at length, but more prominence is given to the
influence of the prophet Samuel; and not only is Saul's history
written from a didactic and prophetical standpoint (cf. similarly
Ahab), but the great hero and ruler is handled locally as a
petty king at Gibeah in Benjamin. The interest of the
narratives clings around north Judah and Benjamin, and
more attention is given to the rise of the Judaean dynasty,
the hostility of Saul, and the romantic friendship between
his son Jonathan and the young David of Bethlehem. The
history of the northern and southern kingdoms is handled
separately in Kings; but in Samuel the rise of each is closely
interwoven, and to the greater glory of David. The account
of his steps contains details touching Judah and its relation to
Israel which cannot be reconciled with certain traditions of
Saul and the Ephraimite Joshua. It combines amid diverse
material a hero of Bethlehem and rival of Saul with the idea of
a conqueror of this district; it introduces peculiar traditions
of the ark and sanctuary, and it associates David with
Hebron, Calebites and the wilderness of Paran.' The books of
Samuel and Kings have become, in process of compilation, the
natural sequel to the preceding books, but the conflicting features
and the perplexing differences of standpoint recur elsewhere,
and the relationship between them suggests that similar causes
have been operative upon the compOation. The history of
Judah is, broadly speaking, that of the Davidic dynasty and the
Temple, and it begins at the time of the first king of the rival
north. Care is taken to record the transference of secular
power and of Yahweh's favour from Saul to David, and David
accomplishes more successfully or on a larger scale the achieve-
ments ascribed to Saul. The religious superiority of Jerusalem
over the idolatrous north and over the " high places " is the main
theme, and with it is the supremacy of the native Zadokite priests
of Jerusalem over others {e.g. of Shiloh), who are connected
with the desert traditions. The political history is relatively
slight and uneven, and the framework is rehandled in Chronicles
upon more developed lines and from a later ecclesiastical stand-
point, which suggests that many traditions of the monarchy
were extant in a late dress. Both books represent the same
general trend of pohtical events, even where the " canonical "
representation is most open to criticism. Chronicles, with the
book of Ezra and Nehemiah, makes a continuity Chronicles—
between the old Judah which fell in 586 and the Ezra—
return (time of Cyrus), the rebuilding of the temple ^^''e™'"*-
(Darius), and the reorganization associated with Nehemiah and
Ezra (Artaxerxes). Historical material after 586 is scanty
in the extreme, and, apart from the records of Nehemiah and
a few other passages, the interest lies in the religious history of
the communities and reformers who returned from Babylonia.
The late and composite book of Chronicles places at the head of
the Israelite divisions, which ignore the exodus (i Chron. vii.
\ ' Whence the theory that David was of S. Judaean or S. Pales-
I tinian origin (Marquart, Winckler, Cheyne, Ency. Bib. cols. 1020,
26i3 seq.), and, also, that he knit together the southern non-
Judaean clans (see David, Judah). But it is preferable to recognize
different traditions of distinct origin and to inquire what genuine
elements of history each may contain.
OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY]
PALESTINE
615
14, 20-24), a Judah consisting of fragments of an older stock
replenished vith families of South Palestinian, Edomite and North
Arabian affinity. This half-Edomite population, recognizable
also in Benjamin, manifests its presence in the official hsts, and
more especially in the ecclesiastical bodies inaugurated by
David, from whose time the supremacy of this Judah is dated.
The historical framework contains traditions of the reconstruc-
tion and repair of temple and cult, of the hostility of southern
peoples and their allies, and of conflicts between king and priests.
This retrospect of the Judaean kingdom must be taken with the
following books, where the crucial features are (u) the presence
(c. 444) of an aristocracy, partly (at all events) of half-Edomite
affinity, before the return of any important body of exiles
(Neh. iii.) ; (b) the gaps in the history between the fall of Samaria
(722) and Jerusalem (586) to the rise of the hierocracy, and (c)
the relation between the hints of renewed political activity in
Zerubbabel's time, when the Temple was rebuilt (c. 520-516), and
the mysterious catastrophe (with perhaps another disaster to
the Temple), probably due to Edom, which is implied in the book
of Nehemiah {c. 444). (See Jews, § 22.) These data lead to the
fundamental problem of Old Testament history. Since 1870
(Wellhausen's De gcntibiis . . . Judaeis) it has been recognized
that I Chron. ii. and iv. accord with certain details in i Samuel,
and appear to refer to a half-Edomite Judah in David's
time (c. 1000 B.c.).^ More recently E. Meyer, on the basis of a
larger induction, has pointed out the relation of this Judah to a
large group of Edomite or Edomite-Ishmaelite tribes.- The
stories in Genesis represent a southern treatment of Palestinian
tradition, with local and southern versions of legends and myths,
and with interests which could only belong to the south.' It
has long been perceived that Kadesh in South Palestine was
connected with a law-giving and with some separate movement
into Judah of clans associated with the family of Moses, Caleb,
Kenites, &c. (see Exodus, The). With this it is natural to con-
nect the transmission and presence in the Old Testament of
specifically Kenite tradition, of the " southern " stories in
Genesis, and of the stories of Levi.'' The rise of this new Judah
is generally attributed to David, but the southern clans remain
independent for some five centuries, only moving a few miles
nearer Jerusalem; and this vast interval severs the old half-
Edomite or Arabian Judah from the sequel — the association of
such names as Korah, Ethan and Heman with temple-psalms
and psalmody.^ It has long been agreed that biblical rehgion
and history are indebted in some way to groups connected with
Edom and North Arabia, and repeated endeavours have been
made to explain the evidence in its bearing upon this lengthy
period.' The problem, it is here suggested, is in the first instance
a literary one — the hterary treatment by southern groups, who
have become Israelite, of a lengthy period of history. When the
Vi?hole body of evidence is viewed comprehensively, it would seem
that there was some movement northwards of semi-Edomite
blood, tradition and hterature, the date of which may be placed
during the internal disorganization of Palestine, and presumably
in the 6th century. Such a movement is in keeping with the
course of Palestinian history from the traditional entrance of
the Israelite tribes to the relatively recent migration of the tribe
' " The population of South Judah was of half-Arab origin "
(W. R. Smith, Old Test. Jew. Church, p. 279).
2 Meyer and Luther, op. cit., p. 446, et passim.
' So especially Meyer and Luther, op. cit.; of. also H. Gressmann,
Zeit. f. all-test. Wissens. (1910), p. 28 seq. Note also the view that
the grand book of Job il-v.) has an Edomite background.
'A. R. Gordon, Early Trad, of Gen. (London, 1907), pp. 74, 188;
Meyer, op. cit., pp. 83, 85 (on the Levites) ; Gressmann, loc. cit.;
S. A. Cook, Amer. Journ. of Tlieol. (1909), pp. 382 sqq. See Genesis,
Levites, and Jews, § 20.
^ On the names, see Genealogy: Biblical; Levites, § 2, end, and
Ency. Bib. col. 1665 seq.
° W. R. Harper [Amos and Hosea, 1905, p. liv.) observes: "Every
year since the work of W. R.Smith brings Israel into closer relation-
ship with Arabia"; cf. also N. Schmidt's conclusions (Hibbert
Journal, 1908, p. 342), and the Jerahmeclite theory of T. K. Cheyne,
who writes (Decline and Fall of the Kingdom of Judah, London, 1908,
p. xxxvii.) "... by far the greater part of the e.xtant literary
monuments of ancient Israel are precisely those monuments whose
producers were most preoccupied by N. Arabia."
of 'Amr.' In the Oltl Testament popular feeling knows of two
phases: Edom, the more powerful brother of Jacob (or Israel)
^both could share in the traditions of Abraham, Isaac and
Jacob — and the hatred of the treacherous Edom in the
prophetical writings. Earlier phases have not survived, and
the last-mentioned is relatively late,' after the southern influence
had left itself upon history, legend, the Temple and the
ecclesiastical bodies. On these grounds, then, it would seem
that among the vicissitudes of the 8th and following centuries
may be placed a movement of the greatest importance for
Israelite history and for the growth of the Old Testament, one,
however, which has been reshaped and supplemented (in the
account of the Exodus and Invasion) and deliberately suppressed
or ignored in the history of the age (viz. in Ezra-Nehemiah).
The unanimous recognition on the part of all biblical scholars
that the Old Testament cannot be taken as it stands as a trust-
worthy account of the history with which it deals,
necessitates a hvpothesis or, it may be, a series of ^'"f.f,"
1 1 1 ■ 'i 1 11 II 11 vnticism,
hypotheses, which shall enable one to approach the
more detailed study of its history and religion. The curious
and popular tradition that Ezra rewrote the Old Testament
(2 Esd. xiv.), the concessions of conservative scholars, and even
the view that the Hebrew text is too uncertain for literary
criticism, indicate that the starting-point of inquiry must be
the present form of the writings. The necessary work of literary
analysis reached its most definite stage in the now famous
hypothesis of Graf (1865-1866) and especially WeUhausen (1878),
which was made more widely known to English readers, directly
and indirectly through W. Robertson Smith, in the 9th edition of
this Encyclopaedia.' The work of literary criticism and its
application to biblical history and religion passed into a new
stage as external evidence accumulated, and, more particularly
since 1900, the problems have assumed new shapes. The
tendency has been to assign more of the Old Testament, in its
present form, to the Persian age and later; and also to work
upon lines which are influenced sometimes by the close agreement
with Oriental conditions generally and somictimes by the very
striking divergences. It is the merit of Hugo Winckler especially
to have lifted biblical study out of the somewhat narrow fines
upon which it had usually proceeded, but, at the time of writing
(1910), Old Testament criticism still awaits a sound reconciliation
of the admitted internal intricacies and of the external evidence
for Palestine and that larger area of which it forms part. Upon
the convergence of the manifold lines of investigation rest all
reconstructions, all methodical studies of 'oiblical religion, law
and prophecy, and all endeavours to place the various develop-
ments in an adequate historical framework.
The preliminary hypotheses, it would seem, must be both literary
and historical. The varied standpoints (historical, social, legal,
religious, «&;c.) combine with the fragmentary character p^^.^jj^^
of much of the evidence to suggest that the literature iiyp(,ti,eses
has passed through different circles, with e.xcision or
revision of older material, and with the incorporation of other
material, sometimes of older origin and of independent literarj'
growth. Consequently, one is restricted in the first instance to
such literature as survives and in the form which the last editors
or compilers gave it. Different views as regards history (e.g.
invasions, tribal movements, rival kingdoms) and religion (e.g. the
Yahweh of Kadesh, Sinai, Jerusalem, &c.), and different priestly,
prophetical and popular ideas are only to be expected, consider-
ing the character of Palestinian population. Hence to weave
the data into a single historical outline or into an orderly
evolution of thought is to overlook the probability of bona
' J. Dissard, Rev. Bibl., 1905, pp. 410-425. Some S. Pal. revolt
is also reflected shortly before the rise of the Jehu dynasty (Jews,
§11). A few centuries later, the Edom.ites (Idumaeans) were again
closely connected with the Jews; an Idumaean dynasty — that of
the Herods — ruled in Judah, and once more there must have been a
considerable amount of intermixture.
sCf. R. H. Kennett, Journ. Theol. Stud. (1906), p. 487; Camb.
Bibl. Essays (ed. Swete), p. 117. For an Edomite invasion between
586 and the Greek period, see also H. Winckler, .Altar. Forsch. (1900),
pp. 428 sqq., 455.
' Especially Wellhausen's articles, " Pentateuch, " Israel,
" Moab,"andW. R.Smith's large series including" Bible,"" David,"
" Decalogue,"" Judges,"" Kings," " Levites,"" Messiah,"" Priest,"
" Prophet," " Psalms," &c.
6i6
PALESTINE
[OLD TESTAMENT HISIORY
fide divergences of tradition and to assume that more rudi-
mentary or primitive thought was excluded by the admitted develop-
ment of religious-social ideals. The oldest nucleus of historical
tradition appears to belong to Samaria, but it has been adjusted
to other standpoints or interests, which are apparently connected
partly with the half-Edomite and partly with the old indi-
genous Judaean stock.' Genesis-Kings (incomplete; some further
material in Jeremiah) and the later Chronicles — Nehemiah are in
their present form posterior to iS'ehemiah's time. Unfortunately
the events of his age are shrouded in obscurity, but one can
recognize the return of exiles from Babylon to Jerusalem and its
environs — now half-Edomitc — and various internal rivalries which
culminate in the Samaritan schism.- The ecclesiastical rivalries
have left their mark in the Pentateuch and (the later) Chronicles,
and the Samaritan secession appears to have coloured^ even the
book of Kings. These sources then are "post-exilic," and the
elimination of material first composed in that age leaves historical,
legal and other material which vias obviously in circulation (so,
e.g., the non-priestly portions of Genesis).' The relatively earlier
group of books is now the result of two complicated and contin-
uous redactions, " Deuteronoraic " (Deut.-Kings) and " Priestly "
(Genesis-Joshua, with traces in the following books). The former
is exceptionally intricate, being in its various aspects distinctly
earlier, and in parts even later than the " priestly." Its standpoint,
too, varies, the phases being now northern or wider Israelite, now
half-Edomite or Judaean, and now anti-Samarian.
Moreover, there is a late incorporation of literature, sometimes
untouched by and sometimes merely approximating to " Deutero-
nomic " language or thought. How very late the historical books are
in their present text or form may be seen from the Septuagint version
of Joshua, Samuel and Kings, and from their internal literary struc-
ture, which suggests that only at the last stages of compilation were
thev brought into their present shape.'' The result as a v.hole tends
to show that the " canonical " history belongs to the last literary
vicissitudes, and that similar influences (which have not affected
every book in the same manner) have been at work throughout.
The history of the past is viewed from rather different positions
which, on the whole, are subsequent to the relatively recent changes
Phi f^^i gave birth to new organizations in Samaria and
/ T ^di"^ Judah. Consequently, in addition to the ordinary require-
° " ' ments of historical criticism, biblical study has to take into
account the intricate composite character of the sources
and the background of these positions. It is the criticism of sources
which have both a literary and an historical compositcness. Not
only are the standpoints of local interest (Samaria. Benjamin,
Judah and the half-Edomite Judah being involved), but there are
remarkable developments in the ecclesiastical bodies (Zadokites of
Jerusalem, country and half-Edomite priests, Aaronites) which
have influenced both the writing and the revision of the .sources
(see Levites). Yet it is noteworthy that the traditions are usually
reshaped, readjusted or reinterpreted, and are not replaced by
entirely new ones. Thus, the Samaritans claim the traditions of
the land; the Chronicler traces the connexion between " pre-exilic "
and " post-exilic " Judaeans, ignoring and obscuring intervening
events; the south Palestinian cycle of tradition is adapted to the
history of a descent into and an exodus from Egypt ; Zadokite
priests are enrolled as Aaronites, and the hierarchical traditions
' A Samarian (or Ephraimitc or N. Israelite) nucleus may be
recognized in the books of Joshua-Kings; see the articles on these
books, Jews, § 6; cf. Meyer, pp. 478 n. 2, 486 seq., and K. Lincke,
Samaria u. seine Prophelen (1903), p. 24. These preserve old
poetical literature (Judg. v., 2 Sam. i.), stories of conquest arid
settlement, and they connect with the liturgy in Deut, xxvii.
Joshua's covenant at Shechem and the Shechemite covenant-god
(cf. Kennett, Journ. Theol. Stud., 1906, pp. 495 sqq.; Lincke, op. cit.,
p. 89. W. Erbt, Die Hebrder (1906), pp. 27 sqq.; Meyer and Luther,
pp. 542 sqq., 550 seq.). , ,. . . . ,
- There seems to be both political and religious animosity, but
it is not certain that Josephus is wrong in placing the schism at the
close of the Persian period; see, on this point, J. Marquart, Isr. ti.
Jiid. Gesch. (1896), p. 57 seq.; C. Steuernagel, Theolog. Stud. it. Krit.
(1909), p. 5; G. Jahn, Biicher Esra 11. Neheviia (Leiden, 1909),
pp. 173-176; C. C. Torrey, Ezra Studies (Chicago, 1910), pp. 321 sqq.
Old priestly rivalries between Cutha and Babylon may explain why
the mixed Samaritans became known as Cuthaeans; according to
the prevailing theory their predecessors, the " ten tribes" had been
exiled in the 8th century.
•> The term " post -exilic " is applied to literature and history after
the return of exiles and the religious reconstruction of Judah. This,
on the traditional view, would be in 537, if there were then any
prominent return. Failing this, one must descend to the time of
Nehemiah, which the biblical history itself regards as epoch-making.
The tendency to make the exile an abrupt and complete change in
life is based upon the theory underlying Chronicles-Nehemiah and
is misleading (see Torrey, op. cit. pp. 287 sqq., &c.).
■• Cf . the " Deuteronomic " form of Samuel, and the depend-
ence of the literary growth of Genesis and the account of the
exodus and invasion of Palestine upon the " southern " cycle of
tradition.
reveal stages of orderly and active development in order to authorize
the changing standpoints of different periods and circles.' This
feature recur i in later Palestinian literature (see MiDRASH, Talmud)
where there are later forms of thought and tradition, some elements
of which although often of older origin, are almost or entirely wanting
in the Old Testament. Much that would otherwise be unintelligible
becomes more clear when one realizes the readiness with which
settlers adopt the traditional belief and custom of a land, and the
psychological fact that teaching must be relevant and must satisfy
the primary religious feelings and aspirations, that it must not be at
entire variance with current beliefs, but must represent the older
beliefs in a new form. Any comparison of the treatment of biblical
figures or events in the later literature will illustrate the retention
of certain old details, the appearance of new ones, and an organic
connexion which is everywhere in accordance with contemporary
thought and teaching. If this raises the presumption that even
the oldest and most isolated biblical evidence may rest upon still
older authority, it shows also that the fuller details and context
cannot be confidently recovered, and that earlier forms would
accord with earlier Palestinian belief.^ Hence, although records
may be most untrustworthy in their present form or connexion,
one cannot necessarily deny that a romance may presuppose a
reality of history or that it may preserve the fact of an event even
at the period to which it is ascribed {e.g. Abraham and Amraphel
in Gen. xiv. ; the invasions before 1000 B.C., &c.). But in all such
cases the present form of the material may be more profitably used
for the study of the historical or religious conceptions of its age. At
the same time, the complexity of the vicissitudes of traditions,
exemplified in modern Palestine itself, cannot be ignored.' Finally,
biblical history is an intentional and reasoned arrangement of
material, based upon composite sources, for religious and didactic
purposes. Regarded as an historical work there is a remarkable
absence of proportion, and a loss of perspective in the relation
between antediluvian, patriarchal. Mosaic and later periods. From
the literary-critical results, however, it is not so much the
history of consecutive periods as the account of consecutive
periods by compilers who are not far removed from one another
as regards dates, but differ in standpoints. There was, in one
case, a retrospect which did not include the deluge, and in
another the patriarchs were actual settlers, a descent into Egypt
and subsequent exodus being ignored; moreover, the standpoints
of those who did not go into e.xile and of those who did and returned
would naturally differ. In weaving the sources together the
compilers had some acquaintance of course with past history,
but on the whole it manifests itself only slightly (see Jews, § 24),
and the complete chronological system belongs to the latest stage.
Investigation must concern itself not with what was possibly or
probably known, but with what is actually presented. The fact
remains that when accepted tradition conflicts with more reliable
evidence it stands upon a level by itself;' and it is certain that a
compilation based upon the knowledge which modern research —
whether in the exact sciences or in history — has gained would
have neither meaning for nor influence upon the people whom it
was desired to instruct. A considerable amount of earlier history
and literature has been lost, and it is probable that the traditions
of the origins of the composite Israelites, as they are now preserved,
embody evidence belonging to the nearer events of the 8th-6th
centuries. The history of these centuries is of fundamental
importance in any attempt to " reconstruct " biblical history.'
The fall of Samaria and Judah was a literary as well as a political
catastrophe, and precisely how much earlier material has been
' Cf. S. A. Cook, Critical Notes on Old Testament History (1907),
pp. 62 seq., 67, 75 sqq., 112 seq.
' This applies also to the prophetical writings, the study of which
is complicated by their use of past history to give point to later
ideas and by the recurrence in history of somewhat similar
events. As regards the situations which presuppose the ruin
of Jerusalem and a return of exiles, the obscure events after the
time of Zerubbabel cannot be left out of account. (See Jews,
§§ 14, 17 [p. 282], 22 n. 5, and art. Zephaniah.)
' >3ote the rapid growth and embellishment of tradition, the
inextricable interweaving of fact and fiction, the circumstantial
or rationalized stories of imaginary beings, the supernatural or
mythical stories of thoroughly historical persons, the absolute loss
of perspective, and a reliance not upon the merits of a tradition but
upon the authority with which it is associated.
* Cf. the remarkable Arabian stories of their predecessors, or the
mingling of accurate and inaccurate data in Manetho and Ctesias.
' The evidence for Jewish colonies at Elephantine in Upper Egypt
(5th century B.C.) has opened up new paths for inquiry. According to
some scholars it is probable that they were descended from the
soldiers settled by Psamtck I. (7th century), and not only are they in
touch with Judah and Samaria, but in Psamtek's time an effort was
made by the Asiatic and other mercenaries to escape into Ethiopia
(J. H. Breasted, Eg. hist. doc. iv. 506 seq.). It is already suggested
that allusions to a sojourn in Egypt may refer, not to the remote
times of Jacob and Moses but to the circumstances of the 7th
century; see C. Steuernagel, op. cit. pp. 7-12; E. Meyer, Sitzungs-
berichte of the Berlin Academy, June 1908, p. 655. n. i.
TO A.D. 70]
PALESTINE
617
preserved is a problem in itself. It is very noteworthy, however,
that, while no care was taken to preserve the history of the Chaldean
and Persian Empires — and consequently the most confused ideas
subsequently arose — the days of the Assyrian supremacy leave a
much clearer imprint (cf. even the apocryphal book of Tobit). It
may perhaps be no mere chance that with the dynasties of Omri and
Jehu the historical continuity is more firm, that older forms of
propheLical narrative are preserved (the times from Ahab to Jehu),
and that to the reign of the great Jeroboam (first half of the 8th
century), the canonical writers have ascribed the earliest of the
extant prophetical writings (Amos and Hosea).
External evidence for Palestine, in emphasizing the necessity
for a reconsideration of the serious difficulties in the Old Testament,
and in illustrating at once its agreement and still more
Summary, perplexing disagreement with contemporary conditions,
furnishes a more striking proof of its uniqueness and of its permanent
value. The Old Testament preserves traces of forgotten history
and legend, of strange Oriental mythology, and the remains of a
semi-heathenish past. " Canonical " history, legislation and
religion assumed their present forms, and, while the earlier stages
can cnly incompletely be traced, the book stands at the head of
subsequent literature, paving the way for Christianity and Rabbini-
cal Judaism, and influencing the growth of Mahommedanism. In
leaving the land of its birth it has been taken as a whole, and for
many centuries has been regarded as an infallible record of divinely
granted knowledge and of divinely shaped history. During what
is relatively a very brief period deeper inquiry and newer knowledge
have forced a slow, painful but steady readjustment of religious
convictions. While the ideals and teaching of the Old Testament
have always struck a responsive chord, scientific knowledge of
the evolution of man, of the world's history and of man's place in
the universe, constantly reveals the difference between the value
of the old Oriental legacy for its influence upon the development
of mankind and the unessential character of that which has had
inevitably to be relinquished. Yet, wonderful as the Old Testament
has ever seemed to past generations, it becomes far more profound
a phenomenon when it is viewed, not in its own perspective of the
unity of history — from the time of Adam, but in the history of
Palestine and of the old Oriental area. It enshrines the result of
certain influences, the teaching of certain truths, and the acquisition
of new conceptions of the relations between man and man, and man
and God. Man's primary religious feeling seeks to bring him into
association with the events and persons of his race, and that which in
the Old Testament appears most perishable, most defective, and
which suffers most under critical inquiry, was necessary in order
to adapt new teaching to the commonly accepted beliefs of a bygone
and primitive people. "^ The place of the Old Testament in the
general education of the world is at the close of one era and at the
beginning of another. After a lengthy development in the history
of the human race a definite stage seems to have been reached
about 5000 B.C., which step by step led on to those great ancient
cultures (Egj'ptian, Aegean, Babylonian) which surrounded Pales-
tine.^ These have influenced all subsequent civilization, and it was
impossible that ancient Palestine could have been isolated from
contemporary thought and history. After reaching an astonishing
height (roughly 2500-1500 B.C.) these civilizing powers slowly
decayed, and we reach the middle of the first millennium B.C. — the
age which is associated with the " Deutero-Isaiah " (Isa. xl.-lv.),
with Cyrus and Zoroaster, with Buddha and Confucius, and with
Phocylides and Socrates.' This age, which comes midway between
the second Egyptian dynasty (c. 3000 B.C.) and the present day,
connects the decline of the old Oriental empires with the rise of the
Persians, Greeks and Romans. In both Babylonia and Egypt it
was an age of revival, but there was no longer any vitality in the
old soil. In Palestine, on the other hand, the downfall of the old
monarchies and the infusion of new blood gave fresh life to the land.
There had indeed been previous immigrations, but the passage from
the desert into the midst of Palestinian culture led to the adoption
of the old semi-heathenism of the land, a declension, and a descent
from the relative simplicity of tribal life.' Now, however, the
political conditions were favourable, and for a time Palestine could
work out its own development. In these vicissitudes which led to
the growth of the Old Testament, in its preservation among a devoted
people, and in the results which have ensued down to to-day, it is
impossible not to believe that the history of the past, with its
manifold evolutions of thought and action, points the way to the
religion of the future. (S. A. C.)
' Cf. P. Gardner, Hist. View of New Test. (1904) 26, 44, sqq.
^ See Meyer's interesting remarks, Gesch. d. Alt. i. §§ 592 sqq.
' Cf. A. P. Stanley, Jewish Church (1865), Lectures jdv. seq.;
A. Jeremias, Monoth. Strbmimgen (Leipzig, 1904), p. 43 seq. Among
the developments in Greek thought of this period, especially
interesting for the Old Testament is the teaching associated with
Phocylides of Miletus; see Lincke, Samaria, pp. 47 seq.
■■ Cf^ G. A. Smith, Hist. Gcog. pp. 85 sqq., also the Arab historian
Ibn KhaldQn on the effects of civilization upon Arab tribes (see
e.g. R. A. Nicholson, Lit. Hist, of the Arabs [London, 1907J, pp. 439
sqq.)
II. — From Alexander the Great to .f.D. yo.
After the taking of Tyre Alexander decided to advance upon
Egypt. With the exception of Gaza, the whole of Syria Palacs-
tine (as it was called) had made its submission.
That — in summary form — is the narrative of the theOnat
Greek historian Arrian {Anabasis, ii. 25). Apart
from the facts contained in this statement, the phraseology is of
some importance, as the district of " Palestinian Syria " clearly
includes more than the territory of the Philistines, which the
adjective properly denotes (Josephus, Antiquities, i. 6, 2, xiii. v.
10). From the military point of view — and Arrian drew upon
the memoirs of two of Alexander's lieutenants — the significant
thing was that not merely was the coast route from Tyre to
Gaza open, but also there was no danger of a flank attack as the
expeditionary force proceeded. Palestinian Syria, in fact, is
here synonymous with what is commonly called Palestine.
Similarly Josephus quotes from Herodotus the statement that
the Syrians in Palestine are circumcised and profess to have
learned the practice from the Egyptians (C. Apionem, i. 22,
§§ 160, 171, Niese); and he comments that the Jews are the only
inhabitants of Palestine who do .so. These two exan^plcs of
the wider use of the adjective and noun seem, to testify to
the forgotten predominance of the Philistines in the land of
Canaan.
But, in spite of the statement and silence of Arrian, Jewish
tradition, as reported by Josephus {Ant. xi. 8, 3 sqq.), represents
the high priest at Jerusalem as refusing Alexander's offered
alliance and request for supplies. The Samaritans — the Jews
ignored in their records all other inhabitants of Palestine —
courted his favour, but the Jews kept faith with Darius so long
as he lived. Consequently a visit to Jerusalem is interpolated
in the journey from Tyre to Gaza; and, Alexander, contrary to
all expectation, is made to respect the high priest's passive
resistance. He had seen his figure in a dream; and so he sacri-
ficed to God according to his direction, inspected the book of
Daniel, and gave them — and at their request the Jews of Babylon
and Media — leave to follow their own laws. The Samaritans
were prompt to claim like privileges, but were forced to confess
that, though they were Hebrews, they were called the Sidonians
of Shechem and were not Jews. The whole story seems to be
merely a dramatic setting of the fact that in the new age
inaugurated by Alexander the Jews enjoyed religious liberty.
The Samaritans are the villains of the piece. But it is possible
that Palestinian Jews accompanied the expedition as guides
or exerted their influence with Jews of the Dispersion on behalf
of Alexander.
It appears from this tradition that the Jews of Palestine
occupied little more than Jerusalem. There were kings of
Syria in the train of Alexander who thought he was mad when
he bowed before the high priest. We may draw the inference
that they formed an insignificant item in the population of a
small province of the Persian Empire, and yet doubt whether
they did actually refuse — alone of all the inhabitants of Palestine
— to submit to the conqueror of the whole. At any rate they
came into line with the rest of Syria and were included in the
province of Coele-Syria, which extended from the Taurus and
Lebanon range to Egypt. The province was entrusted first of
all to Parnienio (Curtius iv. i, 4) and by him handed over to
Andromachus (Curtius iv. 5, q). In 331 B.C. the Samaritans
rebelled and burned Andromachus alive (Curtius iv. 8, o):
Alexander came up from Egypt, punished the rebels, and settled
Macedonians in their city. The loyalty of the Jews he rewarded
by granting them Samaritan territory free of tribute — according
to a statement attributed by Josephus {c. Apionem, ii. § 43,
Niese) to Hecataeus.
After the death of Alexander (323 B.C.) Ptolemy Lagi, who
became satrap and then king of Egypt by right of conquest
(Diodorus xviii. 39), invaded Coele-Syria in 320 B.C.
Then or after the battle of Gaza in 312 B.C. Ptolemy " *'"■>' •
was opposed by the Jews and entered Jerusalem by taking advan-
tage of the Sabbath rest (.^gatharchides ap. Jos. c. A pionem
i. 22, §§ 209 seq.; cf. Ant. xii. i, i). Whenever this occupation
6i8
PALESTINE
[TO A.D. 70
took place, Ptolemy became master of Palestine in 312 B.C.,
and though, as Josephus complains, he may have disgraced his
title, Soter, by momentary severity at the outset, later he created
in the minds of the Jews the impression that in Palestine or in
Egypt he was — in deed as well as in name — their preserver.
Since 315 B.C. Palestine had been occupied by the forces of
Antigonus. Ptolemy's successful forward movement was
undertaken by the advice of Selcucus (Diodorus xix. 80 sqq.),
who followed it up by regaining possession of Babylonia. So
the Seleucid era began in 312 B.C. (cf. Maccabees, i. 10) and the
dynasty of Seleucus justified the " prophecy " of Daniel (xi. 2):
" And the king of the south (Ptolemy) shall be strong, but one
of his captains (Seleucus) shall be strong above him and have
dominion" (see Seleucid Dynasty).
Abandoned by his captain and future rival, Seleucus, Ptolemy
retired and left Palestine to Antigonus for ten years. In 302
B.C., by terms of his alliance with Seleucus, Lysimachus and
Cassander, he set out with a considerable force and subdued all
the cities of Coele-Syria (Diodorus xx. 113). A rumour of the
defeat of his allies sent him back from the siege of Sidon into
Egypt, and in the partition of the empire, which followed their
victory over Antigonus at Issus, he was ignored. But when
Seleucus came to claim Palestine as part of his share, he
found his old chief Ptolemy in possession and retired under
protest. From 301 B.C.-198 B.C. Palestine remained, with short
interruptions, in the hands of the Ptolemies.
Of Palestine, as it was during this century of Egyptian
domination, there is much to be learned from the traditions,
reported by Josephus {Ant. xii. 4), in which the
o/Toblab." career of Joseph, the son of Tobiah, is glorified as
the means whereby the national misfortunes were
rectified. This Joseph v/as the nephew of Onias, son of Simon
the Righteous, and high priest. Onias is described — in order
to enhance the glory of Joseph — as a man of small intelligence
and deficient in wealth. In consequence of this deficiency he
failed to pay the tribute due from the people to Ptolemy, as his
fathers had done, and is set down by Josephus as a miser who
cared nothing for the protest of Ptolemy's special ambassador.
Considering the character of Joseph as it was revealed by
prosperity, one is tempted to find other explanations of his
conduct than avarice. It is clearly indicated that the Jews as a
whole were poor, and it is admitted that Onias was not wealthy.
Perhaps it was the Sabbatical year, when no tribute was due.
Perhaps Onias would not draw upon the sacred treasure in order
to pay tribute to Ptolemy. In any case Joseph borrowed money
from his friends in Samaria; and this point in the story proves
that the Jews were supposed to have dealings with the Samari-
tans at the time and could require of them the last proof of
friendship. Armed with his borrowed money, Joseph betook
himself to Egypt; and there outbid the magnates of Syria when
the taxes of the province were put up to auction. He had
gained the ear of the king by entertaining his ambassador, and
the representatives of the cities — the Greek cities of Syria —
were discomfited. The king gave him troops and he borrowed
more money from the king's friends. When he began to collect
taxes he was met with refusal and insult at Ascalon and at
ScythopoUs, but he executed the chief men of each city and sent
their goods to the king. Warned by these examples, the Syrians
opened their gates to him and paid their taxes. For twenty-
two years he held his office and was to all intents and purposes
governor of Syria, Phoenicia and Samaria — " A good man "
(Josephus calls him) " and a man of mind, who rescued the
people of the Jews from poverty and weakness, and set them on
the way to comparative splendour " {Ant. xii. 4, 10).
The story illustrates the rise of a wealthy class among the
Jews of Palestine, to whom the tolerant and distant rule of the
Ptolemies afforded wider opportunities. At the beginning it
is said that the Samaritans were prosperous and persecuted the
Jews, but this Jewish hero embracing his opportunities reversed
the situation and presumably paid the tribute due from the Jews
by exacting more from the non-Jewish inhabitants of his province.
He is a type of the Jews who embraced the Greek way of fife
as it was lived at Alexandria; but his influence in Palestine was
insidious rather than actively subversive of Judaism. It was
different when the Jews who wished to be men of the world took
their Hellenism from the Seleucid court and courted the favour
of Antiochus Epiphanes.
Halfway through this century (249 B.C.) the desultory warfare
between Egypt and the Seleucid power came to a temporary
end (Dan. xi. 6). Ptoleni}' II. Philadelphus gave his daughter
Berenice with a great dowry to Antiochus II. Theos. When
Ptolemy died (247 B.C.), Antiochus' divorced wife Laodice was
restored to favour, and Antiochus died suddenly in order that
she might regain her power. Berenice and her son were Hkewise
removed from the path of her son Seleucus. In the vain hope
of protecting his sister Berenice, the new king of Egypt, Ptolemy
III. Eugeretes I., invaded the Seleucid territory, " entered the
fortress of the king of the north " (Dan. xi. 7 sqq.), and only
returned — laden with spoils, images captured from Egypt by
Cambyses, and captives (Jerome on Daniel loc. cil.) — to put down a
domestic rebellion. Seleucis reconquered northern Syria without
much difficulty (Justin xxxvii. 2, i), but on an attempt to seize
Palestine he was signally defeated by Ptolemy (Justin xxvii. 2, 4).
In 223 B.C. Antiochus III. the Great came to the throne of
the Seleucid Empire and set about extending its boundaries in
different directions. His first attempt on Palestine
(221 B.C.) failed; the second succeeded by the ^^^j 'm^
treachery of Ptolemy's lieutenant, who had been
recalled to Alexandria in consequence of his successful resistance
to the earlier invasion. But in spite of this assistance the
conquest of Coele-Syria was not quickly achieved; and when
Antiochus advanced in 218 B.C. he was opposed by the Egyptians
on land and sea. Nevertheless he made his way into Palestine,
planted garrisons at Philoteria on the Sea of Galilee and Scytho-
polis, and finally stormed Rabbath-ammon (Philadelphia) which
was held by partisans of Egypt. Early in 217 B.C. Ptolemy
Philopater led his forces towards Raphia, which with Gaza was
now in the hands of Antiochus, and drove the invaders back.
The great multitude was given into his hand, but he was not to
be strengthened permanently by his triumph (Dan. xi. 11 sqq.).
Polybius describes his triumphal progress (v. 86): "All the
cities vied with one another in returning to their allegiance.
The inhabitants of those parts are always ready to accommodate
themselves to the situation of the moment and prompt to pay
the courtesies required by the occasion. And in this case it was
natural enough because of their deep-seated affection for the
royal house of Alexandria."
When Ptolemy Philopater died in 205 B.C., Antiochus and
Philip of Macedon, his nominal friends, made a secret compact
for the division of his possessions outside Egypt. The time had
come of which Daniel (xi. 13 sqq.) says: " The king of the north
shall return after certain years with a great army and with much
riches. And in those times there shall many stand up against
the king of the south; also the robbers of thy people shall
exalt themselves to establish the vision; but they shall fall."
Palestine was apparently allotted to Antiochus and he came to
take it, while Philip created a diversion in Thrace and Asia
Minor. Already he had allies among the Jews and, if Daniel
is to be trusted, there were other Jews who rose up to shake off
the yoke of foreign supremacy, Seleucid or Egyptian, and sue-,
ceeded only in rendering the triumph of Antiochus easier of
achievement. But in the year 200 B.C. Rome intervened with
an embassy, which declared war upon Philip and directed
Antiochus and Ptolemy to make peace (Polyb. xvi. 27). And
in ig8 B.C. Antiochus heard that Scopas, Ptolemy's hired
commander-in-chief had retaken Coele-Syria (Polyb. xvi. 39)
and had subdued the nation of the Jews in the winter. For
these sufficient reasons Antiochus hurried back and defeated
Scopas at Paneas, which was known later as Caesarea Philippi
(Polyb. xvi. 18 seq.). After his victory he took formal possession
of Batanaea, Samaria, Abila and Gadara; " and after a little
the Jews who dwelt round about the shrine called Jerusalem
came over to him " (Polyb. xvi. 39). Only Gaza withstood
him, as it withstood Alexander; and Polybius (xvi. 40) pauses to
TO A.D. 70]
PALESTINE
619
praise their fidelity to Ptolemy. The siege of Gaza was famous;
but in the end the city was taken by storm, and Antiochus,
secure at last of the province, which his ancestors had so long
coveted, was at peace with Ptolemy, as the Roman embassy
directed. From Palestine Antiochus turned to the (Jrcek cities
of Asia Minor, and by 196 B.C. he was in Thrace. There he was
confronted by the ambassadors of Rome, who e.xprcssed their
surprise at his actions. Antiochus replied that he was recovering
the territory won by Seleucus his ancestor, and inquired by what
right did the Romans dispute with him about the free cities in
Asia (Polyb. xviii. 33 seq.). The conference was
MdWome broken off by a false report of Ptolemy's death, but
war between Rome and Antiochus was clearly inevit-
able — and Antiochus was joined by Hannibal. After much
diplomacy, Antiochus advanced into Greece and Rome declared
war upon him in 191 B.C. (Livy xx-xvi. i). He was defeated on
the seas and driven first out of Greece and then out of Asia
Minor. His army was practically destroyed at Magnesia, and
he was forced to accept the terms of peace, which the Romans
had offered and he had refused before the battle. By the peace
of Apamea (188 B.C.) he abandoned all territory beyond the
Taurus and agreed to pay the whole cost of the war. He had
stood in the beauteous land — the land of Israel — with destruction
in his hand. He had made agreement with Ptolemy. He had
turned his face unto the isles and had taken many. But now
a commander had put an end to his defiance and had even
returned his reproach unto him (Dan. xi. 16-18). After
Magnesia men said " King Antiochus the Great was " (Appian,
Syr. 37); and the by-word was soon justified in fact, for he
plundered a temple of Bel at Elymais to replenish his exhausted
treasury and met the fitting punishment from the gods at the
hands of the inhabitants (Diodorus xxix. 15). He stumbled and
fell and was not found (Dan. xi. ig).
The need which drove Antiochus to this sacrilege rested
heavily upon his successor Seleucus IV. (reigned 187-175 B.C.).
The indemnity had still to be paid and Daniel
yy_ designates Seleucus as " one that shall cause an
exactor to pass through the glory of the kingdom "
(xi. 20). A tradition preserved in 2 Mace. iii. describes the
attempt of Heliodorus, the Seleucid prime minister, to plunder
the temple at Jerusalem. The holy city lay in perfect peace
and the laws were very well kept because of the piety of Onias
the high priest. But one Simon, a Benjamite, who had become
guardian of the temple, quarrelled with Onias about the city
market, and reported to the governor of Coele-Syria and
Phoenicia that the treasury was full of untold sums of money.
The priests and people besought Heliodorus to leave this sacred
treasure untouched, but he persisted and — in answer to their
prayers — was overthrown by a horse with a terrible rider and
scourged by two youths. Onias, fearful of the consequences,
offered a sacrifice for his restoration, and the two youths appeared
to him with the message that he was restored for the sake of
Onias. The description of the previous tranquillity may be
exaggerated, though it is clear that the Jews, hke the other
inhabitants of Palestine, must have been left very much to
themselves; but the enmity between the adherents of Simon
and the pious Jews, who supported and venerated Onias, seems
to be a necessary precondition of the state of affairs soon to
be revealed. There were already Jews who wished to make
terms with their overlord at all costs.
When Antiochus IV. Epiphanes (175-164 B.C.) succeeded to
the throne, Jason — whose name betrays a leaning towards
Antlo- Hellenism — the brother of Onias, offered the king
chus IV. a bribe for the high-priesthood and another for leave
andJasoa. ^^^ convert Jerusalem into a Greek city (2 Mace. iv. 7
sqq.). Antiochus had spent his youth at Rome as a hostage,
and the death of Seleucus found him filling the office of war
minister at Athens. The Hellenistic Jews were, therefore, his
natural allies, and allies were very necessary to him if he was to
establish himself in Syria. Onias had proceeded to Anlioch to
explain the disorder and bloodshed due to Jason's followers,
and so Jason, high priest of the Jews by grace of Antiochus,
had his way. The existing privileges, which the Jews owed to
their ambassador to Rome, were thrust aside. In defiance of
tlie law a gymnasium was set up under the shadow of the citadel.
The young men of the upper classes assumed the Greek hat, and
were banded together into a gild of cphcbi on the Greek model.
In fact Jason established in Jerusalem the institutions which
Strabo expressly descrijjes as visible signs of tlie (jreek way of
life — " gymnasia and associations of ephchi and clans and Greek
names borne by Romans" (v. p. 264, referring to Neapolis) —
and that on his own initiative. The party who wished to make
a covenant with the heathen (i Mace. i. 11 sqq.) were in the
majority; and so far and so long as they were in the ascendant
Antiochus was rid of his chief danger in Palestine, the debatable
land between Syria and Egypt. At first Egypt was well
disposed to him, as Cleopatra his sister was regent. But she
died in 173 B.C.
The struggle for the possession of Palestine began in 170 B.C.,
when Rome was preoccupied with the war against Perseus of
Macedonia. Antiochus sent an ambassador to Rome to protest
that Ptolemy, contrary to all law and equity, was attacking
him (Pclyb. xxvii. 17). In self defence, therefore, Antiochus
advanced through Palestine and defeated the Egyptian army
near Pelusium on the frontier. At the news the young king,
Ptolemy Philometor, fled by sea, only to fall into his uncle's
hands; but his younger brother, Ptolemy Euergetes II., was
proclaimed king by the people of Alexandria (Polyb. xxix. 8).
Thus Antiochus entered Egypt as the champion of the rightful
king and laid siege to Alexandria, which was held by the usurper.
When he abandoned the siege and returned to Syria, Philometor,
whom he had established at Memphis, was reconciled with his
brother, being convinced of his protector's duplicity by the fact
that he left a Syrian garrison in Pelusium. In 168 B.C. Antiochus
returned and found that the pretext for his presence there was
gone. Moreover the defeat of Perseus at Pydna set Rome free
to take a strong line in Egypt. As he approached Alexandria
Antiochus met the Roman ambassador, and, after a brief
attempt at evasion, accepted his ultimatum on the spot. He
evacuated Egypt and returned home cowed (Dan. xi. 30; cf.
Polyb. xxix. 11). Later he could attend the celebration of the
Roman triumph over Macedonia, and surpass it by a festival at
Antioch in honour of his conquest of Egypt (Polyb. xx.xi. 3-5) ;
but the loss of Pelusium made it imperative that he should be
sure of Palestine. His friends the Hellenizing Jews had split
up into factions. Menelaus, the brother of Simon the Benjamite,
had bought the high-priesthood over the head of Jason, who
fled into the country of the Ammonites, in 172 B.C. (2 Mace,
iv. 23 sqq.). To secure his position (for he was not even of
the priestly tribe) Menelaus persuaded the deputy of Antiochus,
who was dealing with a revolt at Tarsus, to put Onias to death.
Antiochus, on his return, had his deputy executed and wept for
the dead Onias. But Menelaus managed to retain his position,
and his accusers were put to death. Antiochus could pity
Onias, who had been tempted from the sanctuary at Daphne,
but he needed an ally in Jerusalem — and money. Then, during
the first or second invasion of Egypt, Jason, hearing that
Antiochus was dead, returned suddenly and massacred all the
followers of Menelaus who did not take refuge in the citadel. He
had some claim to the loyalty of such pious Jews as remained,
because he was of the tribe of Levi — in spite of the means he,
Hke Menelaus, had employed to get the high-priesthood. His
temporary success reveals the strength of the party who wished
to adopt the Greek way of life without consenting to the complete
substitution of the authority of Antiochus for the prescriptions
of the Mosaic Law. It was also a warning to Antiochus, who
returned to exact a bloody vengeance and to loot the Temple
(169 or 168 B.C.). After the evacuation of Egypt, Antiochus
followed out the policy which Jason had suggested to him at the
first. Jerusalem was suddenly occupied by one of his captains,
and a garrison was planted in a new fortress on ifgUggig„^
Mount Zion. Then to coerce the Jews into con-
formity, the Law was outraged in the Holy Place. The worship
of Zeus Olympius replaced the worship of Yahweh, and swine
620
PALESTINE
[TO A.D. 70
were offered as in the Eleusinian mysteries. At the same time the
Samaritan temple at Shechem was made over to Zeus Xenius:
it is probable that the Samaritans were, like the Jews, divided
into two parties. The practice of Judaism was prohibited by
a royal edict (i Mace. i. 41-63; 2 Mace, vi.-vii. 42), and some
of the Jews died rather than disobey the law of Moses. It is
legitimate to suppose that this attitude would have surprised
Antiochus if he had heard of it. His Jewish friends, first Jtson
and then Menelaus, had been enhghtened enough to throw off
their prejudices, and, so far as he could know, they represented
the majority of the Jews. Zeus was for liim the supreme god
of the Greek pantheon, and the syncretism, which he suggested
for the sake of uniformity in his empire, assuredly involved no
indignity to the only God of the Jews. At Athens Antiochus
began to build a vast temple of Zeus Olympius, in place of one
begun by Peisistratus; but it was only finished by Hadrian in
A.D. 130. Zeus Olympius was figured on his coins, and he
erected a statue of Zeus Olympius in the Temple of Apollo at
Daphne. More, he identified himself — Epiphanes, God Manifest
— with Zeus, when he magnified liimself above all other gods
(Dan. xi. 37). To the minority of strict Jews he was therefore
" the abomination of desolation standing where he ought not ";
but the majority he carried with him and, when he was dying
(165 B.C.) during his eastern campaigns, he wrote to the loyal
Jews as their fellow citizen and general, exhorting them to
preserve their present goodAvill towards liim and his son, on
the ground that his son would continue his policy in gentleness
and kindness, and so maintain friendly relations with them
(2 Mace. ix.).
For the Jews who still deserved the name the policy of
Antiochus wore a very different aspect. Many of them became
. martyrs for the Law, and for a time none would
Revolt. raise his hand to defend himself on the Sabbath if
at all. No record remains of the success of the
Athenian missionary whom Antiochus sent to preach the
new Catholicism; but the soldiers at any rate did their work
thoroughly. At last a priestly family at a village called Modein
committed themselves to active resistance; and, when they
suspended the Sabbath law for purposes of self defence, they were
joined by the Hasidaeans (Assidaeans), who seem to have been
the spiritual ancestors of the Pharisees. The situation was
plain enough: unless the particular law of the Sabbath was
suspended there would soon have been none to keep the Law at
all in Palestine. Jerusalem had apostatized, but the country
so far as it was populated by Jews was faithful. Under Judas
Maccabeus the outlaws wandered up and down re-estabUshing
by force their proscribed religion. 'In 165 B.C. they attained
their end, the regent of Syria conceded the measure of toleration
they required with the approval of Rome; and in 164 B.C. the
temple was purged of its desecration. But Judas did not lay
down liis arms, and added to his resources by rescuing the Jews
of Galilee and Gilead and setthng them in Judaea (i Mace. v.).
The Nabataean Arabs and the Greeks of ScythopoHs befriended
them, but the province generally was hostile. In spite of their
hostihty Judas more than held his own until the regent defeated
him at Bethzachariah. The rebels were driven back on Mount
Zion and were there besieged (163 B.C.). The rumour of a
pretender to the throne saved them from destruction, and they
capitulated, exchanging the strongholds they had for their lives.
At any rate the time of compulsory fusion wdth the Greeks was
ended once for all. In 162 B.C. Demetrius, the son of Seleucus,
escaped from Rome and was proclaimed king. Like Antiochus
Epiphanes, who also had spent his youth as a hostage in Rome,
he was inclined to listen to the Hellenizing Jews, whom he found
assembled in full force at Antioch, and to support them against
Judas, who was now supreme in Judaea. But he dealt more
Alclmus subtly with them: instead of a pagan missionary he
sent them Alcimus, a legitimate high-priest, wdio de-
tached the Hasidaeans from Judas. Indeed, Alcimus and his
company did more mischief among the Israehtes than the heathen
(i Mace. vii. 23) andjudastookvengeanceuponthosewho deserted
from him. Nicanor was appointed governor and prevailed upon
Judas to settle down like an ordinary citizen. But Alcimus com-
plained to the king and Judas lied just in time to escape being
sent to Antioch as a prisoner. In the battle of Adasa, which soon
followed, Nicanor was defeated and his forces annihilated,
thanks to the Jews who came out from all the villages of Judaea
(i Mace. vii. 46). At this point (161 B.C.) Judas sent an embassy
to Rome and an alliance was concluded (i Mace, viii.), too late
to save Judas from the determined and victorious attack of
Demetrius. The death of Judas at Elasa left the field open to
the apostates, and his followers were reduced to the level of
ro\'ing brigands. The Syrian general made fruitless attempts to
capture them, and build forts in Judaea whose garrisons should
harass Israel (i Mace. ix. 50-53), but Jonathan and Simon,
brothers of Judas, found their power increase until Jonathan
ruled at Michmash as judge and destroyed the godless out of
Israel (i Mace. ix. 73).
In 153 B.C. there appeared another of the series of pretenders
to the Syrian throne, to whose rivalry Jonathan, and Simon
after him, owed the position they acquired for , ..
themselves and their nation. Jonathan was recog- and Simon.
nized as the head of the Jews, and his prestige and
power were such that the charges of the Hellenizing Jews
received scant attention. As the years went on he became
Strategus and the Syrian garrisons were withdrawn from all the
strongholds except Jerusalem and Bethzur. In 147 B.C. he
defeated the governor of Coele-Syria in another civil war and
received Ekron as his personal reward — as it was said in the name
of the prophet Zachariah (ix. 7), " and Ekron shall be as a
Jebusite." The king for whom he fought was defeated; but his
successor acceded to the demands of Jonathan, added three
districts of Samaria to Judaea and freed the whole from tribute.
The next king confirmed this and appointed Simon miUtary
commander of the district stretching from Tyre to Egypt. So
with Syrian as well as Jewish troops the brothers set about
subduing Palestine; and Jonathan sent ambassadors in the name
of the liigh-priest and people of the Jews to Rome and Sparta.
In spite of the treacherous murder of Jonathan by the Syrian
general, the prosperity of the Jews was more than maintained by
Simon. The port of Joppa, which was already occupied by a
Jewish garrison, was cleared of its inhabitants and populated
by Jews. Finally, in 141 B.C., the new era began: the yoke of
the heathen was taken away from Israel and Simon was declared
higli-priest and general and ruler of the Jews for ever until
there should arise a faithful prophet (i Mace. xiii. 41, xiv. 41).
In 135 B.C. the political ambitions of the Jews were rudely
checked: a new king of Syria, Antiochus Sidetes, resented their
encroachments at Joppa and Gazara and drove them
back into Jerusalem. In 134 famine compelled John Hyrcanus.
Hyrcanus, who had succeeded his father Simon, to
a belated compliance with the king's demands. The Jews laid
down their arms, dismantled Jerusalem, and agreed to pay rent
for Joppa and Gazara. But in 129 B.C. Antiochus died fighting
in the East and for sixty-five years the Jews enjoyed indepen-
dence. John Hyrcanus was not slow to take advantage of his
opportunities. He conquered the Samaritans and destroyed the
temple on Mount Gerizim. He subdued the Edomites and
compelled them to become Jews. Soon after his death his sons
stormed Samaria, which Alexander the Great had colonized with
Macedonian soldiers, and razed it to the ground. Judas Aristo-
bulus, who succeeded and was the first of the Hasmonaeans,
called himself king and followed his father's example by com-
pelling the Ituraeans to become Jews, and so creating the Galilee
of New Testament times. In this case, as in that of the Edomites,
it is natural to suppose that there existed already a nucleus of
professing Jews which made the wholesale conversion possible.
By this time (103 B.C.) it was clear that the Hasmonaeans we're
— from the point of view of a purist — practically indistinguish-
able from the Hellenizers whom Judas had opposed so keenly,
except that they did not abandon the formal observances of
Judaism, and even enforced them upon foreigners. Conse-
quently the Jews were divided into two parties — Pharisees and
Sadducees — of whom the Pharisees cared only for doing or
FROM A. D. 70]
PALESTINE
621
Pompey.
enduring the will of God as revealed in Scripture or in the
events of history. This division bore bitter fruit in the reign of
Pharisees Alexander Jannaeus (104-78 B.C.), who by a standing
aad army achieved a territorial expansion which was little
Sadducees. j^ ^j,g mind of the Pharisees. At first his attack upon
Ptolemais brought him into conflict with Egypt, in which he was
worsted, but the Jewish general who commanded the Egyptian
army persuaded the queen to evacuate Palestine. Then he
turned to the country east of the Jordan, and then to Philistia.
Later he was utterly defeated by a king of .Arabians and fled to
Jerusalem, only to find that the Pharisees had raised his people
against him and would only be satisfied by his death. The
rebels' appeal to the Seleucid governor of part of Syria (88 B.C.)
caused a revulsion in his favour, and finally he made peace by
more than Roman methods. Aretas, the Arabian king, pressed
him hard on the south and the east, but he was able to make
some conquests still on the east of the Jordan. In spite of his
quarrel with the Pharisees, he seems to have offered the cities
he conquered the choice between Judaism, and destruction
(Jos. AiU. xiii. IS, 4). Under Alexandra, his widow (78-69 B.C.),
the Pharisees ruled the Jews and no expansion of the kingdom
was attempted. It was threatened by Tigrancs, king of Armenia,
who then held the Syrian Empire, but a bribe and the imminence
of the Romans (Jos. Atil. xiii. 16, 4; War i. 5, 3) saved it. At
her death a civil war began between her sons, which left the
way open for Rome. Pompey's lieutenant Scaurus
entered Syria in 65 B.C., after the final defeat of
Mithradates, and Pompey soon followed to take command of
the situation. Three parties pleaded before him, the repre-
sentatives of the rival kings and a deputation from the people
who wished to obey no king, but only the priests of their God
(Jos. A >U. xiv. 3, 2.) Pompey finally decided in favour of Hyrca-
nus, and entered Jerusalem by the aid of his party. The adherents
of Aristobulus seized and held the temple mount against the
Romans, but on the Day of Atonement of the year 63 B.C.
their position was stormed and the priests were cut down at
the altars (Jos. Ajit. xiv. 4, 2 — 4; War i. 7). Hyrcanus was left
as high-priest — not king of the Jews — and his territory was
curtailed. The coast towns and the Decapolis, together with
Samaria and ScythopoUs, were incorporated in the new Roman
province of Syria.
In 61 B.C. Pompey celebrated the third of a series of triumphs
over Africa, Europe and Asia, and in his train, among the
prisoners of war, was Aristobulus, king of Judaea. Palestine
meanwhile remained quiet until 57 B.C., when Alexander, the
son of Aristobulus, escaped from his Roman captivity and
attempted to make himself master of his father's kingdom.
Aulus Gabinius, the new proconsul of Syria, defeated his hastily
gathered forces, besieged him in one of the fortresses he had
managed to acquire, and induced him to abandon his attempt
in return for his life. The impotence of Hyrcanus was so
obvious that Gabinius proceeded to deprive him of all political
power by dividing the country into five cantons, having Jerusa-
lem, Gazara, Amathus, Jericho, and Sepphoris, as their capitals.
Other raids, headed by Aristobulus, or his son, or his adherent
Peitholaus, disturbed Palestine during the interval between
57 and 51 B.C. and served to create a prejudice against the Jews
in the mind of their masters. But with the civil wars which
began in 49 B.C. there came opportunities which Hyrcanus, at
the instance of Antipater, used to ingratiate himself with Caesar.
Once more, as in the days of Simon, the suzerain power was
divided against itself, and, though Rome was as strong as the
Seleucids had been weak, Caesar was grateful. For timely
help in the Egyptian War of 47 B.C. Hyrcanus was rewarded
by the title of Ethnarch, and Antipater with the Roman citizen-
ship and the office of procurator of Judaea. The sons of Antipater
became deputies for their father; and it appears that Galilee,
which was entrusted to Herod, fell within his jurisdiction.
The power of this Idumaean family provoked popular
Herods. risings and Antipater was poisoned. But Herod held
his ground as governor of Coele-Syria and retained
the favour of Cassius and Mark Antony in turn, despite the
complaints of the Jewish nobility. In 42 B.C., however, the
tyrant of Tyre encroached upon (Galilean territory and in 40 B.C.
Herod had to lly for his life before the Parthians. Even as a
landless fugitive Herod could count upon Roman support. At
the instance of Mark Antony, and with the assent of Octavian,
the senate declared him king of Judaea, and after two years'
fighting he made his title good. Antigonus, whom the Parthians
had set upon his throne, was beheaded by his Roman allies
(37 B.C.). As king of the Jews (37-4 B.C.) Herod was completely
subject and eagerly subservient to his Roman masters. In
34 B.C. (for example) or earlier, Mark Antony gave Cleopatra
the whole of Phoenicia and the coast of the Philistines south of
Eleuthesus, with the exception only of Tyre and Sidon, part of the
Arabian territory and the district of Jericho. Herod acquiesced
and leased Jericho, the most fertile part of his kingdom, from
Cleopatra. In the war between Antony and Octavian Cleopatra
prevented Herod from joining Antony and so left him free to
pay court to Octavian after Actium (31 B.C.). A year later
Octavian restored to the Jewish kingdom Jericho, Gadara,
Hippos, Samaria, Gaza Anthedon, Joppa and Straton's Tower
(Caesarea). Secureof his position, Herod began to build temples
and palaces and whole cities up and down Palestine as visible
embodiments of the Greek civilization which was to distinguish
the Roman Empire from barbarian lands. A sedulous courtier,
he was rewarded with the confidence of Augustus, who ordered
the procurators of Syria to do nothing without taking his advice.
But with the establishment of (relatively) universal peace Pales-
tine ceased to be a factor in general history. Herod the Great
enlarged his borders and fostered the Greek civilization of the
cities under his sway. After his death his kingdom was dis-
membered and gradually came under the direct rule of R >me.
Herod Agrippa (a.d. 41-44) revived the glories of the reign of
Alexandra and won the favour of the Pharisees; but his attempt
to form a confederacy of client-princes was nipped in the bud.
Even the war which ended with the destruction of Jerusalem
in A.D. 70, and the rebellion under Hadrian, which led to the
edict forbidding the Jews to enter Jerusalem, are matters
proper to the history of the Jews.
References to authorities other than Josephus are given in the
course of the article; his Antiquities and War are the chief source
for the period. All modern authorities are given by Schiirer
(J. H. A. H.)
III. — From A.D. 70 to the Present Day.
Owing to the peculiar conditions of the land and the varied
interests involved in it, the later history may best be treated
in four sections. In the first the general political history will
be set forth; in the second a sketch will be given of the cult
of the "holy places"; the third will contain some particulars
regarding the history of modern colonization by foreigners,
which, while it has not affected the political status of the country,
has produced very considerable modifications in its population
and life; and the fourth will consist of a brief notice of the
progress of exploration and scientific research whereby our
knowledge of the past and the present of the land has been
systematized.
I. Political History from A.D. 70. — The destruction of Jerusalem
was followed by the dispersal of the Jews, of whom till then
it had been the rehgious and political centre. The
first seat of the sanhedrin was at Jamnia (Yebna), Qispersioa.
where the Rabbinic system began to be formulated.
This extraordinary spiritual tyranny, for it seems little else,
acquired a wonderful hold and exercised a singularly uniting
power over the scattered nation. The sharp contrasts between
its compulsory religious observances and those of the rest of
the world prevented such an absorption of the Jewish people
into the Roman Empire as had caused the disappearance of
the ten tribes of Israel by their merging with the Assyrians.
It would appear that at first, after the destruction of the
city, no specially repressive measures were contemplated by the
conquering Romans, who rather attempted to reconcile the Jews
to their subject state by a leniency which had proved successful
in ttie case of other tribes brought bv conquest within the empire.
622
PALESTINE
[FROM A.D. 70
Bar-
Cochebas.
But they had reckoned without the isolating influence of Rab-
binism. Here and there small insurrections took place, in
themselves easily suppressed, but showing the Romar« that
they had a turbulent and troublesome people to deal with.
At last Hadrian determined to stamp out this aggressive
Jewish nationalism. He issued an edict forbidding the reading
of the law, the observance of the Sabbath, and the rite of
circumcision; and determined to convert the still half-ruined
Jerusalem into a Roman colony.
The consequence of this edict was the meteor-like outbreak
of Bar-Cochebas (q.v.) a.d. 132-135. The origin of this person
and the history of his rise to power are unknown.
Nor is it certain whether he himself at first made
a personal claim to be the promised Messiah; but
it was his recognition as such by the distinguished Rabbi Akiba,
then the most influential Jew aUve, which placed him in the
command of the insurrection, with 200,000 men at his command.
Jerusalem was captured, as well as a large number of strongholds
and villages throughout the country. Julius Severus, sent with
an immense army by Hadrian, came to quell the insurrection.
He recaptured Jerusalem, at the siege of which Bar-Cochebas
himself was slain. The rebels fled to Bether — the modern
Bittir, near Jerusalem, where the fortress garrisoned by them
still remains, under the name Khurbet el-Yahud, or " Ruin of
the Jews " — and were there defeated and slaughtered in a
sanguinary encounter. It is said that as many as 580,000
men were slain! Hadrian then turned Jerusalem into a Roman
colony, changed its name to Aelia Capitolina, budt a temple of
Jupiter on the site of the Jewish temple and (it is alleged) a
temple of Venus on the site of the Holy Sepulchre, and forbade
any Jew, on pain of death, to appear within sight of the city.
This disaster was the death-blow to hopes of a Jewish
national independence, and the leaders of the people devoted
„ ... themselves thenceforth to legal and religious study
Schools. if ^^^ Rabbinical schools, which from a.d. 135
(the year of the suppression of the revolt) onwards
developed in various towns in the hitherto despised province
of Gahlee. Shefa'Amr (Shafram), Sha'arah (Shaaraim) and espe-
cially Tubariya (Tiberias) became centres of this learning: and
the remains of synagogues of the 2nd or 3rd century which still
exist in Galilee attest the strength of Judaism in that district
during the years following the abortive attempt of Bar-Cochebas.
Palestine thus continued directly under Roman rule. In
A.D. 105, under Trajan, Cornelius Palma added Gilead and
Moab to the empire. In 295 Auranitis, Batanea and Trachonitis
were added to the province.
The pilgrimage of the Empress Helena properly belongs
to the second section into which we have divided this history;
we therefore pass it over for the present. The conversion of
Constantine to Christianity — or rather the profession of Chris-
tianity by Constantine — seemed likely to result in another
Jewish persecution, foreshadowed by severe repressive edicts.
This, however, was averted by the emperor's death.
The progress of the corrupt Christianity of the empire of
Byzantium was checked for a while under Julian the Apostate,
who, among other indications of his opposition to Christianity,
rescinded the edicts against the Jews on his coming to the throne
in 361, and gave orders for the restoration of the Jewish temple.
The latter work was interrupted almost as soon as begun by
an extraordinary phenomenon — the outburst of flames and loud
detonations, easily explained at the time as a divine judgment
on this direct attempt to falsify the prophecy of Christ. It
has been ingeniously suggested in this more scientific generation
that the explosion was due to the ignition of some forgotten
store of oil or naphtha, such as was said to have been stored in
the temple (2 Mace. i. ig-23, 36), and similar to a store
discovered, with less disastrous consequences, in another part of
the city early in the igth century.'
On the partition of the empire in a.d. 305 Palestine
naturally fell to the share of the emperor of the East. From this
onward for more than two hundred years there is a period
'■ See Palestine Expl. Fund Quarterly Slatemetit, 1902, p. 389.
of comparative quiet in Palestine, with no external political
interference. The country was nominally Christian; the only
history it displays being that of the development
of pilgrimage and of the cult of holy places and of Empire.
relics, varied by occasional persecutions of the Jews.
The elaborate building operations of Justinian (527-565) must
not be forgotten. The " Golden Gate " of the Temple area
and part of the church which is now the El-Aksa Mosque at
Jerusalem, are due to him.
Not till 611 do we find any event of importance in the
uninteresting record of Byzantine sovereignty. But this and
the foUowing years were signalized by a series of
catastrophes of the first magnitude. Chosroes II.
(q.v.), king of Persia, made an inroad into Syria; joined by
the Jews, anxious to revenge their misfortunes, he swept over
the country, carrying plunder and destruction wherever
he went. Monasteries and churches were burnt and sacked,
and Jerusalem was taken; the Holy Sepulchre church was
destroyed and its treasures carried off; the other churches
were likewise razed to the ground; the patriarch was taken
prisoner. It is alleged that 90,000 persons were massacred.
Thus for a time the province of Syria with Palestine was
lost to the empire of Byzantium.
The Emperor HeracUus reconquered the lost territory in 629.
But his triumph was short-lived. A more formidable enemy
was already on the way, and the final wresting of Syria from
the feeble relics of the Roman Empire was imminent.
The separate tribal units of Arabia, more or less impotent
when divided and at war with one another, received for the
first time an indissoluble bond of union from the
prophet Mahomet, whose perfect knowledge of jsiam.
human nature (at least of Arab human nature)
enabled him to formulate a rehgious system that was calculated
to command an enthusiastic acceptance by the tribes to which
it was primarily addressed. His successor, Abu Bekr, called
on the tribes of Arabia to unite and to capture the fertile province
of Syria from the Christians. Heraclius had not sufficient
time to prepare to meet this new foe, and was defeated in
his first engagement with Abu Bekr. (For the general history
of this period see Caliphate). The latter seized Bostra and
proceeded to march to Damascus. He died, however, before
carrying out his design (a.d. 634), and was succeeded by Omar,
who, after a siege of seventy days entered the city. Other
towns fell in turn, such as Caesarea, Sebusteh (Samaria), Nablus
(Shechem), Lydd, Jaffa.
Meanwhile Heraclius was not idle. He collected a huge
army and in 636 marched against the Arabs. The latter
retreated to the Yarmuk River, where the Byzantines met them.
Betrayed, it is said, by a Christian who had suffered personal
wrongs at the hands of certain of the Byzantine generals, the
army of Heraclius was utterly defeated, and with it fell the
Byzantine Empire in Syria and Palestine.
After this victory Omar's army marched against Jerusalem,
which after a feeble resistance capitulated. The terms of
peace, though on the whole moderate, were of a
galling and humiliating nature, being ingeniously
contrived to make the Christians ever conscious of their own
inferiority. Restrictions in church-building, in dress, in the
use of beasts of burden, in social intercourse with Moslems, and
in the use of bells and of the sign of the cross were enforced.
When these terms were agreed upon and signed Omar, under
the leadership of the Christian patriarch Sophronius, visited
the Holy Rock (the prayer-place of David and the site of the
Jewish temple). This he found to be defiled with filth, spread
upon it by the Christians in despite of the Jews. Omar and his
followers in person cleaned it, and established the place of prayer
which, though later rebuilt, has borne his name ever since.
Dissensions and rivalries soon broke out among the ISIoslem
leaders, and in 661 Moawiya, the first caHph of the Omayyad
dynasty, transferred the seat of the caliphate ^^om^^^^^^^^^^
Mecca to Damascus, where it remained till the
Abbasids seized the sovereignty and transferred it to Bagdad
Omar.
FROM A.D. 70]
PALESTINE
623
(750). Rivals sprang up from time to lime. In 684 Caliph
Abdalmalik ('Abd el-Melek), in order to weaken the prestige of
Mecca, set himself to beautify the holy shrine of Jerusalem,
and built the Kubbcl es-Sakhrah, or Dome of the Rock,
which still remains one of the most beautiful buildings in the
world (Caliphate: B 5). In 831 the Church of the Holy
Sepulchre was restored; but about a hundred years later it
was again destroyed as a result of the revolt of the Carmathians
iq.v.), who in 929 pillaged Mecca. This produced a Moslem
exodus to Jerusalem, with the consequence mentioned. The
Carmathian revolt, one of the first of the great splits in the
Moslem world, was followed by others: in 936 Egypt declared
its independence, under a hne of caliphs which claimed descent
from Fatima, daughter of the prophet (see Fatimites); and
in 996 Hakim Bi-amrillah mounted the Egyptian throne. This
madman caused the church of the Holy Sepulchre to be entirely
destroyed: and giving himself out to be the incarnation of Deity,
his cult was founded by two Persians, Darazi and Hamza ibn
Ali, in the Lebanon; where among the Druses it stiU persists
(see Druses).
The contentions between the Abbasid and Fatimite caliphs
continued tiU 1072, when Palestine suffered its next invasion.
This was that of the Seljuk Turkomans from Khorasan. On
behalf of their king, the Khwarizmian general Atsiz invaded
Palestine and captured Jerusalem and Damascus, and then
marched on Egypt to carry out his original purpose of de-
stroying the Fatimites. The Egyptians, however, repulsed the
invaders and drove them back, retaking the captured Syrian
cities.
The sufferings of the Christians and the desecrations of their
sacred buildings during these troubled times created wide-spread
indignation through the west: and this indignation was inflamed
into fury by Peter the Hermit, a native of Picardy,
Crusades, '^^^o in early life had been a soldier. In 1093 he
went in pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and in his wrath
at the miseries of the pilgrims he returned to Europe and
preached the duty of the Church to rescue the " holy places "
from the infidel. The Church responded, and under Peter's
leadership a motley crowd, principally of French origin, set
out in 1096 for the Holy Land. Others, under better general-
ship, followed; but of the 600,000 that started from their homes
only about 40,000 succeeded in reaching Jerusalem, ill-discipline,
famine and battles by the way having reduced their ranks.
They captured Jerusalem, however, in July 1099, and the
leader of the assault, Godfrey of Boulogne, was made king of
Jerusalem.
So was founded the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem, whose
history is one of the most painful ever penned (see Crusades).
It is a record of almost unredeemed " envy, hatred,
Kingdom. ^^'^ malice," and of vice with its consequent diseases,
all rendered the more repulsive in that its transactions
were carried on in the name of religion. For 88 turbulent
years this feudal kingdom was imposed on the country, and
then it disappeared as suddenly as it came, leaving no trace
but the ruins of castles and churches, a few place-names, and
an undying hereditary hatred of Christianity among the native
population.
The abortive Second Crusade (1147), led by the kings of
France and Germany, came to aid the rapidly weakening Latin
kingdom after their failure to hold Edessa against Nureddin,
the ruler of northern Syria.
In 1 1 73 Nureddin died, and his kingdom was seized by Saladin
(Salah ed-Din), a man of Kurdish origin, who had previously
distinguished himself by capturing Egypt in company with
Shirkuh, the general of Nureddin. Saladin almost immediately
set himself to drive the Franks from the country. The Frankish
king was the boy Baldwin IV., who had paid for the errors of
his fathers by being afflicted with leprosy. After being defeated
by Saladin at Banias, the Franks were compelled to make a
treaty with the Moslem leader. The treaty was broken, and
Saladin proceeded to take action. The wretched leper king
meanwhile died, his successor, Baldwin V. also a young boy,
was poisoned, and the kingdom passed to the worthless Guy
de Lusignan, who in the following year (1187) was crushed
by Saladin at the battle of Hal tin, which restored the whole
of Palestine to the Moslems.
The Third Crusade (1189) to recover Jerusalem was led
by Frederick I. of Germany. Acre was captured, but quarrels
among the chiefs of the expedition made the enterprise
ineffective. It was in this crusade that Richard Coeur-de-lion
was especially distinguished among the Frankish warriors.
Saladin died in 1193. In 1198 and 1204 took place the Fourth
and Fifth Crusades — mere expeditions, as abortive as the third.
And as though it were foreordained that no element of horror
should be wanting from the history of the crusades, in 1212
there took place one of the most ghastly tragedies that has ever
happened in the world — the Crusade of the Children. Fifty
thousand boys and girls were persuaded by some pestilent
dreamers that their childish innocence would effect what their
immoral fathers had failed to ccomplish, and so left their
homes on an expedition to capture the Holy Land. The vast
majority never returned; the happiest of them were shipi-
wrecked and drowned in the Mediterranean. This event is of
some historical importance in that it indicates how obvious to
their contemporaries was the evil character of those engaged
in the more serious e.xpeditions.'
The other four crusades which took place from time to time
down to 1272 are of no special importance, though there is a
certain amount of interest in the fact that after the sixth
crusade, in 1229, emperor Frederick II. was permitted to occupy
Jerusalem for ten years. But a new element, the Mongolians of
Central Asia, no.v bursts in on the scene. The tribes from east
of the Caspian had conquered Persia in 12 18. They were driven
westward by pressure of the Tatars, and in 1228 had been called
by the ruler of Damascus to his aid. In 1240, however, they
transferred their alliance to the sultan of Egypt, and piUaged
Northern Syria. Driven downward through Galilee they seized
Jerusalem, massacred its inhabitants and plundered its churches.
They then marched on to Gaza, where the Egyptians joined
them, and together inflicted a crushing defeat on the Christians
and Moslems of Syria, for once compelled to unite by the common
danger. The Khwarizmians and Egyptians afterwards quar-
relled, and the former were compelled to retire, leaving
Palestine under the rule of the Mameluke- sultans of Egypt.
Shortly afterwards however, another Central Asiatic invasion —
that of the Tatar tribes, took place. Under their leader Htilagu
these tribes came by way of Bagdad, which they captured in
125S, and in 1260 they attacked and captured Damascus and
ravaged Syria. Bibars (Beibars, Baibars), general of the
Egyptian sultan Kctuz, met and drove them back; and having
murdered his master, became sultan in his stead. He then
proceeded to attack and destroy the relics of Christian posses-
sion in Palestine. One after another — Caesarea, Safed, Jaffa,
Anlioch — they fell, leaving at last Acre (Akka) only. Bibars
died in 1277, and in 1291 Acre itself was captured by Khatel
son of Kala'iJn, who thus put a final end to Frankish domination.
During the 14th century there is little of interest in the history
of Palestine. The Christians made efforts to creep back to
their former possessions and churches were rebuilt in Jerusalem,
Bethlehem and Nazareth; but another devastation was the result
of the ferocious inroads of the Mongolian Timur (Tamerlane)
in 1400.
The last stage of the history of Palestine was reached in 1516,
when the war between the Ottoman sultan and the Mamelukes
of Egypt resulted in the transference of the country
to the dominion of the Turks. This change of rulers oomiaioa.
did not produce much change in the administration
or condition of the country. Local governors were appointed
from headquarters: revenues were annually sent to Constan-
tinople: various public works were undertaken, such as the
' This story is probably the historic basis of the legend of the
" Pied Piper of Hamelin."
- The Mamelukes were originally military' slaves, who in Eg\-pt
succeeded in seizing the supreme power. See Egypt: History
(Moslem period).
b24
PALESTINE
[FROM A.D. 70
rebuilding of the walls of Jerusalem by Suleiman the Magnificent
(1537) ■ but on the whole Palestine ceases for nearly three hundred
years from this point to have a history, save the dreary record of
the sanguinary quarrels of local sheiks and of oppression of the
peasants by the various government officials. Few names
or events stand out in the history of this period: perhaps the
most interesting personality is that of the Druse prince Fakhr
ud-Din (1595- 1 634), whose expulsion of the Arabs from the coast
as far south as Acre and estabUshment of his own kingdom,
in defiance of Ottoman authority — to say nothing of his dilettante
cultivation of art, the result of a temporary sojourn in Italy —
make him worth a passing notice. The German botanist,
Leonhard Rauwolf (d. 1596 or 1606), who visited Palestine in
1575, has left a vivid description of the difficulties that then
beset even so simple a journey as that from Jaffa to Jerusalem.
The former town he found in ruins. A safe conduct had to be
obtained from the governor of Ramleh before the party could
proceed. At Yazur they vere stopped by an official who
extorted heavy blackmail on the ground that the sultan had
given him charge of the " holy places " and had forbidden
him to admit anyone to them without payment (!). Further
on they had a scuJBe with certain "Arabians"; and at last,
after successfully accomplishing the passage of the " rough
and stony " road that led to Jerusalem, they were obUged to
dismount before the gate of tlie city tiU they should receive
license from the governor to enter.
Towards the close of the iSth century a chief of the family
of Zaidan, named Dhaher el-Amir, rose to power in Acre. To
El-Jazzar. ^im fled from Egypt an Albanian slave named
Ahmed, who (from the expertnesf with which he
had been wont to carry out his master's orders to get rid of
inconvenient rivals) bore the surname cl-Jazzar, " the butcher."
He had, however, incurred punishment for refusing to obey
a command of his master, Mahommed Bey, and so took
refuge with the Palestinian sheik. After five years Mahommed
Bey died and el-Jazzar returned to Egypt. Dhaher revolted
against the Turkish government and el-Jazzar was commis-
sioned to quell the rising; his long residence with Dhaher having
given him knowledge which marked him out as the most
suitable for the purpose. He was successful in his enterprise,
and was installed as governor in Dhaher's place. He was
a man of barbaric aesthetic tastes, and Acre owes some of
its public buildings to him: but he was also capricious and
tyrannical, and well lived up to his surname. Till 1791 the
French had had factories and business establishments at Acre;'
el-Jazzar ordered them in that year summarily to leave the
town. In 1798 Napoleon, returning from his unsuccessful
attempt at founding an empire on the Nile, came to stir up a
Syrian rising against the Turkish authorities. He attacked
el-Jazzar in Acre, after capturing Jaffa, Ramleh and I-ydd.
A detachment of troops was sent under General Jean Baptiste
Kleber across the plain of Esdraelon to take Nazareth and
Tiberias, and defeated the Arabs between Fuleh and Afuleh.
Napoleon was however compelled by the EngUsh to raise the
siege. El-Jazzar died in 1S06 and was succeeded by his milder
adopted son, Suleiman, who on his death in 1S14 was followed
by the fanatic Abdullah. This bigoted Moslem caused the
Jewish secretary of his office to be murdered. The Jew had
anticipated just such an event, and had secretly arranged that
after his death an inventory of Abdidlah's property should fall
into the hands of the government — knowing that the latter
had claims on the estates of el-Jazzar and Sideiman. The
government accordingly pressed their claims: Abdullah refused
to pay and was besieged in Acre. He caUed for the intervention
of !Mehemet Ah, governor of Egypt; the latter settled the
dispute, but Abdullah then refused to discharge the claims of
Mehemet Ali. The latter accordingly sent 20,000 men under
the command of his son Ibrahim Pasha, who besieged Acre
in 183 1 and entered and plundered it. So began the short-
lived Egyptian domination of Palestine. Mehemet AH proved
' When this French colony was established is uncertain ;
Maundrell found them there at the end of the 17th century.
no less a tyrannical master than the Turks and the sheiks;
the country revolted in 1834, but the insurrection was quelled.
In 1840 Lebanon revolted; and in the same year the Turks,
with the aid of France, England and Austria, regained Palestine
and expelled the Egyptian governor.
From 1S40 onwards the Ottoman government gradually
strengthened its hold on Palestine. The power of the local
sheiks was step by step reduced, till it at last became
evanescent — to the unmixed advantage of the whole history
country; and the increase of European interests
has led to the establishment of considates and vice-consulates
of the great powers in Jerusalem and in the ports.
The battle of religions still continued. In 1S47 the dispute in
the Church of the Nativity at Bethlehem about the right to mark
with a star the birthplace of Christ became one of the prime
causes of the Crimean war. In i860 occurred a sudden anti-
Christian outbreak in Damascus and the Lebanon, in which
14,000 Christians were massacred. On the other hand it may
be mentioned that on the 30th of June 1855 the cross was for
the first time since the crusades borne aloft through the streets
of Jerusalem on the occasion of the visit of a European prince;
and that in 1858 the sacred area of the Haramesh-Sherif — the
mosque on the site of the Temple of Jerusalem — was for the
first time thrown open to Christian visitors. The latter half
of the 19th century is mainly occupied with the record of a very
remarkable process of colonization and settlement — French
and Russian monastic and other establishments, some of them
semi-religious and semi-polit'cal; German colonies; fanatical
American communities; Jewish agricultural settlements — all,
so to speak, " nibbling " at the country, and each so intent
upon gaining a step on its rivals as to be forgetful of the gathering
storm. For in the background of all is the vast peninsula of
Arabia, which at long intervals fills with its wild, untamable
humanity to a point beyond which it cannot support them.
This has been the origin of the long succession of Semitic waves —
Babylonian, Assyrian, Canaanite, Hebrew, Nabataean, Moslem — ■
that have flowed over Mesopotamia and Palestine; there is
every reason to suppose that they will be followed by others,
and that the Arab will remain master at the end, as he was in
the beginning.
In 1896 Herzl (q.v.) issued his proposal for the establishment
of a Jewish state in Palestine and in 1898 he came to the country
to investigate its possibihties. The same year was signalized
by the picturesque visit of the German emperor, William II.,
which gave a great stimulus to German interests in the Holy
Land.
In 1902 Palestine was devastated by a severe epidemic of
cholera. In 1906 arose a dispute between the British and
Turkish governments about the boundary between Turkish and
Egyptian territory, as the Turks had interfered with some of
the landmarks. A joint commission was appointed, which
marked out the boundary from Rafah, about midway between
Gaza and El-Arish, in an almost straight line S.S.W. to Tabah
in 29° 30' on the west side of the gulf of Akaba. A map of
the boundary will be found in the Gjjo^ra^/n'ca/ Journal (1907),
xxix. 88.
2. The Holy Places. — To the vast majority of civilized
humanity, Jewish, Christian and Moslem, the religious interest
of the associations of Palestine predominates over every other,
and at aU ages has attracted pilgrims to its shrines. We need
not here do more than allude to the centralization of Jewish
ideas and aspirations in Jerusalem, especially in the holy rock
on which tradition (and probably textual corruption) have
placed the scene of Abraham's sacrifice of Isaac, and over which
the Most Holy Place of the Temple stood. The same associations
are those of the Moslem, whose religion has so strangely absorbed
the prophets and traditions of the older faiths. Other shrines,
such as the alleged tomb of Moses, and the mosque of Hebron
over the cave of Machpelah, are the centres of Moslem pilgrimage.
Christianity is however responsible for the greatest development
of the cult of holy places, and it is to the sacred shrines of
Christendom that we propose to confine our attention.
FROM A. D. 70I
PALESTINE
625
There is no evidence that the earliest Christians were imbued
with the archaeological spirit that interested itself in sites which
the Risen Lord had vacated. The site of Golgotha and of the
the Holy Sepulchre, of the manger or of the home at Bethany,
were to them of no special moment in comparison with the one
all-important fact that " Christ was risen." It was not till the
clear-cut impress of the events of Christ's life, death and
resurrection had with the lapse of years faded from human
recollection, that there arose a desire to " seek the living among
the dead." The story begins with Helena, mother of Constan-
tine the Great, who became fired with zeal to fix definitely
the spots where the great events of Christianity had taken
place, and in a.d. 326 visited Palestine for the purpose.
Helena's pilgrimage was, as might be expected,
sf'u^Are attended with complete success. The True Cross
was discovered; and by excavation conducted
under Constantine's auspices, the Holy Sepulchre, " contrary
to all expectation " as Eusebius naively says, was discovered
also (see Jerusalem; and Sepulchre, The Holy). The
seed thus sown rapidly germinated and multiplied. The stream
of pilgrimage to the Holy Land began immediately, and has been
flowing ever since. Onwards from a.d. 333, when an anonymous
pilgrim from Bordeaux visited the " holy places " and left a
succinct account of his route and of the sights which came under
his notice, we possess a continuous chain of testimony written
by pilgrims relating what they heard and sav.'.
It is a pathetic record. No site, no legend, is too im.possible
for the unquestioning faith of these simple-minded men and
women. And by comparing one record with another, we can
follow the multiplication of " holy places," and sometimes can
even see them being shifted from one spot to another, as the
centuries pass. Not one of these devout souls had any shadow
of suspicion that, except natural features (such as the Aiount
of Ohves, the Jordan, Ebal, Gerizim, &c.) and possibly a very
few individual sites (such as Jacob's well at Shechem), there
was not a single spot in the whole elaborate system that could
show even the flimsiest evidence of authenticity! The growth
and development of " holy sites " can best be illustrated in
an article like the present, by a few figures. The account of
the " holy places " seen in Palestine by the Bordeaux pilgrim,
just mentioned, occupies twelve pages in the translation of the
Palestine Pilj;rims' Text Socicly (in whose publications the
records of these early travellers can most conveniently be
studied): and those twelve pages may be reduced to seven
or eight as they are printed with wide margins, and have many
footnotes added by the editor. On the other hand the ex-
periences and observations of Felix Fabri, a Dominican monk
who came to Palestine about a.d. 1480, occupies in the same
series two large volumes of over 600 pages each!'
This process of development has been illustrated in our own
time — a single instance will suffice. In the so-called " Via
Dolorosa " is a cave which was opened and planned about 1870.
It subsequently became closed and forgotten, houses covering
its entrance. In 1906 it was re-opened, the houses being cleared
away, and a hospice for Greek pilgrims erected in place of them.
During these works some local archaeologists attempted to pene-
trate the cave but were driven away by the labourers with
curses. At last the hospice was fi.nished and the cave opened
for inspection. A pair of stocks was then shown beautifully
cut in the rock, where no stocks appeared in the plan of 1S70;
with a crude painting suspended on the wall above, blasphem-
ously representing the iNIessiah confined in them!"
The Franciscans were nominated custodians of the " holy
places " by Pope Gregory IX. in 1230. Certain sites have,
however, always been held by the Oriental sects, and since
1808, when the Holy Sepulchre church was destroyed by fire,
the number of these has greatly increased. Indeed the 19th
' This comparison is made in full realization of the fact that the
Bordeaux record is a dry catalogue, and that Fabri's work is swelled
by the miscellaneous gossip and " padding " which makes it one
of the most delightful books ev'er written in the middle ages.
' See the exposure in the Revue Bihlique (the organ of the Dominican
school of St Stephen at Jerusalem) for X907.
century was disgraced, in Palestine, by a feverish " scramble "
for sacred sites, in which the most rudimentary ethics of
Christianity were forgotten in the all-mastering desire to oust
rival sects and orders. Bribery, fraud, even violence, have
in turn been employed to serve the end in view: and churches,
chapels and monasteries, most of them in tht worst architectural
taste, have sprung up hke mushrooms over the surface of the
country, and are perpetuating the memory of pseudo-sanctuaries
which from every point of view were best relegated to oblivion.
The zeal and self-sacrificing devotion which some of these
establishments, and their inmates, display, and their noble
labours on behalf of the country, its people and its hi.= tory
throw into yet more painful relief the actions and attitudes of
some of their fellow-Christians.
The authenticity of the " holy places " was first attacked
seriously in the iSth century by a bookseller of Altona named
Korte; and since he led the way, a steady fire of criticism has been
poured at this huge mass of invention. The process of manu-
facturing new sites, however, continues unchecked. Even the
Protestant churches are not exempt from blame in the matter;
a small tomb near the Damascus Gate of Jerusalem has been
fi.xed upon by a number of English enthusiasts as the true " Holy
Sepulchre," an identification for which there is nothing to be said.
The monasteries of the Roman communion and their residents
were under French protection until the disturbance between
Greek and Franciscan monks in the Holy Sepulchre church
(Nov. 4, 1901), which arose over the question as to the right to
sweep a certain flight of stairs. Stones and other weapons were
freely used, and several of the combatants and bystanders were
seriously injured. As one result of the subsequent investiga-
tions, Latin monks of other countries were assigned to the
protection of the consuls of those countries.
3. Colonization. — Down to the time of Mehemet Ali the only
foreigners permanently resident in the country were the members
of various monastic orders, and a few traders, such as the
French merchants of Acre. The first protestant missionaries
(those under the London Society for the Promotion of Christianity
among the Jews), settled in Jerusalem in 1823; to them is due
the inception of the trade in olive-wood articles, invented for the
support of their converts. In 1846-1848 a remarkable religious
brotherhood (the Briidcrhaus, founded by Spit tier of Basel)
settled in Jerusalem: it was originally intended to be a settle-
ment of celibate mechanics that would form a nucleus of
mission work to evangelize the world. One of this community was
Dr C. Schick, who lived over 50 years in Jerusalem, and made
many valuable contributions to its archaeology. In 1849 came
the first of several examples that have appeared in Palestine
from time to time of that curious product of American religious
life — a community of dupes or visionaries led by a prophet or
prophetess with claims to divine guidance. The leader in this
case was one Mrs Minor, who came to prepare the land for
the expected Second Advent. Her followers quarrelled and
separated in 1853. This event is of importance, as it had much
to do with the remarkable development of Jewish colonization
which is a special feature of the latter part of the history of the
19th century in Palestine. For Mrs Minor, having an interest
in the Jewish people, was befriended by Sir Moses Montefiore;
after her death her property was placed in charge of a Jew, and
later passed into the hands of the Alliance Israelite Universelle.
This body in 1870 established an agricultural colony for Jews
on the road trom Jafl'a to Jerusalem (" Mikweh Israel ").
Another visionary American colony, led by a certain Adams,
came in 1866. They brought with them framed houses from
America, which are still standing at Jaffa. But the Adamsites
suffered from disease and poverty, and lost heart in a couple of
years: returning to America, they sold their property to a
German community, the Tcmpdgcmcindr, a Unitarian sect led
by Messrs Hoffmann and Hardegg who established themselves
in Jaffa in 1868. Lfnlike the ill-fated American communities,
these hardy Wiirttemberg peasants have flourished in Palestine,
and their three colonies — at Jaffa, Haifa, and Jerusalem — are
the most important European communities now in the country
626
PALESTINE
Since 1870 there has been a steady development of Jewish
immigration, consisting principally of refugees from countries
where anti-Semitism is an important element in politics. Baron
de Rothschild has invested large sums in Jewish colonies, but
at the commencement of the present century he handed over
their administration to the Jewish Colonization Association.
Time alone can show how far these colonies are likely to be
permanently successful, or how the subtly enervating influence
of the cHraate will affect later generations.
4. Exploration. — Previous to the 19th century the turbulent
condition of the country made exploration ditficult, and, oS
the beaten track, impossible. There are many books written
by early pilgrims and by more secular travellers who visited
the country, which — when they are not devoted to the setting
forth of valueless traditions, as is too often the case — give very
useful and interesting pictures of the conditions of hfe and
of travel in the country. Scientific exploration does not begin
before Edward Robinson, an American clergyman, who, after
devoting many years to study to fit himself for the work, made
a series of journeys through the country, and under the title
of Biblical Researches in Palestine (1841-1856) published his
itineraries and observations. His work is marred by the
hastiness of his visits and consequent superficiality of his
descriptions of sites, and by some rash and untenable identifi-
cations: but it is at once a standard and the foundation of
all subsequent topographical work in the country. He was
worthily followed by Titus Tobler, who in 1853 and later years
pubhshed volumes abounding in exact observation; and by
V. Guerin, whose Description geographique, liistorique, et
archeologique de la Palestine, in 7 vols. (1868-1880), contains
an extraordinary mass of material collected in personal travel
through the country.
In 1864 was founded the Palestine Exploration Fund, under
the auspices of which an ordnance survey map of the counfy
was completed (published 1881), and accompanied by volumes
containing memoirs on the topography, orography, hydro-
graphy, archaeology, fauna and flora, and other details. A
similar work east of the Jordan was begun but (1882) stopped
by the Ottoman government. The same society initiated the
scientific exploration of the mounds of Palestine. In 1891 it
excavated Tell el-Hesi (Lachish) ; in 1896-1898 the south wall
of Jerusalem; in 1898-1900 Tell es-Safi (Gath) and some smaller
mounds in the Shephelah; all under the direction of Dr F. J.
Bliss. In 1902 it began the excavation of Gezer under the
direction of R. A. S. jMacaUster (see Gezer).
The example thus set has been followed by French, German
and American explorers. The Deutscher Paldstina-Verein was
founded in 1878, and under its auspices important surveys have
been carried out, especially those of G. Schumacher east of the
Jordan; Tell el-MuteseUim (Megiddo) has also been excavated.
The Austrian Dr E. Sellin, working independently, has excavated
Tell Ta'nuk (Taanach), and in 1907 began work upon the mount
of Jericho. An admirable biblical and archaeological school,
under the control of the Dominican order, exists at Jerusalem;
and German and American archaeological institutions, educa-
tional in purpose, are also there estabUshed. Valuable work in
exploration is annually done by the directors of these schools
and by their pupils. Under this head we must not omit to
mention A. Musil's investigations of some remote parts of
Eastern Palestine, and R. E. Brunnow's great survey of Petra,
with part of Moab and Edom.
Bibliography. — The literature relating to Palestine is very
abundant ; see especially, P. Thomsen, Systemat. Bibliog. f. Palastina-
Literatur, i., 1895-1904 (Leipzig, 1908). A large collection of
names of works will be found in R. Rohricht, BiUiotheca geographica
Palaestinae (1890). Older bibliographies are T. Tobler, BiUio-
graphica Geographica Palaestinae (1869), with a supplement in
Petzholdt's Netier Anzeiger fiir Bihliographie mid Bibliothekwissen-
schajt (1875)- „ ,
Topography. — C. Ritter, Vergteichende Erdkund^, xv.-xvu.
(1848-1855); E. Robinson, Biblical Researclies in Palestine (1841),
Later Biblical Researches (1856), Physical Geography (1865); A.
Reland, Palaestina monumentis veteribus illustrata (1714); H. B.
Tristram, Land of Israel (1865), Land of Moab (1873) ; Tlie Palestine
Exploration Fund, map and companion volumes (Memoirs of the
Survev of Western Palestine), 7 vols.; S. Merrill, East of the Jordan
(1S81); T. ToUei, Bethlehem (iS^g) , Nazareth {1S68), Dritte Wander-
ung (1859); C. R. Conder, Tent Work in Palestine (1878); G. Schu-
macher, Across the Jordan (1885); Tlie Jaulan (1888), Abila (1889),
Pella (1888), and Norttiern Ajlun (1890); C. R. Conder, Heth and
Moab (18S3); C. Baedeker, Palestine and Syria (1906); Victor
Gu(^rin, Description geographique, liistorique, et archeologique de la
Palestine (1868- 1880); G. A. Smith, Historical Geography of the
Holy Land (1897) ; F. J. Bliss, The Development of Palestine Explora-
tion (1906).
History. — L. B. Baton, Early History of Syria and Palestine
(1902); H. Winckler in 3rd ed. of Schrader's Keilinschrif ten u. d.
Alte Test. (1903); G. Cormack, Egypt in Asia (1908); see further
art. Jews, § 45; J. A. Montgomery, Tlie Samaritans (1907); E.
Schiirer, Geschickte des jiidischen Volkes im Zcitalter Jesu Christi
(3rd ed., 1898); S. Merrill, Galilee in the time of Christ (1885); W.
I5esant and E. H. Palmer, Jerusalem (4th ed., 1899); Regesla regni
hierosolymitani, iogy-i2Qi (ed. R. Rohricht, 1893, 1904); R.
Rohricht, Geschichte der Kreuzziige (1898); B. von Kugler, Geschichte
der Kreuzziige (1880); C. R. Conder, Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem,
1090-1291 (1897); E. G. Rey, Les Colonies franques de Syrie (1883);
J. Finn, Stirring Times or Records from Jerusalem (1878); C. H.
Churchill, Mount Lebanon (1853, for modern history).
Religion, Folklore, Custom. — H. J. van Lennep, Bible Lands,
their Modern Customs and Manners (1875); W. M. Thomson, The
Land and the Book (1881-1883); W. R. Smith, Lectures on tlie Re-
ligion of the Semites (1894); G. A. Barton, Sketch of Semitic Origins
(1902); S. I. Curtis, Primitive Semitic Religion To-day (1902);
W. R. Smith, Kinship and Marriage (1903); J. E. Hanauer, Tales
Told in Palestine (1904); J. Lagrange, Etudes sur les religions semi-
tiques (1905); J. E. Hanauer, Folklore of the Holy Land (1907);
J. G. Frazer, Adonis, .Attis and Osiris: Studies in the History
of Oriental Religion (1907); A. Janssen, Coutumes des Arabes au
Pays de Moab (1908); S. A. Cook, Religion of Ancient Palestine
(1908).
E.XCAVATIONS AND ARCHAEOLOGY. — C. Clermont-Ganneau,
Recueil d'archeologie orientate (from 1885), Archaeological Researches
in Palestine, 1873-1874 (2 vols., 1899, 1896); W. M. F. Petrie,
Tell el-Hesy (1891); F. J. Bliss, A Mound of Many Cities (1894),
Excavations at Jerusalem, 1894-1897 (1898); F. J. Bliss and R. A. S.
Macalister, Excavations in Palestine, 1S98-1900 (1902); E. Sellin,
Tell Ta'annek (Denkschriften of the Vienna Academy, 1904) ; J. P.
Peters and H. Thiersch, Painted Tombs in the Necropolis of Marissa
(1905); G. Schumacher, Tell el-Mutesellim, vol. i. (1908); E. Sellin,
E.xcav. of Jericho, in Mitteil. d. deutschen orient. Gesellschaft zu
Berlin, No. 39 (1908); G. Perrot and C. Chipiez, History of Art in
Sardinia, Judaea, &c. (1890); I. Benzinger, Hcbrdische Archdologie
(2nd ed., 1907) ; H. Vincent, Canaan d'apres I'exploration recente
(1907); H. Gressmann, Ausgrab. in Pal. u. d. Alte Test. (1908),
Pal. Erdgeruch in der israel. Relig. (1909); S. R. Driver, Modern
Research as illustrating the Bible (1909); P. Thomsen, Paldstina u.
seine Kultur (1909).
Epigraphy and Numismatics. — F. de Saulcy, Numismatique de
la Terre Sainte (1874); F. W. Madden, Coins of the Jews (1881);
T. Reinach, Jewish Coins (1903). See further, Semitic Languages
and Numismatics.
The " Holy Places." — ^Lievin de Hamme, Guide de la Terre
Sainte (1876).
Early Pilgrims and Geographers. — A. Neubauer, La geo-
graphic du Talmud (1868); P. de Lagarde, Onomastica sacra (1870);
E. Carmoly, Itincraires de la Terre Sainte (1847); P. Geyer, Itinera
hierosolymilana, saec, iv.-viii. (1898). Publications of the Societe
de I'orient Latin, and of the Palestine Pilgrims Text Society.
Fauna and Flora. — H. B. Tristram, Natural History of the Bible
(1867) ; G. E. Post, Flora of Syria, Palestine and Sinai (1896).
Climate. — J. Glaisher, Meteorological Observations at Jerusalem
(1903)-
Journals. — Quarterly Statement, Palestine Exploration Fund
(from 1869); Zeitschrift des deutschen Paldstina-Vereins (from
1878); Revue biblique (from 1892); Revue de I'orient Latin (from
1893); Mitteilungen der vorderasiatischen Gesellschaft (from 1897).
PALESTINE, a city and the county-seat of Anderson county,
Texas, U.S.A., about 90 m. E. by N. of Waco. Pop. (1910 cen-
sus) 10,482. It is served by two lines of the International &
Great Northern railway, and by the Texas State railway.
Palestine is the trade centre of a district which produces cotton,
timber, fruit (especially peaches), an excellent grade of wrapper
tobacco, petroleum, iron-ore and salt. It has various manu-
factures, including cotton gins, cotton-seed oil, cigars, lumber
and brick. Its factory products were valued at $735,162 in
1905. About 2 m. south-west of Palestine a settlement (the
first in the present Anderson county) was made in 1S37, and
there Fort Houston, a stockade fort, was built to protect the
settlers from the Indians. Palestine was laid out and was
PALESTRINA
627
/
made the county-scat in 1S46; it was chartered as a city in
187s, and rechartered in 1905. In 1909 it adopted a commission
government.
PALESTRINA, GIOVANNI PIERLUIGI DA (1526-1594),
Italian composer, was born in Palestrina (the ancient Praeneste)
at the foot of the Sa.bine mountains, in 1526. The various
versions of his name make an interesting record. He appears
as Palestina, Pellestrino, Gio. Palestina, Gianetto Palestrina,
Gianetto da Palestrina, Gian Fieri, de Palestrina, Joh. Petrus
Aloisius, Jo. Petraloys, Gianetto, Gicv. Prenestini, Joannes
Praenestinus, Joannes Petraloysius Preneslinus.
Palestrina seems to have been at Rome from 1540 to 154;,
when he studied possibly under Gaudio McU, but not under
Goudimel as has erroneously been assumed. On the 12th uf
June 1547 he married Lucrezia de Goris. In 1551, by favour
of Pope Julius III., he was elected Magister Cappellae and Magis-
ter Puerorum at the Cappella Giulia, S. Pietro in Vaticano, with
a salary of si.x scudi per month, and a house. Three years later
he published his First Book of Masses, dedicated to Pope Julius
III., and beginning with the missa " Ecce sacerdos magnus."
On the 13th of January 1555, Palestrina was enrolled, by com-
mand of Pope Julius III., among the singers of the Cappella
Sistina. This honour involved the resignation of his office at
the Cappella Giulia, which was accordingly bestowed upon his
friend Animuccia. But the legality of the new appointment was
disputed on the ground that Palestrina was married, and the
father of four children, his wife, Lucrezia, being still alive; and,
though, for the moment, the pope's will was law, the case
assumed a difierent complexion after his death, which took place
only five weeks afterwards. The next pope, Marcellus II.,
was succeeded after a reign of 23 days, by Paul IV.; and
within less than a year (July 30, 1555) that stern
reformer dismissed Palestrina, together with two other married
singers, A. Ferrabosco and Bari, with a consolatory pension
of six scudi per month to each. This cruel disappointment
caused Palestrina a dangerous illness; but in October 1555
he was appointed maestro di cappella at the Lateran, without
forfeiting his pension; and in February 1561 he exchanged this
preferment for a similar one, with an allowance of 16 scudi
per month, at Santa Maria Maggiore.
Palestrina remained in office at this celebrated basilica for
ten years, and to this period is assigned an important chapter
in the history of music. Many circumstantial details of this
chapter are undoubtedly legends, due to the pious imagination
of Baini and others. In 1562 the council of Trent censured the
prevalent style of ecclesiastical music with extreme severity.
In 1564 Pope Pius IV. commissioned eight cardinals to investi-
gate the causes of complaint; and these proved to be so well
founded that it was seriously proposed to forbid the use of all
music in the services of the Church, except unisonous and un-
accompanied plain-chant. In these circumstances Palestrina
is said to have been invited by two of the most active members
of the commission to come to the rescue. He accordingly
submitted three masses to Cardinal Carlo Borromeo for approval.
These were privately rehearsed, in presence of the commissioners,
at the palace of Cardinal Vitellozzi; and the judges were unani-
mous in deciding that the third mass fulfilled, in the highest
possible degree, all the conditions demanded. The private
trial took place in June 1565, and on the 19th of that month
the mass was publicly sung at the Sistine Chapel, in presence
of Pope Pius IV., who compared its music to that heard by St
John in his vision of the New Jerusalem. Parvi transcribed it,
for the library of the choir, in characters of extraordinary size
and beauty; and Palestrina was appointed by the pope composer
to the Sistine Chapel, an office created expressly in his honour
and confirmed to him by seven later pontiffs, though with the
very insufficient honorarium of three scudi per month, in addition
to the six which formed his pension.
In 1567 this mass was printed in Palestrina's Liber secundus
tnissarum. The volume was dedicated to PhiUp II. of Spain,
but the mass was called the Missa Papae Marcelli. This title,
clearly given in honour of the short-lived pope Marcellus II.,
has given rise to an absurd story, told by Pellegrini and others,
to the effect that the mass was composed by Pope Marcellus I.,
martyred early in the 4th century, and was only discovered by
Palestrina. Of course in the 4th century such music was
inconceivable. The Missa Papae Marcelli is now almost certainly
known to have been composed in 1562, two years before Paul
IV. 's commission. Its ineffable beauty had often been described
in glowing terms by those who heard it in the Sistine Chapel,
but it was only first heard in England in 1882, when the Bach
choir, consisting of 200 unaccompanied voices, sang it at St
James's Hall, under the direction of Mr Otto Goldschmidt.
Upon the death of Animuccia in 1571 Palestrina was re-elected
to his appointment at the Cappella Giulia. He also succeeded
Animuccia as maestro di cappella at the oratory of Philip Neri;
but these appointments were far from lucrative, and he still
remained a very poor man. A letter of thanks for 100 scudi,
written on the 21st of March 1579 to the duke of Mantua,
illustrates this situation. In 1580 he was much distressed by
the death of his wife; and the loss of three promising sons,
Angelo, Ridoifo and Silla, left him with one child only — Igino —
a very unworthy descendant. In February 1581 he married
the rich widow Virginia Dormuli. In 1586 Pope Sixtus V.
wished to appoint him maestro to the pontifical choir, as suc-
cessor to Antonio Boccapadule, then about to resign, and
commissioned Boccapadule to prepare the choir for the change.
Boccapadule, however, managed so clumsily that Palestrina
was accused of having meanly plotted for his own advancement.
The Pope was very angry, and punished the calumniators very
severely; but Palestrina lost the appointment. These troubles,
however, did not hinder his work, which he continued without
intermission until the 2nd of February 1594, when he breathed
his last in the arms of his friend, Filippo Neri. (W. S. R.)
In the articles. Music, Counterpoint, Contrapuntal Forms,
Harmony, Mass, Motet, and that portion of Instrumentation
which deals with vocal music, the reader wiU find information
as to many features of Palestrina's style and its relation to
that of the i6th century in general. So simple are the materials
of 16th-century music, and so close its limitations, that the
difference between great and small artists, and still more the
difference between one great artist and another, can be detected
only by long and familiar experience. A great artist, working
within Hmits so narrow and yet so natural, is fortunately
apt to give us exceptional opportunities for acquiring the right
kind of experience of his art, since his genius becomes far more
prolific than a genius with a wider field for its energies. Yet all
16th-century masters seem to be illuminated by the infallibility
of the normal musical technique of their time. This technique
is no longer so familiar to us that its euphony and vivid tone
can fail to impress us wherever we meet it. There is probably
no respectable school piece of the i6th century, which, if pro-
perly performed in a Roman Catholic church, would be quickly
distinguishable by ear from the style of Palestrina. But when
we find that every addition to our acquaintance with Palestrina's
works is an acquisition, not to our notions of the progressive
possibilities of 16th-century music, but to our whole sense of
style, we may then recognize that we are in the presence of one
of the greatest artists of all time.
Palestrina's work has many styles. Within its narrow range
there can be no such glaring contrasts as those of the " three
stj'les " of Beethoven; yet the distinctions are as real as they are
delicate. His early, or Flemish style, was apt to lead him into
the notorious Flemish disregard of proportion. Yet in some
of his greatest works, such as the Missa brevis, we find un-
mistakably Flemish features so idealized as to produce breadth
of phrase {Missa brevis, Agnus Dei), remarkably modern firm-
ness of form (ibid, second Kyrie), and close canonic sequence
carried to surprising length resulting in natural unexpectedness
of harmony and subtle swing of cross rhythm (Amen of Credo).
If we find it convenient to divide Palestrina's work roughly
into three types, we shall be able to take the Missa Papae Mar-
celli as the crowning representative of his second style. It
probably is his greatest work; at all events it continues to make
628
PALETTE— PALEY, W.
that impression whenever it is read after a long course of his
other works; yet there are many masses, too numerous to men-
tion, which cannot easily be considered inferior to it. Indeed
F. X. Haberl, the editor of the complete critical edition of
Palestrina's works, prefers the Missa Eccc ego Joannes, first
published by him in the 24th volume of that edition in 1887.
Palestrina-scholars will hardly think us singular for placing
on the same plane as the l\Iissa Papae Marcelli at least 16 out
of Palestrina's 94 extant masses: Missa brevis, bk. 3, no. 3;
Dies sanctificatiis, bk. 6, no. i; Dilexi qiwniam, bk. 6, no. 5;
O admirabile commercium, bk. 8, no. 3; Dum complerenliir,
bk. 8, no. 5; Veni sponsa Christi, bk. q, no. 2; Qiiinti toni, bk. 10,
no. s;Octai'itoni, bk. 11, no. 4; Alma Redcmptoris, bk. 11, no. 5;
Ascendo ad Palrem, bk. 12, no. 3; Tu es Pctrus, bk. 12, no. 5;
Hodie Christiis natus . est, bk. 13, no. 2; Beatus Laiircntiiis, bk.
14, vol. 3; Assumpla est Maria, bk. 14, no. 5; Tn cs Pclnis,
bk. 15, no. s; Eccc ego Joannes, bk. 15, no. 6.
The third and most distinctive phase of Palestrina's style is
that in which he rehes entirely upon the beauty of simple masses
of harmony without any polyphonic elaboration whatever.
Sometimes, as in his four-part litanies, this simplicity is mainly
a practical necessity; but it is more often used for the purpose
of his profoundest expressions of sacramental or penitential
devotion, as for instance in the motet Fratrcs ego enim accept, the
Stabat Mater and the iirst, really the latest, book of Lamentations.
Besides these three main styles there are numerous cross-
currents. There is the interaction between the madrigal and
ecclesiastical style, which Palestrina sometimes contrives to
show without confusion or degradation, as in the mass Vcstiva
i colli. There is the style of the madrigali spirituali, including
Le Vergine of Petrarca; which again distinguishes itself into a
broader and a sligtiter manner. And there is lastly an astounding
absorption of the wildest freaks of Flemish ingenuity into
the loftiest polyphonic ecclesiastical style; the great example
of which is the Missa UHomme arme, a work much maligned by
writers who know only its title and the part played by its secular
theme in medieval music.
The works pubhshed in Palestrina's hfetime naturally contain
a large proportion of his earlier compositions. After his death
the publication of his works continued for some years. We
are apt to read the musical history of the 17th century in the
light of the works of its composers. But a somewhat different
view of that time is suggested by the continual pouring out by
influential publishers of posthumous works of Palestrina, in
far greater quantities than Palestrina had either the influence
or resource to publish in his hfetime. We regard the 1 7th-century
monodists as triumphant iconoclasts; but it was not until their
primitive efforts had been buried beneath the entirely new
arts to which they led. that the style of Palestrina ceased to be
upheld as the one artistic ideal. Moreover the posthumous
works of Palestrina belong almost entirely to his latest and
finest period; so that a study of Palestrina confined to the works
which he himself was able to pubhsh gives no adequate idea of
the proportion which his greater works bear to the rest. It
was not, then, the rise of monody that crowded 16th-century
art out into a long obliv-iou. On the contrary, the Palestrina
tradition was the one thing which gave 17th-century composers
a practical basis for their technical training. Only in the i8th
century did the new art, before coming to maturity under Bach
and Handel, reduce the Palestrina style to a dead language.
In the middle of the igth century that dead language revived
in a renascence which has steadily spread throughout Europe.
The Musica divina of Canon K. Proske of Regensburg, begun in
1853, was perhaps the first decisive step towards the restoration
of Roman Cathohc church music. The St Cecilia \'erein, with
Dr F. X. Haberl as its president, has carried on the publication
and use of such music with the greatest energy in every
civilized country. The difficulties of reintroducing it in its
native home, Italy, were so enormous that it is arguable that
they might not yet have been surmounted but for the adoption
of less purely artistic methods by Don Lorenzo Perosi, who
succeeded in crowding the Itahan churches by the performance
of compositions written in an artless manner which, by Its mere
negation of display, was fitted to produce upon unsophisticated
listeners such devout impressions as might gradually wean them
from the taste for theatrical modern church music. The pope's
fiat has now inculcated the use of Gregorian and 16th-century
church music as far as possible in all Roman Cathohc churches,
and the effect has been astonishing. Within eighteen months
of Pius X.'s decree on church music, the choir of Cologne Cathe-
dral, previously far less accustomed to a pure polyphonic style
than most German Protestant choirs, at Easter of 1905 gave a
very satisfactory performance of the Missa Papae Marcelli.
The influence of what is henceforth an inevitable and continual
familiarity of Palestrina's style, at least among Roman Catholics,
cannot fail to have the profoundest effect upon modern musical
culture.
Palestrina's works, as contained in the complete edition pub-
lished by Breitkopf and Hartel, comprise 256 motets in 7
vols., the last two consisting largely of pieces hitherto unpub-
lished, with one or two wrongly or doubtfully ascribed to Palestrina;
15 books of masses, of which only 6 were published in Palestrina's
lifetime, the 7th being incompletely projected by him, and the
14th and 15th first collected by Haberl in 1887 and 1888; 3 books
of magnificats, on all the customary tones; i vol. of hymns;
1 vol. (2 books) of oifertories for the whole year; a volume
containing 3 books of litanies and several 12-part motets; 3 books
of lamentations; a very large volume of madrigals containing
2 early books and 30 later madrigals collected from mi.xed publica-
tions; 2 books of Madrigali spirituali, and 4 vols, of miscellaneous
works, newly discoveied, imperfectly preserved and doubtful.
Tlie fourth book of motets is not, like the first three, a collcct'on
of works written at different times, but a single scheme, being a
setting of the Song of Solomon; and the fifth volume is, like the
offertories, designed for use throughout the church year.
(D. F. T.)
PALETTE (the Fr. diminutive of pale, spade, blade of an
oar, from Lat. pala, spade, baker's shovel or peel; cf. pandere,
to spread), a term applied to many objects which are flat and
thin, and specifically to a thin tablet made of v/ood, porcelain,
or other material on which artists place their colours. The
term is also used of the shallow box, with partitions for the
different coloured tesserae, used by mosaic workers. By trans-
ference the colours which an individual artist employs are known
as his " palette." The " palette-knife " is a thin flexible knife
used for arranging the colours on the palette, &c., and also for
the application of colour on the canvas in large masses.
PALEY, FREDERICK APTHORP (1815-1888), English
classical scholar, was bom at Easingwold in Yorkshire on the
14th of January 1S15. He was the grandson of William Paley,
and was educated at Shrewsbury school and St John's College,
Cambridge (B.A. 1S3S). His conversion to Roman CathoKcism
forced him to leave Cambridge in 1S46, but he returned in 1S60
and resumed his work as " coach," until in 1874 he was appointed
professor of classical hterature at the newly founded Roman
Catholic Universit}' at Kensington. This institution was closed
in 1877 for lack of funds, and Paley removed to Boscombe, where
he died on the Sth of December 18S8. His most important
editions are: Aeschylus, with Latin notes (1844-1S47), the
work by which he first attracted attention; Aeschylus (4th ed.,
1879), Euripides (2nd ed., 1872), Hesiod (2nd ed., 1883),
Homer's Iliad (2nd ed., 1884), Sophocles, Philoctetes, Electra,
Trachiniae, Ajax (1880) — all with Enghsh commentary and
forming part of the Bibliotheca classica; select private orations of
Demosthenes (3rd ed., 1S96-1S98); Theocritus (2nd ed., 1869),
with brief Latin notes, one of the best of his minor works. He
possessed considerable knowledge of architecture, and pubhshed
a Manual of Gothic Architecture (1846) and Manual of Gothic
Mouldings (6th ed., 1902).
PALEY, WILLIAM (1743-1805), English divine and philo-
sopher, was born at Peterborough. He was educated at Giggles-
wick school, of which his father was head master, and at Christ's
College, Cambridge. He graduated in 1763 as senior wrangler,
became fellow in 1766, and in 1768 tutor of his college. He
lectured on Clarke, Butler and Locke, and also delivered a
systematic course on moral philosophy, which subsequently
formed the basis of his well-known treatise. The subscription
PALFREY— PALGRAVE, SIR F.
629
controversy was then agitating the university, and Paiey
pubHshed an anonymous Defence of a pamphlet in which
Bishop Law had advocated the retrenchment and simplification
of the Thirty-nine Articles; he did not, however, sign the petition
(called the " Feathers " petition from being drawn up at a
meeting at the Feathers tavern) for a relaxation of the terms
of subscription. In 1776 Paley was presented to the rectory
of Musgrave in Westmorland, supplemented at the end of the
year by the vicarage of Dalstoii, and presently exchanged for
that of Appleby. In 1782 he became archdeacon of Carlisle.
At the suggestion of his friend John Law (son of Edward
Law, bishop of Carlisle and formerly his colleague at Cam-
bridge), Paley published (1785) his lectures, revised and
enlarged, under the title of The Principles of Moral and
Political Philosophy. The book at once became the ethical
text-book of the University of Cambridge, and passed through
fifteen editions in the author's lifetime. He strenuously
supported the abolition of the slave trade, and in 178Q
wrote a paper on the subject. The Principles was fol-
lowed in 1700 by his first essay in the field of Christian apolo-
getics, Horac Paulinae, or the Truth of the Scripture History oj
St Paul evinced by a Comparison of the Epistles which hear his
Name with the Acts of the Apostles and with one another, probably
the most original of its author's works. It was followed in
1794 by the celebrated View of the Evidences of Christianity.
Paley's latitudinarian views are said to have debarred him from
the highest positions in the Church. But for his services in
defence of the faith the bishop of London gave him a stall in
St Paul's; the bishop of Lincoln made him subdean of that
cathedral, and the bishop of Durham conferred upon him the
rectory of Bishopwearmouth. During the remainder of his
life his time was divided between Bishopwearmouth and
Lincoln. In 1802 he published Natural Theology, or Evidences
of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity collected from the
Appearances of Nature, his last, and, in some respects, his most
remarkable book. In this he endeavoured, as he says in the
dedication to the bishop of Durham, to repair in the study
his deficiencies in the church. He died on the 25th of May
1805.
In the dedication just referred to, Paley claims a systematic
unity for his works. It is true that " they have been written in
an order the very reverse of that in which they ought to be read " ;
nevertheless the Natural Theology forms " the completion of a
regular and comprehensive design." The truth of this will be
apparent if it is considered that the Moral and Political Philosophy
admittedly embodies two presuppositions: (i) that " God Almighty
wills and wishes the happiness of His creatures," and (2) that
adequate motives must be supplied to virtue by a system of future
rewards and punishments. Now the second presupposition depends,
according to Paley, on the credibility of the Christian religion
(which he treats almost exclusively as the revelation of these
" new sanctions " of morality). The Evidences and the Horae
Paulinae were intended as a demonstration of this credibility.
The argument of these books, however, depends in turn upon the
assumption of a benevolent Creator desirous of communicating with
His creatures for their good; and the Natural Theology, by applying
the argument from design to prove the existence of such a Deity,
becomes the foundation of the argumentative edifice.
In his Natural Theology Paley has adapted with consummate
skill the argument which Ray (1691) and Derham (171 1) and
Nieuwentyt ' (1730) had already made familiar to Englishmen.
" For my part," he says, " I take my stand in human anatomy ";
and what he everywhere insists upon is " the necessity, in each
particular case, of an intelligent designing mind for the contriving
and determining of the forms which organized bodies bear." This
is the whole argument, and the l)ook consists of a mass of well-
' Bernard Nieuwentyt (1654-1718) was a Dutch disciple of
Descartes, whose work, Regt gebruik der Wcrclt Beschouivingen,
published in 1716, was translated into English in 1730 by J. Chamber-
layne under the title of The Religious Philosopher. A charge of
wholesale plagiarism from this book was brought against Paley in
the Athenaeum for 1848. Paley refers several times to Nieuwentyt,
who uses the famous illustration of the watch. But the illustration
is not peculiar to Nieuwentyt, and had been appropriated by many
others before Paley. The germ of the idea is to be found in Cicero,
De natura deorum, ii. 34 (see Hallam, Literature of Europe, ii.
385, note.) In the case of a writer whose chief merit is the way
in which he has worked up existing material, a general charge of
plagiarism is almost irrelevant.
chosen instances marshalled in support of it. But by placing
Paley's facts in a new light, the theory lA evolution has depri\ed
his argument of its foree, so lar as it a])|/lies the idea of special
contrivance to individual organs or to species.
The Evidences of Christianity is mainly a condensation of Bishop
Douglas's Criterion and Lardner's Credibility of the Goipel History.
But the task is so judiciously performed that it would probably
be difficult to get a more effective statement of the external evidences
of Christianity than Paley has here presented. His idea of revelation
depends upon the same mechanical conception of the relation of
God to the world which dominates his Natural Theology; and he
seeks to prove the divine origin of Christianity by isolating il from
the general history ot mankind, whereas later writers find their
chief argument in the continuity of the process of revelation.
The face of the world has changed .so greatly since Paley's day
that we are apt to do less than justice to his undoubted merits.
He is nowhere original, and nowhere profound, but his strong
reasoning power, his faculty of clear arrangement and forcible
statement, place him in the first rank of expositors and advocates,
lie masses his arguments, it has been said, with a general's eye.
His style is perfectly perspicuous, and its " strong home-touch "
compensates for what is lacking in elasticity and grace. Paley
displays little or no spirituality of feeling; but this is a matter in
which one age is apt to misjudge another, and Paley was at least
practically benevolent and conscientiously attentive to his parish
duties. The active part he took in advocating the abolition of the
slave-trade is evidence of a wider power of sympathy. His un-
conquerable cheerfulness becomes itself almost religious in the
last chapters of the Natural Theology, considering that they were
written during the intervals of relief from the painful complaint
which finally proved fatal to him.
For his life, see PjfWic C/jarac/<'«(i8o2) ;Aikin's General Biography,
vii. (1808); Lives, by G. W. Meadley (1809) and his son Edmund
Paley, prefixed to the 1825 edition of his works; Leslie Stephen in
Dictionary of National Biography; Quarterly Review, ii. (Aug. 1809),
ix. (July 1813). On Paley as a theologian and philosopher, see
Leslie Stephen, English Thought in the Eighteenth Century, i. 405 seq.,
ii. 121 seq.; R. Buddensieg, in Herzog-Hauck's Realencylitopddie fiir
protcstantische Theologie, xiv. (1904). See also Ethics.
PALFREY, JOHN GORHAM (i 796-1881), American historian,
was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on the 2nd of May 1 796. He
graduated at Harvard, 1815, and became a Unitarian minister,
l>eing pastor of the Brattle Square church, Boston, 1818-1831.
He was professor of sacred literature in the Harvard divinity
school, 1S30-1839. Entering politics, he was secretary of state
of Massachusetts, 1844-1847; a representative in Congress, 1847-
1849; and postmaster of Boston, 1861-1867. He was editor of the
Nortli American Review, 1835-1843. As a writer he is best known
by his History of New England to the revolutionary war. in five
volumes, of which the first appeared in 1859 and the last pos-
thumously in 1890. He died at Cambridge, Massachusetts, on
the 26th of April 1881.
PALFREY, a riding-horse, particularly one of smaller and
lighter type than the war-horse, the " destrier " (Med. Lat.
de.xtrarius, because led by the right hand till used), which was
only ridden in battle or tournament. The palfrey was thus
used on the march, &c., and also as a lady's riding-horse.
" Palfrey " came into English through the O. Fr. palefrei, one of
the numerous forms which the word took in its descent from the
Late Lat. paraveredus, a hybrid word from Or. Trapd, in the
sense of extra, and vercdus, a post-horse, probably a Celtic word,
for one who draws a rheda or carriage. The foim parafrcdus
gives the Mod. Ger. Pferd, horse, through the O.H.G. pfarifrid.
PALGHAT, a town of British India, in the Malabar district
of Madras, on the Madras railway. Pop. (1901), 44,177- As the
key to Travancore and Malabar from the East, it was formerly
of considerable strategic importance. The fort fell into British
hands in 176S, and subsequently formed the basis of many of
the operations against Tippoo, which terminated in the storming
of Seringapatam. The easy ascent by the Palghat Pass,
formerly covered with teak forests, supplies the great route
from the west coast to the interior. The municipality manages
the Victoria college.
PALGRAVE, SIR FRANCIS (178S-1861), English historian,
was the son of Meyer Cohen, a Jewish stockbroker, and was
born in London in July 1788. He was educated privately
and was so precocious a boy as to translate a Latin version of
the Battle of the Frogs and Mice into French in 1796, which was
published by his father in 1797. In 1803 Palgrave was articled
630
PALGRAVE, F. T.— PALI
to a firm of solicitors, but was called to the bar at the Middle
Temple in 1S27. On his marriage in 1823 with Elizabeth,
daughter of Dawson Turner of Great Yarmouth, he had become
a Christian, and had changed his name to Palgrave, the maiden
name of his wife's mother. His work as a barrister was chieily
concerned with pedigree cases before the House of Lords. He
edited for the Record Commission Parliamentary Writs (London,
1827-1834); Rotuli curiae regis (London, 1835); The antient
kalendars and inventories of the treasury of his majesty's exchequer
(London, 1836) ; and Documents and records illustrating the history
of Scotland (London, 1837), which contains an elaborate intro-
duction. In 1831 he published his History of England, Anglo-
Saxon Period, later editions of which were published as History
of the Anglo-Saxons; in 1832, his Rise and Progress of the English
Commonwealth, pronounced by Freeman a " memorable book ";
and in 1834 his Essay upon the original authority of the king's
council. In 1832 he was knighted, and after serving as one of
the municipal corporations commissioners, became deputy-
keeper of the public records in 1838, holding this office until his
death at Hampstead on the 6th of July 1861. Palgrave's
most important work is his History of Normandy and England,
which appeared in four volumes (London 1 851- 1864), and deals
with the history of the two countries down to iioi.
He also wrote Truths and Fictions of the Middle Ages (London,
1837, and again 18J4); The Lord and the Vassal (London, 1844);
and Handbook for Travellers in Northern Italy (London, 1842, and
subsequent editions).
Palgrave's four sons were: Francis Turner Palgrave (g.f.),
sometime professor of poetry at Oxford; William Gift'ord Pal-
grave; Sir Robert Harry Inglis Palgrave (b. 1827), an authority
upon banking and economics generally; and Sir Reginald Francis
Douce Palgrave.
William Gifford Palgrave (1826-1S88) went to India as
a soldier after a brilliant career at Charterhouse School and
Trinity College, O.xford; but, having become a Roman Catholic,
he was ordained priest and served as a Jesuit missionary in
India, Syria, and Arabia. Forsaking the priesthood about
1864, he was employed as a diplomatist by the British govern-
ment in Egypt, Asia Minor, the West Indies, and Bulgaria,
being appointed resident minister in Uruguay in 1884; he died
at Montevideo on the 30th of September 1888. He wrote
a romance, Hermann Agha (London, 1872), A Narrative of a
Year's Journey through Central and Eastern Arabia (London,
1^6$), Essays on Eastern Questions (London, 1872), and other
works.
Sir Reginald Palgrave (1829-1904) became a solicitor in
1851; but two years later was appointed a clerk in the House of
Commons, becoming clerk of the House on the retirement of
Sir Erskine May in 1886. He was made a K.C.B. in 1892,
retired from his office in 1900, and died at Salisbury on the 13th
of July 1904. Sir Reginald wrote The Chairman's Handbook;
The House of Commons: Illustrations of its History and Practice
(London, 1869); and Cromwell: an appreciation based on contem-
porary evidence (London, 1890). He also assisted to edit the
tenth edition of Erskine May's Law, Privileges, Proceedifigs and
Usage of Parliament (London, 1896).
PALGRAVE, FRANCIS TURNER (1824-1897), English critic
and poet, eldest son of Sir Francis Palgrave, the historian, was
born at Great Yarmouth, on the 28th of September 1S24. His
childhood was spent at Yarmouth and at his father's house in
Hampstead. At fourteen he was sent as a day-boy to Charter-
house; and in 1843, having in the meanwhile travelled exten-
sively in Italy and other parts of the continent, he proceeded
to Oxford, having won a scholarship at Balliol. In 1846 he
interrupted his university career to serve as assistant private
secretary to Gladstone, but returned to Oxford the next year,
and took a first class in Literae Humaniores. From 1847 to
1862 he was fellow of Exeter College, and in 1849 entered the
Education Department at Whitehall. In 1S50 he accepted the
vice-principalship of Knellcr HaU Training College at Twicken-
ham. There he came into contact with Tennyson, and laid the
foundation of a lifelong friendship. When the training college
was abandoned, Palgrave returned to Whitehall in 1855, becoming
examiner in the Education Department, and eventually
assistant secretary. He married, in 1862, Cecil Grenville Milnes,
daughter of James Milnes-Gaskell. In 1884 he resigned his
position at the Education Department, and in the following
year succeeded John Campbell Shairp as professor of poetry at
Oxford. He died in London on the 24th of October 1897, and
was buried in the cemetery on Barnes Common. Palgrave
published both criticism and poetry, but his work as a critic
was by far the more important. His Visions of England (1880-
1881) has dignity and lucidity, but httle of the " natural magic "
which the greatest of his predecessors in the Oxford chair
considered rightly to be the test of inspiration. His last volume
of poetry, Amenophis, appeared in 1892. On the other hand,
his criticism was always marked by fine and sensitive tact,
quick intuitive perception, and generally sound judgment.
His Handbook 10 the Fine Arts Collection, International Exhibition,
1862, and his Essays on Art (1866), though not free from
dogmatism and over-emphasis, were sincere contributions to
art criticism, full of striking judgments strikingly expressed.
His Landscape in Poetry (1897) showed wide knowledge and
critical appreciation of one of the most attractive aspects
of poetic interpretation. But Palgrave's principal contribution
to the development of literary taste was contained in his
Golden Treasury of English Songs and Lyrics (1861), an
anthology of the best poetry in the language constructed
upon a plan sound and spacious, and followed out with a
delicacy of feeling which could scarcely be surpassed. Palgrave
followed it with a Treasury of Sacred So)ig (1889), and a
second series of the Golden Treasury (1897), including the work
of later poets, but in neither of these was quite the same
exquisiteness of judgment preserved. Among his other works
were The Passionate Pilgrim (1858), a volume of selections
from Herrick entitled Chrysomela (1877), a memoir of Clough
(1862) and a critical essa.y on Scott (1866) prefixed to an
edition of his poems.
See Gwenllian F. Palgrave, F. T. Palgrave (1899).
PALI, the language used in daily intercourse between cultured
people in the north of India from the 7th century B.C. It con-
tinued to be used throughout India and its confines as a literary
language for about a thousand years, and is still, though in a
continually decreasing degree, the literary language of Burma,
Siam, and Ceylon. Two factors combined to give Pali its
importance as one of the few great hterary languages of the
world: the one pohtical, the other religious. The political factor
was the rise during the 7th century B.C. of the Kosala power.
Previous to this the Aryan settlements, along the three routes
they followed in their penetration into India, had remained
isolated, independent and small communities. Their language
bore the same relation to the Vedic speech as the various Italian
dialects bore to Latin. The welding together of the great Kosala
kingdom, more than twice the size of England, in the very
centre of the settled country, led insensibly but irresistibly to
the establishment of a standard of speech, and the standard
followed was the language used at the court at Savatthi in the
Nepalese hills, the capital of Kosala. When Gotama the Buddha,
himself a Kosalan by birth, determined on the use, for the
propagation of his religious reforms, of the living tongue
of the people, he and his followers naturally made full use of
the advantages already gained by the form of speech current
through the wide extent of his own country. A result followed
somewhat similar to the etiect, on the German language, of the
Lutheran reformation. When, in the generations after the
Buddha's death, his disciples compiled the documents of the
faith, the form they adopted became dominant. But local
varieties of speech continued to eLxst.
The etymology of the word Pali is uncertain. It probably
means " row, line, canon," and is used, in its exact technical
sense, of the language of the canon, containing the documents
of the Buddhist faith. But when Pah first became known to
Europeans it was already used also, by those who wrote in Pali,
of the language of the later writings, which bear the same relation
to the standard literary Pali of the canonical texts as medieval
PALI
631
does to classical Latin. A further extension of the meaning
in which the word Pali was used followed in a very suggestive
way. The first book edited by a European in Pali was the
Mahavamsa, or Great Chronicle of Ceylon, published there in
1S37 by Tumour, then colonial secretary in the island. James
Prinsep was then devoting his rare genius to the decipherment
of the early inscriptions of northern India, especially those of
Asoka in the 3rd century B.C. He derived the greatest assis-
tance from Tumour's work not only in historical information,
but also as regards the forms of words and grammatical intle.xions.
The resemblance was so close that Prinsep called the alphabet
he was deciphering the Pali alphabet, and the language expressed
in it he called the Pali language. This was so nearly correct
that the usage has been foOowed by other European scholars,
and is being increasingly adopted. It receives the support
of Mahanama, the author of the Great Chronicle, who wrote in
Ceylon in the 5th century a.d. He says (p. 253, ed. Turnour)
that Buddhaghosa translated the commentaries, then existing
only in Sinhalese, into Pali. The name here used by the
chronicler for Pah is " the Magadhi tongue," by which expression
is meant, not exactly the language spoken in Magadha, but the
language in use at the court of Asoka, king of Kosala and
Magadha. With this use of the word, philologically inexact,
but historically quite defensible, may be compared the use of
the word English, which is not exactly the language of the
Angles, or of the word French, which is not exactly the language
of the Franks. The question of Pali becomes therefore three-
fold: Pali before the canon, the canon, and the writings
subsequent to the canon. The present writer has suggested
that the word Pah should be reserved for the language of the
canon, and other words used for the earlier and later forms of
it;^ but the usage generally followed is so convenient that there
is little hkelihood of the suggestion being followed. The
threefold division will therefore be here adhered to.
For the history of Pali before the canonical books were composed
we have no direct evidence. None of the pre-Buddhistic sites have
as yet been excavated; and, with one doubtful exception, no
inscriptions older than the texts have as yet been found. We have
to argue back from the state of things revealed in the texts, of
various dates from 450-250 B.C., and in the inscriptions from that
date onwards. The inscriptions have now been subjected to a
very full critical and philological analysis in Professor Otto Franke's
Pali und Sanskrit (Strassburg, 1902). He shows that in the 3rd
century B.C. the language used throughout northern India was
practically one, and that it was derived directly from the speech
of the Vedic Aryans, retaining many Vedic forms lost in the later
classical Sanskrit. His list of such forms is much more complete
than that given by Childers in the introduction to his Dictionary
of the Pali Language. The particular form of this general speech
which was used as the lingua franca, the Hindustani of the period,
was the form in use in Kosala. Franke also shows that there were
local peculiarities in small matters of spelling and inflexion, and
that the particular form of the language used in and about the
Avanti district, of which the capital was Ujjeni (a celebrated
pre-Buddhistic city), was the basis of the language used in the
sacred texts as we now have them. Long ago Westcrgaard, Rhys
Davids and Ernst Kuhn," had made the same suggestion, mainly
on historical grounds, Mahinda, who took the texts to Ceylon,
having been born at Vedisa in that district. The careful and
complete collection, by Franke, of the philological evidence at
present available, has raised this hypothesis into a practical cer-
tainty. The inscriptions are at present scattered through a number
of learned periodicals; a complete list of all those that can be ap-
proximately dated between the 3rd century B.C. and the 2nd century
A.D. is given in the first chapter of Franke's book. M. E. Senart has
collected in his Inscriptions de Piyadasi (Paris, 1881-1886) those
inscriptions of Asoka which were known up to the date of his work,
subjecting them to a careful analysis, and providing an index to
the words occurring in them. What is greatly needed is a new
edition of this work including the Asoka inscriptions discovered
during the last twenty years, and a similar edition of the other
inscriptions. The whole of the Pali inscriptions so far discovered
might fill somewhat more than a hundred pages of text. An out-
line of the history of the Pali alphabet has been given, with illus-
trations and references to the authorities, in Rhys Davids's Buddhist
India, pp. 107-140.
' Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (1903), p. 398.
' Westergaard, Vber den dltesten Zeitraum der indischen Geschichle,
p. 87; Rhys Davids, Transactions of the Philological Society (1875),
p. 70; Kuhn, Beitrdge zur Pali Grammatik, 7-9. I
The canonical texts are divided into three collections called
Pitakas, i.e. baskets. This figure of speech refers, not to a
basket or box in which things can be stored, but to the baskets,
used in India in excavations, as a means of handing on the earth
from one worker to another. The first Pitaka contains the
Vinaya — that is, Rules of the Order; the second the Sullas, giving
the doctrine, and the third the Abliidhamma, analytical exercises
in the psychological system on which the doctrine is based.
These have now nearly all, mainly through the work of the Pali
Text Society, been published in PaU.
The Vinaya was edited in 5 vols, by H. Oldcnbcrg; and the more
important parts of it have been translated into English by Rhys
Davids and Oldenberg in their Vinaya Texts.
The Sutta Pitaka consists of five Nikayas, four principal and one
supplementary. The four principal ones have been published for
the Pali Text Society, and some volumes have been translated into
English or German. These four Nikayas, sixteen volumes in all,
arc the main authorities for the doctrines of early Buddhism.
The fifth Nikaya is a miscellaneous collection of treatises, mostly
very short, on a variety of subjects. It contains lyrical and ballad
poetry, specimens of early exegesis and commentary, lives of the
saints, collections of edifying anecdotes and of the now well-known
Jatakas or Birth Stories. Of these, eleven volumes had by 1910
been edited for the Pali Te.xt Society by various scholars, the
Jatakas and two other treatises had appeared elsewhere, and two
works (one a selection of lives of distinguished early Buddhists,
and the other an ancient commentary), were still in MS.
Of the seven treatises contained in the Abhidhamma Pitaka five,
and one-third of the sixth, had by 1910 been published by the Pali
Text Society; and one, the Dhamma Sangani, had been translated
by Mrs Rhys Davids. A description of the contents of all these
books in the canon is given in Rhys Davids's American Lectures,
pp. 44-86.
A certain amount of progress has been made in the historical
criticism of these books. Out of the twenty-nine works con-
tained in the three Pitakas only one claims to have an author.
That one is thcKathd Vatthti, ascribed to Tissa the son of Moggali,'
who presided over the third council held under Asoka. It is
the latest book of the third Pitaka. All the rest of the canonical
works grew up in the schools of the Order, and most of them
appear to contain documents, or passages, of different dates.
In his masterly analysis of the Vinaya, in the introduction to
his edition of the text. Professor Oldenberg has shown that there
are at least three strata in the existing presentation of the
Rules of the Order, the oldest portions going back probably to
the time of the Buddha himself. Professor Rhys Davids has put
forward similar views with respect to the Jatakas and the Sutta
Nipata in his Buddhist India, and with respect to the Nikayas
in general in the introduction to his Dialogues of the Buddha.
And Professor Windisch has discussed the legends of the tempta-
tion in his Mara und Buddha, and those relating to the Buddha's
birth in his Buddha's Geburt. It seems probable that the
Vinaya and the four Nikayas were put substantially into the
shape in which we now have them before the council at Vesali, a
hundred years after the Buddha's death; that slight alterations
and additions were made in them, and the miscellaneous Nikaya
and the Abhidhamma books completed, at various times down
to the third council under Asoka; and that the canon was then
considered closed. No evidence has yet been found of any
alterations made, after that time, in Ceylon; but there were
probably before that time, in India, other books, now lost, and
other recensions of some of the above.
Of classical Pali in northern India subsequent to the canon
there is but Httle evidence. Three works only have survived.
These are the M illnda-panha, edited by V. Trenckner, and
translated by Rhys Davids under the title Questions of King
Milinda; the Nctti Pakarat}a, edited by E. Hardy for the PaU
Text Society in 1902; and the Pctaka Upadesa. The former
belongs to the north-west, the others to the centre of India, and
all three may be dated vaguely in the first or second centuries a.d.
The first, a religious romance of remarkable interest, may owe
its preservation to the charm of its style, the others to the
accident that they were attributed by mistake to a famous
apostle. In any case they are the sole survivors of what must
' No doubt identical with Upagupta, the teacher of Asoka
(cf. Vincent Smith. Early History of India, 2nd ed.. 1908, and refs.).
632
PALIKAO
have been a vast and varied literature. Professor Takakusu has
shown the possibility of several complete books belonging to it
being still extant in Chinese translations,' and we may yet hope
to recover original fragments in central Asia, Tibet, or Nepal.
At p. 66 of the Gandha Vamsa, a modern catalogue of Pah
books and authors, written in PaU, there is given a hst of ten
authors who wrote Pah books in India, probably southern India.
We may conclude that these books are still extant in Burma,
where the catalogue was drawn up. Two only of these ten
authors are otherwise known. The first is Dhammapala, who
wrote in Kaiicipura, the modern Conjevaram in south India,
in the 5th century of our era. His principal work is a series of
commentaries on five of the lyrical anthologies included in the
miscellaneous Nikaya. Three of these have been published by
the Pah Text Society; and Professor E. Hardy has discussed in the
Zeitschrift der deutschcn morgcnldndischcn Gcscllschaft (1897),
pp. 105-127, all that is known about him. Dhammapala wrote
also a commentary on the Netti mentioned above. The second
is Buddhadatta, who wrote the Jindlaiikdra in the 5th century
A.D. It has been edited and translated by Professor J. Gray. It
is a poem, of no great interest, on the hfe of the Buddha.
The whole of these Pali books composed in India have been
lost there. They have been preserved for us by the unbroken
succession of Pah scholars in Ceylon and Burma. These
scholars (most of them members of the Buddhist Order, but
many of them laymen) not only copied and recopied the Indian
Pali books, but wrote a very large number themselves. We
are thus beginning to know something of the history of this
literature. Two departments have been subjected to critical
study: the Ceylon chronicles Dy Professor W. Geiger in his Mahc-
vamsa und Dlpavamsa, and the earlier grammatical works by
Professor O. Franke in two articles in the Journal of the Pali Text
Society for 1903, and in his Geschichte und Krilik dcr cinlieimischcv.
Pali Grammatik. Dr Forchhammer in his Jardinc Prize Essay,
and Dr Mabel Bode in the introduction to her edition of the
Sdsana-vamsa, have coUected many details as to the Pali
literature in Burma.
The results of these investigations show that in Ceylon from
the 3rd century B.C. onwards there has been a continuous
succession of teachers and scholars. Many of them lived in
the various viharas or residences situate throughout the island;
but the main centre of intellectual effort, down to the 8th
century, was the Maha Vihara, the Great Minster, at Anwradha-
pura. This was, in fact, a great university. Authors refer,
in the prefaces to their books, to the Great Minster as the source
of their knowledge. And to it students flocked from all parts
of India. The most famous of these was Buddhaghosa, from
Behar in North India, who studied at the ISIinster in the 5th
century a.d., and wrote there all his well-known works. Two
volumes only of these, out of about twenty still extant in MS.,
have been edited for the Pali Text Society. About a century
before this the Dipa-vamsa, or Island Chronicle, had been com-
posed in Pali verse so indifferent that it is apparently the work
of a beginner in Pah composition. No work written in Pah in
Ceylon at a date older than this has been discovered yet. It
would seem that up to the 4th century of our era the Sinhalese
had written exclusively in their own tongue; that is to say that
for six centuries they had studied and understood Pali as a dead
language without using it as a means of literary expression.
In Burma, on the other hand, where Pali was probably intro-
duced from Ceylon, no writings in Pali can be dated before the
nth century of our era. Of the history of Pah in Siam very
httle is known. There have been good Pah scholars there since
late medieval times. A very excellent edition of the twenty-
seven canonical books has been recently printed there, and
there exist in our European hbraries a number of PaU MSS.
written in Siam.
It would be too early to attempt any estimate of the value
of this secondary Pah literature. Only a few volumes, out of
several hundreds known to be extant in MS., have yet been
published. But the department of the chronicles, the only
' Journal of the PaU Text Society (1905), pp. 72, 86.
one so far at aU adequately treated, has thrown so much light
on many points of the history of India that we may reasonably
expect results equally valuable from the publication and study
of the remainder. The works on religion and philosophy especi-
ally will be of as much service for the history of ideas in these
later periods as the publication of the canonical books has
already been for the earlier period to which they refer. The
Pali books written in Ceylon, Burma and Siam will be our best
and oldest, and in many respects our only, authorities for the
sociology and politics, the literature and the religion, of their
respective countries.
Selected Authorities. — Texts: Pali Text Society (63 vols.,
1882-1908); H. Oldenberg, The Vinaya Pilakam (5 vols., London,
1879-1883); V. Fausboll, The Jataka {7 vols., London, l877-i8g7)*,
G. Turnour, The Mahavamsa (Colombo, 1837); H. Oldenberg,
The Dipavarnsa (London, 1879); V. Trenckncr, Milinda (London,
1880). Translations: Rhys Davids and H. Oldenberg, Vinaya
Texts (3 vols., Oxford, 1881-1885); Rhys Davids, Milinda (2 vols.,
Oxford, 1890-1894), Dialogues of the Buddha (Oxford, 1899)-.
H. C. Warren, Buddhism in Translations (Cambridge, Mass., 1896);
Mrs Rhys Davids, Buddhist Psychology (London, 1900); K. E.
Neumann, Reden des Gotamo Buddho (3 vols.., Leipzig, 1896-1898);
Licder der Monche und Nonnen (Berlin, 1899); Max Miiller and V.
Fausboll, Dhammapada and Sutta Ntpala (Oxford, 1881). Philology.
R. C. Childers, Dictionary of the Pali Language (London, 1872-
1875); Ernst Kuhn, Beitrdge zur Pali Grammatik (Berlin, 1875);
E. JvIuUer, Pali Gramynar (London, 1884); R O. FranKe, Geschichte
und Kritik der einheimischen Pali-Grammatik und Lexicographic,
and Pali und Sanskrit (Strassburg, 1902) ; D. .'Vndersen, Pali Reader
(London, 1904-1907) History (of the alphabet, language and
texts): Rhys Davids, American Lecnires (London, 3rd ed., 1908);
Buddhist India (London, 1903); E. Windisch, Mara und Buddha
(Leipzig, 1895), and Buddha's Gebiirt (Leipzig, 1908); W. Geiger,
Mahdvatnsa und Dii^avamsa (Leipzig, 1905); E. Forchhammer
Jardine Prize Essay (Rangoon, 1885); Dr Mabel Bode, SSsana-
vamsa (London, 1897; (T. W. R. D.)
PALIKAO, CHARLES GUILLAUME MAPJE APPOLLINAIRE
ANTOINE COUSIN MONTAUBAN, Comte de (1796 1878),
French general and statesman, was born in Paris on
the 24th of June 1796. As a cavalry officer young
Montauban saw much service in Algeria, but he was still
only a colonel when in 1S47 he effected the capture of Abd-
(?1-Kader. After rising to the rank ot general of division and
commanding the province of Constantine, he was appointed in
1858 to a command at home, and at the close of 1859 was
selected to lead the French troops in the joint French and
British expedition to China. His conduct of the operations did
not escape criticism, but in 1862 he received from Napoleon III.
the title of comte de Pahkao (from the action of that name);
he had already been made a senator. The allegation that he
had acquired a vast fortune by the plunder of the Pekin summer
palace seems to have been without foundation. In 1S65 he
was appointed to the command of the IV. army corps at Lyons,
in the training of which he displayed exceptional energy and
administrative capacity. In 1870 he was not given a command
in the field, but after the opening disasters tiad shaken the
OUivier ministry he was entrusted by the empress-regent with
the portfolio of war, and became president of the council
(Aug. 10). He at once, with great success, reorganized the
militar>' resources of the nation. He claimed to have raised
Marshal MacMahon's force at Chalons to 140,000 men, to have
created three new army corps, 33 new regiments and ioo,oco
gardes mobiles, and to have brought the defences of the capital
to a state of efficiency — aff this in twenty-four days. He con-
ceived the idea of sending the army of Chalons to raise the
blockade of Metz. The scheme depended on a precision and
rapidity of which the army of Chalons was no longer capable,
and ended with the disaster of Sedan. After the capitulation
of the emperor the dictatorship was offered to Palikao, but he
refused to desert the empire, and proposed to estabhsh a council
of national defence, with himself as " heutenant-general of
government." Before a decision was made, the chamber was
invaded by the mob, and Palikao fled to Belgium. In 1871 he
appeared before the parliamentary commission of inquiry, and
in the same year established Un Ministere de la guerre de vingt-
quatre jours. He died at Versailles on the 8th of January 1878.
PALIMPSEST— PALINGENESIS
633
PALIMPSEST. The custom of removing writing from the
surface of the material on which it had been inscribed, and
thus preparing that surface for the reception of another text,
has been practised from early times. The term palimpsest
(from Gr. iraXiv, again, and xj/do}, I scrape) is used by Catullus,
apparently with reference to papyrus; by Cicero, in a passage
wherein he is evidently speaking of waxen tablets; and by
Plutarch, when he narrates that Plato compared Dionysius
to a l3il3\lov iraSiixxpTqaTOV , in that his tyrant nature, being
dvctKirXvTOS. showed itself like the imperfectly erased writing of
a palimpsest MS. In this passage reference is clearly made to
the washing off of writing from papyrus. The word TraXt/ii^rjcrTos
can only in its first use have been applied to MSS. which were
actually scraped or rubbed, and which were, therefore, composed
of a material of sufficienl: strength to bear the process. In the
first instance, then, it might be applied to waxen tablets;
secondly, to vellum books. There are stOl to be seen, among
the surviving waxen tablets, some which contain traces of an
earlier writing under a fresh layer of wax. Papyrus could not
be scraped or rubbed; the writing was washed from it with the
sponge. This, however, could not be so thoroughly done as
to leave a perfectly clean surface, and the material was accord-
ingl)' only used a second time for documents of an ephemeral
or common nature. To apply, therefore, the title of palimpsest
to a MS. of this substance was not strictly correct; the fact that
it was so applied proves that the term was a common expression.
Traces of earlier writing are very rarely to be detected in extant
papyri. Indeed, the supply of that material must have
been so abundant that it was hardly necessary to go to the
trouble of preparing a papyrus, already used, for a second
writing.
In the early period of palimpsests, vellum MSS. were no
doubt also washed rather than scraped. The original surface
of the material, at all events, was not so thoroughly defaced
as was afterwards the case. In course of time, by atmospheric
action or other chemical causes, the original writing would to
some extent reappear; and it is thus that so many of the capital
and uncial palimpsests have been successfully deciphered. In the
later middle ages the surface of the vellum was scraped away
and the writing with it. The reading of the later examples is
therefore very difficult or altogether impossible. Besides actual
rasure, various recipes for eft'acing the writing have been found,
such as to soften the surface with milk and meal, and then to
rub with pumice. In the case of such a process being used,
total obliteration must almost inevitably have been the result.
To intensify the traces of the original writing, when such exist,
various chemical reagents have been tried with more or less
success. The old method of smearing the vellum with tincture
of gall restored the writing, but did irreparable damage by
blackening the surface, and, as the stain grew darker in course
of time, by rendering the text altogether illegible. Of modern
reagents the most harmless appears to be hydrosulphate of
ammonia; but this also must be used with caution.
The primary cause of the destruction of vellum MSS. by wilful
obliteration was, it need hardly be said, the dearth of material.
In the case of Greek MSS., so great was the consumption of old
codices for the sake of the material, that a synodal decree of the
year 691 forbade the destruction of MSS. of the Scriptures or
the church fathers — imperfect or injured volumes excepted.
The decline of the vellum trade also on the introduction of paper
caused a scarcity which was only to be made good by recourse
to material already once used. Vast destruction of the broad
quartos of the early centuries of our era took place in the period
which followed the fall of the Roman Empire. The most valuable
Latin palimpsests are accordingly found in the volumes which
were remade from the 7th to the 9th centuries, a period during
which the large volumes referred to must have been still fairly
numerous. Late Latin palimpsests rarely yield anything of
value. It has been remarked that no entire work has been
found in any instance in the original text of a palimpsest, but
that portions of many works have been taken to make up
a single volume. These facts prove that scribes were indis-
criminate in supplying themselves with material from any old
volumes that happened to be at hand.
An enumeration of the different palimpsests of value is not here
possible (see Wattenliach, Sihriflweseri, 3r(l ed., pp. 299-317;; but
a few may be mentioned of which facsimiles are accessible. The
MS. in the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris, known as the Codex
Ephraemi, containing portions of the Old and New Testaments in
Greek, attributed to the 5ih century, is covered with works of
Ephraem Syrus in a hand of the 12th century (ed. Tischendorf,
1843, 1S45). Among the Syriac MSS. obtained from the Nitrian
desert in Egypt, and now deposited in the British Museum, some
important Greek texts have been recovered. A volume containing
a work of Severus of Antioch of the beginning of the 9th century
is written on palimpsest leaves taken from MSS. of the Iliad of
Homer and the Gospel of St Luke, both of the 6th century (Cat.
.inc. MSS. vol. i., pis. 9, 10), and the Elements of Euclid of the 7th or
nth century. To the same collection belongs the double palimpsest,
in which a text of St John Chrysostom, in Syriac, of the 9th or
loth century, covers a Latin grammatical treatise in a cursive
hand of the 6th century, which in its turn has displaced the Latin
annals of the historian Granius Licinianus, of the 5th century
(Cat. Anc. MSS. ii., pis. i, 2). Among Latin palimpsests also
may be noticed those which have been reproduced in the Exempla
of Zangemeister and Wattenbach. These are — the Ambrosian
Plautus, in rustic capitals, of the 4th or 5th century, re-written
with portions of the Bible in the 9th century (pi. 6); the Cicero
De repiihlica of the Vatican, in uncials, of the 4th century, covered
l)y St .'\ugustine on the Psalms, of the 7th century (pi. 17; Pal.
Soc, pi. 160); the Codex Theodosianus of Turin, of the 5th or 6th
century (pi. 25); the Fasti Consulates of Verona, of a.d. 486
(pi. 29) ; and the Arian fragment of the Vatican, of the 5th century
(pi. 31). Most of these originally belonged to the mona.stery of
Bobbio, a fact which gives some indication of the great literary
wealth of that house. By using skill and judgment, with a favour-
ing light, photography may be often made a useful agent in the
decipherment of obscure palimpsest te.\ts. (E. M. T.)
PALINDROME (Gr. toKlv, again, and5p6juo5, a course), a verse
or sentence which runs the same when read either backwards
or forwards. Such is the verse —
Roma tibi subito motibus ibit amor;
or
Signa te, signa, temere me tangis et angis;
or
Som.e have refined upon the palindrome, and composed verses
each word of which is the same read backwards as forwards:
for instance, that of Camden —
Odo tenet mulum, rnadidam mappam tenet Anna,
Anna tenet mappam madidam, mulum tenet Odo.
The following is still more complicated, as reading in four
ways — upwards and downwards as well as backwards and
forwards: —
s A T o R
A R E P O
TENET
OPERA
ROTAS
PALINGENESIS (Gr. ■koKi.v, again, ytviais, becoming, birth),
a term used in philosophy, theology and biology. In philosophy
it denotes in its broadest sense the theory {e.g. of the Pytha-
goreans) that the human soul does not die with the body but
is " born again " in new incarnations. It is thus the equivalent
of metempsychosis {q.v.). The term has a narrower and more
specific use in the system of Schopenhauer, who applies it to
his doctrine that the will does not die but manifests itself afresh
in new individuals. He thus repudiates the primitive metem-
psychosis doctrine which maintains the reincarnation of the par-
ticular soul. The word " palingenesis '' or rather " palingenesia ''
may be traced back to the Stoics, who used the term for the
continual re-creation of the universe by the Demiurgus (Creator)
after its absorption into himself. Similarly Philo speaks of
Noah and his sons as leaders of a " renovation " or " re-birth "
of the earth. Josephus uses the term of the national restoration
of the Jews, Plutarch of the transmigration of soids, and
Cicero of his own return from exile. In the New Testament
the properly theological sense of spiritual regeneration is found,
though the word itself occurs onlj' twice; and it is used by the
church fathers, e.g. for the rite of baptism or for the state of
repentance. In modern biology {e.g. Haeckel and Fritz Miiller)
634
PALISSY
" palingenesis " has been used for the exact reproduction of
ancestral features by inheritance, as opposed to " kenogenesis "
(Gr. Kaivbs new), in which the inherited characteristics are
modified by environment.
PALISSY, BERNARD (1510-1589), French potter (see Cera-
mics), is said to have been born about 15 10, either at Saintes or
Agen, but both date and locality are uncertain. It has been stated,
on insufficient authority, that his father was a glass-painter and
that he served as his father's apprentice. He tells us that he
was apprenticed to a glass-painter and that he also acquired
in his youth the elements of land-surveying. At the end of his
apprenticeship he followed the general custom and became a
travelling workman; acquiring fresh knowledge in many parts
of France and the Low Countries, perhaps even in the Rhine
Provinces of Germany and in Italy.
About 1539 it appears that he returned to his native district
and, having married, took up his abode at Saintes. How he
lived during the first years of his married life we have little
record except when he tells us, in his autobiography, that he
practised the arts of a portrait-painter, glass-painter and land-
surveyor as a means of livelihood. It is known for instance
that he was commissioned to survey and prepare a plan of the
salt marshes in the neighbourhood of Saintes when the council
of Francis I. determined to establish a salt tax in the Saintonge.
It is not quite clear, from his own account, whether it was
during his Wanderjahr or after he settled at Saintes that he was
shown a white enamelled cup which caused him such surprise
that he determined to spend his life — to use his own expressive
phrase " like a man who gropes in the dark " — in order to
discover the secrets of its manufacture. Most writers have
supposed that this piece of fine white pottery was a piece of the
enamelled majolica of Italy, but such a theory will hardly bear
examination. In Palissy's time pottery covered with beautiful
white tin-enamel was manufactured at many centres in Italy,
Spain, Germany and the South of France, and it is inconceivable
that a man so travelled and so acute should not have been well
acquainted vAlh its appearance and properties. What is much
more hkely is that Palissy saw, among the treasures of some
nobleman, a specimen of Chinese porcelain, then one of the
wonders of the European world, and, knowing nothing of its
nature, substance or manufacture, he set himself to work to
discover the secrets for himself. At the neighbouring village
of La Chapelle-des-Pots he mastered the rudiments of peasant
pottery as it was practised in the 16th century. Other equip-
ment he had none, except such indefinite information as he
presumably had acquired during his travels of the manufacture
of European tin-enamelled pottery.
For nearly sixteen years Palissy laboured on in these wild
endeavours, through a succession of utter failures, working with
the utmost diligency and constancy but, for the most part,
without a gleam of hope. The story is a most tragic one; for
at times he and his family were reduced to the bitterest poverty;
he burned his furniture and even, it is said, the floor boards of
his house to feed the fires of his furnaces; sustaining meanwhile
the reproaches of his wife, who, with her little family clamouring
for food, evidently regarded these proceedings as little short
of insanity. All these struggles and failures are most faithfully
recorded by Palissy himself in one of the simplest and most
interesting pieces of autobiography ever written. The tragedy
of it all is that Palissy not only failed to discover the secret of
Chinese porcelain, which we assume him to have been searching
for, but that when he did succeed in making the special type of
pottery that will always be associated with his name it should
have been inferior in artistic merit to the contemporary produc-
tions of Spain and Italy. His first successes can only have been
a superior kind of " peasant pottery " decorated with inodelled
or applied reliefs coloured naturalistically with glazes and
enamels. These works had already attracted attention locally
when, in 1548, the constable de Montmorency was sent into
the Saintonge to suppress the revolution there. Montmorency
protected the potter and found him employment in decorating
with his glazed terra-cottas the chateau d'Ecouen. The
patronage of such an influential noble soon brought Palissy
into fame at the French court, and although he was an avowed
Protestant, he was protected by these nobles from the ordin-
ances of the parliament of Bordeaux when, in 1562, the property
of all the Protestants in this district was seized. Palissy's
workshops and kilns were destroyed, but he himself was saved,
and, by the interposition of the all-powerful constable, he was
appointed " inventor of rustic pottery to the king and the
queen-mother"; about 1563, under royal protection, he was
allowed to establish a fresh pottery works in Paris in the vicinity
of the royal palace of the Louvre. The site of his kilns indeed
became afterwards a portion of the gardens of the Tuileries.
For about twenty-five years from this date Palissy lived and
worked in Paris. He appears to have been a personal favourite
of Catherine de'Medicis, and of her sons, in spite of his profession
of the reformed religion.
Working for the court, his productions passed through many
phases, for besides continuing his " rustic figulines " he made a
large number of dishes and plaques ornamented with scriptural
or mythological subjects in relief, and in many cases he appears
to have made reproductions of the pewter dishes of Franfois
Briot and other metal workers of the period. During this
period too he gave several series of public lectures on natural
history — the entrance fee being one crown, a large fee for those
days — in which he poured forth all the ideas of his fecund mind.
His ideas of springs and underground waters were far in
advance of the general knowledge of his time, and he was one
of the first men in Europe to enunciate the correct theory of
fossils.
The close of Palissy's life was quite in keeping with his
active and stormy youth. Like Ambroise Pare, and some other
notable men of his time, he was protected against ecclesiastical
persecution by the court and some of the great nobles, but in
the fanatical outburst of 1588 he was thrown into the Bastille,
and although Henry III. ofi'ered him his freedom if he would
recant, Palissy refused to save his life on any such terms. He
was condemned to death when nearly eighty years of age, but
he died in one of the dungeons of the Bastille in 1580.
Palissy's Pottery. — The technique of the various wares he
made shows their derivation from the ordinary peasant pottery
of the period, though Palissy's productions are, of course, vastly
superior to anything of their kind previously made in Europe.
It appears almost certain that he never used the potter's wheel,
as all his best known pieces have evidently been pressed into
a mould and then finished by modelhng or by the application of
ornament moulded in relief. His most characteristic produc-
tions are the large plates, ewers, oval dishes and vases to which
he applied reahstic figures of reptiles, fish, shells, plants and
other objects. This is, however, not the work of an artist, but
Rustic Plate by Palissy.
that of a highly gifted naturahst at the dawn of modern science,
who dehghted to copy, with faithful accuracy, aU the details
of reptiles, fishes, plants or shells. We may be sure that bis
fossil shells were not forgotten, and it has been suggested, with
great probability, that these pieces of Palissy's were only
PALITANA— PALLADIO
635
manufactured after his removal to Paris, as the shells are always
well-known forms from the Eocene deposits of the Paris basin.
Casts from these objects were fixed on to a metal dish or vase
of the shape required, and a fresh cast of the whole formed a
mould from which Pahssy could reproduce many articles of
the same kind. The various parts of each piece were painted
in realistic colours, or as nearly so as could be reached by the
pigments Palissy was able to discover and prepare. These
colours v/ere mostly various shades of blue from indigo to ultra-
marine, some rather vivid greens, several tints of browns and
greys, and, more rarely, yellow. A careful examination of the
most authentic Palissy productions shows that they excel in the
sharpness of their modelling, in a perfect neatness of manu-
facture and, above all, in the subdued richness of their general
tone of colour. The crude greens, bright purples and yellows are
only found in the works of his imitators; whilst in the marbled
colours on the backs of the dishes Palissy's work is soft and
well fused, in the imitations it is generally dry, even harsh and
uneven. Other pieces, such as dishes and plaques, were orna-
mented by figure subjects treated after the same fashion,
generally scriptural scenes or subjects from classical mythology,
copied, in many cases, from works in sculpture by contemporary
artists.
Another class of designs used by Palissy were plates, tazze
and the like, with geometrical patterns moulded in relief and
pierced through, forming a sort of open network. Perhaps the
most successful, as works of art, were those plates and ewers
which Palissy moulded in exact facsimile of the rich and delicate
works in pewter for which Franfois Briot and other Swiss
metal-workers were so celebrated. These are in very slight
relief, executed with cameo-hke finish, and are mostly of good
design belonging to the school of metal-working developed by
the Italian goldsmiths of the i6th century. Palissy's ceramic
reproductions of these metal plates were not improved by the
colours with which he picked out the designs.
Some few enamelled earthenware statuettes, full of vigour and
expression, have been attributed to Palissy; but it is doubtful
whether he ever worked in the round. On the whole his productions
cannot be assigned a high rank as works of art, though they have
always been highly valued, and in the 17th century attempts were
made, both at Delft and Lambeth, to adapt his " rustic " dishes
with the reliefs of animals and human figures. These imitations
are very blunt in modelling and coarsely painted. They are
generally marked on the back in blue with initials and a date —
showing them to be honest adaptations to a dififerent medium,
not attempts at forgery such as have been produced during the last
fifty years or so. One of the first signs of the revival of old French
faience, a movement that was in great activity between 1840 and
1870, was the appearance of copies of Palissy's " Bestiole " dishes,
made with great skill and success by Avisseau of Tours, and after-
wards by Pull of Paris. Though both these men produced original
W'Orks of their own, collectors have had great cause to regret the
excellence of their copies, for many of the best, being unmarked,
have found their way into good collections. The well-known
potter, Barbizct, who set out to make " Palissys " for the million,
flooded France for a time with rude copies that ought never to have
deceived anyone.
The best collections of Palissy's ware are those in the museums
of the Louvre, the Hotel Cluny, and Sevres; and in England that in
the Victoria and Albert Museum, together with a few choice
specimens in the British Museum and in the Wallace Collection.
As an author, Palissy was undoubtedly more successful than as a
potter. A very high position amongst French writers is assigned
to him by Lamartine (B. Palissy, 8vo., Paris, 1852). He wrote
with vigour and simplicity on a great variety of subjects, such as
agriculture, natural philosophy, religion, and especially in his
L'Art de terrc, where he gives an account of his processes and how
he discovered them.
See Morley, Life of Palissy (1855); Marryat, Pottery (1850, pp.
31 seq.); A. Dumesnil, B. Palissy, le potter de terre (1851); A. Tain-
turier, Terres cmailUes de Palissy (1863); Delecluzc, B. Palissy
(1838); Enjubault, L'Art ceramiqtie de B. Palissy (1858); Audiat,
Etude stir la vie . . . de B. Palissy (1868); H. Delange, Monographic
de I'ceiivre de B. Palissy (1862). For Palissy as a Huguenot, see
Rossignol, Des Protestantes illustres. No. iv. (1861). The best English
account of Palissy as a potter is that given by M. L. Solon, the
most distinguished pottery-artist of the 19th century, in his History
and Description of tJie Old French Faience (1903). (W. B.*)
PALITANA, a native state of India in the Kathiawar agency
of the Bombay presidency. Area, 289 sq. m.; pop. (1901),
52,856, showing a decrease of 15% in the decade. The chief is
a Gohcl Rajput, with the title of Thakur Sahib. Gross revenue,
£42,000; tribute jointly to the gaekwar of Baroda and the nawab
of Junagarh, £700. The capital of the state is Palitana;
pop. 12,800. Above the town to the west rises the hill of
Satrunja, sacred to the Jains. On this hiU, which is truly a
city of temples, all the peculiarities of Jain architecture are
found in a marked degree. Some of the temples are as old as
the nth century, and they are spread over the intervening
period down to the present. The hill is visited by crowds of
pilgrims every year.
See J. Burgess, Notes of a Visit to Satrunjaya HiU (Bombay, 1869).
PALK STRAITS, the channel lying between the mainland
of India and the island of Ceylon. It is named after Robert
Paik, governor of Madras (1755-1763). The straits lie north
of the line of reefs called Adam's Bridge, while the Gulf of
Manaar lies south of it. The two channels are connected by the
Pamban passage.
PALL, a word the various meanings of which can be traced
to the Latin word pallium, that is, a piece of cloth used either
as a covering or as a garment. In the last sense the paUiiim was
the Iixoltlov, the square or oblong-shaped outer garment of the
Greeks. In the sense of a garment the English usage of " pall "
is confined to the ecclesiastical vestment (see Pallium) and to
the supertunica or dalmatic, the pallium regale or imperial
mantle, one of the principal coronation vestments of British
sovereigns. The heraldic bearing known as a " pall " takes
the form of the Y of the ecclesiastical vestment. The chief
applications of the word, in the sense of a covering, are to an
altar frontal, to a linen cloth used to veil the chalice in the
Catholic service of the Eucharist, and to a heavy black, purple
or white covering for a cofiin or hearse. The livery companies of
London possessed sumptuous state palls for the funerals of their
members, of which some are still in existence. The Merchant
Taylors' company have two examples of Italian workmanship.
The so-called " Walworth pall " of the Fishmongers' company
probably dates from the i6th century. The Vintners' pall is
of cloth of gold and purple velvet, with a figure of St Martin
of Tours, the company's patron saint.
An entirely different word is " to pall," to become or make stale,
insipid or tasteless, hence to cease to interest from constant repeti-
tion ; this is a shortened form of " appal " (O. Fr. appallir, to become
pale; Lat. pallidus).
PALLA, Pala, or Impala, the native name of a red South
African antelope of the size of a fallow-deer, characterized by
the large black lyrate horns of the bucks, and the presence in
both sexes of a pair of glands on the back of the hind feet
bearing a tuft of black hairs. On the east side the palla
{Aepyceros niclampus) ranges as far north as the southern
Sudan; but in Angola it is replaced by a species or race {Ae.
petersi) with a black " blaze " down the face. Pallas associate
in large herds on open country in the neighbourhood of water.
(See Antelope.)
PALLADIAN, the term given in English architecture to
one of the phases of the Italian Renaissance, introduced into
England in 1620 by Inigo Jones, a great admirer of the works
of Andrea Palladio (g.v.). In 1716, Richard Boyle, 3rd earl
of Burlington, who also admired the works of Palladio, copied
some of them, the front of old Burlington House being more
or less a reproduction of the Palazzo Porto at Vicenza, and the
villa at Chiswick a copy of the Villa Capua near Vicenza. It
is probably due to Lord Burlington that the title Palladian is
the designation for the Italian style as practised in England.
In 1S62 Sir Gilbert Scott's Gothic design for the new government
oft'ices was rejected and Lord Palmerston selected in preference
the Palladian style. In France and America, Barozzi \'ignole
(1507-1573), another Italian architect, holds a similar position
as the chief authority on the Italian Renaissance.
PALLADIO, ANDREA (1518-1580), Italian architect, was
born in Vicenza on the 30th of November 1518. The works
of Vitruvius and Alberti were studied by him at an early period,
and his student life was spent in Rome, where he was taken by
636
PALLADIUM
his patron Count Trissino. In 1547 he returned to \'icenza;
where he designed a very large number of fine buildings — among
the chief being the Palazzo della Ragione, with two storeys
of open arcades of the Tuscan and Ionic orders, and the Bar-
barano, Porti and Chieregati palaces. Most of these buildings
look better on paper than in reality, as they are mainly built
of brick, covered with stucco, now in a very dilapidated con-
ilition; but this does not affect the merit of their design, as
Palladio intended them to have been executed in stone. Pope
Paul III. sent for him to Rome to report upon the state of St
Peter's. In Venice, too, Palladio built many stately churches
:ind palaces, such as S. Giorgio Maggiore, the Capuchin church,
and some large palaces on the Grand Canal. His last great
work was the Teatro Olimpico at Vicenza, which was finished,
though not altogether after the original design, by his pupil and
fellow citizen Scamozzi.
In addition to his town buildings Palladio designed many
country villas in various parts of northern Italy. The villa of
Capra is perhaps the finest of these, and has frequently been
imitated. Palladio was a great student of classical literature,
and published in 1575 an edition of Caesar's Commentaries
with notes. His / qualtro lihri dell' archilettura, first published
at Venice in 1570, has passed into countless editions, and been
translated into every European language. The original edition
is a small folio, richly illustrated with well-executed full-page
woodcuts of plans, elevations, and details of buildings —
chiefly either ancient Roman temples or else palaces designed
and built by himself. Among many others, an edition with
notes was published in England by Inigo Jones, most of whose
works, and especially the palace of Whitehall, of which only
the banqueting room remains, owed much to Palladio's inspira-
tion. The style adopted and partially invented by Palladio
expressed a kind of revolt against the extreme licence both of
composition and ornament into which the architecture of his
time had fallen. He was fascinated by the stateliness and pro-
portion of the buildings of ancient Rome, and did not reflect
that reproductions of these, however great their archaeological
accuracy, could not but be lifeless and unsuited to the wants
of the 1 6th century. Palladio's carefully measured drawings
of ancient buildings are now of great value, as in many cases
the buildings have altogether or in part ceased to exist.
Authorities. — Montanari, Vita di Andrea Palladio (1749) ; Rigato,
Osservazioni sopra Andrea Palladio (181 1); Magrini, Menwrie
intorno la vita di Andrea Palladio (1845); Milizia, Menwrie degli
architetti, ii. 35-54 (1781); Symonds, Renaissance in Italy — Fine
Arts, pp. 94-99; Zanella, Vita di Andrea Palladio (Milan, 1880);
Barichella, Vita di Andrea Palladio (Lonigo, 1880).
PALLADIUM (Gr. TraWaSiov), an archaic wooden image
i^oavov) of Pallas Athena, preserved in the citadel of Troy as
a pledge of the safety of the city. It represented the goddess,
standing in the stiff archaic style, holding a spear in her right
hand, in her left a distaff and spindle or a shield. According
to Apollodorus (iii, 12, 3) it was made by order of Athena,
and was intended as an image of Pallas, the daughter of Triton,
whom she had accidentally slain, Pallas and Athena being thus
regarded as two distinct beings. It was said that Zeus threw
it down from heaven when Ilus was founding the city of Ihum,
Odysseus and Diomedes carried it off from the temple of Athena,
and thus made the capture of Troy possible. According to
some accounts, there was a second Palladium at Troy, which
was taken to Italy by Aeneas and kept in the temple of Vesta
at Rome. Many cities in Greece and Italy claimed to possess
the genuine Trojan Palladium. Its theft is a frequent subject
in Greek art, especially of the earlier time.
PALLADIUM [symbol Pd, atomic weight 106-7 (0=i6)],
in chemistry, a metallic element associated with the platinum
group. It is found in platinum ores, and also in the native
condition and associated with gold and silver in Brazilian
gold-bearing sand. Many methods have been devised for the
isolation of the metal from platinum ore. R. Bunsen {An7i..
1868, 146, p. 265), after removing most of the platinum as
ammonium platinochloride, precipitates the residual metals
of the group by iron; the resulting precipitate is then heated
with ammonium chloride and evaporated with fuming nitric
acid, the residue taken up in water, and the palladium precipi-
tated as potassium palladium chloride. This is purified by
dissolving it in hot water and evaporating the solution with
oxalic acid, taking up the residue in potassium chloride, and
filtering otY any potassium platinochloride formed. The filtrate
deposits potassium palladium chloride, which on heating in a
current of hydrogen leaves a residue of the metal. Rocssler (Zeit.
f. chemie, 1866, p. 175) precipitates both platinum and palladium
as double chlorides, the resulting mixed chlorides being reduced
to the metals by ignition in hydrogen, taken up in aqua regia,
the solution neutralized, and the palladium precipitated by
mercuric cyanide. See also T. Wilm {Bcr., 1880, 13, p. 1198;
1881, 14, p. 620; 1882, 15, p. 241) on its separation as pallados-
ammine chloride, and Cox (Phil. A:lag., 1843, 23, p. 16) on the
separation of palladium from Brazilian gold sand. Pure
palladium may be obtained by the reduction of the double
chloride (NH4)2 PdCU in a current of hydrogen, or of palladious
chloride with formic acid.
It is a ductile metal of silvery lustre, with a specific gravity of
11-97 (o°C.). It is the most easily fusible of the metals of the
platinum group, its melting-point being about 1530-1550° C.
(L. Holborn and F. Henning, Sitzb. Akad. Berlin, 1905, p. 311).
It readily distils when heated in the electric furnace. Its mean
specific heat between 0° and t°C. is 0-0582 -}- o-oocoiot
(J. Violle, Camples rendus, 1879, 89, p. 702). Palladium finds
application in the form of alloys for astronomical instruments,
in dentistry, and in the construction of springs and movements
of clocks. Native palladium is dimorphous. It is soluble in
nitric acid, more especially if the acid contains oxides of nitrogen,
and when obtained in the finely divided condition by reduction
of its salts, it is to some extent soluble in hydrochloric acid. It
also dissolves in boiling concentrated sulphuric acid and in
hydriodic acid. It oxidizes when fused with caustic alkalis.
It combines with fluorine and with chlorine at a dull red heat,
but not with iodine, whilst bromine has scarcely any action on
the metal. It combines with sulphur directly, and according
to T. Wilm {Ber., 1882, 15, p. 2225) forms the oxide Pd;0,
when heated in a current of air.
Two series of salts are known, namely, palladious salts and palladic
salts, corresponding to the two oxides PdO and Pd02. Of these
the palladious salts only are stable, the palladia salts readily passing
into the palladious form on boiling with water. The palladium
compounds show a complete analogy with the corresponding
platinum salts. All the salts of the metal when heated decompose
and leave a residue of the metal; the metal may also be obtained
from solutions of the salts by the addition of zinc, iron, formic
acid, phosphorus and hot alcohol. Sulphuretted hydrogen gives
with palladium salts a precipitate of palladium sulphide which is
insolu'ole in ammonium sulphide; mercuric chloride gives the
characteristic yellowish precipitate of palladious chloride, and
potassium iodide the black palladious iodide which dissolves en
addition of excess of the precipitant. These two latter reactions
may be used for the recognition of palladium, as may also the
behaviour of the salts with ammonia, this reagent giving a brown
precipitate, which turns to a red shade, and is soluble in a large
excess of the precipitant to a clear solution, from which by adding
hydrochloric acid a yellow precipitate of palladosammine chloride,
Pd(NH3)2Cl2, is obtained. Palladium is permeable to hydrogen at
a temperature of 240° C. and upwards. It absorbs hydrogen and
other gases, the heat of occlusion being 4640 calories per gram
of hydrogen. The occluded hydrogen is strongly bound to the
metal, only traces of the gas being given off on standing in vacuo,
but it is easily removed when heated to ico° C. T. Graham {Phil.
Mag., 1866-1869) was of the opinion that the occluded h\drogen
underwent great condensation and behaved as a quasi-metal (to
which he gave the name " hydrogenium "). forming an alloy with the
palladium; but L. Troost and P. Hautefeuille (Aim. chitn. phys.,
1874. (5) 2, p. 279") considered that a definite compound of com-
position Pd.H was formed. The more recent work of C. Hoitsema
{Zeit. phys. chim., 1895, 17, p. i) however, appears to disprove the
formation of a definite compound (see also J. Dewar, Phil. Mag.,
1874, (4) 47- PP- 324. 342). A palladium hydride was obtained by
Graham by the reduction of palladious sulphate with sodium
hypophosphite. It is an unstable black powder, which readily
loses hydrogen at 0° C. C. Paal and J. Gerum (Ber.. igcB,
41, p. 818) have shown that when palladium black is suspended in
water one volume of the metal combines with 1204 volumes of
hydrogen, or in the atomic proportion Pd/H = i/-g8.
PALLADIUS— PALLAS
637
Palladious oxide, PdO, is a black powder furmed by heating
spongy pallndium to a dull red heat in a current of oxygen or by
gentle ignition of the nitrate. It is insoluble in acids, is easily
reduced, and decomposes when heaterl. Falladic oxide, PdOz, is
obtained in the hydrated condition, PdOa-HHjO, by the action of
ozone on palladious chloride; by the electrolytic oxidation of palladi-
ous nitrate in slightly acid solution (L. Wohler) ; and l)y the action
of caustic potash on potassium palladio-chloride, the liquid being
neutralized with acetic acid (I. Bellucci, Zett. uiwrf^. Clii-ni., 1905,
47, p. 287). It is a dark red or brown coloured powder, which loses
oxygen on heating. When boiled with water it passes into the
lower oxide. It is an energetic oxidizing agent, and when freshly
prepared is soluble in dilute mineral acids. A hydrated form of
the monoxide, PdO-KHjO, is obtained by hydrolyzing a faintly
acid solution of the nitrate (L. Wcihlcr, Zeit. anorg. Chein., 1905, 46,
p. 323), or by the action of a slight excess of caustic soda on the
double chloride KzPdClc. It is a dark brown powder which loses
its water of hydration when dried in air, and in the dry condition
is difficultly soluble in acids. By the electrolytic oxidation of
palladious nitrate L. Wchler and F. Martin (lb., 1908, 57, p. 398),
obtained a hydrated oxide, PdjOa-iiHjO, as a dark brown powder
which dissolves in hydrochloric acid, forming an unstable chloride.
Palladious chloride, PdClj, is obtained as a deliquescent crystalline
mass when spongy palladium is heated to dull redness in a current
of dry chlorine. A hydrated form, of composition PdCl2-2ll20,
results on dissolving palladium in aqua regia, containing only a
small proportion of nitric acid. It crystallizes from water as a
reddish-brown solid. It absorbs hydrogen and is easily reduced.
It combines with carbon monoxide to form compounds of com-
position PdCl2-2CO; 2PdCl2-3CO; PdClj-CO (E. Fink, Camples
Rendiis, 1898, 126, p. 646), and can be used for the determination
of the amount of carbon monoxide in air (Potain and R. Drouin,
lb., 1898, 126, p. 938). On treatment with dry ammonia gas it
yields palladodiammine chloride, PdlNHsjiClj. Palladious chloride
combines with hydro.xylamine to form the compounds Pd(NH30)4Cl2
and Pd(NH,iO)2Cl2. The first results from the action of hydroxyl-
aniine on the chloride in the presence of sodium carbonate, and
may be isolated as the free base. The other is thrown down as a
yellow granular precipitate when a small quantity of dilute hydro-
chloric acid is added to the base, Pd(Nll30)4(OH)2 (S. Feisel and
A. Nowak, Ann., 1907, 351, p. 439). The chloride PdCU is only
known in acid solution, and is obtained when palladium is dissolved
in aqua regia or when palladic oxide is dissohxxl in concentrated
hydrochloric acid. The solution is brown in colour and gradually
loses chlorine, being converted into palladious chloride. Both
chlorides combine with many other metallic chlorides to form
characteristic double salts, the double potassium salts having the
formulae K2PdCl,i and I^PdCls. The former may be prepared by
adding an excess of potassiimi chloride to palladious chloride, or
by boiling K2PdCl8 with a large excess of water. It crystallizes
in prisms which are readily soluble in water but are practically
insoluble in absolute alcohol. It is decomposed by direct heating,
and also by heating in a current of hydrogen. The latter compound
is formed when chlorine is passed into a warm aqueous solution of
the former or by dissolving palladium in aqua regia and saturating
the solution with potassium chloride. It crystallizes in scarlet
octahedra which darken on heating, and decompose when strongly
heated. It is slightly soluble in cold water, but dissolves in warm
dilute hydrochloric acid. When boiled with alcohol it is reduced
to the metallic condition.
The subsulphidc, Pd2S, is obtained as a hard, green coloured
mass when palladosammine chloride is fused with sulphur or v/hen
the sulphide PdS is fused with sulphur and ammonium chloride.
It loses sulphur slowly when heated and is insoluble in acids. Pal-
ladious sulphide, PdS, is obtained by precipitation of the corres-
ponding salts with sulphuretted hydrogen, or by the action of dry
sulphuretted hydrogen gas on palladosammine chloride. As prt>-
pared in the dry way it is a hard, blue coloured, insoluble mass,
but if obtained by precipitation is of a brownish-black colour and
is soluble in nitric acid. When heated in air it oxidizes to a basic
sulphate. The disulphide, PdSo, is a brownish-black crystalline
powder which is formed when the double ammonium palladium
chloride (NH4)2PdCl6 is heated to redness with caustic soda and
sulphur. It combines with the alkaline sulphides. It graciually
loses sulphur on heating, and is easily soluble in aqua regia. A
sulphide of composition PdjSi has been described (R. Schneider,
Pagg. Ann., 1873, 148, p. 625).
Palladium sulphale, PdS04-2H20, is obtained by dissolving the
oxide in sulphuric acid, or by the action of nitric and sulphuric
acids on the metal. It forms a reddish-brown, deliquescent,
crystalline mass, and is easily soluble in water, but in the presence
of a large excess of water yields a basic sulphate. Palladium
nitrate, Pd(N'03)2, crystallizes in brownish-yellow deliquescent
prisms and is obtained by dissolving the metal in nitric acid. It
is very soluble in water, and its aqueous solution decomposes on
boiling, with precipitation of a basic nitrate. Palladium cyanide,
Pd(CN)2, is obtained as a yellowish precipitate when pal'ladiuin
chloride is precipitated by mercuric cyanide. It is insoluble in
water, and on heating decomposes into palladium and cyanogen.
It is soluble in solutions of the alkaline cyanides, with formation
of double cyanides of the type K2Pd(CN)<. On account of its
insoluliility and its stability it is useful for the separation of palla-
dium from the other metals of tin- plalinum group.
The palladium salts combine with ammo!;ia to form characteristic
compounds, which may be gn)U|)c-d into two main divisions:
(1) the palladanmiines (palladosamniines) of type [Pd(NH,-i)jX2l,
and (2) the palladodiammmes [Pd(NIl3)/,]X2. The palladosammines
are obtained by adding a large excess of ammonia to the palladious
salts, the resulting clear solution being then precipitated by the
mineral acid corres|)onding to the salt used. This method of pre-
])aration serves well for the chloride, from which other salts may be
obtained by double decomposition. These salts are fairly stable,
and arc red, yellov; or orange in colour. The palladodiammine
salts are mostly colourless, and are not very stable; acids convert
them into the palladosammines, and they lose two molecules of
ammonia very easily. They are formed by the action of a large
excess of ammonia on the palladious salts or on the corresponding
palladosammine salts in the presence of water.
Numerous determinations of the atomic weight of palladium
have been made, the values obtained varying from 105-7 to I07'249
( .ee Amcr. Chem. Jour., 1899, 2i, p. 943; Ann., 1905, 341, p. 235;
Jour. Chem. Soc, 1894, 65, p. 20). The International Commission
on Atomic Weights, 1909, recount .several new determinations:
Haas (Dissertation, Eriangcn, 1908) from reduction of palladosam-
mine bromide obtamed the value 106-7; Kemmerer ( r/(ej;s, Penn-
sylvania, 1908), from reduction of the corresponding chloride and
cyanide obtains a mean value of 106-434; whilst A. Gutbicr and his
collaborators, from analyses of palladosammine chloride and
bromide, obtained the values 106-64=^=0-03 and 106-65 ±0-02 from
the chloride, and 106-655 from the bromide {Jour. pr. chem., 1909,
ii. 79, pp. 235, 457).
PALLADIUS, RUTILIUS TAURUS AEMILIANUS, a Roman
author of the 4lh century A.D. He wrote a poem on agriculture
{De re ruslica) in fourteen books, the material being derived
from Columella and other earlier writers. The work is con-
veniently arranged, but far inferior in every other respect to
that of Columella.
There is a modern German edition by Schmitt (Leipzig, i8g8).
PALLANZA, a small industrial town and summer and
winter resort of the province of Novara, Piedmont, Italy. 659 ft.
above sea-level. Pop. (1901), 4619 (town); 5247 (commune). It
occupies a position of great natural beauty, on a promontory
on the W. of Lago Maggiorc, with a semicircle of mountains
behind and the lake and Borromean Islands in front, 62 m. N.
of Novara direct. The annual mean temperature is 55° Fahr.;
January, 37-1°, July, 74°. There is a fine botanical garden.
PALLAS, PETER SIMON (1741-1811), German naturaKst
and traveller, was born in Berlin on the 22nd of September
1 741, the son of Simon Pallas, surgeon in the Prussian army
and professor of surgery in Berlin. He was intended for the
medical profession, arid studied at the universities of BerHn,
Halle, Gottingen and Leiden. He early displayed a strong
leaning towards natural history. In 1761 he went to England,
where for a year he devoted himself to a thorough study of the
collections and to a geological investigation of part of the coast;
and at the age of twenty-three he was elected a foreign member
of the Royal Society. He then spent some time in Holland,
and the results of his investigations appeared at the Hague in
1766 in his Elcnchus Zoopliylovum aitd Miscellanea Zoologica,
and in 1767-1804 in his Spicilcgia Zoologica (Berlin). In 1768
he accepted the invitation of the empress Catharine II. to fill
the professorship of natural history in the Imperial Academy
of Science, St Petersburg, and in the same year he was appointed
naturalist to a scientific expedition through Russia and Siberia,
the immediate object of which was the observation of the transit
of Venus in 1769. In this leisurely journey Pallas went by
Kasan to the Caspian, spent some time among the Kalmucks,
crossed the Urals to Tobolsk, visited the Altai mountains,
traced the Irtish to Kolj'van, went on to Tomsk and the Yenisei,
crossed Lake Baikal, and extended his journey to the frontiers
of China. Few explorations have been so fruitful as this six
years' journey. The leading results were given in his Reisen
durch ver.'schiedene Frovinzcn dcs riissischcn Reichs (3 vols.,
St Petersburg, 1 771-17 76), richly illustrated with coloured
plates. A French translation in 1788-1793, in 8 vols., with
9 vols, of plates, contained, in addition to the narrative, the
natural history results of the expedition; and an English trans-
lation in three volumes appeared in 181 2. As special results
638
PALLAVICINO, F.— PALLIUM
of this great journey may be mentioned Sammlungen hislorischcr
Nachriclitcn iiber die mongolischen V olkerschajlcn (2 vols.,
St Petersburg, 1776-1S02); Novae species quadrupedum, 177S-
1770; Pallas's contributions to the dictionary of languages of
the Russian empire, 1786-1780; Icones insectonim, praesertim
Rossiae Siberiaeque peculiarium, 1781-1S06; Zoographia rosso-
asiatica (3 vols., 183 1); besides many special papers in the
Transactions of the academies of St Petersburg and Berlin.
The empress bought Pallas's natural history collections for
20,000 roubles, 5000 more than he asked for them, and allowed
him to keep them for life. He spent a considerable time in
1793-1794 in visiting the southern provinces of Russia, and was
so greatly attracted by the Crimea that he determined to take
up his residence there. The empress gave him a large estate
at Simpheropol and 10,000 roubles to assist in equipping a
house. Though disappointed with the Crimea as a place of
residence, Pallas continued to Uve there, devoted to constant
research, especially in botany, till the death of his second wife
in iSio, when he removed to Berlin, where he died on the Sth
of September 181 1. The results of his journey in southern
Russia were given in his Bcmerkungen auf einer Reise durch die
sUdlichen Stattlialterscliajtoi desrussischen Reichs (Leipzig, 1799-
1801; English translation by Blagdon, vols, v.-viii. of Modern
Discoveries, 1802,' and another in 2 vols., 1812). Pallas also
edited and contributed to Nene nordischc Beilrdge zur physi-
Iial schen Erd- und Vollzerbeschreibimg, Natiirgeschichle, und
Oekonomie (1781-1796), published Illustrationes planiarum
imperfcete vel nondum cognitanim (Leipzig, 1S03), and con-
tributed to Buffon's Natural History a paper on the formation
of mountains.
See the essay of Rudolphi in the Transactions of the Berlin
Academy for 1812 ; Cuvier's Eloge in his Recucil des eloges historiques,
vol. ii.; and the Life in Jardine's Naturalists' Library, vol. iv.
(Edin., 1843).
PALLAVICINO, FERRANTE (1618-1644), Itahan writer of
pasquinades, a member of the old Italian family of the Palla- j
vicini, was born at Piacenza in 161 8. He received a good
education at Padua and elsewhere, and early in Hfe entered
the Augustinian order, residing chiefly in Venice. For a year
he accompanied Ottavio Piccolomini, duke of Amalfi, in his
German campaigns as field chaplain, and shortly after his return
he published a number of
clever but exceedingly scurri-
lous satires on the Roman
curia and on the powerful
house of the Barberini, which
was so keenly resented at Rome
that a price was set on his
head. A Frenchman, Charles
de Breche, decoyed him from
Venice to the neighbourhood
of Avignon, and there betrayed
him. After fourteen months'
imprisonment he was beheaded
at Avignon on the 6th of
March, 1644.
His Opere permesse was pub-
lished at Venice in 1655, but being,
as may be imagined, inferior in scurrility and grossness (Palla-
vicino's specialities), are much less prized by the curious than the
Opere scelte (Geneva, 1660), which were more than once reprinted
in Holland, and were translated into German in 1663.
PALLAVICINO (or Palla vicini), PIETRO SFORZA (1607-
1667), Italian cardinal and historian, son of the Marquis Ales-
sandro PaUavicino of Parma, was born at Rome in 1607. Having
taken holy orders in 1630, and joined the Society of Jesus in
1638, he successively taught philosophy and theology in the
Collegium Romanum; as professor of theology he was a member
of the congregation appointed by Innocent X. to investigate the
Jansenist heresy. In 1659 he was made a cardinal by Alexander
VII. He died at Rome on the sth of June 1667. PaUavicino
is chiefly known by his history of the council of Trent, written
in Italian, and pubhshed at Rome in two folio volumes in 1656-
1657 (2nd ed., considerably modified, in 1666). In this he
continued the task begun by Terenzio Alciati, who had been
commissioned by Urban VIII. to correct and supersede the very
damaging work of Sarpi on the same subject. Alciati and
PaUavicino had access to many important sources from the use
of which Sarpi had been precluded; the contending parties,
however, are far from agreed as to the completeness of the
refutation. The work was translated into Latin by a Jesuit
named Giattinus (Antwerp, 1670-1673). There is a good
edition of the original by Zaccharia (6 vols., Faenza, 1792-1799).
It v/as translated into German by Klitsche in 1835-1837. He
also WTote a hfe of Alexander VII. and a tragedy (Ennenegildo,
1644), &c.
His collected Opere were published in Rome in 1844-1848.
PALLIUM or Pall (derived, so far as the name is concerned,
from the Roman pallium or palla, a woollen cloak) , an ecclesi-
astical vestment in the Roman CathoUc Church, originally
peculiar to the pope, but for many centuries past bestowed by
him on all metropolitans, primates and archbishops as a symbol
of the jurisdiction delegated to them by the Holy See. The
pallium, in its present form, is a narrow band, " three fingers
broad," woven of white lamb's wool, with a loop in the centre
resting on the shoulders over the chasuble, and two dependent
lappets, before and behind; so that when seen from front or
back the ornament resembles the letter Y. It is decorated
with six purple crosses, one on each tail and four on the loop, is
doubled on the left shoulder, and is garnished, back and front,
with three jewelled gold pins. The two latter characteristics
seem to be survivals of the time when the Roman pallium, hke
the Greek u>txo4>bpLov was a simple scarf doubled and pinned on
the left shoulder.
The origin of the pallium as an ecclesiastical vestment is lost
in antiquity. The theory that explains it in connexion with the
figure of the Good Shepherd carrying the lamb on his shoulders,
so common in early Christian art, is obviously an explanation
a posteriori. The ceremonial connected with the preparation of
the pallium and its bestowal upon the pope at his coronation,
however, suggests some such symbolism. The lambs whose
wool is destined for the making of the pallia are solemnly
presented at the altar by the nuns of the convent of St Agnes at
Drawn by Father J. Braun, and
lUustrat
reproduced from his Die lilurgische Gewanduns by permission of E. Herder,
ion of the Development of the Pallium.
Rome at mass on St Agnes' day, during the singing of the
Agnus Dei. They are received by the canons of the Lateran
church and handed over by them to the apostohc subdeacons,
by whom they are put out to pasture tiU the time of shearing.
The pallia fashioned of their wool by the nuns are carried by
the subdeacons to St Peter's, where they are placed by the canons
on the bodies of St Peter and St Paul, under the high altar, for
a night, then committed to the subdeacons for safe custody. A
pallium thus consecrated is placed by the archdeacon over the
shoulders of the pope at his coronation, with the words " Receive
the paUium," i.e. the plenitude of the pontifical office, " to
the glory of God, and of the most glorious Virgin His Mother,
and of the blessed apostles St Peter and St Paul, and of the
Holy Roman Church."
PALL-MALL— PALM
639
The elaborate ceremonial might suggest an effort to symbolize
the command " Feed My lambs!" given to St Peter, and its
transference to Peter's successors. Some such idea underlies
the developed ceremonial; but the pallium itself was in its origin
no more than an ensign of the episcopal dignity, as it remains
in the East, where — under the name of ujxo<i>bpi.ov (wjuos,
shoulder, 4>tptii>, to carry) — it is worn by all bishops. More-
over, whatever symbolism may be evolved from the lambs' wool
is vitiated, so far as origins are concerned, by the fact that the
papal pallia were at one time made of white linen (see Johannes
Diaconus, Vita S. Gregorii M. lib. I V. cap. 8, pallium ejus bysso
candente contextum)}
The right to wear the pallium seems, in the first instance, to
have been conceded by the popes merely as a mark of honour.
The first recorded example of the bestowal of the pallium by
the popes is the grant of Pope Symmachus in 513 to Cacsarius
of Aries, as papal vicar. By the time of Gregory I. it was given
not only to vicars but as a mark of honour to distinguish
bishops, and it is still conferred on the bishops of Autun, Bam-
berg, Dol, Lucca, Ostia, Pavia and Verona. St Boniface caused
a reforming synod, between 840 and 850, to decree that in
future all metropolitans must seek their pallium at Rome (see
Boniface's letter to Cuthbert, 78, Monumcnla Germaniae, epis-
tolac, III.); and though this rule was not universally followed
even until the 13th century, it is now uncanonical for an arch-
bishop to exercise the functions proper to his office until the
pallium has been received. Every archbishop must apply for it,
personally or by deputy, within three months after his conse-
cration, and it is buried with him at his death (see Archbishop).
The pallium is never granted until after payment of consider-
able dues. This payment, originally supposed to be voluntary,
became one of the great abuses of the papacy, especially during
the period of the Renaissance, and it was the large amount
(raised largely by indulgences) which was paid by Albert, arch-
bishop of Mainz, to the papacy that roused Luther to protest.
Though the pallium is thus a vestment distinctive of bishops
having metropolitan jurisdiction, it may only be worn by them
within their jurisdiction, and then only on certain solemn occa-
sions. The pope alone has the right to wear everywhere and at
all times a vestment which is held to symbolize the plenitude
of ecclesiastical power.
See P. Hinschius, Kirchenrecht, II. 23 sqq. ; Gresar, " Das riimische
Pallium und die iiltesten Uturgischen Schiirpen " (in Festschrift
zum elfhundertjdhrigen Jubildum des campo santo in Rom, Freiburg,
1897); Du Cange, Glossarium s.v. "Pallium"; Joseph Braun,
Die liturgische Gewandung iin Occident und Orient (Freiburg-i-B.,
1907).
PALL-MALL, an obsolete English game of French origin,
called in France paillc-maille (from palla, ball, and malleus,
mallet). Sir Robert Dallington, in his Method for Travel (1598),
says: " Among all the exercises of France, I prefer none before
the Paille-Maille." James I., in his Basilikon doron, recom-
mended it as a proper game for Prince Henry, and it was actually
introduced into England in the reign of Charles I., or perhaps a
few years earlier. Thomas Blount's Glossographia (ed. 1670)
describes it as follows: " Pale Maille, a game wherein a round
bowle is with a mallet struck through a high arch of iron (stand-
ing at either end of an alley), which he that can do at the fewest
blows, or at the number agreed on, wins. This game was hereto-
fore used in the long alley near St James's, and vulgarly called
Pell-Mell." The pronunciation here described as " vulgar "
afterwards became classic. A mallet and balls used in the game
were found in 1845 and are now in the British Museum. The
mallet resembles that used in croquet, but its head is curved and
its ends sloped towards the shaft. The balls are of boxwood and
about one foot in circumference. Pepys describes the alley as of
hard sand " dressed with powdered cockle-shells." The length
of the alley varied, that at St James's being about 800 yds.
Some alleys had side walls.
' Father Joseph Braun, S.J., holds that the pallium, unlike
other vestments, had a liturgical origin, and that it was akin to
the scarves of olifice worn by priests and priestesses in pagan rites.
See Die poniificalen Gcwdnder des Ahendlandes, p. 174 (Freiburg-i-B.
Ib98).
PALLONE (Italian for "large ball," from palla, ball), the
national ball game of Italy. It is descended, as are all other
court games, such as tennis and jjclota, from the two ball games
played by the Romans, in one of which a large inflated ball,
called follis, was used. The other, probably the immediate
ancestor of pallone, was played with a smaller ball, the pila.
Pallone was played in Tuscany as early as the 14th century, and
is still very popular in northern and central Italy. It is played
in a court (sferisterio), usually 100 yds. long and 17 yds. wide.
A white line crosses the middle of the court, which is bounded on
one side by a high wall, the spectators sitting round the other
three sides, usually protected by wire screens. One end of the
court is called the battuta and the other the ribtattitta. At the
end of the battuta is placed a spring-board, upon which stands the
player who receives the service. The implements of the game
are the pallone (ball) and the braccialc (bat). The pallone is
an inflated ball covered with leather, about 45 in. in diameter.
The bracciale is an oak gauntlet, tubular in shape, and covered
with long spike-like protuberances. It weighs between five and
six pounds and is provided with a grip for the hand. The game
is played by two sides — blues and reds — of three men each,
the battitore (batter), spalla (back) and tcrzino (third). At the
beginning of a game the battitore stands on the spring-board
and receives the ball thrown to him on the bound by a seventh
player, the mandarino, who does duty for both sides. The batter
may ignore the ball until it comes to him to his liking, when he
runs down the spring-'ooard and strikes it with his bracciale
over the centre line towards his opponents. The game then
proceeds until a player fails to return the ball correctly, or hits
it out of bounds, or it touches his person. This counts a point
for the adversary. Four points make a game, counting 15, 30,
40 and 50.
See II Giuoco del pallone, by G. Franceschini (Milan, 1903).
PALM, JOHANN PHILIPP (1768-1806), German bookseller,
a victim of Napoleonic tyranny in Germany, was born at Schorn-
dorf, in Wiirttemberg, on the 17th of November 1768. Having
been apprenticed to his uncle, the publisher Johann Jakob
Palm (1750-1826), in Erlangen, he married the daughter of the
bookseller Stein in Nuremberg, and in course of time became
proprietor of his father-in-law's business. In the spring of 1806
the firm of Stein sent to the bookselling establishment of Stage
in Augsburg a pamphlet (presumably written by Philipp
Christian Yelin in Ansbach) entitled Deutschland in seiner tiefen
Ernicdrigiing (" Germany in her deep humiliation "), which
strongly attacked Napoleon and the behaviour of the French
troops in Bavaria. Napoleon, on being apprised of the violent
attack made upon his regime and failing to discover the actual
author, had Palm arrested and handed over to a military
commission at Braunau on the Bavarian-Austrian frontier, with
peremptory instructions to try and execute the prisoner within
twenty-four hours. Palm was denied the right of defence, and
after a mock trial on the 25th of August 1806 he was shot on the
following day. A life-size bronze statue was erected to his
memory in Braunau in 1S66, and on the centenary of his death
numerous patriotic meetings were held in Bavaria.
Sec F. Schultheis, Johann Philipp Palm (Nuremberg, i860);
and J. Rackl, Der niirnberger Buchhdndler Johann Philipp Palm
(Nuremberg, 1906).
PALM (Lat. palma, Gr. TraXa/xr;), originally the flat of the hand,
in which sense it is still used; from this sense the word was
transferred as a name of the trees described below. The
emblematic use of the word (= prize, honour) represents a
further transference from the employment of the palm-leaves
as symbols of victory.
The Palms (Palmaccac) have been termed the princes of the
vegetable kingdom. Neither the anatomy of their stems nor the
conformation of their flowers, however, entitles them to any such
high position in the vegetable hierarchy. Their stems are not
more complicated in structure than those of the common
butcher's broom {Ruscus); their flowers are for the most part
as simple as those of a rush {J uncus). The order Palmaceae
640
PALM
is characterized among monocotyledonous plants by the pre-
sence of an unbranched stem bearing a tuft of leaves at the
extremity only, or with
the leaves scattered;
these leaves, often gigantic
in size, being usually firm
in texture and branching
in a pinnate or palmate
fashion. The flowers are
borne on simple or branch-
ing spikes, very generally
protected by a spathe or
spathes, and each consists
typically of a perianth of
six greenish, somewhat
inconspicuous segments in
two rows, with six sta-
mens, or pistU of 1-3
carpels, each with a single
ovule and a succulent or
drv fruit, never dehiscent
(fig. I, A and B). The
seed consists almost ex-
clusively of endosperm or
albumen in a cavity in
which is lodged the rela-
tively very minute embryo
(fig. I, C). These are the general characteristics by which this
very well-defined order may be discriminated, but, in a group
containing considerably more than a thousand species, deviations
from the general plan of structure occur with some frequency.
As the characteristic appearances of palms depend to a large
extent upon these modifications, some of the more important
among them may briefly be noticed.
Taking the stem first, we may mention that it is in very many
palms relatively tail, erect, unbranched, regularly cylindrical,
Fig. I, A, B.-— Floral diagrams of a Palm
iChamaerops humilis).
A, male flower. B, female-flower.
C, Upper portion of Coco-nut seed,
showing e, embryo, embedded
in a, endosperm.
marked with circular scars indicating the position of those leaves
which have now fallen away. It varies in diameter from the
thickness of a reed (as in Chamaedorea) to a sturdy pillar-like
structure as seen in the date-palm. Palmyra palm (fig. 7) or
Talipot. In other cases the very slender stem is prostrate, or
Fig. 2. — Daemonorops Draco (a Rattan Palm).
I, Young shoot much reduced. 2, Part of stem bearing male
inflorescence. 3, Part of female inflorescence. 4, The same bearing
ripe fruits. 2, 3, 4, one-fourth nat. size.
or dilated below so as to form an elongated cone, either smooth,
or covered with the projecting remnants of the former leaves, or '
'After Bentley and Trimen, Medicinal Plants, by permission of Messrs J. & A.
Churchill.)
Fig. 3. — Areca Palm {Areca Catechu).
1, Tree, verj' much reduced.
2, Part of leaf, half nat. size.
3, Portion of inflorescence with
male flowers above, female
(larger) below, half nat. size.
4, Petal of a male flower.
5, Male flower opened by removal
of a petal.
6, Fruit, half nat. size.
7, 8, Same cut across,and length-
wise, p. Fibrous pericarp;
en, ruminated endosperm ; e,
embryo.
scandent by means of formidable hooked prickles which, by
enabling the plant to support itself on the branches of neigh-
bouring trees, also permit the stem to grow to a very great
length and so to expose the foliage to the light and air above the
tree-tops of the dense forests these palms grow in, as in the genus
Calamus, the Rattan or Cane palms. In some few instances the
trunk, or that portion of it which is above ground, is so short that
the plant is in a loose way called " stemless " or " acaulescent,"
as in Geonoma, and as happens sometimes in the only species
found in a wild state in Europe, Chamaerops humilis. The
vegetable ivory {Phylelcphas) of equatorial America has a very
short thick stem bearing a tall cluster of leaves which appears
to rise from the ground. In many species the trunk is covered
with a dense network of stiff fibres, often compacted together at
the free ends into spines. This fibrous material, which is so
valuable for cordage, consists of the fibrous tissue of the leaf-
stalk, which in these cases persists after the decay of the softer
portions. It is very characteristic of some pahns to produce from
the base of the stem a series of adventitious roots which gradually
thrust themselves into the soil and serve to steady the tree and
prevent its overthrow by the wind. The underground stem of
some species, e.g. of Calamus, is a rhizome, or root-stock, lengthen-
ing in a more or less horizontal manner by the development of
the terminal bud, and sending up lateral branches like suckers
from the root-stock, which form dense thickets of cane-like
stems. The branching of the stem above ground is unusual,
except in the case of the Doum palm of Egypt {Hyphacne), where
the stem forks, often repeatedly; this is due to the development
of a branch to an equal strength with the main stem. In other
PALM
641
cases branching, when present, is probably the result 01 some
injury to the terminal bud at the top of the stem, in consequence
of which buds sprout out from below the apex.
The internal structure of the stem does not differ fundamentally
from that of a typical monocotyledonous stem, the taller, harder
trunks owing their hardness not only to the fibrous or woody
skeleton but also to the fact that, as growth goes on, the originally
soft cellular ground tissue through which the fibres run becomes
hardened by the deposit of woody matter within the cells, so that
ultimately the cellular portions become as hard as the woody
fibrous tissue.
The leaves of palms are either arranged at more or less distant
intervals along the stem, as in the canes {Calamus, Daemonorops,
fig. 2, &c.), or are approximated in tufts at the end of the stem,
thus forming those noble crowns of foliage (figs. 5, 6, 7) which are
so closely associated with the general idea of a palm. In the
young condition, while still unfolded, these leaves, with the
succulent end of the stem from which they arise, form " the
cabbage," which in some species is highly esteemed as an article
of food.
The adult leaf very generally presents a sheathing base taper-
ing upwards into the stalk or petiole, and this again bearing the
lamina or blade. The sheath and the petiole very often bear stout
spines, as in the rattan palms (see fig. 2); and when, in course of
time, the upper parts of the leaf decay and fall off, the base of the
leaf-stalk and sheath often remain, either entirely or in their
fibrous portions only, which latter constitute the investment to
the stem already mentioned. In size the leaves vary within very
•wide limits, some being only
a few inches in extent, while
those of the noble Caryota
may be measured in tens of
feet. In form the leaves of
palms are very rarely simple ;
usually they are more or less
divided, sometimes, as in
Caryota, extremely so. In
species of Geonoma, Vers-
chafeltia and some others,
the leaf splits into two
divisions at the apex and not
FjG- 4- elsewhere; but more usually
1. Fruit of date-palm (Phoemx the leaves branch regularly
daclylijera) , nat. size. . r u- •
2, Same cut lengthwise showing m a palmate fashion as in
seed s. the fan - palms Latania,
Borassus (fig. 7), Chamaerops, Sahal, &c., or in a pinnate
fashion as in the feather-palms, Areca (fig. 3), Kentia, Calamus,
Daemonorops (fig. 2), &c. The form of the segments is generally
more or less linear, but a very distinct appearance is
given by the broad wedge-shaped leaflets of such palms as
Caryota, Martinezia or Mauritia. These forms run one into
another by transitional gradations; and even in the same palm
the form of the leaf is often very different at different stages of
its growth, so that it is a difficult matter to name correctly
seedling or juvenile palms in the condition in which we generally
meet with them in the nurseries, or even to foresee what the
future development of the plant is Hkely to be. Like the other
parts of the plant, the leaves are sometimes invested with hairs
or spines; and, in some instances, as in the magnificent Ccroxylon
andicola, the under surface is of a glaucous white or bluish
colour, from a coating of wax.
The inflorescence of palms consists generally of a fleshy spike,
either simple or much branched, studded with numerous, sometimes
extremely numerous, flowers, and enveloped by one or more sheath-
ing bracts called " spathes " (fig. 5). These parts may be small,
or they may attain relatively enormous dimensions, hanging down
from amid the crown of foliage like huge tresses, and adding greatly
to the noble effect of the leaves. In some cases, as in the Talipot
palm, the tree only flowers once; it grows for many years until it
has become a large tree then develops a huge inflorescence, and after
the fruit has ripened, dies.
The individual flowers are usually small (figs. 3, 6), greenish and
insignificant; their general structure has been mentioned already.
Modifications from the typical structure arise from difference of
texture, and specially from suppression of parts, in consequence of
which the flowers are very generally unisexual (figs. I, 3, 6), though
the flowers of the two sexes are generally produced on the same tree
(monoecious), not indeed always in the same season, for a tree in
Fig. 5. — Acrocomia sclerocarpa, much reduced.
sp, Spathe enveloping the fruits, 3, The same cut lengthwise,
shown on a larger scale in I. m. Fibrous mesocarp; en,
2, A fruit half nat. size. hard endocarp; s, seed.
one year may produce all male flowers and in the next all female
flowers. Sometimes the flowers are modified by an increase in the
number of parts; thus the usually six stamens may be represented
by 12 to 24 or even by hundreds. The carpels are usually three in
number, and more or less combined; but they may be free, and their
number may be reduced to two or even one. In any case each
carpel contains but a single ovule.
Owing to the sexual arrangements before mentioned, the pollen
has to be transported by the agency of the wind or of insects to the
female flowers. This is facilitated sometimes by the elastic move-
ments of the stamens and anthers, which liberate the pollen so
freely at certain times that travellers speak of the date-palms of
Egypt {Phoenix dactylifera) being at daybreak hidden in a mist
of pollen grains. In other cases fertilization is effected by the
agency of man, who removes the male flowers and scatters the
pollen over the fruit-bearing trees. This practice has been followed
in the case of the date from time immemorial; and it afforded one
of the earliest and most irrefragable proofs by means of which the
sexuality of plants was finally established. In the course of ripening
of the fruit two of the carpels with their ovules may become absorbed,
as in the coco-nut, the fruit of which contains only one seed though
the three carpels are indicated by the three longitudinal sutures and
by the presence of three germ-pores on the hard endocarp.
The fruit is various in form, size and character; sometimes, as in
the common date (fig. 4) it is a berry with a fleshy rind enclosing a
hard stony kernel, the true seed; the fruit of Areca (fig. 3) is similar;
sometimes it is a kind of drupe as in Acrocomia (fig. 5), or the coco-
nut, Cocos nucifera, where the fibrous central portion investing the
hard shell corresponds to the fleshy portion of a plum or cherry,
while the shell or nut corresponds to the stone of stone-fruits,
the seed being the kernel. In Borassus the three seeds are each
enclosed in a separate chamber formed by the stony endocarp
(fig. 7). Sometimes, as in the species of Metroxylon (fig. 6), Raphia,
Daemonorops (fig. 2), &c., the fruit is covered with hard, pointed,
reflexed shining scales, which give it a very remarkable appearance
The seeds show a corresponding variety in size and shape, but
XX. 21
642
PALMA, J.
always consist of a mass of endosperm, in which is embedded a
relatively vers' minute embryo (figs. I, 3, 6). The hard stone of
the date is the endosperm, the white oily flesh of the coco-nut is
the same substance in a softer condition; the so-called " vegetable
ivory " is derived from the endosperm of Phytelephas. In some
genera the inner seed coat becomes thickened along the course of
the vascular bundles and growing into the endosperm produces the
characteristic appearance in section known as ruminate — this is
well shown in the Areca nut (fig. 3).
Fig. 6. — Sago Palm {Melroxylon Sagus).
1, Apex of leaf. 6, Fruit.
2, Branchlet of fruiting spadix. 7, Fruit cut lengthwise, showing
3, Branchlet of male inflorescence. seed s and the minute em-
4, Spike of male flowers. bryo e which is embedded in
5, Same cut lengthwise. a horny endosperm.
I, 2, one-sixth nat. size; 3, one-tenth nat. size; 4, 5, one-third nat.
size; 6, 7, about one-half nat. size.
The order contains 132 genera with about 11 00 species mainly
tropical, but with some representatives in warm temperate
regions. Chamacrops humilis is a native of the Mediterranean
region, and the date-palm yields fruit in southern Europe as far
north as 38° N. latitude. In eastern Asia the Palms, like other
tropical families, extend along the coast reaching Korea and the
south of Japan. In America a few small genera occur in the
southern United States and California; and in South America
the southern limit is reached in the Chilean genus Jubaea (the
Chile coco-nut) at 37° S. latitude. The great centres of
distribution are tropical America and tropical Asia; tropical
Africa contains only 11 genera, though some of the species, like
the Doum palm {Hyphaene thebaica) and the Deleb or Palmyra
palm {Borassus flabellifer) have a wide distribution. With three
exceptions Old and New World forms are distinct — the
coco-nut {Cocos nucifera) is widely distributed on the coasts of
tropical Africa, in India and the South Seas, the other species
of the genus are confined to the western hemisphere. The oil
palm {Elaeis guineensis) is a native of west tropical Africa, the
other species of the genus is tropical American. Raphia has
also species in both tropical Africa and tropical America.
The 132 genera of the order are ranged under seven tribes,
distinguished by the nature of the foliage, the sexual condi-
tions of the flower, the character of the seed, the position of the
raphe, &c. Other characters serving to distinguish the minor
groups are afforded by the habit, the position of the spathes,
the " aestivation " of the flower, the nature of the stigma, the
ovary, fruit, &c.
It is impossible to overestimate the utility of palms. They
furnish food, shelter, clothing, timber, fuel, building materials,
sticks, fibre, paper, starch, sugar, oil, wax, wine, tannin, dyeing
materials, resin and a host of minor products, which render them
most valuable to the natives and to tropical agriculturists. The
Coco-nut palm, Cocos nucifera, and the Date palm. Phoenix dactyli-
fera, have been treated under separate headings. Sugar and liquids
capable of becoming fermented are produced by Caryota urens,
; ttiaie arij
Fig. 7. — Palmyra Palm {Borassus flabellifer), a female tree.
1, Portion of female inflorescence showing young fruits.
2, Fruit cut across showing the three seeds, all much reduced.
Cocos nucifera, Borassus flabellifer, Rhapis vinifera, Arenga sacchari-
fera. Phoenix silvestris, Mauritia vinifera, &c. Starch is procured
in abundance from the stem of the Sago palm, Melroxylon (fig. 6)
and others. The fleshy mesocarp of the fruit of Elaeis guineensis
of western tropical Africa yields, when crushed and boiled, " palm
oil." Coco-nut oil is extracted from the oily endosperm of the coco-
nut. Wax is exuded from the stem of Ceroxylon andicola and
Copernicia cerifera. A variety of " dragon's blood," a resin, is
procured from Daemonorops Draco and other species. Edible
fruits are yielded by the date, the staple food of some districts of
northern Africa. The coco-nut is a source of wealth to its possessors ;
and many of the species, e.g. Areca sapida (Cabbage-palm and
others), are valued for their " cabbage "; but, as this is the terminal
bud whose removal causes the destruction of the tree, this is a wasteful
article of diet unless care be taken by judicious planting to avert
the annihilation of the supplies. The famous " coco de mer," or
double coco-nut, whose floating nuts are the objects of so many
legends and superstitions, is known to science as Lodoicea seychet-
larurn. The tree is peculiar to the Seychelles, where it is used for
many useful purposes. Its fruit is like a huge plum, containing
a stone or nut like two coco-nuts (in their husks) united together.
These illustrations must suffice to indicate the numerous economic
uses of palms.
The only species that can be cultivated in the open air in England,
and then only under exceptionally favourable circumstances, are
the European Fan palm, Chamaerops humilis, the Chusan palm,
Trachycarpus Fortunci, &c., and the Chilean Jubaea spectabilis.
The date palm is commonly planted along the Mediterranean coast.
There are several low growing palms, such as Rhapis flabelliformis,
Chamaerops humilis, &c., which are suited for ordinary green-house
culture, and many of which, from the thick texture of their leaves,
are enabled to resist the dry and often gas-laden atmosphere of
living rooms.
PALMA, JACOPO (f. 1480-1528), Italian painter of the
\'enetian school, was born at Serinalta near Bergamo, towards
14S0, and died at the age of forty-eight in July 1528. He is
currently named Palma Vecchio (Old Palma) to distinguish him
from Palma Giovane, his grand-nephew, a much inferior painter.
His grandfather's name was Negretto. He is reputed to have
been a companion and competitor of Lorenzo Lotto, and to some
extent a pupil of Titian, after arriving in Venice early in the
PALMA— PALMELLA
643
i6th century; he may also have been the master of Bonifazio.
His earlier works betray the influence of the Bellini; but
modifying his style from the study of Giorgione and Titian,
Palma took high rank among those painters of the distinctively
Venetian type who remain a little below the leading masters.
For richness of colour he is hardly to be surpassed; but neither in
invention nor vigorous draughtsmanship does he often attain any
peculiar excellence. A face frequently seen in his pictures is
that of his (so-called) daughter Violante, of whom Titian was said
to be enamoured. Two works by Palma are more particularly
celebrated. The first is a composition of si.x paintings in the
Venetian church of S. Maria Formosa, with St Barbara in the
centre, under the dead Christ, and to right and left SS. Dominic,
Sebastian, John Baptist and Anthony. The second work is in
the Dresden Gallery, representing three sisters seated in the
open air; it is frequently named " The Three Graces." A third
fine work, discovered in Venice in 1900, is a portrait supposed to
represent Violante. Other leading examples are: the " Last
Supper," in S. Maria Mater Domini; a " Madonna," in the church
of S. Stefano in Vicenza; the " Epiphany," in the Brera of Milan;
the " Holy Family, with a young shepherd adoring," in the
Louvre; " St Stephen and other Saints," " Christ and the Widow
of Nain," and the " Assumption of the Virgin," in the Academy
of Venice; and "Christ at Emmaus," in the Pitti Gallery. The
beautiful portrait of the National Gallery, London, with a back-
ground of foliage, originally described as " Ariosto " and as by
Titian, and now reascribed to that master, was for some years
assumed to be an unknown poet by Palma Vecchio. It is cer-
tainly much more like the work of Titian than of Palma. In
1907 the Staedel Institute in Frankfort acquired an important
work by Palma Vecchio, identified by its director as an illustration
of Ovid's second Metamorphosis, and named " Jupiter and
Calisto."
Palma's grand-nephew, Palma Giovane, was also named
Jacopo (1544 to about 1626). His works belong to the decline
of Venetian art. (W. M. R.)
PALMA. or Palma de Mallorca, the capital of the Spanish
province of the Balearic Islands, the residence of a captain-
general, an episcopal see, and a flourishing seaport, situated
135 m. S.S.E. of Barcelona, on the south-west coast of Majorca,
at the head of the fine Bay of Palma, which stretches inland for
about 10 m. between Capes CalaFiguera and Regana. Pop. (1900),
63,937i including a colony of Jews converted to Christianity
{Chuclas). Palma is the meeting place of all the highways in the
island, and the terminus of the railway to Inca, Manacor, and
Alcudia. The ramparts, which enclose the city on all sides
except towards the port (where they were demolished in 1872),
have a circuit of a little more than 4 m. Though begun in 1562,
they were not finished till 1836. Palma underwent considerable
change in the 19th century, and the fine old-world Moorish char-
acter of the place suffered accordingly. The more conspicuous
buildings are the cathedral, the exchange, the royal palace, now
occupied by the captain-general, and the law courts, the episcopal
palace, a handsome late Renaissance building (1616), the general
hospital (1456), the town-house (end of the i6th century), the
picture gallery, and the college. The church of San Francisco is
interesting for the tomb of Raimon Lull, a native of Palma. The
cathedral was erected and dedicated to the Virgin by King James I.
of Aragon as he sailed to the conquest of Majorca; but, though
founded in 1230, it was not finished till 1601. The older and
more interesting portions are the royal chapel (r232), with the
marble sarcophagus of James II. (d. 131 1) which was erected here
in 1770; and the south front with the elaborately-sculptured
doorway known as df/ wuVjrfor (1389). The exchange (lonja), a
Gothic building begun in 1426, excited the admiration of the
emperor Charles V. Palma has a seminary founded in 1700, a
collection of archives dating from the 14th century, a school
and museum of fine arts, a nautical school and an institute
founded in 1836 to replace the old university (1503).
The harbour, formed by a mole constructed to a length of
387 yds. in the 14th century and afterwards extended to more
than 650 yds., has been greatly improved since 1S75 by dredging
and a further addition to the mole of 136 yds. Previously it
was not accessible to vessels drawing more than 18 ft. Palma
has frequent and regular communication by steamer with
Barcelona, Valencia and Alicante, Puertopi, about 2 m. south-
west of the city, was once a good harl)our, but is now fit only for
small craft. Palma has a thriving trade in grain, wine, oil,
almonds, fruit, vegctaljles, silk, foodstuffs and Uvestock. There
are manufactures of alcohol, hqueurs, chocolate, starch, sugar,
preserves, flour, soap, leather, earthenware, glass, matches,
paper, linen, woollen goods and rugs.
Palma probably owes, if not its existence, at least its name
(symboHzed on the Roman coins by a palm branch), to Metellus
Balearicus, who in 123 B.C. settled three thousand Roman and
Spanish colonists on the island. The bishopric dates from the
14th century. About i m. south-west of Palma is the castle of
Bcllver or Belbez, the ancient residence of the kings of Majorca.
Miramar, the beautiful country seat of the archduke Ludwig
Salvator of Austria, is 12 m. north of Palma.
PALMA, or San Miguel de la Palma, a Spanish island in the
Atlantic Ocean, forming part of the Canary Islands (q.v.).
Pop. (1900), 41,994; area 280 sq. m. Palma is 26 m, long, with
an extreme breadth of 16 m. It Hes 67 m. W.N.W. of Teneriffe.
It is traversed from north to south by a chain of mountains, the
highest of which is 7900 ft. above sea-level. At the broadest
part is a crater 9 m. in diameter, known as the Caldera (i.e.
cauldron). The bottom of the crater has an elevation of 2300 ft.,
and it is overhung by peaks that rise more than 5cx>o ft. above it.
Palma contains several mineral springs, but there is great want
of fresh water. The only stream which is never dried up is that
which issues from the Caldera. In 1677 an eruption, preceded
by an earthquake, took place from a volcano at the southern
extremity of the island, and much damage was done. Santa
Cruz de la Palma (pop. 7024) on the eastern coast is the principal
town. The anchorage is good.
PALM BEACH, a winter resort on the east coast of Florida,
U.S.A., in Palm Beach county, about 264 m. S. of St Augustine;
served by the Florida East Coast railway. It is situated on a
peninsula (about 30 m. long and i m. wide) separated from the
mainland by Lake Worth, an arm of the Atlantic Ocean, and
derives its name from the groves of coco-nut palms which fringe
the lake. The coco-nut was introduced here by chance, through
the wrecking, off the coast, in January 1879, of a coco-nut-laden
Spanish vessel. The Gulf Stream is within about i m. of the
shore, and the climate is mild and equable, the winter tempera-
ture normally ranging between 70° and 75° F. On the Atlantic
is the Breakers, a large hotel, and facing Lake Worth is the Royal
Poinciana, the largest hotel in the southern states. Palm Beach
has few permanent residents and is not incorporated. On the
mainland just across the lake is the city of West Palm Beach
(pop. in 1905, state census, 1280), a pleasure resort and the
county-seat of Palm Beach county (created in 1909).
PALM-CIVET, or Paeadoxure, the name of the members of
the civet-like genus Paradoxurns, represented by several species
mainly from south-east Asia. (See Carnivora.) Palm-civets
are mostly about the size of the domestic cat, or rather larger,
chiefly arboreal in habits, with dark uniform, spotted or striped
fur. The common Indian palm-civet {P. niger) ranges through-
out India, wherever there are trees, frequently taking up its
abodes in roof-thatch. Its diet consists of smaD mammals
and reptiles, birds and their eggs, fruit and vegetables. From
four to six young are brought forth at a litter, and are easily
tamed. Other species are the Ccylonese P. aureus, the brown
P. jerdoni, the Himalayan P. grayi and the Malayan P. Herma-
pltroditus. The small-toothed palm-civets, from the Malay
Archipelago, Sumatra and Java, have been separated from the
typical group to form the genus Arclogale. In Africa the group
is represented by two species of Nandmia, which show several
primitive characters.
PALMELLA, a town of Portugal, in the district of Lisbon
(formerly included in the province of Estremadura) ; at the north-
eastern extremity of the Serra da Arrabida, and on the Lisbon-
Set ubal railway. Pop. (1900), inclusive of the neighbouring
644
PALMER, SIR C. M.— PALMER, G.
village of Marateca, 11,478. Palmella is an ancient and
picturesque town, still surrounded by massive but ruined walls
and dominated by a medieval castle. Viticulture, market-
gardening and fruit-farming are important local industries.
PalmeUa was taken from the Moors in 1147 by Alphonso I.
(Affonso Henriques), and entrusted in 1186 to the knights of
Santiago. The title " duke of Palmella " dates from 1834, when
it was conferred on the statesman Pedro de Sousa-Holstein, count
of Palmella (17S1-1S50).
PALMER, SIR CHARLES MARK, Bart. (1822-1907), English
shipbuilder, was born at South Shields on the 3rd of November
1822. His father, originally the captain of a whaler, removed
in 1828 to Newcastle-on-Tyne, where he conducted a ship-
owning and ship-broking business. Charles Palmer at the age
of fifteen entered a shipping business in that town, whence, after
six months, he went to Marseilles, where his father had procured
him a post in a large commercial house, at the same time entrust-
ing him with the local agency of his own business. After two
years' experience at Marseilles he entered his father's business
at Newcastle, and in 1842 he became a partner. His business
capacity attracted the attention of a leading local colliery owner,
and he was appointed manager of the Marley Hill colhery in
which he became a partner in 1846. Subsequently he was made
one of the managers of the associated coUieries north and south
of the Tyne owned by Lord Ravensworth, Lord Wharnclille,
the marquess of Bute, and Lord Strathmore, and in due course he
gradually purchased these properties out of the profits of the
Marley Hill colliery. Simultaneously he greatly developed the
then recently-established coke trade, obtaining the coke contracts
for several of the large English and continental railways. About
1850 the question of coal-transport to the London market
became a serious question for north country colliery proprietors.
Palmer therefore built, largely according to his own plans, the
" John Bowes," the first iron screw-collier, and several other
steam-colliers, in a yard established by him at Jarrow, then a
small Tyneside village. He then purchased iron-mines in York-
shire, and erected along the Tyne at Jarrow large shipbuilding
yards, blast-furnaces, steel-works, roUing-niLUs and engine-
works, fitted on the most elaborate scale. The firm produced
war-ships as well as merchant vessels, and their system of rolling
armour plates, introduced in 1856, was generally adopted by
other builders. In 1865 he turned the business into Palmer's
Shipbuilding and Iron Company, Limited. In 1886 his services
in connexion with the settlement of the costly dispute between
British ship-owners and the Suez Canal Company (of which he was
then a director) were rewarded with a baronetcy. He died in
London on the 4th of June 1907.
PALMER, EDWARD HENRY (1840-1882), English orientalist,
the son of a private schoolmaster, was born at Cambridge, on the
7th of August 1840. He was educated at the Perse School, and
as a schoolboy showed the characteristic bent of his mind by
picking up the Romany tongue and a great familiarity with the
life of the gipsies. From school he was sent to London as a
clerk in the city. Palmer disliked this life, and varied it by
learning French and Italian, mairdy by frequenting the society
of foreigners wherever he could find it. In 1859 he returned to
Cambridge, apparently dying of consumption. He had an almost
miraculous recovery, and in i860, while he was thinking of a new
start in life, fell in with Sayyid Abdallah, teacher of Hindustani
at Cambridge, under whose influence he began his Oriental studies.
He matriculated at St John's College in November 1863, and in
1867 was elected a fellow on account of his attainments as an
orientalist, especially in Persian and Hindustani. During his
residence at St John's he catalogued the Persian, Arabic and
Turkish manuscripts in the university library, and in the libraries
of King's and Trinity. In 1867 he published a treatise on
Oriental Mysticism, based on the Maksad-i-Aksa of Aziz ibn
Mohammad Nafasi. He was engaged in 1869 to join the survey
of Sinai, undertaken by the Palestine Exploration Fund, and
followed up this work in the next year by exploring the desert of
El-Tih in company with Charles Drake (i 846-1 874). They
completed this journey on foot and without escort, making friends
among the Bedouin, to whom Palmer was known as " Abdallah
Effendi." After a visit to the Lebanon and to Damascus,
where he made the acquaintance of Sir Richard Burton, then
consul there, he returned to England in 1870 by way of Constanti-
nople and Vienna. At Vienna he met Arminius Vambery. The
results of this expedition appeared in the Desert of the Exodus
(1871); in a report pubhshed in the journal of the Palestine
Exploration Fund (1871); and in an article on the Secret Sects oj
Syria in the Quarterly Review (1873). In the close of the year
1871 he became Lord Almoner's Professor of Arabic at Cambridge,
married, and settled down to teaching. His salary was small,
and his affairs were further complicated by the long illness of his
wife, who died in 1878. In 1881, two years after his second
marriage, he left Cambridge, and joined the staff of the Standard
newspaper to write on non-political subjects. He was called to
the English bar in 1874, and early in 1882 he was asked by the
government to go to the East and assist the Egyptian expedition
by his influence over the Arabs of the desert El-Tih. He was
instructed, apparently, to prevent the Arab sheikhs from joining
the Egyptian rebels and to secure their non-interference with the
Suez Canal. He went to Gaza, without an escort made his way
safely through the desert to Suez — an exploit of singular boldness
— and was highly successful in his negotiations with the Bedouin.
He was appointed interpreter-in-chief to the force in Egypt,
and from Suez he was again sent into the desert with Captain
Wilham John Gill and Flag-Lieutenant Harold Charrington
to procure camels and gain the allegiance of the sheikhs by
considerable presents of money. On this journey he and his
companions were led into an ambush and murdered (August
1882). Their remains, recovered after the war by the efforts
of Sir Charles (then Colonel) Warren, now He in St Paul's
Cathedral.
Palmer's highest qualities appeared in his travels, especially in
the heroic adventures of his last journeys. His brilliant scholarship
is displayed rather in the works he wrote in Persian and other Eastern
languages than in his English books, which were generally written
under pressure. His scholarship was wholly Eastern in character,
and lacked the critical qualities of the modern school of Oriental
learning in Europe. All his works show a great linguistic range and
very versatile talent; but he left no permanent literary monument
worthy of his powers. His chief writings are The Desert of the
Exodus (1871), Poems of Belid ed Din (Ar. and Eng., 1876-1877),
Arabic Grammar (1874), History of Jerusalem (1871), by Besantand
Palmer — the latter wrote the part taken from Arabic sources;
Persian Dictionary (1876) and English and Persian Dictionary
(posthumous, 1883); translation of the Koran (1880) for the Sacred
Books of the East series, a spirited but not very accurate rendering.
He also did good service in editing the Name Lists of the Palestine
Exploration.
PALMER, ERASTUS DOW (181 7-1904), American sculptor,
was born at Pompey, New York, on the 2nd of April 1817. In
his leisure moments as a carpenter he started by carving portraits
in cameo, and then began to model in clay with much success.
Among his works are: " The White Captive " (1858) in the
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; "Peace in Bondage"
(1863); "Angel at the Sepulchre" (1865), Albany, New York;
a bronze statue of Chancellor Robert R. Livingston (1874), in
Statuary Hall, Capitol, Washington; and many portrait busts.
He died in Albany on the 9th of March 1904. His son, Walter
Launt Palmer (b. 1854), who studied art under Carolus-Duran
in Paris, became a member of the National Academy of Design
(1897), and is best known for his painting of snow scenes.
PALMER, GEORGE (1818-1897), British biscuit-manufacturer,
was born on the iSth of January 1818, at Long Sutton, Somerset-
shire, where his family had been yeomen-farmers for several
generations. The Palmers were Quakers, and George Palmer
was educated at the school of the Society of Friends at Sidcot,
Somersetshire. About 1832 he was apprenticed to a miller and
confectioner at Taunton, and in 1841, in conjunction with
Thomas Huntley, set up as a biscuit-manufacturer at Reading.
By the application of steam-machinery to biscuit-manufacture
the firm of Huntley & Palmer in a comparatively short time built
up a very large business, of which on the death of Huntley in
1857 George Palmer and his two brothers, Samuel and Wilham
Isaac Palmer, became proprietors. In the same year George
PALMER, J. McAULEY— PALMERSTON
645
Palmer was elected mayor of Reading, and from 1878-1885 he
was Liberal member of Parliament for the town. He died at
Reading, to which he had been a most generous benefactor, on
the 19th of August 1897. His sons, George William Palmer (b.
1851) and Sir Walter Palmer (b. 1858), displayed a like munifi-
cence, particularly in connexion with University College, Reading.
George William Palmer, besides being mayor of Reading,
represented the town in Parliament as a Liberal. Sir Walter
Palmer, who was created a baronet in 1904, became Conservative
member for Salisbury in 1900.
PALMER, JOHN McAULEY (1817-1900), American soldier
and political leader, was born at Eagle Creek, Kentucky, on the
13th of September 1817. In 1831 his family removed to Illinois,
and in 1839 he was admitted to the bar in that state He was
a member of the state constitutional convention of 1847. In
1852-1855 he was a Democratic member of the state Senate, but
joined the Republican party upon its organization and became
one of its leaders in Illinois. He was a delegate to the Republican
national convention in 1856 and a Republican presidential
elector in i860. In 1861 he was a delegate to the peace conven-
tion in Washington. During the Civil War he served in the
Union army, rising from the rank of colonel to that of major-
general in the volunteer service and taking part in the capture
of New Madrid and Island No. 10, in the battles of Stone River
and Chickamauga, and, under Thomas, in the Atlanta campaign.
He was governor of Illinois from 1869 to 1873. In 1872 he
joined the Liberal-Republicans, and eventually returned to the
Democratic party. In 1891-1897 he was a Democratic member
of the United States Senate. In 1896 he was nominated for the
presidency, by the " Gold-Democrats," but received no electoral
votes. He died at Springfield, Illinois, on the 25th of September
1900. '
S'jc The Personal Recollections of John M. Palmer — The Story of an
Earnest Life, published posthumously in 1901.
PALMER, RAY (1808-1887), American clergyman and hymn-
writer, was born in Little Compton, Rhode Island, on the 12th
of November 1808. He graduated at Yale College in 1830, and
in 1832 was licensed to preach by the New Haven West Associ-
ation of Congregational Ministers. In 1835-1850 he was pastor
of the Central Congregational Church of Bath, Maine, and in
1850-1866 of the First Congregational Church of Albany, New
York; and from 1866 to 1878 was corresponding secretary of the
American Congregational Union. He died on the 29th of March
1887 in Newark, New Jersey, where, from 1881 to 1884 he had
been assistant pastor of the Belleville Avenue Congregational
Church. His most widely known hymn, beginning " My faith
looks up to Thee, Thou Lamb of Calvary," was written in 1830,
was set to the tune " Olivet " by Lowell Mason, and has been
translated into many languages; his hymn beginning " Jesus,
these eyes have never seen " (1858) is also well-known.
Among the hymns translated by him are those beginning: "O
Christ, our King, Creator, Lord " (by Gregory the Great); " Come
Holy Ghost in love " (by Robert II. of France) ; " Jesus, thou Joy of
loving hearts " (by Bernard of Clairvaux) ; and " O, Bread to pilgrims
given " (from the Latin). Other hymns(someof them translations
from Latin) and poems were collected in his Complete Poetical Works
(1876), followed in 1880 by Voices of Hope and Gladness. He also
wrote Spiritual Improvement (1839), republished in 1 85 1 as Closet
Hours; Hints on the Formation of Religious Opinions (i860), and
Earnest Words on True Success in Life (1873).
PALMER, SAMUEL (1805-1881), English landscape painter
and etcher, was born in London on the 27th of January 1805.
He was delicate as a child, but in 1819 he exhibited both at the
Royal Academy and the British Institution; and shortly after-
wards he became intimate with John Linnell, who introduced
him to Varley, Mulready, and, above all, to William Blake, whose
strange and mystic genius had the most powerful effect on
Palmer's art. An illness led to a residence of seven years at
Shoreham in Kent, and the characteristics of the scenery of the
district are constantly recurrent in his works. Among the more
important productions of this time are the " Bright Cloud " and
the "Skylark," paintings in oil, which was Palmer's usual medium
in earlier life. In 1839 he married a daughter of Linnell. The
wedding tour was to Italy, where he spent over two years in
study. Returning to London, he was in 1843 elected an associate
and in 1854 a full member of the Society of Painters in Water
Colours, a method to which he afterwards adhered in his painted
work. His productions are distinguished by an excellent com-
mand over the forms of landscape, and by mastery of rich,
glowing and potent colouring. Among the best and most
important paintings executed by Palmer during his later years
was a noble series of illustrations to Milton's L'Allegro and II
Penseroso. In 1853 the artist was elected a member of the
English Etching Club. Considering his reputation and success
in this department of art, his plates are few in number. Their
virtues are not those of a rapid and vivid sketch; they aim rather
at truth and completeness of tonality, and embody many of the
characteristics of other modes of engraving — of mezzotint, of
line, and of woodcut. Readily accessible and sufficiently
representative plates maybe studied in the "Early Ploughman,"
in Etching and Etchers (ist ed.), and the "Herdsman's Cottage,"
in the third edition of the same work. In 1861 Palmer removed
to Reigate, where he died on the 24th of May 1881. One of his
latest efforts was the production of a series of etchings to illustrate
his English metrical version of Virgil's Eclogues, which was
published in 1883, illustrated with reproductions of the artist's
water-colours and with etchings, of which most were completed
by his son, A. H. Palmer.
PALMER, a township of Hampden county, Massachusetts,
U.S.A. Pop. (loio U.S. census) 8610. It has an area of about
31 sq. m. of broken hill country. Its chief village, also named
Palmer, about 15 m. east of Springfield, is on the Chiccpee river,
is served by the Boston & Albany and the Central Vermont
railways, and by an electric line to Springfield, and has varied
manufactures; the other villages are Thorndike, Bondsville,
and Three Rivers. The principal manufactures are cotton
goods, carpets and wire goods. Palmer was originally settled in
1 716, but received a notable accession of population from a
large Scotch-Irish colony which went from Ulster to Boston in
1 7 18. Their settlement was followed, apparently, by immigration
from Ireland in 1727. In 1752 the plantation was incorporated
as a " district," and under a general state law of 1775 gained the
legal rights of a township. Palmer was a centre of disaffection
in the time of the Shays Rebellion.
See T. H. Temple, History of the Town of Palmer . . . lyid-lSSg
(Palmer, 1889).
PALMER, a pilgrim who as a sign or token that he had made
pilgrimage to Palestine carried a palm-branch attached to his
staff, or more frequently a cross made of two strips of palm-leaf
fastened to his hat. The word is frequently used as synonymous
with " pilgrim " (see Pilgrtm.age). The name " palmer " or
" palmer-worm " is often given to many kinds of hairy cater-
pillars, specifically to that of the destructive tineicl moth,
Ypsilopbiis pomcteUa. The name is either due to the English
use of " palm " for the blossom or catkin of the willow-tree, to
which the caterpillars bear some resemblance, or to the wandering
pilgrim-like habits of such caterpillars. Artificial flies used
in angling, covered with bristling hairs, are known also as
" palmers " or " hackles."
PALMERSTON, HENRY JOHN TEMPLE, 3RD Viscount (1784-
1865), English statesman, was born at Broadlands, near Romsey,
Hants, on the 20th of October 1784. The Irish branch of the
Temple family, from which Lord Palmerston descended, was very
distantly related to the great English house of the same name,
but these Irish Temples were not without distinction. In the
reign of Elizabeth they had furnished a secretary to Sir Philip
Sidney and to Essex in Sir William Temple (1555-1627), after-
wards provost of Trinity College, Dublin, whose son. Sir John
Temple (1600-1677), was master of the rolls in Ireland. The
latter's son. Sir William Temple {q.v.), figured as one of the ablest
diplomatists of the age. From his younger brother. Sir John
Temple (163 2-1 704), who was speaker of the Irish House of
Commons, Lord Palmerston descended. The eldest son of the
speaker, Henry, ist \'iscount Palmerston (c. 1673-1757), was
created a peer of Ireland on the 12th of March 1723, and was
646
'HT. '-■>«:! T^
PALMERSTON
succeeded by his grandson, Henry the second viscount (1739-
1802), who married Miss Mary Mee (d. 1805), a lady celebrated
for her beauty.
The 2nd viscount's eldest son, Henry John, is mentioned by
Lady Elliot in her correspondence as a boy of singular vivacity
and energy. These qualities adhered to him through hfe, and
he had scarcely left Harrow, at the age of eighteen, when the
death of his father (April 17, 1802) raised him to the Irish
peerage. It was no doubt owing to his birth and connexions,
but still more to his own talents and character, that Lord
Palmerston was thrown at a very early age into the full stream
of pohtical and official Ufe. Before he was four-and-twenty he
had stood two contested elections for the university of Cambridge,
at which he was defeated, and he entered parUament for a pocket-
borough, Newtown, Isle of Wight, in June 1807. Through the
interest of his guardians Lord Malmesbury and Lord Chichester,
the duke of Portland made him one of the junior lords of the
Admiralty on the formation of his administration in 1807. A
few months later he delivered his maiden speech in the House of
Commons in defence of the expedition against Copenhagen,
which he conceived to be justified by the known designs of Napo-
leon on the Danish court. This speech was so successful that
when Perceval formed his government in 1809, he proposed_to
this young man of five-and-twenty to take the chancellorship of
the exchequer. Lord Palmerston, however, preferred the less
important office of secretary-at-war, charged exclusively with the
financial business of the army, without a seat in the cabinet, and
in this position he remained, without any signs of an ambitious
temperament or of great political abilities, for twenty years
(1809-1828). During the whole of that [period Lord.Palmerston
was chiefly known as a man of fashion, and a subordinate minister
without influence on the general poUcy of the cabinets he served.
Some of the most humorous poetical pieces in the New Whig Guide
were from his pen, and he was entirely devoted, Uke his friends
Peel and Croker, to the Tory party of that day. Lord Palmerston
never was a Whig, still less a Radical; he was a statesman of
the old English aristocratic type, hberal in his sentiments,
favourable to the march of progress, but entirely opposed to
the claims of democratic government.
In the later years of Lord Liverpool's administration, after
the death of Lord Londonderry in 1822, strong dissensions existed
in the cabinet. The Liberal section of the government was
gaining ground. Canning became foreign minister and leader
of the House of Commons. Huskisson began to advocate and
apply the doctrines of free trade. Roman CathoUc emancipation
was made an open question. Although Lord Palmerston was
not in the cabinet, he cordially supported the measures of
Canning and his friends. Upon the death of Lord Liverpool,
Canning was called to the head of affairs; the Tories, including
Peel, withdrew their support, and an alliance was formed between
the Liberal members of the late ministry and the Whigs. In this
combination the chancellorship of the exchequer was first offered
to Lord Palmerston, who accepted it, but this appointment was
frustrated by the king's intrigue with Herries, and Palmerston
was content to remain secretary-at-war with a seat Ln the cabinet,
which he now entered for the first time. The Canning adminis-
tration ended in four months by the death of its illustrious chief,
and was succeeded by the feeble ministry of Lord Goderich,
which barely survived the year. But the " Canningites," as
they were termed, remained, and the duke of Wellington hastened
to include Palmerston, Huskisson, Charles Grant, Lamb (Lord
Melbourne) and Dudley in his government. A dispute between
the duke and Huskisson soon led to the resignation of that
minister, and his friends felt bound to share his fate. In the
spring of 1828 Palmerston found himself in opposition. From
that moment he appears to have directed his attention closely
to foreign affairs; indeed he had already urged on the duke of
Wellington a more active interference in the aft'airs of Greece;
he had made several visits to Paris, where he foresaw with great
accuracy the impending revolution; and on the ist of June 1829
he made his first great speech on foreign affairs. Lord Palmer-
ston was no orator; his language was unstudied, and his delivery
somewhat embarrassed; but he generally found words to say
the right thing at the right time, and to address the House of
Commons in the language best adapted to the capacity and the
temper of his audience. An attempt was made by the duke of
Wellington in September 1830 to induce Palmerston to re-enter
the cabinet, which he refused to do without Lord Lansdowne and
Lord Grey, and from that time forward he may be said to have
associated his pohtical fortunes with those of the Whig party. It
was therefore natural that Lord Grey should place the depart-
ment of foreign affairs in his hands upon the formation of the great
ministry of 1830, and Palmerston entered with zeal on the duties
of an office over which he continued to exert his powerful
influence, both in and out of office, for twenty years.
The revolution of July 1S30 had just given a strong shock to
the existing settlement of Europe. The kingdom of the Nether-
lands was rent asunder by the Belgian revolution; Portugal was
the scene of civil war; the Spanish succession was about to open
and place an infant princess on the throne. Poland was in arms
against Russia, and the northern powers formed a closer aUiance,
threatening to the peace and the hberties of Europe. In presence
of these varied dangers. Lord Palmerston was prepared to act with
spirit and resolution, and the result was a notable achievement
of his diplomacy. The king of the Netherlands had appealed to
the powers who had placed him on the throne to maintain his
rights; and a conference assembled accordingly in London to
settle the question, which involved the independence of Belgium
and the security of England. On the one hand, the northern
powers were anxious to defend the king of Holland ; on the other
hand a party in France aspired to annex the Belgian provinces.
The policy of the British government was a close alliance with
France, but an alliance based on the principle that no interests
were to be promoted at variance with the just rights of others, or
which could give to any other nation well-founded cause of
jealousy. If the northern powers supported the king of
Holland by force, they would encounter the resistance of France
and England united in arms, if France sought to annex Belgium
she would forfeit the alliance of England, and find herself opposed
by the whole continent of Europe. In the end the policy of
England prevailed; numerous difficulties, both great and small,
were overcome by the conference, although on the verge of war,
peace was maintained; and Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg was
placed upon the throne of Belgium.
In 1833 and 1834 the youthful queens Donna Maria of Portugal
and Isabella of Spain were the representatives and the hope of the
constitutional party in those countries — assailed and hard
pressed by their absolutist kinsmen Don Miguel and Don Carlos,
who were the representatives of the male line of succession.
Lord Palmerston conceived and executed the plan of a quadruple
alliance of the constitutional states of the West to serve as a
counterpoise to the northern alhance. A treaty for the pacifica-
tion of the Peninsula was signed in London on the 22nd of April
1834; and, although the struggle was somewhat prolonged in
Spain, it accomphshed its object. France, however, had been a
reluctant party to this treaty. She never executed her share in
it with zeal or fidehty. Louis Philippe was accused of secretly
favouring the Carlists, and he positively refused to be a party to
direct interference in Spain. It is probable that the hesitation
of the French court on this question was one of the causes of the
extreme personal hostility Lord Palmerston never ceased to show
towards the king of the French down to the end of his Hfe, if
indeed that sentiment had not taken its origin at a much earUer
period. Nevertheless, at this same time (June 1834) Lord
Palmerston wrote that " Paris is the pivot of my foreign policy."
M. Thiers was at that time in office. Unfortunately these
differences, growing out of the opposite policies of the two
countries at the court of Madrid, increased in each succeeding
year; and a constant but sterile rivalry was kept up, which
ended in results more or less humiliating and injurious to both
nations.
The affairs of the East interested Lord Palmerston in the
highest degree. During the Greek War of Independence he
had strenuously supported the claims of the Hellenes against the
PALMERSTON
647
"Turks and the execution of the Treaty of London. But from
1830 the defence of the Ottoman Empire became one of the
cardinal objects of his pohcy. He believed in the regeneration
of Turkey. " All that we hear," he wrote to Bulwer (Lord
Dalling), " about the decay of the Turkish Empire, and its being
a dead body or a sapless trunk, and so forth, is pure unadulterated
nonsense." The two great aims he had in view were to prevent
the establishment of Russia on the Bosporus and of France on
the Nile, and he regarded the maintenance of the authority of
the Porte as the chief barrier against both these aggressions.
Against Russia he had long maintained a suspicious and hostile
attitude. He was a party to the publication of the " Portfolio "
in 1834, and to the mission of the " Vixen " to force the blockade
of Circassia about the same time. He regarded the treaty of
Unkiar Skelessi which Russia extorted from the Porte in 1832,
when she came to the relief of the sultan after the battle of
Konieh, with great jealousy; and, when the power of Mehemet
Ali in Egypt appeared to threaten the existence of the Ottoman
dynasty, he succeeded in efiecting a combination of all the
powers, who signed the celebrated collective note of the 27th of
July 1839, pledging them to maintain the independence and
integrity of the Turkish Empire as a security for the peace of
Europe. On two former occasions, in 1833 and in 1835, the
policy of Lord Palmerston, who proposed to afford material aid
to the Porte against the pasha of Egypt, was overruled by the
cabinet; and again, in 1839, when Baron Brunnow first proposed
the active interference of Russia and England, the offer was
rejected. But in 1840 Lord Palmerston returned to the charge
and prevailed. The moment was critical, for Mehemet Ali had
occupied Syria and won the battle of Nezib against the Turkish
forces, and on the ist of July 1839 the sultan Mohammed
expired. The Egyptian forces occupied Syria, and threatened
Turkey; and Lord Ponsonby, then British ambassador at
Constantinople, vehemently urged the necessity of crushing so
formidable a rebellion against the Ottoman power. But France,
though her ambassador had signed the collective note in the
previous year, declined to be a party to measures of coercion
against the pasha of Egypt. Palmerston, irritated at her
Egyptian policy, flung himself into the arms of the northern
powers, and the treaty of the 15th of July 1840 was signed in
London without the knowledge or concurrence of France. This
measure was not taken without great hesitation, and strong
opposition on the part of several members of the British cabinet.
Lord Palmerston himself declared in a letter to Lord Melbourne
that he should quit the ministry if his policy was not adopted;
and he carried his point. The bombardment of Beirut, the fall
of Acre, and the total collapse of the boasted power of Mehemet
Ali followed in rapid succession, and before the close of the year
Lord Palmerston's policy, which had convulsed and terrified
Europe, was triumphant, and the author of it was regarded as
one of the most powerful statesmen of the age. At the same
time, though acting with Russia in the Levant, the British
government engaged in the affairs of Afghanistan to defeat her
intriguesjin Central Asia, and a contest with China was terminated
by the conquest of Chusan, afterwards exchanged for the island
of Hong-Kong.
Within a few months Lord Melbourne's administration came
to an end (1841), and Lord Palmerston remained for five years
out of office. The crisis was past, but the change which took
place by the substitution of M. Guizot for M. Thiers in France,
and of Lord Aberdeen for Lord Palmerston in England, was a
fortunate event for the peace of the world. Lord Palmerston
had adopted the opinion that peace with France was not to be
relied on, and indeed that war between the two countries was
sooner or later inevitable. Lord Aberdeen and M. Guizot
inaugurated a different poHcy; by mutual confidence and friendly
offices they entirely succeeded in restoring the most cordial
understanding between the two governments, and the irritation
which Lord Palmerston had inflamed gradually subsided.
During the administration of Sir Robert Peel, Lord Palmerston
led a retired life, but he attacked with characteristic bitterness
the Ashburton treaty with the United States, which closed
successfully some other questions he had long kept open. In
all these transactions, whilst full justice must be done to the
force and patriotic vigour which Lord Palmerston brought to
bear on the questions he took in hand, it was but too apparent
that he imported into them an amount of passion, of personal
animosity, and imperious language which rendered him in the
eyes of the queen and of his colleagues a dangerous minister.
On this ground, when Lord John Russell attempted, in December
1845, to form a ministry, the combination failed because Lord
Grey refused to join a government in which Lord Palmerston
should resume the direction of foreign affairs. A few months
later, however, this difficulty was surmounted; the Whigs
returned to power, and Palmerston to the foreign office (July
1846), with a strong assurance that Lord John Russell should
exercise a strict control over his proceedings. A few days sufficed
to show how vain was this expectation. The French government
regarded the appointment of Palmerston as a certain sign of
renewed hostilities, and they availed themselves of a despatch
in which Palmerston had put forward the name of a Coburg
prince as a candidate for the hand of the young queen of Spain,
as a justification for a departure from the engagements entered
into between M. Guizot and Lord Aberdeen. However little
the conduct of the French government in this transaction of
the Spanish marriages can be vindicated, it is certain that it
originated in the belief that in Palmerston France had a restless
and subtle enemy. The efforts of the British minister to defeat
the French marriages of the Spanish princesses, by an appeal to
the treaty of Utrecht and the other powers of Europe, were
wholly unsuccessful; France won the game, though with no
small lost of honourable reputation.
The revolution of 1848 spread hke a conflagration through
Europe, and shook every throne on the Continent except those
of Russia, Spain, and Belgium. Palmerston sympathized, or
was supposed to sympathize, openly with the revolutionary
party abroad. No state was regarded by him with more
aversion than Austria. Yet his opposition to Austria was
chiefly based upon her occupation of great part of Italy and her
Italian policy, for Palmerston maintained that the existence of
Austria as a great power north of the Alps was an essential
element in the system of Europe. Antipathies and sympathies
had a large share in the political views of Lord Palmerston, and
his sympathies had ever been passionately awakened by the cause
of Italian independence. He supported the SicOians against the
king of Naples, and even allowed arms to be sent them from
the arsenal at Woolwich; and, although he had endeavoured to
restrain the king of Sardinia from his rash attack on the superior
forces of Austria, he obtained for him a reduction of the penalty
of defeat. Austria, weakened by the revolution, sent an envoy
to London to request the mediation of England, based on a large
cession of Italian territory; Lord Palmerston rejected the terms
he might have obtained for Piedmont. Ere long the reaction
came; this straw-fire of revolution burnt itself out in a couple
of years. In Hungary the civil war, which had thundered at
the gates of Vienna, was brought to a close by Russian interven-
tion. Prince Schwarzenberg assumed the government of the
empire with dictatorial power; and, in spite of what Palmerston
termed his " judicious bottle-holding," the movement he had
encouraged and applauded, but to which he could give no material
aid, was everywhere subdued. The British government, or
at least Palmerston as its representative, was regarded with
suspicion and resentment by every power in Europe, except
the French republic; and even that was shortly afterwards to
be alienated by Palmerston's attack on Greece.
This state of things was regarded with the utmost annoyance
by the British court and by most of the British ministers.
Palmerston had on many occasions taken important steps
without their knowledge, which they disapproved. Over the
Foreign Office he asserted and exercised an arbitrary dominion,
which the feeble efforts of the premier could not control. The
queen and the prince consort (see Victoria, Queen) did not
conceal their indignation at the position in which he had placed
them with all the other courts of Europe. When Kossuth, the
648
PALMERSTON
Hungarian leader, landed in England, Palmerston proposed to
receive him at Broadlands, a design which was only prevented
by a peremptory vote of the cabinet; and in 1850 he took
advantage of Don Pacifico's very questionable claims on the
Hellenic government to organize an attack on the little kingdom
of Greece.^ Greece being a state under the joint protection of
three powers, Russia and France protested against its coercion
by the British fleet, and the French ambassador temporarily
left London, which promptly led to the termination of the
affair. But it was taken up in parliament with great warmth.
After a memorable debate (June 17), Palmerston 's policy was
condemned by a vote of the House of Lords. The House of
Commons was moved by Roebuck to reverse the sentence,
which it did (June 29) by a majority of 46, after having heard
from Palmerston the most eloquent and powerful speech ever
delivered by him, in which he sought to vindicate, not only
his claims on the Greek government for Don Pacifico, but
his entire administration of foreign affairs. It was in this
speech, which lasted five hours, that Palmerston made the well-
known declaration that a British subject — " Civis Romanus
sum " — ought everywhere to be protected by the strong arm
of the British government against injustice and wrong. Yet,
notwithstanding this parliamentary triumph, there were not a
few of his own colleagues and supporters who condemned the
spirit in which the foreign relations of the Crown were carried
on; and in that same year the queen addressed a minute to the
prime minister in which she recorded her dissatisfaction at the
manner in which Lord Palmerston evaded the obligation to sub-
mit his measures for the royal sanction as failing in sincerity to
the Crown. This minute was communicated to Palmerston, who
did not resign upon it. These various circumstances, and many
more, had given rise to distrust and uneasiness in the cabinet,
and these feelings reached their climax when Palmerston, on
the occurrence of the coup d'etat by which Louis Napoleon made
himself master of France, expressed to the French ambassador
in London, without the concurrence of his colleagues, his
personal approval of that act. Upon this Lord John Russell
advised his dismissal from office (Dec. 1851). Palmerston
speedily avenged himself by turning out the government on a
militia bill; but although he survived for many years, and
twice filled the highest office in the state, his career as foreign
minister ended for ever, and he returned to the foreign oiBce
no more. Indeed, he assured Lord Aberdeen, in 1853, that he
did not wish to resume the seals of that department. Not-
withstanding the zeal and ability which he had invariably
displayed as foreign minister, it had long been felt by his col-
leagues that his eager and frequent interference in the affairs
of foreign countries, his imperious temper, the extreme acerbity
of his language abroad, of which there are ample proofs in his
published correspondence, and the evasions and artifices he
employed to carry his points at home, rendered him a dangerous
representative of the foreign interests of the country. But the
lesson of his dismissal was not altogether lost on him. Although
his great reputation was chiefly earned as a foreign minister, it
may be said that the last ten years of his life, in which he filled
other offices, were not the least useful or dignified portion of
his career.
Upon the formation of the cabinet of 1853, which was com-
posed by the junction of the surviving followers of Sir Robert
Peel with the Whigs, under the earl of Aberdeen, Lord Palmerston
accepted with the best possible grace the office of secretary of
state for the home office, nor was he ever chargeable with
the slightest attempt to undermine that Government. At one
moment he withdrew from it, because Lord John Russell per-
sisted in presenting a project of reform which appeared to him
entirely out of season; and he advocated, with reason, measures
1 David Pacifico (1784-1854) was a Portuguese Jew, born a British
subject at Gibraltar. He became a merchant at Athens, and in
1847 his house was burnt down in an anti-Semitic riot. Pacifico
brought an action, laying the damages at £26,000. At the same time
George Finlay, the historian, was urging his own grievances against
the Greek government, and as both claims were repudiated Palmer-
ston took them up. Eventually Pacifico received a substantial sum.
of greater energy on the approach of war, which might possibly,
if they had been adopted, have averted the contest with Russia.
As the difficulties of the Crimean campaign increased, it was
not Lord Palmerston but Lord John Russell who broke up the
government by refusing to meet Roebuck's motion of inquiry.
Palmerston remained faithful and loyal to his colleagues in the
hour of danger. Upon the resignation of Lord Aberdeen and
the duke of Newcastle, the general sentiment of the House of
Commons and the country called Palmerston to the head of
affairs, and he entered, on the 5th of February 1855, upon the
high office, which he retained, with one short interval, to the
day of his death. Palmerston was in the seventy-first year of
his life when he became prime minister of England.
A series of fortunate events followed his accession to power.
In March 1855 the death of the emperor Nicholas removed his
chief antagonist. In September Sevastopol was taken. The
administration of the British army was reformed by a consolida-
tion of offices. In the following spring peace was signed in
Paris. Never since Pitt had a minister enjoyed a greater share
of popularity and power, and, unlike Pitt, Palmerston had the
prestige of victory in war. He was assailed in parliament by
the eloquence of Gladstone, the sarcasms of Disraeli, and the
animosity of the Manchester Radicals, but the country was
with him. Defeated by a hostile combination of parties in the
House of Commons on the question of the Chinese war in 1857
and the alleged insult to the British flag in the seizure of the
lorcha " Arrow," he dissolved parliament and appealed to the
nation. The result was the utter defeat of the extreme Radical
party and the return of a more compact Liberal majority.
The great events of the succeeding years, the Indian Mutiny,
and the invasion of Italy by Napoleon III., belong rather to the
general history of the times than to the life of Palmerston; but
it was fortunate that a strong and able government was at the
head of affairs. Lord Derby's second administration of 1858
lasted but a single year, Palmerston having casually been
defeated on a measure for removing conspiracies to murder
abroad from the class of misdemeanour to that of felony, which
was introduced in consequence of Orsini's attempt on the life
of the emperor of the French. But in June 1859 Palmerston
returned to power, and it was on this occasion that he proposed
to Cobden, one of his most constant opponents, to take office,
and on the refusal of that gentleman Milner Gibson was
appointed to the board of trade, although he had been the
prime mover of the defeat of the government on the Conspiracy
Bill. Palmerston had learnt by experience that it was wiser
to conciliate an opponent than to attempt to crush him, and
that the imperious tone he had sometimes adopted in the House
of Commons, and his supposed obsequiousness to the emperor
of the French, were the causes of the temporary reverse he had
sustained. Although Palmerston approved the objects of the
French invasion of Italy in so far as they went to establish
Italian independence, the annexation of Savoy and Nice to
France was an incident which revived his old suspicions of the
good faith of the French emperor. About this time he expressed
to the duke of Somerset his conviction that Napoleon III. " had
at the bottom of his heart a deep and unextinguishable desire
to humble and punish England," and that war with France was
a contingency to be provided against. The unprotected con-
dition of the principal British fortresses and arsenals had long
attracted his attention, and he succeeded in inducing the House
of Commons to vote nine millions for the fortification of those
important points.
In 1856 the projects for cutting a navigable canal through
the Isthmus of Suez was brought forward by M. de Lesseps, and
resisted by Palmerston with all the weight he could bring to
bear against it. He did not foresee the advantages to be
derived by British commerce from this great work, and he was
strongly opposed to the establishment of a powerful French
company on the soil of Egypt. The concession of land to the
company was reduced by his intervention, but in other respects
the work proceeded and was accomplished. It may here be
mentioned, as a remarkable instance of his foresight, that
PALMERSTON— PALMISTRY
649
Palmerston told Lord Malmesbury, on his accession to the
foreign office in 1858, that the chief reason of his opposition
to the canal was this: he believed that, if the canal was made
and proved successful, Great Britain, as the first mercantile
state, and that most closely connected with the East, would
be the power most interested in it; that England would therefore
be drawn irresistibly into a more direct interference in Egypt,
which it was desirable to avoid because England had already
enough upon her hands, and because intervention might lead
to a rupture with France. He therefore preferred that no such
line of communication should be opened.
Upon the outbreak of the American Civil War in i86i. Lord
Palmerston acknowledged that it was the duty of the British
government to stand aloof from the fray; but his own opinion
led him rather to desire than to avert the rupture of the Union,
which might have been the result of a refusal on the part of
England and France to recognize a blockade of the Southern
ports, which was notoriously imperfect, and extremely prejudicial
to the interests of Europe. The cabinet was not of this opinion,
and, although the belligerent rights of the South were promptly
recognized, the neutrality of the Government was strictly
observed. When, however, the Southern envoys were taken by
force from the " Trent," a British packet, Palmerston did not
hesitate a moment to insist upon a fuU and complete reparation
for so gross an infraction of international law. But the difficulty
with the American government over the " Alabama " and other
vessels, fitted out in British ports to help the Southern cause,
was only settled at last (see Alabama Arbitration) by an
award extremely onerous to England.
The last transaction in which Palmerston engaged arose out
of the attack by the Germanic Confederation, and its leading
states Austria and Prussia, on the kingdom of Denmark and
the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. There was but one
feeling in the British public and the nation as to the dishonest
character of that unprovoked aggression, and it was foreseen
that Austria would ere long have reason to repent her share in
it. Palmerston endeavoured to induce France and Russia to
concur with England in maintaining the Treaty of London,
which had guaranteed the integrity of the Danish dominions.
But those powers, for reasons of their own, stood aloof, and the
conference held in London in 1864 was without effect. A
proposal to send the British fleet into the Baltic was overruled,
and the result was that Denmark was left to her own resources
against her formidable opponents. In the following year, on
the 1 8th of October 1865, Lord Palmerston expired at Brocket
Hall, after a short Ulness, in the eighty-first year of his age.
His remains were laid in Westminster Abbey.
Although there was much in the official life of Lord Palmerston
which inspired distrust and alarm to men of a less ardent and
contentious temperament, he had a lofty conception of the
strength and the duties of England, he was the irreconcilable
enemy of slavery, injustice and oppression, and he laboured with
inexhaustible energy for the dignity and security of the Empire.
In private life his gaiety, his buoyancy, his high breeding, made
even his political opponents forget their differences; and even
the warmest altercations on pubhc affairs were merged in his
large hospitality and cordial social relations. In this respect
he was aided with consummate abUity by the tact and grace
of Lady Palmerston, the widow of the sth Earl Cowper, whom
he married at the close of 1839, and who died in 1869. She
devoted herself with enthusiasm to all her husband's interests
and pursuits, and she made his house the most attractive centre
of society in London, if not in Europe. They had no children,
and the title became extinct, the property descending to Lady
Palmerston's second son by Earl Cowper, W. F. Cowper-Temple,
afterwards Baron Mount Temple, and then to her grandson
Evelyn Ashley (1836-1907) son of her daughter, who married
the 7th earl of Shaftesbury — who was Lord Palmerston's
private secretary from 1858 to 1865.
The Life of Lord Palmerston, by Lord Dalling (2 vols., 1870),
with valuable selections from the minister's autobiographical diaries
and private correspondence, only came down to 1847, and was
completed by Evelyn Ashley (vol. iii., 1874; iv., v., 1876). Thewhole
was re-edited by Mr Ashley, in two volumes (1879), the standard
biography. The Life by Lloyd Sanders (1888) is an excellent shorter
work.
PALMERSTON, the chief town of the Northern Territory of
South Australia, in Palmerston county, on the E. shore of
Port Darwin, 2000 m. direct N.N.W. of Adelaide. The town
stands 60 ft. above the level of the sea, by which it is almost
surrounded. There are a government house, a town hall, and
an experimental nursery garden. Palmerston has a magnificent
harbour, accessible to ocean-going vessels, and the jetty is
connected by rail with Playford, 146 m. distant. Cool breezes
blow almost continuously throughout the year. The mean annual
rainfall is 62-21 in. Pop. (1901), 1973, mostly Chinese.
PALMETTO, in botany, a popular name for Sabal Palmetto,
the Palmetto palm, a native of the southern United States,
especially in Florida. It has an erect stem, 20 to 80 ft. high
and deeply cut fan-shaped leaves, 5 to 8 ft. long; the fruit is a
black drupe ^ to ^ in. long. The trunks make good piles for
wharves, &c., as the wood resists the attacks of borers; the
leaves are used for thatching. The palm is grown as a pot-plant
in greenhouses.
PALMISTRY, (from " palmist," one who studies the palm,
and the Teutonic affix ry signifying " art "; also called
Chiromancy, from x^'-P, the hand, and fiavrda, divination).
The desire to learn what the future has in store is nearly as
old as the sense of responsibility in mankind, and has been the
parent of many empirical systems of fortune-telling, which
profess to afford positive knowledge whereby the affairs of life
may be regulated, and the dangers of failure foretold. Most of
these systems come into the category of occult pursuits, as they
are the interpretations of phenomena on the ground of fanciful
presumptions, by an appeal to unreal or at least unverifiable
influences and relations.
One of the oldest of this large family of predictive systems
is that of palmistry, whereby the various irregularities and
flexion-folds of the skin of the hand are interpreted as being
associated with mental or moral dispositions and powers, as
well as with the current of future events in the life of the indi-
vidual. How far back in prehistoric times this system has been
practised it is impossible to say, but in China it is said to have
existed 3000 years before Christ,' and in Greek literature it is
treated even in the most ancient writings as weU-known belief.
Thomas Blackwell^ has coUected some Homeric references:
a work by Melampus of Alexandria is extant in several versions.
Polemon, Aristotle and Adamantius may also be named as having
dealt with the subject; as also have the medical writers of Greece
and Rome — Hippocrates, Galen and Paulus Aegineta, and in
later times the Arabian commentators on these authors. From
references which can be gathered from patristic writings it is
abundantly evident that the belief in the mystical meaning
of marks on the " organ of organs " was a part of the popular
philosophy of their times.
After the invention of printing a very considerable mass of
literature concerning this subject was produced during the
i6th and 17th centuries. Praetorius, in his Ludicnim chiro-
manticum (Jena, 1661)' has collected the titles of 77. Other
works are quoted by Fulleborn and Horst, and by writers
on the history of philosophy and magic; altogether about
98 books on the subject pubhshed before 1700 are at present
accessible. There is not very much variety among these treat-
ises, one of the earliest, valuable on account of its rarity, is
the block-book by Hartlieb, Die Kiinst Ciromantia,* published
at Augsburg about 1470 (probably, but it bears no imprint
of place or date). In this there are colossal figures of hands,
each of which has its regions marked out by inscriptions. Few
of these works are of sufficient interest to require mention,
' Giles, in Contemporary Review (1905).
- Proofs of the Inquiry into the Life and Writings of Homer,
p. 330 (London, 1736).
^ This book is worthy of note on account of the quaint and
sarcastic humour of its numerous acrostic verses.
■■There is a copy in the Rylands Library, Manchester. See also
Dibdin's Bibliographical Decameron (1817), i. 143.
XX. 21 a
650
PALMITIC ACID— PALM SUNDAY
The best are those by Pompeius, Robert Fludd, John de Indagine,
Taisnierus, Baptista daOa Porta, S. Cardan, Goclenius, Codes,
Frolich, Summer, Rothmann, Ingebert, Pomponius Gauricus,
and Tricassus Mantuanus. There are also early Hebrew works,
of which one by Gedaliah is extant. An Indian Uterature is
also said to exist. Some of these authors attempt to separate
the physiognomical part of the subject (Chirognomia) from
the astrological (Chiromantia) ; see especially Caspar Schott in
Magia naturalis universalis, Bamberg, 1677. Since the middle
of the 19th century, in spite of the enactments of laws in Britain
and elsewhere against the practice, there has been a recrudescence
of behef in palmistry, and a new hterature has grown up differing
little in essence from the older. The more important books of
this series are K. G. Carus, Uber Grund u. Bedeutimg der vcr-
schiedencn Formen der Hand, 1846; Landsberg, Die Handteller
(Posen,i86i); Adolf Desbarolles, Les Mysteres de la main {18 sg) ;
C. S. D'Arpentigny, Chirognomie, la science de la main (1865),
of which an English version has been published by Heron
Allen in 1886; G. Z. Gessmann, Katechismus der Handlesekunst
(Berlin, 1889); Czynszi, Die Deutungder Handlinien (Dresden,
1893); R. Beamish, The Psychonomy 0} the Hand (1865); Frith
and Allen, The Science of Palmistry (1883); Cotton, Palmistry
and its practical uses (1890). Some of the older writers appealed
to Scripture as supporting their systems, especially the texts
Exod. xiii. 16; Job xxxvii. 7; and Prov. iii. 16. A considerable
amount of Uterature pro and con was devoted to this controversy
in the 17th and i8th centuries.
At the present day palmistry is practised in nearly all parts
of China. The criteria of judgment used there are referred to
in the article by Professor H. A. Giles, already quoted. It is
also extensively practised in India, especially by one caste of
Brahmins, the Joshi. In Syria and Egypt the palmist can be
seen plying his trade at the cafes; and among the Arabs there
are chiromantists who are consulted as to the probable success
of enterprises. It is probably from their original Indian home
that the traditional dukkeripen (fortune-telling) of the gipsies
has been derived.
This system of divination has the charm of simplicity and
definiteness, as an application of the " doctrine of signatures "
which formed so extensive an element in the occult writings of
the past six centuries. In the course of ages every detail has
been brought under a formal set of rules, which only need
mechanical application. There have been in past times con-
siderable divergences in the practice, but at present there is
a fairly uniform system in vogue. One school lays special
stress on the general shape and outline of the hand. Corvaeus
enumerates 70 varieties, Pamphilus cuts them down to 6, John
de Indagine to 27, and Tricassus Mantuanus raises them to 80.
The characters of softness or hardness, dryness or moisture,
&c., are taken account of in these classifications. The lines of
cardinal importance are (i) the rasceta or cross sulci, which
isolate the hand from the forearm at the wrist, and which are
the flexion folds between the looser forearm skin and that tied
down to the fascia above the level of the anterior annular
ligament. (2) The hne which isolates the ball of the thumb,
where the skin ceases to be tied to the front of the palmar fascia,
is called the hne of Life. (3) A Une starting above the head of
the second metacarpal bone and crossing the hand to the middle
of its ulnar border is the line of the head. (4) The transverse line
below this which passes from the ulnar border a little above the
level of the head of the fifth metacarpal and ends somewhere
about the root of the index finger is the line of the heart. (5)
The vertical line descending from the middle of the wrist to end
about the base of the middle finger is the line of fortune. (6)
The oblique line which begins at the wrist end of the line of life
and descends towards the ulnar end of the line of the head is the
line of the liver.
These lines isolate certain swellings or monticuh, the largest
of which is (i) the ball of the thumb, called the mountain of
Venus; (2) that at the base of the index finger is the mountain of
Jupiter; (3) at the root of the middle finger is the mountain of
Saturn, while those at the bases of ring and Uttle finger are
respectively the mountains of the (4) Sun and (5) of Mercury.
Above the mountain of Mercury, and between the lines of head
and heart is (6) the mountain of Mars, and above the hne of the
heart is (7) the mountain of the Moon. The relative sizes of
these mountains have assigned to them their definite correla-
tions with characters: the ist with charity, love, libertinage;
the 2nd with rehgiosity, ambition, love of honour, pride, super-
stition; the 3rd with wisdom, good fortune, prudence, or when
deficient improvidence, ignorance, failure; the 4th when large
makes for success, celebrity, inteUigence, audacity, when small
meanness or love of obscurity; the sth indicates love of know-
ledge, industry, aptitude for commerce, and in its extreme
forms on the one hand love of gain and dishonesty, on the other
slackness and laziness. The 6th is related to degrees of courage,
resolution, rashness or timidity; the 7th indicates sensitiveness,
morality, good conduct, or immoraUty, overbearing temper and
self-will.
The swelUngs on the palmar faces of the phalanges of the
several fingers are also indicative, the ist and 2nd of the thumb
respectively, of the logical faculty and of the will; the ist, 2nd
and 3rd of the index finger, of materialism, law and order,
idealism; those of the middle finger, humanity, system, intel-
Ugence; of the ring finger, truth, economy, energy; and of the
little finger, goodness, prudence, reflectiveness.
Over and above these there are other marks, crosses, triangles,
&c., of which more than a hundred have been described and
figured by different authors, each with its interpretation; and
in addition the back of the hand has its ridges. The Chinese
combine podoscopy with chiromancy.
To the anatomist the roughnesses of the palm are of consider-
able interest. The folds are so disposed that the thick skin
shall be capable of bending in grasping, while at the same time
it requires to be tightly bound down to the skeleton of the hand,
else the slipping of the skin would lead to insecurity of prehension,
as the quilting or buttoning down of the covers of furniture by
upholsterers keeps them from slipping. For this purpose the
skin is tied by connecting fibres of white fibrillar tissue to the
deep layer of the dermis along the lateral and lower edges of the
palmar fascia and to the sheaths of the flexor tendons. The
folds, therefore, which are disposed for the purpose of making
the grasp secure, vary with the relative lengths of the metacarpal
bones, with the mutual relations of the sheaths of the tendons,
and the edge of the palmar fascia, somewhat also with the
insertion of the palmaris brevis muscle. The sulci are empha-
sized because the subcutaneous fat, which is copious in order
to pad the skin for the purpose of firmness of holding, being
restricted to the intervals between the fines along which the
skin is tied down, makes these intervals project, and these are
the monticuh. The sweUing of the mountain of Venus is simply
the indication of the size of the muscles of the ball of the thumb,
and can be increased by their exercise. Similarly the hypothenar
muscles for the Httle finger underlie the three ulnar marginal
mountains, the sizes of which depend on their development and
on the prominence of the pisiform bone.
That these purely mechanical arrangements have any psychic,
occult or predictive meaning is a fantastic imagination, which
seems to have a peculiar attraction for certain types of mind,
and as there can be no fundamental hypothesis of correlation,
its discussion does not lie within the province of reason.
(A. Ma.) '
PALMITIC ACID, «-Hexadecylic Acid, CH3(CH2)i4C02H,
an organic acid found as a glyceride, palmitin, in all animal
fats, and partly as glyceride and partly uncombined in palm oil.
The cetyl ester is spermaceti, and the myricyl ester is largely
present in beeswax. It is most conveniently obtained from
olive oil, after removal of the oleic acid (q.v.), or from Japanese
beeswax, which is its glyceride. Artificially it may be prepared
by heating cetyl alcohol with soda hme to 270° or by fusing
oleic acid with potassium hydrate.
PALM SUNDAY {Dominica palmariim), the Sunday before
Easter, so called from the custom, still observed in the Roman
CathoHc Church, of blessing palm branches and carrying them in
PALMYRA
651
procession in commemoration of Christ's triumphal entry into
Jerusalem. In the Western Church, Palm Sunday is counted
as the first day of H0I3' Week, and its ceremonies usher in the
series of services, culminating in those of Good Friday, which
commemorate the Passion of the Lord.
The ceremonies on Palm Sunday as celebrated now in the
Roman Catholic Church are divided in three distinct parts:
(i) The solemn blessing of the palms, (2) the procession, (3) the
mass.
Branches of palm, olive or sprouting willow (hence in England
known as " palm ") having been placed before the altar, or at the
Epistle side, after Terce and the sprinkling of holy water, the
priest, either in a purple cope or an alb without chasuble, proceeds
to bless them. The ceremony begins with the singing by the choir of
the anthem Hosanna Filio David; the collect follows; then the
singing of a lesson from Exodus xv. by the subdeacon; then the
Gradual, reciting antiphonally the conspiracy of the chief priests
and Pharisees, and concluding with Christ's prayer on Mt Olivet;
then the Gospel, sung by the deacon in the ordinary way, followed
by a " continuation of the Holy Gospel " (Matt. xxi. and sqq.). After
this the priest blesses the palms in a series of prayers, that those
who receive them " may be protected in soul and body," and that
" into whatever place they may be brought the inhabitants of that
place may obtain Thy benediction: and all adversity being removed,
&c." The priest then sprinkles the palms thrice with holy water,
saying the prayer Aspergesme, &c., and also incenses them thrice.
The principal of the clergy present then approaches and gives a palm
to the celebrant, who then, in his turn, distributes the branches,
first to the principal of the clergy, then to the deacon and sub-
deacon, and to the other clergy in order of rank, and lastly to the
laity, all of whom receive the palms kneeling, and kiss the palm
and the hand of the celebrant. During the distribution antiphons
are sung.
The deacon now turns to the people and says Procedamits in pace,
and the procession begins. It is headed by a thurifer carrying a
smoking thurible; then comes the sub-deacon carrying the cross
between two acolytes with lighted tapers; the clergy next in order,
the celebrant coming last with the deacon on his left, all carrying
branches and singing antiphonally, so long as the procession
lasts, the account of the entry into Jerusalem, ending with
" Benedictiis qui venit in nomine Domini: Hosanna in excelsis."
On returning to the church, two or four singers enter first and close
the doors, then, turning towards the procession outside, sing the
first two verses of the hymn " Gloria, laus et honor," those outside
repeating them, and so on till the hymn is finished. This done, the
subdeacon strikes the door with the staff of the cross, when it is
immediately opened, and the procession enters singing. The mass
that follows, characterized by all the outward signs of sorrow proper
to Passion Week, is in striking contrast with the joyous triumph of
the procession.
In the Orthodox Eastern Church Palm Sunday (Kupiaxij or
fofrrr) Tuv fiatoiv ioprrj jSa'ioipopos, or 17 Paiocjxipoi) is not included
in Holy Week, but is regarded as a joyous festival commem-
orating Christ's triumphal entry into Jerusalem. There is no
longer a procession; but the palms (in Russia willow twigs)
are blessed, and are held by the worshippers during the service.
The earliest extant account of a liturgical celebration of Palm
Sunday is that given in the Pcrcgrinatio Sihiac {Elculhcriac),'^
which dates from the 4th century and contains a detailed account
of the Holy Week ceremonies at Jerusalem by a Spanish lady
of rank : —
The actual festival began at one o'clock with a service in the church
on the Mount of Olives; at three o'clock clergy and people went in
procession, singing hymns, to the scene of the Ascension; two hours
of prayer, singing and reading of appropriate Scriptures followed,
until, at five o'clock the reading of the passage from the Gospel
telling how " the children with olive branches and palms goto meet
the Lord, and cry: ' Blessed is he that cometh in the name of the
Lord ' " gave the signal for the crowd to break up, and, carrying
branches of olive and palm, to conduct the bishop, in eo typo quo
tunc Dominus deductus est,- wit'n cries of " Blessed is he that cometh
in the name of the Lord!" to the Church of the Resurrection in
Jerusalem, where a further service was held.
This celebration would seem to have been long established at
Jerusalem, and there is evidence that in the 4th and 5th centuries
it had already been copied in other parts of the East. In the
West, however, it was not introduced until much later. To
Pope Leo I. (d. 461) the present Dominica palmar um was
• The text is published among the appendices to Duchesne's
Origines du culte Chretien (2nd ed., 1898), p. 486, " Procession du
soir."
* Drews takes this to mean " riding on an ass."
known as Dominica passionis, Passion Sunday, and the Western
Church treated it as a day, not of rejoicing, but of mourr.ing.
The earliest record in the West of the blessing of the palms and
the subsequent procession is the liber ordinum of the West
Gothic Church (published by Ferotin, Paris, 1904, pp. 178 sqq.),
which dates from the 6th century; this shows plainly that the
ceremonial of the procession had been borrowed from Jerusalem.
As to how far, and at what period, it became common there
is very little evidence. lor England, the earhest record is the
mention by Aldhelm, bishop of Sherborne (d. 709), in his De
laudihtis virginilatis (cap. 30, Migne Patrol. Lat. 8q, p. 128),
of a sacrosancta palmarum solcmnitas, which probably means
a procession, since he speaks of the Benedictus qui venit, fiC,
being sung antiphonally. As the middle ages advanced the
procession became more and more popular and increasingly a
dramatic representation of the triumphal progress of Christ,
the bishop riding on an ass or horse, as in the East.' Flowers,
too, were blessed, as well as palms and willow, and carried in
the procession (hence the names pascha Jloridum, dominica
florum et ramorum Ics pdqucsjleurics).
The origin of the ceremony of blessing the palms is more obscure.
It is not essential to the dramatic character of the celebration and
for centuries seems to have formed no usual part of it. Herr Drews
(Realencyklop. XXL p. 417, 40-60) ascribes to it an entirely separate
and pagan origin. It is significant that olive and willow should
have been chosen for benediction together with, or as substitutes
for palm, and that an exorcizing power should have been ascribed
to the consecrated branches: they were to heal disease, ward
off devils, protect the houses where they were set up against
lightning and fire, and the fields where they were planted against
hail and storms. But healing power had been ascribed to the
olive in pagan antiquity, and in the same way the willow had from
time immemorial been credited by the Teutonic peoples with the
possession of protective qualities. It was natural that olive and
willow should have been chosen for the Palm Sunday ceremony, for
they are the earliest trees to bad in the spring; their consecration,
however, may be explained by the intention to Christianize a pagan
belief, and it is easy to sec how their mystic virtues came in this way
to be ascribed to the palm also. When and where the custom first
arose is unknown.
Of the reformed churches, the Church of England alone
includes Palm Sunday in the Holy Week celebrations. The
blessing of the palms and the procession were, however,
abolished at the Reformation, and the name " Palm Sunday,"
though it survives in popular usage, is not mentioned in the
Book of Common Prayer. The intention of the compilers of
the Prayer-book seems to have been to restore the " Sunday
next before Easter," as it is styled, to its earlier Western
character of Passion Sunday, the second lesson at matins
(Matt. xxvi. 5) and the special collect. Epistle (Phil. ii. 5) and
Gospel (Matt, xxvii. i) at the celebration of Holy Communion
all dwelling on the humiliation and passion of Christ, with no
reference to the triumphal entry into Jerusalem. The modern
revival, in certain churches of an " advanced " type, of the
ceremonies of blessing the palms and carrying them in procession
has no official warrant, and is therefore without any significance
as illustrating the authoritative point of view of the Church of
England.
Of the Lutheran churches only that of Brandenburg seems to
have kept the Palm Sunday procession for a whOe. This was
prescribed by the Church order {Kirchenordnung) of 1540,
but without the ceremony of blessing the palms; it was
abolished by the revised Church order of 1572.
See the article "Palnisonnlag" in Wetzer und Welte, Kircken-
lexikon (2nd ed.), ix. 1319 sqq. : article " Woche, grosse," by Drews in
Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1908), xxi. 415;
Wiepen, Palmsonntagsprozcssionen und Palmesel (Bonn, 1903) ; L.
Duchesne, Origines du cidte Chretien (2nd ed., Paris, 1898), p. 237.
For ceremonies anciently observed in England on Palm Sunday
see M. E. C. Walcott, Sacred Archaeology (1868) and J. Brand, ^
Popular antiquities (ed. 1870).
PALMYRA, the Greek and Latin name of a famous city of
the East, now a mere collection of Arab hovels, but still an object
of interest on account of its wonderful ruins. In 2 Chron.
' For curious instances of the part played by the ass in medieval
church festivals see the article Fools, Feast of.
652
PALMYRA
viii. 4, and in th.e native inscriptions, it is called Tadmor, and
this is the name by which it is known among the Arabs at the
present day (Tadmur, Tudmur).' The site of Palmyra lies
150 m. N.E. of Damascus and five days' camel journey from
the Euphrates, in an oasis of the Syrian desert, 1,300 ft. above
sea-level. At this point the great trade routes met in ancient
times, the one crossing from the Phoenician ports to the Persian
Gulf, the other coming up from Petra and south Arabia.
The earliest mention of Palmyra is in 2 Chron. viii. 4, where
Solomon is said to have built " Tadmor in the wilderness ";
I Kings ix. 18, however, from which the Chronicler derived his
statement, reads " Tamar " in the Hebrew text, with " Tadmor "
in the Hebrew margin; there can be no doubt that the text
is right and refers to Tamar in the land of Judah (Ezek.
xlvii. 19; xlviii. 28). The Chronicler, we must suppose,
altered the name because Tadmor was a city more familiar
and renowned in his day, or possibly because he wished to
increase the extent of Solomon's kingdom. The date of the
Chronicler may be placed about 300 B.C., so Palmyra must
have been in existence long before then. There is reason to
beheve that before the 6th century B.C. the caravans reached
Damascus without coming near the oasis of Tadmor; probably,
therefore, we may connect the origin of the city with the gradual
forward movement of the nomad Arabs which followed on the
overthrow of the ancient nationalities of Syria by the Babylonian
Empire (6th century B.C.). The Arabian tribes began to take
possession of the partly cultivated lands east of Canaan, became
masters of the Eastern trade, gradually acquired settled habits,
and learned to speak and write in Aramaic, the language which
was most widely current throughout the region west of the
Euphrates in the time of the Persian Empire (6th-4th century
B.C.). It is not till much later that Palmyra first appears in
Western literature. We learn from Appian (Bell. civ. v. g) that
in 42-41 B.C. the city was rich enough to excite the cupidity
of M. Antonius (Mark Antony), while the population was not too
large to save itself by timely flight. The series of native
inscriptions, written in Aramaic, begins a few years after; the
earliest bears the date 304 of the Seleucid era, i.e. g B.C. (Cooke,
North-Semitic Inscriptions No. i4i = Vogue, Syric Ccntrale
No. 30a) ; by this time Palmyra had become an important
trade-post between the Roman and the Parthian states. Its
characteristic civilization grew out of a mixture of various
elements, Arabic, Aramaic, Greek and Reman. The bulk of
the population was of Arab race, and though Aramaic was used
as the written language, in common intercourse Arabic had by
no means disappeared. The proper names and the names of
deities, while partly Aramaic, are also in part unmistakably
Arabic: it is suggestive that a purely Arabic term (fahd, NSI.
No. 136) was used for the septs into which the citizens were
divided.
Originally an Arab settlement, the oasis was transformed in
the course of time from a mere halting-place for caravans to
a city of the first rank. The true Arab despises agriculture;
but the pursuit of commerce, the organization and conduct of
trading caravans, cannot be carried on without widespread
connexions of blood and hospitality between the merchant and
the leading sheiks on the route. An Arabian merchant city
is thus necessarily aristocratic, and its chiefs can hardly be
other than pure Arabs of good blood. Palmyra also possessed
the character of a religious centre, with the worship of the Sun-
god dominating that of inferior deities.
The chief luxuries of the ancient world, silks, jewels, pearls,
perfumes, incense and the like, were drawn from India, China
and southern Arabia. Pliny (N. H. xii. 41) reckons the yearly
import of these wares into Rome at not less than three-quarters of
a miDion of Enghsh money. The trade followed two routes:
' How the name Palmyra arose is obscure. The Greek for a
palm is (^oivij, and the Greek ending -yra could not have been affixed
to the Latin palma. Schultens (Vita Sal., Index geogr.) cites
Tatmur as a variant of the Arabic name; this might mean "abound-
ing in palms " (from the root tamar) ; otherwise Tadmor may have
been originally an Assyrian name. See Lagarde, Bildung der
Nomina, p. 125 n.
one by the Red Sea, Egypt and Alexandria, the other from the
Persian Gulf through the Syro-Arabian desert. The latter,
when the Nabataean kingdom of Petra (g.v.) came to an end
(a.d. 105), passed into the hands of the Palmyrene merchants.
Their caravans (cmvo^iat) travelled right across the desert to the
great entrepots on the Euphrates, Vologesias, about 55 m. south-
east of Babylon, or Forath or Charax close to the Persian Gulf
(NSI. Nos. 113-115). The trade was enormously profitable,
not only to the merchants but to the town, which levied a
rigorous duty on all exports and imports; at the same time
formidable risks had to be faced both from the desert-tribes and
from the Parthians, and successfully to plan or convoy a great
caravan came to be looked upon as a distinguished service to the
state, often recognized by public monuments erected by " council
and people " or by the merchants interested in the venture.
These monuments, a conspicuous feature of Palmyrene archi-
tecture, took the form of statues placed on brackets projecting
from the upper part of the pillars which lined the principal
thoroughfares. Thus arose, beside minor streets, the imposing
central avenue which, starting from a triumphal arch near
the great temple of the Sun, formed the main axis of the city
from south-east to north-west for a length of 1240 yards, and
at one time consisted of not less than 750 columns of rosy- white
limestone, each 55 ft. high.
Local industries do not seem to have been important. One
of the chief of them was the production of salt from the deposits
of the desert ; - another was no doubt the manufacture of
leather; the inscriptions mention also a powerful gild of workers
in gold and sUver (NSI. No. 126); but Palmyra was not an
industrial town, and the exacting fiscal system which drew
profit even out of the bare necessaries of life — such as water,
oil, wheat, salt, wine, straw, wool, skins (see Tariff ii. b, NSI.
pp. 315 sqq.) — must have weighed heavily upon the artisan
class. The prominent townsmen were engaged in the organiza-
tion and even the personal conduct of caravans, the discharge
of public offices such as those of stratcgos, secretary, guardian of
the wells, president of the banquets of Bel, chief of the market
(see NSI. Nos. 114, 115, 121, 122), sometimes the victualling
of a Roman expedition. The capable performance of these
functions, which often involved considerable pecuniary sacrifices,
ensured public esteem, honorary inscriptions and statues; and
to these honours the head of a great house was carefid to add
the glory of a splendid tomb, consecrated as the " long home "
(lit. " house of eternity," cf. Eccles. xii. 5) of himself, his sons
and his sons' sons for ever. These tombs, which lie outside
the city and overlook it from the surrounding hills, a feature
characteristically Arabic, remain the most interesting monu-
ments of Palmyra. Some are lofty towers containing sepulchral
chambers in stories; ' others are house-Uke buildings with a
single chamber and a richly ornamented portico; the sides of
these chambers within are adorned with the names and
sculptured portraits of the dead. As a rule the buildings of
Palmyra do not possess any architectural individuality, but
these tombs are an exception. The style of all the ruins is late
classic and highly ornate, but without refinement.
The rise of Palmyra to a position of political importance
may be dated from the time when the Romans established
themselves on the Syrian coast. As early as the first imperial
period the city must have admitted the suzerainty of Rome,
for decrees respecting its custom-dues were issued by Germanicus
(a.d. 17-19) and Cn. Domitius Corbulo (a.d. 57-66). At the same
time the city had by no means surrendered its independence,
for even in the days of Vespasian (a.d. 69-79) the distinctive
- " The soil of this marsh [east of Palmyra] is so impregnated
with salt that a trench or pit sunk in it becomes filled in a short
time with concentrated brine, the water of which evaporates in the
intense sunshine and leaves an incrustation of excellent salt."
Post, Narrative of a Second Journey to Palmyra in Pal. Expl. Fund's
Qtly. St. (1892), p. 324. _ ' .
' One of these tomb-towers, called Kasr eth-Thuniyeh, is 1 1 1 ft.
high, 33j ft. square at the base, 25 ft. 8 in. square above the base-
ment ; it contains six stories and places for 480 bodies. Opposite the
entrance within is a hall with recesses for coffins and a richly panelled
ceiling; underneath is an immense vault.
PALMYRA
65
position of Palmyra as an intermediate state between the two
great powers of Rome and Parthia was recognized and carefully
watched. The splendid period of Palmyra (a.d. 130-270), to
which the greater part of the inscribed monuments belong,
started from the overthrow of Petra (a.d. 105), which left
Palmyra without a competitor for the Eastern trade. Hadrian
treated the city with special favour, and on the occasion of his
visit in A.D. 130, granted it the name of Hadriana Palmyra
(nmn Nimn NSI. p. 322). Under the same emperor the
customs were revised and a new tariflf promulgated (April,
A.D. 137), cancelling the loose system of taxation " by custom "
which formerly had prevailed.' The great fiscal inscription,
which still remains where it was set up, gives the fullest picture
of the life and commerce of the city. The government was
vested in the council (/SodXi?) and people {drjfjLos), and admin-
istered by civil officers with Greek titles, the procdros (president),
the grammaleus (secretary), the archons, syndics and dekaproloi
(a fiscal council of ten), following the model of a Greek muni-
cipahty under the Roman Empire. At a later date, probably
under Septimius Sevcrus or Caracalla (beginning of 3rd century).
Palmyra received the Jus italicum and the status of a colony;
the executive officials of the council and people were caUed
strategoi, equivalent to the 'R.oma.n duumviri {NSI. Nos. 121, 127);
and Palmyrenes who became Roman citizens began to take
Roman names, usually Septimius or Julius Aurelius, in addition
to their native names.
It was the Parthian wars of the 3rd century which brought
Palmyra to the front, and for a brief period raised her to an
almost dazzling position as mistress of the Roman East. A
new career of ambition was opened to her citizens in the Roman
honours that rewarded services to the imperial armies during
their frequent expeditions in the East. One house which was
thus distinguished had risen to a leading place in the city and
before long played no small part in the world's history. Its
members, as we learn from the inscriptions, prefixed to their
Semitic names the Roman genliliciuni of Septimius, which shows
that they received the citizenship under Septimius Severus
(a.d. 193-211), presumably in recognition of their services in
connexion with his Parthian expedition. In the next generation
Septimius Odainath or Odenathus, son of Hairan, had attained
the rank of Roman senator {a\r{K\7]Ti.Kbs, Vogiie No. 21, NSI.
p. 285 M.). conferred no doubt when Alexander Severus visited
Palmyra in a.d. 230-231; his son again, Septimius Hairan,
seems to have been the first of the family to receive the title of
Ras Tadmor (" chief of Tadmor ") in addition to his Roman
rank (NSI. No. 125); while his son — the relationship, though
nowhere stated, is practicaOy certain — the famous Septimius
Odainath, commonly known as Odenathus (g.v.), the husband
of Zenobia, received even higher rank, the consular dignity
(viraTLKos) which is given him in an inscription dated a.d. 258,
in the reign of Valerian (NSI. No. 126). The East was then
agitated by the advance of the Parthian Empire under the
Sassanidae, and the Palmyrenes, in spite of their Roman honours
and their Roman civilization, which did not really go much
below the surface, were by no means prepared to commit them-
selves altogether to the Roman side.^ But Parthian ambitions
made it necessary for the Palmyrenes to choose one side or
other, and their choice leaned towards Rome, both because
they dreaded interference with their religious freedom and
because the Roman emperor was further off than the Persian
king. In the contests which followed there can be no doubt
that the Palmyrene princes cherished the idea of an independent
empire of their own, though they never threw over their alle-
giance to the Roman suzerain until the closing act of the drama.
Their opportunity came with the disaster which befell the
Roman army under Valerian (g.v.) at Edessa, a disaster, says
' The full text, both Greek and Palmyrene, with an English
translation, is given in NSI, pp. 313-340. The tariff should be
compared with the Greek Tariff of Coptos a.d. 90 (Flinders Petrie,
Koptos, pp. 27 sqq.) and the Latin Tariff of Zarai (Corp. inscr. lal.
viii. 4508).
^ For the general history of the Period see Persia: History, A.
§ viii., " The Sassanlan Empire."
Mommsen, which had nearly the same significance for the
Roman East as the victory of the Goths at the mouth of the
Danube and the fall of Decius; the emperor was captured
(a.d. 260) and died in captivity. The Persians swept victoriously
over Asia Minor and North Syria; not however without resist-
ance on the part of Odenathus, who inflicted considerable losses
on the bands returning home from the pillage of Antioch. It
was probably not long after this that Odenathus, with a keen
eye for his advantage, made an attempt to attach himself to
Shapur I. (q.v.) the Persian king;' his gifts and letters, however,
were contemptuously rejected, and from that time, as it seems,
he threw himself warmly into the Roman cause. After the
captivity and death of Valerian, Gallienus succeeded to a merely
nominal rule in the East, and was too careless and self-indulgent
to take any active measures to recover the lost provinces.
Thereupon the two leading generals of the Roman army,
Macrianus and Callistus, renounced their allegiance and pro-
claimed the two sons of the former as emperors (a.d. 261).
During the crisis Odenathus remained loyal to Gallienus, and
was rewarded for his fidelity by the grant of a position without
parallel under ordinary circumstances; as hereditary prince of
Palmyra he was appointed dux Orientis, a sort of vice-emperor
for the East (a.d. 262). He started promptly upon the work
of recovery. With his Palmyrene troops,'' strengthened by
what was left of the Roman army corps, he took the offensive
against Shapur, defeated him at Ctesiphon, and in a series of
brilliant engagements won back the East for Rome. During
his absence at the wars, we learn from the inscriptions (a.d.
262-267) that Palmyra was administered by his deputy Septi-
mius Worod, " procurator ducenarius of Caesar our lord," also
styled " commandant," as being Odenathus' viceroy (dp7a7r€rT)s,
NSI. Nos. 127-129). Then in the zenith of his success
Odenathus was assassinated at Homs (Emesa) along with his
eldest son Herodes (a.d. 266-267). The fortunes of Palmyra
now passed into the vigorous hands of Zenobia (g.v.), who had
been actively supporting her husband in his policy. Zenobia
seems to have ruled on hehalf of her young son Wahab-allath
or Athenodorus as the name is Graecized, who counts the years
of his reign from the date of his father's death. Under
Odenathus Palmyra had extended her sway over Syria and
Arabia, perhaps also over Armenia, Cilicia and Cappadocia;
but now the troops of Zenobia, numbering it is said 70,000,
proceeded to occupy Egypt ; the Romans under Probus resisted
vigorously but without avail, and by the beginning of a.d. 270,
when Aurehan succeeded Claudius as emperor, Wahab-allath
was governing Egypt with the title of " king." His coins of
270 struck at Alexandria bear the legend v(ir) c(onsularis)
R(omanorum) im(perator) d(iix) R(omanorum) and display his
head beside that of Aurelian, but the latter alone is styled
Augustus. Meanwhile the Palmyrenes were pushing their
influence not only in Egypt but in Asia Minor; they contrived
to establish garrisons as far west as Ancyra and even Chalcedon
opposite Byzantium, while still professing to act under the
terms of the joint rule conferred by Gallienus. Then in the
course of the year a.d. 270-271 came the inevitable and open
breach. In Palmyra Zenobia is stiU called "queen " (/SacrtXtcro-a,
NSI. No. 131; cf. Wadd. 2628), but in distant quarters, such
as Egypt, she and her son claim the dignity of Augustus;
' Petrus Patricius. Fragm. hist, grace, iv. 187.
* The Palmyrene archers were especially famous. Appian
mentions them in connexion with M. Antony's raid in 41 B.C. (Bell,
civ. V. 9). Later on a contingent served with the Roman army in
Africa, Britain, Italy, Hungary, where grave-stones with Palmyrene
and Latin inscriptions have been found; see Lidzbarski, Nordsem
epigr. p. 481 seq.; Ephemeris, ii. 92 (a Latin inscription of the time of
Marcus Aurelius), and NSI. p. 312. The South Shields inscription,
now in the Free Library of the town, was found in the neighbouring
Roman camp; it is given in NSI. p. 250. The Palmyrene soldier
who set it up was no doubt an archer. Jewish tradition had reason
to remember these formidable Palmyrenes in the Roman armies;
according to the Talmud 80,000 of them assisted at the destruction
of the first temple, 8000 at that of the second ! Talm. Jerus.
Taanith, fol. 68 a, Midrash Ekha, ii. 2. For other references to
Palmyra (called Tarmod) in the Talmud see Neubauer Giogr. du
Talm. 301 sqq.
65+
PALNI HILLS— PALO ALTO
Wahab-allath(sth year) begins to issue coins at Alexandria without
the head of Aurelian and bearing the imperial title; and Zenobia's
coins bear the same. It was at this time (a.d. 271) that the two
chief Palmyrene generals Zabda and Zabbai, set up a statue
to the deceased Odenathus and gave him the sounding designa-
tion of " king of kings and restorer of the whole city " {NSI.
No. 130). These assumptions marked a deiinite rejection of
all allegiance to Rome. Aurehan, the true Augustus, quickly
grasped the situation, and took strenuous measures to deal with
it. At the close of a.d. 270 Probus brought back Egypt into the
empire, not without a considerable struggle; then in 271 Aurelian
made preparations for a great campaign against the seat of the
mischief itself. He approached by way of Cappadocia, where he
reduced the Palmyrene garrisons, and thence through Cilicia
he entered Syria. At Autioch the Palmyrene forces under
Zabda attempted to resist his advances, but they were compelled
to fall back upon the great route which leads from Antioch
through Emesa (mod. Horns) to their native city. At Emesa
the Palmyrenes were defeated in a stiffly contested battle. At
length Aurelian arrived before the walls of Palmyra, which was
captured probably in the spring of a.d. 272. In accordance
with the judicious policy which he had observed in Asia Minor
and at Antioch, he granted full pardon to the citizens; only
the chief officials and advisers were put to death; Zenobia and
her son were captured and reserved for his triumph when he
returned to Rome. But the final stage in the conquest of the
city was yet to come. A few months later, in the autumn of
272 — the latest inscription is dated August 272 (\'ogue. No. 116)
— the Palmyrenes revolted, killed the Roman garrison quartered
in the city, and proclaimed one Antiochus as their chief.
Aurelian heard of it just when he had crossed the Hellespont
on his way home. He returned instantly before any one expected
him, and took the city by surprise. Palmyra was destroyed and
the fjopulation put to the sword. Aurelian restored the walls
and the great Temple of the Sun (a.d. 273); but the city never
recovered its splendour or importance.
Language. — The language spoken at Palmyra was a dialect of
western Aramaic, and belongs to the same group as Nabataean and
the Aramaic spoken in Egjpt. In some important points, however,
the dialect was related to the eastern Aramaic or Syrian (e.g. the
plur. ending in e' ; the dropping of the final i of the pronominal
suffix third pers. sing, with nouns, and of the final u of the third
pers. pi. of the verb; the infin. ending u, &c). But the relation to
western Aramaic is closer; specially characteristic are the following
features: the imperf. beginning with y, not as in Syriac and the
eastern dialects with n or I; the plur. ending -ayyd' ; the forms of
the demonstrative pronouns, &c. As the bulk of the population was
of Arab race, it is not surprising that many of the proper names are
Arabic and that several Arabic words occur in the inscriptions.
The technical terms of municipal government are mostly Greek,
transliterated into Palmyrene; a few Latin words occur, of course
in Aramaic forms. For further characteristics of the dialect see
Noldeke, ZDMG. xxiv. 85-109. The writing is a modified form of the
old Aramaic character, and especially interesting because it repre-
sents almost the last stage through which the ancient alphabet
passed before it developed into the Hebrew square character.
The names of the months were the same as those used by the
Nabataeans, Syrians and later Jews, viz. the Babylonian. The
calendar was the Syro-Macedonian, a solar, as distinct from the
primitive lunar, calendar, which Roman influence disseminated
throughout Syria; it was practically a reproduction of the Julian
calendar. Dates were reckoned by the Seleucid era, which began
in October 312 B.C.
Religion. — The religion of Palmyra did not differ in essentials from
that of the north Syrians and the Arab tribes of the eastern desert.
The chief god of the Palmyrenes was a solar deity, called Samas or
Shamash (" sun "), or Bel, or Malak-bel,' whose great temple is still
the most imposing feature among the ruins of Palmyra. Both
Bel and Malak-bel were of Babylonian origin. Sometimes asso-
ciated with the Sun-god was "Agli-bol the Moon-god who is repre-
sented as a young Roman warrior with a large crescent attached to
his shoulders (Rom. I, and Vogue pi. xii. No. 141). The great
goddess of the Aramaeans, 'Athar-'atheh, in Greek Atargatis
' Transcribed MaXax/SijXos, Malagbelus, &c., and in the Palm,
inscr. given in NSI., p. 268, translated Sol sanctissimus; he was
further identified with Z«6s. Malak-bel has been explained as
"messenger of Bel"; but more probably Malak is the common
Babylonian epithet malik given to various gods, and means
"counsellor"; Malak-bel will then be the sun as the visible
representative of Bel.
(g.t).), and AUath, the chief goddess of the ancient Arabs, were also
worshipped at Palmyra. Another deity whose name occurs in votive
inscriptions, is Baal-shamim, i.e. " B of the heavens," =Z«6s m'T'ttos
Kepaijcioj, sometimes called " lord of eternity," but he was not
included among the national gods of Palmyra, so far as we know,
though he probably had a temple there. Another interesting divine
name, lately discovered, is that of a distinctly Arabic deity " She'a-
alqum the good and bountiful god who does not drink wine "
(N.SI. No. 140 B); the name means " he who accompanies, the pro-
tector of, the people " — the divine patron of the caravan. A common
formula in Palmyrene dedications runs " To him whose name is
blessed for ever, the good and the compassionate "; oat of reverence
the name of the deity was not pronounced; was it Bel or Malak-bel?
It is worth noticing that this epithet like " lord of eternity " (or,
" of the world "), has a distinctly Jewish character. Altogether
about 22 names of gods are found in Palmyrene; some of them,
however, only occur in compound proper names.
After its overthrow by Aurelian, Palmyra was partially revived
as a military station by Diocletian (end of 3rd century A.D.), as
we learn from a Latin inscription found on the site. Before this
time Christianity had made its way into the oasis, for among the
fathers present at the Council of Nicaea (a.d. 325) was Marinus
bishop of Palmyra. The names of two other bishops of the 5th
and 6th centuries have come down to us. About A.D. 400, Palmyra
was the station of the first Illyrian legion (Not. dign. i. 85, ed. Beck-
ing) ; Justinian in 527 furnished it with an aqueduct, and built the
wall of which the ruins still remain (Procopius, De aedif, ii. II).
At the Moslem conquest of Syria, Palmyra capitulated to Khalid
(see Caliphate) without embracing Islam (Baladsori [Baladhuri],
III seq.; Yaqut, i. 831). The town became a Moslem fortress and
received a considerable Arab colony; for in the reign of Merwan
II. (a.h. 127-132) it sent a thousand Kalbite horsemen to aid the
revolt of Emesa, to the district of which it is reckoned by the Arabic
geographers. The rebellion was sternly suppressed and the walls of
the city destroyed (Ibn al-Athir, A.H. 127, ed. Tornberg V., 249;
cf. Frag. hist. ar. 139, Ibn Wadih, ii. 230). In this connexion
Yaqut tells a curious story of the opening of one of the tombs by the
caliph, which in spite of fabulous incidents, recalling the legend of
Roderic the Goth, shows some traces of local knowledge. The ruins
of Palmyra greatly interested the Arabs, and are commemorated
in several poems quoted by Yaqijt and others; they are referred to
by the early poet Nabigha as proofs of the might of Solomon and his
sovereignty over their builders the Jinn (Derenbourg, Journ. As.
xii. 269) — a legend which must have come from the Jews, who either
clung to the ruins after the great overthrow or returned in the time
of Diocletian. References to Palmyra in later times have been
collected by Quatremere, Sidlans Mamlouks, ii. pt. i. p. 255 seq.
.'Ml but annihilated by earthquake in the nth century, it recovered
considerable prosperity; when Benjamin of Tudela visited the city,
which was still called Tadmor, he found 2000 Jews v/ithin the walls
(1 2th century). It was still a wealthy place as late as the 14th cen-
tury; but in the general decline of the East, and owing to changes in
the trade routes, it sunk at length to a poor group of hovels gathered
in the courtyard of the Temple of the Sun. The ruins first became
known to Europe through the visit of Dr William Halifax of Aleppo
in 1691 ; his Relation of a voyage to Tadmor has been printed from his
autograph in the Pal. E.\plor. Fund's Quarterly Statement for 1890.
Halifa.x not only took measurements, but copied 18 Greek and 4
Palmyrene texts. The architecture was carefully studied by Wood
and Dawkins in 1751, whose splendid folio (The Ruins of Palmyra,
London, 1753) also gave copies of inscriptions. But the epigraphic
wealth of Palmyra was first opened to study by the collections of
Waddington (vol. iii.) and De Vogue (La Syria centrale) made in
1 861-1862. Since that time the most valuable document which has
come to light is the great fiscal inscription discovered in 1882 by
Prince Abamelek Lazarew.
See also .\. D. Mordtmann, Sitzungsb. of the Munich Acad. (1875);
Sachau, ZDMG. x.x.xv. 728 sqq. ; D. H. Muller, Palm. Inschr. (1,898);
J. Mordtmann Palmyrenisches (1899); Clermont-Ganneau, Etudes
d'a:-ch. or. i., Receuil. d'arch. or. iii., v., vii. ; Lidzbarski, Ephemeris, i.
and ii. ; Sobernheim, Palm. Inschr. (1905). The Repertoire d'epigr.
sem. contains the new texts which have been published since
1900. For the coins von Sallet's Fiirsten von Palmyra (1866)
must be read with his later essay in the Num. Zeitschr. ii. 31
sqq. (1870). Critical discussions of the history will be found in
Schiller, Gesch. d. Romischen Kaiserzeit., i. 2 Teil (1883), pp. 823 sqq.
and 857 sqq., and Mommsen, Provinces of the Roman Empire,
(Eng. trans., 1886), pp. 92 sqq. (G. A. C.*)
PALNI HILLS, a range of hills in south India, in the Madura
district of Madras. They are an offshoot from the Western
Ghats, and, while distinct from the adjacent Anamalai Hills,
form part of the same system. They contain the hill station
of Kodaikanal (7200 ft.), which has a milder and more equable
climate than Ootacamund in the Nilgiri HiUs. There is some
coffee cultivation on the lower slopes.
PALO ALTO, a city of Santa Clara county, California, U.S.A.,
between two of the coast ranges, about 28 m. S. of San Francisco,
PALOMINO DE CASTRO— PAMIRS
655
and about 18 m. from the sea. Pop. (1906) 4515. It is served
by the coast division of the Southern Pacific railway, and is the
railway station for Leland Stanford Jr, University ((/.v.), which
is about I m. south-west of the city. At Menlo Park is St
Patrick's Theological Seminary (Roman Catholic). By all real
estate deeds the sale of intoxicating liquors is for ever prohibited
in the city; and an act of the state legislature in 1909 prohibited
the sale of intoxicating hquor within 1^ m. of the grounds of the
university. The name (Sp. " tall tree ") was derived from a
solitary redwood-tree standing in the outskirts of the city.
Palo Alto was laid out in 1S91, but had no real existence before
1893. It was incorporated as a town in 1894, having previously
been a part of Maylield township; in 1909 it was chartered as a
city. Palo Alto suffered severely in the earthquake of igo6.
PALOMINO DE CASTRO Y VELASCO, ACISCLO ANTONIO
(1653-17 26), Spanish painter and writer on art, was born of good
family at Bujalance, near Cordoba, in 1653, and studied philo-
sophy, theology and law at that capital, receiving also lessons
in painting from Valdes Leal, who visited Cordoba in 1672, and
afterwards from Alfaro (1675). After taking minor orders he
removed to Madrid in 1678, where he associated with Alfaro,
Coello and Carefio, and executed some indifferent frescoes. He
soon afterwards married a lady of rank, and, having been
appointed alcalde of the mesta, was himself ennobled; and in
1688 he was appointed painter to the king. He visited Valencia
in 1697, and remained there three or four years, again devoting
himself with but poor success to fresco painting. Between
1 705 and 1 7 1 5 he resided for considerable periods at Salamanca,
Granada and Cordoba; in the latter year the first volume of his
work on art appeared in Madrid. After the death of his wife
in 1725 Palomino took priest's orders. He died on the 13th
of August 1726.
His work, in 3 vols, folio (1715-1724), entitled El Museo pidorico
y escala optica, consists of three parts, of which the first two, on
the theory and practice of the art of painting, are without interest
or value; the third, with the subtitle El Parnaso espaiiol pintoresco
taiireado, is |a mine of important biographical material relating to
Spanish artists, which, notwithstanding its faulty style, has procured
for the author the not altogether undeserved honour of being called
the " Spanish Vasari." It was partially translated into English in
1 739 1 ai abridgment of the original (Las Vidas de los pintores y
estatuarios espanoles) was published in London in 1742, and after-
wards appeared in a French translation in 1749. A German version
was publislied at Dresden in 1781, and a reprint of the entire work
at Madrid in 1797.
PALTOCK, ROBERT (1697-1767), English writer, the only
son of Thomas Paltock of St James's, Westminster, was born in
1697. He became an attorney and lived for some time in
Clement's Inn, whence he removed, before 1759, to Back Lane,
Lambeth. He married Anna Skinner, through whom his son,
also named Robert, inherited a small property at Ryme
Intrinseca, Dorset. There Robert Paltock, who died in London
on the 20th of March 1767, was buried. Paltock owes his fame
to his romantic Life and Adventures of Peter Wilkins (1751),
which excited the admiration of men like Coleridge, Southey,
Charles Lamb, Sir Walter Scott and Leigh Hunt. It has been
several times reprinted, notably with an introduction by Mr
A. H. Bullen in 1884. It was translated into French (1763) and
into German (1767).
PALUDAN-MULLER, FREDERIK (1809-1876), Danish poet,
was the third son of Jens Paludan-MiiUer, from 1830 to 184S
bishop of Aarhus, and born at Kjerteminde in Fiinen, on the 7th
of February 1809. In 1819 his father was transferred to Odense,
and Frederik began to attend the Latin school there. In 182S
he passed to the university of Copenhagen. In 1832 he opened
his poetical career with Four Romances, and a romantic comedy
entitled Kjcerlighed ved hojfet (" Love at Court "). This
enjoyed a considerable success, and was succeeded in 1833 by
Dandserinden (" The Dancing Girl "). Paludan-Miiller was
accepted by criticism without a struggle, and few writers have
excited less hostility than he. He was not, however, well
inspired in his lyrical drama of Amor and Psyche in 1834 nor in
his Oriental tale of Zukimasflugt (" Zuleima's Flight ") in 1835,
in each of which he was too vividly influenced by Byron. But he
regained all that he had lost by his two volumes of poems in
1836 and 1838. From 1838 to 1840 Paludan-MiiUer was making
the grand tour in Europe and his genius greatly expanded; in
Italy he wrote Venus, a lyrical poem of extreme beauty. In the
same year, 1841, he began to publish a great work on which he
had long been engaged, and which he did not conclude until
1848; this was Adam Homo, a narrative epic, satirical, modern
and descriptive, into which Paludan-M tiller wove all his variegated
impressions of Denmark and of love. This remains the typical
classic of Danish poetical literature. In 1844 he composed three
enchanting idylls, Dryadens brylhip (" The Dryad's Wedding ")
Til/ion ('■ Tithonus ") and Abels ddd (" The Death of Abel ").
From 1850 a certain decline in the poet's physical energy became
manifest and he wrote less. His majestic drama of Kalanus
belongs to 1854. Then for seven years he kept silence. Para-
disct ("Paradise") 1861; and Bcnedikl fra Nurcia ("Benedict
of Nurcia ") 1861; bear evidence of malady, both physical and
mental. Paludan-Miiller wrote considerably after this, but never
recovered his early raptures, e.xcept in the very latest of all his
poems, the enchanting welcome to death, entitled Adonis. The
poet lived a very retired life, first in Copenhagen, then for many
years in a cottage on the outskirts of the royal park of Fredens-
borg, and finally in a house in Ny Adelgade, Copenhagen, where
he died on the 27th of December 1876. (E. G.)
PALWAL, a town of British India, in Gurgaon district,
Punjab. Pop. (1901), 12,830. It is a place of great antiquity,
supposed to figure in the earliest Aryan traditions under the
name of Apelava, part of the Pandava kingdom of Indraprastha.
Its importance is mainly historical, but it is a centre for the
cotton trade of the neighbourhood, having a station on the
Delhi-Agra branch of the Great Indian Peninsula railway.
PAMIERS, a town of south-western France, capital of an arron-
dissement in the department of Ariege, 40 m. S. by E. of Toulouse
on the railway to Foix. Pop. (1906), town, 7728; commune,
10,449. Pamiers is the seat of a bishopric dating from the end of
the 13th century. The cathedral (chiefly of the 17th century) with
an octagonal Gothic tower, is a bizarre mixture of the Graeco-
Roman and Gothic styles; the church of Notre-Dame du Camp
(17th and i8th centuries) is noticeable for its crenelated and
machicolated fafade of the 14th century. Pamiers has a sub-
prefecture, a tribunal of first instance, a communal coUege and a
school of commerce and industry. Iron and steel of excellent
quality, chains and carriage-springs are among its products.
It has also tanneries and wool, flour, paper and saw mills,
brickworks and hme-kilns, and commerce in grain, flour, fodder,
fruit and vegetables. There are stone quarries and nursery
gardens in the vicinity, and the white wine of the district is well
known.
Pamiers was originally a castle built in the beginning of the
12th century by Roger II., count of Foix, on lands belonging
to the abbey of St Antonin de Fredelas. The abbots of St
Antonin, and afterwards the bishops, shared the authority over
the town with the counts. This gave rise to numerous disputes
between monks, counts, sovereigns, bishops and the consuls of
the town. Pamiers was sacked by Jean de Foix in i486, again
during the religious wars, when the abbey of St Antonin was
destroyed, and finally, in 1628, by Henry II. of Bourbon prince
of Conde.
PAMIRS, a mountainous region of central Asia, lying on the
north-west border of India. Since 1875 the Pamirs have
probably been the best explored region in High Asia. Not only
have many travellers of many nationahties directed their steps
towards the Bam-i-dunya (" the Roof of the World ") in search
of adventure or of scientific information, but the government
surveys of Russia and India have met in these high altitudes,
and there effected a connexion which will help to solve many of
the geodetic problems which beset the superficial survey of
Asia. Since Wood first discovered a source of the Oxus in Lake
Victoria in 1837, and left us a somewhat erroneous conception of
the physiography of the Pamirs, the gradual approach of Russia
from the north stimulated the processes of exploration from the
side of India. Native explorers from India first began to be
656
PAMIRS
busy in the Pamirs about i860, and continued their investiga-
tions for the following lifteen years. In 1874 the mission
of Sir D. Forsyth to Yarkand led to the first" systematic
geographical exploitation of the Pamir country. In 1885 Ney
Elias made his famous journey across the Pamirs from east to
west, identifying the Rang Kul as the Dragon Lake of Chinese
geographers — a distinction which has also been claimed by some
geographers for Lake Victoria. Then Lockhart and Woodthorpe
in 1886 passed along the Wakhan tributary of the Oxus from its
head to Ishkashim in Badakshan, and completed an enduring
record of most excellent geographical research. Bonvalot in
1887, Littledale in 1888, Cumberland, Bower and Dauvergne,
followed by Younghusband in succeeding years, extending to
1890; Dunmore in 1892 and Sven Hedin in 1894-1895, have all
contributed more or less to Pamir geography; but the honours
of successful inquiry in those high altitudes still faU to Lord
Curzon, whose researches in 1804 led to a singularly clear and
comprehensive description of Pamir geography, as well as to
the best map compilation that till then had existed. IVIeanwhile
Russian explorers and Russian topographers had been equally
busy from the north. The famous soldier Skobelev was probably
the first European to visit the Great Kara Kul. He was followed
by scientific missions systematically organized by the Russian
government. In 18S3 Putiata's mission started south. Grom-
chevsky was hard at work from 188S to 1892. Yanov began
again in 1891, after a short spell of rest, and has left his mark as
a permanent record in the valley of Sarhad (or Wakhan), between
the Baroghil pass and Bozai Gumbaz. Finally, in 1895, the
Russian mission under General Shveikovsky met the British
mission under General Gerard on the banks of Lake Victoria,
and from that point to the Chinese frontier eastward demarcated
the line which thereafter was to divide Russian from British
interests in highest Asia. Since then other travellers have
visited the Pamirs, but the junction of the Russian and British
surveys (the latter based on triangiilation carried across the
Hindu Kush from India) disposes of any further claim to the
honours of geographical exploration.
Our estimate of the extent of Pamir conformation depends
much on the significance of the word Pamir. If we accept the
Persian derivation of the term (which is advanced
formatloa.'^y Curzon as being perhaps the most plausible),
pai-mir, or " the foot of mountain peaks," we have
a definition which is by no means an inapt illustration of the
actual facts of configuration. It has been too often assumed
that the plateau of Tibet and the uplands of the Pamirs are
analogous in physiography, and that they merge into each other.
This is hardly the case. Littledale points out {R. G. S. Journ.,
vol. vii.) that the high-level valleys of glacial formation which
distinguish the Pamirs have no real counterpart in the Chang
or plains of Tibet. The latter are 2000 ft. higher; they are
intersected by narrow ranges, and are drained by no rivers of
importance. They form a region of salt lakes and stagnant
marshes, reheved by wide flat spaces of open plateau country.
The absence of any vegetation beyond grass or scrub is a
striking feature common to both Pamir and Chang, but there
the resemblance ceases, and the physical conformation of
mountain and valley to the east and to the west of the upper
sources of the Zarafshan is radically distinct.
The axis, or backbone, of Pamir formation is the great
meridional mountain chain of Sarikol — the ancient Taurus of
tradition and history — on which stands the highest
Pamirs. Peak north of the Himalaya, the Muztagh Ata
(25,000 ft.). This chain divides off the high-level
sources of the Oxus on the west from the streams which sweep
downwards into the Turkestan depression of Kashgar on the
east. There are the true Pamirs {i.e. valleys reaching up in long
slopes to the foot of mountain peaks) on either side, and the
Pamirs on the west differ in some essential respects from those
on the east. On the west the following are generally recognized
as distinct Pamirs: (i) the Great Pamir, of which the dominant
feature is Lake Victoria; (2) the Little Pamir, separated from the
Great Pamir on the north by what is now known as the Nicolas
range; (3) the Pamir-i-Wakhan, which is the narrow trough of
the Wakhan tributary of the Oxus, the term Pamir applying to
its upper reaches only; (4) the Alichur — the Pamir of the Yeshil
Kul and Ghund — immediately to the north of the Great Pamir;
(5) the Sarez Pamir, which forms the valley of the Murghab
river, which has here found its way round the east of the Great
Pamir and the Alichur from the Little Pamir, and now makes
westwards for the Oxus. This branch w^as considered by many
geographers as the main Oxus stream, and Lake Chakmaktin,
at its head, was by them regarded as the Oxus source. At the
foot of the Sarez Pamir stands the most advanced Russian out-
post of IMurghabi. To the north-east of the Alichur are the
Rang Kul and the Kara Kul (or Kargosh) Pamirs. Rang Kul
Lake occupies a central basin or depression; but the Kara Kul
drains away north-eastwards through the Sarikol (as the latter,
bending westwards, merges into the Trans-Alai) to Kashgar and
the Turkestan plains. Similar characteristics distinguish all
these Pamirs. They are hemmed in and separated by snow-
capped mountain peaks and ridges, which are seamed with
glaciers terminating in moraines and shingle slopes at the base
of the foot-hills. Long sweeps of grassy upland bestrewn w'ith
boulders lead from the stream beds up to the snowfields, yellow,
grey or vivid green, according to the season and the measure of
sunlight, fold upon fold in interminable succession, their bleak
monotony being only relieved by the grace of flowers for a short
space during the summer months.
To the east of the Sarikol chain is the Taghdumbash Pamir,
which claims many of the characteristics of the western Pamirs
at its upper or western extremity, where the Karachukar,
which drains it, is a comparatively small stream. But where
the Karachukar, joining forces with the Khunjerab, stretches
out northwards for a comparativelystraight run to Tashkurghan,
dividing asunder the two parallel ranges of Sarikol and Kandar,
which together form the Sarikol chain, the appeDation Pamir
can hardly be maintained. This is the richest portion of the
Sarikol province. Here are stone-built houses collected in
scattered detachments, with a spread of cultivation reaching
down to the river. Here are water-mills and many permanent
apphances of civihzation suited to the lower altitude (11,500 ft.,
the average height of the upper Pamirs being about 13,000), and
here we are no longer near the sources of the river at the foot of
the mountain peaks. One other so-called Pamir exists to the
east of Sarikol, separated therefrom by the eastern range (the
Kandar) of the Sarikol, which is known as Mariom or Mariong.
But this Pamir is situated nowhere near the sources of the Zaraf-
shan or Raskam river, which it borders, and possesses little in
common with the Pamirs of the west. The Mariom Pamir defines
the western extremity of the Kuen Lun, which stretches east-
wards for 250 m. before it becomes the pohtical boundary of
northern Tibet.
The Muztagh chain, which holds within its grasp the mightiest
system of glaciers in the world, forms a junction with the Sarikol
at the head of the Taghdumbash, where also another great system
(that of the Hindu Kush) has its eastern roots. The y.^^
political boundary between the extreme north of the nf^^f^gi,
Kashmir dependencies and the extreme south of Chinese cbalnaad
Turkestan is carried by the Zarafshan or Raskam river Karakoram
which runs parallel to the Muztagh at its northern foot Exteasloa.
(its valley dividing the Muztagh from the Kuen Lun), to
a point in about 79° 20' E., where it is transferred to the watershed
of the Kuen Lun. Within the limits of these partially explored
highlands, lying between the Pamirs and the Tibetan table-land,
exact geographical definition is impossible. But we may follow
Godwin-Austen in accepting the main chain of the Muztagh as
merging into the central mountain system of the Tibetan Chang,
its axis being defined and divided by the transverse stream of the
Shyok at its westward bend, whilst the Karakoram range, in which
the Shyok rises, is a subsidiary northern branch. The pass over the
Karakoram (18,500 ft.) is the most formidable obstacle on the main
trade route between Leh and Kashgar.
The Taghdumbash Pamir occupies a geographical position of
some political significance. One important pass (the Beyik, 15,100 ft.)
leads from the Russian Pamirs into Sarikol across its ^.^^ Tagh-
northern border. A second pass (the Wakhjir, 16,150 ft.) aumbasb
connects the head of the Wakhan valley of Afghanistan p^^ir,
with the Sarikol province across its western head, whilst
a third (the Kilik, 15,600 ft.) leads into the head of the Hunza river
PAMPA, LA— PAMPAS
657
and opens a difficult and dangerous route to Gilnit. The Tagh-
dumbash is claimed both by China and Kanjut (orHunza),and there is
consequently an open boundary question at this corner of the Pamirs.
P'rom Lake Victoria of the Great Pamir the northern boundary
of that extended strip of Afghanistan which reaches out to the head
„ . of the Taghdumbash from Badakshan north of the Hindu
,,°""_fP' Kush is to be traced: westwards, in the Lake Victoria
alifiuent of the Oxus; and eastwards, on the Nicolas
between
Russia and
Afghan- '''"igc, dividing the Great and Little Pamirs, till it over-
Is^a. looks a point on the Aksu (or Murghab) river in about
74° 40' E. Here it diverges southwards to the Sarikol
chain, north of Taghdumbash. This eastward extension was laid
down by the Pamir Boundary Commission of 1895. All the head of
the Little Pamir, with the Wakhan valley, is consequently Afghan
territory, but no military posts have been established so far. The
Alichur, Rang Kul, Kargosh (Kara Kul) and Sarez are Russian
Pamirs. The Mariom Pamir is Chinese.
The Wakhan glaciers under the Wakhjir water-parting, Lake
Chakmaktin near the sources of the Aksu, and Lake Victoria of the
f.. . Great Pamir have all been claimed as indicating the
e ^ true source of the Oxus. But detailed examination of
theOvus their hydrographical conditions proves that neither of the
two lakes, Victoria (13,400 ft.) or Chakmaktin (13,020 ft.),
can justly be regarded as sources, both of them being derived
from the same mighty system of glacial snowfields on the summit
of the Nicolas range. Both may be regarded as incidents in the
course of glacial streams (incidents which are diminishing in volume
day by day), rather than original springs or sources. The same
glacial beds of the Nicolas range send down tributary waters to the
Panja or Wakhan river, below its junction with the ice stream from
Wakhjir, and thus it becomes impossible to decide whether the
glaciers of the Wakhjir or the glaciers of Nicolas should be regarded
as effecting the most important contribution to the main stream.
There is evidence also that glacial moraine formations from time to
time may have largely affected the catchment area of these tribu-
tary streams. It would be as rash to assert that from Lake Victoria
no waters could ever have issued with an eastward flow as it would
be to state that from Chakmaktin none ever flow westwards. The
measure of the veracity of Chinese pilgrims and geographers in the
early centuries of our era must not be balanced on such points as
these.
There is no evidence that the Pamirs were ever the support of
permanent settlements. The few mud-built buildings which once
Pooulatlon ^"'^t'^'^ ^t Chakmaktin and at Langar only decide
and Ethao- ^^'^^^^ occupation which could hardly have possessed a
eraaby permanent character, and the few shrines and domed
tombs which are scattered here and there about the
empty desolation of the Pamir slopes are all of them of recent
construction. The nomadic population which seeks pasturage
during the summer months in these dreary altitudes is entirely
Kirghiz, and we may take it for granted that it will soon be entirely
Russian. The non-Russian population during the summer of
1895 could not have amounted to more than a few hundred souls —
occupying a few encampments in the Little Pamir and in the Tagh-
dumbash. The total population of the Russian Pamirs has been
reckoned at 250 " kibitkas," or 1500 souls. There is no ethno-
graphical distinction to be traced between the Kirghiz of the Alichur
Pamir and the Kirghiz of the Taghdumbash.
The Kirghiz are Sunni Mahommedans by faith, but amongst
them there are curious survivals of an ancient ritual of which the
origin is to be traced to those Nestorian Christian
EyUences communities of Central Asia which existed in the
"J , , . middle ages. A Christian bishopric existed at Yarkand
"" *"■* " in Marco Polo's time, and is supposed to have survived
Smbols for another century (1350). The last Gurkhan of the
ym o s. j^^^^ Khitai Empire in the early part of the 13th century
(the legendary Prester John) was a member of a Christian tribe
called Naiman, which is one of the four chief tribal divisions
mentioned by Ney Elias. The Naiman tribe claim kinship with
the Kipchaks. It is curious that the same survival of Christian
ceremonial should be found amongst the Sarikoli, a Shiah people
of Aryan descent akin to the Tajiks of Badakshan, as may be traced
amongst the Kirghiz. Christian symbols have been discovered
in the southern towns of Chinese Turkestan by Sven Hedin.
The total area of the Pamir country may be estimated as about
150 m. long by 150 m. broad, of which about one-tenth is grass
pasture land and the rest mountainous. All of it once
/^p" formed part of the ancient kingdom of Bolor, itself a
e am rs. g^^yj^^] q{ (j,g ygj- ^ore ancient empire of the Yue-chi,
Tokharistan; and across it, in spite of its bleak inhospitality,
there have been one or two recognized trade routes from east
to west throughout all ages. The most important commercially
was that which passed north-west via Tashkurghan
and Rang Kul, from Chinese Turkestan to the khanates
north of the Oxus; but the route via Tashkurghan and
Lake Victoria to Badakshan was also well trodden. The great
pilgrim route of Buddhist days was that which connects the
ancient Buddhist cities of the Takla Makan in Chinese Turkestan
with Chitral (Kashkar), by the Baroghil Pass across the Hindu
Kush. This was but one link in a chain of devout peregrination
Trade
Routes^
Climate
of the
Pamirs,
which stretched from China to India, and which included every
intervening Buddhist centre of note which existed in the early
centuries of our era.
P"or six or seven months of the year (November to April) the
Pamirs are covered with snow, the lakes are frozen, and the passes
nearly impracticable. The mean temperature during
the month of January recorded by Ru.ssian ofjservers
at the Murghabi — or Pamirski — post is -13° F. In
July this rises to 62° F., the elevation of the station being
12,150 ft. During the spring and summer months the prevalence
of fierce cutting winds, which are shaped by the conformation of
the valleys into blasts as through a funnel, following the strike
of the valleys either up or down, makes travelling painful and
existence in camp most unpleasant. In the absc-nce of wind the
summer atmosphere is often bright and exhilarating, but there is a
constant tendency to sudden squalls of wind and rain, which pass
as quickly as they gather. The most settled record of the Pamir
Boundary Commission of 1895 lasted from the 19th of August to
the nth of September, the maximum temperature being recorded
at 77° on the 21st of August at Kizil Rabat (12,570 ft.) ; and yet on
the i6th of August snow had fallen to the depth of 6 in. and the
Beyik Pass was blocked. There were indications that monsoon
influences extended as far north at least as the Great Pamir, and a
definite analogy was established between the record of barometric
pressure on the Pamirs and that of the outer ranges of the Himalaya.
Authorities. — Captain J. Wood, A Journey to tJie Source of the
Oxus (new ed., London, 1872), Report of the Forsyth Mission (Cal-
cutta, 1875); Colonel T. E. Gordon, The Roof of the World (London,
1876); Pitman (trans.), Through the Heart of Asia (London, 1889);
Earl of Dunmore, The Pamirs (London, 1893); Major Cumberland,
Sport on the Pamirs (London, 1895); Hon. G. N. Curzon, "The
Pamirs and the Source of the Oxus," R. G. S. Journ., vol. viii.;
Report of the Proceedings of the Pamir Boundary Commission (Cal-
cutta, 1897). (T. H. H.*)
PAMPA, LA, a territory of the southern pampa region of
Argentina, bounded N. by Mendoza, San Luis and Cordoba,
E. by Buenos Aires, .S. by the territory of Rio Negro, from which
it is separated by the river Colorado, and W. by Mendoza.
Pop. (1904, official estimate), 52,150. It belongs geographically
to the southern part of the great Argentine pampas, from which its
name is derived, but in reality only a part of its surface belongs
to the plain region. The western and southern part (perhaps
the larger) is much broken by hills, swamps and sandy wastes,
with occasional stretches of wooded country. The western half
is crossed by a broad depression, extending from Mendoza south-
east to an intersection with the valley of the Colorado, which
was once the outlet of the closed drainage basin occupied by the
provinces of Mendoza, San Juan and San Luis. This depression
is partially filled with swamps and lakes, into which flow the
rivers Atuel and Salado. An obscure continuation of these
rivers, called the Chadi-leubu, flows south-east from the great
swamps into the large lake of Urrelauquen, about 60 m. north of
the Colorado. There are a great number of lakes in La Pampa,
especially in the south-east. The eastern half is described as
fertile and well adapted for grazing, although the rainfall is
very hght. Since the closing years of the loth century there
has been a large emigration of stock-raisers and agriculturists
into La Pampa, and the territory has become an important
producer of cattle and sheep, wheat, Indian corn, linseed, barley
and alfalfa. The climate is excessively dry, and the temperature
ranges from the severe frosts of winter to an extreme of 104° F. in
summer. Strong, constant winds are characteristic of this
region. Railways have been extended into the territory from
Buenos Aires and Bahia Blanca, the latter being the nearest
seaport. There is connexion also with the Transandine railway
hne on the north. The capital is General Acha (pop. about
2000 in 1Q05), and the only other places of importance are Santa
Rosa de Toay and Victorica, both small, uninteresting " camp "
villages.
PAMPAS (Span. La Pampa, from a Quichua word signifying
a level open space or terrace), an extensive plain of Argentina,
extending from the Rio Colorado north to the Gran Chaco, and
from the foothills of the Andes east to the Parana and Atlantic
coast.' It consists of a great calcareo-argUlaceous sheet, once
' There are other pampas in South America, such as the Pampas
de AuUagas, in Bolivia, the Pampas del Sacramento between the
Huallaga and Ucayali rivers in eastern Peru, and others less well
known, but when the word Pampas is used alone the great Argentine
plain is meant.
658
PAMPERO— PAMPHILUS
the bed of an ancient sea, covered on the west by shingle and
sand, and on the east by deposits of estuaiy silt of irregular
thickness brought down from the northern highlands. Its
western and northern limits, formed by the foothills and talus
slopes of the Andes, and by the south of the great forested
depression of the Gran Chaco, cannot be accurately defined, but
its area is estimated at 200,000 to 300,000 sq. m. Its greatest
breadth is across the south, between the 36th and 37th parallels,
and its least in the north, where the eastern ranges of the Andes
project deeply into its north-western angle. Its surface is broken
in the north-west by the sierras of Tucuman, Catamarca, San
Luis and Cordoba, the latter rising from the midst of the plain,
and by some small isolated sierras and hills on the south. It
has a gradual slope from north-west to south-east, from an
elevation above sea-level of 2320 ft. at Mendoza to 20 ft. at
Buenos Aires on the La Plata — the distance across (between
Mendoza and Buenos Aires) being about 635 m. There are
other shght irregularities in its surface, such as the longitudinal
depression on the west, the saline, arid depression west of the
Cordoba sierras, the Mar de Chiquita depression N.E. of Cordoba,
and some smaller areas elsewhere. Apart from these the plain
appears perfectly level. The east, which is humid, fertile and
grassy, has no natural arboreal growth, except in the vicinity
of Cordoba and in the north, where algarrobas and some of the
Chaco species are to be found. In the e.xtreme south some
species of low, thorny bushes cover considerable areas in the
vicinity of the hiU-ranges, otherwise the plain is destitute of
native trees. Since the arrival of Europeans several species
have been introduced successfully, such as the eucalyptus,
poplar, paraiso (Melia Azedarac/i), peach, willow, ornbH
{Pircunia) and others.
The distinctive vegetation of the grassy pampas is the tall,
coarse-leaved " pampas grass " (Gynerium argenteum) whose
feathery spikes often reach a height of eight or nine feet. It
covers large areas to the exclusion of all other species except the
trefoils and herbs that grow between its tussocks. The natural
grasses of the pampas are popularly divided into pasta dura
(hard pasturage), which includes the large, tussock-forming
species, and pasta inollc (soft pasturage), the tender undergrowth.
Since the advent of Europeans other forage plants have been
introduced, the most successful and profitable being alfalfa or
lucerne {Medicago sativa), which is widely cultivated both for
hay and for green pasturage for the fattening of market stock.
West of this region is a dry, sandy, semi-barren plain, called
the " sterile pampas." It has large saline areas, brackish
streams and lakes, and immense sandy deserts, and in smgular
contrast to the fertile, treeless region of the east it supports
large areas of stunted trees and thorny bushes. Most prominent
in this hardy but unattractive growth is the " chaiiar " (Giirliaca
or Gourliaca decorticans) , which is characteristic of the whole
area, and led Professor Griesbach to suggest the substitution
of " formacion del chanar " for " formacion del monte," the
designation adopted by botanists for this particular region.
The chanar is thorny and of low, irregular growth, and furnishes
a strong durable wood and a sweet fruit.
The grassy plains are well watered by streams flowing to the
Parana, La Plata and coast, though some of these are brackish.
There are large saline areas in northern Santa Fe, Santiago del
Estero and Cordoba provinces, and throughout the greater part
of the pampean plain wells cannot be sunk lower than 18 or 20 ft.
without encountering brackish water. On the sterile pampas
these conditions are still more common, the drainage southward
through the Desaguadero and Salado being charged with saline
matter. There are many saHne lakes scattered over the pampas,
the largest being the Mar de Chiquita, and Lake Porongos in
Cordoba, the great swamps and lagoon on the lower Salado in
Mendoza, and Lake Bebedero in San Juan.
The fauna of the pampas is limited to comparatively few species,
all of which are found beyond its limits, also. These include the
vizcacha {Lagostomus trichodactylus), Patagonian hare {Dolichotis
palagonica), coypii {Myopotamus coypu), cui (Cavia australis), tuco-
cuco {Ctenomys magellanica), jaguar (Felis onia), puma (Felis con-
color), grass-cat (resembling Felis catus), wood-cat (Felis geoffroyi),
a fo.x-like dog (Felis pajeros, Azara), aguara (akin to Cants jubalus),
skunk, weasel (Galictis barbara), deer (Cervus campestris), four species
of armadillo, and two of the opossum. Hudson considers the
burrowing vizcacha, or biscacha, the most characteristic denizen of
the pampas, though the large yellow opossum (Didelphys crassi-
caudata) seems to be singularly adapted to life on the level grassy
plain. The avifauna is apparently richer, owing to migration.
Hudson enumerates 18 species of storks, ibises, herons, spoon-bills
and flamingoes, 20 species of ducks, geese and swans, 10 or 12 of the
rallincs, including the graceful ypicaha or dancing bird, and 25 of
the Limicolae (13 of which are visitors from North America). Land
birds are not numerous. Vultures and hawks are common, and there
are a few owls, the best known of which is the " minera " {Geositta
cunicularia) , which inhabits the burrow of the vizcacha. Among
other species of land birds, some 40 in number, are the military
starling (Sturnella) , whose red breast makes it a conspicuous object
on the pampas, the white-banded mocking-bird, the chakar or
" crested screamer " (Chauna chavarria), the tinamou, and the
rhea, or South American ostrich. There are two species of the
tinamou — the rufous and spotted — which are called partridges
and are often hunted with snares by horsemen. The rhea, once
very numerous, is now found farther inland than formerly, and is
steadily diminishing in number.
Civilized occupation is working many changes in the character and
appearance of the pampas. The first change was in the introduction
of cattle and horses. Cattle were pastured on the open pampas and
were guarded by men called gauchos or mestizos, who became cele-
brated for their horsemanship, their hardihood and their lawlessness.
Attention was then turned to sheep-breeding, which developed
another and better type of plainsmen — the Irish and Scotch
shepherds. Then followed the extensive cultivation of cereals,
forage crops, &c., which led to the general use of fences, the employ-
ment of immigrant labourers, largely Italian and Spanish, the
building of railways and the growth of " camp " towns. The
picturesque gaucho is slowly disappearing in the eastern provinces,
and the herds and flocks are being driven farther inland. The rural
population of the pampas is still sparse and the estancias are very
large.
See W. H. Hudson, The Naturalist in La Plata (London, 1895);
Charles Darwin. Voyage of the Beagle (London, 1839 and 1889);
and Richardo Napp, La repiiblica argentina (Buenos Aires, 1876;
also in German).
PAMPERO, the cold south-west wind which blows over the
great plains of southern Argentina. The term is somewhat
loosely applied to any strong south-west wind in that region,
but more strictly to a rain squaU or thunderstorm arising
suddenly in the prevailing currents from north and north-east.
Pamperos are experienced at Buenos Aires on an average about
a dozen times in the year, chiefly during October, November and
January.
PAMPHILUS (ist century a.d.), a Greek grammarian, of the
school of Aristarchus. He was the author of a comprehensive
lexicon, in 95 books, of foreign or obscure words (7X^07x01 tjtoi
Xejets), the idea of which was credited to another grammarian,
Zopyrion, himself the compiler of the first four books. The
work itself is lost, but an epitome by Diogenianus (2nd century) 1
formed the basis of the lexicon of Hesychius. A similar compila-
tion, called Aei/.iwi' (" meadow "; cf. the Praia of Suetonius)
from its varied contents, dealing chiefly with mythological
marvels, was probably a supplement to the lexicon, although
some scholars identify them. PamphOus was one of the chief
authorities used by Athenaeus in the Deipnosophists. Suidas
assigns to another PamphUus, simply described as " a philo-
sopher," a number of works, some of which were probably by 1
PamphUus the grammarian.
See G. Thilo in Ersch and Gruber's Allgemeine Encyclopadie, |
M. Schmidt, appendix to his edition of Hesychius, (1862) vol. iv. ;
A. Westermann in Pauly's Real-encyclopddie (1848). !
PAMPHILUS, an eminent promoter of learning in the early ,
church, is said to have been born, of good family, in Phoenicia ]
(Berytus?) in the latter half of the 3rd century. After studying j
at Alexandria under Pierius, the disciple of Origen, he was
ordained presbyter at Caesarea in Palestine. There he estab- ^
hshed a theological school, and warmly encouraged students;
he also founded, or at least largely extended, the great library I
to which Eusebius and Jerome were afterwards so much indebted. '
He was very zealous in the transcription and distribution of !
copies of Scripture and of the works of various Christian writers,
especially of Origen; the copy of the complete works of the last-
named in the library of Caesarea was chiefly in the handwriting |
PAMPHILUS— PAMPHLETS
659
of Pamphilus himself. At the outbreak of the persecution
under Maximin, Pamphilus was thrown into prison (a.d. 307)
and there, along with his attached friend and pupil Euscbius
(sometimes distinguished as Eusebius I-'amphili), he composed
an Apology for Origcn, in five books, to which a sixth was after-
wards added by Euscbius. He was put to death in 309 by
Firmilian, prefect of Caesarea.
Only the first book of the Apology of Pamphilus is extant, and that
but in an imperfect Latin translation by Rufinus. It is printed in
Lommatzsch's edition of Origon, vol. xxiv., and in Routh, Kfl. sac.
iv. 339 (cf. iii. 487,500, fragments). Photius (Codex 118) gives a short
survey of the whole. Jerome mentions Letters to friends, and
there may have been other works. Eusebius' memoir of Pamphilus
has not survived. See E. Preuschen in Herzog-Hauck's Real-
encyklopddie, and A. Harnack, Altchristl. Litteraturgesch. I. 543.
PAMPHILUS, a Greek painter of the 4th century, of the school of
Sicyon. He was an academic artist, noted for accurate drawing,
and obtained such a reputation that not only could he charge
his pupils great sums, but he was also successful in introducing
drawing in Greece as a necessary part of liberal education.
PAMPHLETS. The earliest appearance of the word is in the
Pliilobiblon (1344) of Richard de Bury, who speaks of " panfle-
tos exiguos " (ch. viii.). In English we have " this leud
pamflet" {Test, of Love, bk. iii.), Occleve's "Though that this
pamfilet " {Reg. of Pr. 2060), Lydgate's " Whiche is a paunflet "
{Minor Poems, 180) and Caxton's " paunflettis and bookys "
{Book of Encydos, 1400, Prologue). In all these examples
pamphlet is used to indicate the extent of the production, and
in .'contradistinction to book. A short codicil in a will of 1495
is called "this pampelet" {Test. Ehor. iv. 26). In the 17th
century the word was used for single plays, poems, newspapers
and news letters (Murray's New English Diet. vii. 410).
Not till the i8th century did pamphlet begin to assume its
modern meaning of prose controversial tract. " Pamphlet "
and " pamphletaire " are of comparatively recent introduction
into French from the English, and generally indicate fugitive
criticism of a more severe, not to say Libellous, character than
with us. The derivation of the word is a subject of contention
among etymologists. The supposed origin from the amatory
poem of " Pamphilus," and a certain Paniphila, an author
of the ist century, may be dismissed as fanciful. The experts
are also undecided as to what is actually understood by a pam-
phlet. Some bibliographers apply the term to everything,
except periodicals, of quarto size and under, if not more than
fifty pages, while others would limit its application to two or
three sheets of printed matter which have first appeared in an
unbound condition. These are merely physical peculiarities,
and include academical dissertations, chap-books and broad-
sides, which from their special subjects belong to a separate
class from the pamphlet proper. As regards its literary character-
istics, the chief notes of a pamphlet are brevity and spontaneity.
It has a distinct aim, and relates to some matter of current
interest, whether personal, religious, political or literary.
UsuaUy intended to support a particular hne of argument, it
may be descriptive, controversial, didactic or satirical. It is
not so much a class, as a form of literature, and from its ephe-
meral character represents the changeful currents of public
opinion more closely than the bulky volume published after
the formation of that opinion. The history of pamphlets being
the entire record of popular feeling, all that is necessary here is
to briefly indicate the chief families of political and religious
pamphlets which have exercised marked influence, and more
particularly in those countries — England and France — where
pamphlets have made so large a figure in influencing thoughts
and events. It is difficult to point out much in ancient literature
which precisely answers to our modern view of the pamphlet.
The libclli famosi of the Romans were simply abusive pasqui-
nades. Some of the small treatises of Lucian, the lost Anti-Calo
of Caesar, Seneca's Apocolocyntosis written against Claudius,
Julian's Kaidapes r) avtmbaLov and 'Ai'rioxtKds rj iiiaoriloywv,
from their general application, just escape the charge of being
mere satires, and may therefore claim to rank as early specimens
of the pamphlet.
At the end of the 14th century the Lollard doctrines were
widely circulated by means of the Iruits and leaflets of Wyciif
and his followers. The Ploughman's Prayer and Lanthornc of
Light, which appeared about the time of Oldcastle's martyrdom,
were extremely popular, and similar brief vernacular pieces
became so common that it was thought necessary in 1418 to
enact that persons in authority should search out and apprehend
all persons owning English books. The printers of the 15th
century produced many controversial tractates, and Caxton and
Wynkin de Worde printed in the lesser form. It was in France
that the printing-press first began to supply reading for the
common people. During the last twenty years of the isth
century there arose an extensive popular literature of farces,
tales in verse and prose, satires, almanacs, &c., extending to a
few leaves apiece, and circulated by the itinerant booksellers
still known as colporteurs. These folk-books soon spread from
F'rance to Italy and Spain, and were introduced into England
at the beginning of the i6th century, doubtless from the same
quarter, as most of our early chap-books are translations or
adaptations from the F'rench. Another form of Hterature even
more transient was the broadside, or single sheet printed on one
side only, which appears to have flourished principally in
England, but which had been in use from the first invention
of printing for papal indulgences, royal proclamations and
similar documents. Throughout western Europe, about the
middle of the i6th century, the broadside made a consider-
able figure in times of pohtical agitation. In England it was
chiefly used for ballads, which soon became so extremely
popular that during the first ten years of the reign of Eliza-
beth the names of no less than forty ballad printers appear in
the Stationers' registers.
The humanist movement at the beginning of the 16th century
produced the famous Epistolac ohscurormn virorum, and the
leading spirits of the Reformation period — Erasmus, Hutten,
Luther, Melanchthon, Francowitz, Vergerio, Curio and Calvin —
found in tracts a ready method of widely circulating their
opinions. The course of ecclesiastical events was precipitated
in England by the Supplicacyon for the Beggars (1528) of Simon
Fish, answered by Sir Thomas More's Supplycacion of Poor
Soiilys. In the time of Edward VI. brief tracts were largely
used as a propagandist instrument in favour of the Reformed
religion. The licensing of the press by Mary greatly hindered
the production of this kind of literature. F'rom about 1570
there came an unceasing flow of Puritan pamphlets, of which
more than forty were reprinted under the title of A parte of a
register (London, Waldegrave, 4to). In 1584 was pubhshed
a tract entitled A briefc and plaine Declaration concerning the
desires of all those faithful ministers that have and do seeke
for the discipline and reformation of the Church of Englande,
believed to have been written by W. Fulke D.D. Against
this John Bridges, dean of Sarum, preached at Paul's Cross,
and expanded his sermon into what he called A defence of
the government established in the church of England (1587),
which gave rise to Oh read over D. John Bridges .... Printed
at the cost and charges of M. Mar prelate gentleman (1588), which
first gave the name to the famous Martin Marprelate tracts,
whose titles sufticiently indicate their opposition to priestly
orders and episcopacy. Bishop Cooper's Admonition to the
People of England (1589) came next, followed on the other side
by Hay any workc for Cooper . . . by Martin the Metropoli-
tane, and by others from both parties to the number of about
thirty-two. The controversy lasted ten years, and ended in
the discomfiture of the Puritans and the seizure of their secret
press. The writers on the Marprelate side are generally supposed
to have been Penry, Throgmorton, Udal and Fenner, and their
opponents Bishop Cooper, John Lilly and Nash.
As early as the middle of the i6th century we find ballads oi
news ; and in the reigns of Elizabeth and James I. small pamphlets,
translated from the German and French, and known as "news-
books," were circulated by the so-called " Mercury-women."
These were the immediate predecessors of weekly newspapers,
and continued to the end of the 17th century. A proclamation
66o
eiH U PAMPHLETS MA^
was issued by Charles II., on the 12th of May 1680, " for
suppressing the printing and publishing of unlicensed news-books
and pamphlets of news."
In the 17th century pamphlets began to contribute more than
ever to the formation of public opinion. Nearly one hundred
were written by or about the restless John Lilburne, but still
more numerous were those of the undaunted Prynne, who him-
self published above one hundred and sixty, besides many
weighty folios and quartos. Charles I. found energetic suppor-
ters in Peter Heylin and Sir Roger L'Estrange, the latter noted
for the coarseness of his pen. The most distinguished pamphle-
teer of the period was John Milton, who began his career in this
direction by five anti-episcopal tracts (1641-1642) during the
Smectymnuus quarrel. In 1643 his wife's desertion caused
him to pubhsh anonymously Doctrine and discipline of divorce,
followed by several others on the same subject. He printed
Of Education; to Mr. Samuel Harllib in 1644, and, unlicensed
and unregistered, his famous Areopagitica — a speech for the
liberty of unlicensed printing. He defended the trial and execu-
tion of the king in Tenure of kings and magistrates {1648). The
Eikon Basilikc dispute was conducted with more ponderous
weapons than the kind we are now discussing. When Monk
held supreme power Milton addressed to him The present means
of a free commonwealth and Readie and easie way (1660), both
pleading for a commonwealth in preference to a monarchy.
John Goodwin, the author of Obstructors of Justice (1649), John
Phillipps, the nephew of Milton, and Abiezer Coppe were violent
and prohiic partisan writers, the last-named specially known
for his extreme Presbyterian principles. The tract Killing no
murder (1657), aimed at Cromwell, and attributed to Colonel
Titus or Colonel Sexby, excited more attention than any other
political effusion of the time. The history of the Civil War period
is told day by day in the well-known collection made by George
Thomason the bookseller, now preserved in the British Museum.
It includes pamphlets, books, newspapers and MSS. relating
to the CivU War, the Commonwealth and Restoration, and
numbers 22,255 pieces ranging from 1640 to 1661, and is bound
in 2008 volumes. Each article was dated by Thomason at the
time of acquisition. William Miller was another bookseller
famous for his collection of pamphlets (1600-1710), which were
catalogued by Tooker. William Laycock printed a Proposal for
raising a fund for buying them up for the nation.
The Catholic controversy during the reign of James II. gave
rise to a multitude of books and pamphlets, which have been
described by Peck {Catalogue, 1735) and by Jones (Catalogue,
Chetham Society, 2 vols., 1859-1865). Pohtics were naturally
the chief feature of the floating literature connected with the
Revolution of 1688. The political tracts of Lord Halifax are
interesting both in matter and manner. He wrote The character
of a trimmer (1688), circulated in MS. as early as 1685. About
the middle of the reign Defoe was introduced to William III.,
and produced the first of his pamphlets on occasional conformity.
He issued in 1607 his two defences of standing armies in support
of the government, and pubhshed sets of tracts on the partition
treaty, the union with Scotland, and many other subjects.
His Shortest Way with the Dissenters (1702) placed him in the
pillory.
Under Queen Anne pamphlets arrived at a remarkable degree
of importance. Never before or since has this method of
publication been used by such masters of thought and language.
Political writing of any degree of authority was almost entirely
confined to pamphlets. If the Whigs were able to command
the services of Addison and Steele, the Tories fought with the
terrible pen of Swift. Second in power if not in literary ability
were Bolingbroke, Somers, Atterbury, Prior and Pulteney.
The government viewed with a jealous eye the free use of this
powerful instrument, and St John seized upon fourteen book-
sellers and publishers in one day for " libels " upon the adminis-
tration (see Annals of Queen Anne, Oct. 23, 1711). In 1712
a duty was laid upon newspapers and pamphlets, displeasing
all parties, and soon falling into disuse. Bishop Hoadly's
sermon on the kingdom of Christ (1717), denying that there was
any such thing as a visible Church of Christ, occasioned the
Bangorian controversy, which produced nearly two hundred
pamphlets. Soon after this period party-writing declined from
its comparatively high standard and fell into meaner and venal
hands. Under George III. Bute took Dr Shebbeare from
Newgate in order to employ his pen. The court party received
the support of a few able pamphlets, among which may be men-
tioned The consideration of the German War against the policy
of Pitt, and The prerogative droit de Roy (1764) vindicating the
prerogative. We must not forget that although Samuel Johnson
was a pensioned scribe he has for an excuse that his poUtical
tracts are his worst performances. Edmund Burke, on the
other hand, has produced in this form some of his most valued
writings. The troubles in America and the union between
Ireland and Great Britain are subjects which are abundantly
illustrated in pamphlet literature.
Early in the 19th century the rise of the quarterly reviews
threw open a new channel of publicity to those who had pre-
viously used pamphlets to spread their opinions, and later on the
rapid growth of monthly magazines and weekly reviews afforded
controversialists a much more certain and extensive circulation
than they could ensure by an isolated publication. Although
pamphlets are no longer the sole or most important factor of
pubhc opinion, the minor literature of great events is never
likely to be entirely confined to periodicals. The following
topics, which might be largely increased in number, have each
been discussed by a multitude of pamphlets, most of which,
however, are Hkely to have been hopeless aspirants for a more
certain means of preservation: the Bullion Question (1810),
the Poor Laws (1828-1834), Tracts for the Times and the ensuing
controversy (1833-1845), Dr Hampden (1836), the Canadian
Revolt (1837-1838), the Corn Laws (1841-1848), Gorham Contro-
versy (1849-1850), Crimean War and Indian Mutiny (1854-1859),
Schleswig-Holstein (1863-1864), Ireland (1868-1869), the Franco-
German War, with Dame Europa's School and its imitators
(1870-1871), Vaticanism, occasioned by Mr Gladstone's Vatican
Decrees (1874), the Eastern Question (1877-1880), the Irish Land
Laws (1880-1882), Ireland and Home Rule (1885-1886), South
African War (1899-1902) and Tariff Reform (1903).
France. — The activity of the French press in putting forth
small tracts in favour of the Reformed religion caused the Sor-
bonne in 1523 to petition the king to abolish the diabolical art
of printing. Even one or two sheets of printed matter were
found too cumbersome, and single leaves or placards were issued
in such numbers that they were the subject of a special edict
on the 28th of September 1553. An ordonnance of February
1566 was specially directed against libellous pamphlets and
those who wrote, printed or even possessed them. The rivalry
between Francis I. and Charles V. gave rise to many pohtical
pamphlets, and under Francis II. the Guises were attacked by
similar means. Fr. Hotman directed his Epistre envoiee au tygre
de France against the Cardinal de Lorraine. The Valois and
Henry III. in particular were severely handled in Les Hermaphro-
dites {c. 1605), which was followed by a long series of imitations.
Between Francis I. and Charles IX. the general tone of the
pamphlet-literature was grave and pedantic. From the latter
period to the death of Henry IV. it became more cruel and
dangerous.
The Satyre Menippee (1594), one of the most perfect models of
the pamphlet in the language, did infinite harm to the League. The
pamphlets against the Jesuits were many and violent. Pere Richeome
defended the order in Chasse du renard Pasquier (1603), the latter
person being their vigorous opponent £tienne Pasquier. On the
death of the king the country was filled with appeals for revenge
against the Jesuits for his murder; the best known of them was the
Anti-Coton (161 1), generally attributed to C^sar de Plaix. During
the regency of Mary de' Medici the pamphlet changed its severer
form to a more facetious type. In spite of the danger of such proceed-
ing under the uncompromising ministry of Richelieu, there was tio
lack of libels upon him, which were even in most instances printed in
France. These largely increased during the Fronde, but it was Mazarin
who was the subject of more of this literature than any other historical
PAMPHLETS '1
66i
personage. It has been calculated that from the Parisian press
alone there came sufficient Mazarinades to fill 150 quarto volumes
each of 400 pages. Eight hundred were published during the siege
of Paris (Feb. 8 to March il, 1649). A collection of satirical
pieces was entitled Tableau da gouvernement de Richelieu, Mazarin,
Fonquct, et Colbert (1693). Pamphlets dealing with the amours of
the king and his courtiers were in vogue in the time of Louis XIV.,
the most caustic of them being the Carte geo^raphique de la cotir
{1668) of Bussy-Rabutin. The presses of Holland and the Low
Countries teemed with tracts against Colbert, Le Tellier, Louvois
and Pere Lachaise. The first of the ever-memorable Provinciales
appeared on the 23rd of January 1656, under the title of Letire de
Louis de Montalte d, un provincial de ses amis, and the remaining
eighteen came out at regular intervals during the ne.\t fifteen months.
They excited extraordinary attention throughout Europe. The Jesuit
replies were feeble and ineffectual. John Law and the schemes of
the bubble period caused much popular raillery. During the long
reign of Louis XV. the distinguished names of Voltaire, Rousseau,
Montesquieu, Diderot, D'Alembert, D'Holbach, Helvetius and
Beaumarchais must be added to the list of writers in this class.
The preliminary struggle between the parliament and the Crown
gave rise to hundreds of pamphlets, which grew still more numerous
as the Revolution approached Linguet and Mirabeau began their
appeals to the people. Camille Desmoulins came into notice as
a publicist during the elections for the states-general; but perhaps
the piece which caused the most sensation was the Qu'esl ce que le
Tiers £tat (1789) of the Abbe Sieyes. The Domine salvuin fac
regem and Pange lingua (1789) were two royalist brochures of
unsavoury memory. The queen was the subject of vile attack
and indiscreet defence (see H. d'Almeras, Marie Antoinette el les
pamphlets, 1907). The financial disorders of 1790 occasioned the
Effets des assignats sur le prix du pain of Dupont de Nemours;
Necker was attacked in the Criminelle Neckerologie of Marat; and
the Vrai miroir de la noblesse dragged the titled names of France
through the mire. The massacre of the Champ de Mars, the death
of Mirabeau, and the flight of the king in 1791, the noyades of
Lyons and the crime of Charlotte Corday in 1793, and the terrible
winter of 1794 have each their respective pamphlet literature,
more or less violent in tone. Perhaps the most complete collection
of French revolutionary pamphlets is that in the Bibliotheque
Nationale; the British Museum possesses a wonderful collection
formed by John Wilson Croker. Under the consulate and the
empire the only writers of note who ventured to seek this method
of appealing to the world were Mme de Stael, B. Constant and
Chateaubriand. The royalist reaction in 1816 was the cause of
the Petition of Paul Louis Courier, the first of those brilliant pro-
ductions of a master of the art. He gained the distinction of judicial
procedure with his Simple Discours in 1821, and published in 1824
his last political work, Le Pamphlet des pamphlets, the most eloquent
justification of the pamphlet ever penned. The Memoire d, con-
suiter of Montlosier attacked the growing power of the Congregation.
The year 1827 saw an augmentation of severity in the press laws
and the establishment of the censure. The opposition also increased
in power and activity, but found its greatest support in the songs
of Beranger and the journalism of Mignet, Thiers and Carrel.
M. de Comenin was the chief pamphleteer of the reign of Louis
Philippe. The events of 1848 gave birth to a number of pamphlets,
chiefly pale copies of the more virile writings of the first revolution.
Among the few men of power Louis Veuillot was the Pere Duchesne
of the Clericals and Victor Hugo the Camille Desmoulins or Marat
of the Republicans. After 1852 there was no lack of venal apologies
of the coup d'etat. The second empire suffered from many bitter
attacks, among which may be mentioned the Lettre sur I'histoire
de France (1861) of the Due d'Aumale, Propos de Labienus (1865)
of Rogeard, Dialogue aux enfers (1864) of Maurice Joly and Ferry's
Comptes fantastiques d' Haussmann (1868). In more recent times
the Panama prosecutions and the Dreyfus case gave occasion to an
immense pamphlet literature.
Germany. — In Germany, the cradle of printing, the pamphlet
(Flugsckrifl) was soon a recognized and popular vehicle of
thought, and the fierce religious controversies of the Reformation
period afforded a unique opportunity for its use. The employ-
ment of the pamphlet in this connexion was characteristic of
the new age. In coarse and violent language the pamphlets
appealed directly to the people, whose sympathy the leaders
of the opposing parties were most anxious to secure, and their
issue on an enormous scale was undoubtedly one of the most
potent influences in rousing the German people against the pope
and the Roman Catholic Church. In general their tone was
extremely intemperate, and they formed, as one authority has
described those of a century later, " a mass of panegyric, admoni-
tion, invective, controversy and scurrility." Luther was one of
the earliest and most effective writers of the polemical pamphlet.
His adherents quickly followed his example, and his opponents
also were not slow to avail themselves of a weapon which was
proving itself so powerful. So intense at this time did this
pamphlet war become that Erasmus wrote " apud Germanos, vix
quicquam vendibile est practer Lutherana ae anti Lulherana."
A remarkable feature was the coarseness of many of these
pamphlets. No sense of decency or propriety restrained their
writers in dealing either with sacred or with secular subjects, and
this attracted the notice of the imperial authorities, who were also
alarmed by the remarkable growth of disorder, attributable in part
at least to the wide circulation of pamphlet literature. Accordingly
the issue of libellous pamphlets was forbidden by order of the diet
of Nuremberg in 1524, and again by the diets of Spires in 1529,
of Augsburg in 1530 and of Regensburg in 1541, while in 1589 the
emperor Rudolph II. fulminated against them.
The usual method of selling these pamphlets was by means of
hawkers. J. Janssen (History of the German People, Eng. trans.,
vol. iii.) says these men " went about in swarms offering pamphlets,
caricatures and lampoons for sale; in the larger towns vendors
of every description of printed matter jostled each other in the
street."
The controversies of the earlier period of the Thirty Years' War,
when this struggle was German rather than international, produced
a second flood of pamphlets, which possessed the same characteristics
as the earlier one. In the disturbed years also which preceded the
actual outbreak of war attempts were made in pamphlets to justify
almost every action, however unjust or dishonourable, while at the
same time those who held different opinions were mercilessly and
scurrilously attacked. The leading German princes were among
the foremost to use pamphlets in this connexion, especially perhaps
Maximilian of Bavaria and Christian of Anhalt.
Literature. — An excellent catalogue by W. Oldys of the pam-
phlets in the Harleian Library is added to the loth volume of the
edition of the Miscellany by T. Park; and in the Biblioteca volante
di G. Cinelli (2nd ed., 4 vols. 4to, 1734-1747) may be seen a
bibliography of pamphlet-literature, chiefly Italian and Latin, with
notes. See also Cat. of the three collections of books, pamphlets, &c., in
the British Museum on the French Rev., 1899; Cat. of the Thomason
books, pamphlets &c., 1908, 2 vols. A few of the more representative
collections of pamphlets in English may be mentioned. These
are: The Phenix (2 vols. 8vo, 1707); Morgan's Phoenix britannicus
(4to, 1732); Bishop Edmund Gibson's Preservative against Popery
(3 vols, folio, 1738, new ed., 18 vols. sm. 8vo, 1848-1849), consisting
chiefly of the anti-Catholic discourses of James II. s time; The
Harleian Miscellany (8 vols. 410, 1744-1753; new ed. by T. Park,
10 vols. 4to, 1808-18x3, containing 600 to 700 pieces illustrative
of English history, from the library of Edward Harley, carl of
Oxford) ; Collection of scarce and valuable tracts [known as Lord Somers'
Tracts] (16 parts 4to, 1748-1752, 2nd ed. by Sir W. Scott, 13 vols.
4to, 1 809-1 8 1 5), also full of matter for English history; The
Pamphleteer (29 vols. 8vo, 1813-1828), containing the best pamphlets
of that day; and Arthur Waugh, The Pamphlet Library (4 vols.
8vo, 1897-1898), giving examples of political, religious and literarj-
pamphlets from Wyclif to Newman, with historical essays.
For the derivation of the word pamphlet consult Skeat's Etymo-
logical Z)/c/. ; Pegge's Anonymiana; Notes and Queries, 3rd series,
vol. iv. pp. 315, 379, 462, 482, vol. v. pp. 167, 290; 6th series, vol.
ii. p. 156; 7th series, vol. vi. pp. 261, 432; Murray's New English
Diet. vol. vii. The general history of the subject may be traced in
M. Davies, Icon libellorum (1715); W. Oldys, "History of the
Origin of Pamphlets," in Morgan's Phoenix Brit, and Nichols's
Lit. Anecdotes; Dr Johnson's Introduction to the Harleian Miscellany;
D'Israeli, Amenities of Literature ; Revue des deux mondes (April I,
1846); Irish Quart. Review, vii. 267; Edinburgh Review (Oct. 1855);
Quarterly Review (April 1908); The Library, new series, vol i. 298;
Huth's Ancient Ballads and Broadsides (Philobiblon Soc.) ; W. Mas-
kell, Martin-Marprelate Controversy (1845); E. Arber, Sketch of
Marprelate Controversy (1895); W. Pierce, Hist. Introd. to the Mar-
prelate Tracts (1908); T. Jones, Cat. of collection of tracts for and
against Popery — the whole of Peck's lists and his references (Chetham
Soc, 1856-1865); Blakey's Hist, of Political Literature; Andrews,
Hist, of British Journalism; Larousse, Grand Diet. Universel; Nodier,
Sur la liberie de la presse; Leber, De L'etat reel de la presse (1834) ;
Moreau, Bibliographie des mazarinades (1850-1851); Bulletin du
Bibliophile Beige (1859-1862); Nisard, Hist, des livres populaires
(1854); A. Germond de Lavigne, Des Pamphlets de la fin de
I'empire, &c. 1814-1817, Catalogue (Paris, 1879); Paris, Bibl.
nationale, catalogue des Factums, etc., anterieurs d //po, by A. Corda,
Paris, 1890; A. Maire, Repertoire des theses de doctorates lettres des
universites frangaises 1810-IQOO (Paris, 1903) ; and the annual
Catalogue des Thises et Merits .Academtques (Hachette) 1885-1910.
For German academical dissertations see G. Fock, Calalogus disserta-
tionum philologicorum classicarum (Leipzig, 1894), and many special
catalogues by Klussmann (1889-190^), Kukula (1892-1893).
Milkan (for Bonn, 1818-1885), Pretzsch (for Breslau, 1811-1885)
and others. For Dutch pamphlets see L. D. Petit, Bibliotheck van
nederlandsche Pamfletten (2 vols. 4to, Hague, 1 882-1 884); and
W. P. C. Knuttel, Calalogus van de Pamfletten Verzameting
berustende in de K. Bibliotheck 1486-17QS (5 parts 4to, Hague, 1889-
1905). For methods of dealing with pamphlets in libraries, see
various articles in Library Journal (1880, 1887, 1889, 1894). (H. R. T.)
662
PAMPHYLIA— PAN
PAMPHYLIA, in ancient geography, the region in the south
of Asia Minor, between Lycia and Cihcia, extending from the
Mediterranean to Mt Taurus. It was bounded on the N. by
Pisidia and was therefore a country of small extent, having a
coast-Une of only about 75 m. with a breadth of about 30 m.
There can be little doubt that the Pamphylians and Pisidians
were the same people, though the former had received colonies
from Greece and other lands, and from this cause, combined with
the greater fertility of their territory, had become more civilized
than their neighbours in the interior. But the distinction
between the two seems to have been established at an early
period. Herodotus, who does not mention the Pisidians,
enumerates the PamphyHans among the nations of Asia Minor,
while Ephorus mentions them both, correctly including the one
among the nations on the coast, the other among those of the
interior. The early Pamphylians, like the Lycians, had an
alphabet of their own, partly Greek, partly " Asianic," which a
few inscriptions on marble and coins preserve. Under the
Roman administration the term PamphyUa was extended so as
to include Pisidia and the whole tract up to the frontiers of
Phrygia and Lycaonia, and in this wider sense it is employed by
Ptolemy.
Pamphylia consists almost entirely of a plain, extending from
the slopes of Taurus to the sea, but this plain, though presenting
an unbroken level to the eye, does not all consist of alluvial
deposits, but is formed in part of travertine. " The rivers
pouring out of the caverns at the base of the Lycian and Pisidian
ranges of the Taurus come forth from their subterranean courses
charged with carbonate of lime, and are continually adding to
the Pamphylian plain. They build up natural aqueducts of
limestone, and after flowing for a time on these elevated beds
burst their walls and take a new course. Consequently it is
very difficult to reconcile the accounts of this district, as trans-
mitted by ancient authors, with its present aspect and the
distribution of the streams which water it. By the sea-side in
the west of the district the travertine forms cliffs from 20 to
80 ft. high " (Forbes's Lycia, ii. 1S8). Strabo describes a
river which he terms Catarractes as a large stream falling with
a great noise over a lofty chff. This is the cataract near Adalia.
East of Adalia is the Cestrus, and beyond that again the
Eurymedon.both of which were considerable streams, navigable
in antiquity for some little distance from the sea. Near the
mouth of the latter was a lake called Caprias, mentioned by
Strabo; but it is now a mere salt marsh.
The chief towns on the coast are: Olbia, the first town in
Pamphylia, near the Lycian frontier; Attalia (9.*.); and Side
(q.v?). On a hiU above the Eurymedon stood Aspendus (g.n.)
and above the river Cestrus was Perga (g.i;.). Between the
two rivers, but somewhat farther inland, stood SyUeum, a strong
fortress, which even ventured to defy the arms of Alexander.
These towns are not known to have been Greek colonies; but
the foundation of Aspendus was traditionally ascribed to the
Argives, and Side was said to be a colony from Cyme in Aeolis.
The legend related by Herodotus and Strabo, which ascribed
the origin of the Pamphylians to a colony led into their country
by Amphilochus and Calchas after the Trojan War, is merely a
characteristic myth. The coins of Aspendus, though of Greek
character, bear legends in a barbarous dialect; and probably
the PamphyHans were of Asiatic origin and mixed race. They
became largely hellenized in Roman times, and have left
magnificent memorials of their civilization at Perga, Aspendus
and Side. The district is now largely peopled with recent
settlers from Greece, Crete and the Balkans.
The Pamphylians are first mentioned among the nations
subdued by the Mermnad kings of Lydia, and afterwards passed
in succession under the dominion of the Persian and Macedonian
monarchs. After the defeat of Antiochus III. in 190 B.C. they
were included among the provinces annexed by the Romans
to the dominions of Eumenes of Pergamum; but somewhat
later they joined with the Pisidians and Cilicians in piratical
ravages, and Side became the chief centre and slave mart of
these freebooters. Pamphylia was for a short time included in
the dominions of Amyntas, king of Galatia, but after his death
lapsed into a district of a Roman province, and its name is not
again mentioned in history.
See C. Lanckomiski, Les Villes de la Pamphylie et de la Pisidie
(1890). (D. G. H.)
PAMPLONA, or Pampeluna, the capital of the Spanish
province of Navarre, and an episcopal see; situated 1378 ft.
above sea-level, on the left bank of the Arga, a tributary of the
Ebro. Pop. (1900), 28,886. Pamplona has a station on the
Ebro railway connecting Alsasua with Saragossa. From its
position it has always been the principal fortress of Navarre.
The old outworks have been partly demolished and replaced
by modern forts, while suburbs have grown up round the inner
walls and bastions. The citadel, south-west of the city, was
constructed by order of Phihp II. (1556-1598), and was modeUed
on that of Antwerp. The streets of the city are regular and
broad; there are three fine squares or plazas. The most attrac-
tive of these is the arcaded Plaza del Castillo, flanked by the haU
of the provincial council and by the theatre. The cathedral is
a late Gothic structure begun in 1397 by Charles III. (El Noble)
of Navarre, who is buried within its walls; of the older Roman-
esque cathedral only a small portion of the cloisters remains.
The fine interior is remarkable for the pecuhar structure of its
apse, and for the choir-stalls carved in Enghsh oak by Miguel
Ancheta, a native artist (1530). The principal fafade is Corin-
thian, from designs of Ventura Rodriguez (1783). The same
architect designed the superb aqueduct by which the city is
supplied with water from Monte Francoa, some nine miles off.
The beautiful cloisters on the south side of the cathedral, and the
chapter-house beyond them, as well as the old churches of San
Saturnino (Gothic) and San Nicolas (Romanesque), are also of
interest to the student of architecture. There are also the
bull-ring, capable of accommodating 8000 spectators, the
pelota court {d Trinquclc) and several parks or gardens. The
city is well provided with schools for both sexes; it has also a
large hospital.
Pamplona has a flourishing agricultural trade, besides manu-
factures of cloth, linen stuffs, flour, soap, leather, cards, paper,
earthenware, iron and nails. The yearly fair in connexion with
the feast of San Fermin (July 7), the patron saint of the city,
attracts a large concourse from ail parts of northern Spain.
Originally a town of the Vascones, Pamplona was rebuilt in
68 B.C. by Pompey the Great, whence the name Pompaelo or
Pompelo (Strabo). It was captured by Euric the Goth in 466
and by the Franks under Childebert in 542; it was dismantled
by Charlemagne in 778, but repulsed the emir of Saragossa in
907. In the 14th century it was greatly strengthened and
iDeautified by Charles III., who built a citadel on the site now-
occupied by the Plaza de Toros and by the BasiHca de S. Ignacio,
the church marking the spot where Ignatius de Loyola received
his wound in defending the place against Andre de Foix in
1521. From 1S08 it was occupied by the French until taken by
Wellington in 1813. In the Carlist War of 1836-40 it was
held by the Cristinos, and in 1875-76 it was more than once
attacked, but never taken, by the Carlists.
PAN (" pasturer "), in Greek mythology, son of Hermes and
one of the daughters of Dryops (" oak-man "), or of Zeus and
the nymph Callisto, god of shepherds, flocks and forests. He is
not mentioned in Homer or Hesiod. The most poetical account
of his birth and life is given in the so-called Homeric hymn To
Pan. He was born with horns, a goat's beard and feet and a
tail, his person being completely covered with hair. His mother
was so alarmed at his appearance that she fled; but Hermes took
him to Olympus, where he became the favourite of the gods,
especially Dionysus. His life and characteristics are typical of
the old shepherds and goatherds. He was essentially a rustic
god," a wood-spirit conceived in the form of a goat," living
in woods and caves, and traversing the tops of the mountains;
he protected and gave fertihty to flocks; he hunted and fished;
and sported and danced with the mountain nymphs. A lover
of music, he invented the shepherd's pipe, said to have been made
from the reed into which the nymph Syrinx was transformed
PAN— PANAETIUS
663
when fleeing from his embraces (Ovid, Mctam. i. 691 sqq.).
With a kind of trumpet formed out of a shell he terrified the
Titans in their light with the Olympian gods. By his unexpected
appearance he sometimes inspires men with sudden terror —
hence the expression " panic " fear. Like other spirits of the
woods and fields, he possesses the power of inspiration and
prophecy, in which he is said to have instructed Apollo. As a
nature-god he was brought into connexion with Cybcle and
Dionysus, the latter of whom he accompanied on his Indian
expedition. Associated with Pan is a number of Panisci, male
and female forest imps, his wives and children, who send evil
dreams and apparitions to terrify mankind. His original home
was Arcadia; his cult was introduced into Athens at the time of
the battle of Marathon, when he promised his assistance against
the Persians if the Athenians in return would worship him.
A cave was consecrated to him on the north side of the Acropolis,
where he was annually honoured with a sacrifice and a torch-
race (Herodotus vi. 105). In later times, by a misinterpretation
of his name (or from the identification of the Greek god with the
ram-headed Egyptian god Chnum, the creator of the world),
he was pantheistically conceived as the universal god {to tcav).
The pine and oak were sacred to him, and his offerings were
goats, lambs, cows, new wine, honey and milk. The Romans
identified him with Inuus and Faunus.
In art Pan is represented in two different aspects. Sometimes
he has goat's feet and horns, curly hair and a long beard, half
animal, half man; sometimes he is a handsome youth, with long
flowing hair, only characterized by horns just beginning to grow,
the shepherd's crook and pipe. In bas-reliefs he is often shown
presiding over the dances of nymphs, whom he is sometimes
pursuing in a state of intoxication. He has furnished some of
the attributes of the ordinary conception of the devil. The
story (alluded to by Milton, Rabelais, Mrs Browning and Schiller)
of the pilot Thamus, who, sailing near the island of Paxi in the
time of Tiberius, was commanded by a mighty voice to proclaim
that " Pan is dead," is found in Plutarch {De orac. dcfcctu, 17).
As this story coincided with the birth (or crucifixion) of Christ
it was thought to herald the end of the old world and the beginning
of the new. According to Roscher (in Neue Jahrhiicher Jiir
Philologie, 1892) it was of Egyptian origin, the name Thamus
being connected with Thmouis, a town in the neighbourhood
of Mendes, distinguished for the worship of the ram; according
to Herodotus (ii. 46), in Egyptian the goat and Pan were both
called Mendes. S. Reinach suggests that the words uttered
by the " voice " were Qajxov^, GomoOs, Trdj'/ie7a5, redv-qKe
(" Tammuz, Tammuz, the all-great, is dead "), and that it
was merely the lament for the " great Tammuz " or Adonis
(see L. R. Farnell in The Year's Work in Classical Studies,
1907).
See W. Gebhard, Pankultus (Brunswick, 1872); P. Wetzel, De
Jove et Pane dis arcadicis (Breslau, 1873); W. Immerwahr, Ktilte
et Mythen Arkadiens (1891), vol. i., and V. Berard, De I'Origine des
cultes arcadiens (1894), who endeavour to show that Pan is a sun-
god ((i>av, (jialvixi) ; articles by W. H. Roscher in Lexikon der Mythologie
and by J. A. Hild in Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire des Anti-
quites; E. E. Sikes in Classical Review (1895), ix. 70; O. Gruppe,
Griechische Mythologie (1906), vol. ii.
PAN (common in various forms to many Teutonic languages,
cf. Ger. Pfanne; it is generally taken to be an early adaptation in
a shortened form of Lat. patina, shallow bowl or dish, from
pate.rc, to lie open), a term applied to various sorts of open, flat,
shallow vessels. Its application has been greatly extended by
analogy, e.g. to the upper part of the skull; to variously shaped
objects capable of retaining substances, such as that part of
the lock in early firearms which held the priming (whence the
expression " flash in the pan," for a premature and futile effort) ;
or the circular metal dish in which gold is separated from gravel,
earth, &c., by shaking or washing (whence the phrase " to pan
out," to obtain a good result). Small ice-floes are also called
" pans," and the name is given to a hard substratum of soil
which acts as a floor to the surface soil and is usually impervious
to water. For " pan " or " pane " in architecture see Half-
timber Work.
The Hindostani pan is the betel-leaf, which, mixed with
areca-nut, lime, &c., is chewed by the natives of the P^ast Indies.
The common prefix " pan," signifying universal, all-embracing
(Gr. Ttas, all), is often combined with the names of races,
nationalities and religions, conveying an aspiration for the
political or spiritual union of all the units of the nation or creed;
familiar examples arc Pan-Slavonic, Pan-German, Pan-Islamism,
Pan-Anglican, Pan-American.
PANA, a city of Christian county, Ilhnois, U.S.A., in the
central part of the state. Pop. (igoo) 5530 (727 being foreign-
born); (igio) 6055. It is served by the Baltimore & Ohio
Southwestern, the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis,
the lUinois Central and the Chicago & Eastern Illinois railways.
It is in the Illinois coal region, and coal-mining is the most
important industry; the city is also a shipping point for hay and
grain grown in the vicinity. Pana was incorporated in 1857, and
was reincorporated in 1877. Its name is said to be a corrupted
form of " Pani " (Pawnee), the name of a tribe of Indians.
PANACEA (Gr. TvavaKeta, all-healing, from ttSs, all, and
aKetcrdaL, to heaV), a universal remedy, or cure for all diseases,
a term applied in the middle ages to a mythical herb supposed
to possess this quahty. Many herbs have had the power of
curing all diseases attributed to them, and have hence had the
name of " all-heal "; such have been, among others, the mistletoe,
the woundwort (Slac/iys palustris), the yarrow or milfoil, and
the great valerian.
PANACHE, a French word adapted from Ital. peiuiacliio,
Lat. pcnna, feather, for a plume of feathers on a helmet or hat;
the " panache " should be properly distinguished from the
" plume," as being a large cluster of feathers fixed on the top of
the helmet and flowing over it, the " plume " being a single
feather at the side or front. The word " panache " is often used
figuratively in French of a flamboyant piece of ornamentation,
a " purple patch " in hterature, or any exaggerated form of
decoration.
PANAENUS, brother of Pheidias, a Greek painter who worked
in conjunction with Polygnotus and Micon at Athens. He also
painted the marble sides of the throne of the statue of Zeus
erected by his brother at Olympia.
PANAETIUS (c. 185-180 to 110-108 B.C.), Greek Stoic philo-
sopher, belonged to a Rhodian family, but w-as probably
educated partly in Pergamum under Crates of Maflus and after-
wards in Athens, where he attended the lectures of Diogenes the
Babylonian, Critolaus and Carneades. He subsequently went to
Rome, where he became the friend of Laelius and of Scipio the
Younger. He lived as a guest in the house of the latter, and
accompanied him on his mission to Egypt and Asia (143 or 141).
He returned with Scipio to Rome, where he did much to intro-
duce Stoic doctrines and Greek philosophy. He had a number
of distinguished Romans as pupils, amongst them Q. Mucins
Scaevola the augur and Q. Aelius Tubero. After the murder of
Scipio in 129, he resided by turns in Athens and Rome, but
chiefly in Athens, where he succeeded Antipater of Tarsus as
head of the Stoic school. The right of citizenship was offered
him by the Athenians, but he refused it. His chief pupil in
philosophy was Posidonius of Apamea. In his teaching he laid
stress on ethics; and his most important works, of which only
insignificant fragments are preserved, were on this subject.
They are as follow: Hepi Toiv Kadr^Kovros {On Duty), in three
books, the original of the first two books of Cicero's De officiis;
llipl irpovoias {On Providence), used by Cicero in his De divin-
atione (ii.) and probably in part of the second book of the De
Dcoritm natura; a political treatise (perhaps called Hepi
TToXtTiKTjs), used by Cicero in his De republica; Hepi fWvfiias
{On Cheerfulness); Uipl alpicraov {On Philosophical Schools);
a letter to Q. Aelius Tubero, De dolore patiendo (Cicero, De
finibus, iv. 9, 23).
Edition of the fragments by H. N. Fowler (Bonn, 1885), and in
F. van Lynden's monograph (Leiden, 1802). See also A. Schmekel,
Die Philosophie der mittleren Stoa (1892); F. Susemihl, Geschichte
der griechischen Litteratur in der Alexandrinerzeit (1892), ii._ 63-80;
E. Zeller, " Beitrage zur Kenntniss des Stoikers Panatius " in Com-
mentationes philologae in honorem Th. Mommseni (1877); on the use
664
PANAMA
made of him by Cicero, R. Hirzel, Untersuchungen £■« Ciceros
philosophischen Schriflen (1877-1883). For his importance in the
Stoic succession and his philosophy generally, see Stoics.
PANAMA, a Central American republic, occupying the
Isthmus of Panama, and lying approximately between 7° 15'
and 9° 39' N. and between 77° 15' and 83° 30' W. It is bounded
N. by the Caribbean Sea, E. by Colombia, of which it was
formerly a part, S. by the Gulf (or Bay) of Panama, an arm of
the Pacific, and W. by Costa Rica. Its area is estimated at
from 31,500 to 33,800 sq. m.; its greatest width is 118 m. and
its greatest length 430 m.; its land frontier is only about 350 m.,
but on the Caribbean it has a coast of 478 m. and on the Pacific
a coast of 767 m.
Physical Features. — The Isthmus of Panama, coextensive
with the republic, is the whole neck of land between the Ameri-
can continents; in another use the term " Isthmus of Panama "
is applied to the narrow crossing between the cities of Colon and
Panama, the other narrow crossings, further east, being the
Isthmus of San Bias (31 m.) and the Isthmus of Darien (46 m.).
The use of the term " Isthmus of Panama " to include the whole
country is becoming more common. The Caribbean coast -line
is concave, the Pacilic deeply convex. The Mesquite Gulf is to the
N.W., the Gulf of Darien to the N.E., and on the N. coast are
several bays. Almirante Bay, near the Costa Rican boundary, is
2-13 m. wide, with many islands and good anchorage, protected by
Columbus Island, about 8 m. long; immediately east of it, and
connected with it, is Chiriqui lagoon (area about 3 20 sq. m.) , 3 2 m.
long, 12 m. wide at the widest point, with a maximum depth of 1 20
ft., protected on the sea side by Chiriqui Archipelago; immediately
east of Colon, at the narrowest part of the isthmus, is the Gulf of
San Bias, 20 m. long and 10 m. wide, protected by a peninsula and
by the Mulatas Archipelago — low, sandy islands stretching
about 80 m. along the coast — and having the excellent harbour
of Mandinga in the south-west; still farther east is Caledonia
Bay with another good harbour. On the north coast there are
about 630 islands with a total area of about 150 sq. m. The
Pacific coast is deeply indented by the Gulf of Panama, which is
100 m. wide between Cape Garachine and Cape Malo, and has the
Bay of Parita (20 m. wide at its mouth) on its west side, north
of Cape Malo, and the Gulf of San Miguel (15 m. wide at its
mouth) on its east side, north of Cape Garachine. Darien
Harbour, formed by the Tuira and Savannah rivers, is a part of
the Gulf of San Miguel and is 11 m. long, 2-4 m. wide, and nearly
landlocked. In the Gulf of Panama there are 16 large and
about 100 smaller islands (the Pearl Islands), with a total area
of 450 sq. m., the largest being Rey or San Miguel (15 m. long
and 7 m. wide), and San Jose (25 sq. m.); both are well
wooded. West of the Gulf of Panama and separated from it by
Azuero Peninsula is the Gulf of Montijo, 20 m. long and 14 m.
wide at its mouth, across which stretches Cebaco Island, 135 m.
long and 3 m. wide; west of Cebaco is Coiba, the largest island of
the republic, 21m. long and 4-12 m. wide.
The country has no lakes; the apparent exceptions are the artifi-
cial lakes, Bohio (or Gatun) and Sosa, of the Canal Zone. There are
a few swamps, especially on the northern shore. But the drainage
is good ; about 1 50 streams empty into the Caribbean and some
325 into the Pacific. In the eastern part are three complicated
drainage systems of rivers very largely tidal. The largest is that of
the Tuira (formerly called Rio Darien), whose headwaters are near
the Caribbean and which empties into the Pacific in the Gulf of
San Miguel. The Chepo (or Bayano) also is a digitate system with
a drainage area reaching from the Caribbean to the Pacific; it is
navigable for about 120 m. by small boats. The Chagres flows from
a source near the Pacific south-west and then north to the Caribbean ;
is a little more than 100 m. long and is navigable for about half
that distance; it varies greatly in depth, sometimes rising 35 ft.
in 24 hours (at Gamboa), and drains about 1000 sq. m. West of
these three rivers are simpler and comparatively unimportant river
systems, rising near the centre of the isthmus. Orographically
the country is remarkable. The " exceedingly irregularly rounded,
low-pointed mountains and hills covered by dense forests " (Hill)
are Antillean, not Andean, and lie at right angles to the axes of the
systems of North and South America. The only regular ranges in
Panama are in the extreme western part where the Costa Rica divide
continues into Panama, and, immediately south of this and parallel
to it, the Cordillera of San Bias, or Sierra de Chiriqui, wherethe
highest peaks are Chiriqui (11,265 ft-) and, on the Costa Rican
boundary, Pico Blanco (11,740 ft.) and Rovalo (7020 ft.); there are
two passes, 3600 and 4000 ft. high respectively. On the eastern
boundary of the republic is the Serrania del Darien, an Andean range,
partly in Colombia. The rough country between contains the
following so-called " Sierras," which are not really ranges: in
Veragua province. Sierra de Veragua, with Santiago (9275 ft.)
near the Chiriqui range, and Santa Maria (4600 ft.), immediately
north of the city of Santa Fe; in Los Santos province (Azuero
Peninsula), bold hills rising 3000 ft., and in Panama province, the
much-broken Sierra de Panama, which has a maximum height of
1700 ft. and a minimum, at the Culebra Pass, of 290 ft., the lowest
point, except the interoceanic water-parting in Nicaragua, which is
153 ft., in the western continental system. There have been no
active volcanoes since the Pliocene Tertiary time, but the country
is still subject to dangerous earthquakes. There are a few plains,
like that of David, in Chiriqui province, but irregular surface is
normal; and this irregularity is the result of very heavy rains with a
consequent extremely developed drainage system cutting river
valleys down nearly to the sea-level, and of marine erosion, as may
be seen by the bold and rugged islands, notably those in the Gulf
of Panama. It is improbable that there has been any connexion by
water between the two oceans here since Tertiary time.
Climate. — The mean temperature varies little throughout the
republic, being about 80° F. : at Colon, where 68° is a low and 95°
a high temperature, the mean is 79-1°; at Panama the mean is
8o-6 . But this difference is not the usual one: normally the
Caribbean coast is a degree or two warmer than the Pacific coast.
There is a wet and a dry season; in the former, from the middle of
April to the middle of December, there falls (in heavy, short rains)
about 85% of the total annual precipitation, and south-east winds
prevail. The north-east wind prevails in the dry season, which is
dusty and bracing. The rainfall at Colon on the north coast varies
from 85 to 155 in., with 125 as the mean; at Gamboa in the interior
it varies from 75 to 140 in., with 92 as the mean; and at Panama on
the south coast it varies between 47 and 90 (rarely 104 in.), the mean
being 67 in.
Natural Resources. — Gold is mined to a small extent ; the most
productive mines are about Darien and in Code province. Copper
has been found between the Plain of David and Bocas del Toro.
There are valuable deposits of coal near Bocas del Toro and Golfo
Dulce. There are important salt mines near Agua Dulce on Parita
Bay. Iron is found in several parts of the Isthmus. Mineral
springs are common, especially near former volcanoes.
There are valuable vegetable dye-stuffs, medicinal plants (espe-
cially sarsaparilla, copaiba and ipecacuanha), cabinet and building
timber (mahogany, &.C.), india-rubber, tropical fruits (especially
bananas), and various palms; fish are economically important —
the name Panama is said to have meant in an Indian dialect " rich
in fish " — and on the Pacific coast, oysters and pearl " oysters "
{Meleagrina californica) — the headquarters of the pearl fishery is
the city of San Miguel on the largest of the Pearl Islands, and
Coiba Island. There is little agriculture, though the soil is rich and
fertile; bananas (occupying about one-half the area under cultivation
and grown especially in the north-west), coffee (also grown especially
on the Costa Rican border in Chiriqui province), cacao (growing
wild in Bocas del Toro province), tobacco, and cereals are the largest
crops. Stock-raising is favoured by the excellent grazing lands;
blooded cattle are imported for breeding.
Soap and chocolate are manufactured in Panama City. Tobacco
and salt manufactures are government monopolies. Sugar re-
fineries are projected. In the canal zone there are great shops
for the manufacture and repair of machinery.
Commerce and Communications. — The principal ports are Colon,
Panama ' and Bocae del Toro, the last being a banana-shipping
port. In 1908 the country's imports were valued at 87,806,811
(vegetable products, $1,879,297; agricultural products, 81,258,900;
textiles, 81,187,802; mineral products, 8788,069; and wines and
liquors, $675,703; the textiles mainly from Great Britain, all other
imports largely from the United States) ; and the exports were
valued at $1,757,135 (including vegetable products, mostly bananas,
Si. 539, 395. animal products, $135,207, and mineral products,
879,620), of which $1,587,217 was the value of goods shipped to the
United States, 8113,038 of goods to Great Britain, and 834,495 to
Germany. Besides bananas the largest exports are hides, rubber,
coco-nuts, limes, native curios and quaqua bark. Transportation
along the rivers from point to point on either coast is easy. The
Panama railway, the only one in the country, is 47J m. long, and runs
between Colon and Panama; it was made possible by the rush of
gold-miners across the isthmus in the years immediately after
1 849 ; was financed by the New York house of Howland & Aspinwall —
Aspinwall (later Colon) was named in honour of the junior member,
William Henry Aspinwall, (1807-1875) — and was 'completed in
February 1855 at an expense of $7,500,000. It was purchased by
De Lesseps's Compagnie Universelle de Canal Interoceanique de
Panama for 825,500,000; and, with the other holdings of the French
company, 68,869 shares (more than 97 % of the total) passed to the
' Christobal, the port of Colon, and Balboa, the port of Panama,
lie within the canal zone and are under the jurisdiction of the
United States.
J.
PANAMA
665
United States government. The line of railway is very nearly that
of the canal, and the work of the railway engineers was of great value
to the French engineers of the canal. There are several telegraphic
and telephone systems ; a wireless telegraph station at Colon ; and
telegraphic cables from Colon and Panama which, with a connecting
cable across the isthmus, give an " all-cable " service to South
America, to the United States and to Europe. There are two old
wagon roads from Panama City, one, now little used, north to Porto
Bello, and the other (called the royal road) 17 m. north-west to
Cruces at the head of navigation on the Chagres River. Other roads
are mere rough trails.
Inhabitants and Towns. — The population in 1909 was about
361,000. The inhabitants exhibit various degrees of admixture
of Indian, negro and Spanish blood, with an increasing proportion
of foreigners. The Indians are most numerous in the western
part. The negroes, largely from Jamaica and the other West
Indies, came in large numbers to work on the canal. The
Spanish was the race that stood for civilization before North
American influence became strong. Many Spanish peasants,
Italians and Greeks came in to work on the canal, but this is not
a permanent population. As elsewhere in Spanish America,
there has been German colonization, notably in Code province,
where a large tropical estate was established in 1894.
The principal cities in Panama are: Colon {q.v.), at the Caribbean
end of the canal; Panama (g.f.), at the Pacific end of the canal,
and near it, in the Canal Zone, the cities of Balboa and Ancon;
Bocasdel Toro (pop. about 4000), capital of the province of the same
name, in the north-western corner of the country, with a large trade
in bananas and good fishing in the bay; Porto Bello (pop. about
3000), formerly an important commercial city, in Colon province,
on Porto Bello Bay, where Columbus established the colony of
Nombre de Dios in 1502 — the present city was founded in 1584, was
often captured by the English (notably by Admiral Edward Vernon
in 1753), and by buccaneers, and is the terminus of an old paved road
to Panama, whence gold was brought to Porto Bello for shipment ;
Chagres (pop. about 2500), also in Colon province, formerly an impor-
tant port, and now a fishing place; Agua Dulce, formerly called
Trinidad (pop. about 2000), in Code province, on Parita Bay, the
centre of the salt industry ; and San Miguel, on an island of the same
name in the Gulf of Panama, the principal pearl fishery. The larger
inland cities are : Ciudad de David (pop. about 8000), the capital
of Chiriqui, 12 m. from the Pacific, 60 m. east of the Costa Rican
boundary, with a trade in cattle; Los Santos (pop. about 7200),
the capital of Los Santos province ; Santiago de Veragua (pop. about
7000), 300 ft. above the sea, with various manufactories, gold, silver
and copper mines, and mineral springs and baths near the city ;
Las Tablas (pop. about 6500) and Pese (pop. about 5600) in
Los Santos province; Penomene (pop. about 3000), on the river of
that name in Code province (of which it is the capital), with a trade
in straw hats, tobacco, cacao, coflfce, cotton, rubber, cedar and
cattle; and in the Canal Zone Gorgona (3000) and Obispo (2500),
each with an American colony.
Administration. — By the constitution promulgated on the
13th of February 1904 the government is a highly centralized
republic. All male citizens over 21 years of age have the right
to vote, except those under judicial interdiction and those
judicially inhabilitated by reason of crime. The president,
who must be at least 35 years old, is elected by popular vote for
four years, is ineligible to succeed himself and appoints cabinet
members (secretaries of foreign affairs, government and justice,
treasury, interior [" fomento "] and public instruction); five
supreme court judges (who decide on the constitutionality of a
bill vetoed by the president on constitutional grounds — their
action, if favourable to the constitutionality of such a bill,
makes the president's signature mandatory); diplomatic repre-
sentatives; and the governors (annually) of the provinces, who
are responsible only to him. The president's salary is $iS,ooo a
year. There is no vice-president, but the National Assembly
elects every two years three designados, the first of whom would
succeed the president if he should die. The National Assembly
is a single chamber, whose deputies (each at least 25 years old)
are elected for four years by popular vote on the basis of i to
every 10,000 inhabitants (or fraction over 5000); it meets
biennially; by a two-thirds vote it may pass any bill over the
president's veto — the president has five or ten days, according
to the length of the bill, in which to veto any act of the legislature.
At the head of the judiciary is the Supreme Court already
referred to; the superior court and the circuit courts are com-
posed of judges appointed for four years by the members of
the Supreme Court. The municipal court justices are appointed
by the Supreme Court judges for one year.
The seven provinces, restoring an old administrative division,
arc: Panama, with most of the territory east of the canal and a
little (on the Pacific side) west of the canal ; Colon, on either side of
the canal, along the Caribbean; Code, west and south; Los Santos,
farther west and south, on the Azuero Peninsula, west of the fiulf;
Vcraguas, to the north-west, crossing to the Mosquito Gulf; and
Chiriqui, farthest west, on the Pacific, and Bocas del Toro on the
Caribbean. The provinces are divided into municijjal districts
(disirilos municipales), each of which has a municipal legislature
(consejo municipal), popularly elected for two years, and an alcalde,
who is the agent of the governor of the province and is appointed
annually. By the treaty of the i8th of November 1908 Panama
ceded to the United States the " Canal Zone," a strip of land reaching
5 m. on either side of the canal and including certain islands in the
Gulf of Panama; from this cession were excluded the cities of Colon
and Panama, over which the United States received jurisdiction
only as regards sanitation and water-supply. ' —
Education. — The system of public education dates from the
independence of Panama only and has not been developed. But
primary instruction has been greatly improved ; there is a school
of arts and trades at the capital, in which there are endowed
scholarships for pupils from different provinces; a normal school
has been established to train teachers for the Indians; high schools
and training schools have been opened; and the government pays
the expenses of several students in Europe.
Coihage and Finance. — In June 1904, under the terms of an agree-
ment with the American Secretary of War, Panama adopted the
gold standard with the balboa, equivalent to an American gold dollar,
as the unit; and promised to keep in a bank in the United States
a deposit of American money equal to 15% of its issue of fractional
silver currency, which is limited to four and a half million balboas.
This agreement put an end to the fluctuations of the paper currency
previously used. Currency of Panama is legal tender in the Canal
Zone, and that of the United States in the Republic of Panama.
The republic has no debt : it refused to accept responsibility for
a part of the Colombian debt ; and it has no standing army. On
the 30th of June 1908 the total cash assets of the government were
$7,860,697, of which $6,000,000 was invested in New York City
real estate, and more than $1,500,000 was in deposits in New York.
In the six months ending with that date the receipts were $1,259,574
(largely from'import and-export duties, and taxes on liquors, tobacco,
matches, coffee, opium, salt, steamship companies and money
changers), and the cash balance for the six months was $105,307.
History. — The Isthmus of Panama was probably visited by
Alonso de Ojeda in 1499. In 1 501 Rodrigo Bastidas coasted along
from the Gulf of Venezuela to the present Porto Bello. Colum-
bus in 1502 coasted along from Almirante Bay to Porto Bello
Bay, where he planted a colony (Nombre de Dios) in November;
the Indians destroyed it almost immediately; it was re-estab-
lished in 1510, by Diego de Nicuessa, governor of the newly
established province of Castilla del Oro, which included what is
now Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama. In 15 10 Martin
Fernandez de Enciso, following Alonso de Ojeda to the New
World, took the survivors of Ojeda's colony of Nueva Andalucia
(near the present Cartagena and east of Panama) and founded
on the Tuira river the colony of Santa Maria la Antigua del
Darien (commonly called Darien). An insurrection against
Enciso in December 1510 put in command Vasco Nunez de
Balboa, who had accompanied Rodrigo de Bastidas in the
voyage of 1501. In September 1513 Nunez crossed the isthmus
and (on the 25th or 26th) discovered the Pacific. Immediately
afterwards he was succeeded by Pedro Arias de Avila, by whom
Nueva Andalucia and Castilla del Oro were united in 1514 under
the name of Tierra Firma, and who founded in 15 19 the city of
Panama, now the oldest European settlement on the mainland
in America. The portage between the two oceans was of great
commercial importance, especially in the i6th century, when
treasure from Peru (and treasure was the raison d'etre of the
Spanish settlements in Panama) was carried across the isthmus
from Panama City. A Scotch settlement under letters patent
from the Scotch Parliament was made by William Paterson
(q.v.) in 1698 on the site of the present Porto Escoces (in the north-
eastern part of the republic), but in 1700 the Spanish authorities
expelled the few settlers still there. Panama was a part of the
viceroyalty of New Granada created in 1718, and in 1819 became
a part of the independent nation of Colombia and in 183 1 of New
Granada, from which in 1841 Panama and Veragua provinces
seceded as the state (short-lived) of the Isthmus of Panama.
666
PANAMA— PANAMA CANAL
The constitution of the Granadine Confederation of 1853 gave
the states the right to withdraw, and in 1857 Panama' again
seceded, soon to return. When Nunez in 1885 disregarded
the constitution of 1863, which made the component states
severally sovereign, he was strongly opposed by the people of
Panama, who had no actual representation in the convention
which made the constitution of 1886, an instrument allowing
Panama (which it made a department and not a state) no local
government. The large expenditures of the French canal
company made the department singularly alluring to corrupt
officials of the central government, and Panama suffered severely
before the liquidation of the company in 1889. There were
risings in 1895 and in 1898-1902, the latter ceasing with American
interposition. The treaty of the United States in 1846 with
New Granada, granting transportation facilities on the Isthmus
to the United States, then preparing for war with Mexico, and
guaranteeing on the part of the United States the sovereignty
of New Granada in the Isthmus, has been considered the first
step toward the estabUshment of an American protectorate over
the Isthmus. In 1901 by the negotiation of the Hay-Pauncefote
Treaty it became possible for the United States alone to build
and control an interoceanic canal. The Hay-Herran Treaty
of January 1903, providing that the United States take over the
Panama Canal was not ratified by the Colombian Congress,
possibly because it was hoped that settlement might be delayed
until the concession to the company expired, and that then the
payment from the United States would come directly to the
Colombian government; and the Congress, which had been
specially called for the purpose — there was no regular legislative
government in Bogoti in 1898-1903 — adjourned on the 31st of
October. Three days later, on the 3rd of November, the
independence of Panama was declared. Commander John F.
Hubbard of the United States gunboat " Nashville " at Colon
forbade the transportation of Colombian troops across the
Isthmus, and landed 42 marines to prevent the occupation of
Colon by the Colombian force; the diplomatic excuse for his
action was that by the treaty of 1846 the United States had
promised to keep the Isthmus open, and that a civil war would
have closed it. On the 7th of November Panama was virtually
recognized by the United States, when her diplomatic representa-
tive was received; and on the iSth of November a treaty was
signed between the United States and Panama, ceding to the
United States the " Canal Zone," for which and for the canal
concession the United States promised to pay $10,000,000
immediately and $250,000 annually as rental, the first payment
to be made nine years after the ratification of the treaty. On
the 4th of January 1904, two months after the declaration of
independence, a constitutional assembly was elected, which met
on the 15th of January, adopted the constitution described
above, and chose as president Manuel Amador Guerrero (1834-
1909). He was succeeded in October 1908 by Domingo de
Obaldia. In 1905 a treaty was made with Costa Rica for the
demarcation of the boundary Kne between the two cotintries.
See Henri Pensa, La Rcpubli'que et le Canal de Panama (Paris,
1506), devoted mainly to the question of international law; Valdes,
Geografia del istmo de Panama (New York, 1905); R. T. Hill, " The
Geological History of the Isthmus of Panama and Portions of Porto
Rico " (1898), vol. 28, pp. 151-285, of the Bulletin of the Museum of
Comparative Zoology of Harvard College; E. J. Cattell (ed.), Panama
(Philadelphia, 1905), being pt. i, § 27 of the Foreign Commer-
cial Guide of the Philadelphia Commercial Museum ; and the publica-
tions on Panama of the International Bureau of American Republics.
PANAMA, the capital and the chief Pacific port of the republic
of Panama, and the capital of the province of the same name,
in the south-central part of the country, at the head of the Gulf
of Panama, and at the south terminus of the Panama railway,
47I m. from Colon, and of the Panama Canal. Pop. (1910),
about 30,000, of whom nearly one-half were foreign-bom or of
foreign parentage. Panama is served by regular steamers to
San Francisco, Yokohama and other Pacific ports. The city
'The state of Panama, with boundaries nearly corresponding to
those of the present republic, and including the province of Panama
and other provinces, was created in 1855 by legislative enactment.
is built on a rocky peninsula jutting out to the east, near the
mouth of the Rio Grande and at the foot of Mt Ancon (560 ft.).
The harbour is good and is enclosed at the south by several
rugged islands, the largest being Perico and Flamenco (belonging
to the United States) and Taboga (935 ft.), which is a place of
country residence for wealthy citizens. The main streets run
north and south and are cut by the Avenida Central; nearly
all the streets are narrow and crooked. The principal squares
are Cathedral, Santa Ana, Bolivar and Lesseps. The city
proper is almost entirely enclosed by the remains of a great
granite wall (built in 1673, when the new city was established),
on the top of which on the side facing the sea is Las Bovedas
promenade. The public buOdings include the cathedral
(1760), the government palace, the municipal palace, the
episcopal palace, the church of Santa Ana, a national theatre,
a school of arts and trades, a foreign hospital, the former
administration building of the Canal Company, Santo Tomas
Hospital, the pesthouse of Punta Mala and various asylums.
The houses are mostly of stone, with red tile roofs, two or three
storeys high, built in the Spanish style around central patios,
or courts, and with balconies projecting far over the narrow
streets; in such houses the lowest floor is often rented to a poorer
family. There are dwellings above most of the shops. The
streets are lighted with electricity; and there are electric street
railways and telephones in the city. The water supply and
drainage systems were introduced by the United States govern-
ment, which controls the sanitation of the city, but has no
other jurisdiction over it. Two mOes inland is Ancon, in the
Canal Zone, in which are the hospitals of the Isthmian Canal
Commission and the largest hotel on the isthmus. The city
of Panama was formerly a stronghold of yellow fever and malaria,
which American sanitary measures have practically eradicated.
Panama has had an important trade: its imports, about twice
as valuable as its exports, include cotton goods, haberdashery,
coal, flour, silk goods and rice; the most valuable exports are
gold, india-rubber, mother of pearl and cocobolo wood. As
Balboa (3 m. west of the city, connected with it by railway, and
formerly called La Boca), the port of Panama and the actual
terminus of the canal, is in the Canal Zone and is a port under
the jurisdiction of the United States, the commercial future
of Panama is dependent upon American tariffs and the
degree to which Panama and Balboa may be identified. At
Balboa there are three wharves, one 985 ft. long and another
1000 ft. long, but their capacity is so insufficient that lighterage
is stiU necessary. In the city there is one small dock which can
be used only at fuO tide. Small vessels may coal at Naos, an
island in the Gulf of Panama, which is owned by the United
States. Soap and chocolate are manufactured. Founded in
1519 by Pedro Arias de Avila, Panama is the oldest European
town on the m.ainland of America. In the 16th century the
city was the strongest Spanish fortress in the New World,
excepting Cartagena, and gold and sflver were brought hither
by ship from Peru and were carried across the Isthmus
to Chagres, but as Spain's fleets even in the Pacific were
more and more often attacked in the 17th century, Panama
became less important, though it was still the chief Spanish port
on the Pacific. In 167 1 the city was destroyed by Henry Morgan,
the buccaneer; it was rebuilt in 1673 by Alfonzo Mercado de
Villacorta about five miles west of the old site and nearer
the roadstead. The city has often been visited by earth-
quakes. In the city in June 1826 the Panama Congress met
(see Pan-American Conferences).
PANAMA CANAL. When he crossed the Atlantic, the
object Columbus had in view was to find a western passage from
Europe to Cathay. It was with the greatest reluctance, and
only after a generation of unremitting toil that the explorers who
succeeded him became convinced that the American continent
was continuous, and formed a barrier of enormous extent to the
passage of vessels. The question of cutting a canal through
this barrier at some suitable point was immediately raised. In
1550 the Portuguese navigator Antonio Galvao published a
book to demonstrate that a canal could be cut at Tehuantepec,
PANAMA CANAL
667
Nicaragua, Panama or Darien, and in 1551 the Spanish historian
F. L. de Gomara submitted a memorial to Philip II. urging in
forcible language that the work be undertaken without delay.
But the project was opposed by the Spanish Government, who
had now concluded that a monopoly of communication with
their possessions in the New World was of more importance than
a passage by sea to Cathay. It even discouraged the improve-
ment of the communications by land. To seek or make known
any better route than the one from Porto Bello to Panama
was forbidden under penalty of death. For more than two
centuries no serious steps were taken towards the construction
of the canal, if exception be made of William Paterson's disas-
trous Darien scheme in 1698. In 1771 the Spanish government,
having changed its policy, ordered a survey for a canal at
Tehuantepcc, and finding that line impracticable, ordered
surveys in 1779 at Nicaragua, but political disturbances in
Europe soon prevented further action. In 1808 the isthmus was
examined by Alexander von Humboldt, who pointed out the
lines which he considered worthy of study. After the Central
American republics acquired their independence in 1823,
there was a decided increase of interest in the canal question.
In 1825 the Republic of the Centre, having received applica-
tions for concessions from citizens of Great Britain, and also from
citizens of the United States, made overtures to the United States
for aid in constructing a canal, but they resulted in nothing. In
1830 a concession was granted to a Dutch corporation under
the special patronage of the king of the Netherlands to construct
a canal through Nicaragua, but the revolution and the separ-
ation of Belgium from Holland followed, and the scheme fell
through. Subsequently numerous concessions were granted to
citizens of the United States, France and Belgium, both for the
Nicaragua and the Panama lines, but with the exception of the
concession of 1878 for Panama and that of 1887 for Nicaragua,
no work of construction was done under any of them.
Knowledge of the topography of the isthmus was extremely
vague until the great increase of travel due to the discovery of
gold in California in 1848 rendered improved communications
a necessity. A railroad at Panama and a canal at Nicaragua
were both projected. Instrumental surveys for the former in
1849, and for the latter in 1850, were made by American
engineers, and, with some small exceptions, were the first
accurate surveys made up to that time. The work done resulted
in geographical knowledge sufficient to eliminate from considera-
tion all but the following routes: (i) Nicaragua; (2) Panama;
(3) San Bias; (4) Caledonia Bay; (5) Darien; (6) Atrato river,
of which last there were four variants, the Tuyra, the Truando,
the Napipi and the Bojaya. In 1866, in response to an inquiry
from Congress, Admiral Charles H. Davis, U.S. Navy, reported
that " there does not exist in the libraries of the world the
means of determining even approximately the most practicable
route for a ship canal across the American isthmus." To clear
up the subject, the United States government sent out, between
1870 and 1875, a series of expeditions under officers of the navy,
by whom all of the above routes were examined. The result
was to show that the only lines by which a tunnel could be
avoided were the Panama and the Nicaragua lines; and in 1876
a United States Commission reported that the Nicaragua route
possessed greater advantages and offered fewer difficulties than
any other. At Panama the isthmus is narrower than at any
other point except San Bias, its width in a straight line being
only 35 ni- and the height of the continental divide is only 300 ft.,
which is higher than the Nicaragua summit, but less than
half the height on any other route. At Nicaragua the distance
is greater, being about 156 m. in a straight line, but more than
one third is covered by Lake Nicaragua, a sheet of fresh water
with an area of about 3000 sq. m. and a maximum depth of
over 200 ft., the surface being about 105 ft. above sea-level.
Lake Nicaragua is connected with the Atlantic by a navigable
river, the San Juan, and is separated from the Pacific by the
continental divide, which is about 160 ft. above sea-level. At
Nicaragua only a canal with locks is feasible, but at Panama
a sea-level canal is a physical possibility.
By the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty of 1850 with Great Britain,
by the treaty of 1846 with New Granada (Colombia), Article
XXXV., and by the treaty of 1867 with Nicaragua, Article XV.,
the United States guaranteed that the projected canal,
whether the Panama or the Nicaraguan, should be neutral,
and, furthermore, that it be used and enjoyed upon equal terms
by the citizens of both countries in each case. A modification
of the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty being necessary to enable the
United States to build the canal, a treaty making such modifica-
tions, but preserving the principle of neutrality, known as the
Hay-Pauncefote Treaty, was negotiated with Great Britain
in 1900; it was amended by the United States Senate, and the
amendments not proving acceptable to Great Britain, the treaty
lapsed in March 1901. A new treaty, however, was negotiated
in the autumn, and accepted in December by the U.S. Senate.
The completion of the Suez Canal in 1869, and its subsequent
success as a commercial enterprise, drew attention more forcibly
than ever to the American isthmus. In 1876 an association
entitled " Societe Civile Internationale du Canal Interoceanique "
was organized in Paris to make surveys and explorations for
a ship canal. An expedition under the direction of Lieut.
L. N. B. Wyse, an officer of the French navy, was sent to the
isthmus to examine the Panama line. In May 1878 Lieut.
Wyse, in the name of the association, obtained a concession from
the Colombian government, commonly known as the Wyse
Concession. This is the concession under which work upon the
Panama Canal has been prosecuted. Its first holders did no
work of construction.
In May 1879 an International Congress composed of 135
delegates from various nations — some from Great Britain,
United States and Germany, but the majority p/rst
from France — was convened in Paris under the Panama
auspices of Ferdinand de Lesseps, to consider the Company.
best situation for, and the plan of, a canal. After a session
of two weeks the Congress decided that the canal should be
at the sea-level, and at Panama. Immediately after the
adjournment of the Congress the Panama Canal Company was
organized under a general law of France, with Lesseps as presi-
dent, and it purchased the Wyse Concession at the price of
10,000,000 francs. An attempt to float this company in
August 1879 failed, but a second attempt, made in December
1888, was fully successful, 6,000,000 shares of 500 francs each
being sold. The next two years were devoted to surveys and
examinations and preliminary work upon the canal. The plan
adopted was for a sea-level canal having a depth of 295 ft. and
bottom width of 72 ft., involving excavation estimated at
157,000,000, cub. yds. The cost was estimated by Lesseps in
1880 at 658,000,000 francs, and the time required at eight years.
The terminus on the Atlantic side was fixed by the anchorage
at Colon, and that on the Pacific side by the anchorage at
Panama. Leaving Colon, the canal was to pass through low
ground by a direct line for a distance of 6 m. to Gatun, where
it intersected the valley of the Chagres river; pass up that
valley for a distance of 21 m. to Obispo, where it left the Chagres
and ascended the valley of a tributary, the Cumacho; cut through
the watershed at Culebra, and thence descend by the valley
of the Rio Grande to Panama Bay. Its total length from deep
water in the Atlantic to deep water in the Pacific was about
47 m. It was laid out in such a way as to give easy curvature
everywhere; the sharpest curve, of which there was but one,
had a radius of 6200 ft., four others had a radius of 8200 ft.,
and all others had a radius of 9800 ft. or more. To secure this
it was necessary to select a point for crossing the watershed
where the height was somewhat greater than that of the lowest
pass. The line was essentially the same as that followed by the
Panama railroad, the concession for which granted a monopoly
of that route; the Wyse Concession, therefore, was applicable
only upon condition that the canal company could come to an
amicable agreement with the railroad company.
The principal difficulties to be encountered in carrying out this
plan consisted in the enormous dimensions of the cut to be made at
Culebra, and in the control of the Chagres river, the valley of which
668
PANAMA CANAL
is occupied by the canal for a large part of its length. This stream
is of torrential character, its discharge varying from a minimum of
about 350 cub. ft. to a maximum of over 100,000 cub. ft. per second.
It rose at Gamboa on the 1st of December 1890, i8| ft. in twelve
hours, its volume increasing from 15,600 cub. ft. to 57,800 cub. ft. per
second at the same time; and similar violent changes are not un-
common. To admit a stream of this character to the canal would be
an intolerable nuisance to navigation unless space could be pro-
vided for its waters to spread out. For a canal with locks the remedy
is simple, but for a sea-level canal the problem is much more difficult,
and no satisfactory solution of the question was ever reached under
the Lesseps plan.
Work under this plan continued until the latter part of 1887,
the management being characterized by a degree of extravagance
and corruption rarely if ever equalled in the history of the world.
By that time it had become evident that the canal could not be com-
pleted at the sea-level with the resources of time and money then
available. The plan was accordingly changed to one including
locks, and work was pushed on with vigour until 18S9, when the
company, becoming bankrupt, was dissolved by a judgment of the
Tribunal Civil de la Seine, dated the 4th of February 1889, a liqui-
dator being appointed by the court to take charge of its affairs.
One of the more important duties assigned to this official was to
keep the property together and the concession alive, with a view
to the formation of a new company for the completion of the canal.
He gradually reduced the number of men employed, and finally
suspended the works on the 15th of May 1889. He then proceeded
to satisfy himself that the canal project was feasible, a question
about which the failure of the company had caused grave doubts,
and to this end caused an inquiry to be held by a commission of
French and foreign engineers. This commission reported on the
9th of May 1890 that a canal with locks, for which they submitted
a plan, could be built in eight years at a cost of 580,000,000 francs
for the works, which sum should be increased to 900,000,000 francs
to include administration and financing. They reported that the
plant in hand was in good condition and would probably suffice
for finishing the canal, and they estimated the value of the work
done and of the plant in hand at 450,000,000 francs.
The time within which the canal was to be completed under the
Wyse Concession having nearly expired, the liquidator sought and
obtained from the Colombian government an extension of ten years.
Twice subsequently the time was extended by the Colombian
government, the date ultimately fixed for the completion of the
canal being the 31st of October 1910. For each of these extensions
the Colombian government exacted heavy subsidies.
The liquidator finally secured the organization of a new
company on the 20th of October 1S94. The old company and
the liquidator had raised by the sale of stock and bonds the
sum of 1,271,682,637 francs. The securities issued to raise this
money had a par value of 2,245,151,200 francs, held by about
200,000 persons. In all about 72,000,000 cub. yds. had been
excavated, and an enormous quantity of machinery and other
plant had been purchased and transported to the isthmus at
an estimated cost of 150,000,000 francs. Nearly all of the stock
of the Panama railroad — 68,534 of the 70,000 shares existing —
also had been purchased, at a cost of 93,268,186 francs.
The new company was regularly organized under French
law, and was recognized by the Colombian government. It
Second was technically a private corporation, but the great
Panama number of persons interested in the securities of the
Company. ^^^ company, and the special legislation of the
French Chambers, gave it a semi-national character. By
the law of the 8th of June 1888, all machinery and tools
used in the work must be of French manufacture, and raw
material must be of French origin. Its capital stock consisted
of 650,000 shares of 100 francs each, of which 50,000 shares
belonged to Colombia. It succeeded to all the rights of the
old company in the concessions, works, lands, buildings, plant,
maps, drawings, &c., and shares of the Panama railroad.
For the contingency that the canal should not be completed,
special conditions were made as to the Panama railroad shares.
These were to revert to the liquidator, but the company had
the privilege of purchasing them for 20,000,000 francs in cash
and half the net annual profits of the road. The Panama
railroad retained its separate organization as an American
corporation.
Immediately after its organization in 1894 the new company
took possession of the property (except the Panama railroad
shares, which were held in trust for its benefit), and proceeded to
make a new study of the entire subject of the canal in its engineering
and commercial aspects. It resumed the work of excavation, with
a moderate number of men sufficient to comply with the terms of
the concession, in a part of the line — the Empcrador and Culebra
cuts — where such excavation must contribute to the enterprise if
completed under any plan. By the middle of 1895, about 2000
men had been collected, and since that time the work progressed
continuously, the number of workmen var>'ing between 1900 and
3600. The amount of material excavated to the end of 1899 was
about 5,000,000 cubic yards. The amount expended to the 30th
of June 1899 was about 35,000,000 francs, besides about 6,500,000
francs advanced to the Panama Railroad Company for building a
pier at La Boca.
The charter provided for the appointment by the company and
the liquidator of a special engineering commission of five members,
to report upon the work done and the conclusions to be drawn
therefrom, this report to be rendered when the amounts expended
by the new company should have reached about one-half its capital.
The report was to be made public, and a special meeting of the
stockholders was then to be held to determine whether or not the
canal should be completed, and to provide ways and means. The
time for this report and special meeting arrived in 1898. In the
meanwhile the company had called to its aid a technical com-
mittee composed of fourteen engineers, European and American,
some of them among the most eminent in their profession. After
a study of all the data available, and of such additional surveys
and e.xaminations as it considered should be made, this committee
rendered an elaborate report dated the l6th of November 1898.
This report was referred to the statutory commission of five, who
reported in 1899 that the canal could be built according to that
project within the limits of time and money estimated. The special
meeting of stockholders was called immediately after the regular
annual meeting of the 30th of December 1899. It is understood
that the liquidator (who held about one-fourth the stock) refused
to take part in it, and that no conclusions were reached as to the
expediency of completing the canal or as to providing ways and
means. The engineering questions had been solved to the satis-
faction of the company, but the financial questions had been made
extremely difficult, if not insoluble, by the appearance of the
United States government in the field as a probable builder of an
isthmian canal. The company continued to conduct its operations
in a provisional way, without appealing to the public for capital.
The plan adopted by the company involved two levels above the
sea-level — one of them an artificial lake to be created by a dam at
Bohio, to be reached from the Atlantic by a flight of two locks, and
the other, the summit-level, to be reached by another flight of two
locks from the preceding. The summit-level was |to have its
surface at high water 102 ft. above the sea, and to be supplied with
water by a feeder leading from an artificial reser\-oir to be con-
structed at Alajuela in the upper Chagrcs valley; the ascent on the
Pacific side to be likewise by four locks. The canal was to have
a depth of 29^ ft. and a bottom width of about 98 ft., with an
increased width in certain specified parts. Its general plan was the
same as that adopted by the old company. The locks were to be
double, or twin locks, the chambers to have a serviceable length
in the clear of 738 ft., with a width of 82 ft. and a depth of 32 ft.
10 in., with lifts varying from 20 to 33 ft., according to situation
and stage of water. The time required to build the canal was
estimated at ten years, and its cost at 525,000,000 francs for the
works, not including administration and financing.
The occupation of the Panama route by Europeans, and the
prospect of a canal there under foreign control, was not
a pleasing spectacle to the people of the United Nicaragua
States. The favour with which the Nicaragua Scheme.
route had been considered since 1876 began to assume
a partisan character, and the movement to construct a
canal on that line to assume a practical shape. In 1884 a
treaty, known as the Frelinghuysen-Zarala Treaty, was negoti-
ated with Nicaragua, by the terms of which the United States
Government was to build the canal without cost to Nicaragua,
and after completion it was to be owned and managed jointly
by the two governments. The treaty was submitted to the
United States Senate, and in the vote for ratification, on the
20th of January 1885, received thirty-two votes in its favour
against twenty-three. The necessary two-thirds vote not
having been obtained, the treaty was not ratified, and a change
of administration occurring soon afterwards, it was withdrawn
from further consideration. This failure led to the formation
in New York by private citizens in 1886 of the Nicaragua Canal
Association, for the purpose of obtaining the necessary concessions ,
making surveys, laying out the route, and organizing such
corporations as should be required to construct the canal.
They obtained a concession from Nicaragua in April 1887, and
one from Costa Rica in August 1888, and sent parties to survey
the canal. An act for the incorporation of an association to
PANAMA CANAL
669
be known as the Maritime Canal Company of Nicaragua passed
Congress and was approved on the 20th of February 1889,
and on the 4th of May 1889 the company was organized. It
took over the concessions and, acting through a construction
company, began work upon the canal in June 1889. Operations
upon a moderate scale and mainly of a preliminary character
were continued until 1893, when the financial disturbances of that
period drove the construction company into bankruptcy and
compelled a suspension of the work. It has not since been
resumed. At that time the canal had been excavated to a depth
of 17 ft. and a width of 280 ft. for a distance of about 3000 ft.
inland from Grey town; the canal line had been cleared of timber
for a distance of about 20 m.; a railroad had been constructed
for a distance of about 11 m. inland from Grey town; a pier
had been built for the improvement of Greytown harbour and
other works undertaken. In aU, about $4,500,000 had been
expended.
Congress continued to take an interest in the enterprise,
and in 1895 provided for a board of engineers to inquire into the
possibility, permanence, and cost of the canal as projected by
the Maritime Canal Company. The report of this board, dated
April 1895, severely criticized the plans and estimates of the
company, and led to the appointment in 1897 of another board,
to make additional surveys and examinations, and to prepare
new plans and estimates. The second board recommended
some radical changes in the plans, and especially in the estimates,
but its report was not completed when the revival of the Panama
scheme attracted the attention of Congress, and led to the
creation in 1899 of the Isthmian Canal Commission. In the
meanwhile the property of the Maritime Canal Company has
become nearly worthless through decay, and its concession
has been declared forfeited by the Nicaraguan government.
The interest of the United States in an isthmian canal was
not essentially different from that of other maritime nations
Isthmian down to about the middle of the 19th century, but
Cara/ Com- it assumed great strength when California was
missloa. acquired, and it has steadily grown as the impor-
tance of the Pacific States has developed. In 1848 and again
in 1884, treaties were negotiated with Nicaragua authoriz-
ing the United States to build the canal, but in neither
case was the treaty ratified. The Spanish War of 1898
gave a tremendous impetus to popular interest in the
matter, and it seemed an article of the national faith that
the canal must be built, and, furthermore, that it must be under
American control. To the American people the canal appears
to be not merely a business enterprise from which a direct
revenue is to be obtained, but rather a means of unifying and
strengthening their national political interests, and of developing
their industries, particularly in the Pacific States; in short,
a means essential to their national growth. The Isthmian
Canal Commission created by Congress in 1899 to examine all
practicable routes, and to report which was the most practicable
and most feasible for a canal under the control, management
and ownership of the United States, reported that there was
no route which did not present greater disadvantages than those
of Panama and Nicaragua. It recommended that the canal
at Panama have a depth of 35 ft. and a bottom width 150
ft., the locks to be double, the lock chambers to have a length
740 ft., width 84 ft. and depth 35 ft. in the clear. The cost
of a canal with these dimensions, built essentially upon the
French plans, was estimated at $156,378,258. A plan, however,
was recommended in which the height of the Bohio dam was
increased about 20 ft., the level of Lake Bohio raised by that
amount, the lake made the summit-level, and the Alajuela dam
omitted. The cost upon this plan was estimated at $143,971,127.
According to the plan recommended by the Commission for
Nicaragua the line began at Greytown on the Caribbean Sea,
where an artificial harbour was to be constructed and
follow the valley of the San Juan for 100 m. to Lake Nicara-
gua; thence across the lake about 70 m. to the mouth of Las
Lajas river; then up the vaUey of that stream through the
watershed, and down the valley of the Rio Grande, 17 m. to
Brito on the Pacific, where also an artificial harbour was to
be constructed. The distance from ocean to ocean is 187 m.
About midway between the lake and the Caribbean the San
Juan receives its most important affluent, the San Carlos, and
undergoes a radical change in character. Above the junction
it is a clear water stream, capable of improvement by locks
and dams. Below, it is choked with sand, and not available
for slack-water navigation. A dam across the San Juan above
the mouth of the San Carlos was to maintain the water of the
river above that point on a level with the lake. The line of
the canal occupied essentially the bed of the river from the lake
to the dam; from the dam to the Caribbean it followed the left
bank of the river, keeping at a safe distance from it, and occasion-
ally cutting through a high projecting ridge. The lake and
the river above the dam constitute the summit-level, which
would have varied in height at different seasons from 104 to
no ft. above mean sea-level. It would have been reached from
the Caribbean side by five locks, the first having a lift of 365 ft.,
and the others a uniform lift of 185 ft. each, making a total
lift of 1105 ft. from low tide in the Caribbean to high tide in the
lake. From the Pacific side the summit would have been reached
by four locks having a uniform lift of 28j ft. each, or a total
lift of 114 ft. from low tide in the Pacific to high tide in the lake.
The time required to build the canal was estimated at ten years,
and its cost at $200,540,000.
The report of the commission, transmitted to Congress at the
end of 1900, ended thus: —
The Panama Canal, after completion, would be shorter, have
fewer locks and less curvature than the Nicaragua Canal. The
measure of these advantages is the time required for a vessel to
pass through, which is jestimated for an average ship at 12
hours for Panama and 33 hours for Nicaragua. On the other
hand, the distance from San Francisco to New York is 377 m.,
to New Orleans 579 m. and to Liverpool 386 m. greater via Panama
than via Nicaragua. The time required to pass over these dis-
tances being greater than the difference in the time of transit
through the canals, the Nicaragua line, after completion, would
be somewhat the more advantageous of the two to the United
States, notwithstanding the greater cost of maintaining the longer
canal.
The government of Colombia, in which lies the Panama Canal,
has granted an e.xclusive concession, which still has many years to
run. It is not free to grant the necessary rights to the United
States, except upon condition that an agreement be reached with
the New Panama Canal Company. The Commission believes that
such agreement is impracticable. So far as can be ascertained,
the company is not willing to sell its franchise, but will allow the
United States to become the owner of part of its stock. The
Commission considers such an arrangement inadmissible. The
Governments of Nicaragua and Costa Rica, on the other hand, are
untrammelled by concessions, and are free to grant to the United
States such privileges as may be mutually agreed upon.
In view of all the facts, and particularly in view of all the diffi-
culties of obtaining the necessary rights, privileges and franchises
on the Panama route, and assuming that Nicaragua and Costa
Rica recognize the value of the canal to themselves, and are pre-
pared to grant concessions on terms which are reasonable and
acceptable to the United States, the Commission is of the opinion
that " the most practicable and feasible route for " an isthmian
canal, to be " under the control, management and ownership of
the LInited States," is that known as the Nicaragua route.
This report caused the New Panama Canal Company to view
the question of selling its property in a new light, and in the
spring of 1901 it obtained permission from the Panama
Colombian government to dispose of it to the United Route
States. It showed itself, however, somewhat reluc- adopted.
tant to name a price to the Canal Commission, and it was not tiU
January 1902 that it definitely offered to accept $40,000,000. In
consequence of this offer, the commission in a supplementary
report issued on the i8th of January 1902 reversed the conclusion
it had stated in its main report, and advised the adoption of
the Panama route, with purchase of the works, &c., of the French
company. A few days previous to this report the Hepburn
bill authorizing the Nicaragua canal at a cost of $180,000,000,
had been carried in the House of Representatives by a large
majority, but when it reached the Senate an amendment — the
so-called Spooner bill — was moved and finally became law on
the 28th of June 1902. This authorized the president to acquire
670
PANAMA CANAL
all the property of the Panama Canal Company, including not
less than 68,869 shares of the Panama Railroad Company,
for a sum not exceeding $40,000,000, and to obtain from
Colombia perpetual control of a strip of land 6 m. wide;
whUe if he failed to come to terms with the company and with
Colombia in a reasonable time and on reasonable terms, he was
by treaty to obtain from Costa Rica and Nicaragua the terri-
tory necessary for the Nicaragua canal.
Negotiations were forthwith opened with Colombia, and
ultimately a treaty (the Hay-Herran treaty) was signed in
Dec/arar/oa J^nu^ry 19°3- The Colombian Senate, however,
of Panama refused ratification, and it seemed as if the Panama
ladepend- scheme would have to be abandoned when the
^'"** complexion of affairs was changed by Panama
revolting from Colombia and declaring itself independent in
November 1903. Within a month the new republic, by the
Hay-Bunau-Varilla treaty, granted the United States the use,
occupation and control of a strip of land 10 m. wide for the
purposes of the canal. A few days after the ratification of this
treaty by the United States Senate in February 1904 — the
concession of the French company having been purchased
— a commission was appointed to undertake the organization
and management of the enterprise, and in June Mr J. F. Wallace
was chosen chief engineer. Work was begun without delay,
but the commission's methods of administration and control
soon proved unsatisfactory, and in April 1905 it was reorganized,
three of its members being constituted an executive committee
which was to be at Panama continuously. Shortly afterwards,
at the end of June, Mr Wallace resigned his position as chief
engineer and was succeeded by Mr John F. Stevens.
In connexion with the reorganization of the commission a
board of consulting engineers, five being nominated by European
Construe- governments, was appointed in June 1905 to consider
tha the question, which so far had not been settled.
Problems, whether the canal should be made at sea-level,
without locks (at least except tidal regulating locks at or
near the Pacific terminus), or should rise to some elevation
above sea-level, with locks. The board reported in January
1906. The majority (eight members out of thirteen) declared
in favour of a sea-level canal as the only plan " giving reasonable
assurance of safe and uninterrupted navigation "; and they
considered that such a canal could be constructed in twelve
or thirteen years' time, that the cost would be less than
$250,000,000, and that it would endure for all time. The
minority recommended a lock canal, rising to an elevation of
85 ft. above mean sea-level, on the grounds that it would cost
about $100,000,000 less than the proposed sea-level canal, that
it could be built in much less time, that it would afford a better
navigation, that it would be adequate for all its uses for a longer
time, and that it could be enlarged if need should arise with
greater facUity and less cost. The chief engineer, Mr Stevens,
also favoured the lock or high-level scheme for the reasons,
among others, that it would provide as safe and a quicker passage
for ships, and therefore would be of greater capacity; that it
would provide, beyond question, the best solution of the vital
problem how safely to care for the flood waters of the Chagres
and other streams, that provision was made for enlarging its
capacity to almost any extent at very much less expense of
time and money than could be provided for by any sea-level
plan; that its cost of operation, maintenance and fixed charges
would be very much less than those of any sea-level canal; and
that the time and cost of its construction would be not more
than one-half that of a canal of the sea-level type. These
conflicting reports were then submitted to the Isthmian Canal
Commission for consideration, with the result that on the jth
of February, it reported, one member only dissenting, in favour
of the lock canal recommended by the minority of the board
of consulting engineers. Finally this plan was adopted by
Congress in June 1906. Later in the same year tenders were
invited from contractors who were prepared to undertake the
construction of the canal. These were opened in January 1907,
but none of them was regarded as entirely satisfactory, and
PAN-AMERICAN CONFERENCES
671
President Roosevelt decided tliat it would be best for the govern-
ment to continue the work, which was placed under the more
immediate control of the U.S.A. Corps of Engineers. At the
same time the Isthmian Canal Commission was reorganized,
Major G. W. Goethals, of the Corps of Engineers, becoming
engineer in chief and chairman, in succession to Mr J. F. Stevens
who, after succeeding Mr T. P. Shonts as chairman, himself
resigned on the 1st of April.
The following are the leading particulars of the canal, the course
of which is shown on the accompanying map. The length from
deep water in the Atlantic to deep water in the Pacific will be about
50 m., or, since the distance from deep water to the shore-line is
about 45 m. in Limon Bay and about 5 m. at Panama, approximately
40J m. from shore to shore. The summit level, regulated between
82 and 87 ft. above sea-level, will extend for 31 5 m. from a large
earth dam at Gatun to a smaller one at Pedro Miguel, and is to be
reached by a flight of 3 locks at the former point. The Gatun
dam will be 7200 ft. long along the crest including the spillway,
will have a maximum width at its base of 2000 ft., and will be uni-
formly 100 ft. wide at its top, which will rise 115 ft. above sea-
level. The lake (Lake Gatun) enclosed by these dams will be
1641 sq. m. in area, and will constitute a reservoir for receiving the
floods of the Chagrcs and other rivers as well as for supplying
water for lockage. A smaller lake (Lake Miraflores), with a surface
elevation of 55 ft. and an area of about 2 sq. m. will extend from
a lock at Pedro Miguel to Miraflores, where the valley of the Rio
Grande is to be closed by an earth dam on the west and a con-
crete dam with spillway on the east, and the canal is to descend to
sea-level by a flight of two locks. All the locks are to be in duplicate,
each being no ft. wide with a usable length of 1000 ft. divided
by a middle gate. The channel leading from deep water in the
Caribbean sea to Gatun will be about 7 m. long and 500 ft. broad,
increasing to 1000 ft. from a point 4000 ft. north of the locks in
order to form a waiting basin for ships. From Gatun locks, 0-6 m.
in length, the channel is to be 1000 ft. or more in width for a dis-
tance of nearly 16 m. to San Pablo. Thence it narrows first to
800 ft., and then for a short distance to 700 ft., for jj m. to mile 27
near Juan Grande, and to 500 ft. for 4J m. from Juan Grande to
Obispo (mile 3ij). From this point through, the Culebra cut to
Pedro Miguel lock, it will be only 300 ft. wide, but will widen again
to 500 ft. through Miraflores lake, ij m. long, to Miraflores locks,
the total length of which including approaches will be nearly a
mile, and will thence maintain the same width for the remaining
8 m. to deep water on the Pacific. The minimum bottom width of
the canal will thus be 300 ft., the average being 649 ft., while the
minimum depth will be 41 ft.
In 1909 it was estimated that the construction of the canal would
be completed by the 1st of January 1915, and that the total cost
to the United States would not exceed $375,000,000 including
$50,000,000 paid to the French Canal Company and the Republic
of Panama, $7,382,000 for civil administration, and $20,053,000
for sanitation. The last was one of the most necessary expenditures
of all, since without it disease would have greatly retarded the
work or perhaps prevented it altogether.
See W. F. Johnson, Foicr Centuries of the Panama Canal (New
York, 1906) ; Report of the Board of Consulting Engineers for the
Panama Canal (Washington, 1906); Annual Reports of the Isthmian
Canal Commission (Washington) ; Vaughan Cornish, The Panama
Canal and its Makers (London, 1909).
PAN-AMERICAN CONFERENCES. At intervals delegates
from the independent countries of North, Central and South
America have met in the interests of peace and for the improve-
ment of commercial relations and for the discussion of various
other matters of common interest. A movement for some
form of union among the Spanish colonies of Central and South
America was inaugurated by Simon Bolivar while those colonies
were stiU fighting for independence from Spain, and in 1S25
the United States, which in May 1822 had recognized their
independence and in December 1823 had promulgated the
Monroe Doctrine, was invited by the governments of Mexico
and Colombia to send commissioners to a congress to be held at
Panama in the following year. Henry Clay, the secretary of
state, hoped the congress might be the means of estabhshing
a league of American republics under the hegemony of the
United States, and under his influence President J. Q. Adams
accepted the invitation, giving notice however that the com-
missioners from the United States would not be authorized
to act in any way inconsistent with the neutral attitude of their
country toward Spain and her revolting colonies. The principal
objects of the Spanish-Americans in calling the congress were,
in fact, to form a league of states to resist Spain or any other
European power that might attempt to interfere in America
and to consider the expediency of freeing Cuba and Porto Rico
from Spanish rule; but in his message to the Senate asking that
body to approve his appointment of commissioners Adams
declared that his object in appointing them was to manifest a
friendly interest in the young rcpubUcs, give them some advice,
promote commercial reciprocity, obtain from the congress
satisfactory definitions of the terms " blockade " and " neutral
rights " and encourage religious hberty. In the Senate the pro-
posed mission provoked a spirited attack on the administration.
Some senators feared that it might be the means of dragging
the United States into entangling alliances; others charged
that the President had constnied the Monroe Doctrine as a
pledge to the southern repuljUcs that if the powers of Europe
joined Spain against them the United States would come to
their assistance with arms and men; and a few from the slave-
holding states wished to have nothing to do with the republics
because they proposed to make Cuba and Porto Rico independent
and Uberate the slaves on those islands. The Senate finally,
after a delay of more than ten weeks, confirmed the appointments.
There was further delay in the House of Representatives, which
was asked to make an appropriation for the mission; one of
the commissioners, Richard C. Anderson (1788-1826), died
on the way (at Cartagena, July 24), and when the other, John
Sergeant (1779-1852), reached Panama the congress, consisting
of representatives from Colombia, Guatemala, Mexico and
Peru, had met (June 22), concluded and signed a " treaty
of union, league and perpetual confederation " and adjourned
to meet again at Tacubaya, near the City of Mexico. The
governments of Guatemala, Mexico and Peru refused to ratify
the treaty and the Panama congress or conference was a failure.
The meeting at Tacubaya was never held.
Mexico proposed another conference in 1831, and repeated the
proposal in 1838, 1839 and 1840, but each time without result.
In December 1847, while Mexico and the United States were
at war, a conference of representatives from Bolivia, Chile,
Ecuador, New Granada and Peru met at Lima, gave the other
American republics the privilege of joining in its deliberations
or becoming parties to its agreements, continued to deliberate
until the 1st of March 1848, and concluded a treaty of confedera-
tion, a treaty of commerce and navigation, a postal treaty
and a consular convention; but with the exception of the ratifi-
cation of the consular convention by New Granada its work
was rejected. Representatives from Peru, Chile and Ecuador
met at Santiago in September 1856 and signed the " Continental
Treaty " designed to promote the union of the Latin- American
republics, but expressing hostility toward the United States
as a consequence of the filibustering expeditions of WiUiam
Walker (1824-1860); it never became effective. In response
to an invitation from the government of Peru to each of the
Latin-American countries, representatives from Guatemala,
Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Argentina
met in a conference at Lima in November 1864 to form a
" Union." Colombia was opposed to extending the invitation
to the United States lest that country should " embarrass the
action of the Congress "; the conference itself accompUshed
little. In 1877-1878 jurists from Peru, Bolivia, Cuba, Chile,
Ecuador, Honduras, Argentina, Venezuela and Costa Rica
met at Lima and concluded a treaty of extradition and a treaty
on private international law, and Uruguay and Guatemala
agreed to adhere to them. War among the South American
states prevented the holding of a conference which had been
called by the government of Colombia to meet at Panama in
September 1881 and of another which had been called by the
government of the United States to meet at Washington in
November 1882. In 1888-1889 jurists from Argentina, Bolivia,
BrazO, Chile, Paraguay, Peru and Uruguay met at Montevideo
and concluded treaties on international civil law, international
commercial law, international penal law, international law
of procedure, literary and artistic property, trade-marks and
patents, several of which were subsequently ratified by the
South American countries.
672
PANATHENAEA
In May 1888 the Congress of the United States had passed
an Act authorizing the President to invite the several Latin-
American governments to a conference in Washington to consider
measures for preserving the peace, the formation of a customs
union, the estabhshment of better communication between
ports, the adoption of a common silver coin, a uniform system
of weights, measures, patent-rights, copyrights and trade-marks,
the subject of sanitation of ships and quarantine, &c. All the
governments except Santo Domingo accepted the invitation
and this conference is commonly known as the first Pan-
American Conference. It met on the 2nd of October 1889,
was presided over by James G. Blaine, the American secretary
of state, who had been instrumental in having the conference
called, and continued its sessions until the 19th of April 1890.
A majority of its members voted for compulsory arbitration,
and recommendations were made relating to reciprocity treaties,
customs regulations, port duties, the free navigation of American
rivers, sanitary regulations, a monetary union, weights and
measures, patents and trade-marks, an international American
bank, an intercontinental railway, the extradition of criminals,
and several other matters. Nothing came of its recommen-
dations, however, except the establishment in Washington of an
International Bureau of American Repubhcs for the collection
and publication of information relating to the commerce,
products, laws and customs of the countries represented. At
the suggestion of President McKinley the government of Mexico
called the second Pan-American Conference to meet at the
City of Mexico on the 22nd of October 1901. There was a full
representation and the sessions were continued until the 31st
of January 1902. The chief subject of discussion was arbitration,
and after much wrangling between those who insisted upon
compulsory arbitration and those opposed to it a majority of
the delegations signed a project whereby their countries should
become parties to the Hague conventions of 1899, which provide
for voluntary arbitration. At the same time ten delegations
signed a project for a treaty providing for compulsory arbitration.
The conference also approved a project for a treaty whereby
controversies arising from pecuniary claims of individuals of
one country against the government of another should be sub-
mitted to the arbitration court established by the Hague con-
vention. The conference ratified a resolution of the first con-
ference recommending the construction of complementary
lines of the proposed Pan-American railway.
At this conference, too, the International Bureau of American
Republics was organized under a governing board of diplomatists
with the secretary of state of the United States as chairman;
it was directed to publish a monthly buUetin, and in several
other respects was made a more important institution. Its
governing board was directed to arrange for the third Pan-
American Conference, and this body was in session at Rio de
Janeiro from the 21st of July to the 26th of August 1906.
Delegates attended from the United States, Argentina, Bohvia,
Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, San Domingo,
Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras, Me.xico, Nicaragua, Panama,
Paraguay, Peru, Salvador and Uruguay; Haiti and Venezuela
were not represented. The secretary of state of the United
States, Elihu Root, though not a delegate, addressed the con-
ference. The subjects considered were much the same as those
at the two preceding conferences. With respect to arbitration
this conference passed a resolution that the delegates from the
American republics to the second conference at the Hague be
instructed to endeavour to secure there " the celebration of a
general arbitration convention so effective and definite that,
meriting the approval of the civilized world, it shall be accepted
and put in force by every nation." With respect to copyrights,
patents and trademarks this conference re-affirmed the con-
ventions of the second conference, with some modifications;
with respect to naturalization it recommended that whenever
a native of one country who has been naturalized in another
again takes up his residence in his native country without
intending to return to his adopted country he should be con-
sidered as having reassumed his original citizenship; and with
respect to the forcible collection of pubhc debts to which the
" Drago Doctrine " ' is opposed, the conference recommended
that " the Governments represented therein consider the point
of inviting the Second Peace Conference at the Hague to con-
sider the question of the compulsory collection of public debts,
and, in general, means tending to diminish between nations
conflicts having an exclusively pecuniary origin." The fourth
Conference met in Buenos Aires in July-August 1910, agreed to
submit to arbitration such money claims as cannot be amicably
settled by diplomacy, and renamed the Bureau the Bureau of
Pan-American Union.^
The first Pan-American scientific congress met at Santiago,
Chile, on the 25th of December 1908 for the consideration of
distinctly American problems. It continued in session until
the 5th of January 1909, and resolved that a second congress
for the same purpose should meet at Washington in 1912.
See International American Conference, Reports and Recommenda-
tions (Washington, 1890), and especially the Historical Appendix.
PANATHENAEA, the oldest and most important of the
Athenian festivals. It was originally a religious celebration,
founded by Erechtheus (Erichthonius), in honour of Athena
Pollas, the patron goddess of the city. It is said that when
Theseus united the whole land under one government he made
the festival of the city-goddess common to the entire country,
and changed the older name Athenaea to Panathenaea (Plutarch,
Theseus, 24). The union (Synoecism) itself was celebrated by
a distinct festival, called Synoecia or Synoecesia, which had no
connexion with the Panathenaea. In addition to the religious
rites there is said to have been a chariot race from the earliest
times, in which Erechtheus himself won the prize. Considerable
alterations were introduced into the proceedings by Peisistratus
(q.v.) and his sons. It is probable that the distinction of Greater
and Lesser Panathenaea dates from this period, the latter being
a shorter and simpler festival held every year. Every fourth
year the festival was celebrated with peculiar magnificence;
gymnastic sports were added to the horse races; and there is
little doubt that Peisistratus aimed at making the penteteric
Panathenaea the great Ionian festival in rivalry to the Dorian
Olympia. The penteteric festival was celebrated in the third
year of each Olympiad. The annual festival, probably held
on the 28th and 29th of Hecatombaeon (about the middle of
August), consisted solely of the sacrifices and rites proper to this
season in the cult of Athena. One of these rites originally
consisted in carrying a new peplus (the state robe of Athena)
through the streets to the Acropolis to clothe the ancient carved
image of the goddess, a ceremonial known in other cities and
represented by the writer of the Iliad (vi. 87) as being in use
at Troy; but it is probable that this rite was afterwards restricted
to the great penteteric festival. The peplus was a costly,
saffron-coloured garment, embroidered with scenes from the
battle between the gods and giants, in which Athena had taken
part. At least as early as the 3rd century B.C. the custom was
introduced of spreading the peplus like a sail on the mast of a
ship, which was rolled on a machine in the procession. Even the
religious rites were celebrated with much greater splendour at
the Greater Panathenaea. The whole empire shared in the great
sacrifice; every colony and every subject state sent a deputation
and sacrificial animals. On the great day of the feast there
was a procession of the priests, the sacrificial assistants of every
kind, the representatives of every part of the empire with their
victims, of the cavalry, in short of the population of Attica and
' So named from a note (1902) directed by Dr Don Louis Maria
Drago, the Argentine minister of foreign affairs, to the Argentine
diplomatic representative at Washington at the time of the diffi-
culties of Venezuela incident to the collection of debts owed to
foreigners by that country.
" The Bureau is supported by contributions, varying in amount
according to population, of the twenty-one American republics.
Andrew Carnegie contributed $750,000 and the various republics
$250,000 for the erection of a permanent home for the Bureau in
Washington. The Bureau has a library of some 15,000 volumes,
and publishes numerous handbooks, pamphlets and maps, in
addition to its monthly Bulletins. Its executive head is a director,
chosen by the Governing Board.
PANCH MAHALS— PANCREAS
673
great part of its dependencies. After the presentation of the
peplus, the hecatomb was sacrificed. The subject of the frieze of
the Parthenon is an idealized treatment of this great procession.
The festival which had been beautified by Pcisistratus was
made still more imposing under the rule of Pericles. He intro-
duced a regular musical contest in place of the old recitations of
the rhapsodes, which were an old standing accompanrment of
the festival. This contest took place in the Odeum, originally
built for this purpose by Pericles himself. The order of the
agones from this lime onwards was — first the musical, then the
gymnastic, then the equestrian contest. Many kinds of contest,
such as the chariot race of the apohatai (said to have been
introduced by Erechtheus), which were not in use at Olympia,
were practised in Athens. Apobatcs was the name given to
the companion of the charioteer, who showed his skill by leaping
out of the chariot and up again while the horses were going at
full speed. There were in addition several minor contests:
the Pyrrhic, or war dance, celebrating the victory of Athena
over the giants; the Euandria, whereby a certain number of
men, distinguished for height, strength and beauty, were
chosen as leaders of the procession; the Lampadcdromia, or
torch-race; the Naumachia (Regatta), which took place on the
last day of the festival. The proceedings were under the super-
intendence of ten athlothctae, one from each tribe, the lesser
Panathenaea being managed by hicropoci. In the musical
contests, a golden crown was given as first prize; in the sports,
a garland of leaves from the sacred olive trees of Athena, and
vases filled with oil from the same. Many specimens of these
Panathenaic vases have been found; on one side is the figure of
Athena, on the other a design showing the nature of the com-
petition in which they were given as prizes. The season of the
festival was the 24th to the 29th of Hecatombaeon, and the
great day was the 28th.
See A. Mommsen, Feste der Stadt Athen (1898); A. Michaelis,
Der Parthenon (1871), with full bibliography; P. Stengel, Die
grieehischen Kultusaltertitmer {1S98) ; L. C. Purser in Smith's Diction-
ary of Antiquities (3rd ed., 1891); L. R. Farnell, Cults of the Greek
States ; also article Athena and works quoted.
PANCH MAHALS ( = Five Districts), a district of British
India, in the northern division of Bombay. Area, 1606 sq. m.,
pop. (igoi), 261,020, showing a decrease of 17% in the decade,
owing to famine. The administrative headquarters are at
Godhra, pop. (1901), 20,915. Though including Champaner,
the old Hindu capital of Gujarat, now a ruin, this tract has no
history of its own. It became British territory as recently as
1861, by a transfer from Sindhia; and it is the only district of
Bombay proper that is administered on the non-regulation
system, the collector being also political agent for Rewa Kantha.
It consists of two separate parts, divided by the territory of a
native state. The south-western portion is for the most part
a level plain of rich soil; while the northern, although it com-
prises some fertile valleys, is generalh' rugged, undulating and
barren, with but little cultivation. The mineral products com-
prise sandstone, granite and other kinds of building stone.
Mining for manganese on a large scale has been begun by a
European firm, and the iron and lead ores may possibly become
profitable. Only recently has any attempt been made to con-
serve the extensive forest tracts, and consequently little timber
of any size is to be found. The principal crops are maize,
millets, rice, pulse and oilseeds; there are manufactures of
lac bracelets and lacquered toys; the chief export is timber.
Both portions of the district are crossed by the branch of the
Bombay and Baroda railway from Anand, through Godhra and
Dohad, to Ratlam; and a chord line, opened in 1904, runs from
Godhra to Baroda city. The district suffered very severely
from the famine of 1809-1900.
PANCREAS (Gr. irai', all; Kpkas, flesh), or sweetbread, in
anatomy, the elongated, tongue-shaped, digestive gland, of a
pinkish colour, which lies across the posterior wall of the abdomen
about the level of the first lumbar vertebra behind, and of the
transpyloric plane in front (see An.\tomy: Superficial and Artis-
tic). Its right end is only a little to the right of the mid line
of the abdomen and is curved down, round the superior med-
enteric vessels, into the form of a C^. This hook-like right end
is known as the head of the pancreas, and its curvature is adapted
to the concavity of the duodenum (see fig.) The first inch of
the straight limb is narrower from above downward than the
rest and forms the neck. This part lies just in front of the
beginning of the portal vein, just below the pyloric opening of
the stomach and just above the superior mesenteric vessels.
The next three or four inches of the pancreas, to the left of the
neck, form the body and this part lies in front of the left kidney
and adrenal body, while it helps to form the posterior wall of
the " stomach chamber " (see Alimentary Canal). At its
left extremity the body tapers to form the tail, which usuallv
touches the spleen (see Ductless Glands) just below the
hilum, and above the basal triangle of that viscus where the
splenic flexure of the colon is situated. On the upper border of
the body, a little to the left of the mid line of the abdomen, is
a convexity or hump, which is known as the tuber omentale
of the pancreas, and touches the elevation (bearing the same
name) on the liver.
The pancreas is altogether behind the peritoneum. In its greater
part it is covered in front by the lesser sac (see Coelom and Serous
Membranes), but the lower part of the front of the head and the
very narrow lower surface of the body are in contact with the
greater sac. There is one main duct of the pancreas, which is
sometimes known as the duct of Wirsung; it is thin- walled and
white, and runs the whole length of the organ nearer the back than
the front. As it reaches the head it turns downward and opens
into the second part of the duodenum, joining the common bile
duct while they are both piercing the walls of the gut. A smaller
accessory pancreatic duct is found, which communicates with the
main duct and usually opens into the duodenum about three-
quarters of an inch above the papilla of the latter. It drains the
lower part of the head, and either crosses or communicates with
the duct of Wirsung to reach its opening (see A. M. Schirmer,
Beitrag zur Geschichte mid Anat. des Pancreas, Basel, 1893).
The pancreas has no real capsule, but is divided up into lobules,
which are merely held together by their ducts and by loose areolar
tissue; the glands of which these lobules are made up are of the
acino-tubular variety (see Epithelial Tissues). Small groups of
epithelium-like cells without ducts (Islets of Langerhans) occur
among the glandular tissue and are characteristic of the pancreas.
In cases of diabetes they sometimes degenerate. In the centre
of each acinus of the main glandular tissue of the pancreas are
often found spindle-shaped cells (centro-acinar cells of Langerhans).
For details of microscopic structure see Essentials of Histology,
by E. A. Schafer (London, 1907).
Embryology. — The pancreas is developed, by three diverticula,
from that part of the forcgut which will later form the duodenum.
Of these diverticula the left ventral disappears early,' but the right
ventral, which is really an outgrowth from the lower part of the
common bile duct, forms the head of the pancreas. The bod\-
and tail are formed from the dorsal diverticulum, and the two
parts, at first separate, join one another so that the ducts communi-
cate, and eventually the ventral one takes almost all the secretion
of the gland to the intestine, while that part of the dorsal one which
is nearest the duodenum atrophies and forms the duct of Santorini.
The main pancreatic duct (of Wirsung) is therefore formed partly
by the ventral and partly by the dorsal diverticulum. As the
diverticula grow they give off lateral branches, which branch
again and again until the terminal buds form the acini of the
gland. At first the pancreas grows upward, behind the stomach,
between the two layers of the dorsal mcsogastrium (see Coelom
AND Serous Membranes), but when the stomach and duodenum
turn over to the right, the gland becomes horizontal and the open-
ing of the right ventral diverticulum becomes more dorsal. Later,
by the unequal growth of the duodenal walls, it comes to enter the
gut on its left side where the papilla is permanently situated. After
the turning over of the pancreas to the right '.he peritoneum is
absorbed from its dorsal aspect. The islets of Langerhans are
now regarded as portions of the glandular epithelium which have
been isolated by the invasion and growth round them of mesenchyme
(see Quain's Anatomy, vol. i., igoS).
Comparative Anatomy. — In the Acrania (Amphioxus) no repre-
sentative of a pancreas has been found, but in the Cyclostomata
(hags and lampreys) there is a small lobular gland opening into
the bile duct which probably represents it. In the Elasmobranchs
(sharks and rays) there is a definite compact pancreas of consider-
able size. In the Telcostomi, which include the true bony fish
(Teleostei), the sturgeon and Polyterus, the pancreas is sometimes
' N. W. Ingalls has shown (Archiv. f. mik. Anat. und Entu'ickl.
Bd. 70, 1907), that in a human embryo of 4-9 mm. the two ventral
buds persist and join one another below the liver bud. , yjirj-:'/!, r:.
67+
AHXDHApANCREA^^ H3MA^
a compact gland and sometimes diffuse between the layers of the
mesentery; at other times it is so surrounded by the liver as to be
difficult to find.
Among the Dipnoi (mud fish), Protopterus has it embedded in
the walls of the stomach and intestine.
The Amphibia have a definite compact pancreas which lies in
the U-shaped loop between the stomach and duodenum, and is
massed round the bile duct. In the Reptilia there are some-
times several ducts, as in the crocodile and the water tortoise
(Emys), and this arrangement is also found in birds (the pigeon,
for instance, has three ducts opening into the duodenum at very
different levels). In mammals the gland is usually compact, though
into Ike pancreas is of some medico-legal importance as being a
cause of death. The condition is rarely recognized in time for
operative interference. Acute haemorrhagic pancreatitis is a com-
bination of inflammation with haemorrhage in which the pancreas
is found enlarged and infiltrated with blood. Violent pain, vomit-
ing and collapse, are the chief features as is also the case in
pancreatic abscess in which the abscess may be single or multiple.
In the latter case operation has been followed by recovery.
Haemorrhagic inflammation has been followed by gangrene of the
pancreas, which usually terminates fatally. In two remarkable cases,
however, reported by Chiari recovery followed on the discharge per
rectum of the necrosed pancreas. Chronic pancreatitis is said by
AortA
./I ,iit:J
Fossa for Spigelian lobe
Right phrenic vessels
Vena cava
Hepatic vein
Hepatic artery\
Pdrtal vein \
Pylorus
Bile duct *
Right suprarenal capsule \
CEsophagus
Coronary artery
Diaphragm
Left suprarenal capsule
Splenic artery
Kidney
Upper surface of pancreas
Gastric surface of spleen
Under surface
of pancreas
Attachment of
transverse
mesocolon
Duodeno-
jejunal flexure
Gastro-duodenal
artery and neck
of pancreas
Superior mesen-
teric artery
X,
Right common iliac
vein
Right common iliac
artery
Left common iliac
vein
Duodenum
Ureter
From Ambrose Binningham, Ciumingbam's Text Book of Anatomy^
Fig. I. — The Viscera and Vessels on the Posterior Abdominal Wall.
The stomach, liver and most of the intestines have been removed. The peritoneum has been
preserved on the right kidney, and the fossa for the Spigelian lobe. In taking out the liver, the
vena cava was left behind. The stomach-bed is well shown. (From a body hardened by chromic-
acid injections.)
sometimes, as in the rabbit, it is diffuse. It usually has two ducts,
as in man, though in many animals, such as the ox, sheep and goat,
only one persists. When there is only one duct it may open with
the common bile duct, e.g. sheep and cat, or may be very far away
as in the ox and rabbit. (F. G. P.)
Diseases of the pancreas. — .'Vs the pancreas plays an important
part in the physiology of digestion much attention has of late been
paifJ to the question of its secretions. In sclerosis, atrophy, acute
and chronic inflammatory changes and new growths in the pancreas
an absence or lessening of its secretion may be evident. Haemorrhage
Mayo Robson to occur in connexion with the symptoms of catarrhal
jaundice, which he suggests is due to the pressure on the common
duct by the swollen pancreatic tissue. The organ is enlarged and
very hard, and the symptoms are pain, dyspepsia, jaundice, loss of
weight and the presence of fat in the stools. This latter sign is
common to all forms of pancreatic disease. In connexion with all
pancreatic diseases small yellowish patches are found in the pan-
creatic tissue, mesentery-, omentum and abdominal fatty tissue
generally, and the tissues appear to be studded with whitish areas
often not larger than a pin's head. The condition, which was
PANDA— PANDURA
675
first observed by Balser, has been termed " fat-necrosis." The
pancreas like other organs, is subject to the occurrence of new
growths, tumours and cysts, syphilis and tuberculosis.
PANDA {A clurusf ulceus), a carnivorous mammal of the family
Procyonidae (see Carnivora). This animal, rather larger than
a cat, ranges from the eastern Himalaya to north-west China. In
the former area it is found at heights of from 7000 to 12,000 ft.
above the sea, among rocks and trees, and chiefly feeds on
fruits and other vegetable substances. Its fur is of a remarkably
rich reddish-brown colour, darker below; the face is while,
with the exception of a vertical stripe of red from just above the
eye to the gape; there are several pale rings on the tail, the tip
of which is black.
PANDARUS, in Greek legend, son of Lycaon, a Lycian, one
of the heroes of the Trojan war. He is not an important figure
in Homer. He breaks the truce between the Trojans and the
Greeks by treacherously wounding Menelaus with an arrow, and
finally he is slain by Diomedes (Homer, Iliad, ii. 827, iv. 88,
v. 2go). In medieval romance he became a prominent figure
in the tale of Troilus and Cressida. He encouraged the amour
between the Trojan prince and his niece Cressida; and the word
" pander " has passed into modern language as the common
title of a lovers' go-between in the worst sense.
PANDECTS (Lat. pandecta, adapted from Gr. -!rav5eKT-qs, all-
containing), a name given to a compendium or digest of Roman
law compiled by order of the emperor Justinian in the 6th
century (a.d. 530-533). The pandects were divided into fifty
books, each book containing several titles, divided into laws,
and the laws into several parts or paragraphs. The number of
jurists from whose works extracts were made is thirty-nine,
but the writings of Ulpian and Paulus make up quite half the
work. The work was declared to be the sole source of non-
statute law: commentaries on the compilation were forbidden,
or even the citing of the original works of the jurists for the
explaining of ambiguities in the text. See Justinian; and
Roman Law.
PANDERMA (Gr. Panormus), a town of Asia Minor, on the
south shore of the Sea of Marmora, near the site of Cyzicus.
It has a trade in cereals, cotton, opium, valonia and boracite
and is connected by a carriage road with Balikisri. Pop. 10,000
(7000 Moslems).
PANDHARPUR, a town of British India, in Sholapur district
of Bombay, on the right bank of the river Bhima, 38 m. W. of
Sholapur town. Pop. (1901), 32,405. Pandharpur is the most
popular place of pilgrimage in the Deccan, its celebrated temple
being dedicated to Vithoba, a form of Vishnu. Three assem-
blages are held annually. In 1906 a light railway was opened to
Pandharpur from Barsi Road on the Great Indian Peninsula
railway.
PANDORA (the " All-giving ") in Greek mythology, according
to Hesiod (Theog. 570-612) the first woman. After Prometheus
had stolen fire from heaven and bestowed it upon mortals Zeus
determined to counteract this blessing. He accordingly com-
missioned Hephaestus to fashion a woman out of earth, upon
whom the gods bestowed their choicest gifts. Hephaestus gave
her a human voice. Aphrodite beauty and powers of seduction,
Hermes cunning and the art of flattery. Zeus gave her a jar
(ttWos), the so-called " Pandora's box " (see below), containing
all kinds of misery and evil, and sent her, thus equipped, to
Epimetheus, who, forgetting the warning of his brother
Prometheus to accept no present from Zeus, made her) his wife.
Pandora afterwards opened the jar, from which all manner of
evils flew out over the earth (for parallels in other countries,
see Frazer's Pausanias, ii. 320). Hope alone remained at the
bottom, the lid having been shut down before she escaped.
(Hesiod, IV. and D. 54-105). According to a later story, the
jar contained, not evils, but blessings, which would have been
preserved for the human race, had they not been lost through
the opening of the jar out of curiosity by man himself (Babrius,
Fab. 58).
See J. E. Harrison, " Pandora's Box," in Journal of Hellenic
Studies, XX. (1900), in which the opening of the jar is explained as
an aetiological myth based on the Athenian festival of the Pithoigia
(part of the Anthcsteria, g.v.}, and P. (Jardnor, " A new Pandora
vase" (.\.\i., ibid., 1901). Pandora is only another form of the
Earth goddess, who is conceived as releasing evil spirits from the
iriflos, which served the purpose of a grave (cf. the removal of the
lapis manalis from the mundus, a circular pit at Rome supposed to
be the opening to the world below, on three days in the year, whereby
an opportunity of revisiting earth was afforded the dead). See
also O. Gruppe, Griechisclie Mytlwlogie (1906), i. 94.
PANDUA, a ruined city in Malda district of Eastern
Bengal and Assam, once a Mahommedan capital. It is situated
7 m. N.E. of Malda, and about 20 m. from the other great
ruined city of Gaur (q.v.), from which it was largely built. It
was probably originally an outpost of Gaur, and grew in import-
ance as Gaur became unhealthy. In a.d. 1353 Haji Shams-
uddin Ilyas, the first independent king of Bengal, transferred
his capital from Gaur to Pandua; but the time of its prosperity
was short, and in a.d. 1453 the capital was transferred back to
Gaur. Its only celebrated building is the Adina Mosque, which
was described by James Fergusson as the finest example of
Pathan architecture in existence. This great mosque was
built by Sikandar Shah in 1369 (see Indian Architectuke).
Pandua now, like Gaur, is almost entirely given over to the
jungle.
PANDULPH [Pandolfo] (d. 1226), Roman ecclesiastical
politician, papal legate to England and bishop of Norwich, was
born in Rome, and first came to England in 1211, when he was
commissioned by Innocent III. to negotiate with King John.
Obtaining no satisfactory concessions, he is said to have pro-
duced the papal sentence of excommunication in the very
presence of the king. In May 1213 he again visited England
to receive the king's submission. The ceremony took place
at Dover, and on the following day John, of his own motion,
formally surrendered England to the representative of Rome
to receive it again as a papal fief. Pandulph repaid this act of
humility by using every means to avert the threatened French
invasion of England. For nearly a year he was superseded
by the cardinal-legate Nicholas of Tusculum; but returning
in 121 5 was present at the conference of Runnymede, when
the great charter was signed. He rendered valuable aid to
John who rewarded him with the see of Norwich. The arrival
of the cardinal-legate Gualo (1216) relegated Pandulph to a
secondary position; but after Gualo's departure (1218) he came
forward once more. As representing the pope he claimed a
control over Hubert de Burgh and the other ministers of the
young Henry III.; and his correspondence shows that he inter-
fered in every department of the administration. His arrogance
was tolerated while the regency was still in need of papal assist-
ance; but in 1 22 1 Hubert de Burgh and the primate Stephen
Langton successfully moved the pope to recall Pandulph and
to send no other legate a latere in his place. Pandulph retained
the see of Norwich, but from this time drops out of English
politics. He died in Rome on the i6lh of September 1226 but
his body was taken to Norwich for burial.
See W. Shirley, Royal and Other Historical Letters (" Rolls series ")
vol. i.; Miss K. Norgate, John Lackland {1^02); \V. Stubbs, Con-
stitutional History (1897) vol. i.
PANDURA {tanboura, tanbur, tamhora, mandorc, pandorc,
bandora, baiidoer, &c.), an ancient oriental stringed instrument,
a member of the lute family, having a long neck, a highly-
vaulted back, and originally two or three strings plucked by
the fingers. There were in antiquity at least two distinct
varieties of pandura, or tanbur. (i) The more or less pear-
shaped type used in Assyria and Persia and introduced by way
of Asia Minor into Greece, whence it passed to the Roman
Empire. In this type the body, when the graceful inward
curves which led up gradually from base to neck were replaced
by a more sloping outline, approximated to an elongated triangle
with the comers rounded off. (2) The oval type, a favourite
instrument of the Egyptians, also found in ancient Persia
and among the Arabs of North Africa, who introduced it into
Spain. Our definite knowledge of the pandura is derived from
the treatise on music by Farabi,' the Arab scholar w-ho flourished
'See Michael Casiri, Bibl. Arab. Hisp., i. 347.
676
PANE— PANEGYRIC
J » „- ^ -
in the loth century. He mentions two kinds of Idnburs, devo-
ting to each a chapter, i.e. the tanbur of Khorasan, the Persian
type, and the tanbur of Bagdad, the Assyrian variety; these
differ in form, in length, and in the arrangement of the frets.
Unfortunately, Farabi does not describe the shape of the body,
being more concerned with the musical scale and compass of
the instrument; but means of identification are supplied by
ancient monuments. There is a tanbur on an Assyrian bas-
relief of the reign of Assur-nasir-pal, c. 880 B.C. (British Museum),
on a slab illustrating camp hfe; the musician is playing on a
pear-shaped tanbur with a very long slender neck, which would
have served for two strings at the most, whOe two men, dis-
guised in the skins of wild beasts, are dancing in front of him.
There were in Farabi's day five frets at least, whereas on the
tanbur of Khorasan there were no fewer than eighteen, which
extended for half the length of the instrument. Five of these
frets were fixed or invariable in position, the thirteen others
being interpolated between them. The fixed frets, counting
from the nut, gave an interval of one tone to the first, of a
fourth to the second, of a fifth to the third, of an octave to the
fourth, and of a major ninth to the fifth, thus providing a suc-
cession of fourths and fifths. The additional frets were placed
between these, so that the octaves generally contained seventeen
intervals of one-third tone each. The two principal accordances
for the tanbur of Khorasan were the marriage when the strings
were in unison, and the lute or accordance in fourths. Farabi
mentions a tail-piece or zohaiba, to which the strings, generally
two in number but sometimes three, were attached; they rested
on a bridge provided with as many notches as there were strings.
In the tanbur of Khorasan they were wound round pegs placed
opposite each other in the two sides of the head, as in the modern
violin.
Pollux • states that the pandura was invented by the Assyrians
or Egyptians, and had three strings. Theodore Reinach^ is of
opinion that pandura was a generic term for instruments of the
lute type during the Roman and Alexandrine periods. This may
be the case, but from the modern standpoint we cannot in our
classification afford to disregard the invariable characteristics
observed in the modern, no less than in the ancient and medieval,
tanburs or panduras.
To be able to identify the pandura it is as well to bear in mind
the distinctive features of other instruments with which it might
be confounded. The tanbur had a long neck resembling a section
of a cylinder and a highly vaulted back, and its strings were
plucked. In the rebab the neck was wanting or at best rudi-
mentary, consisting of the gradual narrowing of the body towards
the head, and during the middle ages in Europe, as rebec,
it was always a bowed instrument. The early lutes had larger
bodies than tanburs, the neck was short compared to the length of
the body, the head was generally bent back at right angles, and the
conve.x was not so deeply vaulted as that of the tanbur. The
barbiton or bass lute had a long neck also, but wider, to take six,
seven, or even nine strings, and from the back or profile view the
general appearance was what is known as boat-shaped.
Under the Romans the pandura had become somewhat modified:
the long neck was preserved but was made wider to take four strings,
and the body was either oval ' or slightly broader at the base, but
without the inward curves of the pear-shaped instruments. A
striking example of the former is to be seen among the marbles of
the Townley Collection at the British Museum on a bas-relief
illustrating the marriage feast of Eros and Psyche, a Roman sculp-
ture assigned to c. 150 B.C. This example is of great value to the
archaeology of music, for the instrument can be studied in full
and in profile. The arrangement of the four pegs in the back of
the head is Oriental.
The Persians had a six-stringed tanbur,* which they distinguished
1 Onomasticon, iv. 60.
- See Daremberg and Saglio, Diet, des antiquiles greeques et
roinaines, article " Lyre," p. 1450; also Revue des etudes greeques,
viii. 371, &c., with illustrations, some of which the present writer
would prefer to classify as early lutes, owing to the absence of the
characteristic long neck of the tanburs.
^ This instrument resembles the oval tanburs represented in the
miniatures of musicians in the Cantigasdi Santa Maria (13th century)
having two strings, and on each side a group of three very
small, round sound-holes, probably of Moorish origin. The MS.
is numbered J. b. 2 in the Escorial; the miniatures are reproduced
in J. F. Riano's Critieal and Biogr. Notes on early Spanish Music
(London, 1887).
■• In the miniatures of the Cantigas there are oval tanburs with
as the scheschta,^ whereas a 'fhree-strifiged'\%n^ety' was' knowii as tiie
schrud.
The tanbur survived during the middle ages and as late as the
i8th century; it may be traced in the musical documents of several
countries. In England the name of pandura or bandoer was given
to an instrument with wire strings having no characteristic structural
feature in common with the ancient tanbur but resembling the
cittern {q.v.}. The bandoer had a flat back and sound-board joined
by ribs having a wavy outline. A smaller size of the same instru-
ment was called orphoreon, and a larger and wider penorcon; these
are described and figured by Practorius," who suggests that this
instrument, invented in England as bandoer, is probably similar
to the Greek xarSoDpa. This bandora, we learn from an entry in
Sir Philip Leycester's' index to his commonplace book of 1575,
was invented by " John Rose dwellinge in Bridewell anno 4to
Elizabeth, who left a sonne farre exceedinge himself in makinge
instruments."
A 17th-century French MS. (Add. 30342, fol. 144) in the British
Museum, containing drawings of musical instruments, gives the
tambora, not the English hybrid, but a true descendant of the
ancient Oriental tanbur, with nine strings, a rose sound-hole and
seven frets; the French writer erroneously states that it is similar
to the cistre (cittern). Filippo Bonanni' gives an illustration of
the same kind of instrument, with ten strings in five pairs of unisons,
and calls it pandura. (K. S.)
PANE (Fr. pan, Lat. panntis. a cloth, garment), originally a
piece of cloth, especially one of a number of pieces of cloth or
other material joined to form one piece for a garment; the word
is thus also apphed to the " slashes " in the material of a dress
made to show a rich lining or the colour of a hning when different
from the outer side of the garment. In this sense the word only
survives in English in " counterpane," an outer coverlet for a
bed. " Pane " is used frequently for the flat side of anything,
especially in diamond-cutting of the sides to the " table "
of a brilliant, or to the faces of a bolt nut or hammer-head.
The most common use of the word now is that of a piece of glass
filling a compartment in a window. In architecture the word
is also applied to a bay of a window, compartment of a partition,
side of a tower, turret, &c. (See Bay and Half-tiuber
Work.)
PANEGYRIC, strictly a formal public speech delivered in
high praise of a person or thing, and generally high studied or
undiscriminating eulogy. It is derived from iravTjyvpiKos (a
speech) " fit for a general assembly " {iravriyvpLS, panegyris).
In Athens such speeches were delivered at national festivals or
games, with the object of rousing the citizens to emulate the
glorious deeds of their ancestors. The most famous are the
Olympiacus of Gorgias, the Olympiacus of Lysias, and the
Panegyricus and Panalhenaiciis (neither of them, however,
actually delivered) of Isocrates. Funeral orations, such as the
famous speech put into the mouth of Pericles by Thucydides,
also partook of the nature of panegyrics. The Romans confined
the panegyric to the living, and reserved the funeral oration
exclusively for the dead. The most celebrated example of a
Latin panegyric (panegyricus) is that delivered by the younger
Pliny (a.d. 100) in the senate on the occasion of his assumption
of the consulship, containing a somewhat fulsome eulogy of
Trajan. Towards the end of the 3rd and during the 4th century,
as a result of the orientalizing of the Imperial court by Diocletian,
it became customary to celebrate as a matter of course the
superhuman virtues and achievements of the reigning emperor.
Twelve speeches of the kind (Pliny's included), eight of them by
famous GaUic rhetoricians (Claudius Mamertinus, Eumenius,
Nazarius, Drepanius Pacatus) and three of anonymous author-
ship, have been collected under the title of Panegyrici veteres
latini (ed. E. Bahrens, 1874). Speaking generally, they are
characterized by a stilted, affected style and a tone of gross
adulation. There are extant similar orations by Ausonius,
six or seven strings, one played by a Moor; both have the tail-
piece in the form of a crescent.
' See Hammer von Purgstall on the " Seven Seas," in Jahrbiiclier
der Literatur, xxxvi. 290 (Vienna, 1826).
8 Syntagma musicum (VVolfenbiittel, 1618), pi. xvii. and ch. 28,
63; reprint in Publik. d. Ges. f. Musikforschung (Beriin, 1S84),
Jahrgang Xll.
' See Dr F. J. Furnivall's edition of Captain Cox or Robert Lane-
ham's letter, Ballad Society (London, 1871), p. 67.
8 See Gabinetto armonico, ch. 49, pi. 97 (Rome, 1722).
PANEL— PANIN
677
Symmachus and Ennodius, and panegyrics in verse by Claudian,
Merobaudes, Priscian, Corippus and others.
See C. G. Heyne, " Censura xii. panegyricorum veterum," in his
Opuscula academka (1812), vi. 80-iia; H. Ruhl, De xii panegyricis
latinis (progr. Greifswald, 1868); R. V'lcinn, Les Derniers ecrivains
profanes (Paris, 1906).
PANEL (O. Fr. panel, mod. panneau, piece of cloth, from Med.
Lat. panncllus, diminutive of pannus, cloth), a piece of cloth,
slip of parchment, or portion of a surface of wood or stone
enclosed in a compartment. In the first sense the word survives
in the use of " panel " or " pannel " for the cloth-stuffed lining
of a saddle. From the slip of parchment on which the list of
jurymen is drawn up by the sheriff, " panel " in English law
is applied to a jury, who are thus said to be " empanelled."
In Scots law the word is used of the indictment, and of the
person or persons named in the indictment; " panel " is thus the
equivalent of the English " prisoner at the bar." In building
and architecture (Fr. panneau; Ital. quadrelto, formello; Ger.
Feld) " panel " is properly used of the piece of wood framed
within the stiles and rails of a door, fiUing up the aperture;
but it is often applied both to the whole square frame and the
sinking itself, and also to the ranges of sunken compartments
in cornices, corbel tables, groined vaults, ceilings, &c. In
Norman work these recesses are generally shallow, and more of
the nature of arcades. In Early Enghsh work the square panels
are ornamented with quatrefoils, cusped circles, &c., and the
larger panels are often deeply recessed, and form niches with
trefoil heads and sometimes canopies. In the Decorated style
the cusping and other enrichments of panels become more
elaborate, and they are often fiUed with shields, foliages, and
sometimes figures. Towards the end of this period the walls of
important buildings were often entirely covered with long or
square panels, the former frequently forming niches with statues.
The use of panels in this way became very common in Per-
pendicular work, the wall frequently being entirely covered
with long, short and square panels, which latter are fre-
quently richly cusped, and filled with every species of ornament,
as shields, bosses of foliage, portcullis, lilies, Tudor roses, &c.
Wooden panellings very much resembled those of stone, except
in the Tudor period, when the panels were enriched by a varied
design, imitating the plaits of a piece of Unen or a napkin folded
in a great number of parallel lines. This is generally called the
linen pattern. Wooden ceilings, which are very common, are
composed of thin oak boards nailed to the rafters, collars, &c.,
and divided into panels by oak mouldings fixed on them, with
carved bosses at the intersections.
PANENTHEISM, the name given by K. C. F. Krause (q.v.) to
his philosophic theory. Krause held that all existence is one
great unity, which he called Wesen (Essence). This Essence is
God, and includes within itself the finite unities of man, reason
and nature. God therefore includes the world in Himself and
extends beyond it. The theory is a conciliation of Theism and
Pantheism.
PANGOLIN, the Malay name for one of the species of the
scaly anteaters, which belong to the order Edentata (q.v.), and
typify the family Manidae and the genus Manis. These animals,
which might be taken for reptiles rather than mammals, are
found in the warmer parts of Asia and throughout Africa.
Pangolins range from i to 3 ft. in length, exclusive of the tail,
which may be much shorter than or nearly twice the length of
the rest of the animal. Their legs are short, so that the body
is only a few inches off the ground; the ears are very small;
and the tongue is long and worm-hke, and used to capture ants.
Their most striking character, however, is the coat of broad over-
lapping horny scales, which cover the whole animal, with the
exception of the under surface of the body, and in some species
the lower part of the tip of the tail. Besides the scales there
are generally, especially in the Indian species, a number of
isolated hairs, which grow between the scales, and are
scattered over the soft and flexible skin of the belly. There are
five toes on each foot, the claws on the first toe rudimentary, but
the others, especially the third of the forefoot, long, curved, and
laterally compressed. In walking the fore-claws are turned
backwards and inwards, so that the weight of the animal rests
on the back and outer surfaces, and the points are thus kept
from becoming blunted. The skuU is long, smooth and rounded,
with imperfect zygomatic arches, no teeth of any sort, and, ^s
in other ant-eating mammals, with the bony palate extending
unusually far backwards towards the throat. The lower jaw
consists of a pair of thin rod-hke bones, welded to each other at
the chin, and rather loosely attached to the skull by a joint which,
instead of being horizontal, is tilted up at an angle of 45°, ihp
outwardly-twisted condyles articulating with the inner surfaces
of the long glenoid processes in a manner unic^^^ j ^moag
mammals.
The genus Manis, which contains all the pangoliiis, may be
L, uij j;; "jii )
.vino
ai oriJ XII ec r ;f
White-bellied Pangolin {Manis l\'ituspi^.
conveniently divided into two groups, distinguished by geo-
graphical distribution and certain convenient, though not
highly important, external characters. The Asiatic pangolins
are characterized by having the central series of body-scales
continued to the extreme end of the tail, by having many iso-
lated hairs growing between the scales of the back, and by their
small external ears. They all have a small naked spot beneath
the tip of the tail, which is said to be of service as an organ of
touch. There are three species: viz. Manis javanica, ranging
from Burma, through the Malay Peninsula and Java, to Borneo;
M. aurita, found in China, Formosa and Nepal; and the Indian
Pangolin, M. pentadactyla, distributed over the whole of India
and Ceylon. The African species have the central series of
scales suddenly interrupted and breaking into two at a point
about 2 or 3 in. from the tip of the tail; they have no
hair between the scales, and no external ears. The following
four species belong to this group: the long-tailed pangolin
(M. macrura), v/ith a tail nearly twice as long as its body, and con-
taining as many as forty-six caudal vertebrae, nearly the largest
number known among Mammals; the white-bellied pangolin
{M. tricuspis), closely allied to the last, but with longer three-
lobed scales, and white belly hairs; and the short-tailed and
giant pangolins {M. temmincki and gigantea), both of which
have the tail covered entirely with scales. Those species with
a naked patch on the under side of the taU can climb trees.
The four species of the second group are found in West Africa,
although some extend into south and eastern equatorial Africa.
(O. T.; R. L.*)
PANIN, NIKITA IVANOVICH, Count (1718-1783), Russian
statesman, was born at Danzig on the i8th of September 1718.
He passed his childhood at Pernau, where his father was
commandant. In 1740 he entered the army, and rumour had it
that he was one of the favourites of the empress Elizabeth. In
1747 he was accredited to Copenhagen as Russian minister,
678
PANIPAT— PANIZZI
but a few months later was transferred to Stockholm, where
for the next twelve years he played a conspicuous part as the
chief opponent of the French party. It is said that during
his residence in Sweden Panin, who certainly had a strong
speculative bent, conceived a fondness for constitutional forms
of government. Politically he was a pupil of Alexis Bestuzhev;
consequently, when in the middle 'fifties Russia suddenly
turned Francophil instead of Francophobe, Panin's position
became extremely difficult. However, he found a friend in
Bestuzhev's supplanter, Michael Vorontsov, and when in 1760
he was unexpectedly appointed the governor of the little grand
duke Paul, his influence was assured. He was on Catherine's
side duiing the revolution of 1762, but his jealousy of the
influence which the Orlovs seemed likely to obtain over the new
empress predisposed him to favour the proclamation of his
ward the grand duke Paul as emperor, with Catherine as regent
only.
To circumscribe the influence of the ruUng favourites he next
suggested the formation of a cabinet council of six or eight
ministers, through whom all the business of the state was to be
transacted; but Catherine, suspecting in the skilfully presented
novelty a subtle attempt to limit her power, rejected it after
some hesitation. Nevertheless Panin continued to be indis-
pensable. He owed his influence partly to the fact that he was
the governor of Paul, who was greatly attached to him; partly
to the peculiar circumstances in which Catherine had mounted
the throne; and partly to his knowledge of foreign affairs.
Although acting as minister of foreign affairs he was never made
chancellor; but he was the political mentor of Catherine during
the first eighteen years of her reign. Panin was the inventor
of the famous " Northern Accord," which aimed at opposing
a combination of Russia, Prussia, Poland, Sweden, and perhaps
Great Britain, against the Bourbon-Habsburg League. Such
an attempt to bind together nations with such diff'erent aims
and characters was doomed to failure. Great Britain, for
instance, could never be persuaded that it was as much in
her interests as in the interests of Russia to subsidize the anti-
French party in Sweden. Yet the idea of the " Northern Accord,"
though never quite realized, had important political consequences
and influenced the poHcy of Russia for many years. It explains,
too, Panin's strange tenderness towards Poland. For a long
time he could not endure the thought of destroying her, because
he regarded her as an indispensable member of his "Accord,"
wherein she was to supply the place of Austria, whom circum-
stances hid temporarily detached from the Russian alliance.
Poland, Panin opined, would be especially useful in case
of Oriental combinations. All the diplomatic questions concern-
ing Russia from 1762 to 1783 are intimately associated with
the ndmt? of Panin. It Was only when the impossibility of
realizing the " Northern Accord " became patent that his in-
fluence began to wane, and Russia sacrificed millions of roubles
fruitlessly in the endeavour to carry out his pet scheme.
'•■ After 1772, when Gustavus III. upset Panin's plans in Sweden,
'■'Panin, whose poKcy hitherto had been at least original and inde-
?ipendent, became more and more subservient to Frederick II.
'"of Prussia'. As to Poland, his views differed widely from the
views of both Frederick and Catherine. He seriously guaranteed
the integrity of Polish territory, after placing Stanislaus II.
on the throne, in order that Poland, undivided and as strong as
circumstances would permit, might be drawn wholly within
the orbit of Russia. But he did not foresee the complications
which wei*e likely to arise from Russia's interference in the
domestic affairs of Poland. Thus the confederation of Bar,
and the Turkish War thereupon ensuing, took him completely
by surprise and considerably weakened his position. He was
forced to acquiesce in the first partition of Poland, and when
Russia cartie oft" third best, Gregory Orlov declared in the
council that the minister who had signed such a partition treaty
was worthy of death. Panin further incensed Catherine by
■^tt^eddling with the marriage arrangements of the grand duke
Taul and by advocating a closer alliance with Prussia, whereas
the em'firess was beginning to incline more and more towards
Austria. Nevertheless, even after the second marriage of Paul
Panin maintained all his old influence over his pupil, who, like
himself, was now a warm admirer of the king of Prussia. There
are even traditions from this period of an actual conspiracy
of Panin and Paul against the empress. As the Austrian influ-
ence increased Panin found a fresh enemy in Joseph II., and
the efforts of the old statesman to prevent a matrimonial alliance
between the Russian and Austrian courts determined Catherine
to get rid of a counsellor of whom, for some mysterious reason,
she was secretly afraid. The circumstances of his disgrace
are complicated and obscure. The final rupture seems to have
arisen on the question of the declaration of " the armed neutrality
of the North;" but we know that Potemkin and the English am-
bassador, James Harris (afterwards ist earl of Malmesbury), were
both working against him some time before that. In May 1781
Panin was dismissed. He died in Italy on the 31st of March
1783. Panin was one of the most learned, accomplished and
courteous Russians of his day. Catherine called him " her
encyclopaedia." The earl of Buckinghamshire declared him
to be the most amiable negotiator he had ever met. He was
also of a most humane disposition and a friend of Liberal insti-
tutions. As to his honesty and kindness of heart there were
never two opinions. By nature a sybarite, he took care to
have the best cook in the capital, and women had for him an
irresistible attraction, though he was never married.
See anonymous Life of Count N. I. Panin (Rus. ; St Petersburg,
1787); Political correspondence (Rus. and Fr.), Collections of Russian
Histor. Society, vol. ix. (St Petersburg, 1872); V. A. Bilbasov,
Gesckichte Katharina II. (Berlin, 1891-1893) ; A. Bruckner, Materials
for the Biography of Count Panin (Rus. ; St Petersburg, 1888).
(R. N. B.)
PANIPAT, a town of British India, in Karnal district of the
Punjab, 53 m. N. of Delhi by rail. Pop. (igoi), 26,914. The
town is of great antiquity, dating back to the great war of the
Mahahhdrata between the Pandavas and Kaurava brethren,
when it formed one of the tracts demanded by Yudisthira from
Duryodhana as the price of peace. In modern times, the plains
of Panipat thrice formed the scene of decisive battles which
sealed the fate of upper India — in 1526, when Baber completely
defeated the imperial forces; in 1556, when his grandson, Akbar,
on the same battlefield, conquered Himu, the Hindu general of
the Afghan Adil Shah, thus a second time establishing the
Mogul power; and finally, on the 7th of January 1761, when
Ahmad Shah Durani shattered the Mahratta confederac}'. The
neighbourhood is a favourite manceuvring ground for British
camps of instruction. The modern town stands near the old
bank of the Jumna, on high ground composed of the debris of
earlier buildings. It is a centre of trade, and has manufactures
of cotton cloth, metal-ware and glass. There are factories for
ginning and pressing cotton.
PANIZZI. SIR ANTHONY (1797-1879), EngUsh librarian, was
torn at Brescello, in the duchy of Modena, Italy, on the i6th
of September 1797. After taking his degree at the university
of Parma, Antonio Panizzi became an advocate. A fervent
patriot, he was implicated in the movement set on foot in 1821
to overturn the government of his native duchy, and in October
of that year barely escaped arrest by a precipitate flight. He
first established himself at Lugano, where he published an
anonymous and now excessively rare pamphlet, generally known
as / Processi di Rubicra, an exposure of the monstrous injustice
and illegalities of the Modenese government's proceedings
against suspected persons. Expelled from Switzerland at the
joint instance of Austria, France and Sardinia, he came to
England in May 1823, in a state bordering upon destitution.
His countryman, Ugo Foscolo, provided him with introductions
to William Roscoe and Dr William Shepherd, a Unitarian minister
in Liverpool, and he earned a living for some time by giving
Italian lessons. Roscoe introduced him to Brougham, by whose
influence he was made, in 1828, professor of Itahan at University
College, London. His chair was almost a sinecure; but his
abilities rapidly gained him a footing in London; and in 1831
Brougham, then lord chancellor, used his ex officio position as a
principal trustee of the British Museum to obtain for Panizzi
the post of an extra assistant librarian of the Printed Boole
department. At the same lime he was working at his edition
of Boiardo's Orlando i)inamorato. Boiardo's fame had been
eclipsed for three centuries by the adaptation of Bcrjii; and it
is highly to the honour of Panizzi to have redeemed him from
oblivion and restored to Italy one of the very best of her
narrative poets. His edition of the Orlando innamoralo and the
Orlando Jurioso was pubhshed between 1830 and 1834, prefaced
by a valuable essay on the inlluence of Celtic legends on medieval
romance. In 1S35 he edited Boiardo's minor poems, and was
about the same time engaged in preparing a catalogue of the
library of the Royal Society.
The unsatisfactory condition and iUiberal management of the
British Museum had long excited discontent, and at length
a trivial circumstance led to the appointment of a parliamen-
tary committee, which sat throughout the sessions of 1835-1836,
and probed the condition of the institution very thoroughly.
Panizzi's principal contributions to its inquiries with regard to
the library were an enormous mass of statistics respecting foreign
libraries, and some admirable evidence on the catalogue of
printed books then in contemplation. In 1837 he was appointed
keeper of printed books. The entire collection, except the King's
Library, had to be removed from Afontaguc House to the new
building, the reading-room service had to be reorganized,
rules for the new printed catalogue had to be prepared, and the
catalogue itself undertaken. AU these tasks were successfully
accomplished; but, although the rules of cataloguing devised by
Panizzi and his assistants have become the basis of subsequent
work, progress of the catalogue itself was slow. The first
volume, comprising letter A, was published in 1841, and
from that time, although the catalogue was continued and com-
pleted in MS., no attempt was made to print any more until
18S1. The chief cause of this comparative failure was inju-
dicious interference with Panizzi, occasioned by the impatience
of the trustees and the pubhc. Panizzi's appointment, as that
of a foreigner, had from the first been highly unpopular. He
gradually broke down opposition, partly by his social influence,
but far more by the sterling merits of his administration and his
constant efforts to improve the library. The most remarkable
of these was his report, printed in 1845, upon the museum's
extraordinary deficiencies in general literature, which ultimately
procured the increase of the annual grant for the purchase of
books to £10,000. His friendship with Thomas Grenville (1755-
1846) led to the nation being enriched by the bequest of the
unique .Grenville library, valued even then at £50,000. In
1847-1849 a royal commission sat to inquire into the general
state of the museum, and Panizzi was the centre of the pro-
ceedings. His administration, fiercely attacked from many
quarters, was triumphantly vindicated in every point. Panizzi
immediately became by far the most influential official in the
museum, though he did not actually succeed to the principal
librarianship until 1856. It was thus as merely keeper of
printed books that he conceived and carried out the achievement
by which he is probably best remembered — the erection of the
new library and reading-room. Purchases had been discouraged
from lack of room in which to deposit the books. Panizzi
cast his eye on the empty quadrangle enclosed by the museum
buildings, and conceived the daring idea of occupying it with
a central cupola too distant, and adjacent galleries too low, to
obstruct the inner windows of the original edifice. The cupola
was to cover three hundred readers, the galleries to provide
storage for a million of books. The original design, sketched
by Panizzi's own hand on the i8th of April 1852, was submitted
to the trustees on the 5th of May; in May 1854 the necessary
expenditure was sanctioned by parliament, and the building
was opened in May 1857. Its construction had involved a
multitude of ingenious arrangements, all of which had been con-
trived or inspected by Panizzi, who had a genius for minute
detail and a gift for mechanical invention.
Panizzi succeeded Sir Henry Elhs as principal librarian
in March 1856. During his tenure of this post a great
improvement was effected in the condition of the museum
PANJABI— PANJDEH
679
■■ .-fTA rrT ;,,\:;,>'A ; r,/T k di .1. .
staff by the recognition of the institution as a .tri^nqfi pf
the civil service, and the decision was taken to .i;pmpye the
natural history collections to Kensington. Qi this quesUonabJe
measure Panizzi was a warm advocate; Jie was h|earf.ily glad
to be rid of the naturalists. He had small lov^ for .sjyeiicq , and
its professors, and, as his friend Macaulay paid, ".vypf^lc,! at, any
lime hfive given three mammoths for one Aldu,s.", Many
important additions to the collections were made.^during hi(s
administration, especiaUy the Temple bequest of antiquities, and
the Halicarnassean sculptures discovered at Budruti (Hahcar-
nassus) by C. T. Newton. Panizzi retired in July 1866, but
continued to interest himself actively in the affairs of the museum
until his death, on the 8th of April 1879. He had b^'en crated
a K.C.B. in 1869. '^.,' ,, , i„. .,],- 1 '
Panizzi had become a, naturalized Englishman,, butf pis 3.evo-
tion to the British Museum was rivalled by his devotion to his
native land, and his personal influence with English/ liberal
statesmen enabled him often to promote her cause. Through-
out the revolutionary movements of 1848-1849, and again dm'ing
the campaign of 1859 and the subsequent transactions due to
the union of Naples to the kingdom of upper Italy, Panizzi was
in constant communication with the Italian patriots and their
confidential representative with the Enghsh ministers. He
laboured, according to circumstances, now to excite, now to
mitigate, the Enghsh jealousy of France; now to moderate their
apprehensions of revolutionary excesses; now to secure en-
couragement or connivance for Garibaldi. The letters addressed
to him by patriotic Italians, edited by his literary executor and
biographer, L. Fagan, alone compose a thick volume. He was
charitable to his exiled countrymen in England, and, chiefly at
his own expense, equipped a steamer, which was lost at sea, to
rescue the Neapolitan prisoners of state on the island of Santo
Stefano. His services were recognized by the offer of a senator-
ship and of the direction of public instruction in Italy; these
offers he declined, though in his latter years he frequently visited
the land of his birth.
His administrative faculty was extraordinary: to the widest
grasp he united the minutest attention to matters of detail. By
introducing great ideas into the management of the niuseum
he not only redeemed it from being a mere show-place, but
raised the standard of hbrary administration all over England.
His moral character was the counterpart of his intellectual:
he was warm-hearted and magnanimous; extreme in love and
hate — a formidable enemy, but a devoted friend. His intimate
friends included Lord Palmerston, Gladstone, Roscoe, Grenville,
Macaulay, Lord Langdale and his family, Rutherfurd (lord
advocate), and, above all perhaps, Francis Haywood, the
translator of Kant. His most celebrated friendship, however,
is that with Prosper Merimee, who, having begun by seeking
to enlist his influence with the English government on behalf
of Napoleon III., discovered a congeniality of tastes which,
produced a delightful correspondence. Mefimee's part has been
published by Fagan; Panizzi's perished, in,' tfie conflagration
kindled by the Paris commune. ■ , , , , , .... i
See Fagan, Life of Sir Anthony Panizzi_ CLon.^'lSSol '„j^JGi
PANJABI (properly Panj.^bi), the language of" tn? ^Central
Punjab (properly Panjab). It is spoken by over 71,000,000
people between (approximately speaking) the 77th and 74th
degrees of east longitude. The vernacular of this tract W'as
originally an old form of the modern Lahnda, a member of the;
outer group of Indo-Aryan languages {q.v.), but it has bi'cn
overlaid by the expansion of the midland Sauraseni Prakrit,
(see Prakrit) to its east, and now belongs to the intermediate
group, possessing most of the characteristics of the midland
language, with occasional traces of the old outer basis which
become more and more prominent as we go westwards, fi^t,
the 74th degree of east longitude we find it merging into the
modern Lahnda. The language is fully described in the article
HiNDOSTANI. i.-,, ..,
PANJDEH, or Penjdeh, a village of Russian Turkestan,
rendered famous by " the Panjdeh scare *' of r885. It is situated
on the east side of the Kushk river near its junction with the
m
PANNA— PANNONIA
p-c
Murghab at Pul-i-Khishti. In March 1885 when the Russo-
Afghan Boundary Commission should have been engaged in
settling the boundary-line, this portion of it was in dispute
between the Afghans and the Russians. A part of the Afghan
^orce was encamped on the west bank of the Kushk, and on the
2Qth of March General Komarov sent an ultimatum demanding
their withdrawal. On their refusal the Russians attacked them
at 3 a.m. on the 30th of March and drove them across the Pul-i-
Khishti Bridge with a loss of some 600 men. The incident
nearly give rise to war between England and Russia; but the
amir Abdur-Rahman, who was present at the Rawalpindi
conference with Lord Dufferin at the time, affected to regard
the matter as a mere frontier scuflSe. The border-line subse-
cjuently laid down gives to Russia the corner between the Kushk
and Murghab rivers as far as Maruchak on the Murghab, and the
Kushk post has now become the frontier post of the Russian
army of occupation.
' PANNA, or Punna, a native state of Central India, in the
Bundelkhand agency. Area, 2492 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 192,986,
showing a decrease of 19% in the preceding decade due to
famine; tribute £33,000. The chief, whose title is maharaja,
is a rajput of the Bundela clan, descended from Chhatar
Sal, the champion of the independence of Bundelkhand in the
i8th century. The maharaja Lokpal Singh died in 1898, leaving
an only son, Madho Singh, who, in 1902, was found guilty
by a special commission on the charge of poisoning his uncle,
and was deposed. The diamond mines, for which the state was
formerl> famous, are now scarcely profitable. There are no
railways, but one or two good roads. The town of Pann.'\ is
62 m. S. of Banda. Pop. (1901), 11,346. It has a fine modern
palace and several handsome temples and shrines.
PANNAGE (O. Fr. pasiiagc, from Med. Lat. pasnagium,
pasnaticum for pasiionaticum, pascio; pascere, to feed), an English
legal term for the feeding of swine in a wood or forest, hence used
of a right or privOege to do this. The word is also used generally
of the food, such as acorns, beech-mast, &c., on which the swine
feed.
PANNIER (Fr. panier, Lat. panarium, a basket for carrying
bread, panis), a basket for carrying bread or other provisions;
more especially a broad, flat basket, generally slung in pairs
across a mule, pony or ass for transport. The term has also been
applied to an overskirt in a woman's dress attached to the back
of the bodice and draped so as to give a " bunchy " appearance.
At various times in the history of costume this appearance
has been produced by a framework of padded whalebone,
steel, &c., used to support the dress, such frameworks being
known as " panniers." At the Inns of Court, London, there was
formerly an official known as a " pannier man," whose duties
were concerned with procuring provisions at market, blowing
the horn before meals, &c. The ofiice has been in many of
the inns long obsolete, and was formally abolished at the Inner
Temple in 1900. At the Inner Temple the robed waiters in
hall have been called " panniers," and apparently were in some
way connected with the officer above mentioned, but the proper
duties of the two were in no way identical.
PANNONIA, in ancient geography a country bounded north
and east by the Danube, conterminous westward with Noricum
and upper Italy, and southward with Dalmatia and upper
Moesia. It thus corresponds to the south-western part of
Hungary, with portions of lower Austria, Styria, Carniola,
Croatia, and Slavonia. Its original inhabitants (Pannonii,
sometimes called Paeonii by the Greeks) were probably of
Illyrian race. From the 4th century B.C. it was invaded by
various Celtic tribes, probably survivors of the hosts of Brennus,
the chief of whom were the Carni, Scordisci and Taurisci. Little
is heard of Pannonia until 35 B.C., when its inhabitants, having
taken up arms in support of the Dalmatians, were attacked by
Augustus, who conquered and occupied Siscia (Sissek). The
country was not, however, definitely subdued until 9 B.C., when
it was incorporated with lUyria, the frontier of which was thus
extended as far as the Danube. In a.d. 7 the Pannonians, with
the Dalmatians and other Illyrian tribes, revolted, and were
overcome by Tiberius and Germanicus, after a hard-fought
campaign which lasted for two years. In a.d. 10 Pannonia
was organized as a separate province — according to A. W. Zumpt
{Studia romana), not till a.d. 20; at least, when the three
legions stationed there mutinied after the death of Augustus
(a.d. 14), Junius Blaesus is spoken of by Tacitus {Annals, i. 16)
as legate of Pannonia and commander of the legions. The
proximity of dangerous barbarian tribes (Quadi, Marcomanni)
necessitated the presence of a large number of troops (seven
legions in later times), and numerous fortresses were built on
the bank of the Danube. Some time between the years 102
and 107, which marked the termination of the first and second
Dacian wars, Trajan divided the province into Pannonia superior
(17 av<j}),X.\\e western, and inferior (fj Kara)), the eastern portion.
According to Ptolemy, these divisions were separated by a
line drawn from Arrabona (Raab) in the north to Servitium
(Gradiska) in the south; later, the boundary was placed farther
east. The whole country was sometimes called the Pannonias
{Pannoniae). Pannonia superior was under the consular legate,
who had formerly administered the single province, and had
three legions under his control : Pannonia inferior at first under
a praetorian legate with a single legion as garrison, after Marcus
Aurelius under a consular legate, stiU with only one legion.
The frontier on the Danube was protected by the estabhshment
of the two colonies Aelia Mursia (Esse) and Aelia Aquincum
(Alt-Ofen, modern Buda) by Hadrian.
Under Diocletian a fourfold division of the country was
made. Pannonia inferior was divided into (i) Valeria (so called
from Diocletian's daughter, the wife of Galerius), extending
along the Danube from Altinum (Mohacs) to Brigetio (0-Szony),
and (2) Pannonia secunda, round about Sirmium (Mitrovitz) at
the meeting of the valleys of the Save, Drave, and Danube.
Pannonia superior was divided into (3) Pannonia prima, its
northern, and (4) Savia (also called Pannonia ripariensis), its
southern part. Valeria and Pannonia prima were under a
praeses and a dux; Pannonia secunda under a consularis and a
dux; Savia under a dux and, later a corrector. In the middle
of the 5th century Pannonia was ceded to the Huns by
Theodosius II., and after the death of Attila successively
passed into the hands of the Ostrogoths, Longobards (Lombards),
and Avars.
The inhabitants of Pannonia are described as brave and
warlike, but cruel and treacherous. Except in the mountainous
districts, the country was fairly productive, especially after the
great forests had been cleared by Probus and Galerius. Before
that time timber had been one of its most important exports.
Its chief agricultural products were oats and barley, from which
the inhabitants brewed a kind of beer named sabaea. Vines and
olive-trees were little cultivated, the former having been first
introduced in the neighbourhood of Sirmium by Probus.
Saliunca (Celtic, nard) was a common growth, as in Noricum.
Pannonia was also famous for its breed of hunting-dogs. Although
no mention is made of its mineral wealth by the ancients, it is
probable that it contained iron and silver mines. Its chief
rivers were the Dravus (Drave), Savus (Save), and Arrabo
(Raab), in addition to the Danuvius (less correctly, Danubius),
into which the first three rivers flow.
The native settlements consisted of pagi (cantons) containing
a number of vici (villages), the majority of the large towns being
of Roman origin. In LTpper Pannonia were Vindobona (Vienna),
probably founded by Vespasian; Carnuntum {q.v., Petronell);
Arrabona (Raab), a considerable military station; Brigetio;
Savaria or Sabaria (Stein-am-Anger), founded by Claudius, a
frequent residence of the later emperors, and capital of Pannonia
prima; Poetovio (Pettau); Siscia, a place of great importance
down to the end of the empire; Emona (Laibach), later assigned
to Italy; Nauportus (Ober-Laibach). In Lower Pannonia were
Sirmium, first mentioned in a.d. 6, also a frequent residence
of the later emperors; Sopianae (Fiinfkirchen), seat of the
praeses of Valeria, and an important place at the meeting of
five roads; .'\quincum, the residence of the dux of Valeria, the
seat of legio ii adjutrix.
1/
PANOPLY— PANSY
•I
68i
See J. Marquardt, Rdmische..Staatsverwaltung,i. (zndcd., 1881), 291 ;
Corpus inscriptionum lalinariim, iii. 415; G. Zippel, Die romische
Herrschaft in lUyrien (Lt-ipzig, 1877); Mommscn, Provinces of the
Roman Empire (Eng. trans.), i. 22, 38; A. Forbigur, Ilandbuch der
alien Ceographie von Europa (Hamburg, 1877); artick- in Smith's
Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geoiiraphy, ii. (1873); Ptolemy,
ii. 15, 16; Pliny, Nat. Hist. ii. 28; Strabo vii. 313; Dio Cassius
xlix. 34-38, liv. 31-34, Iv. 28-32; Veil Pat. ii. no.
PANOPLY, a complete suit of armour. The word represents
the Gr. wauoirXia. (ttSs, all, and OTrXa, arms), the full armour of a
hoplite or heavy-armed soldier, i.e. theshield, breastplate, helmet
and greaves, together with the sword and lance. As applied
to armour of a later date, " panoply " did not come into use till
the end of the i6th and beginning of the 17th century, and was
then used of the complete suits of plate-armour covering the
whole body. The figurative use of the word is chielly due to
the phrase 17 TrawTrXia tov 9«olI, " the whole armour of God "
(Eph. vi. 11).
PANORAMA (Gr. irav, all, and opafia, view), the name given
originally to a pictorial representation of the whole view visible
from one point by an observer who in turning round looks
successively to all [X)ints of the horizon. In an ordinary picture
only a small part of the objects visible from one point is included,
far less being generally given than the eye of the observer can
take in whilst stationary. The drawing is in this case made by
projecting the objects to be represented from the point occupied
by the eye on a plane. If a greater part of a landscape has
to be represented, it becomes more convenient for the artist
to suppose himself surrounded by a cylindrical surface in whose
centre he stands, and to project the landscape from this position
on the cylinder. In a panorama such a cylinder, originally
of about 60 ft., but now extending to upwards of 130 ft. diameter,
is covered with an accurate representation in colours of a land-
scape, so that an observer standing in the centre of the cylinder
sees the picture like an actual landscape in nature completely
surround him in all directions. This gives an effect of great
reality to the picture, which is skilfully aided in various ways.
The observer stands on a platform representing, say, the Hat
roof of a house, and the space between this platform and the
picture is covered with real objects which gradually blend into
the picture itself. The picture is lighted from above, but a
roof is spread over the central platform so that no light but
that reflected from the picture reaches the eye. To make this
light appear the more brilliant, the passages and staircase
which lead the spectator to the platform are kept nearly dark.
These panoramas, suggested by a German architectural painter
named Breisig, were first executed by Robert Barker, an
Edinburgh artist, who exhibited one in Edinburgh in 1788,
representing a view of that city. A view of London and
views of sea fights and battles of the Napoleonic wars followed,
Panoramas gained less favour on the continent of Europe,
until, after the Franco-German War, a panorama of the siege
of Paris was exhibited in Paris. Since then some notable
panoramas have been on view in the cities of Europe and
America.
The name panorama, or panoramic view, is also given to
drawings of views from mountain peaks or other points of view,
such as are found in many hotels in the Alps, or, on a smaller
scale, in guide-books to Switzerland and other mountainous
districts. In photography a panoramic camera is one which
enables a wide picture to be taken.
PANPSYCHISM (Gr. irav, all; \pvxv, soul), a philosophical
term applied to any theory of nature which recognizes the
existence of a psychical element throughout the objective
world. In such theories not only animals and plants but even
the smallest particles of matter are regarded as having some
rudimentary kind of sensation or " soul," wliich plays the same
part in relation to their objective activities or modifications as
the soul does in the case of human beings. Such theories are
the modern scientific or semi-scientific counterparts of the
primitive animism of savage races, and may be compared with
the hylozoism of the Greek physicists. In modern times the
chief exponents of panpsychist views are Thomas Carlyle,
Fechner and Paulsen: a similar idea lay at the root of the
physical theories of the Stoics.
PANSY, or Heartsease. This flower has been so long
cultivated that its source is a matter of uncertainty. As we now
see it, it is a purely artificial production, differing considerably
from any wild plant known. It is generally supposed to he
merely a cultivated form of Viola tricolor (see Violet), a corn-
field weed, while others assert it to be the result of hybridiza-
tion between V. tricolor and other species such as V. altaica,
V. urandijlora, &c. Some experiments of M . Carriere go to show
that seeds of the wild V. tricolor will produce forms so like those
of the cultivated pansy that it is reasonable to assume that that
flower has originate<l from the wild plant by continuous selection.
The changes that have been effected from the wild type are,
Wild Pansy {Viola tricolor), about half nat. size.
1, Stamen, with spur. 3, Transverse section of same.
2, Pistil, after fertilization, cut 1-3 enlarged,
lengthwise, showing the numer-
ous parietally attached ovules.
however, more striking to the eye than really fundamental.
Increase in size, an alteration in form, by virtue of which the
narrow oblong petals are converted into circular ones, and
variations in the intensity and distribution of the colour — these
are the changes that have been wrought by continued selection,
whfle the more essential parts of the flower have been relatively
unaffected. The modern varieties of the pansy consist of the
show varieties, and the fancy varieties, obtained from Belgium,
and now very much improved. Show varieties are subdivided
according to the colour of the flowers into selfs, white grounds
and yellow grounds. The fancy or Belgian pansies have
various colours blended, and the petals are blotched, streaked
or edged. The bedding varieties, known as violas or tufted
pansies, have been raised by crossing the pale-blue Viola
cornula, and also V. lutea, with the show pansies. They are
hardier than the true pansies and are free-blooming sorts marked
rather by effectiveness of colour in the mass than by quality
in the individual flower; they are extremely useful in spring and
summer flower-gardening.
The pansy flourishes in well enriched garden soil, in an open but
cool situation, a loamy soil being preferable. Cow-dung is the best
manure on a light soil. The established sorts are increased by
cuttings, whilst seeds are sown to procure novelties. The cuttings,
which should consist by preference of the smaller non-flowering
growths from the base of the plant, may be inserted early in Sep-
tember, in sandy soil, under a hand-light or in boxes under glass, and
XX. 22 a
682,
PANTAENUS— PANTHEISM
as soon as rooted should be removed to a fresh bed of fine sandy soil.
The seeds' may be sown in July, August or September. The bed
may be prepared early in September, to be in readiness for planting,
by being well manured with cow-dung and trenched up to a depth
of 2 ft. The plants should be planted in rows at about a foot apart.
In spring fhey should be mulched with half-rotten manure, and the
shoots as they lengthen should be pegged down into this enriched
surface to induce the formation of new roots. If the blooms show
signs o( exhaustion by the inconstancy of their colour or marking,
all the Rowers should be picked off, and this top-dressing and pegging-
dowri pirocess performed in a thorough manner, watering in dry
weather, atid keeping as cool as possible. Successional beds may be
put in, about February, the young plants being struck later, and
wintered in cold frames. The fancy pansies require similar treatment,
but are generally of a more vigorous constitution.
When grown in pots in a cold frame, about half a dozen shoots
filling oiJt a 6-in. pot, pansies are very handsome decorative objects.
The cuttings should be struck early in August, and the plants
shifted into their blooming-pots by the middle of October; a rich
open loamy compost i» necessary to success, and they must be kept
free of aphides. Both the potted plants and those grown in the
open beds benefit by the use of liquid manure.
PANTAENUS, head of the catechetical school at Alexandria,
c. A.D. 180-200, known chiefly as having been the master of
Clement, who succeeded him, and of Alexander, bishop of
Jerusalem. Clement speaks of him as the " Sicihan bee," but
of his birth and death nothing is known. Eusebius and Jerome
speak of him as having been, originally at least, a Stoic, and as
having been sent, on account of his zeal and learning, as a mis-
sionary to " India." There is some reason to think that this
means the Malabar coast. There was a considerable intercourse
between south India and the east Mediterranean at the time,
and Christian thought possibly did something to mould the great
system of Tamil philosophy known as the Saiva Siddhanta.
Pafltaenus "expounded the treasures of divine doctrine both
orally and ih writing," but only a few brief reminiscences of his
teaching are extant (see Routh, Rel. sac. i. 375-383). Lightfoot
suggests that the conclusion of the well-known tpistle to Diog-
netus, chs. 11, 12, may be the work of Pantaenus. Clement
thought highly of his abilities, and Origen appeals to his
authority in connexion -with the inclusion of philosophy in the
theological course.
PANTALOON (Ital. pantalone), a character in the old Itahan
popular comedy, said to represent a Venetian, from the favourite
V'enetian saint San Pantaleone, and transferred from it to
pantomime {q.v.). The Italian pantaloon was always a silly
old man with spectacles and wearing sUppers, and his character
was maintained in pantomime and has also made his name a
synonym for a tottering dotard, as in Shakespeare's As You Like
It (11. vii. 158). From the Venetian usage the word " panta-
loon " (whence " pants ") has also been given to certain forms
of garment for the legs, the exact meaning varying at different
times. .iij'ji n,',i
PANTECHNICON;' an' invented word, from Gr. iras, all, and
rexvi/cos, of or belonging to the arts (rexvai-), originally used
as the namciof a bazaar in which all kinds of artistic work was
sold; Lt was established in Motcomb Street, Belgrave Square,
London, early in the loth century, but faOed and was turned
into a furniture depository, in which sense the word has now
passed into general usage. The large vans used for removing
furniture are hence known as pantechnicon vans or pantech-
nicons simply. . : ,)•, •
PANTELLERIA, 01 Pantalaria (ancient Cowyro'),an island in
the Mediterranean, 62 m. S. by W. of the south-western extremity
of Sicily, and 44 m. E. of the African coast, belonging to the
Sicilian province of Trapani. Pop. (igoi), 8683. It is entirely
of volcanic origin, and about 45 sq. m. in area; the highest point,
an extinct crater, is 2743 ft. above sea-level. Hot mineral
springs and ebullitions of steam still testify to the presence of
volcanic activity. The island is ferdle, but lacks fresh water.
The principal town (pop. about 3000) is on the north-west, upon
the only harbour (only fit for small steamers), which is fortified.
There is also a penal colony here. The island can be reached by
steamer from Trapani, and lies close to the main route from east
to west through the Mediterranean. In 1005 about 300,000
- , 'The name is Semitic, but its meaning is uncertain.
btiE ,s2fil3 labnij soitod ni io jri^il-bnBii c laijnu ,iio-; (imii>-; hi ,t3uiii-jj
OSS .X7.
gallons of wine (mostly sweet wine), and igoo tons of dried
raisins, to the value of £34,720, were exported.
On the west coast, 2 m. south-east of the harbour, a neolithic
village was situated, with a rampart of small blocks of obsidian,
about 25 ft. high, ^^ ft. wide at the base, and 16 at the top, upon
the undefended eastern side: within it remains of huts were
found, with pottery, tools of obsidian, &c. The objects dis-
covered are in the museum at Syracuse. To the south-east, in
the district known as the Cunelie, are a large number of tombs,
known as sesi, similar in character to the nuraghi of Sardinia,
though of smaller size, consisting of round or elliptical towers
with sepulchral chambers in them, built of rough blocks of lava.
Fifty-seven of them can still be traced. The largest is an ellipse
of about 60 by 66 ft., but most of the sesi have a diameter of
20-25 ft. only. The identical character of the pottery found in the
SCSI ■vsith that found in the prehistoric village proves that the
former are the tombs of the inhabitants of the latter. This
population came from Africa, not from Sicily, and was of Iberian
or Ibero-Ligurian stock. After a considerable interval, during
which the island probably remained uninhabited, the Cartha-
ginians took possession of it (no doubt owing to its importance as
a station on the way to Sicily) probably about the beginning of the
7th century B.C., occupying as their acropolis the twin hill of
San Marco and Sta Teresa, i m. south of the town of PanteUeria,
where there are considerable remains of walls in rectangular
blocks of masonry, and also of a number of cisterns. Punic
tombs have also been discovered, and the votive terra-cottas
of a small sanctuary of the Punic period were found near the
north coast.
The Romans occupied the island as the Fasti Triumphales
record in 255 B.C., lost it again the next year, and recovered it in
217 B.C. Under the Empire it served as a place of banishment for
prominent persons and members of the imperial family. The
town enjoyed municipal rights. In 700 the Christian population
was annihilated by the Arabs, from whom the island was taken
in 1 1 23 by Roger of Sicily. In 13 11 a Spanish fleet, under the
command of Requesens, won a considerable victory here, and his
family became princes of PanteUeria until 1553, when the town
was sacked by the Turks.
See Orsi, " PanteUeria " (in Monumenti dei Lincei 1899, ix.
193-284). (T. As.)
PANTHEISM (Gr. ■kolv, all, deos, god), the doctrine which
identifies the universe with God, or God with the universe.^ The
term " pantheist " was apparently first used by John Toland in
1705, and it was at once adopted by French and English writers.
Though the term is thus of recent origin, the system of thought
or attitude of mind for which it stands may be traced back both
in European and in Eastern philosophy to a very early stage.
At the same time pantheism almost necessarily presupposes a
more concrete and less sophisticated conception of God and the
universe. It presents itself historically as an intellectual revolt
against the difficulties involved in the presupposition of theistic
and polytheistic systems, and in philosophy as an attempt to
solve the dualism of the one and the many, unity and difference,
thought and extension. Thus the pious Hindu, confronted by
the impossibility of obtaining perfect knowledge by the senses
or by reason, finds his sole perfection in the contemplation of the
infinite (Brahma). In Greece the idea of a fundamental unity
behind the plurality of phenomena was present, though vaguely,
in the minds of the early physicists (see Ionian School), but
the first thinker who focussed the problem clearly was Xeno-
phanes. Unlike the Hindu, Xenophanes inclined to pantheism
as a protest against the anthropomorphic polytheism of the time,
which seemed to him improperly to exalt one of the many
modes of finite existence into the place of the Infinite. Thus
Xenophanes for the first time postulates a supreme God whose
- Strictly, pantheism is to identify the universe with God, while
the term " pancosmism" (irav, kouixos, the universe) has frequently been
used for the identification of God with the universe. For practical
purposes this refinement is of small value, the two ideas being aspects
of the same thing; cf. A. M. Fairbairn, Sludies in Philos. Relig.
Hist. (1877), p. 392. Both " Atheism " (q.v.) and " Acosmism " are
used, as contradictories.
PANTHEON— PANTOGRAPH
683
characteristic is primarily the negation of the Finite. A similar
metaphysic from a different starting-point is found in Heraclitus,
who postulates behind the perpetuaOy changing universe of
phenomena a One which remains. This attitude towards
e.xistence, expressing itself in different phraseology, has been
prominent to a greater or less degree since Xenophancs and
Heraclitus. Thus the metaphysic of Plato finds reality only in
the " Idea," of which all phenomena are merely imperfect copies.
Neoplatonism (and especially Plotinus) adopted a similar atti-
tude. The Stoics, with the supreme object of giving to human
life a definite unity and purpose, made the individual a part of
the universe and sought to obliterate all differences. The uni-
verse to them is a manifestation of divine reason, while all things
come from and return to (the 666s acco k6.tu) ihe irvtvfxa dLcnrvpov,
the ultimate matter. The same problems in a different context
confronted the monotheistic religions of Judaism and Chris-
tianity. We find Philo Judaeus endeavouring to free the concept
of the Old Testament Yahweh from anthropomorphic character-
istics and finite determinations. But though Philo sees the
difficulties of the orthodox Judaism he cannot accept pantheism
or mysticism so far as to give up the personality of God (see
Logos).
With Neoplatonism we enter upon a somewhat different
though closely allied attitude of mind. To Plotinus God lies
beyond sense and imagination: all the theologian can do is to
point the way in which the thinker must travel. Though the
spirit and the language of l^lotinus is closely allied to that of
pantheism, the result of his thinking is not pantheism but
mysticism. This may be briefly illustrated by a comparison
with the greatest of modern pantheists, Spinoza. To him God
is the immanent principle of the universe — " Deus sive Natura."
On the principle that everything which is determined (finite)
is " negated " (" determinatio est negatio "), God, the ultimate
reality must be entirely undetermined. To explain the universe
Spinoza proceeds to argue that God, though undetermined
ab extra, is capable of infinite self-determination. Thus God,
the causa sui, manifests himself in an infinite multiplicity of
particular modes. Spinoza is, therefore, both pantheist and
pancosmist: God exists only as realized in the cosmos: the
cosmos exists only as a manifestation of God. Plotinus, on
the other hand, cannot admit any realization or manifestation
of the Infinite: God is necessarily above the world — he has no
attributes, and is unthinkable. Such a view is not pantheism
but mysticism (q.v.), and should be comoared with the theology
of Oriental races.
The semi-Oriental mysticism of the Neoplatonists and the
Logos doctrines of the Stoics alike influence early Christian
doctrine, and the pantheistic view is found frequently in medieval
theology {e.g. in Erigena, Meister Eckhardt, Jakob Boehme).
The Arabic scholar Averroes gave Aristotle to western Europe
in a pantheistic garb, and thus influenced medieval scientists.
So Bruno constructed a personified nature, and the scientific
and humanistic era began. The pantheism of Spinoza, com-
bining as it did the religious and the scientific points of view,
had a wide influence upon thought and culture. Schelling (in
his Identity-philosophy) and Hegel both carried on the panthe-
istic tradition, which after Hegel broke up into two lines of
thought, the one pantheistic the other atheistic.
From the religious point of view there are two main problems.
The first is to establish any real relation between the individual
and God without destroying personahty and with it the whole
idea of human responsibflity and free will: the second is to
explain the infinity of God without destroying his personality.
In what sense can God be outside the world (see Deism): in
what sense in it (pantheism)? The great objection to pantheism
is that, though ostensibly it magnifies the Creator and gets rid
of the difficult dualism of Creator and Creation, it tends prac-
tically to deny his existence in any practical intelUgible sense.
See, further. Theism; Deism; Atheism; Absolute.
PANTHEON (Lat. pantheum or pantheon; Gr. ■wa.vde.Lov, all-
holy, fromTras, all, and dm god), the name of two buildings in
Rome and Paris respectively; more generally, the name oi any
building in which as a mark of honour the bodies of the nation's
famous men are buried, or " memorials " or monuments to Iherti
are placed. Thus Westminster Abbey is sometimes. styled the
British " I^antheon," and the rotunda in the Escorial where
the kings of Spain are buried aLso bears the name. Near
Regensburg {q.v.) is the pantheon of German worthies, known
as the Valhalla. The first building to which the name was
given was that built in Rome in 27 B.C. by Agrippa; it was
burned later and the existing building was erected in the reign
of Hadrian; since a.d. 600 it has been a Christian church,
S Maria Rotunda. It was the Paris building that gave rise
to the generic use of the term for a building where a nation's
illustrious dead rest. The Pantheon in Paris was the church
built in the classical style by Soufllot; it was begun ir\ 1764 and
consecrated to the patroness of the city, Sainte Gelicvieve.
At the Revolution it was secularized under the name of Le
Pantheon, and dedicated to the great men of the nation;' It was
reconsecrated in 1828 for worship, was again secularized in
iSjo, was once more a place of worship from 1851 to jS?o, and
was then a third time secularized. On the entablaAure is
inscribed the words Aux Grandcs Hommes La Patrie Rec(m>}Mi.s-
suntc. The decree of 1885 finally estabhshed the building for
the purpose for which the name now stands. '' '
PANTHER, another name for the leopard {g.v^f^^f>if^%(i,in
America as the name of the puma {q.V-). The word is ap adap;
tation of Lat. panlhcra; Gr. Trdi'drjp, the supposed derivafion, of
which from was, all, and drjp, animal, gave rise to ifla^iy tf^les
and fables in medieval bestiaries and later scientific wo^'ks.
The panther was supposed to be a distinct anitoal frpm )-he
pardus, pard, the leopard, to which ajso maay Ipgends j\'ere
attached. In modern times a distinction had been ^n&(;ie^ltifi-
cally drawn between a larger type of leopard to w'hich ijie oarae
panther was given, and a smaller and more graceful ^pecj^ej^.
PANTIN, a town of northern France in the department, of
Seine, on the Canal d'Ourcq, adjoining the fortifications qf Paris
on the north-east. Pop. (1906), 32,694. , The piap,i^9,c^ure
of boilers, railway wagons, machinery, oil, glass, chemicals,
polish and perfumery, and the operations of dye-works, foundries
and distilleries, represent some of the varied branches q( its
industrial activity. There is also a state-ma,nufa,c;t9^•y: oi
tol-'acco- ■:■.,;. .■ ■. - ..:;-:,Ki -Ml rl- ,, noi/onno,
PANTOGRAPH, or I'antagraph, (from, ,ith^| . (j^f 9,6^^ rwih. if^lh
and 7pd0et;', to write), an instrument for making a, j-pd^qe^jW
enlarged, or an exact copy of a plane figure. , . ,
In its commonest form it consists of two long arms, AB and AC
(fig. I), jointed together at. 4, and two short „aflflf^,Fff ^jid,,^,^,
jointed together at F and with the ji • i :, . • -,,
long arms at D and E; FD is made •■Pn?i'!) lol Jon Ji -ji-jfl
exactly equal to AE and FE to
AD, so that ADFE is a parallelo-
gram whatever the angle at A.
The instrument is supported parallel
to the paper on castors, on which it , .
moves freely A tube is usually ':jii-jji1ui3NnoJlJ'liijiio><^ill
fixed vertically at c, near the ex-^ m AvkHOtH .■iVsb'yjai: "Va -jv
tremity of the long arm 4C, and-.d! byjui. , i.f .,- ,u,iJf;fiidmo:j
similar tubes are mounted on plates • ^-i c-.i-, , 1 - 1 ■
which slide along the short arms ' '" '""' «>°' l"' ''^'i "^ Jt
BD and FD\ they are intended to hold either the axle pirt'dH a
weighted fulcrum round which the instrument turns, or a steel
pointer, or a ]x;ncil, interchangeably. W'hen the centres of the tubes
are exactly in_ a straight line, as on the dotted line bfc, the small
triangle hfD will always be similar to the large triangle be A ; and thcn^
if the fulcrum is placed under i, the pencil at /. and the pointtr at r ,
when the instrument is moved round the fulcrum as a pivot, the pencil
and the pointer will move parallel to each other through distances
which will be respectively in the proportion of bf to be ; thus the pencil
at / draws a reduced copy of the map under the pointer at r; if the
pencil and the pointer were interchanged an enlarged copy wo\iM be
drawn; if the fulcrum and pencil were interchanged, and the sliders
set for / to bisect be, the map would be copied exactly. Line^ are
en.?rayed on the arms BD and FD, to indicate the positions to which
the sliders must be set for the ratios 5, \. , ., which are commonly
required.
The square pantograph of Adrian Gavard consists of two graduated
arms which are pivoted on a plain bar and connected by a graduated
bar sliding between them throughout their entire length, to be set
684
• '. J '■•fi
T4<T / q
PANTOMIME
at any required distance from the plain bar; a sliding plate carrying
a vertical tube, to hold either the axle of the fulcrum, the pencil,
or the pointer, is mounted on one of the arms and on a prolongation
of the plain bar beyond the other arm, and also on the graduated
connecting bar; and an additional arm is provided by means of which
reductions below or enlargement* above the scales given on the
instrument can be readily effected.
The eidograph (Gr. tlbos, form) is designed to supersede the panto-
graph, which is somewhat unsteady, having several supports and
joints. It is composed of three graduated bars, one of which is held
over a fulcrum and carries the others, which are lighter, one at each
extremity. The three bars are movable from end to end in bo.\-
sockets, each having an index and a vernier in contact with the
graduated scale. The box-socket of the principal bar turns round
the vertical axle of the fulcrum; that of each side bar is attached
to a vertical .axle, which also carries a grooved wheel of large
diameter and turns in a collar at either end of the principal bar.
The two wheels are of exactly the same diameter and are connected
by a steel band fitting tightly into the grooves, so that they always
turn together through identical arcs; thus the side bars over which
they are respectively mounted, when once set parallel, turn with
them and always remain parallel. A pointer is held at the end of
one of the side bars and a pencil at the diagonally opposite end of
the other. The bars may be readily set by their graduated scales
to positions in which the distances of the pencil and the pointer
from the fulcrum will always be in the ratio of the given and the
required map scales.
Numerous other modifications have been proposed from time to
time; many forms are described in G. Pellehn's Der Pantograph
(Berlin, 1903).
PANTOMIME, a term which has been employed in different
senses at different times in the history of the drama. Of the
Roman panlomimus, a spectacular kind of play in which the
functions of the actor were confined to gesticulation and dancing,
while occasional music was sung by a chorus or behind the scenes,
some account is given under Drama. In Roman usage the
term was applied both to the actor of this kind of play and to
the play itself; less logically, we also use the term to signify
the method of the actor when confined to gesticulation. His-
torically speaking, so far as the Western drama is concerned
there is no intrinsic difference between the Roman panlomimus
and the modern " ballet of action," except that the latter is
accompanied by instrumental music only, and that the per-
sonages appearing in it are not usually masked. The English
" dumb-show," though fulfilling a special purpose of its own,
was likewise in the true sense of the word pantomimic. The
modern pantomime, as the word is still used, more especially in
connexion with the English stage, signifies a dramatic enter-
tainment in which the action is carried on with the help of
spectacle, music and dancing, and in which the performance of
that action or of its adjuncts is conducted by certain conventional
characters, originally derived from Italian "masked comedy,"
itself an adaptation of the fabidae AlcUanae of ancient Italy.
Were it not for this addition, it would be difficult to define
modern pantomime so as to distinguish it from the masque; and
the least rational of English dramatic species would have to be
regarded as essentially identical with another to which English
literature owes some of its choicest fruit.
The contributory elements which modern pantomime contains
very speedOy, though in varying proportions and manifold
combinations, introduced themselves into the modem drama as
it had been called into life by the Renaissance. In Italy the
transition was almost imperceptible from the pastoral drama
to the opera; on the Spanish stage ballets with allegorical
figures and military spectacles were known towards the close
of the i6th century; in France ballets were introduced in the
days of Marie de' Medici, and the popularity of the opera was
f tlly established in the earlier part of the reign of Louis XIV.
T'he history of these elements need not be pursued here, but
there is a special ingredient in modern pantomime of which
something more has to be said. From the latter part of the
i6th century (Henry III. in 1506, sought to divert the dreaded
states-general at Blois by means of the celebrated Italian com-
pany of the Gelosi) professional Italian comedy (commedia deW
arte, called commedia all' improviso only because of the skill with
which the schemes of its plays were filled up by improvisation)
had found its way to Paris with its merry company of characters,
partly corresponding to the favourite types of regular comedy
both ancient and modern, but largely borrowed from the new
species of masked comedy — so called from its action being
carried on by certain typical figures in masks — said to have been
invented earlier in the same century by Angelo Beolco (Ruzzante)
of Padua. These types, local in origin, included Pantalone the
V'enetian merchant, who survives in the uncommercial Pantaloon,
the Bolognese Doltore. The Zannis {Giovannis) were the do-
mestic servants in this species of comedy, and included among
other varieties the Arlecchino. This is by far the most interest-
ing of these types, and by far the best discussed. The Arlecchino
was formerly supposed to have been, like the rest, of Italian
origin. The very remarkable contribution (cited below) of Dr
Otto Driesen to the literature of folk-lore as well as to that of the
stage seems however to establish the conclusion (to which earlier
conjectures pointed) that the word Harlequin or Herleqtiin is of
French origin, and that the dramatic figure of Harlequin is an
evolution from the popular tradition of the harlekin-folk,
mentioned about the end of the nth century by the Norman
Ordericus Vitalis. The " damned souls " of legend became the
comic demons of later centuries, the croque-sots with the devil's
mask; they left the impress of their likeness on the hell-mouth
of the religious drama, but were gradually humanized as a
favourite type of the Parisian popular street-masques (charivaris)
of the 14th and 15th centuries. Italian literature contains only
a single passage before the end of the i6th century which can
be brought into any connexion with this type — the aiichino
(cat's back) of canto xxi. of the Inferno. The French harle-
quin was, however, easily adopted into the family of Italian
comedy, where he may, like his costume,' have been associated
with early national traditions, and where he continued to diverge
from his fellow Zannis of the stolid sort, the Scapin of French
comedy-farce. From the time of the performances in France cf
the celebrated Fcdcli company, which played there at intervals
from the beginning to the middle of the 17th century onwards,
performing in a court ballet in 1636, Tristran Martinelli had been
its harlequin, and the character thus preceded that of the
Parisian favourite Trivelin, whose name Cardinal de Retz was
fond of applying to Cardinal Mazarin. There can be no pretence
here of pursuing the French harlequin through his later develop-
ments in the various species of the comic drama, including
that of the marionettes, or of examining the history of his
supersession by Pierrot and of his ultimate extinction.
Students of French comedy, and of Moliere in particular, are
aware of the influence of the Italian players upon the progress
of French comedy, and upon the works of its incomparable
master. In other countries, where the favourite types of
Italian popular comedy had been less generally seen or were
unknown, popular comic figures such as the English fools and
clowns, the German Hanswurst, or the Dutch Pickelhering, were
ready to renew themselves in any and every fashion which
preserved to them the gross salt favoured by their patrons.
Indeed, in Germany, where the term pantomime was not used,
a rude form of dramatic buffoonery, corresponding to the coarser
sides of the modern English species so-called, long flourished, and
threw back for centuries the progress of the regular drama.
The banishment of Hanswurst from the German stage was
formally proclaimed by the famous actress Caroline Neuber at
Leipzig in a play composed for the purpose in 1737. After being
at last suppressed, it found a commendable substitute in the
modern Zaiiberposse, the more genial Vienna counterpart of the
Fans f eerie and the modern English e.xtravaganza.
In England, where the masque was only quite exceptionally
revived after the Restoration, the love of spectacle and other
frivolous allurements was at first mainly met by the various
forms of dramatic entertainment which went by the name of
" opera." In the preface to Albion and Albanius(i6Ss)^ Dryden
gives a definition of opera which would fairly apply to modern
extravaganza, or to modern pantomime with the harlequinade
' The traditional costume of the ancient Roman mimi included
the centunculus or variegated (harlequin's) jacket, the shaven head,
the sooty face and the unshod feet.
PANTOMIME /q
685
left out. Character-dancing was, however, at the same time
largely introduced into regular comedy; and, as the theatres
vied with one another in seeking quocunque modo to gain the
favour of the public, the English stage was fully prepared for the
innovation which awaited it. Curiously enough, the long-lived
but cumbrous growth called pantomime in England owes its
immediate origin to the beginnings of a dramatic species which
has artistically furnished congenial delight to nearly two centuries
of Frenchmen. Of the early history of vaudeville it must here
suffice to say that the unprivileged actors, at the fairs, who had
borrowed some of the favourite character-types of Italian popular
comedy, after eluding prohibitions against the use by them of
dialogue and song, were at last allowed to setup a comic opera
of their own. About the second quarter of the i8th century,
before these performers were incorporated with the Italians, the
light kind of dramatic entertainment combining pantomime
proper with dialogue and song enjoyed high favour with the
French and their visitors during this period of peace. The
vaudeville was cultivated by Le Sage and other writers of mark,
though it did not conquer an enduring place in dramatic litera-
ture till rather later, when it had, moreover, been completely
nationalized by the extension of the Italian types.
It was this popular species of entertainment which, under the
name of pantomime, was transplanted to England before in
France it had attained to any fixed form, or could claim for its
productions any place in dramatic literature. CoUey Cibber
mentions as the first example, followed by " that Succession of
monstrous. MedKes," a piece on' the story of Mars andiVenus,
which was stiU in dumb-show; for he describes it as " form'd into
a connected Presentation of Dances in Character, wherein the
Passions were so happily expressed, and the whole Story so
intelligibly told, by a mute Narration of Gesture only, that even
thinking Spectators allow'd it both a pleasing and a rational
Entertainment." There is nothing to show that Harlequin and
his companions figured in this piece. Genest, who has no
record of it, dates the period when such entertainments first
came into vogue in England about 1723. In that year the
pantomime of Harlequin Dr Fauslus had been produced at Drury
Lane — its author being John Thurmond, a dancing master, who
afterwards (in 1727) published a grotesque entertainment called
The Miser, or Wagner and Abericock (a copy of this is in the
Dyce Library). Hereupon, in December 1723, John Rich
(1692-1761), then lessee of the theatre in Lincoln's Inn Fields,
produced there as a rival pantomime The Necromancer, or
History of Dr Fauslus, no doubt, says Genest, " gotten up with
superior splendour." He had as early as 1717 been connected
with the production of a piece called Harlequin Executed, and
there seem traces of similar entertainments as far back as the
year 1700. But it was the inspiriting influence of French example
and the keen rivalry between the London houses, which in 1723
really established pantomime on the English stage. Rich was
at the time fighting a difficult battle against Drury Lane, and
his pantomimes at Lincoln's Inn Fields, and afterwards at
Covent Garden, were extraordinarily successful. He was
himself an inimitable harlequin, and from Garrick's lines in his
honour it appears that his acting consisted of " frolic gestures "
without words. The favourite Drury Lane harlequin was
Pinkethman (Pope's "poor Pinky"); readers of the Tatler
(No. 188) will remember the ironical nicety with which his merits
are weighed against those of his competitor Bullock at the
other house. CoUey Cibber, when described by Pope as " mount-
ing the wind on grinning dragons " briskly denied having in
his own person or otherwise encouraged such fooleries; in his
Apology, however, he enters into an elaborate defence of himself
for having allowed himself to be forced into countenancing
the " gin-shops of the stage," pleading that he was justified
by necessity, as Henry I\'. was in changing his religion. Another
butt of Pope's, Lewis Theobald, was himself the author of more
than one pantomime; their titles already run in the familiar
fashion, e.g. A Dramatick Entertainment, call'd Harlequin a
Sorcerer, with the Loves of Pluto and Proserpine (1725; the " book
of the words," as it may be called, is in the Dyce Library). In
another early pantomime (also in the Dyce Library) called
Perseus and Andromeda, with the Rape of Cohmbine, or The Flying
Lovers, there are five " interludes, three serious and two comic.''
This is precisely in the manner of Fielding's dramatic squib
against pantomimes. Tumble-down Dick, or Phaeton in the Suds.
first acted in 1744, and ironically dedicated to " Mr John Lun,''
the name that Rich chose to assume as harlequin. It is a capital
bit of burlesque, which seems to have been directly suggested by
Pritchard's Fall of Phaeton, produced in 1736.
There seems no need to pursue further the history of English
pantomime in detail. " Things of this nature are above
criticism," as Mr Machine, the " composer " of Phaeton, says in
Fielding's piece. The attempt was made more than once to free
the stage from the incubus of entertainments to which the public
persisted in flocking; in vain Colley Cibber at first laid down the
rule of never giving a pantomime together with a good play; in
vain his son Theophilus after him advised the return of part of
the entrance money to those who would leave the house before
the pantomime began. " It may be questioned," says the
chronicler, " if there was a demand for the return of £20 in ten
years." Pantomime carried everything before it when there
were several theatres in London, and a dearth of high dramatic
talent prevailed in all; and, allowing for occasional counter-
attractions of a not very dissimilar nature, pantomime continued
to flourish after the Licensing Act of 1737 had restricted the
number of London play-houses, and after Garrick's star had risen
on the theatrical horizon. He was himself obliged to satisfy
the public appetite, and to disoblige the admirers of his art, in
deference to the drama's most imperious patrons — the public at
large.
In France an attempt was made by Noverre {q.v.) to restore
pantomime proper to the stage as an independent species, by
treating mythological subjects seriously in artificial ballets.
This attempt, which of course could not prove permanently
successful, met in England also with great applause. In an
anonymous tract of the year 1789 in the Dyce Library, attributed
by Dyce to Archdeacon Nares (the author of the Glossary),
Noverre's pantomime or ballet Cupid and Psyche is commended
as of very extraordinary merit in the choice and execution of
the subject. It seems to have been without words. The writer
of the tract states that " very lately the serious pantomime has
made a new advance in this country, and has gained establish-
ment in an English theatre "; but he leaves it an open question
whether the grand ballet of Medea and Jason (apparently pro-
duced a few years earlier, for a burlesque on the subject came out
in 1 781) was the first complete performance of the kind produced
in England. He also notes The Death of Captain Cook, adapted
from the Parisian stage, as possessing considerable dramatic
merit, and exhibiting " a pleasing picture of savage customs and
manners."
To conclude, the chief difference between the earlier and later
forms of English pantomime seems to lie in the fact that in the
earlier Harlequin pervaded the action, appearing in the comic
scenes which alternated throughout the piece with the serious
which formed the backbone of the story. Columbine (originally
in Italian comedy Harlequin's daughter) was generally a village
maiden courted by her adventurous lover, whom village con-
stables pursued, thus performing the laborious part of the police-
man of the modern harlequinade. The brilliant scenic effects
were of course accumulated, instead of upon the transformation
scene, upon the last scene of all, which in modern pantomime
follows upon the shadowy chase of the characters called the rally.
The commanding influence of the clown, to whom pantaloon
is attached as friend, flatterer and foil, seems to be of compara-
tively modern growth; the most famous of his craft was un-
doubtedly Joseph Grimaldi (1779-1837). His memory is above
all connected with the famous pantomime of Mother Goose,
produced at Covent Garden in 1806. The older British tj^De of
Christmas pantomime, which kept its place in London till the
'seventies, has been preserved from oblivion in Thackeray's
Sketches and Travels in London. The species is not yet wholly
extinct; but, by degrees, the rise of the music-halls and the
686
PANTON— PAOLI, P.
popularity of a new type of music-hall performer influenced the
character of the show which was given under the name of a
Christmas pantomime at the theatres, and it became more of a
buriesQue " variety entertainment," dovetailed into a fairy play
and with the " harlequinade " part (which had formed the closing
scene of the older sort) sometimes omitted. The word had really
lost its meaning. The thing itself survived rather in such
occasional appearances of the Pierrot " drama without words "
as charmed London playgoers in the early 'nineties in such
pieces as L' Enfant prodigiie.
Authorities. — For a general survey see K. F. F. Flogel,
Geschichte des Grotesk-Komischen, revised ed. by F. W. Eveling
(1867); A. Pougin, Dictionnaire historique et pitloresque du thedtre
(Paris, 1885). As to the commedia detl'arte, masked, comedy, in
Italy and France, and their influence on French regular comedy,
see L. Moland, Moliere et la comedie italienne (2nd ed., Paris, 1867);
and O. Driesen's remarkable study, Der Ursprung des Harlekin
(Berlin, 1904). As to the German Hanswurst and Hansivurstiaden,
see G. Gervinus, Geschichte der deulschen Dichtung, vol. iii. (Leipzig,
1853) ; E. Devrient, Gesch. der deiUschen Schauspielkunst, vol. ii. (Leip-
zig, 1848) ; and as to the German Harlequin, Lessing's Hamburgische
Dramaturgic, no. 18 (1767), and the reference there to Justus
Moser's Harlekin oder Vertheidigung des Grotesk-Komischen (1761).
As to English pantomime, see Gcnest, Account of the English Stage
(10 vols., Bath, 1832), especially vol. iii.; Dibdin, Complete History
of the Stage (5 vols., London, 1800), especially vols, ii., iv., and v.;
Apology for the Life of Colley Cibber, ed. R. W. Lowe (2 vols., London,
1889J ; P. Fitzgerald, Life of Garrick (2 vols., London, 1868).
(A. W. W.)
PANTON, a town of north-western Spain, in the province of
Lugo; in a mountainous district, watered by the rivers Miho
and Cabe. Pop. (iqoo), 12,088. Livestock is extensively reared,
and large quantities of wheat, wine, oats and potatoes are
produced. The other industries are distilling and linen
manufacture. The nearest railway station is 6 m. east, at
Montforte.
PANTRY (O. Fr. paneicrie; Med. Lat. panetaria, a bread-shop,
from pa ids, bread), originally a room in a house used for the
storage of bread, hence "' panter " or " pantler," an officer of a
household in charge of the bread and stores. In the royal house-
hold of England the office was merged in that of butler. At
coronations the ofiice of " panneter " was held by the lord of the
manor of Kibworth Beauchamp; it was his duty to carry the
salt-cellar and carving-knives to the royal table, and he kept
these as his fee. The last holder of the office was Ambrose
Dudley, son of John, duke of Northumberland, at Elizabeth's
coronation. At his death the manor reverted to the Crown.
" Pantry " was early widened in meaning to include a room in a
house used for the storing of all kinds of food, and is now
restricted to the butler's or parlourmaid's room, where plate,
china, glass, &c., for the use of the table is kept, and duties in
connexion with the serving of the table are performed.
PANTUN (P.\ntoum), a form of verse of Malay origin. An
imitation of the form has been adopted in French and also in
English verse, where it is known as " pantoum." The Malay
pantun is a quatrain, the first and third and the second and fourth
lines of which rhyme. The pecuHarity of the verse-form resides
in the fact that the first two lines have as a rule no actual
connexion, in so far as meaning is concerned, with the two last,
or with one another, and have for their raison d'etre a means
of supplying rhymes for the concluding lines. For instance: —
Senudoh kdyu di-rimba
Benang kCirap ber-simpul piileh:
SUnggoh dvdok her-tindck riba,
Jangan di-harap kata-kan bUleh.
The rhododendron is a wood of the jungle.
The strings within the frame-work of the loom are in a tangled
knot.
It is true that I sit on thy lap.
But do not therefore cherish the hope that thou canst take
any other liberty.
Here, it will be seen, the first two lines have no meaning,
though according to the Malayan mind, on occasion, these
" rhyme-making " lines are held to contain some obscure,
symbolical reference to those which follow them. The Malay
is not exacting with regard to the correctness of his rhymes.
and to his ear rimha and riba rhyme as exactly as pUlch and
bfdeh. It should also be noted that in the above example, as is
not infrequently the case with the Malay pantun, there is a
similar attempt at rhyme between the initial words of the lines
as well as between the word with which they conclude, senudoh
and silnggoh, benang and jangan, and kdrap and harap all rhyming
to the Malayan ear There are large numbers of well-known
pantun with which practically all Malays are acquainted, much
as the commoner proverbs are familiar to us all, and it is not an
infrequent practice in conversation for the first line of a pantun —
viz.: one of the two lines to which no real meaning attaches — to
be quoted alone, the audience being supposed to possess the
necessary knowledge to fit on the remaining lines for himself and
thus to discover the significance of the allusion. Among cultured
Malays, more especially those living in the neighbourhood of the.
raja's court, new pantun are constantly being composed, many of'
them being of a highly topical character, and these improvisa-'
tions are quoted from man to man until they become current like
the old, well-known verses, though within a far more restricted
area. Often too, the pantun is used in love-making, but they are
then usually composed for the exclusive use of the author and for
the delectation of his lady-loves, and do not find their way into
the public stock of verses. " Capping " pantun is also a not
uncommon pastime, and many Malays will continue such con-'
tests for hours without once repeating the same verse, and often
improvising quatrains when their stock threatens to become'
exhausted. When this game is played by skilled versifiers,'
the pantun last quoted, and very frequently the second line
thereof, is used as the tag on to which to hang the succeeding
verse.
The " pantoum " as a form of verse was introduced into French
by Victor Hugo in Les Orientates (1820). It was also practised
b}' Theodore de Banville and Leconte de Lisle. Austin Dobson's
In Town is an example of its use, in a hghter manner, in'
English. In the French and English imitation the verse form is'
in four-line stanzas, the second and fourth line of each verse
forming the first and third of the next, and so on to the last'
stanza, where the first and third line of the first stanza forrrl]
the second and fourth line. (H. Cl.) '
PANYASIS (more correctly, Panyassis), of Halicarnassus,'
Greek epic poet, uncle or cousin of Herodotus, flourished about
470 B.C. He was put to death by the tyrant Lygdamis (c. 454).
His chief poems were the Hcraclcias in 14 books, describing the
adventures of Heracles in various parts of the world, and the
lonica in elegiacs, giving an account of the founding and settle-' '
ment of the Ionic colonies in Asia Minor. Although not much' ,
esteemed in his own time, which was unfavourable to epic
poetry, he was highly thought of by later critics, some of whom
assigned him the next place to Homer (see Quintilian, Inst. oral.
X. I. 54). The few extant fragments show beauty and fullness of i
expression, and harmonious rhythm.
Fragments in G. Kinkel, Epic. poet, fragmenta (1877), ed. separ- ,
ately by J. P. Tzschirner (1842); F. P. Funcke, De Panyasuiis vita I
(1837); R. Kra.uiise, De Panyasside (1891). I
PAOLI, CESARE (i 840-1 002), Italian historian and palaeo- I
grapher, son of senator Baldassare Paoli, was born and educated I
in Florence. At the age of twenty-one he was given an appoint- 1
ment in the record office of his native city; from 1865 to 1871 he
was attached to the Archives of Sienna, but eventually returned !
to Florence. In 1874 he was appointed first professor of palaeo- j
graphy and diplomatics at the Istituto di Studii Superiori in ,
Florence, where he continued to work at the interpretation of
MSS. In 1SS7 he became editor of the Archivio storico italiano, I
to which he himself contributed numerous articles. His works '
consist of a large number of historical essays, studies on palaeo-
graphy, transcriptions of state and other papers, re'views, &c.
See C. Lupi, " Cesare Paoli," in the Archivio storico italiano,
vol. xxix. (1902), with a complete list of his works.
PAOLI, PASQUALE (1725-1807), Corsican general and patriot,
was born at Stretta in the parish of Rostino. He was the son .
of Giacinto Paoli, who had led the Corsican rebels against 1
Genoese tyranny. Pasquale followed his father into exile.
' r 2Mioi«oj
PAPACY
687.
serving with distinction in tlie Neapolitan army; on his return
to Corsica (q.v.) he was chosen commander-in-chief of the rebel
forces, and after a series of successful actions he drove the
Genoese from the whole island except a few coast towns. He
then set to work to reorganize the government, introducing
many useful reforms, and he founded a university at Corte. In
1767 he wrested the island of Capraia from the Genoese, who,
despairing of ever being able to subjugate Corsica, again sold
their rights over it to France. For two years Paoli fought
desperately against the new invaders, until in 1769 he was de-
feated by vastly superior forces under Count de Vaux, and obhged
to take refuge in England. In 1789 he went to Paris with the
permission of the constituent assembly, and was afterwards sent
back to Corsica with the rank of lieutenant-general. Disgusted
with the excesses of the revolutionary government and having
been accused of treason by the Convention, he summoned a
consuUa, or assembly, at Corte in 1793, with himself as president
and formally seceded from France. He then offered the suze-
rainty of the island to the British government, but finding no
support in that quarter, he was forced to go into exile once more,
and Corsica became a French department. He retired to London
in 1796, when he obtained a pension; he died on the sth of
February 1807.
See Boswell's Life of Johnson, and his Account of Corsica and
Memoirs of P. Paoli (1768J; N. Tommaseo, " Lettered! Pasqualo dc
Paoli " (in Archivio slorico italiano, 1st series, vol. xi.), and Delia
Corsica, &c. (ibid., nuova serie, vol. xi., parte ii.); Pompei, De L'^tat
de la Corse (Paris, 1821) ; Giovanni Livi, " Lettere inedite di Pasquale
Paoli" (in Arch. star, ital., 5th series, vols. v. and vi.) ; Bartoli, Historia
di Pascal Paoli (Bastia, 1891) ; Lencisa, P. Paoli e la guerra d'lndipen-
denza della Corsica (Milano, 1890); and Comte de Buttafuoco, Frag-
ments pour servir d I'histoire de la Corse de 1764 i 176Q (Bastia, 1859).
PAPACY' (a term formed on the analogy of " abbacy" from
Lat. papa, pope; cf. Fr. papaule on the analogy of royaute.
Florence of Worcester, a.d. 1044, quoted by Du Cange s.v.
Papa, has the Latin form papatia; the New Eng. Diet, quotes
Gower, Conf. i. 258, as the earliest instance of the word Papacie),
the name most commonly applied to the ofRce and position of the
bishop or pope of Rome, in respect both of the ecclesiastical and
temporal authority claimed by him, i.e. as successor of St Peter
and Vicar of Christ, over the Catholic Church, and as sovereign of
the former papal states. (See Pope and Roman Catholic
Church.)
.jj I. — From the Origins to loSy.
' The Christian community at Rome, founded, apparently, in
the time of the emperor Claudius (41-54), at once assumed great
j^g importance, as is clearly attested by the Epistle to
Primitive the Romans (58). It received later the visit of Paul
Roman while a prisoner, and, according to a tradition which
Cburcb. jg jjQ^ [jm ^jjig disputed, that of the apostle Peter.
Peter died there, in 64, without doubt, among the Christians
whom Nero had put to death as guilty of the burning of Rome.
Paul's career was also terminated at Rome by martyrdom. Other
places had been honoured by the presence and preaching of these
great leaders of new-born Christianity; but it is at Rome that
they had borne witness to the Gospel by the shedding of their
blood; there they were buried, and their tombs were known and
honoured. These facts rendered the Roman Church in the
highest degree sacred. About the time that Peter and Paul
died in Rome the primitive centre of Christianity — that is to say,
Jerusalem — was disappearing amidst the disaster of the war of
the Roman Empire with the Jews. Moreover, the Church of
Jerusalem, narrowed by Jewish Christian particularism, was
hardly qualified to remain the metropolis of Christianity, which
was gradually gaining ground in the Graeco-Roman world.
The true centre of this world was the capital of the Empire; the
transference was consequently accepted as natural at an early
' This article is a general history in outline of the papacy itself.
Special periods, or aspects are dealt with in fuller detail elsewhere,
e.g. in the biographical notices of the various popes, or in such
articles as Church History ; Roman Catholic Church ; Investi-
tures; Canon Law; Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction; Ultramon-
T ANisM ; or the articles on the various ecclesiastical councils.
date. The idea that the Roman Church is at the head of the
other Churches, and has towards them certain duties consequent
on this position, is expressed in various ways, with more or less
clearness, in writings such as those of Clemens Romanus, Ignatius
of Antioch and Hermas. In the 2nd century all Christendom
Hocked to Rome; there was a constant stream of people — bishops
from distant parts, apologists or heresiarchs. All that was done
or taught in Rome was immediately echoed through all the other
Churches; Irenaeus and TertulUan constantly lay stress upon the
tradition of the Roman Church, which in those very early days
was almost without rivals, save in Asia, where there were a
number of flourishing Churches, also apostohc in origin, forming
a compact group and conscious of their dignity. The great
reception given to Polycarp on his visit to Rome in A.D. 155 and
the attitude of St Irenaeus show that on the whole the traditions
of Rome and of Asia harmonized quite well. They came into
conflict, however (c. a.d. igo), on the question of the celebration
of the festival of Easter. The bishop of Rome, Victor, desired
his colleagues in the various parts of the Empire to form them-
selves into councils to inquire into this matter. _
The invitation was accepted by all; and, the con- Authority of
sultation resulting in favour of the Roman usage, the Roman
Victor thought fit to exclude the recalcitrant Churches Bishops.
of Asia from the Catholic communion. His conduct in this
dispute, though its severity may have been open to criticism ,-
indicates a very definite conception on his part of his authority
over the universal Church. In the 3rd century the same position
was maintained, and the heads of the Roman Church continued
to speak with the greatest authority. We find cases of their
intervention in the ecclesiastical affairs of Alexandria, of the
East, of Africa, Gaul and Spain. Though the manner in which
they wielded their authority sometimes meets with criticism
(Irenaeus, Cyprian, Firmilianus) , the principle of it is never
questioned. However, as time went on, certain Churches
became powerful centres of Christianity, and even when they did
not come into conflict with her, their very existence tended to
diminish the prestige of the Roman Church.
After the period of the persecutions had passed by, the
great ecclesiastical capitals Carthage, Alexandria, Antioch and
Constantinople, as secondary centres of organization centrifugal
and administration, drew to themselves and kept in Forces In
their hands a share in ecclesiastical affairs. It was the Catholic
only under quite exceptional circumstances that any "™ '
need was felt for oecumenical decisions. Further, the direction
of affairs, both ordinary and extraordinary, tended to pass from
the bishops to the state, which was now christianized. The
Eastern Church had soon de facto as its head the Eastern emperors.
Henceforth it receded more and more from the influence of the
Roman Church, and this centrifugal movement was greatly
helped by the fact that the Roman Church, having ceased to
know the Greek language, found herself practically excluded
from the world of Greek Christianity.
In the West also centrifugal forces made themselves felt.
After Cyprian the African episcopate, in proportion as it per-
fected its organization, seemed to feel less and less the need for
close relations with the apostolic see. In the 4th century the
Donatist party was in open schism; the orthodox party had the
upper hand in the time of Aurehus and Augustine; the regular
meeting of the councils further increased the corporate cohesion
of the African Epljcopal body. From them sprang a code of
ecclesiastical laws and a whole judicial organization. With
this organization, under the popes Zosimus, Boniface and Celes-
tine the Roman Church came into conflict on somewhat trivial
grounds, and was, on the whole, being worsted in the struggle,
when the Vandal invasion of .Africa took place, and for nearly
a century to come the Catholic communities were subjected to
very hard treatment. The revival which took place under
Byzantine rule (6th and 7th centuries) was of little importance;
- Victor's conduct in this matter was not approved by a number
of bishops (including Irenaeus), who protested against it
(a.vTiTapaKtXtvoi'Tai) in the interests of peace and Christian love
(Eusebius, Hist. eccl. v. 24). — [Ed.]
dji.-I.'
^ o:lJ -jv.
688
PAPACY
[ORIGINS TO 1087
but the autonomy which had been denied them under Aureh'us
was maintained to the end, that is to say, up till the Mahomniedan
conquest.
During the 4th century it is to be noticed that, generally
speaking, the Roman Church played a comparatively insignificant
The Roman P^""' i" ^^^ West. From the time of popes Damasus
Church la and Siricius various affairs were referred to Rome
the 4th from .\frica, Spain or Gaul. The popes were asked
" uo'. jQ gj^.g decisions, and in answer to those demands
drew up their first decretals. However, side by side with the
Roman see was that of Milan, which was also the capital of
the Western Empire. From time to tir^e it seemed as if Milan
would become to Rome what Constantinople was to Alexandria.
However, any danger that menaced the prestige of Rome dis-
appeared when the emperor Honorius removed the imperial
residence to Ravenna, and still more so when the Western
emperors were replaced in the north of Italy by barbarian
sovereigns, who were Arians.
In Spain, Gaul, Brittany and the provinces of the Danube,
similar political changes took place. When orthodox Christianity
TAe CAureA had gained the upper hand beyond the Alps and the
in the Pyrenees, the episcopate of those countries grouped
Teutonic itself, as it had done in the East, around the
Kingdoms, sovereigns. In Spain was produced a fairly strong
religious centralization around the Visigothic king and the metro-
politan of Toledo. In Gaul there was no chief metropolitan; but
the king's court became, even sooner than that of Spain, the
centre of episcopal affairs. The Britons and Irish, whose remote-
ness made them free from restriction, developed still more decided
individuality. In short, the workings of all the Western episco-
pates, from Africa to the ocean, the Rhine and the Danube, lay
outside the ordinary influence of the Roman see. All of them.
Restriction even down to the metropolitan sees of Milan and
of the Aquileia, practised a certain degree of autonomy, and
Papal in the 6th century this developed into what is called
Authority. ^.^^ Schism of the Three Chapters. With the excep-
tion of this schism, these episcopates were by no means in op-
position to the Holy See. They always kept up relations of some
kind, especially by means of pilgrimages, and it was admitted
that in any disputes which might arise with the Eastern Church
the pope had the right to speak as representative of the whole
of the Western Church. He was, moreover, the only bishop of a
great see — for Carthage had practically ceased to count — who
was at that time a subject of the Roman emperor.
This was the situation when St Gregory was elected pope in
590. We may add that in peninsular Italy, which was most
clearly under his ecclesiastical jurisdiction, the Lombards had
spread havoc and ruin; so that nearly ninety bishoprics had been
suppressed, either temporarily or definitively. The pope could
act directly only on the bishoprics of the coast districts or the
islands. Beyond this limited circle he had to act jby means of
diplomatic channels, through the governments of the Lombards,
Franks and Visigoths. On the Byzantine side his hands were
less tied; but here he had to reckon with the theory of the
five patriarchates which had been a force since Justinian.
.According to Byzantine ideas, the Church was governed —
under the supreme authority, of course, of the emperor — by the
five patriarchs of Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch and
Jerusalem. Rome had for a long time opposed this division,
but, since some kind of division was necessary, had put forward
the idea of the three sees of St Peter — Rome, Alexandria and
.'\ntioch — those of Constantinople and Jerusalem being set aside,
rs resulting from later usurpations. But the last named were
just the most important ; in fact the only ones which counted at
all, since the monophysite secession had reduced the number of
the orthodox in Syria and Egypt practically to nothing. This
dissidence Islam was to complete, and by actually suppressing
the patriarchate of Jerusalem to reduce Byzantine Christendom
to the two patriarchates of Rome and Constantinople.
There was no comparison between the two from the point cf
view of the East. The new Rome, where the emperor reigned,
prevailed over the old, which was practically abandoned to the
barbarians. She was still by cotirtesy given the precedence, but
that was all; the council in Trullo (692) even claimed to impose
reforms on her. When Rome, abandoned by the Rome a^d
distant emperors, was placed under the protection of Coastan-
the Franks (754), relations between her and the Greek ''""P'^-
Church became gradually more rare, the chief occasions being
the question of the images in the 8th century, the quarrel
between Photius and Ignatius in the oth, the affairs of the four
marriages of the emperor Leo VI. and of the patriarch Theo-
phylact in the loth. On these different occasions the pope,
ignored in ordinary times, was made use of by the Byzantine
government to ratify measures which it had found necessary to
adopt in opposition to the opinion of the Greek episcopate.
These relations were obviously very different from those which
had been observed originally, and it would be an injustice to
the Roman Church to take them as typical of her relations with
other Christian bodies. She had done all she could to defend her
former position. Towards the end of the 4th century, when
southern lUyricum (Macedonia, Greece, Crete) was passing under
the authority of the Eastern emperor, she tried to keep him within
her ecclesiastical obedience by creating the vicariate of Thessa-
lonica. Pope Zosimus (417) made trial of a similar organization
in the hope of attaching the churches of the Gauls more closely
to himself. It was also he who began the struggle against the
autonomy of Africa. But it was all without effect. From the
6th century onwards the apostolic vicars of Aries and Thessa-
lonica were merely the titular holders of pontifical honours, with
no real authority over those who were nominally under their
jurisdiction.
It was Gregory I. who, though with no premeditated intention,
was the first to break this circle of autonomous or dissident
Churches which was restricting the influences of the Gregory
apostolic see. As the result of the missions sent to the Great,
England by him and his successors there arose a ^^0-604.
church which, in spite of certain Irish elements, was and remained
Roman in origin, and, above all, spirit and tendency. In it the
traditions of old cutlure and religious learning imported from
Rome, where they had almost ceased to bear any fruit, found a
new soil, in which they flourished. Theodore, Wilfrid, Benedict
Biscop, Bede, Boniface, Ecgbert, Alcuin, revived the fire of learn-
ing, which was almost extinct, and by their aid enlightenment
was carried to the Continent, to decadent Gaul and barbarian
Germany. The Churches of England and Germany, founded, far
from all traditions of autonomy, by Roman legates, tendered
their obedience voluntarily. In Gaul there was no hostility
to the Holy See, but on the contrary a profound veneration
for the great Christian sanctuary of the West. The Carolingian
princes, when Boniface pointed them towards Rome, followed
him without their clergy offering any resistance on grounds of
principle. The question of reform having arisen, from the apo-
stolic see alone could its fulfilment be expected, since in it, with
the succession of St Peter, were preserved the most august
traditions of Christianity.
The surprising thing is that, although Rome was then included
within the empire of the Franks, so that the popes were afforded
special opportunities for activity, they showed for the most part
no eagerness to strengthen their authority over the clergy beyond
the Alps. Appeals and other matters of detail were referred
to them more often than under the Merovingians. They gave
answers to such questions as were submitted to them; the
machinery moved when set in motion from outside; but the
popes did not attempt to interfere on their own initiative. The
Prankish Church was directed, in fact, by the government of
Charlemagne and Louis the Pious. When this failed, as hap-
pened during the wars and partitions which followed the death of
Louis, the fate of this Church, with no effective head and under no
regular direction, was very uncertain. It was then that a
clerk who saw that there was but an uncertain
prospect of help from the pope of his time, conceived o^/^^f'f'
the shrewd 'dea of appealing to the popes of the past,
so as to exhort the contemporary generation through the mouth
of former popes, from Clement to Gregory. This design was
ORIGINS TO 1087]
PAPACY
689
realized in the celebrated forgery known as the " False Decretals "
(see Decretals).
Hardly were they in circulation throughout the Prankish
Empire when it happened that a pope, Nicholas I., was elected
who was animated by the same spirit as that which
sss^ssr.'" ^^o.d inspired them. There was no lack of oppor-
tunities for intervening in the affairs not only of
the Western but of the Eastern Church, and he seized upon
them with great decision. He staunchly supported the patri-
arch Ignatius against his rival, Photius, at Constantinople;
he upheld the rights of Teutberga, who had been repudiated
by her husband, Lothair II. of Lorraine, against that prince and
his brother, the emperor Louis II.; and he combated Hincmar,
the powerful metropoHtan of Reims. It was in the course of
this last dispute that the False Decretals found their way to
Rome. Nicholas received them with some reserve; he refrained
from giving them his sanction, and only borrowed from them
what they had already borrowed from authentic texts, but in
general he took up the same attitude as the forger had ascribed
to his remote predecessors. The language of his successors,
Andrian II. and John VIII., still shows some trace of the energy
and pride of Nicholas. But the circumstances were becoming
difficult. Europe was being split up under the influence of
feudalism; Christendom was assailed by the barbarians, Norse-
men, Saracens and Huns; at Rome the papacy was passing
into the power of the local aristocracy, with whom after Otto I.
it was disputed from time to time by the sovereigns of Germany.
It was still being held in strict subjection by the latter when,
towards the end of the nth century, Hildebrand (Gregory VII.)
undertook its enfranchisement and began the war of the
investitures (q.v.), from which the papacy was to issue with
such an extraordinary renewal of its vitahty.
In Eastern Christendom the papacy was at this period an
almost forgotten institution, whose pretensions were always
Schism ot ™et by the combined opposition of the imperial
East and authority, which was still preponderant in the
West. Byzantine Church, and the authority of the patri-
archate of Constantinople, around which centred all that
survived of Christianity in those regions. To complete the
situation, a formal rupture had occurred in 1054 between
the patriarch Michael Cerularius and Pope Leo IX.
In the West, Rome and her sanctuaries had always been held
in the highest veneration, and the pilgrimage to Rome was
general ^''^' ^he most important in the West. The pope,
Position ot as officiating in these holiest of aU sanctuaries,
the Papacy as guardian of the tombs of St Peter and St Paul
"'''■ and the inheritor of their rank, their rights, and
their traditions, was the greatest ecclesiastical figure and the
highest religious authority in the West. The greatest princes
bowed before him; it was he who consecrated the emperor.
In virtue of the spurious donation of Constantine, forged at
Rome in the time of Charlemagne, which was at first circulated
in obscurity, but ended by gaining universal credit, it was
believed that the first Christian emperor, in withdrawing to
Constantinople, had bestowed on the pope all the provinces
of the Western Empire, and that in consequence all sovereignty
in the West, even that of the emperor, was derived from ponti-
fical concessions. From all points of view, both religious and
political, the pope was thus the greatest man of the West, the
ideal head of all Christendom.
When it was necessary to account for this position, theologians
quoted the text of the Gospels, where St Peter is represented
as the rock on which the Church is built, the pastor of the sheep
and lambs of the Lord, the doorkeeper of the kingdom of heaven.
The statements made in the New Testament about St Peter
were applied without hesitation to all the popes, considered
as his successors, the inheritors of his see {Petri sedcs) and of
all his prerogatives. This idea, moreover, that the bishops of
Rome were the successors of St Peter was expressed very early
— as far back as the 2nd century. Whatever may be said as
to its historical value, it symbolizes very well the great authority
of the Roman Church in the early days of Christianity; an
authority which was then administered by the bishops of Rome,
and came to be more and more identified with them. The
councils were also quoted, and especially that of Nicaea, which
does not itself mention the question, but certain texts of
which contained the famous gloss: Ecclesia romana semper kabuit
primalum. But this proof was rather insuflicient, as indeed it
was felt to be, and, in any case, nothing could be deduced from
It save a kind of precedence in honour, which was never con-
tested even by the Greeks. The Gospel and unbroken tradition
offered a better argument.
In his capacity as head of the church, " and president of the
Christian agape," as St Ignatius of Antioch would have said,
the pope was considered to be the supreme president and
moderator of the oecumenical assemblies. When the episcopate
met in council the bishop of Rome had to be at its head. No
decisions of a general nature, whether dogmatic or discipUnary,
could be made without his consent. The appeal from all
patriarchal or conciliary judgments was to him; and on those
occasions when he had to depose bishops of the highest standing,
notably those of Alexandria and Constantinople, his judgments
were carried into effect. During the religious struggles between
the East and West he was on a few occasions condemned (by
the Eastern council of Sardica, by Dioscorus, by Photius) ; but the
sentences were not carried out, and were even, as in the case
of Dioscorus, considered and punished as sacrilegious attacks.
In the West the principle, " prima sedes a nemine judicatur,"
was always recognized and apphed.
In ordinary practice this theoretically wide authority had
only a limited application. The apostolic see hardly ever
interfered in the government of the local Churches, practical
Save in its own metropoHtan province, it took no Appiica-
part in the nomination of bishops; the provincial"""*""**
or regional councils were held without its authori- T'>^'>ry,
zation; their judgments and regulations were carried out without
any suggestion that they should be ratified by Rome. It is
only after the False Decretals that we meet with the idea
that a bishop cannot be deposed and his place filled without
the consent of the pope. And it should be noticed that this
idea was put forward, not by the pope with the object of increas-
ing his power, but by the opinion of the Church with a view to
defending the bishops against unjust sentences, and especially
those inspired by the secular authority.
It was admitted, however, throughout the whole Church that
the Holy See had an appellate jurisdiction, and recourse was
had to it on occasion. At the council of Sardica (343) an
attempt had been made to regulate the procedure in these
appeals, by recognizing as the right of the pope the reversing of
judgments, and the appointment of fresh judges. In practice,
appeals to the pope, when they involved the annulling of a
judgment, were judged by the pope in person.
But the intervention of the Holy See in the ecclesiastical
atlairs of the West, which resulted from these appeals, was only of
a limited, sporadic and occasional nature. Nothing could have
been more removed from a centralized administration than the
condition in which matters stood with regard to this point.
The pope was the head of the Church, but he exercised his
authority only intermittently. When he did exercise it, it was
far more frequently at the request of bishops or princes, or of
the faithful, than of his own initiative. Nor had any adminis-
trative body for the supreme government of the Church ever
been organized. The old Roman clergy, the deacons and priests
of the church at Rome (preshyleri incardinati, cardinaks) formed
the pope's council, and when necessary his tribunal; to them
were usually added the bishops of the neighbourhood. The body
of ecclesiastical notaries served as the staff of the chancery.
The Roman Church had from a very early date possessed
considerable wealth. Long before Constantine we find her
employing it in aid of the most distant churches, TerrHorlat
as far afield as Cappadocia and Arabia. Her real possess/oos
property, confiscated under Diocletian, was restored "'"le Ho/y
by Constantine, and since then had been continually '
increased by gifts and bequests. In the 4th and 5th centuries,
690
PAPACY
[ORIGINS TO 1087
the Roman Church possessed property in all parts of the empire;
but gradually, whether because the confiscations of the barbarian
emperors had curtailed its extent, or because the popes had
made efforts to concentrate it nearer to themselves, the property
of the Holy See came to be confined almost entirely to Italy.
In the time of St Gregory there subsisted only what lay in
Byzantine Italy, the Lombards having confiscated the property
of the Church as well as the imperial domains. During the
quarrels between the papacy and the Byzantine Empire her
domains in lower Italy and Sicily also disappeared as time
went on, and the territorial possessions of the Roman Church
were concentrated in the neighbourhood of Rome.
It was then, towards the middle of the Sth century, that
the pope, who already e.xercised a great influence over the
Begioalags government of the city and province of Rome,
of the defending her peacefully and with difficulty against
Temporal the advancing Lombard conquests, saw that he
Power. ^,g^g forced, short of the protection of the Greek
Empire, to put himself under the protection of the Frankish
princes. Thus there arose a kind of sovereignty, disputed,
it is true, by Constantinople, but which succeeded in main-
taining itself. Rome, together with such of the Byzantine
territories as still subsisted in her neighbourhood, was considered
as a domain sacred to the apostle Peter, and entrusted to the
administration of his successor, the pope. To it were added
the exarchate of Ravenna and a few other districts of central
Italy, which had been recently conquered by the Lombards
and retaken by the Frankish kings Pippin and Charlemagne.
Siich was the foundation of the papal state.
The higher places in the government were occupied by the
clergy, who for matters of detail made use of the civil and
military officials who had carried on the administration under
the Byzantine rule. But these lay officials could not long be
content with a subordinate position, and hence arose incessant
friction, which called for constant intervention on the part of
the Frankish sovereigns. In S24 a kind of protectorate was
organized, and serious guarantees were conceded to the lay
aristocracy.
Shortly afterwards, in the partition of the CaroUngian Empire,
Italy passed under the rule of a prince of its own, Louis II.,
who, with the title of emperor, made his authority felt in political
matters. Shortly after his death (875) fresh upheavals reduced
to nothing the power of the Carolingian princes; the clergy of
Rome found itself without a protector, exposed to the animosity
of the lay aristocracy. The authority of the pontificate was
seriously impaired by these circumstances. One of the great
families of Rome, that of the vestararius Theophylact, took
possession of the temporal authority, and succeeded in influencing
the papal elections, .\fter Theophylact the power passed to
his daughter Marozia, a woman of the most debased character;
then to her son Alberic, a serious-minded prince; and then to
Alberic's son Octavius, who from " prince of the Romans "
became pope (John XII.) when yet a mere boy. After Marozia
and Alberic and the rest another branch of the same family,
the Crescentii, exercised the temporal powers of the Holy See;
and after them the same regime was continued by the counts
of Tusculum, who were sprung from the same stock, which
sometimes provided the Roman Church with, the most unlikely
and least honourable pontiffs. ' .'^' ."<'"--";'i'
The pope, like aU the bishops, was chosen by tneans of election,
in which both the clergy and the laity took part. The latter
^, , , were represented in the most essential functions
Bleciloa of ^ , , . , , • j- ^ i, ii_
the Popes. 0' '"^ election by the aristocracy: at first by the
senate, and later by the exercitus romanus, or rather
of its staff, composed of Byzantine officers. It was the latter
which gave rise to the feudal aristocracy which we see appear-
ing under the Carohngians. The new pope was chosen by the
principal members of the clergy and nobles, and then set before
the assembled people, who gave their decision by acclamation;
and this acclamation was accepted as the vote of the assembly
of the faithful. The pope-elect was then put in possession of
the episcopal house, and after waiting till the next Sunday his
consecration was proceeded with. This ceremony was at first
celebrated in the Lateran, but from Byzantine times onwards
it took place at St Peter's. It was also under the Byzantine
regime that the condition was imposed that the pope should
not be consecrated untU the emperor had ratified his election.
This had not been required under the old Latin emperors nor
under the Gothic kings, and it disappeared of its own accord
with the Byzantine regime. It was revived, however, by the
emperor Louis the Pious, much to the disgust of the Romans,
who resisted on several occasions. The Roman " princes " or
" senators " in the loth century went stiU further: it was they
who actuaUy nominated the pope. The same was the case with
the Saxon emperors (Otto I., II. and HI.), and in the nth
century of the lords of Tusculum, the latter nominating them-
selves and choosing members of their own family for the
pontificate. When the emperor Henry III. (1046) put an end
to this oppression it was only to substitute another. The
popes of Tusculum did, at least, belong to the country, while
the German kings chose bishops from the other side of the Alps.
Such was the state of affairs up to the time of Hildebrand.
The entry of Hildebrand into the counsels of the papacy
marks the beginning of a great change in this institution. He
cannot, however, claim the honour of having opened TbeWlde-
the way which he impelled his predecessors to follow braadlae
even before foUowLng it himself. AU good Christians **'<"'™-
were calling for reform; bishops, princes, and monks were in
agreement on this point when they spoke or acted according to
their convictions. Many of them had tried to effect something;
but these isolated efforts were often countermined by incompati-
ble aims, and had produced no serious results. It is in the supreme
head of the Church that the movement ought to have found
its origin and inspiration. There was no dispute as to his
possessing the authority in spiritual matters necessary to impose
reform and overbear the resistance which might arise; no one
was better qualified than he to treat with the holders of the
temporal power and obtain the support which was necessary
from them. The Fathers of the Church had repeated times
without number that the priesthood stands above even the
supreme secular authority; the Bible was fuU of stories most
aptly illustrating this theory; nobody questioned that, within
the Church, the pope was the Vicar of Christ, and that, as such,
his powers were unlimited; as proof positive could be cited
councils and decretals — whether authentic or spurious; at any
rate all authorized by long usage and taken as received autho-
rities. It only remained to take possession of this incontestable
power and use it with firmness and consistency. The example
of Nicholas I., two centuries before, had shown the position
which a pope could occupy in Christendom; but for a long time
past the man had come short of the institution, the workman of
his tool. Under Leo IX. (104S-1C54) the pope suddenly came
forward as the active and indefatigable champion of reform;
simony and incontinence of the clergy were attacked by the one
most qualified to purify the Church of them. Henceforth the
way was open, and it became clear that, given good popes, the
reform movement might be carried into effect. The choice of
the pope was then subject to the pleasure of the sovereign of
Germany, against whom the Roman feudal lords, devoted as
they were to the old abuses, were in constant revolt. In the
midst of the frequent changes of pope which went on during
these years, and the political vicissitudes of Italy, Hildebrand
took such measures as enabled him to checkmate the opposition
of the Roman barons by turning against them, now the armed
force of the Normans, now the influence of the German king.'
' On the 5th of April 1058, six days after the death of Pope
Stephen X., John, bishop of Velletri, the nominee of the Roman
nobles, was enthroned as Pope Benedict X. Hildebrand set up
Gerard, bishop of Florence, as a rival candidate, won over a part of
the Romans to his cause, and secured the support of the empress
regent Agnes at the Diet of Augsburg in June. Gerard was elected
pope at Siena (as Nicholas II., g.r.) by those cardinals who had
fled from Rome on the elevation of Benedict X. A synod was held
at Sutri, at which the powerful Godfrey, duke of Lorraine and
Spoleto, and margrave of Tuscany, and the chancellor Wibert
were present. Measures were here concerted against Pope Benedict,
who was driven out of Rome in January 1059, Nicholas II. being
I087-I305]
PAPACY
691
Side by side with the general movement towards reform, he had
set before himself the object of freeing the papacy, not only
from its temporal oppressors but also from its protectors. He
was successful at the council of 1059, the pontifical election
was placed out of reach of the schemes of the local feudal lords
and restored to the heads of the clergy; certain reservations
were made with regard to those rights which the Holy See was
considered to have conceded personally to Henry of Germany
(the young king Henry IV., son of the emperor Henry IH.), but
nothing more. At the election of Alexander II. (1061-1073) —
a rival to whom was for a long time supported by the German
king — and even at the election of Hildebrand, this rule had its
effect. Henceforth the elections remained entirely free from
those secular influences which had hitherto been so oppressive.
In 1073 Hildebrand was raised to the pontifical throne by
the acclamation of the people of Rome, under the name of
Gregory VII.
The work of reform was now in a good way; the freedom
of the pontifical elections had been assured, which gave some
Gregory promise that the struggle against abuses would be
VII., conducted successfully. AH that now remained
I0S3-I08S. ^jjg (Q gQ QY\ following wisely and firmly the way
that had already been opened. But this attitude was not likely
to appeal to the exuberant energy of the new pope. Hitherto
he had had to reckon with obstacles more powerful than those
which were now left for him to conquer, and, what was more,
with the fact that his authority depended upon the will of others.
But now that his hands were no longer tied, he could act freely.
The choice of the pope had been almost entirely removed from
the sphere of secular influence, and especially from that of
the German king. Gregory claimed that the same condition
should apply to bishops, and these were the grounds of the
dispute about investitures — a dispute which could find no
solution, for it was impossible for the Teutonic sovereigns to
renounce all interest in a matter of such importance in the
workings of their state. Since the time of Clovis the German
sovereigns had never ceased to intervene in such matters.
But this question soon fell into the background. Gregory's
contention was that the secular sovereigns should be entirely in
the power of the head of the Church, and that he, should be
able to advance them or dispossess them at will, according to the
estimate which he formed of their conduct. A terrible struggle
arose between these obviously exorbitant demands and the
resistance which they provoked. Its details cannot be described
in this place (see Investitures); we need only say that this
ill-fated quarrel was not calculated to advance the reform
movement, but rather to impede it, and, further, that it ended
in failure. Gregory died far away from Rome, upon which he
had brought incalculable evils; and not only Rome, but the
papacy itself had to pay the penalty for the want of moderation
of the pope. Great indeed was the difference between the state
in which he received it and that in which he left it. We must
not, however, let this mislead us. This struggle between
spiritual and secular powers, owing to the tremendous sensation
which it created throughout Christendom, showed the nations
that at the head of the Church there was a great force for justice,
always able to combat iniquity and oppression, and sometimes
to defeat them, however powerful the evil and the tyrants might
seem. The scene at Canossa, which had at the moment a merely
relative importance, remained in the memories of men as a
symbol which was hateful or comforting, according to the point
of view from which it was considered. As to Gregory's political
pretensions, zealous theorists were quick to transform them into
legal principles; and though his immediate successors, some-
what deafened by the disturbance which they had aroused,
seem to have neglected them at first, they were handed on to
more distant heirs and reappeared in future struggles.
Gregory himself, in his last moments, seems to have felt that
it was impossible to maintain them, for Didier, abbot of Monte-
regularly enthroned on the 24th of the same month. A synod
assembled at the Lateran in April passed the famous new regulations
for the elections to the papacy. (See Conclave and Lateran
Councils.) — [Ed.]
Cassino (Victor III., 10S6-1087), whom he nominated as his
successor, was well known for his moderation. It was no longer
a question of continuing the pohcy of Gregory VII., but of ,
saving the work of Hildebrand. (L. D."*)
II. —Period from 1087 to jjoj. ' (jy^ji.,,
Gregory VII. had clearly revealed to the world the broad
lines of the religious and political programme of the medieval
papacy, and had begun to put it into execution. The Work
To reform the Church in every grade and purge of Gregory
the priesthood in order to shield it from feudal ^'^•
influences and from the domination of lay sovereignties; to
convert the Church thus regenerated, spiritualized, and detached
from the world, into an organism which would be submissive
to the absolute authority of the papal see, and to concentrate
at Rome all its energies and jurisdictions; to establish the
supremacy of the Roman see over all the Christian Churches, and
win over to the Roman Church the Churches of the Byzantine
Empire, Africa and Asia; to establish the temporal domain of
St Peter, not only by taking possession of Rome and Italy, but
also by placing all the crowns of Europe under the supreme
sovereignty of the popes, or even in direct vassalage to them;
and, finally, to maintain unity of faith in Christendom and
defend it against theattacks of unbelievers, Mussulmans, heretics
and pagans — these were the main features of his scheme. The
task, however, was so gigantic that after 150 years of strenuous
effort, at the period which may be considered as the apogee
of its power, that is, in the first half of' the 13th century,
the papacy had attained only incomplete results. At several
points the work remained unfinished, for decadence followed
close upon the moment of extreme greatness. It is more
particularly in the part of this programme that relates to the
internal policy of the papacy, to the subjection of the Church
to the Curia, and to the intensive concentration of the ecclesi-
astical forces in the hands of the leader of Christendom, that
Gregory went farthest in the execution of his plan and
approached nearest the goal. For the rest, so formidable were
the external obstacles that, without theoretically renouncing his
claims, he was unable to realize them in practice in a manner
satisfactory to himself.
In order to give a clear idea of the vicissitudes through which
the papal institution passed between the years 1087 and 1305
and to show the measure of its success or failure at difterent
stages in its course, it is convenient to divide this section into
four periods.
I. Period from Urban II. to Calixlus II. {1087-1124). —
Gregory VII. 's immediate successors accomplished the most
pressing work by liberating the Church from feudal
subjection, either by force or by diplomacy. This ioS8-l099
was, indeed, the indispensable condition of its internal
and external progress. The great figure of this period is
unquestionably the French Cluniac Urban II., who led the
Hildebrandine reformation with more vehemence than Gregory
himself and was the originator of the crusades. Never through' 1
out the middle ages was pope more energetic, impetuous or
uncompromising. His inflexible will informed the movement
directed against the enemy within, against the simoniacal prelate
and the princely usurper of the rights of the Church, and pre-
scribed the movement against the enemy without, against the
infidel who held the Holy Sepulchre. Urban set his hand to
reforms from which his predecessor Gregory had recoiled. He
simultaneously excommunicated several sovereigns and merci-
lessly persecuted the archbishops and bishops who were hostile
to reform. He took no pains to temper the zeal of his legates,
but incited them to the struggle, and, not content with pro-
hibiting lay investiture and simony, expressly forbade prelates
and even priests to pay homage to the civil power. Distrusting
the secular clergy, who were wholly sunk in the
world, he looked to the regular clergy for support, ti,gcburcb.
and thus led the papacy into that course which it
continued to pursue after his death. Henceforth the monk
was to be the docile instrument of the wishes of Rome, to be
692
PAPACY
[1087-1305
opposed to the official priesthood according to Rome's needs.
Urban was the first to proclaim with emphasis the necessity of
a close association of the Curia with the religious orders, and
this he made the essential basis of the theocratic government.
As the originator of the first crusade, Urban is entitled to
the honour of the idea and its execution. There is no doubt
that he wished to satisfy the complaints that emanated
from the Christians dwelling in Jerusalem and
Crusad^. f™"* '^^ pilgrims to the Holy Sepulchre, but it is
no less certain that he was disturbed by the fears
aroused throughout the Latin world by the recrudescence of
Mussulman invasions, and particularly by the victory won by
the Almoravides over the Christian army at Zalaca (1086).
The progress of these African Mussulmans into Spain and
their incessant piracies in Italy were perhaps the occasional
cause that determined Urban II. to work upon the imagination
of the infidels by an expedition into Syria. The papacy of
that time believed in the political unity of Islam, in a sohdarity
— which did not exist — among the Mussulmans of Asia Minor,
Syria, Egypt and the Barbary coasts; and if it waited until the
year 1095 to carry out this project, it was because the conflict
with the Germanic Empire prevented the earlier realization
of its dream. The essential reason of Urban II. 's action, and
consequently the true cause of the crusade, was the ambition
of the pope to unite with Rome and the Roman Church the
Churches of Jerusalem, Antioch, Alexandria and even Constan-
tinople, which the Greek schism had rendered independent.
This thought had already crossed the minds of Leo IX. and
Gregory VTL, but circumstances had never allowed them to
put it into execution. Armed by the reformation with a moral
authority which made it possible to concentrate the forces of
the West under the supreme direction of the Church and its
leaders. Urban II. addressed himself with his customary decision
to the execution of this enormous enterprise. With him, as with
all his successors, the idea of a collective expedition of Europe
for the recovery of the Holy Places was always associated with
the sanguine hope of extinguishing the schism at Constantinople,
its very centre, by the substitution of a Latin for a Byzantine
domination. Of these two objects, he was only to realize the
former; but the crusade may well be said to have been his own
work. He created it and preached it; he organized it, dominated
it, and constantly supervised it. He was ever ready to act,
either personally or through his delegates, and never ceased
to be the efi'ective leader of all the feudal soldiers he enrolled
under the banner of the Holy See. He corresponded regularly
with his legates and with the military leaders, who kept him
accurately informed of the position of the troops and the pro-
gress of the operations. He acted as intermediary between the
soldiers of Christ and their brothers who remained in Europe,
announcing successes, organizing fresh e.xpeditions, and spurring
the laggards to take the road to Jerusalem.
The vast conflict aroused by the Hildebrandine reformation,
and particularly the investiture quarrel, continued under the
Settlement ^^'•^^ successors of Urban II.; but with them it
of the assumed a different character, and a tendency arose
Investiture to terminate it by other means. The violence and
Quarrel. disorders provoked by the struggle brought about a
reaction, which was organized by certain prelates who advocated
a policy of concihation, such as the Frenchman Ivo, bishop
of Chartres (c 1040-1116). These conciliatory prelates were
sincere supporters of the reformation, and combated simony,
the marriage or concubinage of priests, and the immorality of
sovereigns with the same conviction as the most ardent followers
of Gregory VII. and Urban II.; but they held that the intimate
union of Church and State was indispensable to the social order,
and that the rights of kings should be respected as well as
the rights of priests. The text they preached was harmony
between the priesthood and the state. Dividing what the irrecon-
cilables of the Hildebrandine party considered as an indissoluble
whole, they made a sharp distinction between the property
of the Church and the Church itself, between the political and
territorial power of the bishops and their religious authority.
and between the feudal investiture which confers lands and
jurisdiction and the spiritual investiture which confers ecclesi-
astical rights. This doctrine gradually rallied all moderate
minds, and finally inspired the directors of Christendom in
Rome itself. It explains the new attitude of Paschal II. and
Calixtus II., who were both sincere reformers, but who sought in
a policy of compromise the solution of the difficult problem of"
the relations of Church and State.
History has not done sufficient justice to the Italian monk,'
Paschal II., who was the equal of Urban in private virtues,
personal disinterestedness, and religious conviction,
but was surpassed by him in ardour and rigidity logg.ius. "
of conduct. Altered circumstances and tendencies '
of opinion called for a policy of conciliation. In France,
Paschal granted absolution to Philip I. — who had many
times been anathematized by his predecessors — and reconciled
him solemnly with the Church, on the sole condition that he
should swear to renounce his adulterous marriage. The pope
could be under no delusion as to the value of this oath, which
indeed was not kept; he merely regularized formally a state of
affairs which the intractable Urban II. himself had never been
able to prevent. As for the French question of the investitures,
it was settled apparently without any treaty being expressly
drawn up between the parties. The kings of France contem-
porary with Paschal II. ceased to practice spiritual investiture,
or even to receive feudal homage from the bishops. They did
not, however, renounce all intervention or all profit in the
nominations to prelacies, but their intervention was no longer
exhibited under the forms which the Hildebrandine party held
to be illegal. In England, Paschal II. put an end to the long
quarrel between the royal government and Anselm of Canterbury
by accepting the Concordat of London (1107). The crown in
England also abandoned investiture by the pastoral staff and
ring, but, more fortunate than in France, retained the right
of receiving feudal homage from the episcopate. As for Ger-'
many, the Emperor Henry V. wrung from the pope, by a display
of force at Rome, concessions which provoked the indignant
clamours of the most ardent reformers in France and Italy.
It must not, however, be forgotten that, in the negotiations
at Sutri, Paschal had pride and independence enough to propose
to the emperor the only solution of the conflict that was entirely
logical and essentially Christian, namely, the renunciation by
the Church of its temporal power and the renunciation by the
lay lords of all intervention in elections and investitures — in
other words, the absolute separation of the priesthood and the
state. The idea was contrary to the whole evolution of medieval
Catholicism, and the German bishops were the first to repudiate
it. At all events, it is certain that Paschal II. prepared the way
for the Concordat of Worms. On the other hand, with more
acuteness than his predecessors, he realized that the papacy
could not sustain the struggle against Germany unless it could
rely upon the support of another Christian kingdom of the
West; and he concluded with Philip I. of France Alliance
and Louis the Fat, at the Council of Troyes (1107), »''"'
an alliance which was for more than a century the "■*"'^*'
salvation of the court of Rome. It is from this time that
we find the popes in moments of crisis transporting them-
selves to Capetian territory, installing their governments and
convening their councils there, and from that place of refuge
fulminating with impunity against the internal and external
foe. Without sacrificing the essential principles of the reforma- '
tion. Paschal II. practised a pohcy of peace and reaction in every
way contrary to that of the two preceding popes, and it was
through him that the struggle was once more placed upon the
religious basis. He refused to retain Hugo, bishop of Die
(d. 1106), as legate; like Urban and Gregory, he gave or confirmed
monastic privileges without the protection he granted to the
monks assuming a character of hostility towards the episcopate;
and, finally, he gave an impulse to the reformation of the chapters, _
and, unlike Urban II., maintained the rights of the canons'
against the claims of the abbots. /^
Guy, the archbishop of Vienne, who had been one of the;
I087-I305]
PAPACY
69;
keenest to disavow the policy of Paschal II., was obliged to
continue it when he assumed the tiara under the name of
Calixtus II. By the Concordat of Worms, which he
W!)^/l24 signed with the Emperor Henry V. in 1122, the
investiture was divided between the ecclesiastical
and the lay powers, the emperor investing with the sceptre, the
pope with the pastoral staff and ring. The work did honour
to the perseverance and ability of Calixtus, but it was merely
the application of the ideas of Paschal II. and Ivo of Chartres.
The understanding, however, between the two contracting
parties was very far from being clear and complete, as each
party still sought to attain its own aim by spreading in the
Christian world divergent interpretations of the concordat and
widely-differing plans for reducing it to its final form. And,
again, if this transaction settled the investiture question, it
did not solve the problem of the reconciliation of the universal
power of the popes with the claims of the emperors to the govern-
ment of Europe; and the conflict subsisted — slumbering, it is
true, but ever ready to awake under other forms. Nevertheless,
the two great Christian agitations directed by the papacy at
the end of the nth century and the beginning of the 12th —
the reformation and the crusade — were of capital importance
for the foundation of the immense religious monarchy that had
its centre in Rome; and it is from this period that the papal
monarchy actually dates.
The entry of the Christians into Jerusalem produced an
extraordinary effect upon the faithful of the West. In it they
Effect of the ^^^ ^^^ most manifest ""sign of the divine protection
Laiia and of the supernatural power of the pope, the
Cooijues< 0/ supreme director of the expedition. At its inception
Jerusalem. jj,g Latin kingdom of the Holy Land was within a
little of becoming an ecclesiastical principality, ruled by a
patriarch under the authority of the pope. Daimbert, the first
patriarch of Jerusalem, was convinced that the Roman Church
alone could be sovereign of the new state, and attempted to
compel Godfrey of Bouillon to hand over to him by a solemn
agreement the town and citadel of Jerusalem, and also Jafta.
The clergy, indeed, received a large share; but the government
of the Latin principality remained lay and mihtary, the only
form of government possible for a colony surrounded by perils
and camped in a hostile country. Not only was the result of
the crusade extremely favourable to the extension of the Roman
power, but throughout the middle ages the papacy never ceased
to derive almost incalculable political and financial advantages
from the agitation produced by the preachers and the crusading
expeditions. The mere fact of the crusaders being placed under
the special protection of the Church and the pope, and loaded
with privileges, freed them from the jurisdiction, and even, up
to a certain point, from the lordship of their natural masters,
to become the almost direct subjects of the papacy; and the
common law was then practically suspended for the benefit of
the Church and the leader who represented it.
As for the reformation, which under Urban II. and his
immediate successors was aimed not only at the episcopate
c- I J. but also at the capitulary bodies and monastic
Subordlaa- . , 1 , , . ,
tionoftfie clergy. It, too, could but tend to a consider-
Eplscopate able extension of the authority of the successors of
to tlie Papal gt Peter, for it struck an irremediable blow at
onarc y. ^^^ ancient Christian hierarchy. The first manifest
result of the change was the weakening of the metropolitans.
The visible symptom of this decadence of the archiepiscopal
power was the growing frequency during the Hildebrandine
conflict of episcopal confirmations and consecrations made by
the popes themselves or their legates. From an active instru-
ment of the religious society, the archiepiscopate degenerated
into a purely formal power; while the episcopate itself, which
the sincere reformers wished to liberate and purge in order to
strengthen it, emerged from the crisis sensibly weakened as well
as ameliorated. The episcopate, while it gained in inteUigence
and morality, lost a part of its independence. It was raised
above feudalism only to be abased before the two directing
forces of the reformation, the papacy and the religious orders.
To place itself in a better posture for combating the simoniacal
and concublnary prelates, the court of Rome had had to multiply
exemptions and accelerate the movement which impelled the
monks to make themselves independent of the bishops. Even
in the cities, the seats of the episcopal power, the reformation
encouraged the attempts at revolt or autonomy which tended
everywhere to diminish that power. The cathedral chapters
look advantage of this situation to oppose their jurisdiction
to that of the bishops, and to encroach on their prerogatives.
When war was declared on the schismatic prelates, the reforming
popes supported the canons, and, unconsciously or not, helped
them to form themselves into privileged bodies living their own
lives and affecting to recognize the court of Rome as their only
superior authority. Other adversaries of the episcopate, the
burgesses and the petty nobles dwelling in the city, also profited
by these frequent changes of bishops, and the disorders that
ensued. It was the monarchy of the bishops of Rome that
naturally benefited by these attacks on the aristocratic principle
represented by the high prelacies in the Church. By drawing
to their side all the forces of the ecclesiastical body to combat
feudalism. Urban II. and his successors, with their monks and
legates, changed the constitution of that body, and changed it
to their own advantage. The new situation of these popes and
the growth of their authority were also manifested in the material
organization of their administration and chancery. Under
Urban II. the formulary of the papal bulls began to crystallize,
and the letters amassed in the papal offices were differentiated
clearly into great and little bulls, according to their style,
arrangement and signs of validation. Under Paschal II. the
type of the leaden seal affixed to the bulls (representing the'
heads of the apostles Peter and Paul) was fixed, and the use of
Roman minuscule finally substituted for that of the Lombard
script.
2. Period from Honorius II. to Celestine III. (1124-1108). —
After the reformation and the crusade the papal monarchy
existed, and the next step was to consolidate and extend it.
This task fell to the popes of the 12th century. Two of them in
particular — the two who had the longest reigns — viz. Innocent II.
and Alexander III., achieved the widest extension of the power
entrusted to them, and in many respects their pontificates may
be regarded as a preparation for and adumbration of the pontifi-
cate of Innocent III. This period, however, is characterized
not only by the thoroughgoing development of the authority
of the Holy See, but also by the severe struggle the popes had
to sustain against the hostile forces that were opposed to their
conquests or to the mere exercise of what they regarded as
their right.
In the secular contest, Germany and the imperialist preten-
sions of its leaders were invariably the principaX The Papao'
obstacle. Until the accession of Adrian IV'., how- and the
ever, there had been considerable periods of tran- German
quiUity, years even of unbroken peace and alliance
with the Germanic power. Under Honorius II. the empire,
represented by Lothair III. of Supplinburg, yielded to the
papacy, and Lothair, who was elected by the clergy „ , „
and protected by the legates, begged the pope to 1124-iijo.
confirm his election. Before his coronation he had
renounced the right, so jealously guarded by Henry V., of assist-
ing in the election of bishops and abbots, and he even undertook
to refrain from exacting homage from the prelates and to content
himself with fealty. This undertaking, however, did not prevent
him from bringing all his influence to bear upon the ecclesiastical
nominations. When the schism of 1130 broke out he endea-
voured to procure the cancellation of the clauses of the Concordat
of Worms and to recover lay investiture by way of compen-
sation for the support he had given to Innocent II., one of the
competing popes. This scheme, however, was frustrated by the
firmness of Innocent and St Bernard, and Lothair had to resign
himself to the zealous conservation of the privileges granted
to the Empire by the terms of the concordat. The ardour he
had displayed in securing the recognition of Innocent and
I defending him against his enemies, particularly the anti-pope
69+
PAPACY
[1087-1305
Anacletus and the kingdom of the Two Sicilies, involved him in
a course which was not precisely favourable to the imperial
rights. Innocent II. was the virtual master of this
Il30-n43 "monarch, whose championship of the papacy brought
not the smallest advantage, not even that of being
crowned emperor with the habitual ceremonial at the place
consecrated by tradition. It may even be maintained that his
elevation was due solely to his personal claims. This was a
victory for Rome, and it was repeated in the case of the first
Hohenstaufen, Conrad III., who owed his elevation (1138)
mainly to the princes of the Church and the legate of Inno-
cent II., by whom he was crowned. He also had to submit to the
consequences of his origin on the occasion of a double election
not foreseen by the Concordat of Worms, when he was forced
to admit the necessity of appeal to Rome and to acknowledge
the supremacy of the papal decision. The situation changed
Eugenius in 1152, under Eugenius III., when Frederick
///., Barbarossa was elected German king. He notified
1145-1153. ijjg election to the pope, but did not seek the pope's
approval. None the less, Eugenius III. feUcitated the new-
sovereign on his election, and even signed the treaty of
Constance with him (1153). The pope had need of Frederick
to defend him against the revolted Romans and to help him to
recover his temporal power, which had been gravely com-
promised. Anastasius IV. pursued the same policy, and
Aaasta- summoned the German to Rome (1154). Frederick,
sius IV., however, was determined to keep the seat of the
II53-IIS4. Empire for himself, to dispute Italy with the
pope, and to oppose the divine right of kings to the divine
right of priests. When he had taken Lombardy (11 58) and
had had the principles of the imperial supremacy pro-
claimed by his jurists at the diet of RoncagUa, the court
of Rome reahzed that war was inevitable, and two ener-
getic popes, Adrian IV. and Alexander III., reso-
^,^^'™_jg_"lutely sustained the struggle, the latter for nearly
twenty years. Victims of the communal claims
at Rome, they constituted themselves the champions of similar
claims in northern Italy, and their alliance with the Lombard
communes ultimately led to success. In his duel with Barba-
Alexan. rossa, Alexander III., one of the greatest of medieval
der III.. popes, displayed extraordinary courage, address and
1159-1181. perseverance. Although it must be admitted that
the tenacity of the Lombard republics contributed powerfully
to the pope's victory, and that the triumph of the Milanese at
Legnano (11 76) was the determining cause of Frederick's
submission at Venice, yet we must not exaggerate the importance
of the solemn act by which Barbarossa, kneeling before his
conqueror, recognized the spiritual supremacy of the Holy See,
and swore fideUtyand respect to it. In its final form, the truce
of Venice was not only not unfavourable secularly to the Empire,
but even granted it very extensive advantages. Nor must it be
forgotten that, in the eyes of contemporaries, the scene at
Venice had none of that hiunihating character which later
historians have attributed to it.
This was not the only success gained by Alexander III. over
lay sovereigns. The conflict of the priesthood with the kingdoms
Alexander ^nd nations that were tending to aggrandize them-
///. aad selves by transcending the religious limits of the
Heary- H- medieval theocracy took place on another theatre.
of England, jj^g jij^^ir of Thomas Becket {q.v.) involved the
papacy in a quarrel with the powerful monarchy of the
Angevins, whose representative, Henry II., was master of
England and of the half of France. Alexander's diplomatic
skill and moral authority, reinforced by the Capetian alliance
and the revulsion of feeUng caused by the murder of Becket,
enabled him to force the despotic Henry to yield, and even to do
penance at the tomb of the martyr. The Plantagenet abjured
the Constitutions of Clarendon, recognized the rights of the pope
over the Church of England, and augmented the privileges and
domains of the archbishopric of Canterbury. Although Becket
was a man of narrow sympathies and by no means of liberal
views, he had died for the liberties of his caste, and the aureole
that surrounded him enhanced the prestige and ascendancy of
the papacy.
Unfortunately for the papacy, the successors of Alexander III.
lacked vigour, and their pontificates were too brief to allow
them to pursue a strong pohcy against the Germanic the Papacy
imperiahsm. Never were the leaders of the Church and the
in such jeopardy as during the reign of Barbarossa's^™''*™''
son, Henry VI. This vigorous despot, whose ambi-^*'"'' *'''
tions were not all chimerical, had succeeded where his prede-
cessors, including Frederick, had failed. His marriage with the
heiress of the old Norman kings had made him master of Sicily
and the duchy of Apulia and Calabria, and he succeeded in
conquering and retaining almost all the remainder of the
peninsula. L' nder Ceiestine III. the papal state was surrounded
on every side by German soldiers, and but for the premature
death of the emperor, whom Abbot Joachim of Floris called
the " hammer of the world," the temporal power of the popes
might perhaps have been armihilated.
The Norman kingdom, which had conquered Sicily and
southern Italy at the end of the nth century, was almost as
grave a source of anxiety to the popes of this period.
Not only was its very existence an obstacle to the ^^^^ ^^^'"''
spread of their temporal power in the peninsula, Norman
but it frequently acted in concert with the pope's l^iagdom
enemies and thwarted the papal policy. The itai^"
attempts of Honorius II. (11 28) and Innocent II.
(1139) to wrest Apuha and Calabria from King Roger II., and
Adrian IV. 's war with William I. (11 56), were one and all
unsuccessful; and the papacy had to content itself with the
vassalage and tribute of the Normans, and allowed them to
organize the ecclesiastical government of their domains in their
own fashion, to limit the right of appeal to Rome, and to curtail
the power of the Roman legates. At this period, moreover,
the " Norman Question " was intimately connected with the
" Eastern Question." The Norman adventurers in possession
of Palermo and Naples perpetually tended to look for their
aggrandizement to the Byzantine Empire. In the interests
of their temporal dominion, the 12th-century popes could not
suffer an Itahan power to dominate on the other side of the
Adriatic and instal itself at Constantinople. This contingency
explains the vacillating and illogical character of the papal
diplomacy with regard to the Byzantine problem, and, inter
alia, the opposition of Eugenius III. in 11 50 to Roger II. 's
projected crusade, which was directed towards the conquest
of the Greek state. The popes were under the constant sway of
two contrary influences — on the one hand, the seducing pros-
pect of subduing the Eastern Church and triumphing over
the schism, and, on the other, the apprehension of seeing the
Normans of Sicily, their competitors in Italy, increasing their
already formidable power by successful expeditions into the
Balkan Peninsula. Dread of the Normans, too, explains the
singular attitude of the Curia towards the Comneni, of whom
it was alternately the enemy and the protector or aUy.
But, as regards its temporal aims on Italy, the most incon-
venient and tenacious, if not the most dangerous, adversary of
the 12th-century papacy was the Roman commune.
Since the middle of the 12th century the party of TbePapacy
municipal autonomy and, indeed, the whole of the commuae
European middle classes, who wished to shake off of Rome.
the feudal yoke and secure independence, had been
ranged against the successor of St Peter. The first symptoms
of resistance were exhibited under Innocent II. (1142), who was
unable to stem the growing revolution or prevent the establish-
ment of a Roman senate sitting in the Capitol. The strength
of classical reminiscence and the instinct of liberty were rein-
forced by the support given to communal aspirations by the
popular agitator and dangerous tribune, Arnold of
Brescia (q.v.), whose theories arrived at an opportune Brescia.
moment to encourage the revolted commons. He
denied the power of clerks to possess fiefs, and allowed them only
religious authority and tithes. The successors of Innocent II.
were even less successful in maintaining their supremacy in
I087-I305J
PAPACY
695
Rome. Lucius II., when called upon to renounce all his regalian
rights, fell mortally wounded in an attempt to drive the auto-
nomists by force from the Capitol (1145). Under Eugenius III.
the Romans sacked and destroyed the houses of the clerks and
cardinals, besieged St Peter's and the Lateran, and massacred
the pilgrims. The pope was forced to fly with the Sacred
College, to escape the necessity of recognizing ihe commune,
and thus left the field free to Arnold of Brescia (1145). On his
return to Rome, Eugenius had to treat with his rebel subjects
and to acknowledge the senate they had elected, but he was
ujiable to procure the expulsion of the agitator. The more
energetic Adrian IV. refused to truckle to the municipality,
placed it under an interdict (11 55), and allied himself with
Frederick Barbarossa to quell an insurrection which respected
the rights of emperors no more than the rights of popes. From
the moment that .'Vrnold of Brescia, absorbed in his chimerical
project of reviving the ancient Roman republic, disregarded
the imperial power and neglected to shelter himself behind the
German in his conflict with the priesthood, his failure was
certain and his fate foredoomed. He was hanged and burned,
probably in pursuance of the secret agreement between the pope
and the emperor; and Adrian IV. was reconciled with the
Romans (11 56). The commune, however, subsisted, and was
on several occasions strong enough to eject the masters who were
distasteful to it. Unfortunately for Alexander III. the Roman
question was comphcated during his pontificate with the des-
perate struggle with the Empire. The populace of the Tiber
welcomed and expelled him with equal enthusiasm, and when his
body was brought back from exile, the mob went before the
cortege and threw mud and stones upon the funeral litter. All
obeyed the pontiff of Rome — save Rome itself. Lucius III.,
who was pope for four years (1181-1185), remained in Rome
four months, while Urban III. and Gregory VIII. never entered
the city. At length the two parties grew weary of this state
of revolution, and a regime of conciUation, the fruit of mutual
concessions, was estabhshed under Clement III. By the act of
1 188, the fundamental charter of the Roman commune, the
people recognized the supremacy of the pope over the senate
and the town, while the pope on his part sanctioned the legal
existence of the commune and of its government and assemblies.
Inasmuch as Clement was compelled to make terms with this
new power which had established itself against him in the very
centre of his dominion, the victory may fairly be said to have
rested with the commune.
Although,amongotherobstacIes, the popes of the 12th century
had experienced some difficulty in subduing the inhabitants
Develop- °^ ^^^ "^''yj which was the seat and centre of the
men<o/<fte Christian world, their monarchy did not cease to
Centralized gain in authority, sohdity and prestige, and the work
OrgaaUa- q£ centralization, which was gradually making them
masters of the whole ecclesiastical organism, was ac-
complished steadily and without serious interruption. If Rome
expelled them, they always found a sure refuge in France, where
Alexander III. carried on his government for several years;
and the whole of Europe acknowledged their immense power.
Under Honorius II. the custom prevailed of substituting legates
a latere, simple priests or deacons of the Curia, for the regionary
delegates, who had grown too independent; and that excellent
instrument of rule, the Roman legate, carried the papal will into
the remotest courts of Europe. The episcopate and the great
monastic prelacies continued to lose their independence, as was
shown by Honorius II. deputing a cardinal to Monte Cassino
to elect an abbot of his choosing. The progress of the Roman
power was especially manifested under Innocent II., who had
triumphed over the schism, and was supported by the Empire
and by Bernard of Clairvaux, the first moral authority of his
time. He suspended an archbishop of Sens (1136) who had
neglected to take into consideration the appeal to Rome, sum-
moned an archbishop of Milan to Rome to receive the paUium
from the pope's hands, lavished exemptions, and extended
the right of appeal to such abnormal lengths that a Byzantine
ambassador is reported to have exclaimed to Lothair III.,
" Your Pope Innocent is not a bishop, but an emperor."
When the universal Church assembled at the second Lateran
Council (1139), this leader of reUgiun declared to the bishops
that he was the absolute master of Christendom. " Ye know,"
he said, " that Rome is the capital of the world, that ye hold
your dignities of the Roman pontiff as a vassal holds his fiefs
of his sovereign, and that ye cannot retain them without his
assent." Under Eugenius III., a Cistercian monk who was
scarcely equal to his task, the papal absolutism grew sensibly
weaker, and if we may credit the testimony of the usually well-
informed German chronicler. Otto of Freising, there arose in
the college of cardinals a kind of fermentation which was
exceedingly disquieting for the per.sonal power of the leader of
the Church. In the case of a difference of opinion between
Eugenius and the Sacred College, Otto relates that the cardinals
addressed to the pope this astounding protest: "Thou must
know that it is by us thou hast been raised to the supreme
dignity. We are the hinges {cardines) upon which the universal
Church rests and moves. It is through us that from a private
person thou hast become the father of all Christians. It is, then,
no longer to thyself but rather to us that thou belongest hence-
forth. Thou must not sacrifice to private and recent friendships
the traditional affections of the papacy. Perforce thou must
consult before everything the general interest of Christendom,
and must consider it an obligation of thine office to respect the
opinions of the highest dignitaries of the court of Rome." If we
admit that the cardinals of Eugenius III. succeeded in restricting
the omnipotence of their master for their own ends, it must
invariably have been the Curia that dictated its wishes to the
Church and to Europe. The papacy, however, recovered its
ascendancy during the pontificate of Alexander III., and seemed
more powerful than ever. The recently created royalties sought
from the papacy the conservation of their titles and the bene-
diction of their crowns, and placed themselves voluntarily in
its vassalage. The practice of the nomination of bishops by the
Curia and of papal recommendation to prebends and benefices
of every kind grew daily more general, and the number of
appeals to Rome and exemptions granted to abbeys and even
to simple churches increased continually. The third Lateran
Council (11 79) was a triumph for the leader of the Church. At
that council wise and urgent measures were taken against the
abuses that discredited the priesthood, but the principle of
appeals and exemptions and the question of the increasing
abuse of the power wielded by the Roman legates remained
untouched. The treatise on canon law known as the Decretiim
Graliani, which was compiled towards the middle of the uth
century and had an enduring and far-reaching effect (see Canon
Law), merely gave theoretical sanction to the existing situation
in the Church. It propagated doctrines in favour of the power
of the Holy See, established the superiority of the popes over
the councils, and gave legal force to their decretals. According
to its author, " they (the popes) are above all the laws of the
Church, and can use them according to their wish; they alone
judge and cannot be judged."
It was by its constant reliance on monachism that the papacy
of the 1 2th century had attained this result, and the popes of
that period were especially fortunate in having for
their champion the monk St Bernard, whose '^"^^"°l
admirable qualities enabled him to dominate pubhc ciaUvau.x.
opinion. St Bernard completed the reformation,
combated heresy, and by his immense moral ascendancy gained
victories by which Rome benefited. As instances of his more
direct services, he put an end to the schism of 1130 and attached
Italy and the world to the side of Innocent III. Although he
had saved the papal institution from one of the gravest perils
it had ever encountered, the cardinals, the court of Rome and
Innocent himself could not easily pardon him for being what he
had become — a private person more powerful in the Church
than the pope and the bishops, and holding that power by his
personal prestige. He incurred their special reproaches by his
condemnation of the irresistible evolution which impelled Rome
to desire exclusive dominion over Catholic Europe and to devote
6g6'
PAPACY
[1087-1305
Encroach
meats.
her attention to earthly things. He did not condemn the
temporal power of the popes in plain terms, but both his writings
and his conduct proved that that power was in his opinion diffi-
cult to reconcile with the spiritual mission of the papacy, and
was, moreover, a menace to the future of the institution. (See
Berx.ard, Saixt.)
At the very moment when the papacy thus attained omni-
potence, symptoms of discontent and opposition arose. The
bishops resisted centralization. Archbishop Hildebert
tothePapal^^ Tours protested to Honorius II. against the
Exactlotts appeals to Rome, while others complained of the
B°d enactions of the legates, or, like John of Salisbury,
animadverted upon the excessive powers of the
bureaucracy at the Lateran. In the councils strange
speeches were heard from the mouths of laymen, who were
beginning to carry to extreme lengths the spirit of independence
with regard to Rome. When a question arose at Toulouse
in 1 160 as to the best means of settling the papal schism, this
audacious statement was made before the kings of France and
England: " That the best course was to side with neither of the
two popes; that the apostoHc see had been ever a burden to
the princes; that advantage must be taken of the schism to throw
off the yoke; and that, while awaiting the death of one of the
competitors, the authority of the bishops was sufficient in France
and England alike for the government of the churches." The
ecclesiastics themselves, however, were the first to denounce
the abuses at Rome. The treatises of Gerhoh of Reichersberg
(1093-1169) abound in trenchant attacks upon the greed and
venality of the Curia, the arrogance and extortion of the legates,
the abuse of exemptions and appeals, and the German policy
of Adrian IV. and Alexander III. In his efforts to make the
papal institution entirely worthy of its mission St Bernard
himself did not shrink from presenting to the papacy " the mirror
in which it could recognize its deformities." In common with
all enlightened opinion, he complained bitterly of the excessive
multiplication of exemptions, of the exaggerated extension of
appeals to Rome, of the luxury of the Roman court, of the
venality of the cardinals, and of the injury done to the traditional
hierarchy by the very extent of the papal power, which was
calculated to turn the strongest head. In St Bernard's treatise
Dc consUeratione, addressed to Pope Eugenius III., the papacy
receives as many reprimands and attacks as it does marks of
affection and friendly counsel. To warn Eugenius against
pride, Bernard reminds him in biblical terms that an insensate
sovereign on a throne resembles " an ape upon a housetop," and
that the dignity with which he is invested does not prevent him
from being a man, that is, " a being, naked,' poor, miserable,
made for toil and not for honours." To his thinking, poison
and the dagger were less to be feared by the pope than the lust
of power. Ambition and cupidity were the source of the most
deplorable abuses in the Roman Church. The cardinals, said
Bernard, were satraps who put pomp before the truth. He was
at a loss to justify the unheard-of luxury of the Roman court.
'• I do not find," he said, " that St Peter ever appeared in public
loaded with gold and jewels, clad in silk, mounted on a white
mule, surrounded by soldiers and followed by a brilliant retinue.
In the glitter that environs thee, rather wouldst thou be taken
for the successor of Constantine than for the successor of Peter."
Rome, however, had greater dangers to cope with than the
indignant reproofs of her friends the monks, and the opposition
Growth of of the bishops, who were displeased at the spectacle
Heretical of their authority waning day by day. It was at
Sects. jjjjg p^^riod that the Catholic edifice of the middle
ages began to be shaken by the boldness of philosophical specula-
tion as applied to theological studies and also by the growth of
heresy. Hitherto more tolerant of heresy than the local
authorities, the papacy now felt compelled to take defensive
measures against it, and especially against Albigensianism,
which had made great strides in the south of France since the
middle of the 12th century. Innocent II., Eugenius III. and
Alexander III. excommunicated the sectaries of Languedoc
and their abettors, .■\lexander even sending armed missions to
hunt them down and punish them. But the preaching of the
papal legates, even when supported by military demonstrations,
had no effect; and the Albigensian question, together with other
questions vital for the future of the papacy, remained unsettled
andmore formidable than ever when Innocent III. was elected.
3. Period Jyom Innocent III. to Alexander [IV. {11(18-1261). — '
Under the pontificates of Innocent III. and his five immediate
successors the Roman monarchy seemed to have laaoceat
reached the pinnacle of its moral prestige, religious '"•. 1198-
authority and temporal power, and this [development ' '
was due in great measure to Innocent III. himself. Between
the perhaps excessive admiration of Innocent's biographer,
Friedrich von Hurter, and the cooler estimate of a later historian,
Felix Rocquain, who, after taking into consideration Innocent's
political mistakes, lack of foresight and numerous disappoint-
ments and failures, concludes that his reputation has been much
exaggerated, it is possible to steer a middle course and form a
judgment that is at once impartial and conformable to the
historical facts. Innocent was an eminent jurist and canonist,
and never ceased to use his immense power in the service of the
law. Indeed, a great part of his life was passed in hearing
pleadings and pronouncing judgments, and few sovereigns have
ever worked so industriously or shown such solicitude for the
impartial exercise of their judicial functions. It is difficult
to comprehend Innocent's extraordinary activity. Over and
above the weight of political affairs, he bore resolutely for
eighteen years the overwhelming burden of the presidency of
a tribunal before which the whole of Europe came to plead. To
him, also, in his capacity of theologian, the whole of Europe
submitted every obscure, delicate or controverted question,
whether legal problem or case of conscience. This, undoubtedly,
was the part of his task that Innocent preferred, and it was to
this, as well as to his much overrated moral and theological
treatises, that he owed his enormous contemporary prestige.
As a statesman, he certainly committed grave faults — through
excess of diplomatic subtlety, lack of forethought, and sometimes
even through ingenuousness; but it must with justice be admitted
that, in spite of his reputation for pugnacity and obstinacy, he
never failed, either by temperament or on principle, to e.xhaust
every peaceful expedient in settling questions. He was averse
from violence, and never resorted to bellicose acts or to the
employment of force save in the last extremity. If his policy
miscarried in several quarters it was eminently successful in
others; and if we consider the sum of his efforts to achieve the
programme of the medieval papacy, it cannot be denied that the
extent of his rule and the profound influence he exerted on his
times entitle him to be regarded as the most perfect type of
medieval pope and one of the most powerful figures in history.
A superficial glance at Innocent's correspondence is sufficient
to convince us that he was pre-eminently concerned for the
reformation and moral welfare of the Church, and j.^^ Fourth
was animated by the best intentions for the re-estab- Lateraa
lishment in the ecclesiastical body of order, peace and Council,
respect for the hierarchy. This was one of the prin- ' •
cipal objects of his activity, and this important side of his work
received decisive sanction by the promulgation of the decrees
of the fourth Lateran Council (1215). At this council almost
all the questions at issue related to reform, and many give evi-
dence of great breadth of mind, as well as of a very acute sense
of contemporary necessities. Innocent's letters, however, not
only reveal that superior wisdom which can take into account
practical needs and relax severity of principle at the right
moment, as well as that spirit of tolerance and equity which is
opposed to the excess of zeal and intellectual narrowness of
subordinates, but they also prove that, in the internal govern-
ment of the Church, he was bent on gathering into his hands
all the motive threads, and that he stretched the absolutist
tradition to its furthest limits, intervening in the most trifling
acts in the lives of the clergy, and regarding it as an obligation
of his office to act and think for all. The heretic peril, which
increased during his pontificate, forced him to take decisive
measures against the Albigenses in the south of France, but
I087-I305]
PAPACY
697
before proscribing them he spent ten years (i 198-1208) in
endeavouring to convert the misbelievers, and history should not
j-l,g forget the pacific character of these early efforts. It
Alblgeoslanwas because they did not succeed that necessity and
Crusades ^jjg violence of human passions subsequently forced
him into a course of action which he had not chosen and which
led him further than he wished to go. When he was compelled
to decree the Albigensian crusade he endeavoured more than
once to discontinue the work, which had become perverted, and
to curb the crusading ardour of Simon de Montfort. Failing in
his attempt to maintain the religious character of the crusade,
he wished to prevent it from ending secularly in its extreme
consequence and logical outcome. On several occasions he
defended the cause of moderation and justice against the fanatical
crusaders, but he never had the energy to make it prevail.
It is very doubtful whether this was possible, and an impartial
historian must take into account the insuperable difficulties
encountered by the medieval popes in their eft'orts to stem the
flood of fanaticism.
It was more particularly in the definitive constitution of the
temporal and political power of the papacy, in the extension of
Papal what may be called Roman imperialism, that chance
Imperialism favoured his efforts and enabled him to pursue his
under conquests farthest. This imperialism was undoubt-
laaocentni. ^jj^ ^j ^ special nature; it rested on moral authority
and political and financial power rather than on material and
military strength. But it is no less certain that Innocent
attempted to subject the kings of Europe by making them his
tributaries and vassals. He wished to acquire the mastery of
souls by unifying the faith and centralizing the priesthood, but
he also aspired to possess temporal supremacy, if not as direct
owner, at least as suzerain, over all the national crowns, and thus
to realize the idea with which he was penetrated and which he
himself expressed clearly. He wished to be at once pope and
emperor, leader of religion and universal sovereign. And, in
fact, he exercised or claimed suzerain rights, together with the
political and pecuniary advantages accruing, over the greater
number of the lay sovereigns of his time. He was more or less
effectively the supreme temporal chief of the kingdom of Sicily
and Naples, Sardinia, the states of the Iberian peninsula (Castile,
Leon, Navarre and Portugal), Aragon (which, under Peter II.,
was the type of vassal and tributary kingdom of the Roman
power), the Scandinavian states, the kingdom of Hungary, the
Slav states of Bohemia, Poland, Servia, Bosnia and Bulgaria,
and the Christian states founded in Syria by the crusaders of
the 1 2th century. The success of Roman imperialism was
particularly remarkable in England, where Innocent was
confronted by one of the principal potentates of the West, by the
heir of the power that had been founded by two statesmen of the
first rank, William the Conqueror and Henry II. In Richard I.
and John he had exceptionally authoritative adversaries; but
after one of the fiercest wars ever waged by the civil power
against the Church, Innocent at length gained over John the
most complete victory that has ever been won by a religious
potentate over a temporal sovereign, and constrained him to
Innoceatlll. make complete submission. In 1213 the pope
and John 0/ became not only the nominal suzerain hut, dc facto
Bnglaad. ^^^ j^ jure, the veritable sovereign of England, and
during the last years of John and the first years of Henry III.
he governed England effectively by his legates. This was
the most striking success of Innocent's diplomacy and the
culminating point of his secular work.
The papacy, however, encountered serious obstacles, at first
at the very centre of the papal empire, at Rome, where the pope
had to contend with the party of communal autonomy for ten
years before being able to secure the mastery at Rome. His
lanocentni., immense authority narrowly escaped destruction
Rome and but a stone's-throw from the Lateran palace; but
Italy. ^j,g victory Anally rested with him, since the Roman
people could no* dispense with the Roman Church, to which it
owed its existence. Reared in the nurture of the pope, the
populace of the Tiber renounced its stormy liberty in 1209,
and accepted the peace and order that a beneficent master gave;
but when Innocent attempted to extend to the whole of Italy
the regime of paternal subjection that had been so successful at
Rome, the difficulties of the enterprise surpassed the powers
even of a leader of religion. He succeeded in imposing his will
on the nobles and communes in the patrimony of St Peter, and,
as guardian of Henry VT.'s son Frederick, was for some time able
to conduct the government of the kingdom of the Two Sicilies,
but in his claims on the rest of Italy the failure of the temporal
power was manifest. He was unable, either by diplomacy or
force of arms, to make Italian unity redound to the exclusive
benefit of the Holy See. Nor was his failure due to lack of
activity or energy, but rather to the insuperable obstacles in his
path — the physical configuration of Italy, and, above all, the
invincible repugnance of the Itahan municipalities to submit to
the mastery of a religious power.
As fai as the Empire was concerned, chance at first favoured
Innocent. For ten years a Germany weakened and divided by
the rivalry of Philip of Swabia and Ottoof Brunswick innoceatlll.
left his hands free to act in Italy, and his pontificate and the
marks a period of comparative quiet in the ardent ^"'P''^-
conflict between pope and emperor which continued throughout
the middle ages. Not until 1210, when Otto of Brunswick
turned against the pope to whom he owed his crown, was
Innocent compelled to open hostilities; and the struggle ended
in a victory for the Curia. Frederick II., the new emperor
created by Innocent, began by handing over his country to Rome
and sacrificing the rights of the Empire to the union of the two
great authorities of the Christian world. In his dealings with
Frederick, Innocent experienced grievous vicissitudes and
disappointments, but finally became master of the situation.
One nation only — the France of Philip Augustus — was able to
remain outside the Roman vassalage. There is not a word, in
the documents concerning the relations of Philip Augustus
with Rome, from which we may conclude that the Capetian
crown submitted, or that the papacy wished to impose upon it
the effective suzerainty of the Holy See. Innocent III. had been
able to encroach on France at one point only, when the Albigen-
sian crusade had enabled him to exercise over the southern fiefs
conquered by Simon de Montfort a poHtical and secular
supremacy in the form of collections of moneys. Finally,
Innocent III. was more fortunate than his predecessors, and, if
he did not succeed in carrying out his projected crusade and
recovering the Holy Places, he at least benefited by the Franco-
Venetian expedition of 1202. Europe refused to take any direct
action against the Mussulman, but Latin feudalism, i_atio Con-
assembled at Venice, diverted the crusade by an act Quest of Coa-
of formal disobedience, marched on Constantinople, ^^"""opi^-
seized the Greek Empire and founded a Latin Empire in its place;
and Innocent had to accept the fait accompli. Though con-
demning it on principle, he turned it to the interests of the
Roman Church as well as of the universal Church. With joy
and pride he welcomed the Byzantine East into the circle of
vassal peoples and kingdoms of Rome bound politically to the
see of St Peter, and with the same emotions beheld the patri-
archate of Constantinople at last recognize Roman supremacy.
But from this enormous increase of territor3' and influence arose
a whole series of new and dilBcult problems. The court of Rome
had to substitute for the old Greek hierarchy a hierarchy of
Latin bishops; to force the remaining Greek clergy to practise
the beliefs and rites of the Roman religion and bow to the
supremacy of the pope; to maintain in the Greco-Latin Eastern
Church the necessary order, morality and subordination; to
defend it against the greed and violence of the nobles and barons
who had founded the Latin Empire; and to compel the leaders
of the new empire to submit to the apostolic power and execute
its commands. In his endeavours to carry out the whole of
this programme. Innocent III. met with insuperable obstacles
and many disappointments. On the one hand, the Greeks were
unwilling to abandon their religion and national cult, and scarcely
recognized the ecclesiastical supremacy of the papacy. On the
other hand, the upstart Latin emperors, far from proving
698
PAPACY
[1087-1305
submissive and humble tools, assumed with the purple the
habits and pretensions of the sovereigns they had dispossessed.
Nevertheless, Innocent left his successors a much vaster and
more stable political dominion than that which he had received
from his predecessors, since it comprised both East and West;
and his five immediate successors were able to preserve this
ascendancy. They even extended the limits of Roman imperial-
ism by converting the pagans of the Baltic to Christianity, and
further reinforced the work of ecclesiastical centralization by
enlisting in their service a force which had recently come into
existence and was rapidly becoming popular — the mendicant
orders, and notably the Dominicans and Franciscans. The
The Friars Roman power was also increased by the formation
and the of the Universities — privileged corporations of
UalversHles. masters and students, which escaped the local power
of the bishop and his chancellor only to place themselves under
the direction and supervision of the Holy See. Mistress of the
entire Christian organism, Rome thus gained control of inter-
national education, and the mendicant monks who formed her
devoted militia lost no time in monopolizing the professorial
chairs. Although the ecclesiastical monarchy continued to
gain strength, the successors of Innocent III. made less use
than he of their immense power. Under Gregory IX. (1227-
1241) and Innocent I\'. (i 243-1 254) the conflict between the
priesthood and the Empire was revived by the enigmatic
Frederick II., the polyglot and lettered emperor, the friend of
Saracens, the despot who, in youth styled " king of priests," in
later years personified ideas that were directly opposed to the
medieval theocracy; and the struggle lasted nearly thirty years.
The Hohenstaufen succumbed to it, and the papacy itself
received a terrible shock, which shook its vast empire to the
foundations.
Nevertheless, the first half of the 13th century may be regarded
as the grand epoch of medieval papal history. Supreme in
Culmlaatloa Europe, the papacy gathered into a body of doctrine
of the Papal the decisions given in virtue of its enormous de facto
Power. power, and promulgated its collected decrees and
oracula to form the immutable law of the Christian world.
Innocent III., Honorius III. and Gregory IX. employed their
jurists to collect the most important of their rulings, and
Gregory's decrees became the definitive repository of the canon
law. Besides making laws for the Christendom of the present
and the future, these popes employed themselves in giving a
more regular form to their principal administrative organ, the
offices of the Curia. The development of the Roman chancery
is also a characteristic sign of the evolution that was taking place.
From the time of Innocent III. the usages of the apostolic
scribes become transformed into precise rules, which for the
most part remained in force until the isth century.
4. Period from Urban IV. to Benedict XI. (i26l-ljo§). —
This period comprises 13 pontificates, all of short duration
(three or four years at the most, and some only a few months),
with the exception of that of Boniface VIII. , who was pope for
nine years. This accidental fact constitutes a prime difference
in favour of the preceding period, in which there were only five
pontiffs during the first sixty years of the 13th century. Towards
the end of the 13th centur>' the directors of the Christian world
occupied the throne of St Peter for too short a time to be able
to make their personal views prevail or to execute their political
projects at leisure after ripe meditation. Whatever the merit
of a Gregory X. or a Nicholas III., the brevity of their pontifi-
cates prevented any one of these ephemeral sovereigns from
being a great pope.
But other and far more important differences characterize
this period. Although there was no theoretical restriction to
Influence of the temporal supremacy and religious power of the
the Power papacy, certain historical facts of great importance
of France, contributed to the fatal diminution of their extent.
The first of these was the preponderance of the French monarchy
and nation in Europe. Founded by the conquests of Philip
Augustus and Louis VIII. and legitimated and extended by
the policy and moral influence of the crowned saint, Louis IX.,
the French monarchy enjoyed undisputed supremacy at the end
of the 13th century and the beginning of the 14th; and this
hegemony of France was manifested, not only by the extension
of the direct power exercised by the French kings over all the
neighbouring nationalities, but also by the establishment of
Capetian dynasties in the kingdom of the Two Sicilies and in
Hungary. From this time the sovereign of Rome, like other
sovereigns, had to submit to French influence. But, whereas
the pope was sometimes compelled to become the instrument of
the policy of the kings of France or the adventurers of their race,
he was often able to utilize this new and pervading force for the
realization of his own designs, although he endeavoured from
time to time, but without enduring success, to shake off the
overwhelming yoke of the French. In short, it was in the
sphere of French interests much more than in that of the general
interests of Latin Christendom that the activities of these popes
were exerted. The fact of many of the popes being of French
birth and France the field of their diplomacy shows that the
supreme pontificate was already becoming French in character.
This change was a prelude to the more or less complete subjection
of the papacy to French influence which took place in the
following century at the period of the " Babylonish Captivity,"
the violent reaction personified by Boniface VIII. affording but
a brief respite in this irresistible evolution. It was the French-
man Urban IV. (1261-1264) who called Charles of Anjou into
Italy to combat the last heirs of Frederick II. and thus paved
the way for the establishment of the Angevin dynasty on the
throne of Naples. Under Clement IV. (i 265-1 268) an agreement
was concluded by which Sicily was handed over to the brother
of St Louis, and the victories of Benevento (1266) and Taglia-
cozzo (1267) assured the triumph of the Guelph party and enabled
the Angevins to plant themselves definitely on Neapoh'tan soil.
Conradin's tragic and inevitable end closed the last act of the
secular struggle between the Holy See and the Empire.
Haunted by the recollection of that formidable conflict and
lulled in the security of the Great Interregnum, which was to
render Germany long powerless, the papacy thought merely
of the support that France could give, and paid no heed to the
dangers threatened by the extension of Charles of Anjou's
monarchy in central and northern Italy. The Visconti Gregory X.
(1271-1276) made an attempt to bring about a reaction
against the tendency which had influenced his two immediate
predecessors. He placed himself outside the theatre of French
influence, and occupied himself solely with the task of giving to
the papal monarchy that character of universality and pohtical
superiority which had made the greatness of an Alexander III.
or an Innocent III. He opposed the aggrandizing projects of
the Angevins, intervened in Germany with a view to terminating
the Great Interregnum, and sought a necessary counterpoise
to Capetian predominance in an alliance with Rudolph of
Habsburg, who had become an emperor w^ithout imperilling
the papacy. The Orsini Nicholas III. pursued the same policy
with regard to the independence and greatness of the Roman
See, but died too soon for the cause he upheld, and, at his death
in 1280, the inevitable current revived with overpowering
force. His successor, Martin IV. (12S1-12S5), a prelate of
Champagne, brother of several councillors of the king of France,
prebendary at Rouen and Tours, and one of the most zealous
in favour of the canonization of Louis IX., ascended the papal
throne under the auspices of Charles of Anjou, and undertook
the government of the Church with the sole intention of further-
ing in every way the interests of the country of his birth. A
Frenchman before everything, he abased the papal power to
such an extent as to excite the indignation of his contemporaries,
often slavishly subordinating it to the e.xigencies of the domestic
and foreign policy of the Angevins at Naples and the reigning
house at Paris. But he was prevented from carrying out this
policy by an unforeseen blow, the Sicilian Vespers (March 1282),
an event important both in itself and in its results. By rejecting
the Capetian sovereign that Rome wished to thrust upon it to
deliver it from the dynasty of Aragon, the little island of Sicily
arrested the progress of French imperialism, ruined the vast
I087-I305]
PAPACY
699
projects of Charles of Anjou, and liberated the papacy in its
own despite from a subjection that perverted and shook its
power. Ilonorius IV. (1285-1287) and Nicholas IV. (1288-1292)
were able to act with greater dignity and independence than
their predecessors. Though remaining leagued with the
Angevins in southern Italy, they dared to look to Germany
and Rudolph of Habsburg to help them in their efforts to add
to the papal dominion a part of northern Italy and, in particular,
Tuscany. But they still continued to desire the restoration of
the Angevin dynasty in Sicily and to assist the designs of France
on Aragon by preaching a crusade against the masters of
Barcelona and Palermo. The hopes of the Curia were frustrated
by the resistance of the Aragonese and Sicilians, and Charles of
Valois, to whom the Curia eventually destined the crown of
Aragon, had to resign it for that of Constantinople, which he
also failed to secure.
Boniface VIII. himself at the beginning of his pontificate
yielded to the current, and, like his predecessors, adapted his
external policy to the pretensions and interests of
fjgj^ijoj^'"'^^^ great Capetian house, which, like all his prede-
cessors, he at first countenanced. In spite of his
instincts for dominion and the ardour of his temperament, he
made no attempt to shake off the French yoke, and did not
decide on hostilities with France until Philip the Fair and his
legists attempted to change the character of the kingship,
emphasized its lay tendencies, and exerted themselves to gratify
the desire for political and financial independence which was
shared by the French nation and many other European peoples.
The war which ensued between the pope and the king of France
ended in the complete defeat of the papacy, which was reduced
to impotence (1303), and though the storm ceased during the
Sublectioa ''''^^ months' pontificate of Benedict XL, the See of
otihe St Peter recovered neither its normal equilibrium
Papacy to nor its traditional character. The accession of the
France. g^g^ Avignon pope, Clement V., marks the final
subjection of the papal power to the Capetian government,
the inevitable result of the European situation created in
the preceding century.
In other respects the papacy of this period found itself in a
very inferior situation to that which it had occupied under
Innocent III. and the popes of the first half of the 13th century.
The fall of the Latin Empire and the retaking of Constantinople
by the Palaeologi freed a great part of the Eastern world from
the political and religious direction of Rome, and this fact
necessarily engaged the diplomacy of Urban IV. and his suc-
cessors in an entirely different direction. To them the Eastern
problem presented a less complex aspect. There could no
longer be any serious question of a collective expedition of
Europe lot the recovery of the Holy Places. The ingenuous
faith of a Louis IX. was alone capable of giving rise to two
crusades organized privately and without the influence or even
the approval of the pope. Although all these popes, and
Gregory X. especially, never ceased theoretically to urge the
Christian world to the crusade, they were actuated by the desire
of remaining faithful to tradition, and more particularly by the
political and financial advantages accruing to the Holy See from
the preaching and the crusading expeditions. The European
state of mind no longer lent itself to such enterprises, and,
moreover, under such brief pontificates, the attenuated Roman
power could not expect to succeed where Innocent III. himself
had failed. The main preoccupation of all these popes was how
best to repair the injury done to orthodox Europe and to Rome
by the destruction of the Latin Empire. Several of them thought
of restoring the lost empire by force, and thus giving a pendant
„ , to the fourth crusade; but the Curia finally realized
Lyoas, 1274. *"6 enormous difficulties of such a project, and con-
Reiations vinced themselves that the only practical solution of
with the the difficulty was to come to an understanding with
Church. the Palaeologi and realize pacifically the long-dreamed
union of the Greek and Latin Churches. The nego-
tiations begun by Urban IV. and continued more or less actively
by his successors were at last concluded in 1274 by Gregory X.
The Council of Lyons proclaimed the union, which was destined
to be effective for a few years at least and to be prolonged
precariously in the midst of unfavourable circumstances. The
Greek mind was opposed to the union; the acquiescence of the
Byzantine emperors was but an ephemeral expedient of their
foreign policy; and the peace between the Latins and
Greeks settled on Byzantine soil could not endure for long.
The principal obstacle, however, was the incompatibility
of the popes' Byzantine and Italian policies. The popes
were in favour of Charles of Anjou and his dynasty, but
Charles was hostile to the union of the two Churches,
since it was his intention to seize the Byzantine Empire
and substitute himself for the Palaeologi. Almost all the
successors of Urban IV. were compelled to exert their diplomacy
against the aggrandizing aims of the man they had themselves
installed in southern Italy, and to protect the Greek emperor,
with whom they were negotiating the religious question. On
several occasions between the years 1271 and 1273 the Angevins
of Naples, who had great influence in Achaea and Albania and
were solidly supported by their allies in the Balkan Peninsula,
nearly carried out their project; and in 1274 the opposition of
Charles of Anjou came near to compromising the operations
of the council of Lyons and ruining the work of Gregory X. The
papacy, however, held its ground, and Nicholas III., the worthy
continuer of Gregory, succeeded in preserving the union and
triumphing over the Angevin power. The Angevins took their
revenge under Martin IV., who was a stanch supporter of the
French. Three weeks after his coronation Martin excommuni-
cated the Greek emperor and all his subjects, and allied himself
with Charles of Anjou and the Venetians to compass his downfall.
In this case, too, the Sicilian Vespers was the rock on which the
hopes and pretensions of the sovereign of Naples suffered
shipwreck. After Martin's death the last popes of the 13th
century, and notably Boniface VIII., in vain thought to find
in another Capetian, Charles of Valois, the man who was to
re-establish the Latin dominion at Byzantium. But the East
was lost; the union of 1274 was quickly dissolved; and the
reconciliation of the two Churches again entered into the category
of chimeras.
During this period the papal institution, considered in its
internal development, already showed symptoms of decadence.
The diminution of religious faith and sacerdotal
prestige shook it to its very foundations. The papac^/'*^
growth of the lay spirit continued to manifest itself
among the burgesses of the towns as well as among the feudal
princes and sovereigns. The social factors of communism
and nationalism, against which Innocent III. and his successors
had struggled, became more powerful and more hostile to
theocratic domination. That a sovereign like St Louis
should be able to associate himself officially with the
feudalism of his realm to repress abuses of church juris-
diction; that a contemporary of Philip the Fair, the lawxer
Pierre Dubois, should dare to suggest the secularization of
ecclesiastical property and the conversion of the clergy into
a class of functionaries paid out of the royal treasury; and that
Philip the Fair, the adversary of Boniface VIII., should be able
to rely in his conflict with the leader of the Church on the popular
consent obtained at a meeting of the Three Estates of France —
all point to a singular demoralization of the sentiments and
principles on which were based the whole power of the pontiff
of Rome and the entire organization of medieval Catholicism.
Both by its attitude and by its governmental acts, the papacy of
the later 13th century itself contributed to increase the discredit
and disaffection from which it suffered. Under Urban IV. and
his successors the great moral and religious sovereignty of
former times became a purely bureaucratic monarchy, in which
the main preoccupation of the governors appeared to be the
financial exploitation of Christendom. In the registers of these
popes, which are now being actively investigated and published,
dispensations (licences to violate the laws of the Church);
indulgences; imposts levied with increasing regularity on uni-
versal Christendom and, in particular, on the clerks; the
700
PAPACY
[i 305-1 590
settlement of questions relating to church debts; the granting ol
lucrative benefices to Roman functionaries; the divers processes
by which the Curia acquired the immediate disposal of monastic,
capitul0.ry and episcopal revenues — in short, all financial
matters are of the first importance. It was in the 14th century
more especially that the Apostolic Chamber spread the net
of its fiscal administration wider and wider over Christian
Europe; but at the close of the 13th century all the preliminary
measures had been taken to procure for the papal treasury its
enormous and permanent resources. The continued efforts of
the popes to drain Christian gold to Rome were limited only by
the fiscal pretensions of the lay sovereigns, and it was this
financial rivalry that gave rise to the inevitable conflict between
Boniface VHI. and Philip the Fair.
By thus devoting itself to material interests, the papacy
contemporary with the last Capetians lost its moral greatness
Abuse of and fell in the opinion of the peoples; and it did
the Papal itself no less injury by the abnormal extension of
Power. j^jjg bounds of its absolutism. By its exaggerated
methods of centralization the papal monarchy had absorbed
within itself all the living forces of the religious world and
suppressed all the liberties in which the Church of old had
lived. The subjection of the secular clergy was complete,
while the episcopate retained no shadow of its independence.
The decree of Clement IV. (1266), empowering the papacy to
dispose of all vacant bishoprics at the court of Rome, merely
sanctioned a usage that had long been established. But the
control exercised by the Roman Curia over the episcopate had
been realized by many other means. It was seldom that an
episcopal election took, place without a division in the chapter,
in which resided the electoral right. In such an event, the
competitors appealed to the Holy See and abdicated their
right, either voluntarily or under coercion, in manibus papae,
while the pope took possession of the vacant see. Nominations
directly made by the court of Rome, especially in the case of
dioceses long vacant, became increasingly numerous. The
principle of election by canons was repeatedly violated, and
threatened to disappear; and at the end of the 13th century
the spectacle was common of prelates, whether nominated or
confirmed by the pope, entitling themselves " bishops by the
grace of the Holy See." The custom in force required bishops
established by papal authority to take an oath of fidelity to the
pope and the Roman Church, and this oath bound them in a
particular fashion to the Curia. Those bishops, however, who
had been elected under normal conditions, conformably to the
old law, were deprived of the essential parts of their legitimate
authority. They lost, for example, their jurisdiction, which
they were seldom able to exercise in their own names, but in
almost every case as commissaries delegated by the apostolic
authority.
The regular clergy, who were almost wholly sheltered from
the power of the diocesan bishops, found themselves, even more
than the secular priesthood, in a state of complete depen-
dence on the Curia. The papacy of this period continually
intervened in the internal affairs of the monasteries. Not
only did the monks continue to seek from the papacy the
confirmation of their privileges and property, but they also
referred almost all their disputes to the arbitration of the pope.
Their elections gave rise to innumerable lawsuits, which all
terminated at the court of Rome, and in most cases it was
the pope himself who designated the monks to fill vacant posts
in the abbeys. Thus the pope became the great ecclesiastical
elector as well as the universal judge and supreme legislator.
On this extreme concentration of the Christian power was
employed throughout Europe an army of official agents or
officious adherents of the Holy See, who were animated by an
irrepressible zeal for the aggrandizement of the papacy. These
officials originally consisted of an obedient and devoted militia
of mendicant friars, both Franciscans and Dominicans, who
took their orders from Rome alone, and whose efforts the papacy
stimulated by lavishing exemptions, privileges, and full sacer-
dotal powers. Subsequently they were represented by the
apostolic notaries, who were charged to exercise throughout
Christendom the gracious jurisdiction of the leaders of the
Church and to preside over the mo^: important acts in the
private lives of the faithful. These tools of Rome, both clerks
and laymen, continued to increase in every diocese. They
were not invested with their office untO they had been examined
by a papal chaplain, or sometimes even by the vice-chancellor
of the Curia.
The sovereign direction of this enormous monarchy belonged
to the pope alone, who was assisted in important affairs by the
advice and collaboration of the College of Cardinals, who had
become the sole electors to the papacy. Towards the close
of the 13th century the necessity arose for an express ruling on
the question of the exercise of this electoral right. In 1274
Gregory X., completing the measures taken by Ale.xander III.
in the 12th century, promulgated the celebrated constitution
by which the cardinal-electors were shut up in conclave and,
in the event of their not having designated the new pope within
three days, were constrained to perform their duty by a pro-
gressive reduction of their food-allowance (see Conclave).
But at the head of this vast body there existed a constant
tendency which was opposed to the absorption of aU the power
by a single and unbridled will. In the last years of this period
fresh signs appeared of a reaction that emanated from the Sacred
College itself. The cardinal-electors endeavoured to derive
from their electoral power a right of control over the acts of the
pope elect. In 1294, and again in 1303, they laid themselves
under an obligation, previously to the election, to subscribe
to the political engagements which each promised rigorously
to observe in the event of his becoming pope. In general,
these engagements bore upon the limitation of the number of
cardinals, the prohibition to nominate new ones without previous
notification to the Sacred College, the sharing between the
cardinals and the pope of certain revenues specified by a bull
of Nicholas IV., and the obligatory consultation of the con-
sistories for the principal acts of the temporal and spiritual
government. It is conceivable that a pope of Boniface VIII. 's
temperament would not submit kindly to any restriction of the
discretionary power with which he was invested by tradition,
and he endeavoured to make the cardinals dependent on him
and even to dispense with their services as far as possible,
only assembling them in consistory in cases of extreme necessity.
This tendency of the Sacred College to convert the Roman
Church into a constitutional monarchy, in which it should itself
play the part of parliament, was a sufficiently grave symptom
of the progress of the new spirit. But throughout the ecclesi-
astical society traditional bonds were loosened and anarchy was
rife, and this at the very moment when the enemies of the
priesthood and its leaders redoubled their attack. In fine,
the decadence of the papal institution manifested itself in an
irremediable manner when it had accomplished no more than
the half of its task. The growth of national kingdoms, the
anti-clerical tendencies of the emancipated middle classes,
the competition of lay imperialisms, and all the other elements
of resistance which had been encountered by the papacy in its
progress and had at first tended only to shackle it, now pre-
sented an insurmountable barrier. The papacy was weakened
by its contest with these adverse elements, and it was through
its failure to triumph over them that its dream of European
dominion, both temporal and spiritual, entered but very
incompletely into the field of realities. (A. Lu.)
III. — Period from ijoj to 1590.
The accession of the Gascon Clement V. in 1305 marks the
beginning of a new era in the history of the papacy; for this
pope, formerly archbishop of Bordeaux, remained cig„g„i v.
in France, without once crossing the threshold of uos-ism.
the Eternal City. Clement's motive for this reso- Settlement
lution was his fear that the independence of the* vgnoa.
ecclesiastical government might be endangered among the
frightful dissensions and party conflicts by which Italy was
then convulsed; while at the same time he yielded to the pressure
1305-159"]
exercised on him by the French king Philip the Fair. In March
i3og, Clement V. transferred his residence to Avignon, a town
which at that time belonged to the king of Naples, but was sur-
rounded by the countship of Venaissin, which as early as 1228
had passed into the possession of the Roman See. Clement V.
remained at Avignon till the day of his death, so that with him
begins the so-called Babylonian E.xile of the popes. Through
this, and his e.xccssive subservience to Phihp the Fair, his reign
proved the reverse of salutary to the Church. The pope's
subservience was above all conspicuous in his attitude towards
the proceedings brought against the order of the Temple,
which was dissolved by the council of Vienne (see Templaks).
His possession of Ferrara involved Clement in a violent struggle
with the republic of Venice, in which he was ultimately
victorious. T.,.?i
His successor John XXII. a native of Cahors, xvas elected
as the result of very stormy negotiations, after a two years'
vacancy of the see (1316). Like his predecessor
1316-1334.' y^^ fixed his permanent residence at Avignon, where
he had formerly becnrbishop. But while Clement V.
had contented himself with the hospitality of the Dominican
monastery at Avignon, John XXII. installed himself with
great state in the episcopal palace, hard by the cathedral.
Characterof The essential features of this new epoch in the
iheAvlgaon history of the papacy, beginning with the two popes
Papacy. mentioned, are intimately connected with this
lasting separation from the traditional seat of the papacy, and
from Italian soil in general: a separation which reduced the
head of the Church to a fatal dependence on the French kings.
Themselves Frenchmen, and surrounded by a College of
Cardinals in which the French element predominated, the popes
gave to their ecclesiastical administration a certain French
character, till they stood in more and more danger of serving
purely national interests, in cases where the obligations of their
office demanded complete impartiality. And thus the prestige
of the papacy was sensibly diminished by the view, to which
the jealousy of the nations soon gave currency, that the supreme
dignity of the Church was simply a convenient tool for French
statecraft. The accusation might not always be supported by
facts, but it tended to shake popular confidence in the head of
the universal Church, and to inspire other countries with the
feeling of a national opposition to an ecclesiastical regime now
entirely Gallicized. The consequent loosening of the tics
between the individual provinces of the Church and the
.^postolic See, combined with the capricious policy of the court
at .Avignon, which often regarded nothing but personal and
family interests, accelerated the decay of the ecclesiastical
organism, and justified the most dismal forebodings for the
future. To crown all, the feud between Church and Empire
broke out again with unprecedented violence. The mjst
prominent leaders of the opposition to the papacy, whether
ecclesiastical or political, joined forces with the German king,
Louis of Bavaria, and offered him their aid against John XXII.
The clerical opposition was led by the very popular
and influential Minorites who were at that time
Oppositloa to
the Papacy.
engaged in a remarkably bitter controversy with
the pope as to the practical interpretation of the idea of
evangelical poverty. Their influence can be clearly traced
in the appeal to a general council, issued by Louis in 1324 at
Sachsenhausen near Frankfort-on-the-Main. This document,
which confused the political problem with the theological, was
bound to envenom the quarrel between emperor and pope
beyond all remedy. Side by side with the Minorites, the
spokesmen of the specifically political opposition to the papacy
were the Parisian professors, MarsiHus of Padua and John of
Jandun, the composers of the " Defender of the Peace "
{defensor pads). In conjunction with the Minorites and the
Ghibellines of Italy, Marsilius succeeded in enticing Louis to
the fateful expedition to Rome and the revolutionary actions
of 1328. The conferring of the imperial crown by the Roman
populace, the deposition of the pope by the same body, and
the election of an anti-pope in the person of the Minorite Pietro
PAPACY 701
da Coryara, translated into acts the doctrines of the defensor
\pacis. The struggle, which still further aggravated the depen-
dence of the pope on France, was waged on both sides with the
utmost bitterness, and the end was not in sight when John XXII.
died, full of years, on the 4th of December 1334.
Even the following pope, Benedict XII., a man of the strictest
morality, failed, in spite of his mild and pacific disposition, to
adjust the conflict with Louis of Bavaria and the
eccentric Fraticelli. King Philip VI. and the car- 13J4-1J42,
dinals of the French party worked energetically
against the projected peace with Louis; and Benedict was
not endowed with sufficient strength of will to carry through
his designs in the teeth of their opposition. He failed, equally,
to stifle the first beginnings of the war between France and
England; but it is at least to his honour that he exerted his
whole influence in the cause of peace.
His efforts in the direction of reform, moreover, deserve
recognition. In Avignon he began to erect himself a suitable
residence, which, with considerable additions by later popes,
developed into the celebrated papal castle of Avignon. This
enormous edifice, founded on the cathedral rock, is an extra-
ordinary mixture of castle and convent, palace and fortress.
It was Benedict XII. also who elevated the doctrine of the
beatific vision of the saints into a dogma.
Benedict XII. was again succeeded, in 1342, by a Frenchman
from the south, Pierre Roger de Beaufort, who was born in the
castle of Maumont, in the diocese of Limoges. He
assumed the title of Clement VI. In contrast with 1342-13S2. '
his peace-loving predecessor, and in accordance
with his own more energetic character, he pursued with decision
and success the traditions of John XXII. in his deahngs with
Louis of Bavaria. With great dexterity he turned the feud
between the houses of Luxemburg and Wittelsbach to the
destruction of Louis; and the death-struggle between the two
seemed about to break out, when Louis met his untimely end.
To all appearances the victory of the papacy w-as decisive:
but it was a Pyrrhic victory, as events were quickly to prove.
In Rome there ensued, during the pontificate of Clement, the
revolutions of the visionary Cola di Rienzo (^.i).) who restored
the old republic, though not for long. By his purchase of
Avignon, and the creation of numerous French cardinals, the
pope consolidated the close connexion of the Roman Church
with France: but the interests of that Church suffered severely
through the riches and patronage which Clement lavished
on his relatives, and through the princely luxury of his court.
His generosity — which degenerated into prodigality — compelled
him to open fresh sources of revenue; and in this he succeeded,
though not without serious detriment to the interests of the
Church.
It was fortunate for the Church that Clement VI. was followed
by a man of an entirely different temperament — Innocent VI.
This strict and upright pope appears to have taken
Benedict XII. for his e.xample. He undertook, 1352-1362.
though not with complete success, a reformation of
ecclesiastical abuses; and it was he who assisted in restoring the
Empire at last to some measure of stability. But the culmina-
ting glory of his reign was the restoration of the almost ruined
papal dominion in Italy, by means of the highly-gifted Cardinal
.'\lbornoz. The restoration of the Apostolic See to its original
and proper seat was now possible; and the need for such a step
was the more pressing, since residence in the castle at Avignon
had become extremely precarious, owing to the ever-increasing
confusion of French affairs. Innocent VI., in fact, entertained
the thought of visiting Rome; but age and illness prevented
his doing so.
The intention of Innocent was put into execution by his
successor — the learned and pious Urban V. Two events of
the first magnitude make his reign one of the most
memorable in the century. The first of these was i362-i370.
the return to Rome. This was an object which the
emperor Charles IV. had prosecuted with afl his energies; which
alone could revive the languishing reputation of the papacy.
702
PAPACY
[1305-1590
by withdrawing it from the turmoils of the Anglo-French War,
and bring within the bounds of possibiHty the much-needed
Temporary reformation in ecclesiastical affairs. In 1367 it
Return to became an accomplished fact. Turning a deaf ear
Rome. jQ jjjg remonstrances of the French king and the
French cardinals, the pope quitted Avignon on the 13th of
April 1367; and on the i6th of October he entered Rome, now
completely fallen to ruin. The ensuing year, after his return
to the Eternal City, witnessed the second great landmark in
the reign of Urban V. — the Roman expedition of Charles IV.,
and the renewal of amicable relations between the Empire and the
Church. Unfortunately, the pope failed to deal satisfactorily
with the highly complicated situation in Italy; and the result
was that, on the 27th of September 1370, he returned to Avignon,
where he died on the followng 19th of December.
It was the opinion of Petrarch that, had Urban remained
in Rome, he would have been entitled to rank with the most
distinguished men of his era; and, if we discount this single
act of weakness, he must be classed as one of the noblest and
best of popes. Especial credit is due to his struggles against
the moral corruptions of the day, though they proved inadequate
to eliminate all traces of the prevalent disorders.
■ Gregory XI., though equallj' distinguished for his erudition
and pure morals, his piety, modesty and wisdom, was fated to
„ pay dearly for the weakness of his predecessor in
1370-1378. "abandoning Rome so early. He lived to see the
national spirit of Italy thoroughly aroused against
a papacy turned French. The disastrous error of almost ex-
clusively appointing Provengals, foreigners ignorant of both
the country and the people, to the government of the Papal
States, now found a terrible Nemesis: and there came a national
upheaval, such as Italy had not yet witnessed. The feud
between Italian and Frenchman broke out in a violent form;
and it was in vain that St Catherine of Siena proffered her
mediation in the bloody strife betwixt the pope and the Floren-
tine republic. The letters that she addressed to the pontiff,
on this and other occasions, are documents, which are, perhaps,
unique in their kind, and of great literary beauty. It was
also St Catherine who prevailed on Gregory XI. to return to
Definite Rome. On the 13th of September 1376 he left
Return to Avignon; on the 17th of January 1377 he made his
Rome. g^jjy jj^^Q jl^g ^jjy Qf gj Peter. Thus ended the
exile in France; but it left an evil legacy in the schism under
Gregory's successor. Gregory, the last pope whom France
has given to the Church, died on the 27th of March 1378, after
taking measures to ensure a speedy and unanimous election
for his successor.
The conclave, which took place in Rome, for the first time
for 75 years, resulted in the election of Bartolomeo Prignano
(April 8, 1378), who took the name of Pope Urban VI.
1378-1389. Canonically the election was perfectly valid;' so
that the only popes, to be regarded as legitimate, are
the successors of Urban, It is true that his election was imme-
diately impugned by the cardinals on frivolous grounds; but
the responsibility for this rests, partially at least, with the
pope himself, whose reckless and inconsiderate zeal for reform
was bound to excite a revolution among the worldly cardinals
still yearning for the fleshpots of .'Vvignon. This revolution
could already'be foreseen with tolerable certainty, when Urban
embroiled himself even with his political friends — the queen of
Naples and her husband, Duke Otto of Brunswick. Similarly,
he quarrelled with Count Onorato Gaetano of Fondi. The
cardinals, excited to the highest pitch of irritation, now knew
where they could look for support. Thirteen of them assembled
at Anagni, and thence, on the oth of August, issued a passionate
manifesto, announcing the invalidity of Urban's election, on
Election of the ground that it had been forced upon the conclave
Anil-pope by the Roman populace. As soon as the rebellious
''''^"'^""^"•cardinals were further assured of the protection of
the French king, Charles V., they elected, with the tacit consent
of the three Italian cardinals, Robert of Geneva as anti-pope
'See Pastor, GescJiichte der Pdpste, i., 121.
The Great
Scfilsm.
(Fondi, Sept. 20). Robert assumed the style of Clement VIL;
and thus Christendom was brought face to face with the worst
misfortune conceivable — the Great Schism (1378-1417).
The chief responsibihty for this rests with the worldly
College of Cardinals, who were longing to return to France,
and thence drew their inspiration. This college
was a creation of the Avignon period; which must
therefore, in the last resort, be considered respon-
sible for this appalling calamity. Severe censure, moreover,
attaches to Charles V., of France. There may be room for
dispute, as to the extent to which the king's share in the schism
was due to the instigation of the revolted cardinals; there can
be not the slightest doubt that his attitude was the decisive
factor in perpetuating and widening the breach. The anti-pope
was recognized not only by Charles of France, but by the princes
of the Empire dependent on him, by Scotland and Savoy, and
finally by the Spanish dominions and Portugal. On the other
hand, the emperor Charles IV. and his son Wenceslaus, the
greater part of the Empire, England, Hungary, Poland, Denmark,
Norway and Sweden, together, with the majority of the Italian
states — Naples excepted — remained loyal to the pope. Urban,
in fact — who meanwhile had created a new CoUege of Cardinals
with members of different nationalities — enjoyed one great
advantage; his rival failed to hold his own in Italy, with which
country the actual decision virtually lay. Unfortunately, in
the time that followed, Urban was guilty of the grossest errors,
pursuing his personal interests, and sacrificing, all too soon,
that universal point of view which ought to have governed his
policy. The struggle against his powerful neighbour on the
frontier. Queen Joanna of Naples, rapidly became his one
guiding motive; and thus he was led into a perfect labyrinth
of blunders. He excommunicated the queen as a stiff-necked
adherent of the French anti-pope, and in 1381 conferred Naples
on the ambitious Charles of Durazzo, with whom he was soon
inextricably embroiled; while, a little later, he fell out with his
new College of Cardinals. On the ijth of October 1389, he
died, with few to lament him.
After the death of Urban VI., fourteen cardinals of his
obedience assembled, and after long negotiations elected the
scion of a noble Neapolitan family, Cardinal Pietro
Tomacelli (Nov. 2, 1389). The title which he ^ook/^gg.i^^"
was that of Boniface IX. The new pope — a man
of high moral character, great sagacity, eloquence, and of a
kindly disposition — at once instituted an entirely different policy
from that pursued by his predecessor. This was especially the
case in his treatment of Naples. In May 1390 Ladislaus,
the son of Charles of Durazzo, who had been assassinated in
the February of 13S6, received the royal crown at the hands
of a papal legate. To his cause Boniface IX. closely attached
himself; and his support of the king against the Angevins cost
him enormous sums, without which Ladislaus could not have
secured his victory over the French claimant. By these means,
the schism was averted from Italy, and Naples won for the
Roman obedience. The situation in the papal state, which
Boniface found in the greatest confusion, was at the outset far
more difficult to deal with. But here also he attained in time
a considerable measure of success, although the methods
employed were scarcely above criticism. His greatest success,
however, was gained in the Eternal City itself; for he contrived,
after many vicissitudes, to induce the Romans to armul their
republican constitution and acknowledge the papal supremacy,
even in municipal matters.
To give this supremacy a firmer basis, Boniface fortified the
Vatican and the Capitol, and restored the castle of St Angelo —
which had previously been used as a quarry — providing it with
walls and battlements, and erecting a tower in the centre. This
castle, indeed, yielded a safe shelter to the pope in January
1400, when the Colonnas made their attempt to surprise Rome.
However, the adventure failed; and by the aid of Ladislaus, the
castles of the Colonnas in the vicinity of Rome were destroyed.
In 1401 this powerful family made its submission, accepting the
favourable terms which the pope had had the good sense to
I305-I590J
PAPACY
703
offer. Henceforward quM 'jirevailed, and Boniface ruled as a
stern master in Rome. But he was soon confronted with an
extremely dangerous enemy, in the person of Duke Gian
Galeazzo Visconti of Milan, who was aiming at the sovereignty
of all Italy. In July 1402 he made himself master of Bologna;
and his death in September of the same year was a stroke of
good fortune for the pope. Bologna was now recovered for
the Church (Sept. 2, 1403), and soon afterwards Perugia also
surrendered.
Thus Boniface IX., as a secular prince, occupies an important
position; but as pope his activity must be unfavourably judged.
Even if Dietrich of Niem frequently painted him too black,
there is no question that the means which Boniface employed
to fill the papal treasury seriously impaired the prestige of the
highest spiritual office and the reverence due to it. His nepotism,
again, casts a dark shadow over his memory: but most regret-
table of all was his indifference towards the ending of the schism.
Yet it should be borne in mind, that, when Clement VII. died
suddenly on the i6th of September 1394, and the Avignon
cardinals immediately elected the Spaniard Pedro de Luna as
anti-pope (under the title of Benedict XIII.), Boniface IX. was
left face to face with an extraordinarily skilful, adroit, and
unscrupulous antagonist.
On the death of Boniface (Oct. i, 1404), the Roman cardinals
once more elected a Neapolitan, Cosimo dei Migliorati, who, at
Innocent the age of 65, assumed the name of Innocent VII.
VII., 1404- Innocent, who was animated by a great love for the
1406. sciences and all the arts of peace, enjoyed only a brief
pontificate, but his reign is not without importance, if only
as an example of the generous patronage which the papacy —
even in its darkest days — has lavished on literature and science.
Significant also is the foothold gained at this time in the Curia
itself by the humanists — Poggio, Bruni and others. The
appointment of these skilled humanist writers to the Chancery
was a consequence of the difficult conditions of the time. The
crisis which the Catholic Church underwent, during this terrible
epoch, was the greatest in all her history: for while everything
was thrown into the utmost confusion by the life and death
struggles of the rival popes, while the ecclesiastical revenues and
emoluments were used almost exclusively for the reward of
partisan service, while everywhere the worldliness of the clergy
had reached its highest pitch, heretical movements, by which
the whole order of the Church was threatened with overthrow,
were gaining strength in England, France, Italy, Germany and
especially in Bohemia.
The crisis came to a head in the pontificate of Gregory XII.
This pope, so distinguished in many respects, owed his election
Gregory mainly to the circumstance that he was considered
XII., 1406- a zealous champion of the restoration of unity within
the Church: and he displayed, in fact, during the
earlier portion of his reign, an exalted enthusiasm for this great
task. Later his attitude changed; and the protracted negotia-
tions for a conference with Benedict XIII. remained fruitless.
The result of this change in the attitude of Gregory was the
formation of a strong malcontent party in the College of
Cardinals; to counteract whose influence, the pope — faithless
to the conditions attached to his election — resorted to the
plan of creating new members. Stormy discussions at Lucca
followed; but they failed to prevent Gregory from nominat-
ing four fresh cardinals (May 9, 1408). The sequel was that
seven of the cardinals attached to Gregory's Roman Curia
withdrew to Pisa.
At the same period, the relations of Benedict XIII. with
France suffered a significant modification. In that country,
Benedict it became more and more manifest that Benedict
XIII. and had no genuine desire to heal the schism in the
Prance. Church, in spite of the ardent zeal for union which
he had displayed immediately before and after his election.
In May 1408 France withdrew from his obedience; and it was
not long before French policy succeeded in effecting a reconcilia-
tion and understanding betv^een the cardinals of Benedict XIII.
and those who had seceded from Gregory XII. Precisely as
if the Holy See Were' vadant.'thfe' cardinals Degaif 'to' act as the
actual rulers of the Church, and issued formal invitations
to a council to be opened at Pisa on the Feast
of the Annunciation (March 25) 1409. Both popes p°j^* °
attempted to foil the disaffected cardinals by
convening councils of their own; but their efforts were doomed
to failure.
On the other hand, the council of the cardinals — though,
by the strict rules of canonical law, its convocation was abso-
lutely illegal — attained the utmost importance. But these
rules, and, in fact, the whole Catholic doctrine of the primacy
were almost entirely obscured by the schism. Scholars like
Langenstein, Gerson and Zabarella, evolved a new theory as to
ecumenical councils, which from the point of view of Roman
Catholic principles must be described as revolutionary. At the
synod of the dissident cardinals, assembled at Pisa, views of
this type were in the ascendant; and, although protests were
not lacking, the necessities of the time served as a pretext for
ignoring all objections.
That the council was merely a tool in the hands of the
ambitious and adroit Baldassare Cossa, was a fact unsuspected
by its members who were animated by a fiery enthusiasm for
the re-establishment of ecclesiastical unity; nor did they pause
to reflect that an action against both popes could not possibly
be lawful. Since whole universities and numerous scholars
had pronounced in favour of the new theories, the Pisan synod
dismissed aU canonical scruples, and unhesitatingly laid claim
to authority over both popes, one of whom was necessarily
the legitimate pope. It was in vain that Carlo di Malatesta, a
stanch adherent of Gregory, sought at the eleventh hour to
negotiate a compromise between Gregory and the synod. It was
in vain that this cultured prince, imbued with the principles
of humanism, represented to the cardinals that this new path
would lead quickly to the goal, but that this goal could not be
unity but a triple schism. The council declared that it was
canonicaUy convened, ecumenical, and representative of the
whole Catholic Church; then proceeded immediately to the
trial and deposition of Benedict XIII. and Gregory XII. The
synod grounded its procedure against the rival popes on a fact,
ostensibly patent to all, but actually believed by none — that
they were both supporters of the schism, and not merely this,
but heretics in the truest and fullest sense of the word, since
their attitude had impugned and subverted the article of faith
concerning the one Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church. On
the ground of this extremely dubious declaration, designed to
compensate for the absence of any authentic and firm foundation
in ecclesiastical law, the Pisan assembly on the 5th of June
announced the deposition of Gregory XII. and Benedict XIII.,
as manifest heretics and partisans of the schism. Alexander
The next step was to elect a new pope; and on the v.,i409-
26th of June 1409 the choice fell on the venerable '^*''
cardinal-archbishop of Milan, the Greek Petros FUargis, who
assumed the title of Alexander V.
The prem.ature and futile character of these drastic and
violent proceedings at Pisa was only too speedily evident.
The powerful following which Gregory enjoyed in Italy and
Germany, and Benedict in Spain and Scotland, ought to have
shown from the very first that a simple decree of deposition
could never suffice to overthrow the two popes. Thus, as
the sentence of Pisa found recognition in France and England,
as well as in many parts of Germany and Italy, the synod,
which was to secure the restoration of unity, proved only the
cause for worse confusion — instead of two, there were now
three popes.
.Alexander V., the pope of the council, died on the 3rd of May
1410. The cardinals at once elected his successor — Baldassare
Cossa, who took the name of John XXIII. Of all
the consequences of the disastrous Pisan council, 1410.141s.
the election of this man was the most unfortunate.
True, it cannot be demonstrated that all the fearful accusations
afterwards levelled at John XXIII. were based on fact: but
it is certain that this cunning politician was so far infected with
704
PAPACY
[1 305- 1 590
the corruption of his age that he was not in the least degree
fitted to fulfil the requirements of the supreme ecclesiastical
dignity. From him the welfare of the Church had nothing to
hope. All eyes were consequently turned to the energetic
German king, Sigismund, who was inspired by the best motives,
and who succeeded in surmounting the formidable
Constance obstacles which barred the way to an ecumenical
council. It was mainly due to Sigismund's inde-
fatigable and magnificent activity, that the council of Constance
met and was so numerously attended. It is remarkable how
fortune seemed to assist his efforts. The capture of Rome by
King Ladislaus of Naples had compeDed John XXIII. to take
refuge in florence (June 1413), where that dangerous guest
received a not very friendly welcome. Since John's most
immediate need was now protection and assistance against
his terrible opponent Ladislaus, he sent, towards the close of
August 1413, Cardinals Chalant and Francesco Zabarella,
together with the celebrated Greek Manuel Chrysoloras, to
King Sigismund, and commissioned them to determine the
time and place of the forthcoming council. The agreement
was soon concluded. On the 9th of December John XXIII.
signed the bull convening the council at Constance, and pledged
his word to appear there in person. He might have hoped
that his share in convening the synod would give him a certain
right to regulate its proceedings, and that, by the aid of his
numerous Italian prelates, he would be able to influence it
more or less according to his views. But in this he was greatly
deceived. So soon as he realized the true position of affairs
he attempted to break up the council by his flight to Schaffhausen
(March 20-21, 141 5) — a project in which he would doubtless
have succeeded but for the sagacity and energy of Sigismund.
In spite of everything, the excitement in Constance was
unbounded. In the midst of the confusion, \vhich reigned
supreme in the council, the upper hand was gained by that
party which held that the only method by which the schism
could be ended and a reformation of ecclesiastical discipline
ensured was a drastic limitation of the papal privileges. The
limitation was to be effected by the general council: con-
sequently, the pope must be brought under the jurisdiction of
that council, and — in the opinion of many — remain under its
jurisdiction for all time. Thus, in the third, fourth and fifth
general sessions it was enacted, with characteristic precipitation,
that an ecumenical council could not be dissolved or set aside
by the pope, without its consent : the corollary to which was,
that the present council, notwithstanding the flight of John
XXIII. , continued to exist in the full possession of its powers,
and that, in matters pertaining to belief and the eradication of
schism, all men — even the pope — were bound to obey the general
council, whose authority extended over all Christians, including
the pope himself.
By these decrees — which created as the supreme authority
within the Church a power which had not been appointed as
such by Christ' — the members of the council of Constance
sought to give their position a theoretical basis before proceeding
to independent action against the pope. But these declarations
as to the superiority of an ecumenical council never attained
legal validity, in spite of their defence by Pierre d'Ailly and
Gerson. Emanating from an assembly' without a head, which
could not possibly be an ecumenical council without the assent
of one of the popes (of whom one was necessarily the legitimate
pope) — enacted, in opposition to the cardinals, by a majority
of persons for the most part unqualified, and in a fashion which
Deposition ^^'^s thus distinctly different from that of the old
ofJoha councils — they can only be regarded as a coup de
^^f'h main, a last resort in the universal confusion. On
the'2gth of Itlay the council deposed John XXIII.
The legitimate pope, Gregory XII., now consented to resign,
but under, strict reservation of the legality of his pontificate.
1 Here of GOiirse the author speaks of the papal supremacy and
not of papal infallibility in matters of faith and morals — a doc-
trine which was formally declared a dogma of the Church only, at the
Vatican council in 1870. — [Ed.] , .. ■ .
^,;.. ...;ja.,:i 1..: ■:<■..:,:: n,.:.., . iiiiJ j.;!iJ iiij.jitij c; ;.
By consenting to this, the synod indirectly acknowledged that
its previous sessions had not possessed an ecumenical charac-
ter, and also that Gregory's predecessors, up to Resignation
Urban VI., had been legitimate popes. In presence of Gregory
of the council, reconstituted by Gregory, Malatesta ^"'
announced the resignation of the latter; and the grateful
assembly appointed Gregory legatus a latere to the marches
of Ancona — a dignity which he was not destined to enjoy for
long, as he died on the i8th of October 1417. (See Constance,
Council of.)
From the abdication of Gregory XII. to the election of
Martin V., the Apostolic See was vacant ; and the council, newly
convened and authorized by the legitimate pope vacancy of
before his resignation, conducted the government of tfie Holy
the Church. After the condemnation and burning of ^""' ,■^■
John Huss iq.v.), the reformation of the Church, both in its
head and members, claimed the main attention of the fathers of
the council. Among the many difficulties which beset the
question, not the least obvious was the length of time during
which the Church must remain without a ruler, if — as Sigismund
and the German nation demanded — the papal election were
deferred till the completion of the internal reforms. The result
was decided by the policy of the cardinals, who since May
1417 had openly devoted their whole energies to the accelera-
tion of that election; and union was preserved by means of a
compromise arranged by Bishop Henry of Winchester, the uncle
of the English king. The terms of the agreement were that
a synodal decree should give an absolute assurance that the
work of reformation would be taken in hand immediately after
the election; reforms, on which all the nations were already
united, were to be published before the election; and the mode
of the papal election itself was to be determined by deputies.
When the last-named condition had been fulfilled on the aSth
of October the conclave began, on the Sth of November 141 7,
in the Kaiif/iaiis of Constance; and, no later than St Martin's
day, the cardinal-deacon Oddo Colonna was elected Pope
Martin V.
With the accession of Martin V. unit)' was at last restored
to the Church, and contemporary Christendom gave
. e ■ A , Martin v.,
Way to transports of joy. Any secular power — a i4ij.i4ji,
bitter opponent of the papacy admits — would have
succumbed in the schism: but so wonderful was the organization
of the spiritual empire, and so indestructible the conception
of the papacy itself, that this (the deepest of all cleavages)
served only to prove its indivisibility (Gregorovius, Ccschichte
Romsvi.). Martin V. appeared to possess every quality which
could enable him to represent the universal Church with strength
and dignity. In order to maintain his independence, he ener-
getically repudiated all proposals that he should establish his
residence in France or Germany, and once more took up his
abode in Rome. On the 30th of September 1420 he made his
entry into the almost completely ruinous town. To repair the
ravages of neglect, and, more especially, to restore the decayed
churches, Martin at once expended large sums; while, later, he
engaged famous artists, like Gentile da Fabriano and Masaccio,
and encouraged all forms of art by every means within his power.
Numerous humanists were appointed to the Chancery, and the
Romans were loud in their praise of the papal regime. But he
was not content with laying the foundations for the renovation
of the Eternal City: he was the architect who rebuilt the papal
monarchy, which the schism had reduced to the verge of dis-
solution. To this difficult problem he brought remarkable skill
and aptness, energy and ability. His temporal sovereignty
he attempted to strengthen through his family connexions, and
magnificent pro^dsion in general was made for the members of
his house.
Nor was the activity of Martin V. less successful in political
than in ecclesiastical reform, which latter included the com-
bating of the Fraticelli, the amendment of the clergy, the
encouragement of piety by the regulation of feast-days, the
recommendation of increased devotion to the sacrament of the
altai;, and the strfngthening of the conception of the Church
I305-I590]
PAPACY
705
by the great jubilee of 1423. At the same time the crowning
reward of his labours was the effacing of the last traces of
the schism. He prosecuted successfully the conflict with the
adherents of Benedict XIII., who, till the day of his death'
clung to the remnants of his usurped authority (see Benedict
XIII.). An attempt on the part of Alphonso V. of Aragon
to renew the schism failed; and, in 1429, the Spaniard was
compelled to give up his anti-pope, Clement VIII. Count John
of Armagnac, whom Martin had excommunicated as a protector
of schismatics, was also driven to make submission. Martin
rendered the greatest service by his admission of a whole series
of distinguished men into the College of Cardinals; but he was
less fortunate in his struggles against Hussitism. His death
took place on the 20th of February 1431, and the inscription
on his grave — still preserved in the Lateran church — styles
him " the felicity of his age" {icmporum sitorum fdicitas).
The Colonna pope was followed by the strict, moral and
pious Gabriel Condulmaro, under the title of Eugenius IV.
BurealusIV ^'^ pontificate was not altogether happy. At the very
1431-1447 first, his violent and premature measures against the
and the Colonna family, which had received such unbounded
Council of fa^vour from his predecessor, embroiled him in a
sanguinary feud. Far worse, however, were the
conflicts which Eugenius had to support against the Council
of Basel — already dissolved on the i8th of December 1431.
At the beginning, indeed, a reconciliation between the pope
and council was effected by Sigismund who, on the 31st of May
i433i was crowned emperor at Rome. But, as early as the 2()th
of May 1434 a revolution broke out in Rome, which, on the 4th
of June, drove the pope in flight to Florence; where he was
obliged to remain, while Giovanni Vitelleschi restored order in
the papal state.
The migration of Eugenius IV. to Florence was of extreme
importance; for this town was the real home of the new art,
and the intellectual focus of all the humanistic movements in
Italy. At Florence the pope came into closer contact with
the humanists, and to this circumstance is due the gradual
dominance which they attained in the Roman Curia — a domi-
nance which, both in itself, and even more because of the
frankly pagan leanings of many in that party, was bound to
awaken serious misgivings.
The Italian troubles, which had entailed the exile of
Eugenius IV., were still insignificant in comparison with those
conjured up by the fanatics of the Council in Basel. The
decrees enacted by that body made deep inroads on the rights of
the Holy See; and the conflict increased in violence. On the
31st of July 1437 the fathers of Basel summoned Eugenius IV.
to appear before their tribunal. The pope retorted on the
1 8th of September by transferring the scene of the council to
Ferrara — afterwards to Florence. There, in July 1439, the union
with the Greeks was effected: but it remained simply a paper
agreement. On the 25th of June 1439 the synod — which
had already pronounced sentence of heresy on Eugenius IV.,
by reason of his obstinate disobedience to the assembly
of the Church — formally deposed him; and, on the 5th of
November, a rival pontiff was elected in the person of the
ambitious Amadeus of Savoy, who now took the
title of Felix V. (See Basel, Council of, and
Felix V.) Thus the assembly of Christendom at
Basel had resulted, not in the reformation of the Church, but
in a new schism! This, in fact, was an inevitable sequel to
the attempt to overthrow the monarchical constitution of the
Church. The anti-pope — the last in the history of the papacy
— made no headway, although the council invested him with
the power of levying annates to a greater extent than had ever
been claimed by the Roman Curia.
The crime of this new schism was soon to be expiated by
its perpetrators. The disinclination of sovereigns and peoples
to a division, of the disastrous consequences of which the West
had only lately had plentiful experiences, was so pronounced that
•May 23, 1423: vide the Chronicle of Martin de Alpartil, edited
by Ehrle (1906).
Felix V.
Anti-pope,
the violent proceeding of the Basel fathers alienated from them
the sympathies of nearly all who, till then, had leaned to their
side. While the prestige of the schismatics waned, Eugenius IV.
gained new friends; and on the 28th of September 1443 his
reconcihation with Alphonso of Naples enabled him to return to
Rome. In consequence of the absence of the pojie, the Eternal
City was once more httle better than a ruin; and the work of
restoration was immediately begun by Eugenius.
During the chaos of the schism, France and Germany had
adopted a semi-schismatic attitude: the former by the Pragmatic
Sanction of Bourges (June 7, 1438); the latter by a declaration
of neutrality in March 1438. The efforts of Aeneas Silvius
Piccolomini brought matters into a channel more favourable
to the Holy See; and an understanding with Germany was
reached. This consummation was soon followed by the death of
Eugenius (Feb. 23, 1447). No apter estimate of his character
can be found than the words of Aeneas Silvius himself: "He
was a great-hearted man; but his chief error was that he was a
stranger to moderation, and regulated his actions, not by his
ability, but by his wishes." From the charge of nepotism he
was entirely exempt; and, to the present day, the purity of his
life has never been impugned even by the voice of faction. He
was a father to the poor and sick, in the highest sense of the
word; and he left behind him an enduring monument in his
amendment and regeneration, first of the religious orders,
then of the clergy. Again, the patronage which he showed
to art and artists was of the greatest importance. All that
could be done in that cause, during this stormy epoch, was done
by Eugenius. It was by his commission that Filarete prepared
the still-extant bronzework of St Peter's, and the Chapel of
the Holy Sacrament in the Vatican was painted by Fiesole.
On the death of Eugenius IV. the situation was menacing
enough, but, to the surprise and joy of all, Tomaso Parentu-
celli, cardinal of Bologna, was elected without disturbance, as
Pope Nicholas V. With him the Christian Renaissance
ascended the papal throne. He was the son of a i44j°i%s '
physician from .Sarzana, who was not too well
endowed with the gifts of fortune; and the boy, with all his
talents, could only prosecute his studies at great personal
sacrifices. He was possessed of a deep-seated enthusiasm for
science and art, of a sincerely pious and idealistic temperament,
and of an ardent love for the Church. After his ordination,
his great learning and stainless life led him to office after office
in the Church, each higher and more influential than the last.
Not only did he love the studies of the humanist, but he himself
was a Christian humanist. Yet among all his far-reaching plans
for the encouragement of art 'and science, Nicholas V. had
always the well-being of the Church primarily in view; and the
highest goal of his pontificate, which inaugurated the Maecena-
tian era of the popedom, was to ennoble that Church by the
works of intellect and art. It is astonishing to contemplate
how much he achieved, during his brief reign, in the cause of
the Renaissance in both art and literature. True, his designs
were even greater, but his term of government was too short
to allow of their actual execution. A simply gigantic plan was
drawn out, with the assistance of the celebrated Alberti, for the
reconstruction of the Leonine City, the Vatican and St Peter's.
The rebuilding of the last-named was rendered advisable by
the precarious condition of the structure, but stopped short in
the early stages. In the Vatican, however, Fiesole completed
the noble frescoes, from the lives of St Stephen and St Lawrence,
which are still preserved to us. Nicholas, again, lent the pro-
tection and encouragement of his powerful arm to science as
well as art, till the papal court became a veritable domain of the
Muses. He supported all scientific enterprises with unhmited
generosity, and the most famous savants of all countries flocked
to Rome. Yet it is surprising — and scarcely excusable — that
Nicholas, while selecting the men whom he considered necessary
for his literary work, passed over much which ought to have
aroused grave suspicion in his mind. Thus the active human-
istic life, called into existence by the enthusiasm of the pope,
was not without its dark side. Quite apart from the fact that
XX. 23
7o6
PAPACY
[1 305- 1 590
Rome became the scene of a chroniquc xandalcuse among these
scholars, there was something unnatural in the predominance of
the humanists in the Curia.
The fostering care of the science-loving pope extended also
to the field of ecclesiastical Uterature; and the greatest impor-
tance attaches to the energy he developed as a collector of
manuscripts and books. His agents travelled as far as Prussia,
and even into the East. All this activity served to enrich
the Vatican library, the foundation of which is for Nicholas V.
an abiding title to fame. In political and ecclesiastical affairs
he similarly manifested great vigour; and his extraordinarily
pacific disposition did more than anything else towards
diminishing the difficulties with which he had to contend on
his entry upon office. An agreement was very quickly concluded
with King Alphonso of Naples. In the Empire the affairs of
the Church were ameliorated — though not so quickly — by the
Concordat of Vienna (1448). The Council of Basel was compelled
to dissolve, and the anti-pope Felix V. to abdicate: and, though
even after the termination of the synod men like Jacob of
Juterbogk (q.v.) were found to champion ecclesiastical parlia-
mentarianism and the more advanced ideas of Basel, they were
confronted, on the other hand, by an array of redoubtable
controversialists, who entered the Hsts to defend, both in speech
and writing, the privileges of the Apostolic See. Among these,
Torquemada, Rodericus Sancius de Arevalo, Capistrano and
Piero del Monte were especially active for the restoration of
the papacy. Fortunate as Nicholas was in the haute politique of
the Church, he was equally so in his efforts to re-estabhsh and
maintain peace in Rome and the papal state. In Poland,
Bohemia, Hungary, Bosnia and Croatia — even in Cyprus itself
— he was zealous for the peace of the Church.
The long-hoped cessation of civil war within the Church
had now come, and Nicholas considered that the event could
. not better be celebrated than by the proclamation of
I-4S0. ^ universal jubilee — an announcement which evoked
a thrill of joy in the whole of Christendom. A special
point of attaction in this jubilee of 1450 was the canonization
of Bernardino of Siena; and, in spite of the plague which broke
out in Rome, the celebrations ran a brilliant course.
It was the wish of the pope that the jubilee should be followed
by a revival of religious life in all Christian countries. To put
this project into execution, the Church opened her " treasuries
of grace," connected with the jubilee dispensation, for the
peculiar benefit of those nations that had suft'ered most from
the turmoils of the last few decades, or were prevented from
visiting the Eternal City. Nicholas of Cusa was nominated
legate for Germany, and began the work of reformation by
travelling through every province in Germany dispensing
blessings. It was under Nicholas V. that the last imperial
coronation was solemnized at Rome. There is a touch of
tragedy in the fact that, in the following year, the pope saw
his temporal sovereignty — even his life — threatened by a con-
spiracy hatched among the adherents of the pseudo-humanism.
The prime mover in the plot, Stefano Porcaro, was executed.
Nicholas had scarcely recovered from the shock, when news came
of the capture of Constantinople by the Turks; and his efforts
to unite the Christian powers against the Moslem failed. This
darkened the evening of his life, and he died in the night of the
24-25th of March 1455. From the universal standpoint of history
the significance of Nicholas's pontificate lies in the fact that he
put himself at the head of the artistic and literary Renaissance.
By this means he introduced a new epoch in the history of the
papacy and of civilization: Rome, the centre of ecclesiastical
life, was now to become the centre of literature and art.
The short reign of the Spaniard, Alphonso de Borgia, as
Pope Calixtus III., is almost completely filled by his heroic
^ „ ^ „w efforts to arm Christendom for the common defence
Calixtus III,, . T 1
I455-I4S8. agamst Islam. Unfortunately all the warnmgs
and admonitions of the pope fell on deaf ears,
though he himself parted with his mitre and plate in order
to equip a fleet against the Turks. The Mahommedans, indeed,
wore severely punished at Belgrade (1456), and in the sea-
fight of Metelino (1457): but the indolence of the European
princes, who failed to push home the victory, rendered the
success abortive. Bitterly disillusioned, Calixtus died on the
14th of August 1458. His memory would be stainless but for
the deep shadow cast on it by the advancement which he
conferred upon his relatives.
When Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini was elected pope as Pius II.
the papal throne was ascended by a man whose name was
famous as poet, historian, humanist and statesman,
and whose far-seeing eye and exact knowledge of i4s8-l464.
affairs seemed pecuHarly to fit him for his position.
On the other hand, the troubled and not impeccable past of
the new pontiff was bound to excite some misgiving; while,
at the same time, severe bodily suffering had brought old age
on a man of but 53 years. In spite of his infirmity and the
brief duration of his reign, Pius II. accomplished much for the
restoration of the prestige and authority of the Holy See. His
indefatigable activity on behalf of Western civilization, now
threatened with extinction by the Ottomans, e.xcites admiration
and adds an undying lustre to his memory. If we except
the Eastern question, Pius II. was principally exercised by
the opposition to papal authority which was gaining ground
in Germany and France. In the former country the movement
was headed by the worldly archbishop-elector Diether of Mainz;*
in the latter by Louis XL, who played the autocrat in ecclesiasti-
cal matters. In full consciousness of his high-priestly dignity
he set his face against these and all similar attempts; and his
zeal and firmness in defending the authority and rights of the
Holy See against the attacks of the conciliar and national
parties within the Church deserve double recognition, in view
of the eminently difficult circumstances of that period. Nor
did he shrink from excursions in the direction of reform, now
become an imperative necessity. His attempt to reunite Bohemia
with the Church was destined to failure; but the one great aim
of the pope during his whole reign was the organization of a
gigantic crusade — a project which showed a correct appreciation
of the danger with which the Church and the West in general
were menaced by the Crescent. It is profoundly affecting to
contemplate this man, a mere wreck from gout, shrinking from
no fatigue, no labour, and no personal sacrifices; disregarding
the obstacles and difficulties thrown in his way by cardinals
and temporal princes, whose fatal infatuation refused to see
the peril which hung above them all; recurring time after time,
with all his intellect and energy, to the realization of his scheme;
and finally adopting the high-hearted resolve of placing himself
at the head of the crusade. Tortured by bodily, and still more
by mental suffering, the old pope reached Ancona. There he
was struck down by fever; and on the 15th of August 1464
death had released him from all his afflictions — a tragic close
which has thrown a halo round his memory. In the sphere
of art he left an enduring monument in the Renaissance town
of Pienza which he built.
The humanist Pius II. was succeeded by a splendour-loving
Venetian, Pietro Barbo, the nephew of Eugenius IV., who is
known as Pope Paul II. With his accession the
situation altered; for he no longer made the Turkish /"J'^./Vri
War the centre of his whole activity, as both his
immediate predecessors had done. Nevertheless, he was far from
indifferent to the Ottoman danger. Paul took energetic measures
against the principle of the absolute supremacy of the state as
maintained by the Venetians and by Louis XI. of France;
while in Bohemia he ordered the deposition of George Podebrad
(Dec. 1466). The widely diffused view that this pope was
an enemy of science and culture is unfounded. It may be
traced back to Platina, who, resenting his arrest, avenged
himself by a biographical caricature. What the pope actually
sought to combat by his dissolution of the Roman Academy
' Diether von Isenburg (1412-1463), second son of Count Diether
of Isenburg-Bvldingen; rector of the university of Erfurt, 1434;
archbishop of Mainz, 1459. He led the movement for a reform of
the Empire and the opposition to the papal encroachments, sup-
porting the theory of church government enunciated at Constance
and Basel and condemned in Pius II. 's bull Execrabilis. — [Ed.]
I305-I590]
PAPACY
707
was simply the non-Christian tendency of the Renaissance,
standing as it did on a purely pagan basis — " the stench of
heathendom," as Dante described it. In other respects
Paul II. encouraged men of learning and the art of printing,
and built the magnificent palace of San Marco, in which he
established a noble collection of artistic treasures.
The long pontificate of the Franciscan Francesco della
Rovere, under the title of Pope Sixtus IV., displays striking
contrasts of light and shade; and with him begins
I47l'-l484' ^^*^ series of the so-called " political popes." It
remains a lamentable fact that Sixtus IV. frequently
subordinated the Father of Christendom to the Italian prince,
that he passed all bounds in the preferment of his own family,
and in many ways deviated into all too worldly courses.
The decay of ecclesiastical discipline grew to alarming propor-
tions under Sixtus. During his reign crying abuses continued
and grew in spite of certain reforms.
The nepotism in which the pope indulged is especially inex-
cusable. His feud with Lorenzo de' Medici culminated in the
Pazzi conspiracy, the tragic sequel to which was the assassination
of Giuliano de' Medici (April 26, 1478). That the pope himself
was guiltless of any share in that atrocious deed is beyond
dispute; but it is deeply to be regretted that his name plays a
part in the history of this conspiracy. Sixtus was far from
bhnd to the Turkish peril, but here also he was hampered by
the indifference of the secular powers. Again, the close of his
reign was marked by the wars against Ferrara and Naples,
and subsequently against Venice and the Colonnas; and these
drove the question of a crusade completely into the background.
In the affairs of the Church he favoured the mendicant orders,
and declared against the cruel and unjust proceedings of the
Spanish Inquisition. His nominations to the cardinalate
were not happy. The College of Cardinals, and the Curia in
general, grew more and more infected with worldliness during
his pontificate. On the other side, however, the pope did
splendid service to art and science, while to men of letters he
allowed incredible freedom. The Vatican library was enriched
and thrown open for public use, Platina — the historian of the
popes — receiving the post of librarian. The city of Rome was
transfigured. At the papal order there arose the Ponte Sisto,
the hospital of San Spirito, Santa Maria del popolo, Santa
Maria della pace, and finaUy the Sistine Chapel, for the decoration
of which the most famous Tuscan and Umbrian artists were
summoned to Rome. This fresco-cycle, with its numerous
allusions to contemporary history, is still preserved, and forms
the noblest monument of the Rovere pope.
The reign of Innocent VIII. is mainly occupied by his troubles
with the faithless Ferdinand of Naples. These sprang from his
laaoceat participation in the War of the Barons; but to this
vni., 1484- the pope was absolutely compelled. Innocent's bull
'■*9-^- concerning witchcraft (Dec. 5, 1484) has brought upon
him many attacks. But this bull contains no sort of dogmatic
decision on the nature of sorcery. The very form of the
bull, which merely sums up the various items of information
that had reached the pope, is enough to prove that the
decree was not intended to bind anyone to belief in such
things. Moreover the bull contained no essentially new
regulations as to witchcraft. It is absurd to make this docu-
ment responsible for the introduction of the bloody persecution
of witches; for, according to the Sachscnspicgel, the civil law
already punished sorcery with death. The action of Inno-
cent VIII. was simply limited to defining the jurisdiction of
the inquisitors with regard to magic. The bull merely
authorized, in cases of sorcery, the procedure of the canonical
inquisition, which was conducted exclusively by spiritual
judges and differed entirely from that of the later witch-trials.
Even if the bull encouraged the persecution of witches, in so
far as it encouraged the inquisitors to take earnest action,
there is still no valid ground for the accusation that
Innocent VTII. introduced the trial of witches and must bear
the responsibility for the terrible misery wJhich.was afterwards
brought on humanity by that institution./ oj.l vd uJilsnibi;
During the last three decades of the 15th century the Roman
Curia, and the College of Cardinals in i)articular, became
increasingly worldly. This explains how on the Alexander
death of Innocent VIII. (July 25, 1492), simoniacal v/., 1492-
intrigues succeeded in procuring the election of '■*"•'■
Cardinal Rodrigo Borgia, a man of the most abandoned morals,
who did not change his mode of life when he ascended the throne
as Pope Alexander VI. The beginning of his reign was not un-
promising; but all too soon that nepotism began which attained
its height under this Spanish pope, and dominated his whole
pontificate. A long series of scandals resulted. The cardinals
opposed to Alexander, headed by Giuliano della Rovere, found
protection and support with Charles VIII. of France, who laid
claim to Naples. In prosecution of this design the king appeared
in Italy in the autumn of 1494, pursued his triumphant march
through Lombardy and Tuscany, and, on the 31st of December,
entered Rome. Charles had the word reform perpetually on
his lips; but it could deceive none who were acquainted with
the man. At first he threatened Alexander with deposition:
but on the isth of January 1495 an agreement was concluded
between pope and king.
While the French were marching on Naples there arose
a hostile coalition which compelled them to beat a hasty retreat
— the Holy League of March 1495. All their conquests were
lost; and the pope now determined to chastise the Orsini family,
whose treachery had thrown him into the hands of the French.
The project miscarried, and on the 25th of January 1497 the
papal forces were defeated.
In June occurred the mysterious assassination of the duke
of Gandia, which appeared for a while to mark the turning-
point in Alexander's life. For some time he entertained serious
thoughts of reformation; but the matter was first postponed and
then forgotten. The last state now became worse than the first,
as Alexander fell more and more under the spell of the infamous
Cesare Borgia. One scandal followed hard on the other, and
opposition naturally sprang up. Unfortunately, Savonarola,
the head of that opposition, transgressed all bounds in his well-
meant zeal. He refused to yield the pope that obedience to
which he was doubly pledged as a priest and the member of an
order. Even after his excommunication (May 12, 1497) he
continued to exercise the functions of his office, under the shelter
of the secular arm. In the end he demanded a council for the
deposition of the pope. His fall soon followed, when he had
lost all ground in Florence; and his execution on the 23rd of
May 1498 freed Alexander from a formidable enemy (see
Savonarola). From the Catholic standpoint Savonarola
must certainly be condemned: mainly because he completely
forgot the doctrine of the Church that the sinful and vicious
life of superiors, including the pope, is not competent to
abrogate their jurisdiction.
After the death of Charles VIII. Alexander entered into an
agreement and alliance with his successor Louis XII. The
fruits of this compact were reaped by Cesare Borgia, who
resigned his cardinal's hat, became duke of Valentinois, annihil-
ated the minor nobles of the papal state, and made himself
the true dictator of Rome. His soaring plans were destroyed
by the death of Alexander VI., who met his end on the iSth
of August 1503 by the Roman fever — not by poison.
The only bright pages in the dark chapter of Alexander's
popedom are his efforts on behalf of the Turkish War (1499-1502).
his activity for the diffusion of Christianity in America, and his
judicial awards (May 3-4, 1493) on the question of the colonial
empires of Spain and Portugal, by which he avoided a bloody
war. It is folly to speak of a donation of lands which did not
belong to the pope, or to maintain that the freedom of the
Americans was extinguished by the decision of Alexander VI.
The expression " donation " simply referred to what had already
been won under just title: the decree contained a deed of gift,
but it was an adjustment between the powers concerned and
the other European princes, not a parcelling out of the New
World and its inhabitants. The monarchs on whom the
privilegium was conferred received a right of priority with
7o8
PAPACY
[1 305-1 590
respect to the provinces first discovered by them. Precisely
as to-day inventions are guarded by patents, and literary and
artistic creations by the law of copyright, so, at that period,
the papal bull and the protection of the Roman Church were
an effective means for ensuring that a country should reap
where she had sown and should maintain the territory she had
discovered and conquered by arduous efforts; while other
claimants, with predatory designs, were warned back by the
ecclesiastical censorship. In the Vatican the memory of
Alexander VI. is still perpetuated by the Appartamenta Borgia,
decorated by Pinturicchio with magnificent frescoes, and since
restored by Leo XIII.
The short reign of the noble Pius III. (Sept. 22-Oct. 18, 1503)
witnessed the violent end of Cesare Borgia's dominion. As
early as the ist of November Cardinal Giuliano
IS03 " della Rovere was elected by the conclave as
Julius II. He was one of those personalities in
which everything transcends the ordinary scale. He was
endowed with great force of will, indomitable courage, extra-
ordinary acumen, heroic constancy and a discrimi-
1503-1513 ii^t'"? instinct for everything beautiful. A nature
formed on great broad lines — a man of spontaneous
impulses carrying away others as he himself was carried
away, a genuine Latin in the whole of his being — he belongs
to those imposing figures of the Italian Renaissance whose
character is summarized in contemporary literature by the
word terrihilc, which is best translated "extraordinary" or
" magnificent."
As cardinal Julius II. had been the adversary of Alexander
VI., as pope he stood equally in diametrical opposition to his
predecessor. The Borgia's foremost thought had been for his
family; Julius devoted his effort to the Church and the papacy.
His chief idea was to revive the world-dominion of the popedom,
but first to secure the independence and prestige of the Holy
See on the basis of a firmly established and independent territorial
sovereignty. C Thus two problems presented themselves: the
restoration of the papal state, which had been reduced to chaos
by the Borgias; and the liberation of the Holy See from the
onerous dependence on France — in other words, the expulsion
of the French " barbarians " from Italy. His solution of the
first problem entitles Julius II. to rank with Innocent III.
and Cardinal Albornoz as the third founder of the papal state.
His active prosecution of the second task made the Rovere pope,
in the eyes of Italian patriots, the hero of the century. At the
beginning of the struggle Julius had to endure many a hard
blow; but his courage never failed — or, at most, but for a
moment — even after the French victory at Ravenna, on Easter
Sunday 1512. In the end the Swiss saved the Holy See; and,
when Julius died the power of France had been broken in Italy,
although the power of Spain had taken its place.
The conflict with France led to a schism in the College of
Cardinals, which resulted in the conciliabuliim of Pisa. Julius
adroitly checkmated the cardinals by convening a general
council, which was held in the Lateran. This assembly was
also designed to deal with the question of reform, when the
pope was summoned from this world (Feb. 20-21, 1513). Of
his ecclesiastical achievements the bull against simony at papal
elections deserves the most honourable mention. Again, by
his restoration of the papal state, after the frightful era of the
Borgias, Julius became the saviour of the papal power. But
this does not exhaust his significance; he was, at the same time,
the renewer of the papal Maecenate in the domain of art. It
is to his lasting praise that he took into his service the three
greatest artistic geniuses of the time — Bramante, Michelangelo
and Raphael — and entrusted them with congenial tasks.
Bramante drew out the plan for the new cathedral of St Peter
and the reconstruction of the Vatican. On the i8th of April
1506 the foundation-stone of the new St Peter's was laid; 120
years later, on the 18th of November 1626, Urban VIII.
consecrated the new cathedral of the world, on which
twenty popes had laboured, in conjunction with the first
architects of the day, modifying in many points the grandiose
original design of Bramante, and receiving the contributions
of every Christian land.
St Peter's, indeed, is a monument of the history of art, not
merely within these 120 years from the zenith of the Renaissance
till the transition into Baroque — from Bramante, The new
Raphael, Michelangelo, to Maderna and Bernini — st Peter's
but down to the 19th century, in which Canova at"! the
and Thorwaldsen erected there the last great papal ^'"''•
monuments. But a still more striking period of art is represented
by the Vatican, with its antique collections, the Sistine and the
Stanze. Here, too, we are everywhere confronted with the
name of Julius II. It was he who inaugurated the collection
of ancient statues in the Belvedere, and caused the wonderful
roof of the Sistine Chapel to be painted by Michelangelo
(cf. Steinmann, Die sixtin. Kapelle II., 1905). Simultaneously,
on the commission of the pope, Raphael decorated the Vatican
with frescoes glorifying the Church and the papacy. In the
Camera deUa Segnatura he depicted the four intellectual
powers — theology, philosophy, poetry and law. In the Stanza
d'Eliodoro Julius II. was visibly extolled as the Head of the
Church, sure at all times of the aid of Heaven.'
As so often occurs in the history of the papacy, Julius II. was
followed by a man of an entirely different type — Leo X.
Though not yet 37 years of age, Giovanni de' Medici, i
distinguished for his generosity, mildness and isi3-l's2l.
courtesy, was elevated to the pontifical chair by
the adroit manoeuvres of the younger cardinals. His policy —
though officially he declared his intention of following in the
steps of his predecessor — was at first extremely reserved. His
ambition was to play the role of peacemaker, and his conciliatory
poUcy achieved many successes. Thus, in the very first year
of his reign, he removed the schism which had broken out under
Julius II. As a statesman Leo X. often walked by very crooked
paths; but the reproach that he allowed his policy to be swayed
exclusively by his family interests is unjustified. It may be
admitted that he clung to his native Florence and to his family
with warm affection; but the reaUy decisive factor which
governed his attitude throughout was his anxiety for the
temporal and spiritual independence of the Holy See. The
conquest of Milan by the French led to a personal interview
at Bologna, where the " Concordat " with France was concluded.
This document annulled the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges,
with its schismatic tendencies, but at the same time confirmed
the preponderating influence of the king upon the Gallican
Church — a concession which in spite of its many dubious aspects
at least made the sovereign the natural defender of the Church
and gave him the strongest motive for remaining Catholic.
The war for the duchy of Urbino (1516-17) entailed disastrous
consequences, as from it dates the complete disorganization of
papal finance. It was, moreover, a contributing cause of the
conspiracy of Cardinal Petrucci,^ the suppression of which was
foUowed (July, 1517) by the creation of 31 new cardinals in
one day. This — the greatest of recorded creations — turned
the scale once and for all in favour of the papal authority and
against the cardinals. The efforts of Leo to promote a crusade,
which fall mainly in the years 1517 and 15 18, deserve all recogni-
tion, but very various opinions have been held as to the attitude
of the pope towards the Imperial election consequent on the
death of Maximilian I. The fundamental motive for his pro-
ceedings at that period was not nepotistic tendencies — which
doubtless played their part, but only a secondary one — but his
anxiety for the moral and temporal independence of the Holy
See. For this reason Leo, from the very first, entertained no
genuine desire for the selection either of Charles V. or Francis I.
of France. By playing off one against the other he succeeded
in holding both in suspense, and induced them to conclude
agreements safeguarding the pope and the Medici. Of the two,
' The closer connexion of these frescoes with contemporary
history was first elucidated by Pastor, in his Ceschichte der Pdpste, vol.
iii., which also contains the most complete account of the reign of
this the second Rovere pope. — [Ed.]
= Alfonso Petrucci (d. 1517), a Sienese. He was degraded from
the cardinalate by Leo X. — [Ed.] •-•■ ••-
1 305- 1 590)
PAPACY
709
the French king appeared the less dangerous, and the result was
the Leo championed his cause with aU his energies. Not till
the eleventh hour, when the election of the Habsburg, to whom
he was entirely opposed, was seen to be certain did he give
way. He thus at least avoided an open rupture with the new
emperor — a rupture which would have been all the more
perilous on account of the religious revolution now imminent in
Germany. There the great secession from Rome was brought
about by Martin Luther; but, in spite of his striking personality,
the upheaval which was destined to shatter the unity of the
Western Church was not his undivided work. True, he was
the most powerful agent in the destruction of the existing
order; but, in reality, he merely put the match to a pile of
inflammable materials which had been collecting for centuries
(see Reformation). A main cause of the cleavage in Germany
was the position of ecclesiastical affairs, which — though by no
means hopeless — yet stood in urgent need of emendation, and,
combined with this, the deeply resented financial system of the
Curia. Thus Luther assumed the leadership of a national
opposition, and appeared as the champion who was to under-
take the much-needed reform of abuses which clamoured for
redress. The occasion for the schism was given by the conflict
with regard to indulgences, in the course of which Luther
was not content to attack actual grievances, but assailed the
Catholic doctrine itself. In June 1518 the canonical pro-
ceedings against Luther were begun in Rome; but, owing to
political influences, only slow progress was made. It was not
till the 15th of June 1520 that his new theology was con-
demned by the bull Exsurgc, and Luther himself threatened
with excommunication — a penalty which was only enforced
owing to his refusal to submit, on the 3rd of January 15 21.
The state of Germany, together with the unwise behaviour
of Francis I., compeUed Leo X. to side with Charles V. against
the French king; and the united forces of the empire and papacy
had achieved the most brilliant success in upper Italy, when
Leo died unexpectedly, on the ist of December 1521. The
character of the first Medician pope shows a peculiar mixture
of noble and ignoble qualities. With an insatiable love of
pleasure he combined a certain external piety and a magnificent
generosity in his charities. His financial administration was
disastrous, and led simply to bankruptcy. On music, hunt-
ing, expensive feasts and theatrical performances money was
squandered, while, with unexampled optimism the pope was
blind to the deadly earnestness of the times.
Leo's name is generally associated with the idea of the
Medicean era as a golden age of science and art. This con-
ception is only partially justified. The reputation of a greater
Maecenas — ascribed to him by his eulogists — dwindles before
a sober, critical contemplation, and his undeniable merits are
by no means equal to those which fame has assigned to him.
The love of science and Uterature, which animated the son of
Lorenzo the Magnificent, frequently took the shape of literary
dilettantism. In many respects the brilliance of this long
and often vaunted Maecenate of Leo X. is more apparent than
real. There are times when it irresistibly conveys the im-
pression of dazzling fireworks of which nothing remains but the
memory. The genuine significance of Leo lies rather in the
stimulus which he gave. From this point of view his deserts
are undoubtedly great; and for that reason he possesses an
indefeasible right to a certain share in the renown of the papacy
as a civilizing agent of the highest rank.
As a patron of art Leo occupies a more exalted plane. In
this domain the first place must be assigned to the splendid
achievements of Raphael, whom the pope entrusted with new
and comprehensive commissions — the Stanza dell' iiiccndio,
the Logge, and the tapestry-cartoons, the originals of the last
named being now in London. But, though illuminated by
the rays of art, and loaded with the exuberant panegyrics of
humanists and poets, the reign of the first Medicean pontiff,
by its unbounded devotion to purely secular tendencies and
its comparative neglect of the Church herself proved disastrous
for the See of St Peter.
By a wonderful dispensation the successor to this scion of
the Medici was Adrian VI. — a man who saw his noblest task,
not in an artistic Maecenate, nor in the prosecution
of political designs, but in the reform of the Church is22-is23.'
in all its members. Careless of the glories of
Renaissance art, a stranger to all worldly instincts, the earnest
Netherlander inscribed on his banner the heahng of the moral
ulcers, the restoration of unity to the Church — especially in
Germany — and the preservation of the West from the Turkish
danger. How clearly he read the causes of religious decadence,
how deeply he himself was convinced of the need of trenchant
reform, is best shown by his instructions to Chieregati, his
nuncio to Germany, in which he laid the axe to the root of
the tree with unheard-of freedom. Unfortunately, it was all
in vain. Luther and his adherents overwhelmed the noble
pope with unmeasured abuse. The two great rivals, Francis I.
and Charles V., were deaf to his admonitions to make common
cause against the Turks. The intrigues of Cardinal Soderini
led to a breach with France and drove Adrian into the arms of
the Imperial league. Soon afterwards, on the 14th of September
1523, he died. Long misunderstood and slandered, Adrian VL,
the last German pope, is now by all parties ranked among the
most revered and most worthy of the popes. No one now denies
that he was one of those exceptional men, who without self-
seeking spend their lives in the service of a cause and fight
bravely against the stream of corruption. Even though, in
his all too brief pontificate, he failed to attain any definite
results, he at least fulfilled the first condition of any cure by
laying bare the seat of disease, gave an important impetus
to the cause of the reform of the Church, and laid down the
principles on which this was afterwards carried through. His
activity, in fact, will always remain one of the brightest chapters
in the history of the papacy.
Under Leo X. Cardinal Giulio de' Medeci, the cousin of that
pope, had already exercised a decisive influence upon Catholic
policy; and the tiara now fell to his lot. Clement ciemeot
VII. — so the new pontiff styled himself — was soon vn-, IS23-
to discover the weight of the crown which he had '*'''•
gained. The international situation was the most difficult imagin-
able, and altogether beyond the powers of the timorous, vacillat-
ing and irresolute Medician pope. His determination to stand
aloof from the great duel between Francis I. and Charles V.
failed him at the first trial. He had not enough courage and
perspicacity to await in patience the result of the race between
France and Germany for the duchy of Milan — a contest which
was decided at Pavia (Feb. 24, 1525). The haughty victors found
Clement on the side of their opponent, and he was forced into
an alliance with the emperor (April i, 1525). The overw-eening
arrogance of the Spaniards soon drove the pope back into the
ranks of their enemies. On the 22nd of May 1526 Clement
acceded to the League of Cognac, and joined the Italians in
their struggle against the Spanish supremacy. This step he
was destined bitterly to repent. The tempest descended on the
pope and on Rome with a violence which cannot be paralleled,
even in the days of Alaric and Genseric, or of the Norman
Robert Guiscard. On the 6th of May 1527 the Eternal City
was stormed by the Imperial troops and subjected to appalling
devastation in the famous sack. Clement was detained for
seven months a prisoner in the castle of St Angelo. He then
went into exile at Orvieto and Viterbo, and only on the 6th of
October 1528 returned to his desolate residence. After the
fall of the French dominion in Italy he made his peace with the
emperor at Barcelona (June 29, 1529); in return for which he
received the assistance of Charles in re-establishing the rule of
the Medici in Florence. During the Italian turmoil the schism
in Germany had made such alarming progress that it now proved
impossible to bridge the chasm. With regard to the question
of a council the pope was so obsessed by doubts and fears that
he was unable to advance a single step; nor. till the day of his
death could he break off his pitiful vacillation between Charles
V. and Francis I. While large portions of Germany were lost to
the Church the revolt from Rome proceeded apace in Switzerland
yio
PAPACY
[1305-1590
and the Scandinavian countries. To add to the disasters,
the divorce of Henry VIII. led to the EngHsh schism. Whether
another head of the Church could have prevented the defection
of England is of course an idle question. But Clement V'll.
was far from possessing the quaUties which would have enabled
him to show a bold front to the ambitious Cardinal Wolsey and
the masterful and passionate Henry VIII. At the death of
Clement (Sept. 25, 1534), the complete disruption of the Church
seemed inevitable.
When all seemed lost salvation was near. Even in the reign
of the two Medici popes the way which was to lead to better
things had been silently paved within the Church. Under
Leo X. himself there had been formed in Rome, in the Oratory
of the Divine Love, a body of excellent men of strictly Catholic
sentiments. It was by members of this Oratory — especially
St Gaetano di Tiene, Carafa (later Paul IV.), and the great
bishop of Verona, Giberti — that the foundations of the Cathohc
reformation were laid. Under Clement VII. the establishment
of new religious orders — Theatines, Somascians, Barnabites
and Capuchins — had sown the seeds of a new life in the ancient
Church. The harvest was reaped during the long pontificate
of the Farnese pope, Paul III. With his accession
^ti4-iS49 devotion to religion and the Church began to regain
their old mastery. True, Paul III. was not a
representative of the Catholic reformation, in the full sense of
the words. In many points, especially his great nepotism —
witness the promotion of the worthless Pier Luigi Farnese —
he remained, even as pope, a true child of the Renaissance period
in which he had risen to greatness. Nevertheless he possessed
the necessary adaptability and acumen to enable him to do
justice to the demands of the new age, which imperatively
demanded that the interests of the Church should be the first
consideration. Thus, in the course of his long reign he did
valuable work in the cause of the Cathohc reformation and
prepared the way for the Catholic restoration. It was he who
regenerated the College of Cardinals by leavening it with men
of ability, who took in hand the reform of the Curia, confirmed
the Jesuit Order, and finaUy brought the Council of Trent into
existence (Sessions I.-X. of the council, first period, 1545-1540).
In order to check the progress of Protestantism in Italy
Paul III. founded the Congregation of the Inquisition (1542).
Political differences, and the transference of the council to
Bologna in 1547, brought the pope into sharp collision with
the emperor, who now attempted by means of the Interim to
regulate the religious affairs of Germany according to his wishes
— but in vain. The disobedience of his favourite Ottavio
hastened the death of the old pope (Nov. 10, 1540).
Under the Farnese pope art enjoyed an Indian summer. The
most important work for which he was responsible is the " Last
Judgment" of Michelangelo in the Sistine Chapel. In 1547
Michelangelo was further entrusted with the superintendence
of the reconstruction of St Peter's. He utilized his power by
rejecting the innovations of Antonio da Sangallo, saved the
plan of Bramante, and left behind him sufficient drawings to
serve the completion of the famous cupola. Titian painted
Paul's portrait, and Guglielmo della Porta cast the bronze
statue which now adorns his grave in St Peter's.
After a protracted conclave Giovanni Maria del Monte was
elected, on the 7th of February 1550, as Pope Julius III. He
submitted to the emperor's demands and again con-
ISSO-ISSS. vened the council (Sessions XI.-XVL, second period),
but was obliged to suspend it on the 22nd of April
1552, in consequence of the war between Charles V. and
Maurice of Saxony. From this time onwards the pope failed
to exhibit requisite energy. In his beautiful villa before the
Porta del Popolo he sought to banish pohtical and ecclesiastical
anxieties from his mind. Yet even now he was not wholly
inactive. The rehgious affairs of England especially engaged
his attention; and the nomination of Cardinal Pole as his legate
to that country, on the death of Edward VI. (1553), was an
extremely adroit step. That the measure was fruitless was not
the fault of Julius III., who died on the 23rd of March 1555.
The feeble regime of Julius had made it evident that a pope
of another type was necessary if the papal see were to preserve
the moral and political influence which it had regained under
Paul III. On the loth of April 1555, after a conclave
which lasted five days, the reform party secured n'"lggg^
the election of the distinguished Marcellus II.
Unfortunately, on the ist of May, an attack of apoplexy cut
short the life of this pope, who seemed peculiarly adapted for
the reformation of the Church.
On the 23rd of May 1555 Gian Pietro Carafa, the strictest of
the strict, was elected as his successor, under the title of Paul IV.
Though already 79 years of age, he was animated by the fiery
zeal of youth, and he employed the most drastic methods for
executing the necessary reforms anc combating the
advance of Protestantism. Always an opponent isss-issg
of the Spaniards, Paul IV., in the most violent and
impolitic fashion, declared against the Habsburgs. The conflict
with the Colonna was soon followed by the war with Spain,
which, in spite of the French alliance, ended so disastrously, in
1557, that the pope henceforward devoted himself exclusively to
ecclesiastical affairs. The sequel was the end of the nepotism
and the relentless prosecution of reform within the Church.
Protestantism was successfully eradicated in Italy; but the
pope failed to prevent the secession of England. After his
death the rigour of the Inquisition gave rise to an insurrection in
Rome. The Venetian ambassador says of Paul IV. that, although
all feared his strictness, all venerated his learning and wisdom.
The reaction against the iron administration of Paul IV.
explains the fact that, after his decease, a more worldly-
minded pope was again elected in the person of
Cardinal Giovanni Angelo de' Medici — Pius IV. issg-ises.
In striking contrast to his predecessor he favoured
the Habsburgs. A suit was instituted against the Carafa,
and Cardinal Carafa was even executed. To his own rela-
tives, however, Pius IV. accorded no great influence, the
advancement of his distinguished nephew, Carlo Borromeo
(q.v.) being singularly fortunate for the Church. The most
important act of his reign was the reassembhng of the Council
of Trent (Sessions XVII.-XXV., third period, 1 562-1 563). It was
an impressive moment, when, on the 4th of December 1563, the
great ecumenical synod of the Church came to a close. Till
the last it was obliged to contend with the most formidable
difficulties: yet it succeeded in effecting many notable reforms
and in illuminating and crystallizing the distinctive doctrines
of Catholicism. The breach with the Protestant Reformation
was now final, and all Catholics felt themselves once more united
and brought into intimate connexion with the centre of unity
at Rome (see Trent, Council of).
The three great successors of Pius IV. inaugurate the heroic
age of the Catholic reformation and restoration. All three
were of humble extraction, and sprang from the
people in the full sense of the phrase. Pius V., /jj^j./j/^.
formerly Michele Ghisleri and a member of the
Dominican Order observed even as pope the strictest rules of
the brotherhood, and was already regarded as a saint by his
contemporaries. For Rome, in especial, he completed the task
of reform. The Curia, once so corrupt, was completely meta-
morphosed, and once more became a rallying point for men of
stainless character, so that it produced a profound impression
even on non-Cathohcs; while the original methods of St Phihp
Neri had a profound influence on the reform of popular morals.
In the rest of Italy also Pius V. put into execution the reforma-
tory decrees of Trent. In 1566 he gave publicity to the Triden-
tine catechism; in 1568 he introduced the amended Roman
breviary; everywhere he insisted on strict monastic disciphne,
and the compulsory residence of bishops within their sees. At
the same period Carlo Borromeo made his diocese of Milan the
model of a reformed bishopric. The pope supported Mary
Stuart with money; his troops assisted Charles IX. of France
against the Huguenots; and he lent his aid to Philip II. against
the Calvinists of the Netherlands. But his greatest joy was
that he succeeded where Pius II. had failed, despite all his efforts.
1 590- 1 870]
PAPACY
7
1 1
by bringing to a head an enterprise against the Turks — then
masters of the Mediterranean. He negotiated an alliance
between the Venetians and Spaniards, contributed ships and
soldiers, and secured the election of Don John of Austria to the
supreme command. He was privileged to survive the victory
of the Christians at Lepanto; but on the ist of May in the
following year he died, as piously as he had lived. The last
pope to be canonized, his pontificate marks the zenith of the
Catholic reformation.
The renewed vigour which this internal reformation had
infused into the Church was now manifest in its external effects;
and Pius V., the pope of reform, was followed by the popes of
the Catholic restoration. These, without intermitting the
work of reformation, endeavoured by every means to further
the outward expansion of Catholicism. On the one hand
missions were despatched to America, India, China and Japan:
on the other, a strenuous attempt was made to reannex the
conquests of Protestantism. In a word, the age of the Catholic
restoration was beginning — a movement which has been mis-
named the counter Reformation. In this period, the newly
created religious orders were the right arm of the papacy,
especially the Jesuits and the Capuchins. In place of the earlier
supineness, the battle was now joined all along the line. Every-
where, in Germany and France, in Switzerland and the Low
Countries, in Poland and Hungary, efforts were made to check
the current of Protestantism and to re-establish the orthodox
faith. This activity extended to wider and wider areas, and
enterprises were even set on foot to regain England, Sweden
and Russia for the Church. This universal outburst of energy
for the restoration of Catholicism, which only came to a
standstill in the middle of the 17th century, found one of its
Gregory most zealous promotors in Ugo Boncompagni —
XIII., Pope Gregory XIII. Though not of an ascetic
I572-IS8S. nature, he followed unswervingly in the path of his
predecessors by consecrating his energies to the translation of
the reformatory decrees into practice. At the same time
he showed himself an.vious to further the cause of ecclesi-
astical instruction and Catholic science. He created a special
Congregation to deal with episcopal affairs, and organized
the Congregation of the Index, instituted by Pius V. On
behalf of the diffusion of Catholicism throughout the world
he spared no efforts; and wherever he was able he supported
the great restoration. He was especially active in the erection
and encouragement of educational institutions. In Rome he
founded the splendid College of the Jesuits; and he patronized
the Collegium Germanicum of St Ignatius; while, at the same
time, he found means for the endowment of English and Irish
colleges. In fact, his generosity for the cause of education was
so unbounded that he found himself in financial difficulties.
Gregory did good service, moreover, by his reform of the
calendar which bears his name, by his emended edition of the
Corpus juris canonici and by the creation of nunciatures. That
he celebrated the night of St Bartholomew was due to the fact
that, according to his information, the step was a last resort
to ensure the preservation of the royal family and the Catholic
religion from the attacks of the revolutionary Huguenots. In his
political enterprises he was less fortunate. He proved unable
to devise a common plan of action on the part of the Catholic
princes against Elizabeth of England and the Turks; while he
was also powerless to check the spread of brigandage in the
papal state.
On the death of Gregory XIII., Felice Peretti, cardinal of
Montalto, a member of the Franciscan order, ascended the
Apostolic throne as Sixtus V. (April 1585- August
1585-1590. 159°)- His first task was the extirpation of the
bandits and the restoration of order within the papal
state. In the course of a year the drastic measures of this
born ruler made this state the safest country in Europe. He
introduced a strictly ordered administration, encouraged the
sciences, and enlarged the Vatican library, housing it in a
splendid building erected for the purpose in the Vatican itself.
He was an active patron of agriculture and commerce: he even
interested himself in the draining of the Pontine marshes. The
financial system he almost completely reorganized. With
a boldness worthy of Julius II., he devised the most gigantic
schemes for the annihilation of the Turkish Empire and the
conquest of Egypt and Palestine. Elizabeth of England he
wished to restore to the Roman obedience cither by conversion
or by force; but these projects were shattered by the destruction
of the Spanish Armada. Down to his death the pope kept a
vigilant eye on the troubles in France. Here his great object
was to save France for the Catholic religion, and, as far as
possible, to secure her position as a power of the first rank.
To this fundamental axiom of his policy he remained faithful
throughout all vicissitudes.
In Rome itself Sixtus displayed extraordinary activity. The
Pincian, the Esquiline, and the south-easterly part of the Caelian
hills received essentially their present form by the creation
of the Via Sistina, Felice, delle Quattro Fontane, di Sta Croce
in Gerusalemme, &c.; by the buildings at Sta Maria Maggiore,
the Villa Montalto, the reconstruction of the Lateran, and the
aqueduct of the Felice, which partially utilized the Alexandrina
and cost upwards of 300,000 scudi. The erection of the obelisks
of the Vatican, the Lateran, the Piazza del Popolo and the
square behind the tribune of Sta Maria Maggiore lent a lustre
to Rome which no other city in the world could rival. The
columns of Trajan and Antoninus were restored and bedecked
with gilded statues of the Apostles; nor was this the only case
in which the high-minded pope made the monuments of antiquity
subservient to Christian ideas. His principal architect was
Domenico Fontana, who, in conjunction with Guglielmo della
Porta, completed the uniquely beautiful cupola of St Peter's
which had already been designed by Michelangelo in a detailed
model. In Santa Maria Maggiore the pope erected the noble
Sistine Chapel, in which he was laid to rest. Indeed, the monu-
mental character of Rome dates from this era. The organizing
activity of Sixtus V. was not, however, restricted to the Eternal
City, but extended to the whole administration of the Church.
The number of cardinals was fixed at seventy — six bishops, fifty
priests and fourteen deacons. In 1588 followed the new regula-
tions with respect to the Roman Congregations, which hence-
forth were to be fifteen in number. Thus the pope laid the
foundations of that wonderful and silent engine of universal
government by which Rome still rules the Catholics of every
land on the face of the globe.
When we reflect that all this was achieved in a single pontifi-
cate of but five years' duration, the energy of Sixtus V. appears
simply astounding. He was, without doubt, by far the most
important of the post-Tridentine popes, and his latest biographer
might well say that he died overweighted with services to the
Church and to humanity. (L. v. P.)
IV. — Period from ijgo to iSjo.
The history of the papacy from 1590 to 1S70 falls into four
main periods: (i) 1590-1648; territorial expansion, definitely
checked by the peace of Westphalia; (2) 1648-1789; waning
prestige, financial embarrassments, futile reforms; (3) 1789-
1S14; revolution and Napoleonic reorganization; (4) 1814-1870;
restoration and centralization.
I. 1500-1648. The keynote of the counter Reformation had
been struck by the popes who immediately preceded this
period. They sought to reconquer Europe for the Roman
Catholic Church. In the overthrow of the Spanish Armada
they had already received a great defeat; with the Peace of
Westphalia the Catholic advance was baffled. Sixtus V. was
succeeded in rapid succession by three popes: Urban VII., who
died on the 27th of September 1590, after a papacy of only 12
days; Gregory XIV. (Dec. 1590 to Oct. 1591); Innocent IX.
(Oct. to Dec. 1591).
The first noteworthy pontiff of the period was Clement VIII.,
who gained a vast advantage by allying the papacy with the
rising power of France. Since 1559 the popes had ciemeat
been without exception in favour of Spain, which, viii.,
firmly possessed of Milan on the north and of Naples IS92-I60S.
712
PAPACY
[1590- I 870
on the south, held the States of the Church as in a vice, and
thereby dominated the politics of the peninsula. After Henry IV.
had taken Paris at the price of a mass, it became possible for
the popes to play off the Bourbons against the Habsburgs;
but the transfer of favour was made so gradually that the
opposition of the papacy to Spain did not become open till just
before Clement VIII. passed ofi the stage. His successor,
Leo XI., undisguisedly French in sympathy, reigned but
twenty-seven days — a sorry return for the 300,000
l^Qgl " ducats which his election is rumoured to have cost
Henry IV. Under Paid V. Rome was successful in
some minor negotiations with Savoy, Genoa, Tuscany and Naples ;
but Venice, under the leadership of Paolo Sarpi (?.».), proved
unbending under ban and interdict: the state
Psul V
1605 1621 defiantly upheld its sovereign rights, kept most of the
clergy at their posts, and expeUed the recalcitrant
Jesuits. When peace was arranged through French mediation
in 1607 the papacy had lost greatly in prestige: it was evident
that the once terrible interdict was antiquated, wherefore it
has never since been employed against the entire territory of
a state.
During the second and third decades of the 17th century
the most coveted bit of Italian soU was the Valtelline. If Spain
could gain this Alpine valley her territories would touch those
of Austria, so that the Habsburgs north of the Alps could send
troops to the aid of their Spanish cousins against Venice, and
Spain in turn could help to subdue the Protestant princes of Ger-
many in the Thirty Years' War (161 8-1648). From the Grisons,
who favoured France and Venice, Spain seized the Valtelline in
1620, incidentally uprooting heresy there by the massacre of
six hundred Protestants. Paul V. repeatedly lamented that he
was unable to oppose such Spanish aggressions without extend-
ing protection to heretics. This scruple was, however, not
shared by his successor, Gregory XV., who secured
iA2^-m23 " ^^^ consent of the powers to the occupation of the
Valtelline by papal troops, a diplomatic victory
destined, however, to lead ere long to humiliation. Gregory's
brief but notable pontificate marks nevertheless the high-
tide of the counter Reformation. Not for generations had the
prospects for the ultimate annihilation of Protestantism been
brighter. In the Empire the collapse of the Bohemian revolt
led ultimately to the merciless repression of the Evangelicals
Tbe in Bohemia (1627), and in the hereditary lands of
Counter- Austria (1628), as weU as to the transference of the
' electoral dignity from the Calvinistic elector of the
Palatinate to the staunchly Catholic Maximilian of Bavaria.
In France the Huguenots were shorn of almost all their mihtary
power, a process completed by the fall of La Rochelle in 1628.
In Holland the expiration of the Twelve Years' Truce in 1621
forced the Dutch Protestants once more to gird on the sword.
England, meanwhile, was isolated from her co-rehgionists.
King James I., who had coquetted twenty years previously
with Clement VIII. , and then had avenged the Gunpowder
Plot (1605) by the most stringent regulation of his Roman
CathoKc subjects, was now dazzled by the project of the Spanish
marriage. The royal dupe was the last man in the world to
check the advance of the papacy. That service to Protestantism
was performed by CathoHc powers jealous of the preponderance
of the Habsburgs. In view of these antipathies the treaty of 1627
between France, Spain and the pope is but an episode: instruc-
tive, however, in that the project, originated apparently by the
pope, provided that England should be dismembered, and that
Ireland should be treated as a papal fief. The true tendency of
affairs manifested itself in 1620, when the emperor Ferdinand II.
(1619-1637), at the zenith of his fortunes, forced the Protestant
princes of Germany to restore to the Roman hierarchy all the
ecclesiastical territories they had secularized during the past
seventy-four years. Then France, freed from the fear of domestic
enemies, arose to help the heretics to harry the house of
Habsburg. Arranging a truce between Poland and Sweden,
she unleashed Gustavus Adolphus. Thus by diplomacy as well
as by force of arms Catholic France made possible the continued
existence oi a Protestant Germany, and helped to create the
balance of power between Catholic, Lutheran and Reformed
within the Empire, that, crystallized in the Peace of Westphalia,
fixed the religious boundaries of central Europe for upwards of
two centuries.
If it was Richelieu and not the pope who was the real arbiter
of destinies from 1624 to 1642, Urban VIII. was usually content.
In Italy he supported France against Spain in the
controversy over the succession to Mantua (1627- jg^Z-M^^ '
1631). In the Empire he manifested his antipathy
to the overshadowing Habsburgs by plotting for a time to carry
the next imperial election in favour of Bavaria. He is said to
have rejoiced privately over Swedish victories, and certainly
it was unerring instinct which told him that the great European
conflict was no longer religious but dynastic. Anti-Spanish to
the core, he became the greatest papal militarist since Julius II.;
but Tuscany, Modena and Venice checkmated him in his
ambitious attempt to conquer the duchy of Parma. Like most
of the papal armies of the last three centuries, Urban's troops
distinguished themselves by wretched strategy, cowardice in
rank and file, and a Fabian avoidance of fighting which, discreet
as it may be in the field of diplomacy, has invariably failed to
save Rome on the field of battle.
The States of the Church were enlarged during this period
by the reversion of two important fiefs — namely, Ferrara (1598)
and Urbino (1631). Increase of territory, so far
from filling the papal treasury, but postponed for states'.''
the moment the progressive pauperization of the
people. After annexation, the city of Ferrara sank rapidly
from her perhaps artificial prosperity to the dead level, losing
two-thirds of her population in the process. The financial
difticulties of Italy were due to many causes, notably to a shifting
of trade routes; but those of the papal states seem caused
chiefly by misgovernment. Militarism may account for much
of the tremendous deficit under Urban VIII. ; but the real
cancer was nepotism. The disease was inherent in the body
politic. Each pope, confronted by the spectre of
Nepotism.
feudal anarchy, felt he could rely truly only on those
utterly dependent on himself; consequently he raised his own
relations to wealth and influence. This method had helped the
House of Valois to consolidate its power; but what was tonic
for a dynasty was death to a state whose headship was elective.
The relations of one pope became the enemies of the next; and
each pontiff governed at the expense of his successors. Under
Clement VIII. the Aldobrandini, more splendidly under Paul V.
the Borghesi, with canny haste under the short-lived Gregory XV.
the LodoNHsi, with unparalleled rapacity Urban's Barberini
enriched themselves from a chronically depleted treasury. To
raise money offices were systematically sold, and issue after
issue of the two kinds of woM/i-securities, which may be roughly
described as government bonds and as life annuities, was
marketed at ruinous rates. More than a score of years after
the Barberini had dropped the reins of power Alexander VII.
said they alone had burdened the state with the payment of
483,000 scudi of annual interest, a tremendous item in a budget
where the income was perhaps but 2,000,000. For a while
interest charges consumed 85% of the income of the government.
Skilful refunding postponed the day of evil, but cash on hand
was too often a temptation to plunder. The financial woes of
the next period, which is one of decline, were largely the legacy
of this age of glory.
The common people, as always, had to pay. The farming
of exorbitant taxes, coupled as it was too often with dishonest
concessions to the tax farmer, made the over-burdened peas-
antry drink the doubly bitter cup of exploitation and injustice.
Economic distress increased the number of highway robberies,
these in turn lamed commercial intercourse.
The tale of these glories, with their attendant woes, does not
exhaust the history of the papacy. Not as diplomatists, not
as governors, but as successive heads of a spiritual kingdom,
did the popes win their grandest triumphs. At a time wherr
the non-Catholic theologians were chiefly small fry, bent on
I590-I870]
PAPACY
713
petty or sulphurous polemics, great Jesuit teachers lilie Bellar-
mine (d. 1621) laid siege to the very foundations of the
Coatrover- Protestant citadel. These thinkers performed for
slalaad the unity of the faith in France and in the
Missionary CathoUc states of Germany services of transcendent
Triumphs, ffjgj.;^^ exceeding far in importance those of their
flourishing allies, the Inquisitions of Spain, Italy, and of the
Spanish Netherlands (see Inquisition). But the most funda-
mental spiritual progress of the papacy was made by its devoted
missionaries. While the majority of Protestant leaders left
the conversion of the heathen to some remote and inscrutable
interposition of Providence, the Jesuits, Franciscans, Dominicans
and kindred orders were busily engaged in making Roman
Catholics of the nations brought by Oriental commerce or
American colonial enterprise into contact with Spain, Portugal
and France. Though many of the spectacular triumphs of the
cross in Asia and Africa proved to be evanescent, nevertheless
South America stands the impressive memorial of the greatest
forward movement in the history of the papacy: a solidly
Roman continent.
2. 1648-1789. From the close of the Thirty Years' War
to the outbreak of the French Revolution the papacy suffered
abroad waning political prestige; at home, progressive financial
embarrassment accompanied by a series of inadequate govern-
mental reforms; and in the world at large, gradual diminution of
reverence for spiritual authority. From slow beginnings these
factors kept gaining momentum until they compassed the
overthrow of the mighty order of the Jesuits, and culminated
in the revolutionary spohation of the Church.
At the election of Innocent X. (1644-1655) the favour of the
Curia was transferred from France, where it had rested for over
forty years, to the House of Habsburg, where it
Reiatfoas. remained, save for the brief reign of Clement IX.
(1667-1669), for half a century. The era of tension
with France coincides with the earlier years of Louis XIV.
(1643-1715); its main causes were the Jansenist and the GaUican
controversies (see Jansenism and Gallicanism). The French
crown was willing to sacrifice the Jansenists, who disturbed
that dead level of uniformity so grateful to autocrats; but
Gallicanism touched its very prerogatives, and was
Jansenism ^ point of honour which could never be abandoned
Gallicanism. outright. The regalia controversy, which broke
- out in 1673, led up to the classic declaration of the
GaUican clergy of 1682; and, when aggravated by a conflict
over the immunity of the palace of the French ambassador at
Rome, resulted in 1688 in the suspension of diplomatic relations
with Innocent XL, the imprisonment of the papal nuncio, and
the seizure of Avignon and the Venaissin. So pronounced an
enemy of French preponderance did Innocent become that he
approved the League of Augsburg, and was not sorry to see the
Catholic James II., whom he considered a tool of Louis, thrust
from the throne of England by the Protestant William of Orange.
Fear of the coalition, however, led the Grand Monarch to make
peace with Innocent XII. (1691-1700). The good relations
with France were but a truce, for the Bourbon powers became
so mighty in the 18th century that they practically ignored the
territorial interests of the papacy. Thus Clement XI. (1700-
1721), who espoused the losing Habsburg side in the War of the
Spanish Succession, saw his nuncio excluded from the negotia-
tions leading to the Peace of Utrecht, while the lay signatories
disposed of SicUy in defiance of his alleged overlordship. Simi-
larly Clement XII. (i 730-1 740) looked on impotently when the
sudden Bourbon conquest of Naples in the War of the Polish
Succession set at nought his claims to feudal sovereignty, and
established Tannucci as minister of justice, a position in which
for forty-three years he regulated the relations of church and
state after a method most repugnant to Rome. No better
fared Clement's medieval rights to Parma; nor could the saga-
cious and popular Benedict XIV. (1740-1758), who refused to
press obsolete claims, either keep the foreign armies in the War
of the Austrian Succession from trespassing on the States of
the Church or prevent the ignoring at the Peace of Aix-la-
Chapelle of the papal overlordship over Parma and Piacenza.
In fact, since the doctrinaire protest of Innocent X. against the
Peace of Westjihalia, at almost every important settlement
of European boundaries the popes had been ignored or other-
wise snubbed. Not for two centuries had the political prestige
of the papacy been lower. Moreover, a feeUng of revulsion
against the Jesuits was sweeping over western Europe: they
were accused of being the incarnation of the most baneful prin-
ciples, political, intellectual, moral; and though Clement XIII.
(175S-1769) protected them against the pressure
of the Bourbon courts, his successor Clement XIV. ^"Pp^-'^^^'o"
(1769-1774) was forced in 1773 to disband the Jesuits.
army of the Black Pope (see Jesuits). The sacri-
fice of these trusted soldiers failed however to sate the thirst
of the new age. Pius VL (1775-1799), was treated with
scant respect by his neighbours. Naples refused him tribute;
Joseph II. of Austria politely but resolutely introduced funda-
mental GaUican reforms (" Josephism "); in 1786 at the Synod
of Pistoia {q.v.) Joseph's brother Leopold urged simUar prin-
ciples on Tuscany, while in Germany the very archbishops were
conspiring by the Punctation of Ems to aggrandize themselves
like true I-'ebronians, at the expense of the pope (see Febronian-
ism). These aggressions of monarchy and the episcopate were
rendered vain, outside the Habsburg dominions, by the revolu-
tion; and to the Habsburg dominions the clerical revolution
of 1790 caused the loss of what is to-day Belgium. However,
the deluge which shattered the opposition to Rome in the
great national churches submerged for a time the papacy
itself.
In the States of the Church, during the first part of the period
the outstanding feature in the history of the Temporal Power
is the overthrow of nepotism; in the second, a dull
conflict with debt. The chief enemies of nepotism ^^•S''''^'
were Alexander VII. (1655-1667), who dignified cburch.
the secretaryship of state and gave it its present
pre-eminence by refusing to deliver it up to one of his relations;
and Innocent XII. (1691-1700), whose buU Romanmn deed ponti-
ficem ordered that no pope should make more than one nephew
cardinal, and should not grant him an income over twelve
thousand scudi. Thus by 1700 nepotistic plunder had practi-
cally ceased, and with the exception of the magnificent pecula-
tions of Cardinal Coscia under Benedict XIII. (1724-1730), the
central administration of finance has been usuaUy considered
honest. Nepotism, however, stiU left its scars upon the body
pohtic, shown in the progressive decay of agriculture in the
Campagna, causing Rome to starve in the midst of fertile but
untilled nepotistic latifuiidia. The fight against the legacy
of debt was slower and more dreary. One pope. Innocent XI.
(1676-1789), threatened at first with bankruptcy, managed to
leave a surplus; but this condition, the product of severe economy
and oppressive taxation, could not be maintained. In the
1 8th century it became necessary to resort to fiscal measures
which were often harmful. Thus Clement XL, at war with
Austria in 1708, debased the currency; Clement XII. (1730-1740)
issued paper money and set up a government lottery, excom-
municating aU subjects who put their money into the lotteries
of Genoa or Naples; Benedict XIV. (1740-1758) found stamped
paper a faUure; and Clement XIII. (i 758-1769) made a forced
loan. The stoppage of payments from Bourbon countries
during the Jesuit struggle brought the annual deficit to nearly
500,000 scudi. Under Pius Vl. (1775-1799) the emission of
paper money, foUowed by an unsuccessful attempt to market
government securities, produced a panic. By 1783 the taxes
had been farmed for years in advance and the treasury was in
desperate straits. Retrenchment often cut to the bone; wise
reforms shattered on the inexperience or corruption of officials.
Grand attempts to increase the national wealth usually cost
the government more in fixed charges of interest than they
yielded in rentals or taxes. The States of the Church, hke
France, were on the brink of bankruptcy. From this dis-
grace they were saved by a more imminent catastrophe — the
Revolution.
XX. 23 a
714
PAPACY
[1590-1870
The revolt against spiritual authority belongs rather to the
history of modern thought than to that of the papacy. The
Intellectual Renaissance and Protestantism had their effect in
Movement producing that Enlightenment which swept over
against tbe western Europe in the iSth century. Although
Papacy. Descartes died in 1650 in the communion of the
Church, his philosophy contained seeds of revolt; and the
sensualism of Locke, popularized in Italy by Genovesi, pre-
pared the way for revolution. In an age when Voltaire
preached toleration and the great penologist Beccaria attacked
the death-penalty and torture, in the States of the Church
heretics were still liable to torture, the relapsed to capital
punishment; and in a backward country hke Spain the single
reign of Philip V. (1700-1746) had witnessed the burning of
over a thousand heretics. If ecclesiastical authority fostered
what was commonly regarded as intolerant obscurantism, to
be enlightened meant to be prepared in spirit for that reform
which soon developed into the Revolution.
^ 3. 1789-1814. In the decade previous to the outbreak of
the French Revolution the foreign policy of Pius VI. had been
TAe Papacy directed chiefly against decentralization, while his
and the chief aim at home was to avoid bankruptcy by in-
**'"'''"''*'"• creasing his income. From 1789 on the French
situation absorbed his attention. France, hke the States of
the Church, was facing financial ruin; but France did what
the government of priests could not: namely, saved the day
by the confiscation and sale of ecclesiastical property. It
was not the aim of the Constituent Assembly to pauperize or
annihilate the Church; it purposed to reorganize it on a juster
basis. These reforms, embodied in the Civil Constitution of
the Clergy, were part of the new Fundamental Law of the
J^ingdom. The majority of the priests and bishops refused to
'swear assent to what they held to be an invasion of the divine
right of the hierarchy, and after some months of unfortunate
indecision Pius VI. (1775-1799) formally condemned it. Thence-
forward France treated the papacy as an inimical power. The
sullen toleration of the non-juring priests changed into sanguinary
persecution. The harrying was halted in 1705; and soon after
the directory had been succeeded by the consulate, the Catholic
religion was re-established by the concordat of 1801. From
1790 on, however, the rising power of France had been directed
against Rome. In September 1791 France annexed Avignon
and the Venaissin, thus removing for ever that territorial pawn
with whose threatened loss the French monarchs had for centuries
disciphned their popes. In 1793 Hugon de Bassville (q.v.), a
diplomatic agent of France, was murdered at Rome, a deed not
avenged until the Italian victories of Bonaparte. In the peace
of Tolentino (Feb. 1797) the pope surrendered his claims to
Avignon, the Venaissin, Bologna, Ferrara and the Romagna;
he also promised to disband his worthless army, to yield up
certain treasures of art, and to pay a large indemnity. Bona-
parte believed that after these losses the temporal power would
collapse of its own weight; but so peaceful a solution was not
to be. During republican agitation at Rome the French general
Duphot was kiUed, a French army advanced on the city, and
carried the aged pontiff a prisoner of war to Valence in
1800-1823. Dauphine, where he died on the 29th of August 1799.
His successor Pius \TI., elected at Venice on the
14th of the following March, soon entered Rome and began his
reign auspiciously by appointing as secretary of state Ercole
Consalvi (q.v.), the greatest papal diplomatist of the 19th century.
The political juncture was favourable for a reconciliation with
France. In the concordat of 1801 the papacy
recognized the validity of the sales of Church
property, and still further reduced the number of
dioceses; it provided that the government should appoint and
support the archbishops and bishops, but that the pope should
confirm them; and France recognized the temporal power,
though shorn of Ferrara, Bologna and the Romagna.
The supplementary Organic Articles of April 1802, however,
centralized the administration of the Church in the hands
of the First Consul; and some of these one-sided regulations
Concordat
of 1801.
were considered by Rome to be minute and oppressive;
nevertheless, the Napoleonic arrangements remained in force,
with but brief exceptions, tiU the year 1905. The indignation
of the pope and his advisers v/as not deep enough to prevent
the ratification in 1803 of a somewhat similar concordat for the
Italian Republic. In 1804 Pius consented to anoint Napoleon
emperor, thus casting over a conquered crown the halo of
legitimacy. The era of good feeling was, however, soon ended
by friction, which arose at a number of points. At length,
in 1809, Napoleon annexed the papal states; and Pius, who
excommunicated the invaders of his territory, was removed to
France. The captive was, however, by no means powerless;
by refusing canonical institution to the French bishops he
involved the ecclesiastical system of Napoleon in inextricable
confusion. After the return from Moscow the emperor negoti-
ated with his prisoner a new and more exacting concordat, but
two months later the repentant pope abrogated this treaty and
declared all the official acts of the new French bishops to be
invahd. By this time Napoleon was tottering to his fall;
shortly before the catastrophe of Elba he allowed the pope to
return to the States of the Church. Pius entered Rome amid
great rejoicing on the 24th of May 18 14, a day which marks
the beginning of a new era in the history of the papacy. In
September of the same year, by the bull SollicUudo omnium
ecdcsiarum, he reconstituted the Society of Jesus.
Though the relations with France dominated the papal
policy during the revolutionary period, the affairs of Germany
received no small share of attention. The peace of Luneville
(1801) established the French boundary at the Rhine; and the
German princes who thereby lost lands west of the river were
indemnified by the secularization of ecclesiastical Seailarlza-
territories to the east. The scheme of readjust- """s of
ment, known as the Enactment of the Delegates of '^'^^•
the Empire {Rckhsdcputalionskauptschluss) of 1803, secularized
practicaUy all the ecclesiastical states of Germany. Thus at
one stroke there was broken the age-long direct pohtical power of
the hierarchy in the Holy Roman Empire; and the ultimate
heir of the bulk of these lands was Protestant Prussia.
4. 1814-1870. The foreign policy of the papacy so long as
conducted by Consalvi, or in his spirit, was supremely successful.
From 1814 to 1830 Europe witnessed the restoration rfte Papacy
of legitimate monarchy. The once exiled dynasties '"«"*«
conscientiously re-established the legitimate Church, *«*'<"■■''<"»•
and both conservative powers made common cause against
revolutionary tendencies. Throughout Europe the govern-
ing classes regarded this " union of throne and altar " as
axiomatic. For the pope, as eldest legitimate sovereign and
protagonist against the Revolution, Consalvi obtained from the
Congress of Vienna the restitution of the States of the Church
in practically their full extent. By concluding concordats with
all the important Catholic powers save Austria he made it
possible to crush Jansenism, Febronianism and Gallicanism.
By bulls of circumscription, issued after consultation with
various Protestant states of Germany, he rearranged their
Catholic dioceses and readjusted ecclesiastical incomes. By
unfailing tact he gained the good will of Great Britain, where
before him no cardinal had set foot for two centuries, and secured
that friendly understanding between the British government
and the Vatican which has since proved so valuable to Rome.
After Consalvi's retirement, Leo XII. (1823-1829) continued
his policy and secured further advantageous concordats. In
the sixteen months' reign of Pius VIII. (1829-1830) came the
achievement of Catholic emancipation in England and the
Revolution of 1830; and the pope departed from the principle
of legitimacy by recognizing Louis Philippe as king of the French.
The pontificate of Gregory XVI. (1831-1846) was singulariy
infelicitous. The controversy with Prussia about the education
of children of whose parents but one was Roman Catholic led to
the imprisonment of Droste-Vischering, archbishop of Cologne,
and later of Dunin, archbishop of Gnesen-Posen; but the
accession of the royal romanticist Frederick William IV. in 1840
brought a pacific reversal of the Prussian policy, sometimes
1590-I8701
PAPACY
715
judged more benevolent than wise. In France agitation was
directed chiefly against the Jesuits, active in the movement to
displace ancient local catechisms and liturgies by the Roman
Jtexts, to enroll the laity in Roman confraternities, and to in-
duce the bishops to visit Rome more frequently. To check this
ultramontane propaganda the government secured from the
papacy in 1845 the promise to close the Jesuit houses and
novitiates in France.
In Italy, however, lay the chief obstacles to the success of all
papal undertakings. The revolution of 1830, though somewhat
tardily felt in the States of the Church, compelled Gregory to
rest his rule on foreign bayonets. In return he was obUged to
lend an ear to the proposals of France, and above all to those of
Austria. This meant opposition to aU schemes for the unifica-
tion of Italy. In 1815 the Italian peninsula had been divided
into seven small states. Besides the government of the pope
there were three kingdoms: Sardinia, Lombardo-Venetia and
Naples; and three duchies: Parma, Modena, Tuscany. To these
regions the Napoleonic regime had given a certain measure of
unity; but Metternich, dominant after 1815, held Italy to be
merely a geographical term. To its unification Austria was the
chief obstacle; she owned Lombardo-Venetia; she controlled
the three duchies, whose rulers were Austrian princes; and she
upheld the autocracy of the king of Naples and that of the pope
against all revolutionary movements. To the Italian patriot
the papacy seemed in league with the oppressor. The pope
sacrificed the national aspirations of his subjects to his inter-
national relations as head of the Church; and he sacrificed their
craving for liberty to the alliance with autocracy on which
rested the continued existence of the temporal power. The
dual position of the pope, as supreme head of the Church on
earth and as a minor Italian prince, was destined to break down
through its inherent contradiction; it was the task of Pius IX.
to postpone the catastrophe.
The reign of Pius IX. falls into three distinct parts. Until
driven from Rome by the republican agitation of 1848 he was
a popular idol, open to liberal political views. From
I846-I8T8 '^'^ return in 1850 to 1870 he was the reactionary
ruler of territories menaced by the movement for
Italian unity, and sustained only by French bayonets; yet he
was interested primarily in pointing out to an often incredulous
world that most of the vaunted, intellectual and religious
progress of the iqth century was but pestilent error, properly
to be condemned by himself as the infallible vicegerent of God.
The third division of his career, from the loss of the temporal
power to his death, inaugurates a new period for the papacy.
At the outset of his reign he faced a crisis. It was clear that
he could not continue the repressive tactics of his predecessor.
The Papacy Italy and Europe were astir with the Liberal agitation,
and Italian which in 1848 Culminated in the series of revolutions
Unity. \,y which the settlement of 1815 was destined
to be profoundly modified. Liberal churchmen in Italy,
while rejecting Mazzini's dream of a republic, had evolved
projects for attaining national unity while preserving the tem-
poral power. The exiled abbe Vincenzo Gioberti championed
an Italian confederacy under the presidency of the pope; hand
in hand with the unity of the nation should go the unity of
the faith. In allusion to medieval partisans of the papacy this
theory was dubbed Neo-Guelphism. Towards such a solution
Pius IX. was at first not unfavourably inclined, but the revolu-
tion of 1848 cured him of his Liberal leanings. In November
of that year he fled in disguise from his capital to Gaeta, in the
kingdom of Naples, and when French arms had made feasible
his restoration to Rome in April 1850 he returned in a temper of
stubborn resistance to all reform; henceforth he was no longer
open to the influence of men of the type of Rossi or Rosmini,
but took the inspiration of his policy from Cardinal Antonelli
and the Jesuits. The same pope who had signahzed his acces-
sion by carrying out a certain number of Liberal reforms set
his name in 1864 to the famous Syllabus, which was in effect
a declaration of war by the papacy against the leading principles
of modern civilization (see Syllabus). ^)i<.c<ji\uii ki u .tun
As from 1849 to 1870 the fate of the papacy was .determined
not so much by domesjtic conditions, which, save for certain
slight ameliorations, wore those of the preceding reigns, as by
foreign pohtics, it is necessary to consider the relations of Rome
with each of the powers in turn; and in so doing one must trace
not merely the negotiations of kings and popes, but must seek
to understand also the aims of parUamentary parties, which
from 1848 on increasingly determine ecclesiastical legislation.
The chief ally of the papacy from 1849 to 1870 was France.
The policy which made Louis Napoleon dictator forced him
into mortal conflict with the republican parties; a^nd louIs Napo-
the price of the parliamentary support of the Calhohdeoa and the
majority was high. Even before Napoleon's elec- ''"''^'^'
tion as president, FaUoux^ the CathoUc leader, had promised
to secure intervention in favour of the dispossessed pope.
Napoleon, however, could not forget that as a young man he
himself had vainly fought to obtain from Gregory XVI. those
hberties which Pius IX. still refused to grant; he therefore
essayed diplomacy, not arms. Nevertheless, to forestall the
rescue of the pope by Austrian troops, he sent, in August 1849,
an army corps under Oudinot to Civita Vecchia. By heading
off reactionary Austria Napoleon hoped to conciliate the French
Liberals; by helping the pope, to satisfy the Cathohcs; by
concessions to be wrung both from Pius and from the Roman
triumvirs, to achieve a bloodless victory. As neither party
yielded, Oudinot listened to his Catholic advisers, attacked
Rome, with which the French Republic was technically at
peace — and was roundly repulsed by Garibaldi. To relieve
their inglorious predicament the ministry hurried the Liberal
diplomatist, Ferdinand de Lesseps, to Rome to prevent further
conflict. At the moment when Lesseps had secured the signing
of a treaty with the Roman Republic permitting peaceful
occupation of the city by the French army, he was peremptorily
recalled and Oudinot was as unexpectedly ordered to take the
city by storm. This amazing reversal of policy was procured
by the intrigues of Catholic diplomatists and German French
Jesuits, conveyed to Paris by Prince de la Tour Capture of
d'Auvergne. For the honour of the army and the *<""«•
Church republican France thereupon destroyed the Roman
republic. Napoleon lost 1200 in dead and wounded, actually
secured not a single reform on which he had insisted, and drew
upon himself the fateful obUgation to mount perpetual guard
over the Vatican. As the catspaw of clerical reaction he had
also to acquiesce in that " Roman campaign at home " that
resulted in the Falloux Act of 1850, which in the name of
hberty of education put the university in bondage yvapo/eon ///.
to the archbishops, miUtated against lay teachers and /Ae
in secondary and primary schools, and set them f^P^cy.
under clerical control, made it ominously easy for members
of religious congregations to become instructors of youth,
and cut the nerve of the communal school system. That
education was dehvered up to the Church was partly the result
of the terror inspired in the middle classes by the socialistic
upheavals of 1848. The bourgeoisie sought the support of the
clergy, and irrehgion became as unfashionable among them as it
had been among the nobihty after 1 793. ReHgion was thought to
be part of a fashionable education, and the training of girls came
almost exclusively into the hands of the religious orders and
congregations. So long as the alliance of the autocratic empire
and the clergy lasted (1852-1860), intellectual reaction reigned;
the university professorships of history and philosophy were
suppressed. This alliance of the empire with the clergy was
shaken by the Italian War of 1859, which resulted in the loss
by the pope of two-thirds of his territories. Napoleon was
evidently returning to the traditions of his youth, and in the
September Convention of 1864 it looked as if he would abandon
Rome to its manifest destiny. This solution was spoiled by the
impatience of Garibajdi and the supineness of the Romans them-',
selves. In 1867 Napoleon made himself once more guardian
of the Holy See; but the wonders wrought by the new French
chassepots at the battle of Mentana cost the friendship of Italy.
Thereafter Napoleon was blindly staggering to his fall. He
Jib
PAPACY
[1590-1870
aimed at honour in upholding the pope, in driving the Austrian
tyrant from Italy, in attacking Prussia. The Austrian support
on which he rehed confidently in 1870 proved delusive, for he
could obtain nothing from Austria unless he had Italy with him,
and nothing from Italy without the evacuation of Rome. Even
after the war with Prussia had actually broken out he refused
Itahan aid at the price of the abandonment of the city, a step
which he nevertheless reversed hurriedly twenty days too late.
With Napoleon fell the temporal power; but the French hier-
archy still kept his gifts in the shape of the congregations, the
pro-Catholic colonial policy, and a certain control of education.
Of these privileges the Church was to be deprived a generation
later. The Third Repubhc can never forget that it was to the
support of the temporal sovereignty of the pope that Napoleon
III. owed his empire and France her deepest humihation.
On the withdrawal of the French garrison Rome was occupied
by the troops of Victor Emmanuel. This monarch had always
Italian Oc- been a thorn in the side of the papacy. Under him
cupaWoD 0/ Sardinia had adopted the Siccardi Laws of 1850,
Rome. which^had taken away the right of asylum and the
jurisdiction of the Church over its own clergy. His reputa-
tion for sacrilege, increased five years later by the abolition
of many monasteries, became notorious when the formation
of the kingdom of Italy (1861) took away all the dominions of
the pope except the patrimony of Peter, thereby reducing the
papal provinces from twenty to five, and their population from
over 3,000,000 to about 685,000. This act was followed in
1867 by the confiscation of church property, and on the 20th of
September 1870 by the triumphant seizure of Rome.
If France was the right arm and Italy the scourge of the
papacy under Pius IX., the Spanish-speaking countries were its
TAe Papacy obedient tools. Torn by civil wars, their harassed
and the rulers sought papal recognition at a cost which
Spanish niore experienced governments would have refused.
ta es. Thus Isabella II. of Spain in the concordat of
1851 confirmed the exclusive privileges of the Roman religion
and gave the control of aU education to the Church; but after
the Revolution of 1868 Spain departed for the first time from
the principle of the unity of the faith by establishing hberty
of worship, which was, however, a dead letter. On the Spanish
model concordats were arranged with various Central and
South American republics, perhaps the most ironclad being
that concluded with Ecuador in 1S62 (abrogated 1878).
Among the more stable governments of Europe reaction in
favour of conservatism and religion after 1848 was used by
Concordat clerical parties to obtain concordats more systematic
with and thoroughgoing than had been concluded even
Austria, ^fter 18 14. Austria, for instance, although long
the political mainstay of the papacy, had never
abandoned the broad lines of ecclesiastical pohcy laid down by
Joseph II.; but the young Francis Joseph, seeking the aid of
Rome in curbing heterogeneous nationalities, in 1855 negotiated
a concordat whose paragraphs regarding the censorship, educa-
tion and marriage were far-reaching. It was, moreover, the first
document of the sort in which a first-class power recognized
that the rights of the Church are based upon " divine institution
and canon law," not upon governmental concession. Violated
by the Liberal constitution of 1867, which granted reUgious
liberty, depotentiated by laws setting up lay jurisdiction over
matrimonial cases and state control of education, it was abrogated
in 1870 by Austria, who alleged that the proclamation of papal
infallibility had so altered the status of one of the contracting
parties that the agreement was void.
Passing over Portugal, the remaining European state which
is Roman Cathohc is Belgium. Torn from Austria by the
clerical revolution of 1790, after many vicissitudes
it was united in 181 5 with Holland and placed under
the rule of the Protestant William I., king of the United Nether-
lands. The constitutional guarantee of rehgious liberty had
from the outset been resisted by the powerful and resolute priest-
hood, supported by numerous sympathizers among the nobihty.
As the arbitrary king aUenated the Liberal CathoUcs, who were
Belgium,
Still more or less under the spell of the French Revolution, the
Catholic provinces took advantage of the upheavals of 1830 to
form the independent kingdom of Belgium. Its Fundamental
Law of 183 1, conceived in the spirit of the English Whigs, and
later imitated in the European countries, granted hberty of
worship and of education. Strangely enough, this hberty meant
increase of power for the Clericals; for besides putting an end
to stringent state interference in the education of future priests,
it made possible a free and far-reaching Cathohc school system
whose crown was the episcopally controlled university of Louvain
(1834). The Education Act of 1842 led to the formation of the
Liberal party, whose bond of union was resistance to clericalism,
whose watchword was the " independence of the civil power."
The CathoUcs and Liberals were alternately in control until 1894,
when the tenfold enlargement of the electorate broke down
the Liberal party completely. The chief theme of contention,
developed through many a noteworthy phase, has been the
question of schools. In the half-century from 1830 to 1880 the
cloisters likewise prospered and multiplied fivefold. The result
of this evolution is that Belgium is to-day the most staunchly
Catholic land north of the Alps.
In Holland, as in Belgium, the education question has been
uppermost. Here, even after 1831 the Roman CathoUcs con-
stituted three-eighths of the population. AUied with h 11 d
the Liberals against the orthodox Protestants, who
were threatening religious hberty, the CathoUcs assisted in 1857
to estabhsh a system of non-sectarian state schools, where attend-
ance is not obligatory nor instruction gratuitous. Changing
front, in 1868, in league with the orthodox, they tried to make
these denominational; but as the Liberals defeated their attempt,
they founded schools of their own.
In the non-Catholic countries of Europe during the reign of
Pius IX., and in fact during the whole 19th century, the impor-
tant gains of Rome were in strategic position rather othemoa-
than in numbers. The spread of toleration, which Catholic
always favours minorities, broke down between 1845 Countries.
and 1873 the Lutheran e.xclusiveness of Norway, Denmark
and Sweden; but as yet the Catholics form a disappearing
fraction of the population. In European Russia, as a result
of the partitions of Poland under Catherine II. (1762-1796),
about one-tenth of the people are Roman Cathohcs. The
Ruthenians had united with Rome at Brest in 1596, forming
a group of Uniates distinct from, the Poles, who belonged to
the Latin rite. In spite of the assurances of Catherine, Russia
has repeatedly persecuted the Ruthenian Uniates, in order to
incorporate them into the Holy Orthodox Church; and she has
occasionally taken drastic measures against the Poles, particu-
larly after the revolts of 1830 and 1863. After more than a
century of repression in 1905 the Edict of Toleration brought
some relief.
The remarkable extension of the Cathohc hierarchy by Pius IX.
into Protestant lands, legaUy possible because of toleration,
was in some cases made practicable because of immigration.
Though this factor was perhaps not prominent in the case of
HoUand (1853) or Scotland (1878) it was Irish immigration
which made it feasible in England (1850). For a time the Roman
propaganda in England, which drew to itself High Churchmen
like Newman and Manning, was viewed with apprehension;
but though the Roman Cathohc Church has grown greatly in
influence in the country, the number of its adherents, in
proportion to the growth of population, has not very greatly
increased.
In the United States of America, however, the CathoUc
population has increased by leaps and bounds through immigra-
tion. The famines of the 'forties, with their subsequent poUtical
and economic difficulties, transferred to America milUons of the
Irish, whose genius for organization in politics has not fallen
short of their zeal for rehgion. The German-speaking immi-
grants have also had a creditable share in the work of church
extension, but the Itahans have manifested no marked ardour
for their faith. The losses in transplantation have been huge,
but it is impossible to estimate them accurately, for even the
1 870-1900]
PAPACY
17
current figures for the Catholic population are based on detailed
estimates rather than on an actual count.
Summing up the history of the papacy from the Congress of
Vienna to the fall of the temporal power, one finds statistical
gains in Protestant countries offset perhaps by relative losses
in Catholic lands, both largely due to the closely related forces
of toleration and immigration. While the hold of the popes
on the States of the Church was constantly weakening, their
power over the domestic policies of foreign governments was
increasing; and the transition from autocracy to parliamentary
rule accelerated this process, at least in non-Catholic territories.
The unparalleled spread of ultramontane ideas (see Ultra-
montanism) brought about a centralization of authority at
Rome such as would have appalled the i8th century. This
centralization was, however, for the time not so much legal
as doctrinal. In 1854 Pius IX. by his sole authority estab-
lished a dogma (see Immaculate Conception); and the
infallibility implied in this act was openly acknowledged in
1870 by the Council of the Vatican (see Vatican Council and
Infallibility). Thus were the spiritual prerogatives of the
papacy exalted in the very summer that the temporal power
was brought low. (W. W. R.*)
y: V. — Period from 1870 to zgoo.
The few months that elapsed between the i8th of July 1870
and the 18th of January 1S71 witnessed four events that have
been fraught with more consequence to the papacy than any-
thing else that had affected that institution for the past three
centuries. They were as follows: (i) The proclamation of the
Infallibility of the Pope on the iSth of July 1870; (2) the fall
of the Napoleonic empire and the establishment of the third
French republic on the 4th of September 1S70; (3) the occupation
of Rome by the Italian forces on the 20th of September 1870,
resulting in the incorporation of the remaining states of the
Church in the kingdom of Italy; and (4) the foundation of the
German Empire by the proclamation, on the iSth of January
1 87 1, of the king of Prussia as hereditary German emperor.
These changes, which so greatly disturbed the current of all
European relations, could not fail to react upon the papal pohcy
in various ways. They brought its existing tendencies into
greater relief, set before it new aims and diverted it into new
channels. Essential modifications could not, of course, be at
once eflected or even indicated in a power whose life-blood is
tradition, and whose main strength has always lain in calmly
abiding the issue of events and in temporizing. The eight
years that Pius IX. was permitted to see after the loss of his
temporalities entirely harmonize with this character. The veil
that hides the negotiations which, during the closing months of
the Franco-German War, were carried on between Bismarck
and the pope, through the agency of Cardinal Bonnhose, has
not yet been lifted, and perhaps never will be. According to
Bismarck Prince Bismarck's own account of the matter, as
aadthe given in his Gcdankcn und Erinnerungcn, these
Temporal negotiations were initiated by the chancellor, who.
Power. between the 5th and gth of November 1870, enter-
tained pourparlers with Archbishop Ledochowski on the question
of the territorial interests of the pope. The chancellor, acting,
as he himself says, in the spirit of the adage, " one hand washes
the other," proposed to that prelate that the pope should give
earnest of the relations subsisting between him and Germany
by influencing the French clergy in the direction of the con-
clusion of peace. The cool reception his endeavours met with,
both at the hands of the French ecclesiastics as well as in
Rome, satisfied Bismarck " that the papal hierarchy lacked
either the power or the good will to afford Germany assistance
of sufficient value to make it worth while giving umbrage to
both the German Protestants and the ItaKan national party,
and risking a reaction of the latter upon the future relations
between the two countries, which would be the inevitable
result were Germany openly to espouse the papal cause in
Rome." These utterances are eminently characteristic. They
show how far Bismarck was (even at the close of 1870) from
comprehending the traditional policy of the papacy towards
Germany and German interests, and how little he conceived it
possible to employ the relations between the future empire and
the Vatican as a point of departure for a successful and con-
sistent ecclesiastical policy. Rome, in a certain sense, showed
itself possessed of far greater foresight. The German politicians
and the Prussian diplomatists accredited to Rome had worked
too openly at undermining the papal hierarchy, and had veiled
their sympathies for Piedmont far too lightly to lead the Vatican
to expect, after the 20th of September 1S70, a genuine and firm
intervention on the part of Prussia on behalf of the temporal
power of the Holy See. To satisfy the demands of Bismarck
in November 1870 would have cost the Vatican more than it
would ever have gained. It could neither afford to trifle with
the sympathies of the French Catholics nor to interrupt the
progress of those elements, which would naturally be a thorn
in the side of the young German Empire, thus undo Bismarck's
work, and restore the Vatican policy to its pristine strength and
vigour. It was soon to be perceived how carefully the Curia had
made its calculations.
The address of the CathoKc deputies to the emperor William
in Versailles on the i8th of February 1871, pleading for the
restoration of the States of the Church and the temporal sove-
reignty of the pope, and for the reconstitution of the Catholic
group formed in the Prussian Landtag in i860 as the Centrum
or Centre Party in the new Reichstag (April 187 1), must not
be regarded as the origin but rather the immediate occasion
of the KuUurkampf. The congratulations which the pope sent
to the emperor William on receiving the announcement of the
establishment of the German Empire (March 6, 1S71) were a
last exchange of civihties, and the abolition of the Catholic
department in the Prussian ministry of public worship (July 8,
1871) quickly followed, together with the appointment of Falk
as Kidtusminister (Jan. 22, 1872), and the School Inspection
Law of the gth of February 1S72.
On the 30th of January Bismarck took the opportunity of
inveighing against the formation of the sectarian Centrum as
being " one of the most monstrous phenomena in
the world of politics," and he left no room for doubt J^mp/.""'^
in the minds of his hearers that he regarded the
leadership of Windthorst as constituting, in his eyes, a peril
to the national unity. In his Memoirs (ii. 126) he declares
that the Kidturkatnpf was mainly initiated by him as a
Polish question. This declaration, in view of the development
of affairs, must appear as strange as the chanceUor's confession
(Memoirs, ii. 129 seq.) that he endeavoured to persuade the
emperor of the advantage of having a nuncio accredited to Berlin
(in lieu of the Cathohc department of public worship). The
refusal of the emperor William to entertain this project shows
that in such matters his judgment was more correct than that
of his counsellor, and the incident proves that the latter had
anything but a clear insight into the historical position. He was
drifting about with no higher aim than a " hand-to-mouth "
policy, whilst the Holy See could feel the superiority with which
the consciousness of centuries of tradition had endowed it, and
took full advantage of the mistakes of its opponent. The
chancellor never realized the gravity of the onslaught which,
with his KuUurkampf, he was making upon the conscience and
liberty of his Catholic fellow citizens. He dealt with the great
question at issue from the standpoint of the diplomatist, rather
than from that of the statesman well versed in ecclesiastical
history and possessing an insight into what it implies; and by
his violent, inconsiderate action he unwittingly drove into the
ranks of Ultramontanism the moderate elements of the Catholic
population. This conflict, moreover, brought Ultramontanism
the enormous advantage that, even after the abolition of the
May Laws, it had still left to it a well-disciplined press, an
admirable organization, and a network of interests and
interested parties; and all these combined to make the Centrum
the strongest and the most influential political party in
Germany for the remainder of the loth century. Owing to
these circumstances, the rise and further development of the
7i8
PAPACY
t I 870-1 900
Kulturkampf were viewed in Jesuit and Vatican circles with
feelings of the utmost complacency.
The purely ecclesiastical policy of Pius IX. was guided by the
earnest desire to see the doctrine of Papal Infallibility brought
to universal recognition. The definition of the Immaculate
Conception (1854) and the proclamation of the Syllabus (1864)
were finger-posts pointing the way to the Council of 1870. The
pope had been persuaded that the proclamation of the new
dogma would be effected without difficulty and without discus-
sion; and when the pronouncement actually met with opposition,
he was both surprised and embittered. For a moment the idea
was entertained of giving way to the opposition and deferring
a decision in the matter, or, in the manner of the fathers in the
Council of Trent, adjourning it to the Greek kalends. But the
party that needed for its purposes an infallible pope readily
persuaded Pius IX. that if the council broke up without arriving
at a decision favourable to the papacy, this would be tanta-
mount to a serious defeat of the Holy See and an open victory
for the Galilean system. The consequence was the bull Pastor
aeternus, which Pius IX. issued on the 15th of July. This did
not by any means represent aU the demands of the Jesuits, and
it was couched in terms which appeared not unacceptable to the
majority of the Catholics. The fact that the bishops were
prepared to forego their opposition was not unknown in Rome.
It was anticipated by the authorities. But in Germany, as also
in France, the waves of anti-InfaUibility were rolling so high,
that the further development of events was viewed with no small
concern. Under normal conditions, the situation could not fail
to terminate favourably for the Vatican. That the Kulturkampf
had followed so rapidly upon the war was the greatest piece of
good fortune that could have befallen the Holy See. The war
demanded both in Germany and France the sacrifice of all
available energy and public spirit; while the Kulturkampf, by
bringing into relief the question of the external existence of the
Church, thrust all internal dogmatic interests and problems
completely into the background. The egregious blunder in the
May Laws was the punitive clauses directed against the inferior
clergy. Instead of enlisting them as friends, the Prussian
government contrived by wild and wanton persecution to make
them its enemies. The open protection it accorded to the Old
Catholic movement contributed in no small measure to estrange
those influential elements which, whilst favouring the suppression
of Ultramontane tendencies, desired no schism in the Church,
and viewed with horror the idea of a National Church in
Bismarck's sense (see Old Catholics). Thus we find that the
bitter years of the Kulturkampf extricated the Vatican from one
of the most difficult situations in which it had ever been placed.
Pius IX. could now fold his hands, so far as the future was
concerned. It is well known that he fed on inspirations, and
expected each day the advent of some supernatural occurrence
which should bring about the triumph of the Church. In this
frame of mind, on the 24th of June 1872, he addressed the
German Lcseverein, and referred to the stone that would soon
fall from on high and crush the feet of the Colossus. Yet the
stone has not fallen from the summit of the holy hill, and the
Colossus of the German Empire has not crumbled into dust,
which is more than can be said for the pope's inspirations, which
led him to expect the sudden withdrawal of the Italians from
Rome, and a solution of the Roman question in the sense
inspired by his visionary policy. The Holy See directed aU its
energies towards the solution of the problem; in the event of
its proving to be insoluble, it would take care that it should
remain a festering sore in the body of the monarchy. (For
the Kulturkampf set further Germany: History.)
The documents of the Vatican Council which have been
published since 1870 leave no room for doubt that the procla-
mation of Papal Infallibility was intended to be followed by a
further declaration, to the effect that the doctrine of the temporal
power of the pope should be regarded as a revealed article of
faith; yet the advantage and necessity of the temporal power
were not to be regarded as a revealed dogma properly speaking,
but as a truth guaranteed by the doctrinal body of the Holy
Church. These articles, contained in the 5th Scheme, and
zealously championed by the sectaries of the Jesuit order,
reveal the immediate object for which the council of 1869-1870
was convened. The resolutions were devised to save the
situation, in view of the impending loss of the temporalities.
No one could expect that Pius IX. would recognize the annexa-
tion of Rome by Italy. Rome, even in the 19th century, had
been a spectator of many changes in the political world. It had
seen more than one kingdom rise and fall. No wonder, then,
that the Vatican, confronted by a new Italy, observed TbePapacy
a passive and expectant attitude, and sanctioned no andtheaew
jot or tittle that could infringe its rights or be "«''»"
interpreted as a renunciation of its temporal sove- "^ *""■
reignty. It was quite in keeping that Pius IX. availed himself
to the full of the (for him) convenient clauses of the Itahan
Law of Guarantees (May 13, 187 1), while refusing the civil list
of three and a quarter million lire provided for his use, and
inhibiting Italian Catholics from participating in the elections
to the House of Deputies {ne elettori nh eletti)} This step was
regarded in Italy as a natural one. Although the Liberal record
of the pope was a thing of the past, and his policy had, since
Gaeta, become firmly identified with the reactionary policy of
Antonelli, yet the early years of his pontificate were in such lively
recollection as to allow of Pius IX. 's appearing to some extent in
the light of a national hero. And rightly; for he had always had
a warm heart for Italy; and had it not been for the anti-ecclesi-
astical pohcy of the house of Piedmont, he would not, in the
'sixties, have been wholly averse from reconciliation. The
hitherto unpublished correspondence of the pope with Victor
Emmanuel contains remarkable proofs in support of this
contention, and a further corroboration can also be preceived in
the conciliatory attitude of Pius IX. on the death of the king.
Pius died on the 7th of February 1878, only a few weeks
later than his opponent. He had long passed the traditional
years of Peter's pontificate, had reigned longer than any previous
wearer of the tiara, and had seen some brilliant days — days of
illusory glory. On his death he left the Church shaken to its
very foundations, and in feud with almost every government. In
Italy the Holy See was surrounded by a hostile force, whose
" prisoner " the lord of the Vatican declared himself to be.
In Spain and Portugal, and also in Belgium, a Liberalism inimical
to the Church was in power. Prussia, together with other
German states, was in arms against pope and episcopate. In
France the Conservative Monarchical party had just shown its
inability to preserve the Crown, whilst the Republic had anchored
itself firmly by denouncing the clergy as its enemy. There was
hardly a sovereign or a government in Christendom against which
Pius IX. had not either protested or against which he had not
openly declared war. Such was the heritage that devolved upon
Leo XIII. on his election on the 20th of February 1878.
Leo XIII. brought to his new dignity many qualities that
caused his election to be sympathetically received. In contrast
to his predecessor, he was a man of slow and calm
dehberation, and it was natural to suppose that he iszs-woj.
was little, if at all, accessible to impulses of the
moment or to the persuasions of his entourage. He was endowed
with a certain scholastic erudition, and enjoyed the reputation
of being a good Latinist. As nuncio in Brussels he had become
acquainted with the trans-Alpine world, and had been initiated
into the working of the machinery of modern politics and modern
parliamentary government. The fact that he had for so long
been absent from Rome afforded ground for the belief that he was
not inclined to identify himself with any of the parties at the
Vatican court. These were the considerations that had caused
' By" the Law of Guarantees the pope was recognized as an
independent sovereign, with jurisdiction over his own palaces and
their extensive precincts and the right to receive diplomatic repre-
sentatives accredited to him. He also received the right to appoint
bishops, who — except in Rome and the suburbicarian districts — were
to be Italian subjects; and, with a significant exception, the exequatur,
placet regium, and every form of government permission for the
publication and execution of acts of ecclesiastical authority were
abolished. (See also Italy: History.)
1 870-1900]
PAPACY
719
the Moderates in the Sacred College to fix their eyes upon him.
The appointment of Franchi as secretary of state was a bid for
peace that was viewed by the Irreconcilables with ill-disguised
vexation. The following years of Leo XIII. 's pontificate only
tended to increase their dissatisfaction. The first care of the
new pope was to pave the way for the restoration of peace with
Russia and the German Empire, and it was owing to his patience,
persistence and energy that these efforts for peace were
crowned with success. In the case of Germany he made many
concessions which appeared to the Zclanli to be excessive, and
made even still greater ones to France and Russia, to the great
distress of the Poles. But at last Leo XIII. could
Diplomatist, boast not only of having re-established diplomatic
relations with most of the powers, but also of having
entered into a convention with the great powers of the North,
which accorded him, in conjunction with the three emperors, a
leading position as champion of the conservative interests of
humanity. How proud Leo XIII. was of his importance in
this position is shown by the beautiful encyclical, De civitatum
constilulione Christiana (" Immortale Dei " of Nov. i, 1885), in
which he adopted the strongest attitude against the principle
of the sovereignty of the people {ex iis autem Poniificum prm-
scriplis illud omnino inldligi necesse est, ortum publicm polcstalis
a Deo ipso, non a mullitudine repeti posse), refuting the notion
that the principle of public power emanates from the will of
the people alone {principalum non esse nisi populi voluntatem),
and absolutely rejecting the sovereignty of the people as such.
But this attitude was adopted by Leo XIII. not as an end but as
a means. The real aims of his rule were disclosed in the second
phase of his pontificate.
At its very commencement, the pope in his first encyclical
(Easter 1878) proclaimed the necessity of a temporal hierarchy.
This was at the time regarded merely as a formality imposed by
circumstances, and one not to be seriously entertained; but it
became more and more evident that the recovery of the tempor-
alities was the real mainspring of Leo's whole policy. In the
negotiations with Germany, it was clearly seen that it was from
that side that the pope expected intervention in favour of resti-
tution; and, according to all appearances, Bismarck did for a
while keep alive these representations, though with more tact
than candour. After peace had been concluded, Leo, by the
agency of Galimberti, reminded the chancellor of the settlement
of the Roman question. Bismarck rephed that he was " un-
aware of the existence of any such question." The two visits
paid by Emperor William II. to the Vatican could not fail to
remove any doubts in the mind of the pope as to the fact that
Germany did not dream of giving him back Rome. The Austro-
German-Italian triple alliance was a dire blow to his expectations,
and Crispi's policy with its irritating and gaUing pin-pricks
caused the cup to overflow.
Thus slowly, but yet deliberately, between 1887 and 1893, a
transformation took place in Leo's spirit and policy, and with
teoX///.«n<fit was brought about one of the most momentous
the French changes in the attitude of the Church towards the
Republic. problems of the times and their impelling forces. A
rapprochement with France inevitably entailed not only an
alliance with modern democracy, but also a recognition of its
principles and aims. In Rome there was no room for both pope and
king. The note of the pope to RampoUa of the 8th of October
189s, in consequence of the celebrations on the 20th of September,
declared, in terms more decided than any that had until then
been uttered, that the papacy required a territorial sovereignty
in order to ensure its full independence, and that its interests
were therefore incompatible with the existence of the kingdom of
Italy as then constituted. The inevitable consequences ensued.
Italy regarded the pope more than ever as a foe within its walls;
and the policy of the pope, as regards Italy, aimed at replacing
the kingdom by one or more republics, in which the temporal
power should, in some form or other, find a place. But the
continuance of the Republic in Paris was a condition precedent to
the establishment of a republic in Rome, and the first had no
chance of existence if the democracy in France did not remain
in power. The result was the policy of the Ralliemenl. Instruc-
tions were given to the French Catholics to break with monarchi-
cal principles, and both externally and internally to cleave
to the Republic as representing the best form of constitutional
government. In carrying out the regime of Rampolla, which
was, in every respect, a bad imitation of that of Antonelli, the
Vatican left no stone unturned in its attempt to coerce the
conscience of the French royalists; it did not even stop at dis-
honour, as was evidenced by the case of the unhappy Mgr d'Hulst,
who, in order to evade the censorship of his pamphlet on Old
Testament criticism, had to abandon both his king and his
principles, only to die in exile of a broken heart. The case was
characteristic of the whole Catholic monarchical party, which,
owing to the pope's interference in French politics, became dis-
integrated and dissolved, a fate that was all the more painful
seeing that the Ralliemenl failed to influence the course of events.
The " atheistic " Republic did not for one moment think of
putting on sackcloth, or even of giving the Church a single proof
of esteem and sympathy.
In one respect it was impossible for the papacy to continue
on the path it had taken. In his first encyclical, Leo XIII.
had sounded the clarion for battle against the Social jhe Pope
Democracy; his encychcal Novarum reritm en- and Social
deavoured to show the means to be employed. Democracy.
mainly in view of the condition of things in Belgium, for solving
the social question on Christian lines. But the Christian
Democracy, which, starting in Belgium and France, had now
extended its activity to Italy, Austria and Germany, and was
striving to arrive at this solution, degenerated everywhere into a
political party. The leaders of this party came into close
contact with the Social Democrats, and their relations became
so cordial that Social Democracy everywhere declared the
" Democratie Chretienne " to be its forerunner and pioneer. The
electioneering alliances, which were everywhere in vogue, but
particularly in Germany, between the Catholics and popular
party and the Social Democrats, throw a lurid light upon the
character of a movement that certainly went far beyond the
intentions of the pope, but which it was now difficult to undo
or to hold in check. For it is the essence of the matter that
there were further considerations going far beyond the Roman
question and forcing the Curia to adhere to the sovereignty of
the people.
The external rehabilitation of the Church had become, in
many points, a. fait accompli, but, internally, events had not kept
pace with it. Catholic romanticism had withered j\iienMtioa
away in France, as it had in Germany. " Liberal of the
Catholicism," which was its offspring, had died with Educated
Montalembert, after being placed under a ban by ^I^J^
Rome. The national religious movement, associated
in Italy with the great names of Rosmini and Gioberti, had
similarly been disavowed and crushed. The development of
the last decade of the 19th century had clearly shown that the
educated bourgeoisie, the tiers etat, in whose hands the supreme
power had since 1848 become vested throughout Europe, was
either entirely lost to the Church or, at all events, indifferent to
what were caUed Ultramontane tendencies. The educated
bourgeoisie, which controls the fields of politics, science, finance,
administration, art and literature, does not trouble itself about
that great spiritual universal monarchy which Rome, as heir
of the Caesars, claimed for the Vatican, and to which the Curia
of to-day still clings. This bourgeoisie and the modern state
that it upholds stand and fall with the motion of a constitutional
state, whose magna carta is municipal and spiritual liberty,
institutions with which the ideas of the Curia are in direct
conflict. The more the hope of being able to regain these
middle classes of society disappeared, the more decidedly did
the Curia perceive that it must seek the support and the
regeneration of its power in the steadily growing democracy,
and endeavour through the medium of universal suffrage to
secure the influence which this new alliance was able to offer.
The pontificate of Leo XIII. in its first phase aimed at pre-
serving a certain balance of power. Whilst not openly repelling
720
PAPACY
[1900-1910
the tendencies of the Jesuits, Leo yet showed himself well
disposed towards, and even amenable to, views of a diametri-
j-^^p cally opposite kind; and as soon as the Vatican
and the threw itself into the arms of France, and bade fare-
Modera ^f]^\\ to the idea of a national Italy, the policy of
Democracy, equilibrium had to be abandoned. The second phase
in Leo's policy could only be accomplished with the aid of the
Jesuits, or rather, it required the submission of the ecclesiastical
hierarchy to the mandates of the Society of Jesus. The
further consequence was that all aspirations were subjected to
the thraldom of the Church. The pontificate of Leo XIIL is
distinguished by the great number of persecutions, prosecutions
and injuries inflicted upon Catholic savants, from the prosecution
of Antonio Rosmini down to the proscription directed against
the heads of the American Church. Episodes, such as the
protection so long extended to the Leo Taxil affair, and to the
revelations of Diana Vaughan (the object of which last was to
bring Itahan freemasonry and its ostensible work, the unity of
Italy, into discredit), together with the attitude of the Uhra-
montane press in the Dreyfus affair, and later towards England,
the invigoration of political agitation by the Lourdes celebration
and by anti-Semitism, were all manifestations that could not
raise the " system " in the estimation of the cultured and civilized
world. Perhaps even more dangerous was the employment of
the whole ecclesiastical organization, and of Catholicism
generally, for political purposes.
No one will be so foolish or so unjust as to hold Leo XIIL
responsible for the excesses committed by the subordinate
departments of his government, in disclosing prosecuting and
sometimes even fraudulently misrepresenting his aims and ends.
But all these details, upon which it is not necessary to dwell,
are overshadowed beyond all doubt by the one great fact that
the ecclesiastical regime had not only taken under its wing
the solution of social questions, but also claimed that political
action was within the proper scope of the Church, and, moreover,
arrogated to itself the right of interfering by means of " Direc-
tives " with the political Hfe of nations. This was nothing new.
for as early as 1215 the English barons protested against it.
But the weakening of the papacy had allowed this claim to
lapse for centuries. To have revived it, and to have carried it
out as far as is possible, was the work of Leo XIIL
It would be both presumptuous and premature to pass a final
verdict upon the value and success of a policy to which, whatever
else be said, must be accorded a certain meed of praise for its
daring. Even in 1892 Spiiller, in his essay upon Lamennais,
pointed out how the latest evolution of Catholicism was taking
the course indicated by Lamennais in his Livre du pctcple {i8s7)'
and how the hermit of " La Chenaie," who departed this life
in bitter strife with Rome, declared himself to be the actual
precursor of modern Christian Socialism. He hinted that the
work of Leo XIIL was, in his eyes, merely a new attempt to
build up afresh the theocracy of the middle ages upon the ruins
of the old monarchies, utilizing to this end the inex-perience of
the young and easily beguiled democracies of the dawning 20th
century. To comprehend these views aright, we must first
remember that what in the first half of the 19th century, and
also in the days of Lamennais, was understood by Democracy
was not coincident with the meaning of this expression as it was
afterwards used, and as the Christian Socialists understood it.
Down to 1848, and even still later, " Democracy " was used to
cover the whole mass of the people, pre-eminently represented
by the broad strata of the bourgeoisie; in 1900 the Democratic
party itself meant by this term the rule of the labouring class
organized as a nation, which, by its numerical superiority,
thrust aside all other classes, including the bourgeoisie, and
excluded them from participation in its rule. In Uke manner
it would be erroneous to confuse the sense of the expression as
it obtains on the continent of Europe with what is under-
stood under this term in England and America. In this latter
case the term " Democracy," as applied to the historical
development of Great Britain and the United States, denotes
a constitutional state in which every citizen has rights
proportionate to his energy and intelligence. The socialistic
idea, with which the " Democratic Chretienne " had identified
itself both in France and Belgium, regards numbers as the
centre of gravity of the whole state organism. As a matter
of fact it recognizes as actual citizens only the labourer, or,
in other words, the proletariat.
On surveying the situation, certain weak points in the policy
of the Vatican under Leo XIIL were manifest even to a con-
temporary observer. They might be summed up as follows:
(i) An unmistakable decline of religious fervour in church life.
(2) The intensifying and nurturing of all the passions and
questionable practices which are so easily encouraged by practical
politics, and are incompatible in almost all points with the I
priestly ofiice. (3) An ever-increasing displacement of all the
refined, educated and nobler elements of society by such as are
rude and uncultured, by what, m fact, may be styled the ecclesi-
astical " Trottori." (4) The naturally resulting paralysis of
intelhgence and scientific research, which the Church either I
proscribed or only suUenly tolerated. (5) The increasing decay
and waxing corruption of the Romance nations, and the fostering
of that diseased state of things which displayed itself in France I
in so many instances, such as the Dreyfus case, the anti-Semitic |
movement, and the campaign for and against the Assumptionists
and their newspaper, the Croix. (6) The increasing estrange-
ment of German and Anglo-Saxon feeling. As against these,
noteworthy reasons might be urged in favour of the new
development. It might well be maintained that the faults just
enumerated were only cankers inseparable from every new and 1
great movement, and that these excrescences would disappear in
course of time, and the whole movement enter upon a more '
tranquil path. Moreover, in the industrial districts of Germany,
for example, the Christian industrial movement, supported by
Protestants and Catholics alike, had achieved considerable
results, and proved a serviceable means of combating the
seductions of Socialism. Finally, the Church had reminded the
wealthy classes of their duties to the sick and toilers, and by
making the social question its own it had gone a long way j
towards permeating all social and political conditions with 1
the spirit of Christianity. (F. X. K.) I
VI. — Period from igoo to igio.
On the 3rd of March 1903 Leo XIIL celebrated his Jubilee
with more than ordinary splendour, the occasion bringing him
rich tributes of respect from all parts of the world. Catholic ;
and non-Catholic; on the 20th of July following he died. The j
succession was expected to fall to Leo's secretary of stale, i
Cardinal Rampolla; but he was credited with having inspired the
French sympathies of the late pope; Austria exercised its right of
veto (see Conclave, ad fin.), and on the 8th of August, Giuseppe
Sarto, who as cardinal patriarch of Venice had shown a friendly |
disposition towards the Italian government, was elected pope.
He took as his secretary of state Cardinal Raphael
Merry del Val, a Spaniard of Enghsh birth and educa- ,
tion, well versed in diplomacy, but of well-known ultramontane j
tendencies. The new pope was known to be no poHtician, but
a simple and saintly priest, and in some quarters there were hopes
that the attitude of the papacy towards the Italian kingdom
might now be changed. But the name he assumed, Pius X.,
was significant ; and, even had he had the will, it was soon clear
that he had not the power to make any material departure from
the policy of the first " prisoner of the Vatican." What was
even more important, the new regime at the Vatican soon made j
itself felt in the relations of the Holy See with the world of I
modern thought and with the modem conception of the state. '
The new pope's motto, it is said, was " to estabhsh all things
in Christ " {instaurare omnia in Ckristo); and since, ex hypolhesi,
he himself was Christ's vicar on earth, the working out of this
principle meant in effect the extension and consolidation of the
papal authority and, as far as possible, an end to the com-
promises by means of which the papacy had sought to make
friends of the Mammon of unrighteousness. It was this spirit j
which informed such decrees as that on " mixed marriages " ;
I900-I9I01
PAPACY
721
Church
Reforms,
(Ne temere) of 1907, which widened still further the social gulf
between Catholics and Protestants (see Maruiage: Canon Law),
or the refusal to allow the French bishops to accept the Associa-
tions Law passed by the French government after the denuncia-
tion of the concordat and the separation of Church and State
(see France: Histary): better that the Church in France should
sink into more than apostolic poverty than that a tittle of the
rights of the Holy See should be surrendered. Above aU it was
this spirit that breathed through every line of the famous
encyclical, Pascendi grcgis, directed against the " Modernists "
(see Roman Catholic Church: History), which denounced with
bitter scorn and irony those so-caUed Catholics who dared to
attempt to reconcile the doctrine of the Church with the results
of modern science, and who, presumptuously disregarding the
authority of the Holy See, maintained " the absurd doctrine that
would make of the laity the factor of progress in the Church."
That under Pius X. the papacy had abandoned none of its
pretensions to dominate consciences, not of Catholics only, was
again proved in iqio when, at the very moment when the pope
was praising the English people for the spirit of tolerance which
led the British government to introduce a bill to alter the form
of the Declaration made by the sovereign on his accession into a
form inoffensive to Roman Catholics, he was remonstrating with
the government of Spain for abrogating the law forbidding the
Spanish dissident churches to display publicly the symbols of
the Christian faith or to conduct their services otherwise than
semi-privately.
In pursuance of the task of strengthening the Holy See, the
Vatican policy under Pius X. was not merely one of defiance
towards supposed hostile forces within and without
the Church; it was also strenuous in pushing on the
work of internal organization and reform. In 1904 a
commission of cardinals was appointed to undertake the stupen-
dous task of codifying the canon law (see Canon Law), and in
1908 an extensive reorganization of the Curia was
fft/s™* " carried out, in order to conform its machinery more
nearly to present-day needs (see Curia Romana).
In taking England, the LTnited States and other non-Catholic
states from under the care of the Congregation of the Propaganda,
the pope raised the status of the Roman Catholic Church in
those countries. All these changes tended to consolidating the
centralized authority of the papacy. Other reforms were of a
different character. One of the earhest acts of the new pontifi-
cate was to forbid the use in the services of the Church of any
music later than Palestrina, a drastic order justified by the
extreme degradation into which church music had fallen in
Italy, but in general honoured rather in the spirit than in the
letter. More important was the appointment in 1907 of a
commission, under the presidency of Abbot Gasquet, to attempt
the restoration of the pure text of the Vulgate as St Jerome
wrote it.
Such activities might well be taken as proof that the papacy
at the outset of the 20th century possessed a vigour which it was
Causes 0/ (fie f'lr from possessing a hundred years earlier. Under
Revival of Pius VI. and Pius VII. the papacy had reached the
the Papacy, iQ^yggt depths of spiritual and pohtical impotence
{since the Reformation, and the belief was even widespread
ithat the prisoner of Fontainebleau would be the last of the
long line of St Peter's successors. This weakness was due not
to attacks from without — for orthodox Protestantism had long
since lost its aggressive force — but to disruptive tendencies
within the Church; the Enlightenment of the i8th century had
isapped the foundations of the faith among the world of intellect
and fashion; the development of Gallicanism and Febronianism
threatened to leave the Holy See but a shadowy pre-eminence
over a series of national churches, and even to obliterate the
frontier Une between Catholicism and Protestantism. It was
the Revolution, which at one moment seemed finally to have
engulfed the papacy, which in fact preserved it; Febronianism,
as a force to be seriously reckoned with, perished in the downfall
of the ecclesiastical principalities of the old Empire; Gallicanism
perisjied with the constitutional Church in France, and its
principles fell into discredit with a generation which associated it
with the Revolution and its excesses. In the reaction that
followed the chaos of the Revolutionary epoch men turned to the
papacy as alone giving a foothold of authority in a confused and
quaking world. The Romantic movement helped, with its
idealization of a past but vaguely realized and imperfectly
understood, and Chateaubriand heraldefl in the Catholic reaction
with his Genie du Christianistne (1801) a brilliant if superficial
attack on the encyclopaedists and their neo-Paganism, and a
glorification of the Christian Church as supreme not only in the
regions of faith and morals, but also in those of intellect and art.
More weighty was the Du Pape of Joseph de Maistre (1S19),
closely reasoned and fortified with a wealth of learning, which had
an enormous influence upon all those who thought that they saw
in the union of " altar and throne " the palladium of society.
The Holy Empire was dead, in spite of the pope's protest ai
Vienna against the failure to restore " the centre of political
unity "; Joseph de Maistre's idea was to set up the Holy See in
its place. To many minds the papacy thus came to represent
a unifying principle, as opposed to the tUsruptive tendencies of
Liberalism and Nationalism, and the papal monarchy came to be
surrounded with a new halo, as in some sort realizing that ideal
of a " federation of the world " after which the age was dimly
feeling.
So far as politics are concerned this sentiment was practically
confined to certain classes, which saw their traditional advantages
threatened by the revolutionary tendencies of the The Papacy
times; and the alhance between the throne and the and Modern
altar, by confusing the interests of the papacy with '^''""Sht-
those of political parties, tended — as Leo XIII. had the wit to
realize — to involve the fate of the one with that of the other, as
in France. Far stronger was the appeal made by the authori-
tative attitude of the papacy to all those who were disturbed by
the scientific spirit of the age: the ceaseless questioning of all
the foundations on which faith and morality had been supposed
to rest. Biblical criticism, by throwing doubt on the infallibility
of the Scriptures, was undermining the traditional foundation
of orthodox Protestantism, and most of the Protestant Churches,
divided between antagonistic tendencies, %vere ceasing to speak
with a certain voice. To logical but timid minds, Hke that of
J. H. Newman, which could not be content with a compromise
with truth, but feared to face ultimate reahties, the rigidly
authoritative attitude of Rome made an irresistible appeal. The
process, maybe, from the point of view of those outside, was to
make a mental wilderness and call it peace; but from the papal
point of view it had a double advantage: it attracted those in'
search of religious certainty, it facilitated the maintenance of
its hold over the Catholic democracy. The methods by which
it has sought to maintain this hold are criticized in the article
Ultramontanisu.
There can also be Uttle doubt — though the Curia itself would
not admit it — that the spiritual power of the papacy has been
greatly increased by the loss of the temporal power, fhe Loss 0/
The pope is no longer a petty Italian prince who, in the Temporal
order to preserve his dominions, was necessarily f"^"-
involved in the tangle of European diplomacy ; he is the monarch
of a vast, admirably organized, spiritual world-empire, and when
— as must needs happen — the overlapping of the spiritual and
temporal spheres brings him into conflict with a secular power,
his diplomacy is backed, wherever Catholic sentiment is strong,
by a force which the secular power has much difficulty in resisting;
for in spiritual matters (and the term covers a wide field) the
Catholic, however loyal to his country he may be, must_pbey
God, whose vicegerent is the pope, rather than manv diven
Bismarck, in th.e end, had to " go to Canossa." • -
It is, indeed, possible to exaggerate this power. The fact that
the Vatican presents a great force hostile to and obstructive of
certain characteristic tendencies of modern life and thought has
necessarily raised up a powerful opposition even in countries
traditionally Catholic. France no longer deserves the title of
eldest daughter of the Church; the Catholicism of Italy is largely
I superficial; even Spain has shown signs of restiveness. On the
oil) jfoiuriD ncmoil sri) lo sialaiaoi ari) ni bobio:>oi eA '
722
PAPACY
other hand, the great opportunity now open to the papacy on
its spiritual side, is proved by the growing respect in which it
has been held since 1870 in the English-speaking countries,
where Roman Cathohcs are in a minority and their Church is
in no sense established. Without doubt, opinion has been
influenced in these countries by the fact that Rome has not been
sufEciently strong to exercise any disturbing influence on the
general course of national affairs, while in both its conspicuous
members set a high example of private and civic conduct.
(W. A. P.)
List of the
Pontiffs of the Roman Church. '
Date of Election
._ _ 1
or Consecration.
Date of Death.
<■■ 41
B. Petri's 29 vi, c.
65-67
c. 67
S. Linus
23 ix.
c. 79
c. 79
S. Cletus (Anencletus)
26 iv.
c. 91
c. 91
S. Clemens I
23 xi.
C. 100
C.IOO
S. Evaristus
26 X,
c. 109
C.I09
S. Alexander
3 V,
c. 119
C.I 19
S. Sixtus (Xystus)
6 iv.
c. 126
?I28
S. Telesphorus
5 i.
137
C.I 38
S. Hyginus
II i,
142
C.I 42
S. Pius
II vii,
c. 156
CI57
S. Anicetus
17 iv,
167
168
S. Soter
22 iv,
c. 176
177
S. Eleutherus
26 V,
189
C.I 90
S. Victor I.
20 iv.
c. 202
C.202
S. Zephyrinus
26 viii,
217
218
S. Calixtus I.
^ 14 X,
222
222
S. Urbanus I.
^ 25 V,
230
230
S. Pontianus res. 28 ix,
235
235 (21 XI, ord.)
S. Anterus
\ 3i,
236
236
S. Fabianus
20 i,
250
251 (lu. el.)
S. Cornelius
14 ix,
253
253 el-
S. Lucius
5 iii.
254
254 (12 V ?, el.)
S. Stephanus L
2 viii.
257
257 viii
S. Sixtus (Xystus) IL
6 viii.
258
259 22 vii, el.
S. Dionysius
26 xii.
268
269 5 i, el.
S. Felix
30 xii.
274
275 c. 5 i
S. Eutychianus
8 xii.
283
283 17 xii
S. Gaius
22 iv,
296
296 30 vi
S. Marcellinus
(? 25 x)
. 304
307 el.
S. Marcellus
15 i.
309
309 IV, el.
S. Eusebius
17 viii,
309
310 2 vii
S. Melchiades {Miltiades)
II i.
314
314 31 i
S. Sylvester ,_] ,,; ;,.,
31 xii,
335
336 18 I
S. Marcus ', , . ;
7 X,
336
337 6 li, el.
S. Julius
12 iv.
352
352 22 V
S. Liberius
24 ix,
366
366 i.x
S. Damasus
10 xii.
384
384 xii
S. Siricius
26 xi.
398
398 xi-xii
S. Anastasius I. f ^^rt. anno
401-2
402
S. Innocentius I. j 12 iii.
417
417 18 iii, cs.
S. Zosimus f 26 xii.
418
418 28 xii
S. Bonifacius I. f 4 ix,
422
422 c. 10 ix
S. Coelestinus L f c. 26 vii.
432
432 31 vii
S. Si.\tus IIL t 18 viii.
440
440 viii, el.
S. Leo L t 10 xi,
461
461 12 xi, cs.
S. Hilarus f 21 ii,
468
468 25 ii, cs.
S. Simplicius f 2 iii.
483
483
S. Felix III. t c. 25 ii.
492
492 I iii, cs.
S. Gelasius f 19 xi.
496
496 c. 24 xi. cs.
S. Anastasius IL f et sep. 19 xi.
498
498 22 xi
S. Symmachus t <"' sepull. 19 vii,
514
514 20 vii, cs.
S. Hormisdas f sepult. 7 viii.
523
523 13 viii
S. Joannes I. \ 18 v,
526
526 12 vii, cs.
S. Felix IV. t sepd. 12 x (?)
530
530 17 ix, el.
Bonifacius II. t sepul. 17 x.
532
532 31 xii, cs.
Joannes 11. f sepel. 27 v.
535
535 3 vi, cs.
S. Agapetus I. f 22 iv.
536
536 8 vi, cs.
S. Silverius, exul f sepel. 20 vi,
c- 538
537 29 iii, cs.
Vigilus t 7 vi,
PcTagius I. t 3 iii.
555
555 P- 7 vi, cs.
560
560 14 vii, cs.
oannes III. f sepel. 13 vii,
573
574 3 vi, cs.
ienedictus I. f 31 vii.
578
578 27 xi, cs.
Pelagius II. f sepel. 6 ii.
590
590 3 ix, cs.
S. Gregorius I. f sepel. 12 iii,
604
604 13 ix, cs.
Sabinianus f 22 ii,
606
607 19 ii, cs.
Bonifacius III. f sepel. 12 xi.
607
608 15 ix, cs.
S. Bonifacius IV. f sepel. 25 v,
615
615 19 X, cs.
S. Deusdedit f sepel. 8 xi.
618
619 23 xii, cs.
Bonifacius V. f sepel. 25 x,
625.
625 3 xi, cs.
Honorius f sepel. 12 x,
638
Date of Election
1
or Consecration.
Date of Death.
640 28 v, cs.
Severinus
t sepel. 2 viii,
640
640 25 xii, cs.
Joannes IV.
t sepel. 12 X,
642
642 24 xi, cs.
Theodorus I.
t sepel. 14 V,
649
649 vi-vii, cs.
S. Martinus
t exul 16 ix.
655
654 10 viii, cs.
S. Eugenius I.
t sepel. 3 vi,
657
657 30 vii, cs.
S. Vitalianus
t sepel. 27 i,
672
672 1 1 iv, cs.
Adeodatus
t sepel. 16 vi.
676
676 2 xi, cs.
Donus
t Sep. 1 1 iv,
678
678 vi-vii, cs.
S. Agatho
t sep. 10 i,
681
682 17 viii, cs.
S. Leo II.
t Sep. 3 vii,
683
684 26 vi, cs.
S. Benedictus II.
t sep. 8 v.
685
685 23 vii, cs.
Joannes V.
t 2 viii,
686
686 21 X, cs.
Conon
t sepel. 22 ix.
687
687 x-xii, el.
S. Sergius I.
t sepel. 8 ix.
701
701 30 X, cs.
Joannes VI.
t sepel. lo-li i,
705
705 I iii, cs.
Joannes VII.
t Sep. 18 X,
707
708 i8 i (?)
Sisinnius
t Sep. 7 ii,
708
708 25 iii, cs.
Constantinus I.
t 9 iv.
715
715 19 V, cs.
S. Gregorius II.
t sepel. 1 1 ii.
731
731 II ii, el.
S. Gregorius III.
t Sep. 29 xi.
741
741 3 xii, cs.
S. Zacharias
^\ Sep. 15 iii.
752
752 iii, el.
Stephanus II.
t ex. iii.
752
752 ex. iii, el.
Stephanus III.
t sep. 26 iv.
757
757 29 V, cs.
S. Paulus I.
t 28 vi.
767
767 5 vii, cs.
Constantinus II.
depos. 6 viii,
768
768 7 viii, cs.
Stephanus IV
t 1 ii.
772
772 I ii, el.
Hadrianus I.
t 25 xii.
795
795 26 xii, el.
S. Leo III.
t sep. 12 vi.
816
816 vi, el.
Stephanus V.
t24i.
817
817 25 i, cs.
S. Paschalis I.
t f- 14 V,
824
824 v-vi
Eugenius II.
t viii.
827
827
Valentinus f
ex. ann.
827
827 ex. ann.
Gregorius IV.
t i.
844
844 i
Sergius II.
t27i.
847
847 10 iv, cs.
S. Leo IV.
t 17 vii,
855
855 29 ix, cs.
Benedictus III.
t 7iv,
858
858 24 iv, cs.
S. Nicolaus I.
t 13 xi.
867
867 14 xii, cs.
Hadrianus II.
t c. I xii.
872
872 14 xii
Joannes VIII.
t 15 xii.
882
882 c. .xii
Marinus I.
t ^- V,.. .
884
884 c. V, el.
Hadrianus III.
t c. viii-ix
885
885 c. ix, el.
Stephanus VI.
t c- ix.
891
891 c. ix
Formosus
t 23 v.
896
896 c. 23 V, el.
Bonifacius VI.
t c. 6 vi.
896
896 0. II vi.intrus
897 vii, cs.
Stephanus VI. (VII.)
Romanus
amot:
\c.
vii.
897
897
xi.
897 c. xi
Theodorus II. t post 20 dies
898 c. vi, cs.
[oannes IX.
t vii,
900
900 6-26 vii
Jenedictus IV.
t viii,
903
903 c. viii
Leo V.
t c. ix,
903
903 C. X
Christophorus
amot. i.
904
904 29 i, cs.
Sergius III.
\P 4ix,
911
911 c. ix, cs.
Anastasius
t c. xi,
913
913 c. xi, cs.
Lando
tc. v,
914
914 15 V, cs.
Joannes X. f '« carcere
929
928 c. vii, cs.
Leo VI.
t c. ii.
929
929 c. ii. cs.
Stephanus VIII.
t 15 iii.
931
931 c. iii, cs.
Joannes XI.
t i.
936
936 a. 9 i, cs.
Leo VI. (VII.)
t vii.
939
939 a. 19 vii, cons.
Stephanus IX.
c. x,
942
942 a. 1 1 xi, cons.
Marinus II.
c. iv.
946
946 c. iv
Agapetus II.
c. 8 xi,
955
955 c. xi, cs.
Joannes XII. (amot.
4 xii, 963) t 14 V, 964 1
963 4 xii, el.
Leo VIII.
t c. iii.
96S
964 v, el.
Benedict V.
exul
965
965 I X, cs.
Joannes XIII.
t 6ix,
972
973 19 i, cs.
Benedict VI.
t occis. vii,
974
974 X
Benedictus VII.
t X,
983
983 ex. ann.
Joannes XIV.
t occis. 20 viii.
984
984
Bonifacius VII.
t yii.
98s
985 I ix, cs.
Joannes XV.
t in. iv.
996
996 3 V, cs.
Gregorius V.
t ii.
999
999 in. iv, cs.
Sylvester II. {Gerhert)
t 12 v.
1003
1003 13 vi, cs.
Joannes XVII. {Sicca
) t 7 xii.
1003
1003 25 xii, cs.
Joannes XVIII.
vi.
1009
1009 p. 20 vi, cs.
Sergius IV.
16-22 vi
1012
1012 22 vi, cs.
Benedict VIII.
' '. "^ i^''
1024
1024 24vi-i5vii,cs.
oannes XIX.
1033
1033 i, cs.
benedictus IX.
resignat. i v,
1045
1045 I V, intr.
Gregorius VI.
resignat. 20 xii.
1046
1046 25 xii, cs.
Clemens II.
t 9x,
1047
1048 17 vii, cs.
Damasus II.
t 9 viii.
1048
1049 12 ii, cs.
S. Leo IX.
t 19 iv.
1054
1055 13 iv, cs.
Victor II.
t 28 vii,
1057
1057 2 viii, cl.
Stephanus X.
t 29 iii.
1058
1058 5 Iv, cl.
Benedict X. expuls. c. i.
1059
> As recorded in the registers of the Roman Church (from P. B. Gams, Series episcoporum Romanov: ecclesiae).
PAPACY
723
Date of Election
. li
or Consecration.
Date of Death.
1059 24 i, cs.
Nicolaus II.
■ 27 vii.
1 061
1061 I X, el.
Alexander II.
21 iv,
1073
1073 22 iv, el.
S. Gregorius VII.
■25 V,
1085
1086 24 V, el.
Victor III.
16 ix,
1087
1088 12 iii, el.
Urbanus II.
29 vii.
1099
1099 13 viii, el.
Paschalis II.
21 i,
1118
1 1 18 24 i, el.
Gelasius II.
29 1,
[I19
1 1 19 2 ii, el.
Calixtus II.
13-14 xii,
[124
1 124 15-16 .\ii, el.
Honorius II.
14 li.
1130
1 130 14 ii, cl.
Innocentius II.
24 ix,
1143
1 143 26 ix, el.
Coelestinus II.
8 iii,
[144
1 144 12 iii, el.
Lucius II.
15 ii.
[145
1 145 15 ii, el.
Eugenius III.
8 vii.
tl53
1 153 12 vii, cs.
Anastasius IV.
3 xii.
1154
1 154 4 xii, el.
Hadrianus IV.
I ix.
159
1 1 59 7 ix, el.
Alexander III.
30 viii,
181
1181 I ix
Lucius III.
25 xi,
185 ,
1 185 25 xi
Urbanus III.
20 x.
187
1187 21 X, el.
Gregorius VIII.
17 xii,
187
1187 19 xii, el.
Clemens III.
iii,
191
1 191 30 iii, el.
Coelestinus III.
8i,
198
1 198 8 i
Innocentius III.
16 vii,
216
1216 18 vii
Honorius III.
18 iii,
227
1227 19 iii
Gregorius IX.
21 viii,
241
1241 X
Coelestinus IV.
17-18 xi,
241
1243 25 vi
Innocentius IV.
13 xii.
254
1254 25 .\ii
Alexander IV.
25 V,
261
1261 29 viii
Urbanus IV.
2 X,
264
1265 5 ii
Clemens IV.
29 xi.
268
1271 I ix
Gregorius X.
II i.
276
1276 23 ii cs.
Innocentius V.
22 vi.
276
1276 12 vii, el.
Hadrianus V.
17 viii,
276
1276 13 ix
Joannes XXI.
16 V,
277
1277 25 xi
Nicolaus III.
22 viii,
280
1281 22 ii
Martinus IV.
28 iii,
285
1285 2 iv
Honorius IV.
3 iv,
287
1288 15 ii
Nicolaus IV.
4 IV,
292
1294 5 vii
S. Coelestinus V. (t 19 v, 1296
)
res
. 13 xn, ]
294
1294 24 xii
Bonifacius VIII.
II X, ]
303
1303 22 X
Benedictus XI.
7 vii.
304
1305 5 vi
Clemens V.
20 IV,
314
1316 7 viii
Joannes XXII.
4 xii.
334
1334 20 xii
Benedictus XII.
25 IV; 1
342
1342 7 V, el.
Clemens VI.
6 xii.
352
1352 18 xii
Innocentius VI.
12 ix,
362
1362 28 X
Urbanus V.
19 xii, ]
370
1370 30 xii
Gregorius XI.
27 iii, 1
378
1378 8 iv
Urbanus VI.
15 X, ]
389
[1378 20 ix
Clemens VII. an///)0^a^!'f«. '
[ 16 ix.
394
1394 28 ix
Benedict XIII. {amot 26 vii)
■■^'7
23 V, 1
423]
1389 2 xi
Bonifacius IX.
I X,
404
1447 17 x
Innocentius VII.
6.xi, J
406
1406 2 xii
Gregorius XII. (f I4'9)
resignat.
4 vii, 1
415
1409 26 vi
Alexander V. \
3 V, 1
410
1410 17 V
Joannes XXIII. (t 22 xi,
1419) amot.
24 V, 1
415
1417 II xi
Martinus V.
20 n, 1
431
1431 3 iii
Eugenius IV.
23 ii, 1
447
1447 6 iii
Nicolaus V.
24 iii, 1
455
1455 8 iv
Cali.xtus III.
6 viii, ]
458
1458 19 VUl
Pius II.
15 viii, 1
464
1464 31 viii
Paulus II.
28 vii, 1
471
1471 9 viii
Si.\tus IV.
12 viii, 1
484
1484 24 viii
Innocentius VIII.
25 vii, 1
492
1492 II viii
."Mexander VI.
18 viii, 1
503
1503 22 ix
Pius III.
18 X, ]
503
1503 I xi
. ulius 11.
21 ii, 1
513
1513 15 iii
.eo X.
I xii, 1
521
1522 9 1
Hadrianus VI.
14 ix, 1
523
1523 19x1
Clemens VII.
25 ix, 1
534
1534 13 X
Paulus III.
10 xi, 1
549
1550 8 ii
Julius III.
23 iii. 1
555
1555 9 iv
Marcellus II.
30 iv, 1
555
1555 23 V
Paulus IV.
18 vjji, 1
559
1559 25 xii
Pius IV.
9 xii, 1
565
1566 17 i, cs.
S. Pius V.
I V, 1
572
1572 26 V
Gregorius XIII.
10 iv,_ )
585
1.585 I V, cs.
Sixtus V.
27 viii, 1
590
1590 15 ix, el.
Urbanus VII.
27 ix, 1
590
1590 5 xii
Gregorius XIV.
15X, 1
591
1591 29 X, el.
Innocentius IX.
30 .xn, 1
591
1592 30 i, el.
Clemens VIII.
5 iii. >
605
1605 I iv, el.
Leo XI.
27 iv. 1
605
Date of Election
■^h;\t .'■■
1
or Consecration.
■'••'^'.»\r//^'
Date of Death.
1605 16 V, cl.
Paulus V.
1- 28 i,
1621
1 62 1 9 ii
Gregorius XV.
8 vii,
1623
1623 6 viii, cl.
Urbanus VIII.
29 vii.
1644
1644 15 ix
Innocentius X.
7 i,
1655
"655 7 iv
Alexander VII.
22 V,
1667
1667 20 vi
Clemens IX.
9 xii.
1669
1670 29 iv
Clemens X.
22 vii,
J676
1676 21 ix
Innocentius XI.
12 vii.
1689
1689 6 x
Alexander VIII. t iii,
1691
1691 12 vii
Innocentius XII. f 27 ix.
1700
1700 23 xi, el
Clemens XI. f 19 iii.
1 72 1
1721 8 v
Innocentius XIII. f 7 iii,
1724
172429 V
Benedictus XIII. 1
21 ii,
J 730
1730 12 vii
Clemens XII. f 6 ii.
1740
1740 17 viii
Benedictus XIV.
3 V,
1758
1758 6 vii
Clemens XIII.
2 ii,
1769
1769 19 V
Clemens XIV. f 22 ix,
1774
1775 15 ii
Pius VI. t 29 viii.
1799
1800 14 iii
Pius VII. 1
20 viii.
1823
1823 28 ix
Leo XII.
10 ii.
1829
1829 31 iii
Pius VIII. t30xi,
1830
1831 2 ii
Gregorius XVI. 1
I vi.
1846
1846 16 vi, el.
Pius IX.
3 vi.
1877
1877 vi, el
Leo XIII.
20, yii,
J993l
1903 4 viii, el.
Pius X.
. 1 1 ••.•'.(
-•A ..\\\
Bibliography. — The works mentioned below are for the most
part those not included in the separate bibliographies to the articles
on the individual popes (qq.v.).
General. — -Of encyclopaedias may be mentioned the New Schaff-
Ilerzog Encyclopaedia of Religious Knowledge (New York, 1908 sqq.);
the Catholic Encyclopaedia (New York, 1907 sqq.); Herzog-Hauck,
Realencyklopddie (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1896 sqq.); Wetzer and VVelte,
Kirchenlexikon (2nd ed., Freiburg-im-Breisgau, 1882-1901); G.
Maroni, Dizionario di erudizione storico-ecclesiaslica (Venice, 1840
sqq.), all of which contain articles on individual popes and subjects
connected with the papacy, with bibliographies. For chronological
detail, see Z. V. Lobkowitz, Statistik der Pdpsle (Freiburg i. B.,
1905). Carefully indexed source materials in the original languages
are given by C. Mirbt, Quellen zur Ceschichte des Papsttums und des
rumischen Katholizismus (2nd enlarged ed., Tubingen, 1901); many
fragments in translation under " Papacy _" in History for Ready
Reference, ed. by J. N. Earned (vols, iv., vi., vii. Springfield, 1895-
1910). Helpful Church histories are F. X. Funk, Lehrbuch der
Kirchefigeschichte (5th ed., Paderborn, 1907); A. Knopfler, Lehrbuch
der Kirchengeschichte (4th ed., Freiburg i. B., 1906), both Roman
Catholic; also the Lutheran work of J. H. Kurtz, Lehrbuch der
Kirchengeschichte, ed N. Bonwetsch and P. Tschackert (14th ed.,
Leipzig, 1906). (W.W. R.*)
Period I. To 1087. — A bibliography of the history of the papacy
during the first eleven centuries would embrace all the vast number
of works on the history of the Church during this period. Of these
a selected list will be found in the bibliography to the article
Church History. Here it must suffice to mention certain modern
works bearing more particularly on this period. Harnack, Lehr-
buch der Dogmengeschichte, 3rd ed. i. 400 et seq. ; Hinschius, Kirchen-
recht, vol. i. §§ 22-25, 741 Sohm, Kirchenrecht, vol. i. § 29 et seq.;
Loning, Ceschichte des deutschen Kirchenrechts (1878); Duchesne,
Aglises separees (1905), Les Premiers temps de I'etal pontifical (1904).
(L. D.*)
Period II. (a) From 10S7 to 1 124. — L. Paulot's Un Pape fran^ais:
Urbain II. (Paris, 1903), which is written with a Catholic bias, is
the only biography of Urban II. that is at all full. Cf. M. F. Stern,
Zur Biographic des Papstes Vrbans II. (Berlin, 1883). On Paschal
II., see E. Franz, Papst Paschalis II. (Breslau, 1877); W. Schum,
Die Politik Papst Paschals II. gegen Kaiser Heinrich V. im Jahre
III2 (Erfurt, 1877); and the excellent " £tude des relations entre
le Saint-Siege et le royaume de France de 1099 k 1108," published
by Bernard Monod in the Positions des theses des ileves de I'&ole
des Charles (1904). The Bullarium of Calixtus II. and the History
(Paris, 1891) of his pontificate have been published by LUysse
Robert. Cf. M. JVIaurer, Papst Calixt II. (Munich, 1889). Besides
these monographs, useful information on the history of the popes
of this period will be found in the following: R. Rohricht, Ceschichte
des Konigreichs Jerusalem (Innsbruck, 1898) and Ceschichte des
ersten Kreuzzuges (Innsbruck, 1901); H. von Sybel, Ceschichte des
erslen Kreuzzugs (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1881) ; H. Hagenmeyer, Peter der
Eremit (Leipzig, 1879); F. Chalandon, Essai sur le regne d' Alexis I.
Comnhte (Pans, 1900) ; G. Meyer von Knonau, Jahrbiicher des
deutschen Reiches unter Heinrich IV. und Heinrich V. (Leipzig,
1890 et seq.); Carl Mirbt, Die Publizistik im Zeitalter Cregors VII.
(Leipzig, 1894) : Ernst IBernheim, Zur Ceschichte des Wormser
Konkordates (Gottingen, 1878); Martin Rule, The Life and Times
of Si Anselm (2 vols., London, 1883); and Klemm, Der Itivestitur-
strcit unter Heinrich I.
(b) From 1124 to iiq8. — Monographs dealing expressly with the
724
PAPACY
pontificates of this period are scarce. Mention, however, must be
made of H. Renter's Ceschichle Alexanders III. vnd der Kirche
seiner Zeit (3 vols., Berlin, 1860-1864). Much information on the
policy of these popes will be found in the works on the great person-
ages of the time: W. Bernhardi, Lothar von Supplinbiirg (Leipzig,
1879), and Konrad III. (Leipzig, 1883) ; H. Prutz, Kaiser Friedrich I.
(3 vols., Danzig, 1871-1874); P. Scheffer-Boichorst, Kaiser Fried-
richs I. letzter Streit mil der Kurie (Berlin, 1866); Julius Ficker,
Reinald von Dassel (Cologne, 1850) ; Th. Toeche, Kaiser Heinrich VI.
(Leipzig, 1867); J. Jastrow and G. Winter, Deutsche Geschichte im
Zeitalter der Hohenslaufen (2 vols., Berlin, 1897-1901); F. von
Raumer, Geschichte der Hohenstaufen und ihrer Zeit (5th ed., 6 vols.,
Leipzig, 1878); A. Hausrath, Arnold von Brescia (Leipzig, 1891);
Dietr. Hirsch, Studien zur Geschichte Konig Ludwigs VII. von Frank-
reich (Leipzig, 1892); O. Cartellieri, Abt Suger von Saint-Denis
(Berlin, 1898); F. Vacandard, Vie de S. Bernard (2 vols., Paris,
1895); J. Thiel, Die politische Thdtigkeit des Abtes Bernhard von
Clairvaux (Konigsberg, 1885); A. Luchaire, Louis VII., Philippe-
A uguste, Louis VIII. (vol. iii. pt. i. of Lavisse's Histoire de France) ;
H. Bohmer, Kirche und Staat in England und in der Normandie im
XL. und XII. Jahrhundert. (Leipzig, 1899) ; Kate Norgate, England
under the Angevin kings (London, 1887); and P. SchcfTer-Boichorst,
" Hat Papst Hadrian IV. zu Gunsten des englischen Konigs (iber
Irland verfiigt ?" in Mitteilungendes Instituts jiir osterr. Geschichts-
forschuiig (supplementary vol. iv., 1893).
(c) From 1198 to 1261. — On the pontificate of Innocent III. in
general, see F. von Hurter, Geschichte Papst Innocenz III. (3rd and
2nd ed., 4 vols., Hamburg, 1841-1844); and A. Luchaire, Innocent
III., Rome et I'ltalie (2nd ed., Paris, 1905), Innocent III. la croisade
des alhigeois (Paris, 1905), Innocent III., la papaute et Vempire
(Paris, 1906), Innocent III., la question d'orient (Paris, 1906), and
Innocent III., les royautis vassales du Saint-Siege (Paris, 1908).
Cf. E. Winkelmann, Philipp von Schwaben und OttJ) IV. von Braun-
schweig (2 vols., Leipzig, 1873-1878); W. Norden, Das Papsttum
und Byzanz (Berlin, 1903), a considerable part of which is devoted
to Innocent III. ; E. Gerland, Geschichte des laleinischen Kaiserreiches
von Konstantinopel (Homburg, 1905); R. Davidsohn, Philipp II.
August von Frankreich und Ingeborg (Stuttgart, 1888) ; R. Schwemer,
Innocenz III. und die deutsche Kirche wdhrend des Thronstreites
von 11Q8-1208 (Strassburg, 1882); Else Giitschow, Innocenz III.
und England (Munich, 1904) ; and many other detailed monographs.
The pontificate of Honorius III. is dealt with by J. Clausen in his
Papst Honorius III. (Bonn, 1895), and his registers have been pub-
lished by P. Pressutti (3 vols., Rome, 1884 and 1888-1895). On
Gregory IX., see J. Felten, Papst Gregor IX. (Freiburg i. Br.,
1886); P. Balan, Storia di Gregorio IX. e dei suoi tempi (3 vols.,
Modena, 1872-1873); and J. Marx, Die vita Gregorii /-Y. (Berlin,
1889). The publication of the registers of this pope was begun
by L. Auvray in the Bibliotheque des ecoles de Rome et d'Athenes
(Paris, 1890 et seq.). On Innocent IV., see E. Berger, St Louis et
Innocent IV. (Paris, 1893); E. Winkelmann, Kaiser Friedrich II.
(2 vols., Leipzig, 1889-1897); P. Aldinger, Die Neubesetzung der
deutschen Bistiimer iinter Papst Innocenz IV. (Leipzig, 1901); and
C. Rodenberg, Innocenz IV. und das Konigreich Sizilien (Halle.
1892). The publication of the registers of Innocent IV. was under-
taken by Elie Berger (1881 et seq.), and those of Alexander IV.
by J. de Love, A. Coulon and C. Bourel de la Ronciere (1895 et seq.).
As the history of the later Hohenstaufens is intimately bound up
with that of the contemporary popes, mention must be made of
F. W. Schirrmacher, Die letzten Hohenstaufen (Gottingen, 1871);
A. Karst, Geschichte Manfreds vom Ende Friedrichs II. bis zu seiner
Kronung (Berlin, 1897); and K. Hampe, Geschichte Konradins von
Hohenstaufen (Innsbruck, 1894).
(d) From 1261 to /J05. — L. Dorez and J. Guiraud, members of the
French school at Rome, began the publication of the registers of
Urban IV. (1892 et seq.); E. Jordan, those of Clement IV. (1893
et seq.); and J. Guiraud and L. Cadier, those of Gregory X. (1892
et seq.). On Gregory X., see F. Walter, Die Politik der Kurie
unter Gregor X. (Berlin, 1894). The pontificate of John XXI. has
been dealt with by R. Stapper, Papst Johannes XXI. (Miinster
i. W., 1898), and that of Nicholas III. by A. Demski, Papst Nikolaus
III. (Miinster i. W., 1903), in vol. vi. of the Kirchengeschichtliche
Studien, ed. by Knopfler, Schrors and Sdralek. The publication of
the registers of Nicholas III. was undertaken by J. Gay (1898 et seq.).
Much information on the policy of these popes will be found in the
following: R. Sternfield, Ludwigs des Heiligen Kreuzzug nach
Tunis und die Politik Karls I. von Sizilien (Berlin, 1896) ; Ch. V.
Langlois, Le Regne de Philippe III. le Hardi (Paris, 1887) ; L. Leclere,
Les Rapports de la papaute et de la France sous Philippe III.
(Brussels, 1889); C. Minieri-Riccio, Alcuni fatti riguardanti Carlo I.
d' Angio . . . (Naples, 1874), and // Regno di Carlo I. d'Angio, in the
Archivio storico italiano (3rd series, vols, xxii., xxiii., xxiv., xxv.,
xxvi. ; 4th series, vols, ii., iii., iv., v., vii., 1875-1881) ; A. Busson, Die
Idee des deutschen Erhreichs und die ersten Habsburger (Vienna,
1878); G. de! Giudice, La Famiglia di re Manfredi (Naples, 1880);
and H. Otto, Die Beziehungen Rudolfs von Habsburg zu Papst Gregor
X. (Innsbruck, 1895). There is a good account of the policy of
Martin IV. in O. Cartellieri, Peter von Aragon und die sizilianischen
Vesper (Heidelberg. 1904). On Honorius IV., see introduction to
the complete edition of his registers by Maurice Prou (1886-1888).
E. Langlois has published the registers of Nicholas IV. (1886-1893),
and Otto Schiff deals with his pontificate in his Studien zur Geschichte
Papst Nikolaus IV. (1897). On Celestine V., see H. Schulz, Peter
von Murrhone (Papst Coelestin V.), Berlin, 1894. The publication
of the registers of Boniface VIII. was begun by G. Digard, M.
Faucon and A. Thomas (1884 et seq.). Of the vast literature on
this pontificate we must content ourselves with citing: Heinrich
Finke, Aus den Tagen Bonifaz' VIII. (Miinster i. W., 1902); Ch. V.
Langlois, " St. Louis, Philippe le Bel, Les Derniers cap6tiens directs "
(vol. iii., pt. ii. of Lavisse's Histoire de France); Ernest Renan,
Etudes sur la politique religieuse du regne de Philippe le Bel (1899);
A. Baudrillart, " Des Idees qu'on se faisait au XIV"' siecle sur le
droit d'intervention du souverain pontife en matiere politique," in
the Revue d'hisloire et de litterature religieuses (vol. iii., 1898); and
R. Holtzmann, Wilhelm von Nogaret (Freiburg i. Br., 1898). The
pontificate of Benedict XL is dealt with by P. Funke in his Papst
Benedikt XI. (Miinster i. W., 1891). Cf. Ch. Grandjean, " Recherches
sur I'administration financiere du pape Benoit XI," in the Melanges
d'archeologie et d' histoire (vol. iii., 1883), published by the French
School at Rome. Grandjean has published the registers of Benedict
XL (1883 et seq.).
Among works of a more general character that throw light on
the history of the papacy during the 12th and 13th centuries, the
first place must be given to Walter Norden's Das Papsttum und
Byzanz. Die Trennung der beiden Mdchte und das Problem ihrer
Wiedervereinigung bis zuni Untergange des byzantinischen Reichs
(Berlin, 1903), which contains an account of the question of the
East in its relations with the papal policy, from the rise of the schism
down to the end of the middle ages. See also Felix Rocquain,
La Papauti au moyen Age (Paris, 1881) and La Cour de Rome et V esprit
de reforme avant Luther (3 vols., Paris, 1893-1897) ; J. B. Siigmiiller,
Die Thdtigkeit und Stellung der Cardindle bis Papst Bonifaz VIII.
(Freiburg i. Br., 1896); and A. Gottlob, Die pdpstlichen Kreuzztigs-
steuern des 13. Jahrhunderts (Heiligenstadt, 1892) and Kreuzablass
und .Almosenablass (Stuttgart, 1906). {.\. Lu.)
Period III. ijo^-isgo. — Baluze, Vitae paparum avenioniensium
U305-1394), 2 t. (Paris, 1693); Raynaldus, Annales eccles. ab anno
iigS [to 1565], annotated and added to by J. D. Mansi (15 vols.,
Lucca, 1747-1756); Mansi, Concil. collectio; Theodericus of Niem,
De schismate, ed. Erler (1890); Christophe, Histoire de la papaute
(1873); Hefele, Conciliengeschichte (Freiburg i. B., 1855, seq.);
Hofier, Die avignonesischeji Pdpste (1871); Creighton, History of
the Papacy (1882, seq.); L. Pastor, Geschichte der Pdpste (Freiburg
i. B., 1S86, seq., Eng. trans, by F. I. Antrobus, 1891, seq.); Pastor,
Acta pontiflc. (1904); N. Valois, La France et le grand schisme, 4 t.
(1896, seq.); Haller, Papsttum und Kirchenrefonn (1903). For the
Papacy in connexion with the Renaissance, see E. Miintz, Les Arts
(1892); Voigt, Wiederbelebung des klassisclien Altertums (1893);
J. Burkhardt, Cultur der Renaissance in Italien, 2 B. (ed. L. Geiger,
1907). For the palace at Avignon, see Ehrle, Bibl. ram. pontif. i.
("^90).
To the authorities for the lives of individual popes attached to
the biographies under their several headings, and to the articles
on the councils of Basel, Constance, Trent, may be added :
Clement V. — Boutaric, Philippe le Bel (1861); Konig, Pdpstl.
Kammer unter Clemens V. u. Johann XXII. (1894); Finke, Acta
Aragonen. (1908). John XXII. — Bohmer, Regest. Ludwigs des
Baiern (1839); Vatikanische Aden (1891); Riezler, Literarische
Widersacher (1874); Mliller, Kampf Ludwigs mit der Curie (1879-
1880); Coulon, Lettres secretes de Jean XXII., relat. d, la France, i.
(1907); MoUat, Lettres commun. de Jean XXII., i.-iv. (1907).
Clement VI. — Werunsky, Kaiser Karl IV., i. (1800), ii. (1882-
1886); Papencordt, Cola di Rienzo (1841); Deprez, Lett, closes
1901 seq. Innocent VI. — Werunsky, Ital. Politik Innoc. VI.
u. Karl IV. (1878) ; id., Karl IV. ii. (1882-1886), iii. (1892) ; Cerasoli,
Archivio napolit. 22-23; Kirsch, Kollectorien (1892); Daumet,
Innocent VI. et Blanche de Bourbon (1899). Urban V. — Magnan,
Urbain V. (1863); Werunsky, Karl IV. iii. (1892); Prou, Relat.
polit. avec les rois de France (1888) ; Wurm, Albornoz (1892) ; Kirsch,
Riickkehr der Pdpste Urban V. und Gregor XI. nach Rom (1898);
Letacheux, Lettres secretes (1903, seq.). Gregory XI. — Mirot,
Retour du St Siege d Rome (1899) ; Tommaseo, Lettere di S. Caterina
(i860); M. A. Mignaty, Catherine de Sienne (1886). Boniface IX. —
Vita. ap. Muratori, Script, iii. 2; Cosmodromium, Gobelini Persona,
ed. Jansen (1900); Jansen, Bonifacius IX. u. die deutsche Kirche
(1904). Innocent VII. — Gregory XII., schismatic popes, council
of Constance, &c. Monuni. concil. gen. sacr. XV. (1857-1896);
Alpartilz, Chronica, ed. Ehrle (igo6); Pliemetfrieder, Literarische
Polemik (1909). Martin V. — Vitae, ap. Muratori, iii. 2; Ottenthal,
Bullenregister Martins V. n. Eugens IV. (1885). Eugenius IV. —
Vita, ap. Muratori, Script, iii. 2; Repert. germanic. i. (1897); Mtintz,
Les Arts (1878-1879); Valois, Pragmatique sanction (1.907).
Nicholas V. — Manetti, Vita Nicolai V., ap. Muratori, Script, iii. 2;
Vcspasiano da Bisticci, Vite (1839); Georgius (1742); Miintz, Les
Arts (1878-1879); Creighton, Papacy ii. (1882). Pavl II.— Am-
manati, Epistolae et commentarii (1506); Caspar Veronensis. Vita,
ap. Marini, Archiatri ii. and Muratori iii. 2 (new ed. by Zippel,
1903); Canensius, Vita, ed. Quirini (1740); Creighton, Papacy m.
(1887); Mtintz, Les /I r/s ii. (1879). Sixtus IV. — Infessura, Dian'o,
ed. Tommasini (1890); Notajo di NantJ£orto,_^Diar!i,_ap. Muratori,
PAPEETE— PAPER
725
Script, iii. 2; Jacobus Volaterranus, Diarhim, ap. Muratari, Script.
xxiii. ; Schmarzow, Melozzo da Forli (1886); Stcinmanii, Si.xtinische
Capelle i. (1901); Schlecht, Andrea Zamometic i. (1893). Innocent
VIII. — Infessura, op. cit.; Burchardi, Diarium i.-ii. ed. cit. (also for
Alexander VI.); Burchardi, Diarium, ed. Thuasiie, i. (1883).
Julius II. — Brosch, Julius II. u. d. Kirchenstaat (1878) ; Geymtiller,
Entwiirfe fiir St Peter (1875-1880) ; Schultc, Maximilian ah Candidal
fii.r den pdpstlichen Stuhl (1906). Leo X. — HerRcnrother, Reg.
Leonis X. (1884-1891); Jovius, Vita (1548); Koscoe, Leone X.,
ed. Bossi (1816); Janssen, Gesch. d. deutsclien Volks i. i8-ii. 18
(1897); Schulte, Fugger in Rom (1904); Kalkoff, Luthcrs romischer
Prozess (1906). Adrian VI. — Burmann, Adrianus VI. (1727).
Clement VII. — Friedensburg, Nuntiaturberichte i. (1892); Ehses,
Documente zur Geschichte der Ehescheidung Ileinrichs VIII. (1893);
Ehses, Cone, trident, iv. (1904) ; Fraikin, Nonciatures de France i.
(1906). Paul III. — Friedensburg, Nuntiaturberichte ii. sqq. (1892-
1908); Venetianische Depeschen vom Kaiserhof i. (1889); Ehses,
Concil. trident, iv. (1904); Merkle, Concil. trident, diaria i.;
Maurenbrecher, Karl V. (1865) ; de Leva, Carlo V. iii.-v. (1867 seq.) ;
Pastor, Reunionsbestrebungen Karls V. (1879); Janssen, Deutsche
Geschichle iii. 18. (1899). Julius III. — Massarelli, ap. DoUinger,
Concil. V. Trient (1876); de Leva, Carlo V. v. (1890). Marcellus
II. — Pollidorus, Vita (1744). Pius IV.^Pallavicini, Concilio di
Trento (1656); Duruy, Cardinal Carafa (1888); Susta, Curie und
Concil. i.-ii. (1904-1909); Steinherz, Nunliaturberichle i. and iii.
(1897-1903). Pius V.— Guglielmotti, Marcantonio Colonna (1862).
Gregory XIII. — Theiner, Annales ecclesiastici (1856); Maffei,
Annali (1746); Brosch, Kirchenstaat i. (1880); Nuntiaturberichte,
ed. Hansen, and Schellhass, i. (1892); Steinhuber, Collegium ger-
manicum i. 2-ii. 2 (1907); Duhr, Jesuiten in Deutschland i. (1907);
Astrain, Comp. de Jesus de Espaiia (3 vols., 1902). SiXTUS V. —
Memorie aulografe, ed. Cagnoni, Archivio d. Soc. Rom. (1882);
Nuntiaturberichte, ed. Gorresgesellschaft, i. seq. (1895); Balzani, in
Cambridge Modern History; Hiibner, Sixte-Quinte (1870).
(L. DE P.)
Periods IV., V., VI. 1590 onwards. — In addition to the general
works already mentioned, see M. Brosch, Geschichte des Kirchen-
staates (Gotha, 1880-1882), utilizing Venetian archives; L. Ranke,
History of the Papacy in the i6th and lyth centuries (1840 and fre-
quently); A. R. Pennington, Epochs of the Papacy (London, 1881);
F. Nippold, The Papacy in the Nineteenth Century (New York,
1900); B. Labanca, // Papato (Torino, 1905), with Italian biblio-
graphy; F. Nielsen, The History of the Papacy in the Nineteenth
Century (London, 1906), the scholarly and fascinating work of a
Danish Lutheran bishop; A. Galton, Church and State in France,
1300-iQoy (London, 1907); E. Bourgeois and E. Clermont, Rome et
Napoleon III. (Paris, 1907), exposing secret negotiations; A.
Debidour, L'Sglise catholique et I'etat sous la troisicme republiquc
(Paris, 1906-1909), valuable though strongly anti-clerical; R. de
Cesare, Roma e lo stato del papa dal ritorno di Pio IX. (2 vols.,
Rome, 1907); in abridged translation. The Last Days of Papal
Rome (Boston, 1909). (W. W. R.*)
PAPEETE, the capital of the Pacific island of Tahiti, and the
chief port and trading centre, and the seat of government of the
French establishments in Oceania. Pop. 4280 (2500 French).
The town, lying on the north-west coast of the island, on a
beautiful harbour entered by two passages through the protect-
ing reef, and backed by five mountains, is French in character
as far as concerns the richer quarters. It has a cathedral,
barracks and arsenal, government buildings and a botanical
garden. The Chinese quarter and the picturesque native
market contrast strongly with the European settlement. Of
the entrances to the harbour, which is of fair extent and depth,
that of Papeete has about seven fathoms depth ; that of Taunoa
is shallower, though wider and more convenient.
PAPENBURG, a town in the Prussian province of Hanover,
i27 m. by rail S. by W. of Emden, and near the right bank of the
vEms, with which it is connected by a canal 3 m. long. Pop. (1905),
7673. It lies in the centre of extensive moors and in appearance
resembles a Dutch town. The industries include shipbuilding,
oil and glass mills, and manufactures of chemicals, cement,
nickel goods and machinery. It is a very prosperous port and
its trade, carried on mainly by water, is mostly in the agricultural
produce of the extensive moors and pasture lands which lie
around it. Papenburg was founded in 1675 and became a town
in i860.
PAPER (Fr. papier, from Lat. papyrus), the general name for
the substance commonly used for writing upon, or for wrapping
things in. The origin and early history of paper as a writing
material are involved in much obscurity. The art of making it
from fibrous matter appears to have been practised by the
Chinese at a very distant period. Different writers have traced
it back to the 2nd century B.C. But, however remote its age
may have been in eastern Asia, paper first became available for
the rest of the world in the middle of the 8th century. In 751
the Arabs, who had occupied Samarkand early in the century,
were attacked there by Chinese. The invasion was repelled by
the Arab governor, who in the pursuit, it is related, captured
certain prisoners who were skilled in paper-making and who
imparted their knowledge to their new masters. Hence began
the Arabian manufacture, which rapidly spread to all parts of
the Arab dominions. The extent to which it was adopted for
literary purposes is proved by the comparatively large number of
early Arabic MSS. on paper which have been preserved dating
from the gth century.'
There has existed a not inconsiderable difficulty in regard
to the material of which the Arab paper was composed. In
Europe it has been referred to by old writers as charta bombycina,
gossypina, cuttunea, xylina, damascena and serica. The last
title seems to have been derived from its glossy and silken
appearance; the title damascena merely points to its great central
emporium, Damascus. But the other terms indicate an idea,
which has been persistent, that the paper manufactured by the
Arabs was composed of the wool from the cotton-plant, reduced
to a pulp according to the method attributed to the Chinese;
and it had been generally accepted that the distinction between
Oriental paper and European paper lay in the fact that the former
was a cotton-paper and the latter a rag-paper. But this theory
has been disturbed by recent investigations, which have shown
that the material of the Arab paper was itself substantially linen.
It seems that the Arabs, and the skilled Persian workmen whom
they employed, at once resorted to flax, which grows abundantly
in Khorasan, as their principal material, afterwards also making
use of rags, supplemented, as the demand grew, with any
vegetable fibre that would serve; and that cotton, if used at all,
was used very sparingly. Still there remain the old titles charta
bombycina, &c., to be explained; and an ingenious solution has
been oSered that the term charta bo}nbyci)ia, or xapTijs fiofx^vKLvo^,
is an erroneous reading of charta bambyc!na,OTxa.pTr]sfiafilivKi.vos,
paper manufactured at the Syrian town of Bambyce or /JayujSu/cjj,
the Arab Mambidsch (Karabacek in M itlheilungen aus der
Sammlung der Papyrus Erzlicrzog Raincr, ii.-iii. 87, iv. 117).
Without accepting this as an altogether suflicient explanation
of so widely used a term as the medieval charta bombycina, and
passing from the question of material to other differences, paper
of Oriental manufacture in the middle ages was usually distin-
guished by its stout substance and glossy surface, and was devoid
of water-marks, the employment of which became imiversal in the
European factories. Besides the titles referred to above, paper
also received the names of charta and papyrus, transferred to
it from the Egyptian writing material manufactured from the
papyrus plant (see Papyrus).
It was probably first brought into Greece through trade with
Asia, and thence transmitted to neighbouring countries. Theo-
philus presbyter, writing in the 12th century (Schedula diver-
sarum artium, i. 23), refers to it under the name of Greek
parchment, pergamena gracca. There is a record of the use of
' A few of the earliest dated examples may be instanced. The
Gharibu 'l-Haidth, a treatise on the rare and curious words in the
sayings of Mahomet and his companions, written in the year 866,
is probably one of the oldest paper MSS. in existence {Pal. Soc.
Orient. Ser. pi. 6). It is preserved in the University Library of
Leiden. A treatise by an Arabian physician on the nourishment
of the different members of the body, of the year g5o, is the oldest
dated Arabic MS. on paper in the British Museum (Or. MS. 2600;
Pal. Soc, pi. 96). The Bodleian Library' possesses a MS. of the
Didwnu H-Adab, a grammatical work of a.d. 974, of particular
interest as having been \vritten at Samarkand on paper presumably
made at that seat of the first Arab manufacture {Pal. Soc. pi. 60).
Other early examples are two MSS. at Paris, of the years 969
{Fonds arabe, suppl., 952) and 980 {Fonds arabe, 55); a volume oJ
poems written at Baghdad.'A.D. 990, now at Leipzig, and the Gospel
of St Luke, A.D. 993, in the Vatican Librar>' {Pal. Soc, pis. 7, 21).
In the great collection of Syriac MSS., which were obtained from
the Nitrian desert in Eg>-pt and are now in the British Museum,
there are many volumes wTitten on paper of the loth century.
The two oldest dated examples, however, are not earlier than
A.D. 1075 and 1084. ^j^,.: i7,; 3A .v^ujaj.. ll-cl -'-J ^J' ^Ji.l
726
R
PAPER lAq
[EARLY HISTORY
paper by the empress Irene at the end of the nth or beginning
of the 1 2th century, in her rules for the nuns of Constantinople.
It does not appear, however, to have been very extensively used
in Greece before the middle of the 13th century, for, with one
doubtful exception, there are no extant Greek MSS. on paper
which bear date prior to that period.
The manufacture of paper in Europe was first established by
the Moors in Spain in the middle of the 12th century, the head-
quarters of the industry being Xativa, Valencia and Toledo.
But on the fall of the Moorish power the manufacture, passing
into the hands of the less skilled Christians, decUned in the quahty
of its production. In Italy also the art of paper-making was no
doubt estabUshed through the Arab occupation of Sicily. But
the paper which was made both there and in Spain, was in the
first instance of the Oriental quality. In the laws of Alphonso
of 1263 it is referred to as cloth parchment, a term which well
describes its stout substance. The first mention of rag-paper
occurs in the tract of Peter, abbot of Cluny (a.d. ii 22-1 150),
adversus Judaeos, cap. 5, where, among the various kinds of
books, he refers to such as are written on material made " ex
rasuris veterum pannorum."
A few words may here be said respecting MSS. written in Euro-
pean countries on Oriental paper or paper made in the Oriental
fashion. Several which have been quoted as early instances
have proved, on further examination, to be nothing but vellum.
The ancient fragments of the Gospel of St Mark, preserved at
Venice, which were stated by Maffei to be of paper, by Mont-
faucon of papyrus, and by the Benedictines of bark, are in fact
written on skin. The oldest recorded document on paper was a
deed of King Roger of Sicily, of the year 1102; ana there are
others of Sicilian kings, of the 12th century. A Visigothic paper
MS. of the 1 2th century from Silos near Burgos is now in the
Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris. A notarial register on paper, at
Geneva, dates from 1154. The oldest known imperial deed on
the same material is a charter of Frederick II. to the nuns of
Goess in Styria, of the year 1228, now at Vienna. In 1231,
however, the same emperor forbade further use of paper for
public documents, which were in future to be inscribed on vellum.
Transcripts of imperial acts of Frederick II. about a.d. 1241 are
at Naples. In Venice the Liber plegiorum, the entries in which
begin with the year 1223, is made of rough paper; and similarly
the registers of the Council of Ten, beginning in 1325, and the
register of the emperor Henry VTI. (1308-1313) preserved at
Turin, are also written on a Uke substance. In the British
Museum there is an older example in a MS. (Arundel 268) which
contains some astronomical treatises written on an excellent
paper in an Italian hand of the first half of the 13th century.
The autograph MS. of Albert de Beham, 1238-1255, at Munich,
is on paper. In the PubUc Record Office there is a letter on
paper from Raymond, son of Raymond, duke of Narbonne and
count of Toulouse, to Henry III. of England, written within
the years 12 16-12 2 2. The letters addressed from Castile to
Edward I., in 1270 and following years (Pauli in Beridit, Berl.
Akad., 1854), are instances of Spanish-made paper; and other
specimens in existence prove that in this latter country a rough
kind of charta bombycina was manufactured to a comparatively
late date.
In Italy the first place which appears to have become a great
centre of the paper-making industry was Fabriano in the marqui-
sate of Ancona, where mills were first set up in 1276, and which
rose into importance on the decline of the manufacture in Spain.
The earliest known water-marks in paper from this factory are
of the years 1293 and 1294. The jurist Bartolo, in his treatise
De insigniis el armis, refers to the excellent paper made therein
the middle of the 14th century, an encomium which wiU be
supported by those who have had occasion to examine the
extant MSS. on ItaUan paper of that period. In 1340 a factory
was established at Padua; another arose later at Treviso; and
others followed in the territories of Florence, Bologna, Parma,
Milan, Venice and other districts. From the factories of
northern Italy the wants of southern Germany were suppUed as
late as the 15th century. As an instance the case of Gorlitz
has been cited, which drew its paper from Milan and Venice for
the half century between 1376 and 1426. But in Germany also
factories were rapidly founded. The earliest are said to have
been set up between Cologne and Mainz, and in Mainz itself
about 1320. At Nuremberg Ulman Stromer established a mill
in 1390, with the aid of Italian workmen. Other places of early
manufacture were Ratisbon and Augsburg. Western Germany,
as well as the Netherlands and England, is said to have obtained
paper at first from France and Burgundy through the markets
of Bruges, Antwerp and Cologne. France owed the establish-
ment of her first paper-mills to Spain, whence we are told the art
of paper-making was introduced, as early as the year 1189, into
the district of Herault. At a later period, in 1406, among the
accounts of the church of Troyes, paper-mills appear as molins a
toile. The development of the trade in France must have been
very rapid. And with the progress of manufacture in France
that of the Netherlands also grew.
In the second half of the 14th century the use of paper for aU
literary purposes had become well established in all western
Europe; and in the course of the 15th century it gradually
superseded vellum. In MSS. of this latter period it is not
unusual to find a mixture of vellum and paper, a vellum sheet
forming the outer, or the outer and inner, leaves of a quire while
the rest are of paper.
With regard to the early use of paper in England, there is
evidence that at the beginning of the 14th century it was a not
uncommon material, particularly for registers and accounts.
Under the year 1310, the records of Merton College, Oxford,
show that paper was purchased " pro registro," which Professor
Rogers {Hist. Agricid. and Prices, i. 644) is of opinion was pro-
bably paper of the same character as that of the Bordeaux customs
register in the Public Record Office, which date from the first
year of Edward II. The college register referred to, which was
probably used for entering the books that the fellows borrowed
from the Ubrary, has perished. There is, however, in the British
Museum a paper MS. (Add. 31,223), written in England, of even
earlier date than the one recorded in the Merton archives.
This is a register of the hustings court of Lyme Regis, the entries
in which begin in the year 1309. The paper, of a rough manu-
facture, is similar to the kind which was used in Spain. It may
have been imported direct from that country or from Bordeaux;
and a seaport town on the south coast of England is exactly
the place where such early reUcs might be looked for. Professor
Rogers also mentions an early specimen of paper in the archives
of Merton College, on which is written a bill of the year 1332;
and some leaves of water-marked paper of 1333 exist in the
Harleian coUection. Only a few years later in date is the first
of the registers of the King's Hall at Cambridge, a series of which,
on paper, is preserved in the Ubrary of Trinity College. Of the
middle of the 14th century also are many municipal books and
records. The knowledge, however, which we have of the history
of paper-making in England is extremely scanty. The first
maker whose name is known is John Tate, who is said to have set
up a mill in Hertford early in the i6th century; and Sir John
Spilman, Queen Elizabeth's jeweller, erected a paper-mill at
Dartford, and in 1589 obtained a licence for ten years to make
all sorts of white writing-paper and to gather, for the purpose, all
manner of linen rags, scrolls or scraps of parchment, old fishing
nets, &c. (Dunkin, Hist, of Dartford, 305; Harl. MS. 2206,
f. 124 b). But it is incredible that no paper was made in the
country before the time of the Tudors. The comparatively
cheap rates at which it was sold in the 15th century in inland
towns seem to afford ground for assuming that there was at that
time a native industry in this commodity.
As far as the prices have been observed at which difJerent
kinds of paper were sold in England, it has been found that in
1355-1356 the price of a quire of small folio paper was sd., both
in Oxford and London. In the 15th century the average price
seems to have ranged from 3d. to 4d. for the quire, and from
3s. 4d. to 4s. for the ream. At the beginning of the i6th century
the price fell to 2d. or 3d. the quire, and to 3s. or 3s. 6d. the ream;
but in the second half of the century, owing to the debasement
MANUFACTURE]
PAPER
727
of the coinage, it rose, in common with all other commodities,
to nearly 4d. the quire, and to rather more than 5s. the ream.
The relatively higher price of the ream in this last period, as
compared with that of the quire, seems to imply a more extensive
use of the material which enabled the trader to dispose of broken
bulk more quickly than formerly, and so to sell by the quire at a
comparatively cheap rate.
Brown paper appears in entries of 1570-1571, and was sold
in bundles at as. to 2s. 4d. Blotting paper is apparently of
even earlier date, being mentioned under the year 1465. It was
a coarse, grey, unsized paper, fragments of which have been
found among the leaves of isth-century accounts, where it had
been left after being used for blotting. Early in the i6th
century blotting-paper must have been in ordinary use, for it is
referred to in W. Herman's Vidgaria, 1519 (p. 80 b): " Blottyng
papyr serveth to drye weete wryttynge, lest there be made blottis
or blurris "; and early in the next century " charta bibula " is
mentioned in the Pinacotheca (i. 175) of Nidus Erythraeus.
It is remarkable that, in spite of the comparatively early dale
of this invention, sand continued generally in use, and even at the
present day continues in several countries in fairly common use
as an ink absorbent.
A study of the various water-marks has yielded some results
in tracing the different channels in which the paper trade of
different countries flowed. Experience also of the different
kinds of paper and a knowledge of the water-marks (the earliest
of which is of about the year 1282) aid the student in fixing nearly
exact periods of undated documents. European paper of the
14th century may generally be recognized by its firm texture,
its stoutness, and the large size of its wires. The water-marks
are usually simple in design; and, being the result of the impress
of thick wires, they are therefore strongly marked. In the course
of the 15th century the texture gradually becomes finer and the
water-marks more elaborate. While the old subjects of the
latter are stiU continued in use, they are more neatly outlined,
and, particularly in Italian paper, they are frequently enclosed
in circles. The practice of inserting the full name of the maker
in the water-mark came into fashion early in the i6th century.
But it is interesting to know that for a very brief period in the
14th century, from about 1307 to 1320, the practice actually
obtained at Fabriano, but was then abandoned in favour of
simple initial letters, which had already been used even in the
13th century. The date of manufacture appears first in the
water-marks of paper made in 1545. The variety of subjects
of water-marks is most extensive. Animals, birds, fishes, heads,
flowers, domestic and warUke implements, armorial bearings,
&c., are found from the earUest times. Some of these, such as
armorial bearings, and national, provincial or personal cogni-
zances, as the imperial crown, the crossed keys or the cardinal's
hat, can be attributed to particular countries or districts; and the
wide dissemination of the paper bearing these marks in different
countries serves to prove how large and international was the
paper trade in the 14th and 15th centuries.
Authorities. — G. Meerman et doctorum virorum ad eunt epistolae
atque observationes de chartae vulgaris seu lineae origine (the Hague,
1767); J. G. Schwandner, Charta linea (Vienna, 1788); G. F. Wehrs,
Vom Papier (Halle, 1789); J. G. J. Breitkopf, Ursprung der Spiel-
karten und Einfiihrung des Leinenpapieres (Leipzig, 1784-1801);
M;. Koops, Historical Account, &c. (London, 1801); Sotzmann,
" Uber die altere Papicrfabrikation," in Serapeum (Leipzig, 1846);
C. M. Briquet, " Recherches sur les premiers papiers, du x" au xiv®
siecle," in Mem. antiquaires de France, xlvi. (Paris, 1886), and Le
Papier arabe au moyen dge (Bern, 1888) ; C. Paoli, " Carta di cotone
e carta di lino," in Archivio storico italiano, ser. 4, torn. xv. (1885);
J. Karabacek, Mittheilungen aus der Sammlung der Papyrus Erzherzog
Rainer, ii.-iii. 87 (1887), iv. 117 (1897); Midoux and Matton,
Etude sur les Filigranes (Paris, 1868); C. M. Briquet, Les Filigranes:
Dictionnaire historique des marques du papier des leur apparition
vers 1282 jusqu'en 1600 (Paris, 1907), with a bibliography of work.s
on water-marks; W. Wattenbach, Das Schriftwesen im Mittelalter
(Leipzig, 1896); J. E. T. Rogers, History of Agriculture and Prices
in England (Oxford, 1866-1882). (E. M. T.)
Paper Manufacture
In the modern sense " paper " may best be described as a more
or less thin tissue composed of any fibrous material, whose
individual fibres, first separated by mechanical action, are then
deposited and felled together on wire cloth while suspended in
water (see Fibres). The main constituent in the structure of all
I)lanls is the fibre or cellulose which forms the casing or walls of
the different cells; it is the woody portion of the [)lant freed from
all foreign substances, and forms, so to speak, the skeleton of
vegetable fibre to the amount of 75 to 78%. Its forms and com-
binations are extremely varied, but it always consists of the same
chemical elements, carbon, hydrogen and o.xygen, and in the
same proportions. It is the object of the paper-maker to
ehminate the glutinous, resinous, siHceous and other intercellular
matters and to produce the fibre as pure and as strong as possible.
Linen and cotton rags, having already undergone a process of
manufacture, consist of almost pure fibres with the addition of
fatty and colouring matters which can be got rid of by simple
boiling under a low pressure of steam with a weak alkaline
solution; but the substitutes for rags, esparto, wood, straw, &c.,
being used as they come from the soil, contain all the intercellular
matter in its original form, which has to be dissolved by strong
chemical treatment under a high temperature. The vegetable
fibre or cellulose, being of a tougher and stronger nature, is
untouched by the action of caustic soda (which is the chemical
generally employed for the purpose), unless the treatment be
carried too far, whilst animal fibres or other organic matters are
rendered soluble or destroyed by it. The cellulose, after its
resolution by chemical treatment, is stiU impregnated with
insoluble colouring matters, which have to be eliminated or
destroyed by treatment with a solution of chlorine or bleaching-
powder. The object of the paper-maker in treating any one
particular fibre is to carry the action of the dissolving and bleach-
ing agents just so far as to obtain the fibre as free from impurities
and as white in colour as is desired. The usefulness of a plant
for a good white paper depends upon the strength and elasticity
of its fibres, upon the proportion of cellular tissue contained in
them, and upon the ease with which this can be freed from the
encrusting and intercellular matters. Although experiments
had previously been made with many fibrous materials, paper
was made in Europe, until the middle of the 19th century, almost
entirely from rags, either linen or cotton. At that period other
fibres began to be adopted as substitutes, due in part, no doubt,
to insuflficient supply of rags for the increasing consumption of
paper, and to the consequent rise in price. The most important
of these substitutes are esparto-grass, wood and straw, and these,
together with flax (hnen), hemp, jute and cotton rags, form the
principal raw material for the manufacture of paper.
Paper was first entirely made by hand, sheet by sheet, but in
1798 the invention of the paper machine by Louis Robert, a
clerk in the employ of Messrs Didot, of the Essonne Paper
Mills in France, gave a new impetus to the industry. The inven-
tion was introduced into England by Henry Fourdrinier (1766-
1854), the proprietor of a mill at Dartford in Kent. He secured
the assistance of Bryan Donkin (1768-1855), an engineer, and
after much toil and perseverance, attended with great expense,
for which he received no recompense, succeeded in 1803 in erect-
ing a machine at Frogmore, Herts, which worked comparatively
well. This machine, by the subsequent improvements of Dickin-
son, Causon, Crompton and others, has been brought to the state
of perfecrion in which it now stands. It embraces a multitude
of most ingenious and delicate operations, and produces in a few
minutes, and in one continuous process from the prepared pulp,
sheets of paper ready for use. Machine-made paper has now
gradually supplanted that made by hand for all except special
purposes, such as bank-note, ledger, drawing and other high-class
papers — in one word, in cases where great durability is the chief
requisite.
The various uses to which paper is put in the present day
are multitudinous, but the main classes may be grouped into
four: (i) writing and drawing papers; (2) printing and news-
papers; (3) wrapping papers; (4) tissue and cigarette papers.
The process of paper manufacture consists of two main divi-
sions: (i) the treatment of the raw material, including clean-
ing, dusting, boiling, washing, bleaching and reducing to pulp;
728
PAPER
[MANUFACTURE
(2) the methods by which the prepared pulp or fibres are converted
into paper ready for the market; this is paper-maliing proper,
and includes the operations of beating, sizing, colouring, making
the sheet or web, surfacing, cutting, &c.
Rags arrive at the mill from the rag merchants, either roughly
sorted into grades or mixed in quality and material, and the first
„ process is to free them from sand, dust and other im-
***' purities. To effect this they are usually passed in
bulk through an ordinary revolving duster. They are then sorted
into grades, and cut to a workable size about four inches square. For
the best work, hand -cutting, done by women, is still preferred, but
it is expensive and good machines have now been designed for this
purpose. After further thrashing and dusting, the rags are ready
for boiling, the object of which is not only to get rid of the dirt
still remaining in them and to remove some of the colouring matter,
but also to decompose a particular glutinous substance which would
impair the flexibility of the fibres and render chem too harsh and
stiff for readily making into paper. Various forms of vessels are
used for boiling, but usually they are made to revolve by means of
suitable gearing, and are either cylindrical or spherical (fig. l).
Fig. I. — Revolving Spherical Rag Boiler.
In these the rags are boiled with an alkaline solution under a
low steam pressure for six to tweh'e hours. The next step is that
of washing and " breaking in," which takes place in an engine
called the " breaker." This (fig. 2) is an oblong shallow vessel or
trough with rounded ends and dished bottom, usually about 13 ft.
long by 6 ft. wide, by about 2 ft. 6 in. in depth, but the size varies
greatly. It is partly divided along the centre by a partition or
" mid-feather," and furnished with a heavy cast-iron roll fitted
round its circumference with knives or bars of steel in bunches or
clumps. Underneath the roll and fixed in the bottom of the trough
is the " plate," consisting of a number of parallel steel bars bedded
in a wooden frame. The roll can be raised or lowered on the plate
so as to increase or diminish, as desired, the cutting action of the
bars and plate on the material. The duty of the roll is to cut and
tease out the rags, and also to act as a lifter to cause the stuff to
circulate round the trough. The breaker is half filled with water
and packed with the boiled rags; an ample supply of clean water is
run into the engine for washing the rags, the dirty water being
withdrawn by the " drum-washer," a hollow cylinder fitted with
buckets and covered with fine wire-cloth. During the washing
process the roll is gradually lowered on the plate to tease out the
rags into their original fibres; this operation takes from two to
four hours. As soon as all signs of the textile nature of the material
are destroyed, the washing water is turned off, the drum-washer
Ufted, and a solution of chlorine or bleach is run in to bring the pulp
up to the degree of whiteness desired, after which the rag " half-
stuff," as it is now called, is emptied into steeps or drainers, where
it is stored ready for use.
In treating esparto (the use of which for paper-making is almost
confined to Great Britain) the object is to free it from all encrusting
_ , and intercellular matter. To effect this it is digested
^P^ "• with a strong solution of caustic soda under a high
temperature, in boilers which are almost invariably stationary.
The most usual form is that known as Sinclair's patent (fig. 3).
This boiler is constructed of wrought-iron or steel plates, and holds
from 2\ to 3 tons of grass. It is charged through the opening at
the top A, and the boiled material taken out from a door B at the
side; the grass rests on a false bottom of perforated plates C, through
which the liquor drains, and by means of two " vomiting " pipes,
D, D, at the sides of the boiler, connecting the space at the bottom
with a similar space at the top, a continuous circulation of steam
and liquor is maintained through the grass. The steam pressure
is kept up to 30 to 40 lb per sq. in. for three or four hours; then
the strong liquor or lye, which contains all the resinous and inter-
cellular matters dissolved by the action of the caustic soda, is run
off and stored in tanks for subsequent recovery of the soda, while
the grass is taken to the " potcher " or washing engine. In con-
struction and working this is similar to the breaking engine used
for rags; in it the grass is reduced to pulp, and washed for about
twenty minutes to free it from the traces of soda liquor remaining
Plan
Fig. 2. — Rag-breaking Engine.
after the partial washing in the boiler. As soon as the wash water
is running clear it is shut off, and the necessar>' quantity of a solution
of bleaching powder or chlorine (averaging about 6 to 8 % on the
raw material) is run into the potcher, and the contents are heated
by steam to a temperature of about 90° F. After about four to
six hours the bleaching is complete, the drum-washer is let down,
fresh water run into the potcher, and the grass washed to free it
from all traces of chlorine, an operation generally assisted by the
use of a little antichlor or hyposulphite of soda. The esparto, as
shipped in bales from the Spanish or African fields, is mixed with
roots, weeds and other impurities; and as most of these do not
boil or bleach as rapidly as the esparto they would, if not taken
out of the pulp, show up in the finished paper as specks and spots.
To get rid of them the esparto pulp when washed and bleached is
run from the potcher into storage chests, from which it is pumped
over a long, narrow serpentine settling table or " sand-table,"
made of wood and fitted with divisions, or " weirs," behind which
the heavy impurities or weeds fall to the bottom and are caught.
The pulp is next passed over what is known as a " presse-p^te "
(fig. 4) or " half-stuff " machine, very similar to the wet end of a
paper machine, consisting of strainers fitted with coarse-cut strainer
plates, a short wire and a pair of couch and press rolls. The pulp
is drawn by suction through the strainers, which keep back the
finer impurities that have passed the sand-table, and then flows on
to the wire-cloth in the form of a thick web of pulp. After passing
through the couch and press rolls, the pulp leaves the machine
with about 70% of moisture, and is ready for the beating engine,
the first operation of paper-making proper. This is the usual
process, though various modifications are introduced in different
mills and for different purposes.
Most kinds of straw can be ultilized for making into paper, the
varieties generally used being r>'e, oat, wheat and barley; of these,
the two former are the most important, as they give straw
the largest yield in fibre. Germany and France are the
two principal users of straw, which closely resembles esparto in
its chemical constitution, and is reduced to a pulp by a somewhat
similar process.
Scantlinavia, Germany, the United States and Canada are the
countries which mainly use wood as a material for paper-making,
I
MANUFACTURE)
PAPER
729
owing to their possession of large forest areas. They also export
large quantities of wood-pulp to other countries. In Europe the
Scotch fir {Pinus sylvestris), the spruce {Picea excelsa),
Wood. jjjg poplar {Populus alba) and the aspen {Populus
tremula), are the timbers principally employed; and in America the
black spruce (Picea nigra), the hemlock (Tsuga canadensis), the poplar
{Populus grandidentata) and the aspen {Populus tremuloides). Two
kinds of wood-pulp are u.sed for paper manufacture, one prepared
mechanically and the other chemically. The former is obtained
by disintegrating the wood entirely by machinery without the use
of chemicals, and is, as may readily be understood, a very inferior
pulp. In the manufacture of chemical wood-pulp, very great
about seven or eight hours, in a similar manner to esparto and
straw, though it requires much severer treatment. The steam
pressure varies from 90 lb to as much as 150 lb |)er sq. in., and
the amount of soda required is about 16% of Na^O, estimated on
the barked and cleaned wood. The essential feature of the sulphite
process is the employment of a solution of sulphurous acid com-
liined with a certain amount of base, either magnesia or lime. As
the acid reaction of the bisulphite solution would attack any ex-
posed ironwork with which it comes in contact, the Ijoilers in all
cases should be lined with lead. The type of boiler employed
varies according to the process adopted. The principal patents
connected with the sulphite process are those of Tilghman, Ekman,
Huf Wgfar P.pt
Liquor PipA.
3 Sfeem Pipe
^ Cola Water Pipt
SECTION
ELEVATION
Waste Pipe
'^*"**t>5"4S>t(&«*l3555!^
Fig. 3. — Sinclair Esparto Boiler.
advances have been made since 1880, and wood-pulp has grown to
be one of the most important fibres for paper-making purposes.
Two methods are in use, known respectively as the soda or alkaline
process, and the sulphite or acid process, according as soda or sulphur
(or rather sulphurous acid) forms the base of the reagent employed.
Trees of medium age are usually selected, varying from seventy to
eighty years' growth and running from 8 to 12 in. in diameter.
They are felled in winter and reach the mill in logs about 4 ft.
long. After being freed from bark and the knots taken out by
machinery, the logs are cut into small cubical chips about 5 to
J in. in size by a revolving cutter. The chips are then bruised by
being passed between two heavy iron rolls to allow the boiling
solution thoroughly to penetrate them, and are conveyed to the
boilers over a screen of coarse wire-cloth, which separates out the
fine sawdu.st as well as any dirt or sand. In the soda process the
wood is boiled in large revolving or upright stationary boilers for
Francke, Ritter-Kellner, Mitscherlich, and Partington. The sub-
sequent operations, in both the acid and alkaline processes of
washing, bleaching and straining the pulp, are all very similar to
those described for esparto. Wood-pulp produced by the sulphite
process differs in a marked degree from that made by the soda
process; the fibre in the former case is harsher and stronger, and
papers made from it are characterized by their hardness and trans-
parency, whereas those made from soda pulp are softer and more
mellow, corresponding in some way to the difference between linen
and cotton fibres. Each class of pulp is largely used, both alone
and mixed with other materials.
Within recent years important modifications and improvements
have been adopted in the preparation of esparto and wood half-
stuff with a view to reduce the cost of manufacture and save waste
of material. From the boiler to the beater the process becomes a
continuous one, so that the prepared pulp requires practically no
Fig. 4. — " Presse-Pate," or Half-stuff Machine.
730
PAPER
[MANUFACTURE
handling till it is made into finished paper at the end of the machine ;
this effects a considerable saving in cost of labour and reduces the
waste of material incidental to a series of disconnected operations.
From the potcher or breaking engine the esparto or wood pulp
is discharged, by means of a patent circulator or pump, into the
first of a series of upright bleaching towers. These towers (fig. 5)
are built up of wrought-iron rods and a special kind of cement.
They are usually about 16 ft. high in the parallel by 85 ft. in
diameter; the bottom of the tower is conical and connected
to a powerful circulator or pump, which discharges the pulp into
the top of the tower and causes thereby a continuous circulation
and a thorough mi.xing of the
pulp and bleach. A specia"
Elevation
Scale of Feet
Masson, Scott and Co., Ltd.
Fig. 5. — Esparto Bleaching and
Beating Plant.
The beaters are made to hold each about ^ ...
series of four of these can make from 55 to 60 tons of paper per week.
^ form of concentrator is fixed
on the top of the first tower,
which reduces the water in
the pulp as it leaves the
potcher to the minimum
quantity necessary for per-
fect circulation in the tower;
by this means a considerable
saving is effected in the
quantity of bleach required.
.After the necessary concen-
tration of the pulp in No. i
tower, the bleaching liquor is
added and the circulator at
the foot of the tower put in
motion. A two-way valve
in the discharge pipe allows
the pulp to pass on to tower
No. 2, and so on through the
series. The circulator in
each tower is only put in
working for a short time once
in every hour and there is
never more than one circu-
lator working in the series at
onetime. There is no manual
labour in working the pro-
cess, perfect cleanliness, and
a great saving in power over
the old process. Each tower
will hold about two tons of
dry pulp. When the pulp is
fully bleached in the last
tower of the series, fresh
water is run into it, and a
second concentrator, similar
to the one on the first tower,
is put in motion and washes
out all traces of the bleach in
about 25 to 30 minutes.
These concentrators effect
also another purpose, taking
to some extent the place of
the presse-pate machine for
removing roots, weeds and
other impurities.
From the last tower and
concentrator the bleached
pulp is pumped through a line
of pipes to the beaters, valves
being fixed in the line of pipes
to discharge into whichever
beater is desired. These
beaters are constructed in
tower-form like the bleach-
ers, the roll and plate being
fixed on the top of the tower
and the circulation effected
in the same way as in the
bleachers. Fig. 5 shows plan
and elevation of such an
arrangement of beaters and
bleachers arranged in series.
500 lb of dry paper and a
Recovery,
^ immik//mm '''>>>m»'»"i'>'>'>''''^^^^^^^^^^
Fibres like jute, hemp, manila, &c., are chiefly used for the
manufacture of coarse papers where strength is of more importance
than appearance, such as wrapping-papers, paper for telegraph-
forms, &c. The boiling processes for them are similar to those
used for esparto and straw.
The alkaline liquors in which rags, esparto and other paper-
making materials had been boiled were formerly run into the
nearest water-course; but now, partly because it is
insisted upon in England by the Rivers Pollution Acts, ^"''^
and partly because the recovery of the soda can be
made remunerative, all these liquors are preserved and the soda
they contain utilized. One of the best and most economical of
the simple recovery plants is that invented by Porion, a French
distiller, and named after him. This consists of an evaporating
chamber A, on the floor of which a few inches of the liquid to be
evaporated rest. By the action of fanners B, B revolving at a
high speed and dipping into the liquid, it is thrown up in a fine
spray through which the heated gases pass to the chimney. After
being concentrated in the evaporating chamber the liquid flows
into the incinerating furnaces C,C, where the remaining water is
driven off by the heat of the fire D, and the mass afterwards ignited
to drive off the carbonaceous matter. A considerable feature in
this evaporator is Menzies and Davis's patent smell chamber E, a
chamber filled with masonry in which the strongly-smelling gases
from the incinerating furnace are allowed to remain at a red heat for
a short time. After being recovered, the soda, in the form of crude
carbonate, is lixiviated and re-causticized by boiling with milk of
lime.
Porion's method is open, however, to the objection that the
whole of the sulphur in the coal employed for the furnaces finds
its way into the recovered soda, and forms sulphur compounds,
thus reducing the value of the ash for boiling purposes; in addition,
a considerable amount of soda is volatilized during the evaporation.
By the application of the system of multiple-effect evaporation to
the recovery of waste liquors these drawbacks disappear, and an
important change has been made in the soda-recovery plant of the
paper-mill. This system of multiple-effect evaporation, originally
introduced by M. Rillieux, was perfected by the invention of Flomer
T. Varyan, of Toledo, Ohio, U.S.A. This type may here be taken
for description, though other types of evaporator are now also
employed, notably the ordinar>' vertical tube multiple effect evapor-
ator as used for concentrating sugar liquors. The Yaryan evapor-
ator was originally applied in the United States to the concentration
of the waste alkaline liquors of paper-mills; it then came into
extensive use for the manufacture and refining of sugar, the pro-
duction of glucose and a variety of other purposes. The principle
of multiple-effect evaporation is to utilize the latent heat of a vapour
given off from a liquid under a certain pressure to vaporize a further
quantity of the liquid under a pressure maintained by mechanical
means below that of the first. The essential feature which dis-
tinguishes the Yaryan evaporator consists in the boiling of the
liquor to be treated while it is passing through a series of tubes,
which constitute a coil and are heated externally by steam or vapour.
The quantity of liquor entering the coil is so controlled that it is
only permitted partially to fill the tubes, and thus leaves room for
the instantaneous liberation of the vapour and its free escape.'
As the liquor descends from tube to tube it becomes concentrated
and reduced in volume until it ultimately passes into a " separator,"
where it impinges on a plate or disk, which causes a complete
separation of the vapour and liquid ; each then passes on to the
next " effect," the liquid through the second coil of tubes and the
vapour to the chamber enclosing them. This combination of a
series of tubes, or coil, and separator constitutes a vessel or " effect,"
and the evaporator consists of a series, usually three or more, of
these vessels, one above the other (fig. 7). The vital feature, it will be
understood, is therefore that the latent
heat of the original steam, after per-
forming its function in the first effect,
is passed on to the second and then to
the third or more effects, in each of
which an equal amount of work is done
before passing to the final condenser,
where a vacuum is maintained. Thus,
if the total temperature be divided three
times, the result is a triple-effect, if
four times, a quadruple-effect. Taking
an evaporation of 10 ft of water per
pound of coal, a single-effect apparatus
will evaporate 10 ft of water, a
rn 1^ n
Fig. 6. — Porion Evaporator.
' In England, it should be stated, it
is found that both for paper liquors and
other liquors equally good evapora-
tion results are obtained and the tubes
kept cleaner by keeping them under
a head of liquor, i.e. the liquor is fed
into the bottom row of tubes and has
to ascend row by row to the top row,
from which it flows to the separator.
MANUFACTURE]
PAPER
double-effect 20 lb, a triple-effect 30 ft, and so on.' The
liquor to be concentrated is pumped from the storage tanks to
the top or first effect of the Yaryan apparatus through a series of
multiple-effect heaters, corresponding to the number of effects in
the machine, by means of which the liquor is heated to as near the
boiling point as possible of the liquor in the tubes of the first effect.
The Mirrlees Watson Co., Ltd.
Fig. 7. — The Yaryan Patent Multiple Effect Evaporator.
Live steam is introduced into the chamber surrounding the tubes
of the first effect, and from the separator of the last effect the
concentrated liquor is pumped to the incinerator.
Any form of incinerating hearth can be used in conjunction with
the multiple-effect evaporator, but one very suitable to the con-
tinuous work of, and the high degree of concentration produced
by, the Yaryan machine is that known as the Warren rotary furnace.
This consists of a revolving iron cylinder lined with brick, about
12 ft. long by 10 ft. in diameter. The lining being 6 in. thicker at
the inlet - than at the discharge, the interior of the furnace is conical
in form so that the ash gradually works forward and is eventually
discharged fully burnt into trucks for storage, or on a travelling
band, and so carried automatically to the dissolving or lixiviating
tanks. The strong liquor runs in at one end in a slow continuous
stream; by the rotation of the hearth the burning mass is carried
up the sides and drops through the flame again to the bottom,
much in the same manner as rags do in a revolving duster. In
this way all the labour required to stir the ash of the ordinary
hearth is dispensed with, and the burning materia! comes con-
tinuously in close contact with the flame, a complete and thorough
combustion being the result. The fire-bo.x is situated at the delivery-
end of the furnace, and is mounted on trucks ' so that it can be run
back when cleaning or repairing the brickwork. The waste heat
is utilized in raising steam in a steam boiler set behind the furnace,
and often in keeping the thick liquor hot after leaving the evaporator
and before entering the rotary furnace.
Paper-making proper from prepared pulp, whether of rags,
esparto, wood or other raw material, may be said to, begin with
the operation technically known as " beating " which is
' The figures given here are theoretical rather than actual. In
practice a double effect is not capable of evaporating twice as much
with I ft of coal as a single-effect, owing to loss of efficiency through
radiation, &c.
^ This was the original Warren principle, but has largely been
abandoned in favour of a parallel brick lining throughout; the ash
gradually works forward and is discharged as described.
' A later method is to build the fire-box on the descending side
of the rotary furnace, while a specially constructed door and ash
discharge shoot are provided at the ascending side, which gives
access to the inside of the furnace and provides all the other essentials
without the loss of heat which resulted from the portable fire-box,
due to leakage between the box and the rotary furnace proper.
carried out in one of the various forms of beating engine or
" Hollander." The object of the beater is to reduce the fibres
to suitable lengths and also to beat or bruise them
into a stiff pulp of sufficient consistency to absorb ** ''^'
and carry the water necessary to felt them together on the wire-
Elevation
Masson, Scott & Co.,- Ltd.
Fig. 8. — Taylor's Patent Beater.
cloth of the paper-machine. This operation is one of the most
important and most delicate processes in the manufacture,
requiring experience, skill and careful manipulation. Not
only does every class of fibre demand its own special treatment,
but this treatment has to be modified and varied in each case
to suit the qualities and substances of the papers to be made
from it.
Although there are now in use a great many forms of beating
engine, they are all, more or less, modifications of the original
Hollander, which in its essential details differs little from the
breaking engine already described. There are usually more bars
in the roll and plate than in the breaker; the bars of the plate are
set at a slight angle to the fly-bars of the roll to act as shears in a
similar manner to a pair of scissors. Bars and plates of bronze
are frequently used for the higher grades of paper to avoid rust and
dirt and to produce a softer and less violent action on the fibres.
The time required for the beating process varies from 3 to 4 hours
up to 10 and 12 and even more. Beating engines fitted with
mechanical circulation by pumps or otherwise have been extensively
adopted, more particularly for working esparto and the other
substitutes for rags. Fig. 8 shows one of these beaters, known as
the Taylor beater; the roll and plate are fixed above the trough of
the beater, which has no partition or mid-feather, and from the
lower end a powerful circulator or pump circulates the pulp through
the beater and discharges it through a pipe in a continuous stream
in front of the roll. In the pipe is fixed a two-way vahe, so that
when the beating operation is complete the finished pulp can be
run into the stuff-chests of the paper machine. The advantages
of this form of beater are that a quicker and more thorough cir-
culation of the pulp takes place than when the roll has to do the
double duty of making the pulp travel and beating it up at the
same time, and thus tends to reduce the time of the operation.
Also more bars can be fixed in the roll, increasing its effect on the
pulp, and less power is retiuired than when the roll revolves in the
middle of the stuff as in the ordinary form of beater.
Beating engines of quite a different construction are now largely
used in American mills, and also to some extent in Great Britain,
These are known as " refiners," and the most important forms are
the Jordan and Kingsland beaters (so called from the names of
the inventors), or modifications of them.
The first (fig. 9) consists of a conical plug or roll fixed on a shaft
and revolving at a high rate of speed within an outer casing of
corresponding shape; both the plug and the casing are furnished
with steel bars parallel with the shaft, but set at slightly different
angles, taking the place of the bars in the roll and plate of the
ordinapv' beater. This conical plug or roll can be moved in either
direction parallel to its axis and by this means the cutting action
732
PAPER
[MANUFACTURE
of the two sets of bars can be increased or reduced. The pulp
flows into the top of the beater at tne smaller end of the cone
through a box provided with an arrangement for regulating the
flow and passes out through an opening in the casing at the other
end. The roll or plug revolves at from 350 to 400 revolutions
per minute, and requires a power to drive it of from 25 to 40 h.p.,
Inftoyr
Fig. 9. — Jordan Beater.
according to the work to be done, and one engine is capable of
passing as much as 1000 lb weight of dry pulp per hour. The
Kingsland ^beater consists of a circular box or casing, on both
inside faces of which are fixed a number of knives or bars of steel
or bronze ; inside the case is a revolving disk of metal fitted on both
sides with corresponding and similar bars. The contact between
the revolving and stationary bars can be regulated, as in the Jordan
engine, to give the required amount of beating action on the pulp.
The refiner is essentially a finishing process as an adjunct to the
beating process proper. The advantages to be derived from its
use are a considerable saving in the time occupied in beating and
the production of a more uniform and evenly divided pulp, par-
ticularly where a mixture of different fibres is used. By the use
of the refiner the time occupied in the beater can be reduced by
nearly one-half, the half-beaten pulp passing through the refiner
from the beater on its way to the paper-machine. It is not, however,
generally employed for the best kinds of paper.
During the operation of beating various materials and chemicals
are added to the pulp for the purposes of sizing, loading, colouring,
&c. Papers for writing and most of those for printing purposes
must be rendered non-absorbent of ink or other liquid applied to
them. To effect this some form of animal or vegetable size or
glue must be applied to the paper, either as a coating on the finished
web or sheet, or mixed with the pulp in the beating engine. The
former, called "tub-sizing" will be described later; the latter
which is known as " engine-sizing " consists in filling up the inter-
stices of the fibres with a chemical precipitate of finely-divided
resin, which, when dried and heated on the cylinders of the paper-
machine, possesses the property of being with difficulty wetted
with water. Except in the very best qualities of paper, it is usual
to add to the pulp a certain quantity of cheap loading material,
such as china-clay or kaolin, or pearl-hardening, a chemically
precipitated form of sulphate of lime. The addition of such loading
material to a moderate extent, say 10 to 15 "o, is not entirely in
the nature of an adulterant, as it serves to close up the pores of
the paper, and for ordinary writing, printing and lithographic
papers renders the material softer, enabling it to take a much better
and more even surface or glaze. But if added in excess it is detri-
mental to the strength and hardness of the sheet. Most materials,
however well bleached, have a more or less yellowish tinge; to
produce the desired white shade in the paper certain quantities of
red and blue in the form of pigments or dyes must be added to the
pulp. The blues usually employed are ultramarine, smalts and
the aniline blues, while the red dyes are generally preparations of
either cochineal or the aniline dyes. Other colours are required
in the manufacture of papers of different tints, and with one or
two exceptions they must be mixed with the pulp in the beater.
There are two distinct processes of producing the finished
paper from the pulp, known respectively as " hand-made "
Paper and " machine-made." The expense of manu-
Machlne. facture of hand-made paper and the consequent
high price render it too costly for ordinary use; the entire process
on the machine occupies a few minutes, while in the ordinary
state of the weather it could not be done by hand in less than a
week.
A brief description of the hand-made process will suffice and
it .'will at the same time facilitate the right comprehension of
the machine process. Only the finest qualities of rags are used
for hand-made paper; and the preparation of the half-stuff is
the same as that already described under treatment of rags.
The pulp after being prepared in the beating engine is run into
Paper-maker
Fig. 10.
large chests from which the vat is supplied; before reaching this
it is strained as on the paper-machine (see below). The sheet
of paper is made on a mould of fine wire-cloth with a removable
frame of wood to keep the pulp from running off, extending
slightly above the surface of the mould, called the " deckel."
To form the sheet, the paper-maker dips the mould into a vat
(see fig. 10) containing the prepared pulp, lifting up just so much
as will make a sheet of the required thickness; as soon as the
Fig. II. — Mould and Deckel fur hand-made paper.
mould is removed from the vat, the water begins to drain
through the wire-cloth and to leave the fibres on the surface
in the form of a coherent sheet, the felting or intertwining being
assisted by a lateral motion or " shake " given to the mould
by the workman; the movable deckel is then taken off, and the
mould is given to another workman, called the " coucher,"
who turns it over and presses it against a felt, by this means
transferring or " couching " the sheet from the wire to the felt.
A number of the sheets thus formed are piled one above another
alternately with pieces of felt, and the whole is subjected to
strong pressure to expel the water; the felts are then removed
and the sheets are again pressed and dried, when they are ready
for sizing. Any pattern or name required in the sheet is obtained
by making the wire-cloth mould in such a way that it is slightly
raised in those parts where the pattern is needed (fig. 11);
consequently less pulp lodges there and the paper is proportion-
ately thinner, thus showing the exact counterpart of the pattern
on the mould; such are known as " watermarks." The expense
of manufacturing paper in this way is very much greater than
by machinery; but the gain in strength, partly owing to the time
allowed to the fibres to knit together, and partly to the free
expansion and contraction permitted them in drying, still
maintains a steady demand for this class of paper.
The paper-machine (fig. 12) consists essentially of an endless
mould of fine wire-cloth on which the pulp flows and on which a
continuous sheet of paper is formed; the sheet then passes through
a series of press rolls and over a number of steam-heated cylinders
until it is dry. From the beating engines, the pulp is emptied
MANUFACTURE]
PAPER
733
into storage tanks or stuff-chests, fitted with revolving arms or
agitators; from these the pulp is pumped into a long upright supply
box at a higher level, called the stuff box, which communicates
with the sand trap or table by means of a regulating valve. With
the pulp a certain amount of water is allowed to flow on to the
sand trap so as to dilute it sufficiently to form on the wire-cloth of
face of a rapidly-revolving disk driven by a pair of speed-cones,
so that the speed of the shake can be altered. The object of this
shake is to interlace the fibres together, but it also assists in keeping
the water from passing through the wire too rapidly before the paper
has been properly formed. Most machines have two suction-
boxes with the " dandy-roll " revolving between them on the top
WET END a i'*
Fig. 12. — Paper-Making Machine.
the paper-machine. The sand trap consists of an elevated table
in which is sunk a shallow serpentine channel lined on the bottom
with rough felt and divided throughout its length by a number of
small strips of wood, behind which the impurities collect as the
pulp flows over them on its way to the strainers.
The strainers are made of plates of brass or some hard and durable
composition with fine parallel slits cut in them, through which the
„ . fibres pass, all knots and improperly divided portions
ra a ng. remaining behind; the pulp is made to pass through
them by the rapid vibration of the plates themselves or by a strong
suction underneath them, or sometimes by a combination of the
two. From the strainers the pulp flows into a long wooden box
or trough, of the same width as the paper machine, called the
" breast-box," and thence on to the wire-cloth. The wire consists
of a continuous woven brass cloth, supported horizontally by
small brass rolls, called " tube-rolls," carried on a
thSh^t f""^™^' '"^ '^ usually 40 to 50 ft. long and is stretched
* tight over two rolls, one at each end of the frame,
called respectively the " breast-roll " and the " lower-couch roll."
The ordinary gauge for the wire-cloth is 66 meshes to the inch for
writings and printings; finer wires are sometimes used, however,
up to 80 to the inch; for lower grades the mesh is coarser. The
water, mixed with the pulp, flows from the wire-cloth by gravitation
along the lines of contact between it and the tube-rolls; this water,
which contains a considerable percentage of fibre, especially from
finely beaten pulps, drops into a flat copper or wooden tray, from
which it flows into a tank and is pumped up with the water for
diluting the pulp so that none of it shall be wasted. From the
tube-rolls the wire conveys the pulp over a pair of suction-boxes
for extracting the remaining water from the web. The width of
the web of paper is determined by two continuous straps of vulcan-
ized rubber about i\ in. square, one on each side of the wire, called
the "deckel-straps"; the distance between these straps can be
increased or diminished ; they serve to guide the pulp from the
Fig. 13. — Dandy-roll.
moment it spreads on the wire until it arrives at the first suction-
box, where the web is sufficiently dry to retain its edges. The
Shake frame of the machine from the breast-roll to the first
suction-box is hung on a pair of strong hinges, and is
capable of a slight horizontal motion imparted by a horizontal
connecting-rod, one end of which is eccentrically keyed on to the
Water-
marking
and
Couching,
of the pulp (so called because it can be made to give to the paper
any desired water-marking). The " dandy-roll " (fig. 13) is a light
skeleton cylinder covered with wire-cloth on which small
pieces of wire are soldered representing the watermark
to be reproduced in the paper. From the last suction-
box the half-dried sheet of pulp passes between the
" couch-rolls," so called from the corresponding operation
of couching in hand-made paper, which, by pressing out most of the
remaining moisture, impart sufficient consistency to the paper to
enable it to leave the wire; both rolls are covered with a felt jacket,
and the top one is provided with levers and weights to increase or
diminish the pressure on the web. The paper is now fully
formed, and is next carried by means of endless felts '^^^^'"^
between two and sometimes three pairs of press-rolls "°''^'''"'^"
to extract the remaining moisture, and to obliterate as much as
possible the impression of the wire-cloth from the under-side of
the web. The web of paper is finally dried by passing it over a
scries of hollow steam-heated drying cylinders driven one from the
other by gearing. The slower and more gradual the dryip^ process
the better, as the change on the fibres of the web due to "the rapid
contraction in drying is thereby not so excessive, and the heat
required at one time is not so great nor so likely to damage the
quality of the paper; the heating surface should therefore be as
large as possible, and a great number of cylinders is required now
that the machines are driven at high speeds. The cylinders are
so placed that both surfaces of the web are alternately in contact
with the heating surface. All the cylinders, except the first two or
three with which the moist paper comes in contact and where the
greatest evaporation occurs, are encased by continuous travelling
felts. The drying cylinders are generally divided into two sets
between which is placed a pair of highly polished chilled iron rolls
heated by steam, called " nip-rolls," or " smoothers," the purpose
of which is to flatten or smooth the surface of the paper while in
a partially dry condition. Before being reeled up at the end of
the machine the web of paper is passed through two
or more sets of " calenders," according to the degree ^"'^"^'"Z-
of surface or smoothness required. These calenders consist of a
vertical sack of chilled iron rolls, generally five in number, revolving
one upon another, and one or more of which are bored and heated
by steam ; pressure can be applied to the stack as required by
means of levers and screws. The web of paper is now wound up
in long reels at the end of the machine.
Paper-machines are now usually driven by two separate steam
engines. The first.'running at a constant speed, drives the strainers,
pumps, shake motion, &c., while the second, working the paper-
machine, varies in speed according to the rate at which it requires
734
PAPER
[MANUFACTURE
to be driven. The power consumed by the two engines will average
from 40 to 100 h.p. The drying cylinders of the paper-machine
form a convenient and economical condenser for the two steam-
engines, and it is customary to exhaust the driving engine into the
drying cylinders and utilize the latent heat in the steam for drying
the paper, supplementing the supply when necessary with live
steam. The speed of the machine has frequently to be altered
while in motion. An alteration of a few feet per minute can be
effected by changing the driving-speed of the steam-engine governor;
for a greater change the machine must be stopped and other driving-
wheels substituted. Arrangements are made in the driving-gear
by which the various parts of the machine can be slightly altered
in speed relatively to one another, to allow for the varying con-
traction or expansion of the paper web for different kinds and
thicknesses of paper. The average speed of a paper-machine on
fine writing-papers of medium weight is from 60 to 90 ft. per minute,
but for printing-papers, newspapers, &c., the machine is driven
from 120 up to as much as 300 and 400 ft. per minute. The width
of machines varies greatly in different mills, from about 60 in. to
as much as 150 in. wide. Mills running on higher classes of papers
as a rule use narrow machines, as these make a closer and more
even sheet of paper than wider ones. On fine writing-papers an
average machine will make from 20 to 40 tons per week, while for
common printing and newspapers the weekly output will amount
to 50 to 70 tons.
All hand-made papers, and many of the best classes of machine-
made papers, instead of being sized in the beater with a preparation
of resin are what is called " tub-sized," that is, coated
Tub-slzlag. \yjfh a solution of gelatin. Such papers, when machine-
made, are reeled off the machine straight from the drying cylinders
in the rough state. The web is then led slowly through a tub or
vat containing a heated solution of animal glue or gelatin mixed
with a certain amount of alum; after passing through a pair of
brass rolls to squeeze out the superfluous size, the web is reeled up
again and allowed to remain for some time for the size to set. The
paper is then led by means of continuous travelling tapes over a
long series of open skeleton drums, about 4 ft. in diameter, inside
J. Milne & Son, Ltd.
Fig. 14. — Super-calender.
The bottom roll and the 3rd, 6th, 8th and loth rolls, all reckoned
from the bottom, are made of highly polished chilled cast-iron;
the others of highly compressed paper.
which revolve fans for creating a circulation of hot air; rows of
steam-pipes underneath the line of drums furnish the heat for
dr>'ing. Slow and gradual drj'ing is essential to this process to
fet the full benefit of the sizing properties of the gelatin. In
and-made papers, the sheets are passed by handfuls of three or
five on an endless felt through the gelatin solution and between
a pair of rolls, and then slowly dried on rope lines or " tribbles "
in a steam-heated and well-ventilated loft. ' '
The cheaper kinds of paper are glazed on the paper-machine in
the calenders as before described. For the better class or very
highly-glazed papers and those that are tub-sized, a _. .
subsequent glaring process is required; this is effected ^^j^"^*""
by sheet or plate-glazing and by super-calendering or ^"""■"'S-
web-glazing. The plate-glazing process is adopted mainly for the
best grades of writing-papers, as it gives a smoother, higher and
more permanent gloss than has yet been imitated by the roll-calender.
In this method each sheet is placed by hand between two zinc or
copper plates until a pile of sheets and plates has been formed
sufficient to make a handful for passing tlirough the glazing-rolls;
this handful of about two quires or 48 sheets of paper, is then
passed backwards and forwards between two chilled-iron rolls
gearing together. A considerable pressure can be brought to bear
upon the top roll by levers and weights, or by a pair of screws; the
pressure on the rolls, and the number of times the handful is passed
through, are varied according to the amount of gloss required on
the paper. The super-calender (see fig. 14) is used to imitate the
plate-glazed surface, partly as a matter of economy in cost, but
principally for the high surfaces required on papers for books and
periodicals to show up wood-cuts and photographic illustrations.
It usually consists of a stack of chilled cast-iron rolls, alternating
with rolls of compressed cotton or paper so that the web at each
nip is between cotton and iron; it will be seen from the illustration
that there are two cotton rolls together in the stack for the purpose
of reversing the action on the paper and so making both sides alike;
pressure is applied to the rolls at the top by compound levers and
weights or screws. A very high surface can be quickly given to
paper by friction with the assistance of heat; the process is known
as " burnishing," and is used mostly for envelope papers and
wrappings where one surface only of the web is required to be
glazed. It is produced by the friction of a chilled-iron roll on one
of cotton or paper, the ratio of the revolutions being as 4 to 5;
steam is admitted to the burnishing iron roll.
At the end of the 19th centurj' a large and increasing demand
sprang up for papers embossed with a special pattern, such as
linen-finish, &c.; these are used principally for fancy writing-
papers, programmes, menu-cards, &c. This embossing is effected
usually on the plate-glazing machine, in the case of linen and
similar finishes by enclosing each sheet of paper between two
pieces of linen or other suitable material to give the desired texture
or pattern on the surface of the sheet. Each sheet of paper with
its two pieces of cloth is placed between zinc plates and passed
backwards and forwards between the rolls of the machine as in
plate-glazing.
Except for special purposes, such for example as for use in a
continuous printing-machine, paper is usually sent from the mill
in the form of sheets. A number of reels of paper is „
hung on spindles between two upright frames to feed " ^'
the cutting-machine (see fig. 15); the various webs of paper are
drawn forward together through two small rollers, and ripped into
widths of the required size by means of a number of pairs of circular
knives or " slitters " ; they then pass between another pair of rollers,
and over a long dead-knife fixed across the cutting-machine, on
which they are cut into sheets by another transverse knife fastened
to a revolving drum and acting with the dead-knife like a large
pair of shears. The cut sheets then fall upon an endless travelling
felt, from which they are stacked in piles by boys. It is often
necessary, as in the case of water-marked papers, that the sheets
should be cut with great exactness so that the designs shall appear
James Bertram & Son, Ltd.
Fig. 15. — Reel Paper Cutter.
in the centre of the sheet; the ordinary cutter cannot be relied
upon for this purpose and in its place a machine called a " single-
sheet cutter " is used. In this cutter only one web of paper is cut
at a time; between the circular slitters and the transverse knives
is placed a measuring-drum, which receives an oscillating motion
and can be adjusted by suitable mechanism to draw the exact
amount of paper forward for the length of sheet required.
All that now remains to be done before the paper is ready for
the market is overhauling or sheeting. This operation consists in
sorting out all speckled, spotted or damaged sheets, or sheets of
INDIA PAPER]
POH«F//^ PAPER
735
different shades of colour, &c. ; this entails considerable time and
expense as each sheet has to be passed in review separately.
„ This sorting is usually performed by women. Papers arc
** HW. ^g ^ j.ujg sorted into three different qualities, known in
the trade respectively as " perfect," " retree " and " broke "; the
best of the defective sheets form the second quality " retree," a
term derived from the French word retirer (to draw out), and are
sold at a reduced price; sheets that are torn or damaged or too
badly marked to pass for the third quality " broke," are returned
to the mill to be repulped as waste paper.
Paper is sold in sheets of different sizes and is made up
into reams containing from 480 to 516 sheets; these sizes
Sizes of correspond to different trade names, such for example
Paper. as foolscap, post, demy, royal, &c.; the following
are the ordinary sizes: —
Writing Papers.
Drawing and Book Papers.
Printing Papers.
Inches.
Inches.
Inches.
Pott
12- X 15
Demy.
155 X 20
Demy .
17I X 22i
Foolscap
13 X 161
Medium .
17J X 22i
Double demy
22i X 35
Double foolscap
16- X 26I
Royal . . .
19 X 24
Quad demy
35 X 45
Foolscap and third .
i3i X 22
Super-royal .
19J X 27
Double foolscap
17 X27
Foolscap and half .
13- X 24I
Imperial
22 X 30
Royal . . .
20 X 25
Pinched post .
14- X 181
Elephant
23 X28
Double royal
25 X 40
Small post .
'5-X 19
Double elephant .
26i X 40
Double crown .
20 X 30
Large post .
16- X 21
Colombier
23^ X 34*
Quad crown
30 X 40
Double large post .
21 X33
Atlas
26 X34
Imperial
22 X 30
Medium.
18 X 23
Antiquarian
31 X 53
With the enormously increased production of paper and the
great reduction in price within recent years, it has been found
that the " science " of paper-making has scarcely
ofOuaiity. advanced with the same rapid strides as the art
itself. Although a sheet of paper made to-day differs
little as a fabric from the papers of earlier epochs, the introduc-
tion of new and cheaper forms of vegetable fibres and the
auxiliary methods of treating them have caused a great change
in the quality, strength and lasting power of the manufactured
article. The undue introduction of excessive quantities of
mechanical or ground wood-pulp in the period 18 70- 1880 into
the cheaper qualities of printing-papers, particularly in Germany,
first drew attention to this matter, since it was noticed that
books printed on paper in which much of this material had been
used soon began to discolour and turn brown where exposed
to the air or light, and after a time the paper became brittle.
This important question began to be scientifically investigated
in Germany about the year 1885 by the Imperial Testing
Institution in Berlin. A scheme of testing papers has been
formulated and officially adopted by which the chemical and
physical properties of different papers are compared and brought
to numerical expression. The result of these investigations has
been the fixing of certain standards of quality for papers intended
for different purposes. These qualities are grouped and defined
under such heads as the following: —
Strength, expressed in terms of the weight or strain which the
paper will support.
Elasticity and texture, measured by elongation under strain and
resistance to crumpling or rubbing.
Stilk, expressed in the precise terms of specific gravity or weight
per unit of volume.
-Article.
Paper, unprinted .
Paper, printed
Straw- and millboards
Rags, linen and cotton ...
Esparto and other vegetable fibres
Wood-pulp^
Chemical
Mechanical
Imports
Weight.
Tons.
268,036
11,494
164,381
443.91 1
20,039
202,523
282,098
192,756
697,416
Value.
I
3.917-954
621,293
1. 134.568
.5.673.815
206,151
738.834
2,396,856
915.491
4.257.332
Of not less importance are the qualities which belong to paper
as a chemical substance or mixture, which are: (i) its actual
composition; (2) the liability to change under whatever con-
ditions of storage and use it may be subjected to. For all
papers to be used for any permanent purpose these physical
and chemical qualities must ultimately rank as regulating the
consumption and production of papers.
In England and Wales in 1907 there were 207 mills, using 409
machines and 99 vats for hand-made paper; in Scotland, 59 mills
and III machines; in Ireland, 7 mills and 11 machines. A rough
estimate of the amount of capital embarked in the industry may be
formed on the basis that average mills would represent from £20,000
to ;f30,ooo and upwards per machine.
The table at foot of page shows the amounts and values of the
British imports and exports of paper
and paper-making materials in 1907.
Authorities. — Arnot, " Technology
of the Paper-trade," Cantor Lectures,
Society of Arts (London, 1877); Clapper-
ton, Practical Paper-Making (London,
1894); Cross and Bevan, Report on
Indian Fibres and Fibrous Substances
(London, 1887); id.. Cellulose (London,
1895-1905) ; id., A Text-Book of Paper-
Making (London, 1888) ; Clayton Beadle,
Chapters on Paper-Making (London);
Davis, The Manufacture of Paper (Phila-
delphia, 1886); Dropisciri, Die Papier
Machine (Brunswick, 1878); id., Papier-
fabrikation (with atlas) (Weimar, 1881); Griffin and Little, The
Chemistry of Paper-making (New York, 1894); Herzberg, Papier-
priifung (Berlin, 1888; Eng. trans, by P. N. Evans, London);
id., Mikroskopische Untersuchung des Papiers (Berlin, 1887); Hof-
mann, Handbuch der Papier-fabrikalion (Berlin, 1897); Hoyer,
Fabrikation des Papiers (Brunswick, 1886); Indian government.
Report on the Manufacture of Paper and Paper Pvlp in Burmah
(London, 1906); Schubert, Die Cellulose-fabrikation (Berlin, 1897);
id.. Die Praxis der Papierfabrikation (Berlin, 1898); id.. Die IIolz-
stoff-oder Hohschlijf-fabrikation (Berlin, 1898); Sindall, Paper
Technology (London, 1904-1905); "Report of the Committee on
the Deterioration of Paper," Society of Arts (London, 1898);
Wyatt, " Paper-making," Proc. Inst. C. E., Ixxix. (London, 1885);
id., " Sizing Paper with Rosin," Proc. Inst. C.E., ,\ci. (London,
1887); Paper-Makers' Monthly Journal (London, since 1872); Paper-
Trade Journal (New York, since 1872); Papier-Zeitung (Berlin,
since 1876). (J. W. W.)
India Paper. — This name is given to a very thin and light
but tough and opaque kind of paper, sometimes used for
printing books — especially Bibles — of which it is desirable to
reduce the bulk and weight as far as possible without impairing
their durability or diminishing their type. The name was
originally given in England, about the middle of the i8th centurj',
to a soft absorbent paper of a pale buff shade, imported from
China, where it was made by hand on a paper-making frame
generally similar to that used in Europe. The name probably
originated in the prevailing tendency, down to the end of the
i8th century, to describe as " Indian " anything which came
from the Far East (cf. Indian ink). This so-called India paper
was used for printing the earliest and finest impressions of
engravings, hence known as " India proofs."
The name of India paper is now chiefly associated with
European (especially British) machine-made, thin, opaque
printing papers used in the highest class
of book-printing. In 1841 an Oxford
graduate brought home from the Far
East a small quantity of extremely thin
paper, which was manifestly more opaque
and tough, for its weight, than any paper
then made in Europe. He presented it
to the Oxford University Press, and in
1842 Thomas Combe, printer to the
University, used it for 24 copies of the
smallest Bible then in existence — Dia-
mond 24mo. These books were scarcely
a third of the usual thickness, and were
regarded with great interest; one was
presented to Queen Victoria, and the
rest to other persons. Combe tried
E.xports.
Weight,
Tons.
87.055
122,909
(including other
paper making
materials.)
Value.
£
2,342,420
752,739
736
PAPHLAGONIA— PAPHOS
in vain to trace the source of this paper. In 1874 a copy
of this Bible fell into the hands of Henry Frowde, and experi-
ments were instituted at the Oxford University paper-miLls
at Wolvercote with the object of producing similar paper.
On the 24th of August 1875 an impression of the Bible, similar
in aU respects to that of 1842, was placed on sale by the Oxford
University Press. The feat of compression was regarded as
astounding, the demand was enormous, and in a very short
time 250,000 copies of this " Oxford India paper Bible " had
been sold. Many other editions of the Bible, besides other books,
were printed on the Oxford India paper, and the marvels of
compression accomphshed by its use created great interest at
the Paris Exhibition of 1900. Its strength was as remarkable
as its lightness; volumes of 1500 pages were suspended for several
months by a single leaf, as thin as tissue, and when they were
examined at the close of the exhibition, it was found that the
leaf had not started, the paper had not stretched, and the
volume closed as well as ever. The paper, when subjected
to severe rubbing, instead of breaking into holes like ordinary
printing paper, assumed a texture resembling chamois leather,
and a strip 3 in. wide was found able to support a weight of
28 lb without yielding.
The success of the Oxford India paper led to similar experiments
by other manufacturers, and there were in 1910 nine mills (two each in
England, Germany and I taly,oneeach in France, Holland and Belgium)
in which India paper was being produced. India paper is mostly
made upon a Fourdrinier machine in continuous lengths, in contra-
distinction to a hand-made paper, which cannot be made of a greater
size than the frame employed in its production. The material
used in its manufacture is chiefly rag, with entire freedom from
mechanical wood pulp. The opacity of modern India paper, so
remarkable in view of the thinness of the sheet, is mainly due to the
admixture of a large proportion of mineral matter which is retained
by the fibres. The extraordinary' properties of this paper are due,
not to the use of special ingredients, but to the peculiar care neces-
sary in the treatment of the fibres, which are specially " beaten " in
the beating engine, so as to give strength to the paper, and a capacity
for retaining a large percentage of mineral matter. The advantage
gained by the use of India paper is the diminution of the weight and
bulk of a volume — usually to about one-third of those involved by
the use of good ordinary printing paper — without any alteration
in the size and legibility of its type and without any loss of opacity,
which is an absolute necessity in all papers used for high-class book
printing to prevent the type showing through. (W. E. G. F.)
PAPHLAGONIA, an ancient district of Asia Minor, situated
on the Euxine Sea between Bithynia and Pontus, separated from
Galatia by a prolongation to the east of the Bithynian Olympus.
According to Strabo, the river Parthenius formed the western
limit of the region, which was bounded on the east by the Halys.
Although the Paphlagonians play scarcely any part in history,
they were one of the most ancient nations of Asia Minor {Iliad,
ii. 851). They are mentioned by Herodotus among the races
conquered by Croesus, and they sent an important contingent
to the army of Xer.xes in 480 B.C. Xenophon speaks of them
as being governed by a prince of their own, without any reference
to the neighbouring satraps, a freedom due, perhaps, to the
nature of the country, with its lofty mountain ranges and
difficult passes. At a later period Paphlagonia passed under
the Macedonian kings, and after the death of Alexander the
Great it was assigned, together with Cappadocia and Mysia
to Eumenes. It continued, however, to be governed by native
princes until it was absorbed by the encroaching power of Pontus.
The rulers of that dynasty became masters of the greater part
of Paphlagonia as early as the reign of Mithradates III. (302-
266 B.C.), but it was not till that of Pharnaces I. that Sinope
fell into their hands (183 B.C.). From this time the whole
province was incorporated with the kingdom of Pontus until
the faU of the great Mithradates (65 b.c). Pompey united
the coast districts of Paphlagonia with the province of Bithynia,
but left the interior of the country under the native princes,
until the dynasty became extinct and the whole country was
incorporated in the Roman empire. AU these rulers appear
to have borne the name of Pylaemenes, as a token that they
claimed descent from the chieftain of that name who figures
in the Iliad as leader of the Paphlagonians. Under the Roman
Empire Paphlagonia, with the greater part of Pontus, was united
into one province with Bithynia, as we find to have been the
case in the time of the younger Pliny; but the name was still
retained by geographers, though its boundaries are not distinctly
defined by Ptolemy. It reappears as a separate province in
the 5th century (Hierocles, Synecd. c. ss)-
The ethnic relations of the Paphlagonians are very uncertain.
It seems perhaps most probable that they belonged to the same
race as the Cappadocians, who held the adjoining province of
Pontus, and were undoubtedly a Semitic race. Their language,
however, would appear from Strabo to have been distinct.
Equally obscure is the relation between the Paphlagonians
and the Eneti or Heneti (mentioned in connexion with them
in the Homeric catalogue) who were supposed in antiquity to
be the ancestors of the Veneti, who dwelt at the head of the
Adriatic. But no trace is found in historical times of any tribe
of that name in Asia Minor.
The greater part of Paphlagonia is a rugged moimtainous
country, but it contains fertile valleys, and produces great
abundance of fruit. The mountains are clothed with dense
forests, which are conspicuous for the quantity of boxwood
which they furnish. Hence its coasts were from an early period
occupied by Greek colonies, among which the flourishing city of
Sinope, founded from Miletus about 630 B.C., stood pre-eminent.
Amastris, a few miles east of the Parthenius, became important
under the Macedonian monarchs; while Amisus, a colony of
Sinope, situated a short distance east of the Halys, and therefore
not strictly in Paphlagonia as defined by Strabo, rose to be almost
a rival of its parent city. The most considerable towns of the
interior were Gangra, in ancient times the capital of the Paphla-
gonian kings, afterwards called Germanicopolis, situated near the
frontier of Galatia, and Pompeiopolis, in the valley of the Amnlas
(a tributary of the Halys), near which were extensive mines
of the mineral called by Strabo sandarake (red arsenic),
which was largely exported from Sinope.
See Hommaire de Hell, Voyage en Turquie (Paris, 1854-1860);
W. J. Hamilton, Researches (London, 1842); W. M. Ramsay, Hist.
Geog. of Asia Minor (London, 1890).
PAPHOS, an ancient city and sanctuary on the west coast
of Cyprus. The sanctuary and older town (Palaepaphos) lie at
Kouklia, about 20 m. west of Limasol, about a mile inland on
the left bank of the Diorizo River (anc. Bocarus), the mouth of
which formed its harbour. New Paphos (Papho or Baffo),
which had already superseded Old Paphos in Roman times,
lies 10 m. farther west, and i m. south of modern Ktima, at
the other end of a fertile coast-plain. Paphos was believed to
have been founded either by the Arcadian Agapenor, returning
from the Trojan War (c. 1180 B.C.), or by his reputed contem-
porary Cinyras, whose clan retained royal privileges down to
the Ptolemaic conquest of Cyprus in 295 B.C., and held the
Paphian priesthood tiU the Roman occupation in 58 B.C. The
town certainly dates back to the close of the Mycenaean Bronze
age, and had a king Eteandros among the allies of Assur-bani-pal
of Assyria in 668 B.C.' A later king of the same name is
commemorated by two inscribed bracelets of gold now in
the Metropolitan Museum of New York. In Hellenic times
the kingdom of Paphos was only second to Salamis in extent
and influence, and bordered on those of Soli and Curium.
Paphos owes its ancient fame to the cult of the " Paphian
goddess" (17 na^ioFai'oiTiTa.or 17 Ylacpia, in inscriptions, or simply
17 dea), a nature-worship of the same type as the cults of Phoeni-
cian Astarte, maintained by a college of orgiastic ministers, prac-
tising sensual excess and self-mutilation.^ The Greeks identified
both this and a similar cult at Ascalon with their own worship
of Aphrodite,^ and localized at Paphos the legend of her birth
from the sea foam, which is in fact accumulated here, on certain
winds, in masses more than a foot deep.^ Her grave also was
' E. Schradcr, Abh. k. Preuss. Ak. Wiss. (1879), pp. 31-36;
Sitzb. k. Preuss. Ak. Wiss. (1890), pp. 337-344.
^ Athan. c. graecos, 10. On all these cults see J. G. Frazer, Adonis,
Atlis, Osiris (London, 1906).
2 Herod, i. 105; see further Astarte, Aphrodite.
* Oberhummcr, Die Insel Cypern (Munich, 1903), pp. 108-110.
PAPIAS— PAPIER MACHE
737
shown in this city. She was worshipped, under the form of
a conical stone, in an open-air sanctuary of the usual Cypriote
type (not unlike those of Mycenaean Greece), the general form
of which is known from representations on late gems, and on
Roman imperial coins;' its ground plan was discovered by
excavations in 1888.^ It suffered repeatedly from earthquakes,
and was rebuilt more than once; in Roman times it consisted
of an open court, irregularly quadrangular, with porticos and
chambers on three sides, and a gateway through them on the
east. The position of the sacred stone, and the interpretation
of many details shown on the gems and coins, remain uncertain.
South of the main court lie the remains of what may be either
an earlier temple, or the traditional tomb of Cinyras, almost
wholly destroyed except its west wall of gigantic stone slabs.
After the foundation of New Paphos and the extinction of
the Cinyrad and Ptolemaic dynasties, the importance of the
Old Town declined rapidly. Though restored by Augustus
and renamed Sebaste, after the great earthquake of 15 B.C.,
and visited in state by Titus before his Jewish War in 79 B.C.,
it was ruinous and desolate by Jerome's time^; but the prestige
of its priest-kings partly lingers in the exceptional privileges
of the patriarch of the Cypriote Church (see Cyprus, Church of).
New Paphos became the administrative capital of the whole
island in Ptolemaic and Roman days, as well as the head of one
of the four Roman districts; it was also a flourishing commercial
city in the time of Strabo, and famous for its oU, and for
" diamonds " of medicinal power. There was a festal procession
thence annually to the ancient temple. In a.d. 960 it was
attacked and destroyed by the Saracens. The site shows a
Roman theatre, amphitheatre, temple and other ruins, with
part of the city wall, and the moles of the Roman harbour, with
a ruined Greek cathedral and other medieval buildings. Outside
the walls lies another columnar building. Some rock tombs
hard by may be of earlier than Roman date.
See W. H. Engel, Kypros (Berlin, 1841) (classical allusions); M. R.
James and others, Journ. Hellenic Studies, ix. 147 sqq. (history and
archaeology); G. F. Hill, Brit. Mus. Cat. Coins of Cyprus (London,
1904) (coins); art. "Aphrodite" in Roschef's Lexicon der gr. u.
rom. Mythologie; also works cited in footnotes, and article Cyprus.
(J. L. M.)
PAPIAS, of Hierapolis in Phrygia, one of the " Apostolic
Fathers " (q.v.). His Exposition of the Lord's Oracles, the prime
early authority as to the Gospels of Matthew and Mark (see
Gospels), is known only through fragments in later writers,
chiefly Eusebius of Caesarea (H. E. iii. 39). The latter had
a bias against Papias on account of the influence which his work
had in perpetuating, through Irenaeus and others, belief in
a millennial reign of Christ upon earth. He calls him a man
of small mental capacity, who took the figurative language
of apostolic traditions for literal fact. This may have been so
to some degree; but Papias (whose name itself denotes that he
was of the native Phrygian stock, and who shared the enthusi-
astic religious temper characteristic of Phrygia, see Montanism)
was nearer in spirit to the actual Christianity of the sub-apostolic
age, especially in western Asia, than Eusebius realized. In
Papias's circle the exceptional in connexion with Christianity
seemed quite normal. Eusebius quotes from him the resurrec-
tion of a dead person* in the experience of " Philip the Apostle"
— who had resided in Hierapolis, and from whose daughters
Papias derived the story — and also the drinking of poison
(" when put to the test by the unbelievers," says Philip of Side,
by " Justus, surnamed Barsabbas ") without ill effect.'' Papias
' G. F. Hill, Brit. Mus. Cat. Coins of Cyprus (London, 1904), pis.
xv.-xvm. (coins of Paphos), pi. xxvi. (other coins and gems).
* M. R. James, E. A. Gardner, and others, Journ. Hellenic Stjidies,
IX. 334. 147 sqq.
„.' Dio Cass. hv. 23, 7; Strabo 683; Tac. Hist. 2, 2 sqq.; Jerome,
Vtt. Hilarioms. For the " Paphian Diamonds " (Pliny, Nat. Hist.
xxxvii. 58), see E. Oberhummer, loc. cit., p. 185. For the fame of
Paphian oil see Horn. Od. viii. 362 sqq. ; Hymn Aphr. 58 sqq. ; Isidore,
Origines, xvii. 7, 64.
« "The mother of Manaim " (cf. Acts xiii. i), according to the
citation in Philip of Side.
' Perhaps this is the basis of a clause in the secondary ending to
Marks Gospel (xvi. 18). .naiiar,
also believed a revolting story as to the supernatural swelling
of the body of Judas Iscariot. But if he was credulous of
marvels, he was careful to insist on good evidence for what he
accepted as Christ's own teaching, in the face of current
unauthorized views. Papias was also a pioneer in the habit,
later so general, of taking the work of the Six Days {Hexaemeron)
and the account of Paradise as referring mystically to Christ
and His Church (so says Anastasius of Sinai).
About his date, which is important in connexion with his
witness, there is some doubt. Setting aside the exploded
tradition that he was martyred along with Polycarp (c. a.d.
155); we have the witness of Irenaeus that he was "a com-
panion ((Tcupos) of Polycarp," who was born not later than
A.D. 69. We may waive his other statement that Papias was
" a hearer of John," owing to the possibility of a false inference
in this case. But the fact that Irenaeus thought of him as
Polycarp 's contemporary and " a man of the old time " (apxalos
av-qp), together with the afiinity between the religious tendencies
described in Papias's Preface (as quoted by Eusebius) and
those reflected in the Epistles of Polycarp and Ignatius, all
point to his having flourished in the first quarter of the 2nd
century. Indeed, Eusebius, who deals with him along with
Clement and Ignatius (rather than Polycarp) under the reign
of Trajan, and before referring at all to Hadrian's reign (a.d.
1 17-138), suggests that he wrote ^ about a.d. 115. It has been
usual, however, to assign to his work a date c. 130-140, or even
later. No fact is known inconsistent with c. 60-135 as the
period of Papias's life. Eusebius (iii. 36) calls him " bishop "
of Hierapolis, but whether with good ground is uncertain.
Papias uses the term " the Elders," or Fathers of the Christian
community, to describe the original witnesses to Christ's
teaching, i.e. his personal disciples in particular. It was their
traditions as to the purport of that teaching which he was
concerned to preserve. But to Irenaeus the term came to
mean the primitive custodians of tradition derived from these,
such as Papias and his contemporaries, whose traditions Papias
committed to writing. Not a few such traditions Irenaeus
has embodied in his work Agaifist Heresies, so preserving in some
cases the substance of Papias's Exposition (see Lightfoot,
Apostolic Fathers, 1891, for these, as for all texts bearing on
Papias).
See articles in the Diet, of Christian Biog., Diet, of Christ and the
Gospels, and Hauck's Realencyklopddie , xiv., in all of which further
references will be found. (J. V. B.)
PAPIER MACH6 (French for mashed or pulped paper),
a term embracing numerous manufactures in which paper pulp
is employed, pressed and moulded into various forms other
than uniform sheets. The art has long been practised in the
East. Persian papier mache has long been noted, and in Kashmir
under the name of kar-i-kalamdani, or pen-tray work, the
manufacture of small painted boxes, trays and cases of papier
mache is a characteristic industry. In Japan articles are made
by gluing together a number of sheets of paper, when in a
damp condition, upon moulds. China also produces elegant
papier mache articles. About the middle of the i8th century
papier mache work came into prominence in Europe in the form
of trays, boxes and other small domestic articles, japanned
and ornamented in imitation of Oriental manufactures of the
same class, or of lacquered wood; and contemporaneously
papier mache snuff-boxes ornamented in vernis ]\Iartin came
into favour. In 1772 Henry Clay of Birmingham patented
a method of preparing this material, which he used for coach-
building, for door and other panels, and for many furniture and
structural purposes. In 1845 the application of the material
to internal architectural decoration was patented by C. F.
Bielefeld of London, and for this purpose it has come into exten-
sive use. Under the name of carton pierre a substance which
is essentially papier mache is also largely employed as a substitute
' See further Diet, of Christ and the Gospels, s.v. The supposition
that Philip of Side implies a date under Hadrian is a mistake. For
the later date, see J. B. Lightfoot, Essays on " Supernatural
Religion " (1889), pp. 142-216.
XX. 24
738
PAPIN— PAPINEAU
for plaster in the moulded ornaments of roofs and walls, and the
ordinary roofing felts, too, are very closely allied in their com-
position to papier mache. Under the name of ceramic papier
mache, architectural enrichments are also made of a composition
derived from paper pulp, resin, glue, a drying oil and acetate
of lead. Among the other articles for which the substance
is used may be enumerated masks, dolls' heads and other toys,
anatomical and botanical models, artists' lay figures, milliners'
and clothiers' blocks, mirror and picture-frames, tubes, &c.
The materials for the commoner classes of work are old waste and
scrap paper, repulped and mixed with a strong size of glue and paste.
To this very often are added large quantities of ground chalk, clay
and fine sand, so that the preparation is little more than a plaster
held together by the fibrous pulp. Wood pulp (from Sweden) is
now largely used for making papier mache. For the finest class
of work Clay's original method is retained. It consists of soaking
several sheets of a specially made paper in a strong size of paste
and glue, pasting these together, and pressing them in the mould
of the article to be made. The moulded mass is dried in a stove,
and, if necessary, further similar layers of paper are added, till the
required thickness is attained. The dried object is hardened by
dipping in oil, after which it is variously trimmed and prepared for
japanning and ornamentation. For very delicate relief ornaments,
a pulp of scrap paper is prepared, which after drying is ground to
powder mixed with paste and a proportion of potash, all of which are
thoroughly incorporated into a fine smooth stiff paste. The numer-
ous processes by which surface decoration is applied to papier m&che
differ in no way from the application of like ornamentation to other
surfaces. Papier m&che for its weight is an exceedingly tough,
strong, durable substance, possessed of some elasticity, little subject
to warp or fracture, and unaffected by damp.
See L. E. Andes, Die Fabrikation der Papiermache- nnd Papier-
stoff-Waaren (Vienna, 1900); A. Winzer, Die Bereitung und Beniitz-
3(«g der Papiermache und dhnlicher Kompositionen (4th ed., Weimar,
1907).
PAPIN, DENIS (1647-C. 1712), French physicist, one of the
inventors of the steam-engine, was a native of Blois, where he
was born on the 22nd of August 1647. In 1661 or 1662 he
entered upon the study of medicine at the university of Angers,
where he graduated in 1669. Some time prior to 1674 he
removed to Paris and assisted Christiaan Huygens in his experi-
ments with the air-pump, the results of which {Experiences du
Vuidc) were pubhshed at Paris in that year, and also in the form
of five papers by Huygens and Papin jointly, in the Philosophical
Transactions for 1675. Shortly after the pubhcation of the
Experiences, Papin, who had crossed to London, was hospitably
received by Robert Boyle, whom he assisted in his laboratory
and with his writings. About this time also he introduced into
the air-pump the improvement of making it with double barrels,
and replacing by the two valves the turncock hitherto used;
he is said, moreover, to have been the first to use the plate and
receiver. Subsequently he invented the condensing-pump,
and in j6So he was admitted, on Boyle's nomination, to the
Royal Society. In the previous year he had exhibited to the
society his famous " steam digester, or engine for softening
bones," afterwards described in a tract published at Paris and
entitled La Maniere d'amollir les os el de faire couire toules sortes
dc viandes en fori pen de lems el a pcu defrais, avcc iint description
de la marmile, ses proprietes el ses usages. This device consisted
of a vessel provided with a tightly fitting lid, so that under
pressure its contents could be raised to a high temperature;
a safety valve was used, for the first time, to guard against an
excessive rise in the pressure. After further experiments with the
digester he accepted an invitation to Venice to take part in the
work of the recently founded Academy of the Philosophical and
Mathematical Sciences; here he remained until 1684, when he
returned to London and received from the Royal Society an
appointment as " temporary curator of experiments," with a
small salary. In this capacity he carried on numerous and
varied investigations. He discovered a siphon acting in the
same manner as the " sipho wirtembergicus " {Phil. Tr., 1685),
and also constructed a model of an engine for raising water from
a river by means of pumps worked by a water-wheel driven by
the current. In November 1687 he was appointed to the chair
of mathematics in the university of Marburg, and here he
remained until 1696, when he removed to Cassel. From the
time of his settlement in Germany he carried on an active
correspondence with Huygens and Leibnitz, which is still
preserved, and in one of his letters to Leibnitz, in 1698, he
mentions that he is engaged on a machine for raising water to a
great height by the force of fire; in a later communication he
speaks also of a little carriage he had constructed to be propelled
by this force. Again in 1702 he wrote about a steam " balHsta,"
which he anticipated would " promptly compel France to make
an enduring peace." In 1705 Leibnitz sent Papin a sketch of
Thomas Savery's engine for raising water, and this stimulated
him to further exertions, which resulted two years afterwards
in the pubhcation of the Ars nova ad aquam ignis adminicido
efficacissime elevandam (Cassel, 1707), in which his high-pressure
boiler and its applications are described (see Steam Engine).
In 1707 he resolved to quit Cassel for London, and on the 24th
of September of that year he sailed with his family from Cassel
in an ingeniously constructed boat, propelled by paddle-wheels,
to be worked by the crew, with which he apparently expected
to reach the mouth of the Weser. At Miinden, however, the
vessel was confiscated at the instance of the boatmen, who
objected to the invasion of their exclusive privileges in the
Weser navigation. Papin, on his arrival in London, found
himself without resources and almost without friends; applica-
tions through Sir Hans Sloane to the Royal Society for grants
of money were made in vain, and he died in total obscurity,
probably about the beginning of 17 12. His name is attached
to the principal street of his native town, Blois, were also he
is commemorated by a bronze statue.
The published writings of Papin, besides those already referred
to, consist for the most part of a large number of papers, principally
on hydraulics and pneumatics, contributed to the Journal des
savans, the Nouvelles de la republique des leUres, the Philosophical
Transactions, and the Acta ertiditorum ; many of them were collected
by himself into a Fasciculus dissertationum (Marburg, 1695), of which
he published also a translation into French, Recueil de diverses pieces
touchant quelques nouvelles ttiachities (Cassel, 1695). His correspon-
dence with Leibnitz and Huygens, along with a biography, was
published by Dr Ernst Gerland {Leibnizens und Huygens Brief-
wechsel mil Papin, nebst der Biographic Papins (Berlin, i88r).
See also L. de la Saussaye and E. Pean, La Vie et les ouvrages de
Denis Papin (Paris, 1869); and Baron Ernout, Denis Papin, sa vie
et ses ouvrages (4th ed., 1888).
PAPINEAU, LOUIS JOSEPH (1786-1871), Canadian rebel
and politician, son of Joseph Papineau, royal notary and member
of the house of Assembly of Lower Canada, was born at Montreal
on the 7th of October 1786. He was educated at the seminary
of Quebec, where he developed the gift of declamatory and
persuasive oratory. He was called to the bar of Lower Canada on
the 19th of May i8io. On the i8th of June 1808 he was elected
a member of the House of Assembly of the province of Lower
Canada, for the county of Kent. In 181 5 he became speaker
of the house, being already recognized as the leader of the
French Canadian party. At this time there were many griev-
ances in the country which demanded redress; but each faction
was more inclined to insist upon the exercise of its special rights
than to fulfil its common responsibilities. In December 1820
Lord Dalhousie, governor of Lower Canada, appointed Papineau
a member of the executive council; but Papineau, finding himself
without real influence on the council, resigned in January 1823.
In that year he went to England to protest on behalf of the
French Canadians against the projected union of Upper and
Lower Canada, a mission in which he was successful. Never-
theless his opposition to the government became more and more
pronounced, till in 1827 Lord Dalhousie refused to confirm his
appointment to the speakership, and resigned his governorship
when the house persisted in its choice. The aim of the French
Canadian opposition at this time was to obtain financial and
also constitutional reforms. Matters came to a head when the
legislative assembly of Lower Canada refused supplies and
Papineau arranged for concerted action with WiUiam Lyon
Mackenzie, the leader of the reform party in Upper Canada.
In 183 s Lord Gosford, the new governor of Lower Canada,
was instructed by the cabinet in London to inquire into the
alleged grievances of the French Canadians. But the attitude
PAPINIAN— PAPPENHEIM
739
of the opposition remained no less hostile than before, and in
March 1837 the governor was authorized to reject the demand
for constitutional reform and to apply public funds in his
control to the purposes of government. In June a warning
proclamation by the governor was answered by a series of
violent speeches by Papineau, who in August was deprived of
his commission in the militia.
Papineau had formerly professed a deep reverence for British
institutions, and he had acquired a theoretical knowledge of
the constitution, but he did not possess the qualities of a
statesman, and consequently in his determination to apply
the strict letter of the constitution he overlooked those elements
and compensating forces and powers which through custom
and usage had been incorporated in British institutions, and
had given them permanence. In his earlier career he had
voiced the aspirations of a section of the people at a time when
it appeared to them that their national existence was threatened.
In the course of time party strife became more bitter; real issues
were lost sight of; and Papineau, falling in with the views of
one O'Callaghan, who distrusted everything British, became
an annexationist. Realizing that his cause was not advanced
by persuasive eloquence, he adopted a threatening attitude
which caused men of sober judgment to waver in their allegiance.
These men he denounced as traitors; but a band of youthful
enthusiasts encouraged their leader in his revolutionary course.
The bishop of Montreal and of Quebec, and a large number of
the citizens, protested, but nothing less than bloodshed would
satisfy the misguided patriots. On the 23rd of October 1837
a meeting of delegates from the six counties of Lower Canada
was held at St Charles, at which resistance to the government
by force of arms was decided upon, and in which Papineau took
part. In November preparations were made for a general
stampede at Montreal, and on the 7th of the month Papineau's
house was sacked and a fight took place between the " con-
stitutionals " and the " sons of liberty." Towards the middle
of November Colonel Gore was commanded to effect the arrest
of Papineau and his principal adherents on a charge of high
treason. A few hundred armed men had assembled at Saint
Denis to resist the troops, and early on the morning of the 22nd
of November hostilities commenced, which were maintained
for several hours and resulted in many casualties. On the eve
of the fray Papineau sought safety in flight, followed by the
leading spirits of the movement. On the ist of December
1837 a proclamation was issued, declaring Papineau a rebel,
and placing a price upon his head. He had found shelter in
the United States, where he remained in safety throughout the
whole period of the fighting. The rebellion broke out afresh
in the autumn of 1838, but it was soon repressed. Those taken
in open rebellion were deported by Lord Durham to save them
from the scaffold; and although 90 were condemned to death
only 12 were executed.
Attempts have been made to transfer the responsibility for
the act of violence to O'Callaghan and other prominent
leaders in the revolt; but Papineau's own words, " The patriots
of this city would have avenged the massacre but they were
so poor and so badly organized that they were not fit to meet
the regular troops," prove that he did not discountenance
recourse to arms. Writing of the events of 1837 in the year
1848 he said: " The smallest success at Montreal or Toronto
would have induced the American government, in spite of its
president, to support the movement." It would thus seem
that he was intriguing to bring about intervention by the United
States with a view to annexation; and as the independence
of the French Canadian race, which he professed to desire,
could not have been achieved under the constitution of the
American republic, it is inconsistent to regard his services to
his fellow-countrymen as those of a true patriot. Papineau,
in pursuing towards the end a policy of blind passion, over-
looked real grievances, and prevented remedial action. After
the rebellion relief was accorded because the obstacle was
removed, and it is evident that a broad-minded statesman, or
a skilful diplomat, would have accomphshed more for French
Canada than the fiery eloquence and dubious methods of a
leader who plunged his followers into the throes of war, and
deserted them at the suprerne moment. From 1839 till 1847
Papineau lived in Paris. In the latter year an amnesty was
granted to those who had participated in the rebellion in Canada;
and, although in June 1838 Lord Durham had issued a pro-
clamation threatening Papineau with death if he returned to
Canada, he was now admitted to the benefit of the amnesty.
On his return to Canada, when the two provinces were now
united, he became a member of the lower house and continued
to take part in public life, demanding " the independence of
Canada, for the Canadians need never expect justice from
England, and to submit to her would be an eternal disgrace."
He unsuccessfuDy agitated for the re-division of upper and lower
Canada, and in 1854 retired into private life. He died at
MontebeDo, in the province of Quebec, on the 24th of Septem-
ber 1871.
See L. O. David, Les Deux Papineau; Fcnnings Taylor, Louis
Joseph Papineau (Montreal, 1865); Alfred Dc Celles, Papineau-
Cartier (Toronto, 1906); H. J. Morgan, Sketches of Celebrated Cana-
dians (Quebec, 1862); Rose's Cyclopaedia of Canadian Biography
Annual Register, 1 836-1 837; Sir Spencer Walpole, History of England
(5 vols., London, 1878-1886), vol. iii. (A. G. D.)
PAPINIAN (Aemilius Papinianus), Roman jurist, was
magistcr libellorum and afterwards praetorian prefect under
Septimius Severus. He was an intimate friend of the emperor,
whom he accompanied to Britain, and before his death Severus
specially commended his two sons to his charge. Papinian
tried to keep peace between the brothers, but with no better
result than to excite the hatred of Caracalla, to which he fell a
victim in the general slaughter of Geta's friends which followed
the fratricide of a.d. 212. The details are variously related,
and have undergone legendary embeUishment, but the murder
of Papinian, which took place under Caracalla's own eyes, was
one of the most disgraceful crimes of that tyrant. Little more
is known about Papinian. He was perhaps a Syrian by birth,
for he is said to have been a kinsman of Severus's second wife,
JuHa Domna; that he studied law with Severus under Scaevola
is asserted in an interpolated passage in Spartian {Caracal, c. 8).
Papinian 's place and work as a jurist are discussed under Roman
Law.
PAPPENHEIM, GOTTFRIED HEINRICH. Count of (1594-
1632), imperial field marshal in the Thirty Years' War, was born
on the 29th of May 1594 at the httle town of Pappenheim on the
Altmiihl, now in Bavaria, the seat of a free lordship of the empire^
from which the ancient family to which he belonged derived
its name.' He was educated at Altdorf and at Tiibingen, and
subsequently travelled in southern and central Europe, mastering
the various languages, and seeking knightly adventures. His
stay in these countries led him eventually to adopt the Roman
Catholic faith (1614), to which he devoted the rest of his hfe.
At the outbreak of the great war he abandoned the legal and
diplomatic career on which he had embarked, and in his zeal for
the faith took service in Poland and afterwards under the
Cathohc League. He soon became a heutenant-colonel, and
displayed brilliant courage at the battle of the White Hill near
Prague (Nov. 8, 1620), where he was left for dead on the field.
In the following year he fought against Mansfeld in western
' The family of Pappenheim is of great antiquity. In the 12th
century they were known as the "marshals of Kalatin (Kalden)";
in the 13th they first appear as counts and marshals of Pappenheim,
their right to the hereditary marshalship of the empire being con-
firmed to them by the emperor Louis IV. in 1334. After the
Golden Bull of 1355 they held both marshalship and castle of Pappen-
heim as fiefs of the Saxon electorate. In the 17th century the
family was represented by several lines: those of Pappenheim
(which held the margraviate of Stiihlingen till 1635), Treutlingen
and Aletzheim, and the older branches (dating from the 13th and
14th centuries) of the marshals of Biberach and of Rechberg-
Wertingen-Hohenreichen. Gottfried Heinrich, who belonged to the
Treutlingen branch, was the only one of this ancient and widely-
ramified family to attain great distinction, though many other mem-
bers of it played a strenuous, if subordinate, part in the histor>' of
Germany. The family, mediatized under Bavaria in 1806, survives
now only in the descendants of the Aletzheim branch.
740
PAPPUS OF ALEXANDRIA
Germany, and in 1623 became colonel of a regiment of cuirassiers,
afterwards the famous " Pappenheimers." In the same year,
as an ardent friend of Spain, the ally of his sovereign and the
champion of his faith, he raised troops for the Italian war and
served with the Spaniards in Lombardy and the Grisons. It
was his long and heroic defence of the post of Riva on the Lal^e
of Garda which first brought him conspicuously to the front.
In 1626 Maximilian of Bavaria, the head of the League, recalled
him to Germany and entrusted him with the suppression of a
dangerous insurrection which had broken out in Upper Austria.
Pappenheim swiftly carried out his task, encountering a most
desperate resistance, but always successful; and in a few weeks
he had crushed the rebellion with ruthless severity (actions of
Efferdingen, Gmiinden, Vocklabruck and Wolfsegg, i5th-30th
November 1626). After this he served with Tilly against King
Christian IV. of Denmark, and besieged and took Wolfenbiittel.
His hope of obtaining the sovereignty and possessions of the
evicted prince was, after a long intrigue, definitely disappointed.
In 1628 he was made a count of the empire. The siege and storm
of Magdeburg followed, and Pappenheim, like Tilly, has been
accused of the most savage cruelty in this transaction. But it
is known that, disappointed of Wolfenbiittel, Pappenheim
desired the profitable sovereignty of Magdeburg, and it can
hardly be maintained that he deliberately destroyed a prospec-
tive source of wealth. At any rate, the sack of Magdeburg was
not more discreditable than that of most other towns taken by
storm in the 17th century. From the military point of view
Pappenheim's conduct was excellent ; his measures were skilful,
and his personal valour, as always, conspicuous. So much
could not be said of his tactics at the battle of Breitenfeld. the
loss of which was not a little due to the impetuous cavalry
general, who was never so happy as when leading a great charge
of horse. The retreat of the imperialists from the lost field he
covered, however, with care and skill, and subsequently he won
great glory by his operations on the lower Rhine and the Weser
in rear of the victorious army of Gustavus Adolphus. Much-
needed reinforcements for the king of Sweden were thus detained
"n front of Pappenheim's small and newly-raised force in the
jorth. His operations were far-ranging and his restless activity
dominated the country from Stade to Cassel, and from Hildes-
heim to Maastricht. Being now a field marshal in the imperial
service, he was recalled to join Wallenstein, and assisted the
generalissimo in Saxony against the Swedes; but was again
despatched towards Cologne and the lower Rhine. In his
absence a great battle became imminent, and Pappenheim was
hurriedly recalled. He appeared with his horsemen in the
midst of the battle of Lutzen (Nov. 6th-i6th, 1632). His
furious attack was for the moment successful. As Rupert at
Marston Moor sought Cromwell as his worthiest opponent, so
now Pappenheim sought Gustavus. At about the same time
as the king was killed, Pappenheim received a mortal wound in
another part of the field. He died on the following day in the
Pleissenburg at Leipzig.
See Kriegsschriften von haierischen Officierett I. II. V. (Munich
1820); Hess, Gottfried Heinrich Craj zu Pappenheim (Leipzig, 1855)
Ersch and Griiber, Allgem. Encyklopadie, \\\. 11 (Leipzig, 1838)
VVittich, in Allgem. deutsche Biographic, Band 25 (Leipzig, 1887),
and works there quoted.
PAPPUS OF ALEXANDRIA, Greek geometer, flourished
about the end of the 3rd century a.d. In a period of general
stagnation in mathematical studies, he stands out as a remark-
able exception. How far he was above his contemporaries,
how Kttle appreciated or understood by them, is shown by the
absence of references to him in other Greek writers, and by the
fact that his work had no effect in arresting the decay of mathe-
matical science. In this respect the fate of Pappus strikingly
resembles that of Diophantus. In his] Collection, Pappus gives
no indication of the date of the authors whose treatises he
makes use of, or of the time at which he himself wrote. If we
had no other information than can be derived from his work,
we should only know that he was later than Claudius Ptolemy
whom he often quotes. Suidas states that he was of the same
age as Theon of Alexandria, who wrote commentaries on
Ptolemy's great work, the Syntaxis mathematica, and flourished
in the reign of Theodosius I. (a.d. 379-395). Suidas says also
that Pappus wrote a commentary upon the same work of
Ptolemy. But it would seem incredible that two contem-
poraries should have at the same time and in the same style
composed commentaries upon one and the same work, and yet
neither should have been mentioned by the other, whether as
friend or opponent. It is more probable that Pappus's com-
mentary was written long before Theon's, but was largely
assimilated by the latter, and that Suidas, through failure to
disconnect the two commentaries, assigned a like date to both.
A different date is given by the marginal notes to a 10th-century
MS., where it is stated, in connexion with the reign of Diocletian
(a.d. 284-305), that Pappus wrote during that period; and in
the absence of any other testimony it seems best to accept the
date indicated by the scholiast.
The great work of Pappus, in eight books and entitled cvvaywyq
or Collection, we possess only in an incomplete form, the first
book being lost , and the rest having suffered considerably. Suidas
enumerates other works of Pappus as follows: Xwpofypa<i>i.a
olKovnevLKr), «is to. rkaaapa §i^\[o. rijs YlToKijxalov neyoXris
ffuvTa^tois i'Tro/xj'Tj/ia, iroraixovs rovs ev At/3uj?, bvupoKpiTiKO..
The question of Pappus's commentary on Ptolemy's work is dis-
cussed by Yi\i\\.?,c\\,Pappi[collcclio (Berlin, 1878), vol. iii. p. xiii. seq.
Pappus himself refers to another commentary of his own on the
'Ava\riij.fia of Diodorus, of whom nothing is known. He also
wrote commentaries on Euclid's Elements (of which fragments
are preserved in Proclus and the Scholia, while that on the tenth
Book has been found in an Arabic MS.), and on Ptolemy's
'ApiXOVLKCi.
The characteristics of Pappus's Collection are that it contains
an account, systematically arranged, of the most important
results obtained by his predecessors, and, secondly, notes
explanatory of, or extending, previous discoveries. These
discoveries form, in fact, a text upon which Pappus
enlarges discursively. Very valuable are the systematic intro-
ductions to the various books which set forth clearly in outline
the contents and the general scope of the subjects to be treated.
From these introductions we are able to judge of the style of
Pappus's writing, which is excellent and even elegant the
moment he is free from the shackles of mathematical formulae
and expressions. At the same time, his characteristic exactness
makes his collection a most admirable substitute for the texts
of the many valuable treatises of earlier mathematicians of
which time has deprived us. We proceed to summarize briefly
the contents of that portion of the Collection which has survived,
mentioning separately certain propositions which seem to be
among the most important.
We can only conjecture that the lost book i., as well as book ii.,
was concerned with arithmetic, book iii. being clearly introduced
as beginning a new subject.
The whole of book ii. (the former part of which is lost, the existing
fragment beginning in the middle of the 14th proposition) related
to a system of multiplication due to Apollonius of Perga. On this
subject see Nesselmann, Algebra der Griecken (Berlin, 1842), pp.
125-134; and M. Cantor, Gesch. d. Math, i.^ 331.
Book iii. contains geometrical problems, plane and solid. It
may be divided into five sections: (i) On the famous problem of
finding two mean proportionals between two given lines, which
arose from that of duplicating the cube, reduced by Hippocrates
to the former. Pappus gives several solutions of this problem,
including a method of making successive approximations to the
solution, the significance of which he apparently failed to appreciate;
he adds his own solution of the more general problem of finding
geometrically the side of a cube whose content is in any given ratio
to that of a given one. (2) On the arithmetic, geometric and har-
monic means between two straight lines, and the problem of represent-
ing all three in one and the same geometrical figure. This serves
as an introduction to a general theory of means, of which Pappus
distinguishes ten kinds, and gives a table representing examples
of each in whole numbers. (3) On a curious problem suggested by
Eucl. i. 21. (4) On the inscribing of each of the five regular poly-
hedra in a sphere. (5) An addition by a later writer on another
solution of the first problem of the book.
Of book iv. the title and preface have been lost, so that the pro-
gramme has to be gathered from the book itself. At the beginning
PAPUANS
741
is the well-known generalization of Eucl. i. d7, then follow various
theorems on the circle, leading up to the problem of the construction
of a circle which shall circumscribe three given circles, touching
each other two and two. This and several other propositions on
contact, e.g. cases of circles touching one another and inscribed in
the figure made of three semicircles and known as fip^TjXos {^hoe-
maker's knife) form the first division of the book. Pappus turns
then to a consideration of certain properties of Archimedes's spiral,
the conchoid of Nicomedes (already mentioned in book i. as supplying
a method of doubling the cube), and the curve discovered most
probably by Hippias of Elis about 420 B.C., and known by the name
4 TfTpayuvl^ovaa, or quadratri.x. Proposition 30 describes the con-
struction of a curve of double curvature called by Pappus the helix
on a sphere; it is described by a point moving uniformly along the
arc of a great circle, which itself turns about its diameter uniformly,
the point describing a quadrant and the great circle a complete
revolution in the same time. The area of the surface included
between this curve and its base is found — the first known instance
of a quadrature of a curved surface. The rest of the book treats of
the trisection of an angle, and the solution of more general problems
of the same kind by means of the quadratrix and spiral. In one
solution of the former problem is the first recorded use of the property
of a conic (a hyperbola) with reference to the focus and directrix.
In book v., after an interesting preface concerning regular poly-
gons, and containing remarks upon the hexagonal form of the
cells of honeycombs, Pappus addresses himself to the comparison
of the areas of different plane figures which have all the same peri-
meter (following Zenodorus's treatise on this subject), and of^ the
volumes of different solid figures which have all the same superficial
area, and, lastly, a comparison of the five regular solids of Plato.
Incidentally Pappus describes the thirteen other polyhedra bounded
by equilateral and equiangular but not similar polygons, discovered
by Archimedes, and finds, by a method recalling that of Archimedes,
the surface and volume of a sphere.
According to the preface, book vi. is intended to resolve difficulties
occurring in the so-called iukpM iaTpovofmifiems. It accordingly
comments on the Sphaerica of Theodosius, the Moving Sphere of
Autolycus, Theodosius's book on Day and Night, the treatise of
Aristarchus On the Size and Distances of the Sun and Moon, and
Euclid's Optics and Phaenomena.
The preface of book vii. explains the terms analysis and synthesis,
and the distinction between theorem and problem. Pappus then
enumerates works of Euclid, ApoUonius, Aristaeus and Eratos-
thenes, thirty-three books in all, the substance of which he intends
to give, with the lemmas necessary for their elucidation. With
the mention of the Porisms of Euclid we have an account of the rela-
tion of porism to theorem and problem. In the same preface is
included (a) the famous problem known by Pappus's name, often
enunciated thus: Having given a number of straight lines, to find
the geometric locus of a point such that the lengths of the perpendiculars
upon, or {more generally) the lines drawn from it obliquely at given
inclinations to, the given lines satisfy the condition that the product
of certain of them may bear a constant ratio to the product of the remain-
ing ones ; (Pappus does not express it in this form but by means of
composition of ratios, saying that if the ratio is given which is com-
pounded of the ratios of pairs — one of one set and one of another —
of the lines so drawn, and of the ratio of the odd one, if any, to a given
straight line, the point will lie on a curve given in position) ; (i)
the theorems which were rediscovered by and named after Paul
Guldin, but appear to have been discovered by Pappus himself.
Book vii. contains also (i), under the head of the de determinata
sectione of ApoUonius, lemmas which, closely examined, are seen to
be cases of the involution of six points; (2) important lemmas on the
Porisms of Euclid (see Porism) ; (3) a lemma upon the Surface Loci
of Euclid which states that the locus of a point such that its distance
from a given point bears a constant ratio to its distance from a given
straight line is a conic, and is followed by proofs that the conic is a
parabola, ellipse, or hyperbola according as the constant ratio is
equal to, less than or greater than I (the first recorded proofs of the
properties, which do not appear in ApoUonius).
Lastly, book viii. treats principally of mechanics, the properties
of the centre of gravity, and some mechanical powers. Interspersed
are some questions of pure geometry. Proposition 14 shows how
to draw an ellipse through five given points, and Prop. 15 gives a
simple construction for the axes of an ellipse when a pair of conjugate
diameters are given.
Authorities. — Of the whole work of Pappus the best edition is
that of Hultsch, bearing the title Pappi alexandrini colleclionis
quae supersunt e libris manuscriptis edidit latina interpretatione
et commentariis inslruxit Fridericus Hultsch (Berlin, 1876-1878).
Previously the entire collection had been pubUshed only in a Latin
translation, Pappi alexandrini mathematicae collectiones a Federico
Commandino Urbinate in latinum conversae et commentariis illus-
tratae (Pesaro, 1588) (reprinted at Venice, 1589, and Pesaro, 1602).
A second (inferior) edition of this work was published by Carolus
Manolessius.
Of books which contain parts of Pappus's work, or treat inciden-
tally of it, we may mention the following titles : (i) Pappi alexandrini
collectiones mathematicae nunc primum graece edidit Herm. Jos. Eisen-
mann, libri quinti pars altera (Parisiis, 1824). (2) Pappi alexandrini
secundi libri mathematicae colleclionis fragmentum e codice MS.
edidit latinum fecit fibtisque illustravil Johannes Wallis (Oxonii,
1688). (3) Apollonii pergaei de sectione rationis libri duo ex arabico
MStii latine versi, accedunt eiusdem de sectione spatii libri duo resti-
tiiti, praemittitur Pappi alexandrini praefatio ad VII"""" colleclionis
mathematicae, nunc primum graece edita : cum lemmatibus eiusdem
Pappi ad hos Apollonii libros, opera et studio Edmundi Halley
(Oxonii. 1706). (4) Der Sammlung des Pappus von Alexandrien
siebentes und achtes Buck griechisch und deutsch, published by C. I.
Gerhardt, Halle, 1871. (5) The portions relating to ApoUonius are
reprinted in Heiberg's ApoUonius, ii. loi sqq. (T. L. H.)
PAPUANS (Malay papiiwah or puwah-puwah, " frizzled,"
" woolly-haired," in reference to their characterislic hair-
dressing), the name given to the people of New Guinea and the
other islands of Melanesia. The pure Papuan seems to be
confined to the north-western part of New Guinea, and possibly
the interior. But Papuans of mixed blood are found throughout
the island (unless the Karons be of Negrito stock), and from
Flores in the west to Fiji in the east. The ethnological affinities
of the Papuans have not been satisfactorily settled. Physically
they are negroid in type, and while tribes allied to the Papuans
have been traced through Timor, Flores and the highlands of
the Malay Peninsula to the Deccan of India, these " Oriental
negroes," as they have been called, have many curious resem-
blances with some East African tribes. Besides the appearance
of the hair, the raised cicatrices, the belief in omens and sorcery,
the practices for testing the courage of youths, &c., they are
equally rude, merry and boisterous, but amenable to discipline,
and with decided artistic tastes and faculty. Several of the
above practices are common to the Australians, who, though
generally inferior, have many points of resemblance (osteological
and other) with Papuans, to whom the extinct Tasmanians
were still more closely allied. It may be that from an indigenous
Negrito stock of the Indian archipelago both negroes and
Papuans sprang, and that the latter are an original cross between
the Negrito and the immigrating Caucasian who passed eastward
to found the great Polynesian race.'
The typical Papuan is distinctly tall, far exceeding the average
Malay height, and is seldom shorter, often taUer, than the
European. He is strongly built, somewhat "spur-heeled."
He varies in colour from a sooty-brown to a black, little less
intense than that of the darkest negro. He has a small dolicho-
cephalous head, prominent nose somewhat curved and high
but depressed at the tip, high narrow forehead with projecting
brows, oval face and dark eyes. The jaw projects and the lips
are full. His hair is black and frizzly, worn generally in a mop,
often of large dimensions, but sometimes worked into plaits
with grease or mud. On some islands the men collect their hair
into small bunches, and carefully bind each bunch round with
fine vegetable fibre from the roots up to within about two inches
from the end. Dr Turner- gives a good description of this
process. He once counted the bunches on a young man's head,
and found nearly seven hundred. There is usually little hair
on the face, but chest, legs and fore-arms are generally hirsute,
the hair short and crisp.
The constitution of society is everywhere simple. The
' Huxley believed that the Papuans were more closely allied to
the negroes of Africa than any other race. Later scientists have
endeavoured to identify the Papuans with the Negritos of the
Philippines and the Semangs of the Malay Peninsula. Alfred
Russel Wallace pronounced against this hypothesis in an appendix
to his Malay Archipelago (1883 ed., p. 602), where he observes that
" the black, woolly-haired races of the Philippines and the Malay
Peninsula . . . have little affinity or resemblance to the Papuans."
Dr A. B. Meyer, who spent several years in the Malay Archipelago
and New Guinea, developed a contrary conclusion in his Die Negritos
der Philippinen (1878), holding that the Negritos and Papuans are
identical, and that possibly, or even probably, the former are an
offshoot of the latter, Hke som^ other Polynesian islanders. A. C.
Haddon, discussing, in Nature (September 1899), a later paper by
Dr Meyer in English on the same subject {The Distributiott of the
Negritos, Dresden, 1899), practically adopted Meyer's views, after
an independent examination of numerous skulls. As to how the
Papuans, who are the aborigines of New Guinea, may have peopled
other and much more distant islands, information is lacking.
' Nineteen Years in Polynesia, pp. 77, 78.
742
PAPUANS
people live in village communities whose members appear to be
more or less inter-related. There are no priests and no heredi-
tary chiefs, though among the more advanced tribes rank is
hereditary. Totemistic clans have been observed in Torres
strait, and on the Finsch and west coasts. Chiefship is quite
unrecognized, except on the Keriwina Islands. Possessions,
such as gardens, houses, pigs, &c., belong to individuals and not
to the community, and pass to the owner's heirs, who difEer in
relationship in different districts. The land within certain
boundaries belongs to the tribe, but a member may take posses-
sion of any unappropriated portion. There are certain degrees
of relationship within which a man may not marry. In some
districts he may not marry into his own village, or into his
mother's tribe; in others he may select a wife from certain
tribes only. Payment, or a present, is always made for a wife
to her father, brother or guardian (who is generally her maternal
uncle). Presents are also often made to the bride. Polygamy
is practised, but not frequently, and from the wife (or wives)
there comes no opposition. The child belongs sometimes to
the mother's, sometimes to the father's tribe. The Papuan
woman, who is, as a rule, more modest than the Polynesian, is
the household drudge, and does the greater part of the outdoor
work, but the man assists in clearing new gardens and in digging
and planting the soil.
In western New Guinea, according to the Dutch missionaries,
there is a vague notion of a universal spirit, practically represented
by several malevolent powers, as Manoin, the most
111 powerful, who resides in the woods; Narwoje, in the
Ivors p. (.]oy{js_ above the trees, a sort of Erl-Kcinig who carries
off children; Faknik, in the rocks by the sea, who raises storms.
As a protection against these the people construct — having first
with much ceremony chosen a tree for the purpose — certain rude
images called karwars, each representing a recently dead pro-
genitor, whose spirit is then invoked to occupy the image and
protect them against their enemies and give success to their
undertakings. The karwar is about a foot high, with head dis-
proportionately large; the male figures are sometimes represented
with a spear and shield, the female holding a snake. They observe
omens, have magicians and rain-makers, and sometimes resort to
ordeal to discover a crime. Temples (so called) are found in the
north and west, built like the houses, but larger, the piles being
carved into figures, and the roof-beams and other prominent points
decorated with representations of crocodiles or lizards, coarse human
figures, and other grotesque ornamentation; but their use is not
clear. Neither temples nor images (except small figures worn as
amulets) occur among the people of the south-east ; but they have a
great dread of departed spirits, especially those of the hostile inland
tribes, and of a being called Vata, who causes disease and death.
All Papuans believe that within them resides an invisible other
self, or spirit, which may occasionally leave the body in the hours
of sleep and after death hovers for some period at least round the
scenes of its embodied life. This ghost acquires supernatural powers,
which at any time it may return to exercise inimically to relations
or acquaintances who offend it. In the dark, and in the depths of
forests or mountains, malevolent — never embodied — spirits love
to be abroad. These are the spirits which, taking up their abode
in a village, cause disease and death ; and to escape from such attacks
the inhabitants may fly the village for good, and, by dwelling
scattered in the recesses of the forest for a time before choosing a new
site, they hope to throw their enemy off their trail. Spirits of evil,
but not of good, therefore require to be propitiated. The powers
of nature — thunder, lightning and storm, all supposed to be caused
by evil and a.ngry spirits — are held in the greatest dread. Under the
category of religious observances may perhaps come those held
previously to the departure of the great trading or lakatoi fleet :
their taboo-proclaiming customs, their ceremonial and sacred
initiation ceremonies for boys and girls on reaching puberty, when
masks are worn and the " bull-roarer " swung, as also the harvest
festivals, at which great trophies of the produce of field and forest
are erected, preparatory to a big feast enlivened with music and
dancing. In the north and north-east of New Guinea ancestor-
worship is widely practised. Amulets are worn to ensure success
in buying, selling, hunting, fishing and in war, as well as for protection
against evil. Circumcision is practised in some regions. Although
some of the coast peoples are nominally Mahommedans, and some
few converts to Christianity have been made, the vast majority of
Papuans remain pagan.
The dead are disposed of in various ways. The spirit is supposed
not to leave the body immediately, and a corpse is either buried for
a time, and then disinterred and the bones cleaned and deposited
in or near the deceased's dwelling or in some distant cave; or the
body is exposed on a platform or dried over a fire, and the mummy
kept for a few years. Sometimes the head, oftener the jaw-bone
and portions of the skeleton are preserved as relics. Little houses
are frequently erected over the grave as a habitation for the spirit.
Soon after death food is offered to the departed — with an infant
a calabash of its mother's milk — and that he may have no wants,
his earthly possessions, after being broken, are laid near his resting-
place. A path through the jungle from the grave to the sea is
often made so that the spirit may bathe. A widow must shave her
head, smear her body with black and the exudations of the corpse,
and wear mourning for a long time. The dead are referred to by
some roundabout phrase, never by name, for this might have the
dangerous result of bringing back the spirit. These dwell chiefly
in the moon, and are particularly active at full moon. The houses
which they haunt, and beneath or near which their bodies are buried,
are deserted from time to time, especially by a newly-married
couple or by women before child-birth.
Yams, taro and sweet potatoes constitute in some districts the
main food of the people, while in others sago is the staple diet.
Forest fruits and vegetables are also eaten. Maize _
and rice — which are not indigenous — are eagerly sought *"*
after. The Papuan varies his vegetable diet with the flesh of
the wild pig, wallabi and other small animals, which are hunted
with dogs. Birds are snared or limed. Fish abound at many parts
of the coast, and are taken by lines, or speared at night by torch-
light, or netted, or a river is dammed and the fish stupefied with the
root of a miUetia. Turtle and dugong are caught. The kima, a
great mussel weighing (without shell) 20 to 30 ft, and other shell-
fish, are eaten, as are also dogs, flying foxes, lizards, beetles and all
kinds of insects. Food is cooked in various ways. Cooking-pots,
made at various parts of the coast, form one of the great exchanges
for sago; but where such vessels do not reach, food is cooked by the
women on the embers, done up in leaves, or in holes in the ground
over heated stones. The sexes eat apart. In the interior salt is
difficult to get, and sea-water, which is carried inland in hollow
bamboos, is used in cooking in place of it. Salt, too, is obtained
from the ashes of wood saturated by sea-water. In the Fly River
region, kava, prepared from Piper methysticum, is drunk without
any of the ceremonial importance associated with it in Polynesia.
As a rule the Papuans have no intoxicating drink and do not know
the art of fermenting palm-sap or cane-juice. Tobacco is indigenous
in some parts, and is smoked everywhere, except on the north-east
coast and on the islands, where its use is quite unknown. In some
few districts a species of clay is eaten.
The male Papuan is usually naked save for a loin-cloth made of the
bark of the Hibiscus, Broussonetia and other plants, or a girdle of
leaves. In the more civilized parts cotton garments „
are used. Papuans have usually a great dislike to ". °^
rain and carry a mat of pandanus leaves as a protection q,__„ .
against it. Except in one or two localities (on the
north-east and west), the women are invariably decently clothed.
The Papuan loves personal adornment and loses no chance of
dressing himself up. His chief home-made ornaments are necklaces,
armlets and ear-rings of shells, teeth or fibre, and cassowary, cockatoo,
or bird of paradise feathers — the last two, or a flower, are worn
through the septum of the nose. With his head encircled by a
coronet of dogs' teeth, and covered with a network cap or piece of
bark-cloth, the septum of the nose transfi.xed by a pencil of bone
or shell, and perhaps a shell or fibre armlet or two, the Papuan is
in complete everyday attire. On festal occasions he decks his well-
forked-out and dyed hair with feathers and flowers, and sticks
others in his ear-lobe holes and under his armlets; while a warrior
will have ovula shells and various bones of his victims dangling from
ringlets of his hair, or fixed to his armbands or girdle. The Papuan
comb is characteristic. This is a long piece of bamboo split at one
end into prongs, while the other projects beyond the forehead
sometimes two feet or more, and into it are stuck the bright feathers
of parrots and other birds. The fairer tribes at the east end tattoo,
no definite meaning apparently being attached to the pattern, for
they welcome suggestions from Manchester. For the women it is
simply a decoration. Men are not tattooed till they have killed
some one. Raised cicatrices usually take the place of tattooing with
the darker races. Rosenberg says the scars on the breast and arms
register the number of sea-voyages made.
The Papuans build excellent canoes and other boats, and in some
districts there are professional boat-builders of great skill, the best
craft coming from East Cape and the Louisiades. These b„.».
boats are either plain dug-outs, with or without out- buUdinz.
riggers, or regularly built by planks tightly laced and
well caulked to an excavated keel. The most remarkable of their
vessels is the " lakatoi," composed of several capacious dug-outs,
each nearly 50 ft. long, which are strongly lashed together to a width
of some 24 ft., decked and fitted with two masts, each carrying
a huge mat sail picturesquely fashioned. On the deck high crates
are built for the reception of some thousands of pieces of pottery
for conveyance annually to the Fly River district to exchange for sago.
Papuans are very fond of music, using Pan-pipes, a Jew's harp of
the Papuans' own fabrication, and the flute; on occasions nuslc
of ceremony the drum only is used — this instrument being
always open at one end and tapped by the fingers. To the accompani-
ment of the drum, dancing — as a rhythmic but stationary movement
PAPYRUS
743
of the feet or an evolutionary march — almost invariably goes, but
rarely singing. All sorts of jingling sounds also are music to the ear,
especially the clattering in time of strings of beans in their dry shells,
and so these and other rattles are found attached to the drum,
leg-bands and many of the utensils, implements and weapons.
Nearly all Papuan houses arc built m Malay fashion on piles, and
this not only on the coast but on the hillsides. In the north, the
„ east and south-west of the island immense communal
houses (morong) are met with. Some of these are between
500 and 700 ft. in length, with a rounded, boat-shaped roof thatched
with palm-branches, and looking inside, when undivided, like dark
tunnels. In some districts the natives live together in one of these
giant structures, which are divided into compartments. Communal
dweUings on a much smaller scale occur at Meroka, east of the
Astrolabe mountains. As a rule elsewhere each family has its
independent dwelling. On the north coast the houses are not built
on piles; the walls, of bamboo or palm branches, are very low, and
the projecting roof nearly reaches the ground; a barrier at the
entrance keeps out pigs and dogs. A sort of table or bench stands
outside, used by the men only, for meals and for the subsequent
siesta. In east New Guinea sometimes the houses are two-storeyed,
the lower part being used for stores. The ordinary house is 60 to
70 ft. long with a passage down the centre, and stands on a platform
or veranda raised on piles, with the ridge-pole projecting consider-
ably at the gables so that the roof may cover it at each end. Under
this shade the inmates spend much of their time; here their meals,
which are cooked on the ground beneath the house, are served.
The furniture consists of earthen bowls, drinking-cups, wooden
neck-rests, spoons, &c., artistically carved, mats, plaited baskets
and boxes. The pottery is moulded and fire-baked. In a few
districts villages are built at a short distance off the shore,
as a protection against raids by the inland tribes. The interior
villages are frequently situated on hill crests, or on top of steep-
faced rocks as difficult of access as possible, whence a clear view
all round can be had. Where such natural defences are wanting
the village is protected by high palisades and by fighting platforms
on trees commanding its approaches. The " dobbos," or tree-
houses, built in high trees, are more or less peculiar to British New
Guinea. On the north-east coast many of the villages are tastefully
kept, their whole area being clean swept, nicely sanded, and planted
with ornamental shrubs, and have in their centre little square
palaver places laid with flat stones, each with an erect stone pillar
as a back-rest. Excellent suspension bridges span some of the
larger rivers, made of interlaced rattan ropes secured to trees on
opposite banks, so very similar to those seen in Sumatra as to suggest
some Malay influence.
Papuan weapons are the bow and arrow (in the Fly River region,
the north and north-east coasts) ; a beheading knife of a sharp seg-
Weaooas "'"^"'- °f bamboo; a shafted stone club — rayed, disk-
■ shaped or ball-headed (in use all over the island) ; spears
of various forms, pointed and barbed; the spear-thrower (on the
Finsch coast) ; and hardwood clubs and shields, widely differing in
pattern and ornamentation with the district of their manufacture.
The Papuan bow is rather short, the arrows barbed and tipped with
cassowary or human bone. The Papuans are mostly ignorant of
iron, but work skilfully with axes of stone or tridacna shell and bone
chisels, cutting down trees 20 in. in diameter. Two men working
on a tree trunk, one making a cut with the adze lengthwise and the
other chopping off the piece across, will soon hollow out a large canoe.
Every man has a stone axe, each village generally owning a large
one. Their knives are of bamboo hardened by fire. In digging they
use the pointed stick. In British New Guinea alone is the man-
catcher (a rattan loop at the end of a handle with a pith spike pro-
jecting into it) met with. In the D'Entrecasteaux Islands the sling
is in use. For war the natives smear themselves in grotesque
fashion with lime or ochres, and in some parts hold in their teeth
against the chin a face-like mask, supposed to strike terror into the
foe, against whom they advance warily (if not timidly), yelling and
blowing their war-trumpets. The war canoe (which is a long, narrow
dug-out outrigger, capable of holding twenty-eight men) is only a
transport, for they never fight in it. The conch-shell is the trumpet
of alarm and call to arms. The vendetta — resulting, when success-
ful, in the bringing back the head of the slain as a trophy to be set
up as a house ornament — is widely practised. The eastern tribes
salute by squeezing simultaneously the nose and stomach, and both
there and on the north coast friendship is ratified by sacrificing a
dog. In other places they wave green branches, and on the south
coast, pour water over their heads, a custom noticed by Cook at
Mallicolo (New Hebrides). Among other pets they keep little pigs,
which the women suckle.
The Papuan numerals extend usually to 5 only. In Astrolabe
Bay the lirnit is 6; with the more degraded tribes it is 3, or, as in
Torres straits, they have names only for i and 2 ; 3 is 2-|-i.
Language. — The Papuan languages or dialects are very numerous,
owing, doubtless, to the perpetual intertribal hostility which has
fostered isolation. In grammatical structure there is considerable
resemblance between these dialects, but the verbal differences have
become great. Several dialects are sometimes found on one island.
The following are some broad characteristics of the Papuan
languages. Consonants are freely used, some of the consonantal
sounds being difficult to represent by Roman characters. Many of
the syllables are closed. There does not appear to be any difference
between the definite and the indefinite article, except in Fiji.
Nouns are divided into two classes, one of which lakes a pronominal
suffix, while the other never takes such a suffix. The principle of
this division appears to be a near or remote connexion between the
possessor and the thing possessed. Those things which belong to a
person, as the parts of his body, &c., take the pronominal suffix;
a thing possessed merely for use would not take it. Thus, in Fijian
the word luve means either a son or a daughter — one s own child,
and it takes the possessive pronoun suffixed, as luvena; but the word
ngone, a child, but not necessarily one's own child, takes the posses-
sive pronoun before it, as nana ngone, his child, i.e. his to look after
or bring up. Gender is only sexual. Many words are used indis-
criminately, as nouns, adjectives or verbs, without change; but
sometimes a noun is indicated by its termination. In mo,st of the
languages there are no changes in nouns to form the plural, but an
added numeral indicates number. Case is shown by particles,
which precede the nouns. Adjectives follow their substantives.
Pronouns are numerous, and the personal pronoun includes four
numbers — -singular, dual, trinal and general plural, also inclusive
and exclusive. Almost any word may be made into a verb by using
with it a verbal particle. The difference in the verbal particles in
the different languages is very great. In the verbs there are
causative, intensive or frequentative, and reciprocal forms.
See R. H. Codrington, The Melanesians (1891), Melanesian
Languages (1885); B. Hagen, Unler den Papuas (Wiesbaden, 1899);
G. von der Gabelentz and A. B. Meyer, Beitrdge zur Kennlniss der
melanesischen, &c., Sprachen (Leipzig, 1882); A. B. Meyer and R.
Parkinson, Album von Papua Typen (Dresden, 1894); F. S. A. de
Clercq, Elhnographische Beschrifving van de West-en Noordkust van
N. N. G. (Leiden, 1893); A. C. Haddon, Decorative Art of British
New Guinea (Dublin, 1894).
PAPYRUS, the paper reed, the Cypcrus Papyrus of Linnaeus,
in ancient times widely cultivated in the Delta of Egypt, where
it was used for various purposes, and especially as a writing
material. The plant is now extinct in Lower Egypt, but is
found in the Upper Nile regions and in Abyssinia. Theo-
phrastus {Hist, plant, iv. 10) states that it likewise grew in
Syria; and, according to Pliny, it was also a native plant of the
Niger and Euphrates. Its Greek title ira-Kvpos, Lat. papyrus,
appears to be of Egyptian origin. By Herodotus it is always
called /SujSXos. The first accurate description of the plant is
given by Theophrastus, from whom we learn that it grew in
shallows of 2 cubits (about 3 ft.) or less, its main root being of
the thickness of a man's wrist and 10 cubits in length. From
this root, which lay horizontally, smaller roots pushed down into
the mud, and the stem of the plant sprang up to the height of
4 cubits, being triangular and tapering in form. The tttfted
head or umbel is likened by PUny to a thyrsus.
The various uses to which the papyrus plant was applied are
also enumerated by Theophrastus. Of the head nothing could
be made but garlands for the shrines of the gods; but the wood
of the root was employed in the manufacture of different utensils
as well as for fuel. Of the stem of the plant were made boats,
sails, mats, cloth, cords, and, above all, writing materials. Its
pith was also a common article of food, and was eaten both
cooked and in its natural state. Herodotus, too, notices its
consumption as food (ii. 92), and incidentally mentions that it
provided the material of which the priests' sandals were made
(ii. 37). He Likewise refers to the use of byblus as tow for
caulking the seams of ships; and the statement of Theophrastus
that King Antigonus made the rigging of his fleet of the same
material is illustrated by the ship's cable, ottKov ^v^'Klvov,
wherewith the doors were fastened when Ulysses slew the suitors
in his hall (Odyss. xxi. 390). That the plant was itself used
also as the principal material in the construction of light skiffs
suitable for the navigation of the pools and shallows of the Nile,
and even of the river itself, is shown by sculptures of the fourth
dynasty, in which men are represented building a boat with
stems cut from a neighbouring plantation of papyrus (Lepsius,
Denkm. ii. 12). It is to boats of this description that Isaiah
probably refers in the " vessels of bulrushes upon the waters "
(xviii. 2). If the Hebrew gomer (ipS) also is to be identified
with the Egyptian papyrus, something may be said in favour
of the tradition that the bulrushes of which the ark was composed
in which the infant Moses was laid were in fact papyrus. But
744
PAPYRUS
it seems hardly credible that the Cyperus papyrus could have
sufficed for the many uses to which it is said to have been applied
and we may conclude that several plants of the genus Cyperus
were comprehended under the head of byblus or papyrus — an
opinion which is supported by the words of Strabo, who mentions
both inferior and superior quaUties. The Cyperus dives is still
grown in Egypt, and is used to this day for many of the purposes
named by ancient writers.
The widespread use throughout the ancient world of the
writing material manufactured from the papyrus plant is
attested by early writers, and by documents and sculptures.
Papyrus rolls are represented in ancient Egyptian wall-paintings;
and extant examples of the roUs themselves are sufficiently
numerous. The most ancient Egyptian papyrus now known
contains accounts of the reign of King Assa (3580-3536 B.C.).
The earliest literary papyrus is that known, from the name of
its former owner, as the Prisse papyrus, and now preserved at
Paris, containing a work composed in the reign of a king of the
fifth dynasty, and computed to be itself of the age of upwards
of 2500 years B.C. The papyri discovered in Egypt have often
been found in tombs, and in the hands, or swathed with the
bodies, of mummies. The ritual of the dead is most fre-
quently the subject. Besides the ritual and religious roUs, there
are the hieratic, civil and literary documents, and the demotic
and enchorial papyri, relating generally to sales of property.
Coptic papyri mainly contain Biblical or religious texts or
monastic deeds. Papyrus was also known to the Assyrians,
who called it " the reed of Egypt."
The early use of Papyrus among the Greeks is proved by the
reference of Herodotus (v. 58) to its introduction among the
Ionian Greeks, who gave it the name of di.4>depai, " skins,"
the material to which they had already been accustomed. In
Athens it was doubtless in use for literary as well as for other
purposes as early as the 5th century B.C. An inscription
relating to the rebuilding of the Erechtheum in 407 B.C.
records the purchase of two papyrus rolls, to be used for the fair
copy of the rough accounts. The very large number of classical
and other Greek papyri, of the Ptolemaic and later periods,
which have been recovered in Egypt, are noticed in the article on
Palaeography. The rolls found in the ruins of Herculaneum
contain generaDy the less interesting works of writers of the
Epicurean school.
Papyrus also made its way into Italy, but at how early a
period there is nothing to show. It may be presumed, however,
that from the very first it was employed as the vehicle for
Roman literature. Under the Empire its use must have been
extensive, for not only was it required for the production of
books, but it was universally employed for domestic purposes,
correspondence and legal documents. So indispensable did it
I become that it is reported that in the reign of Tiberius, owing
! to the scarcity and dearness of the material caused by a failure
of the papyrus crop, there was a danger of the ordinary business
of hfe being deranged (Pliny, N.H. xiii. 13).
The account which Pliny {N.H. xiii. 11-13) has transmitted to
us of the manufacture of the writing material from the papyrus
plant should be taken strictly to refer to the process followed in
his own time; but, with some differences in details, the same general
method of treatment had doubtlessly been practised from time
immemorial. His te.xt, however, is so confused, both from obscuritv
of style and from corruptions in the MSS., that there is much
difference of opinion as to the meaning of many words and phrases
employed in his narrative, and their application in particular points
of detail. In one important particular, however, affecting the
primary construction of the material, there can no longer be any
doubt. The old idea that it was made from layers or pellicules
growing between the rind and a central stalk has been abandoned,
as it has been proved that the plant, like other reeds, contains only
a cellular pith within the rind. The stem was in fact 'cut into
longitudinal strips for the purpose of being converted into the writing
material, those from the centre of the plant being the broadest and
most valuable. The strips {inae, philyrae), which were cut with a
sharp knife or some such instrument, were laid on a board side by
side to the required width, thus forming a layer (sclieda), across
which another layer of shorter strips was laid at right angles.
The two layers thus " woven " — Pliny uses the word texere in de-
scribing this part of the process — formed a sheet (plagtda or net),
which was then soaked in water of the Nile. The mention of a
particular water has caused trouble to the commentators. Some
have supposed that certain chemical properties of which the Nile
water was possessed acted as a glue or cement to cause the two
layers to adhere ; others, with more reason, that glutinous matter
contained in the material itself was solved by the action of water,
whether from the Nile or any other source; and others again read
in Pliny's words an implication that a paste was actually used.
Th2 sheet was finally hammered and dried in the sun. Any rough-
ness was levelled by polishing with ivory or a smooth shell. But
the material was also subject to other defects, such as moisture
lurking between the layers, which might be detected by strokes of
the mallet; spots or stains; and spongy strips (taeniae), in which
the ink would run and spoil the sheet. When such faults occurred,
the papyrus must be re-made. To form a roll the several sheets
KoWriiiaTa, were joined together with paste (glue being too hard),
but not more than twenty sheets in a roll {scapus). As, however,
there are still extant rolls consisting of more than the prescribed
number of sheets, either the reading of vicenae is corrupt, or the
number was not constant in all times. The scapus seems to have
been a standard length of papyrus, as sold by the stationers. The
best sheet formed the first or outside sheet of the roll, and the
others were joined on in order of quality, so that the worst sheets
were in the centre of the roll. This arrangement was adopted,
not for the purpose of fraudulently selling bad material under
cover of the better exterior, but in order that the outside of the roll
should be composed of that which would best stand wear and tear.
Besides, in case of the entire roll not being filled with the text, the
unused and inferior sheets at the end could be better spared, and
so might be cut off.
The different kinds of papyrus writing material and their dimen-
sions are also enumerated by Pliny. The best quality, formed
from the middle and broadest strips of the plant, was originally
named hieratica, but afterwards, in flattery of the emperor Augustus,
it was called, after him, Aiigusta; and the charta Livia, or second
quality, was so named in honour of his wife. The hieratica thus
descended to the third rank. The first two were 13 digiti, or about
9I in. in width; the hieratica, II digiti or 8 in. Next came the
charta amphithcatrica, named after the principal place of its manu-
facture, the amphitheatre of Alexandria, of 9 digiti or 65 in. wide.
The charta Fanniana appears to have been a kind of papyrus
worked up from the amphitheatrica, which by flattening and other
methods was increased in width by an inch, in the factory of a
certain Fannius at Rome. The Saitica, which took its name from
the city of Sais, and was probably of 8 digiti or 5f in., was of
a common description. The Taeniotica, named apparently from
the place of its manufacture, a tongue of land (rai-vla) near Alex-
andria, was sold by weight, and was of uncertain width, perhaps
from 4f to 5 in. And lastly there was the common packing-paper,
the charta emporetica, of 6 digiti or 4I in. Isidore (Etymol. vi. 10)
mentions yet another kind, the Corneliana, first made under
C. Cornelius Callus, prefect of Eg>'pt, which, however, may have
been the same as the amphitlieatrica or Fanniana. The name of
the man who had incurred the anger of Augustus may have been
suppressed by the same influence that expunged the episode of
Callus from the Fourth Ceorgic (Birt, Antik. Buchwesen, p. 250).
In the reign of the emperor Claudius also another kind was intro-
duced and entitled Claudia. It had been found by experience that
the charta Augusta was, from its fineness and porous nature, ill
suited for literary use ; it was accordingly reserved for correspon-
dence only, and for other purposes was replaced by the new paper.
PAR— PARA
745
The charta Claudia was made from a composition of the first and
second qualities, the Augusta and the Livia, a layer of the former
being backed with one of the latter; and the sheet was increased
to nearly a foot in width. The largest of all, however, was the
macrocoilon, probably of good quality and equal to the hieratic,
and a cubit or nearly l8 in. wide. It was used by Cicero (Ep. ad
Attic, xiii. 25; xvi. 3). The width, however, proved inconvenient,
and the broad sheet was liable to injury by tearing.
An examination of extant papyri has had the result of proving
that sheets of large size, measuring about 12 in., were sometimes
used. A large class of examples run to 10 in., others to 8 in.,
while the smaller sizes range from 4 to 6 in.
An interesting question arises as to the accuracy of the different
measurements given by Pliny. His figures regarding the width of
the different kinds of papyri have generally been understood to
concern the width (or height) of the rolls, as distinguished from
their length. It has, however, been observed that in practice the
width of extant rolls does not tally in any satisfactory degree with
Pliny's measurements; and a more plausible explanation has been
offered (Birt, Antik. Buchwesen, pp. 251 seq.) that the breadth
(not height) of the individual sheets of which the rolls are composed
is referred to.
The first sheet of a roll was named ■KpardKoWov; the last,
iffX<iroK6X\iov. Under the Romans, the former bore the name of
the comes largitionum, who had control of the manufacture, with
the date and name of place. It was the practice to cut away the
portion thus marked; but in case of legal documents this mutilation
was forbidden by the laws of Justinian. On the Arab conquest
of Egypt in the 7th century, the manufacture was continued, and
the protocols were marked at first, as it appears, with inscriptions
in both Greek and Arabic, and later in the latter language alone.
There are several examples extant, some being in the British
Museum, ranging between the years 670 and 715 (see facsimiles in
C. H. Becker, Papyri Schotl-Reinhardt , i. (Heidelberg, 1906) ; and cf.
" Arabische Papyri des Aphroditofundes," in Zeitsch. fiir Assyrio-
logie, XX. (1906), 68-104. The Arab inscriptions are accompanied
by curious scrawls on each side, which may be imitated from words
used in the Latin inscriptions of the Roman period.
Papyrus was cultivated and manufactured for writing
material by the Arabs in Egypt down to the time when the grow-
ing industry of paper in the 8th and 9th centuries rendered it
no longer a necessity (see Paper). It seems to have entirely
given place to paper in the loth century. Varro's statement,
repeated by Phny, that papyrus was first made in Alexander's
time, should probably be taken to mean that its manufacture,
which till then had been a government monopoly, was reUeved
from all restrictions. It is not probable, however, that it was
ever manufactured from the native plant anywhere but in
Egypt. At Rome there was certainly some kind of industry in
papyrus, the charta Fanniana, already referred to, being an
instance in iUustration. But it seems probable that this
industry was confined to the re-making of material imported into
Italy, as in the case of the charta Claudia. This second manu-
facture, however, is thought to have been detrimental to the
papyrus, as it would then have been in a dried condition requiring
artificial aids, such as a more hberal use of gum or paste, in the
process. The more brittle condition of the Latin papyri found
at Herculaneum has been instanced as the evil result of this
re-making of the material.
As to cultivation of the plant in Europe, according to Strabo
the Romans obtained the papyrus plant from Lake Trasimene
and other lakes of Etruria, but this statement is unsupported
by any other ancient authority. At a later period, however, a
papyrus was cultivated in Sicily, which has been identified by
Parlatore with the Syrian variety {Cy penis syriacus), far ex-
ceeding in height the Egyptian plant, and having a more drooping
head. It grew in the east and south of the island, where it was
introduced during the Arab occupation. It was seen in the loth
century, by the Arab traveller Ibn-Haukal, in the neighbourhood
of Palermo, where it throve luxuriantly in the pools of the
Papireto, a stream to which it lent its name. From it paper was
made for the sultan's use. But in the 13th century it began to
fail, and in 1591 the drying up of the Papireto caused the
extinction of the plant in that district. It is still to be seen at
Syracuse, but it was probably transplanted thither at a later
time, and reared only as a curiosity, as there is no notice of it to
be found previous to 1674. It is with this Syracusan plant that
some attempts have been made in modern times to manufacture
a writing material similar to ancient papyrus.
Even after the introduction of vellum as the ordinary vehicle
for literature papyrus still continued to some extent in use
outside Egypt, and was not entirely superseded until a late date.
It ceased, however, to be used for books sooner than for docu-
ments. In the 5th century St Augustine apologizes for sending
a letter written on vellum instead of the more usual substance,
papyrus (Ep. xv.); and Cassiodorus (Varr. xi. 38), writing in
the 6th century, indulges in a high-flown panegyric on the plant
and its value. Of medieval literary Greek papyri very few relics
have survived, but of documents coming down to the 8th and
9th centuries an increasing number is being brought to light
among the discoveries in Egypt.
Medieval Latin MSS. on papyrus in book form are still extant
in different libraries of Europe, viz. : the Homilies of St Avitus, of
the 6th century, at Paris; Sermons and Epistles of St Augustine,
of the 6th or 7th century, at Paris and Geneva; works of Hilary,
of the 6th century, at Vienna; fragments of the Digests, of the
6th century, at Pommersfeld; the Antiquities of Josephus, of the
7th century, at Milan; Isidore, De contemptu mundi, of the 7th
century, at St Gall; and the Register of the Church of Ravenna, of
the loth century, at Munich. The employment of this material in
Italy for legal purposes is sufficiently illustrated by the large number
of documents in Latin which were preserved at Ravenna, and date
from the 5th to the loth century. In the papal chancery it was
used at an early date, evidence of its presence there being found
in the biography of Gregory I. But of the extant papal deeds
the earliest to which an authentic date can be attached is a bull
of Adrian I. of the year 788, while the latest appears to be one of
1022. There is evidence to show that in the loth century papyrus
was used, to the exclusion of other materials, in papal deeds.
In France it was a common writing substance in the 6th century
(Gregory of Tours, Hist. Franc, v. 5). Of the Merovingian period
there are still extant several papyrus deeds, the earliest of the year
625, the latest of 692. Under Charlemagne and his successors it
was not used. By the 12th century the manufacture of papyrus
had entirely ceased, as appears from a note by Eustathius m his
commentary on the Odyssey, xxi. 390.
Authorities. — Melch. Guilandino's commentary on the chapters
of Pliny relating to papyrus. Papyrus, hoc est commentarius , &c.
(Venice, 1572); Montfaucon, " Dissertation sur la plante appellee
Papyrus," in the Memoires de I'academie des inscriptions (1729), pp.
592-608; T. C. Tychsen, " De chartae papyraceae in Europa
per medium aevum usu," in the Comment. Soc. Reg. Scient. Cottin-
gensis (1820), pp. 141-208; Dureau de la Malle, " M6moire sur le
papyrus," in the Mem. de I'institut (1851), pp. 140-183; P. Parlatore,
" M(5moire sur le papyrus des anciens," in the Mem. & I'acad. des
sciences (1854), pp. 469-502; Blumner, Technologie und Termino-
logie der Gewerbe und Kiinste bei Griechen und Romern, i. 308-327
(Leipzig, 1875) ; C. Paoli, Del Papiro (Florence, 1878) ; G. Cosentino,
" La Carta di papiro," in A rchivio storico siciliano (1889), pp. 134-164.
See also W. Wattenbach, Das Schriftwesen im Mittelalter
(Leipzig, 1896); T. Birt, Vas antike Buchivesen (Berlin, 1882);
F. G. Kenyon, The Palaeography of Greek Papyri (Oxford, 1899);
and W. Schubart, Das Buch bei den Griechen und Romern (Berlin,
1907). (E. M. T.)
PAR (Lat. par, equal), technically a commercial and banking
term. When stocks, shares, &c., are purchasable at the price
originally paid for them or at their nominal or face value they
are said to be at par. When the purchase price is higher than the
face value, they are above par, or at a premium; when below face
value, they are below par, or at a discount. Par of exchange is
the amount of money in the currency of one 'country which is
equivalent to the same amount in the terms of another, both
currencies being of the same metal and of a fixed standard of
weight and purity. (See Exchange.)
PARA, or Grao Para, a northern state of BrazU, bounded N.
by the three Guianas and the Atlantic, E. by the Atlantic and
the states of Maranhao and Goyaz,' S. by Goyaz and Matte
Grosso and W. by Amazonas. It is the third largest state of the
republic, having an area of 443,922 sq. m.; pop. (1890), 328,455,
(1900), 445,356. The Amazon valley has its outlet to the ocean
through the central part of the state, the outlet, or neck, being
comparatively narrow and the territory on both sides rising to
the level of the ancient plateau that covered this part of the
continent. In the north is the Guiana plateau, sometimes
called Brazilian Guiana, which is " blanketed " and made semi-
arid by the mountain ranges on the Brazil-Guiana frontier. In
the south the country rises in forested terraces and is broken by
escarpments caused by the erosion of the northern slope of the
great central plateau of Brazil. With the exception of the
XX. 24 a
746
PARA
Guiana highlands, and some grassy plains on the island of
Marajo and in some other places, the state is densely forested,
and its lowest levels are covered with a network of rivers, lakes
and connecting channels.
The rivers of the state may be grouped under three general
systems: the Amazon and its tributaries, the Tocantins and
its tributaries and the rivers flowing direct to the Atlantic.
The Amazon crosses the state in a general E.N.E. direction
for about 500 m. Its channels, tributaries, furos (arms),
igarapes (creeks, or literally, " canoe paths "), by-channels and
reservoir lakes form an extremely complicated hydrographic
system. From the north seven large tributaries are received —
the Jamunda (which forms the boundary line with Amazonas),
Trombetas, Maecuru, Jauary, Parii, Jary and Anauera-pucu.
The first is, strictly speaking, a tributary of the Trombetas,
though several furos connect with the Amazon before its main
channel opens into the Trombetas. All these rivers have their
sources on the Guiana highlands within the limits of the state,
and How southward to the Amazon over numerous rapids and
falls, with comparatively short navigable channels before
entering the great river. From the south two great tributaries
are received — the Tapajos and Xingu — both having their
sources outside the state (see Amazon). The Para estuary,
usually called the Para river, belongs to the Tocantins, although
popularly described as a mouth of the Amazon. Very little
Amazon water passes through it except in times of flood. It is
connected with the Amazon by navigable tidal furos, in which
the current is hardly perceptible. The estuary is about 200 m.
long and s to 3° m- wide, and receives the waters of a large
number of streams, the largest of which is the Guama and its
chief tributary, the Capim. A number of small rivers discharge
into the Atlantic north and south of the Amazon, the largest
of which are the Gurupy, which forms the boundary line with
Maranhao, the Araguary, which drains a large area of the eastern
slope of the Guiana highlands, and the Oyapok, which forms the
boundary line with French Guiana.
Lying across the mouth of the Amazon and dividing it into
three channels are the islands of Caviana and Mexiana, the first
47 m. and the second 27 m. in length, north-west to south-east,
both traversed by the equator, and both devoted to cattle-
raising. Somewhat different in character is the island of
Marajo, or Joannes, which lies between the Amazon and Para
estuary. It is 162 m. long by 99 m. wide, and its area is about
15,000 sq. m. This island is only partly alluvial in character,
a considerable area on its eastern and southern sides having the
same geological formation as the neighbouring mainland. The
larger part, the north-western, belongs to the flood-plains of
the Amazon, being covered with swamps, forests and open
meadows, and subject to annual inundations. There are several
towns and villages on the island, and stock-raising, now in a state
of decadence, has long been its principal industry. Of interest
to archaeologists is the largest of its several lakes, called Arary,
in the centre of which is a small island celebrated for its Indian
antiquities, chiefly pottery. On the Atlantic coast the principal
island is Maraca (lat. 2° N.), 26 m. long by 20 m. wide, which lies,
in part, off the entrance to the Amapa river.
Para is crossed by the equator, and its climate is wholly
tropical, but there is a wide variation in temperature and
rainfall. In general, it is hot and dry on the Guiana plateau,
and hot and humid throughout the forested region. In the
latter, there are two recognized seasons, wet and dry, which
differ only in the amount of rainfall, a strictly dry season being
unknown. The trade winds, which blow up the Amazon with
much force, moderate the heat and make healthy most of the
settlements on the great river itself; but the settlements along
its tributaries, which are not swept by these winds, are afflicted
with malaria. The population is concentrated at widely separated
points on the coast and navigable rivers, except on Marajo
island, where open country and pastoral pursuits have opened
up inland districts. The principal occupation is the collecting
and marketing of forest products such as rubber (from Hevea
brasilicnsis), gutta-percha, or balata (Mimusops elata), Brazil
nuts (Bertholetia excelsis), sarsaparilla (Smilax), cumarii or
tonka beans [Dipterix odorala), copaiba {Copaifera officin-
arum), guarand {Paulinia sorbilis), cravo (an aromatic bark of
Dkypcllium caryophillalum) and many others. In earlier days
cotton, sugar-cane, rice, tobacco, cacao and even coffee were
cultivated, but the demand for rubber caused their abandonment
in most places. Cacao {Theobroma cacao) is still widely culti-
vated, as also mandioca (Manihot lUilissima) in some localities.
Para produces many kinds of fruits — the orange, banana,
abrico, caju, abacate (alligator pear), mango, sapotilha, fructa
de Conde, grape, &c., besides a large number hardly known
beyond the Amazon valley. The pastoral industries were once
important in Para, especially on the islands of Marajo, Caviana
and Mexiana, and included the rearing of horses, cattle, and sheep.
At present Uttle is done in these industries, and the people depend
upon importation for draft animals and fresh meat. There
remain a few cattle ranges on Marajo and other islands, but the
industry is apparently losing ground. Mining receives some
attention on the Atlantic slope of the Guiana plateau, where
gold washings of no great importance have been found in the
Counani and other streams. There are no manufactures in the
state outside the city of Para {q.v.).
Transportation depends wholly on river craft, the one railway
of the state, the Para & Braganfa, not being able to meet
expenses from its traffic receipts. The capital of the state is
Para, or Belem do Para, and its history is largely that of this city.
Other important towns are Alemaquer (pop. about 1500; of
the municipio in 1890, 7539), on a by-channel of the Amazon;
Breves (mun. 12,593 in 1890), a river port in the south-west
part of Marajo, on a channel connecting the Amazon with the
Para estuary; Braganga (mun. 16,046 in 1890), a small town in
one of the few agricultural districts of the state, 147 m. by rail
north-east of Para, on the river Caete, near the coast; Obidos
(about 1000; mun. 12,666 in 1890), on the north bank of the
Amazon at a point called the Pauxis narrows, a little over i m.
wide, attractively situated on a hillside in a healthful locality;
and Santarem (12,062 in 1890), on the right bank of the Tapajos,
25 m. from the Amazon, dating from 1661, and the most
prosperous and populous town between Para and Manaos.
PARA (officially Belem; sometimes Belem do Para), a city
and port of Brazil, capital of the state of Para, and the see of a
bishop, on a point of land formed by the entrance of the
Guama river into the Para (86 m. from the Atlantic), in
1° 28' S., 48° 28' W. Pop. of the city and rural districts of the
municipality (1890), 50,064; (1900, estimate), 100,000. There
is a large Portuguese contingent in the population, and the
foreign element, engaged in trade and transportation, is also
important. The Indian admixture is strongly apparent in the
Amazon valley and is noticeable in Para. A small railway,
built by the state, runs north-eastward in the direction of
Braganga (112 m.), on the sea-coast. The Guama river is
enlarged at its mouth to form an estuary called the bay of
Guajara, partially shut off from the Para by several islands
and forming the anchorage of the port, and the Para is the
estuary mouth of the Tocantins river. The Para is about 20 m.
wide here.
The city is built on an alluvial forested plain only a few feet
above the level of the river, and its streets usually end at the
margin of the impenetrable forest. The climate is hot and
humid, but the temperature and diurnal changes are remarkably
uniform throughout the year. The annual rainfall, according
to Professor M. F. Draenert, is 70 in. (Reclus says 120 in.), of
which 56 in. are credited to the rainy season (January to June).
H. W. Bates gives the average temperature at 81° F., the
minimum at 73°, and the maximum (2 p.m.) at 89° to 94°.
These favourable climatic conditions tend to make the city
healthy, but through defective drainage, insanitary habits and
surroundings, and improper diet the death-rate is high. The
plan of the city is regular and, owing to the density of the forest,
it has no outlying suburbs. The streets are usually narrow,
straight and well paved. Among the many public squares and
gardens the largest are the Prafa Caetano Brandao, with a
PARABLE— PARABOLA
747
statue of the bishop of that name; the Praga da Independencia,
surrounded by government buildings and having an elaborate
monument to General Gurjao; the Praga Visconde do Rio
Brango, with a statue of Jose da Gama Melchior; the Praga de
Baptista Campos, with artificial cascades, lake, island and winding
paths; the Praga da Rcpublica, with a monument representing
the Republic; and the Praga de Prudcnte Moraes, named in
honour of the first civilian president of Brazil. Another public
outdoor resort is the Bosque, a tract of forest on the outskirts
of the city. The public buOdings and institutions are in great
part relics of an older regime. The great cruciform cathedral,
on the Praga Caetano Brandao, dates from the middle of the iSth
century. In the vicinity, facing on the Praga da Independencia,
are the government and municipal palaces — built by order of
Pombal (c. 1766), when Portugal contemplated the creation of
a great empire on the Amazon. The bishop's palace and epis-
copal seminary, near the cathedral, were once the Jesuits' college,
and the custom-house on the water-front was once the convent
and church of the Mercenaries. One of the most notable
buildings of the city is the Theatro da Paz (Peace Theatre),
which faces upon the Praga da Republica and was built by the
government during the second empire. Other noteworthy
buOdings are the Caridade hospital, the Misericordia hospital
(known as the " Santa Casa "), the military barracks occupying
another old convent, and the Castello fort, a relic of colonial
days. Para has a number of schools and colleges, public and
private, of secondary grade, such as the Atenco Paranense,
Institute Lauro Sodre and Lyceu Benjamin Constant. There
is an exceptionally fine museum (Museu Goeldi), with important
collections in anthropology, ethnology, zoology and botany,
drawn from the Amazon valley. The private dwellings are
chiefly of the Portuguese one-storey type, with red tile roofs and
thick walls of broken stone and mortar, generally plastered
outside but sometimes covered with blue and white Lisbon tUes.
Para is the entrepot for the Amazon valley and the principal
commercial city of northern Brazil. It is the headquarters of
the Amazon Navigation Company, which owns a fleet of 40
river steamers, of 500 to 900 tons, and sends them up the
Amazon to the Peruvian frontier, and up all the large tributaries
where trading settlements have been established. Two or
three coastwise companies also make regular calls at this port,
and several transatlantic lines afford regular communication
with Lisbon, Liverpool, Hamburg and New York. The port
is accessible to large steamers, but those of light draft only can
lie alongside the quays, the larger being obliged to anchor some
distance out. Extensive port improvements have been under-
taken. The exports of Para include rubber, cacao, Brazil nuts
and a large number of minor products, such as isinglass, palm
fibre, fine woods, tonka beans, deerskins, balsam copaiba,
annatto, and other forest products.
Para was founded in 1615 by Francisco Caldeira de Castcllo-
Branco, who commanded a small expedition from Maranhao
sent thither to secure possession of the country for Portugal
and drive out the Dutch and English traders. The settlement,
which he named Nossa Senhora de Belem (Our Lady of Bethle-
hem), grew to be one of the most turbulent and ungovernable
towns of Brazil. Rivalry with Maranhao, the capital of the
Amazon dependencies, slave-hunting, and bitter controversies
with the Jesuits who sought to protect the Indians from this
traffic, combined to cause agitation. In 1641 it had a population
of only 400, but it had four monasteries and was already largely
interested in the Indian slave traffic. In 1652 the Para territory
was made a separate capitania, with the town of Para as the
capital, but it was reannexed to Maranhao in 1654. The final
separation occurred in 1772, and Para again became the capital,
continuing as such through all the political changes that have
since occurred. The bishopric of Para dates from 1723. The
popular movement in Portugal in 1820 in favour of a constitution
and parliament (Cortes) had its echo in Para, where in 182 1 the
populace and garrison joined in creating a government of their
own and in sending a deputation to Lisbon. The declaration
of Brazilian independence of 1822 and creation of an empire
under Dom Pedro I. was not accepted by Par4, partly because
of its influential Portuguese population, and partly through
jealousy of Rio de Janeiro as the centre of political power. In
1823 a naval expedition under Lord Cochrane, then in the
service of Brazil, took possession of Maranhao, from which
place the small brig " Dom Miguel " under the command of
Captain John (irenfell was sent to Para. This officer conveyed
the impression that the whole fleet was behind him, and on the
15th of August the junta govcrnaliva organized in the preceding
year surrendered its authority and Para became part of the
newly created Brazilian empire. An uprising against the new
government soon occurred, which resulted in the arrest of the
insurgents, the execution of their leaders, and the incarceration
of 253 prisoners in the hold of a small vessel, where all but four
died from suffocation before morning. Conspiracies and revolts
followed, and in 1835 an outbreak of the worse elements, made
up chiefly of Indians and half-breeds, occurred, known as the
" Revolugao da Cabanagem," which was chiefly directed against
the Portuguese, and then against the Freemasons. All whites
were compelled to leave the city and take refuge on neighbouring
islands. The Indians and half-breeds obtained the mastery,
under the leadership of Antonio and Francisco Vinagres and
Eduardo Angelim, and plunged the city and neighbouring towns
into a state of anarchy, the population being reduced from
25,000 to 15,000. The revolt was overcome in 1836, but the
city did not recover from its effects until 1848. But the
opening of the Amazon to foreign trade in 1867 greatly increased
the importance of the city, and its growth has gone forward
steadUy since that event. (A. J. L.)
PARABLE (Gr. Trapa/SoXij, a comparison or similitude),
originally the name given by (ireek rhetoricians to a literary
illustration avowedly introduced as such. In late Greek it
came to mean a fictitious narrative or allegory (generally some-
thing that might naturally occur) by which moral or spiritual
relations are typically set forth, as in the New Testament. The
parable differs from the apologue in the inherent probability
of the story itself, and in excluding animals or inanimate
creatures from passing out of their natural sphere and assuming
the powers of man, but it resembles it in the essential qualities
of brevity and definiteness, and also in its Eastern origin.
There are many beautiful examples of the parable in the Old
Testament, that of Nathan, for instance, in 2 Sam. xii. 1-9, that
of the woman of Tekoah in 2 Sam. xiv. 1-13, and others in the
Prophets.
PARABOLA, a plane curve of the second degree. It may be
defined as a section of a right circular cone by a plane parallel
to a tangent plane to the cone, or as the locus of a point which
moves so that its distances from a fixed point and a fixed line
are equal. It is therefore a conic section having its eccentricity
equal to unity. The parabola is the curve described by a projec-
tile which moves in a non-resisting medium under the influence
of gravity (see Mechanics). The general relations between the
parabola, ellipse and hyperbola are treated in the articles
Geometry, Analytical, and Conic Sections; and various
projective properties are demonstrated in the article Geometry,
Projective. Here only the specific properties of the parabola
will be given.
The form of the curve is shown in fig. i, where P is a point on
the curve equidistant from the fixed line AB, known as the
directrix, and the fixed point F known as
the focus. The line CD passing through
the focus and perpendicular to the
directrix is the axis or principal diameter,
and meets the curve in the vertex G.
The line FL perpendicular to the axis,
and passing through the focus, is the
semilatus rectum, the latus rectum being
the focal chord parallel to the directrix.
Any line parallel to the axis is a diameter,
and the parameter of any diameter is
measured by the focal chord drawn Fig. i.
parallel to the tangent at the vertex of the diameter and is equal
748
PARABOLA
Fig. 2.
to four times the focal distance of the vertex. To construct the
parabola when the focus and directrix are given, draw the axis
CD and bisect CF at G, which gives the vertex. Any number
of points on the parabola are obtained by taking any point
E on the directrix, joining EG and EF and drawing FP so
that the angles PFE and DFE are equal. Then EG produced
meets FP in a point on the curve. By joining the points
so obtained the parabola may be described. A mechanical
construction, when the same conditions are given, consists in
taking a rigid bar ABC bent at right angles at B (fig. 2),
and fastening a string of length BC to C
=£ and F. Then if a pencil be placed along
BC so as to keep the string taut, and the
limb AB be shd along the directrix, the
— pencil will trace out the parabola.
Properties which may be readily de-
duced by euchdian methods from the
definition include the following: the tangent at any point
bisects the angle between the focal distance and the
perpendicular on the directrix and is equally incUned to the
focal distance and the axis; tangents at the extremities of a
focal chord intersect at right angles on the directrix, and as a
corollary we have that the locus of the intersection of tangents
at right angles is the directrix; the circumcircle of a triangle
circumscribing a parabola passes through the focus; the sub-
tangent is equal to twice the abscissa of the point of contact;
the subnormal is constant and equals the semilatus rectum; and
the radius of curvature at a point P is 2 (FP)»/a^ where a is the
semilatus rectum and FP the focal distance of P.
A fundamental property of the curve is that the line at infinity
is a tangent (see Geometry, Projective), and it follows that
the centre and the second real focus and directrix are at infinity.
It also follows that a Une half-way between a point and its polar
and parallel to the latter touches the parabola, and therefore
the hues joining the middle points of the sides of a self-conjugate
triangle form a circumscribing triangle, and also that the nine-
point circle of a self-conjugate triangle passes through the focus.
The orthocentre of a triangle circumscribing a parabola is on
the directrix; a deduction from this theorem is that the centre
of the circumcircle of a self-conjugate triangle is on the directrix
(" Steiner's Theorem ").
In the article Geometry, Analytical, it is shown that the
general equation of the second degree represents a parabola
when the highest terms form a perfect square.
Analytic rpj^j j ^-^^ analytical expression of the projective
Geometry. , ,,. ■ r ■ ■ ^ i^i.
property that the fine at mfimty is a tangent. Ihe
simplest equation to the parabola is that which is referred to its
axis and the tangent at the vertex as the axes of co-ordinates,
when it assumes the form y'' = ^ax where 2a = semilatus rectum;
this may be deduced directly from the definition. An equation
of similar form is obtained when the axes of co-ordinates are any
diameter and the tangent at the vertex. The equations to the
tangent and normal at the point x'y' are yy' =2a{x+x') and
2a{y — y')-\-y'{x — x') = o, and may be obtained by general
methods (see Geometry, Analytical, and Infinitesimal
Calculus). More convenient forms in terms of a single para-
meter are deduced by substituting x' = ant^, y' = 2am (for on
eliminating tn between these relations the equation to the
parabola is obtained). The tangent then becomes my = x+am'
and the normal y = mx+2am — am^. The envelope of this last
equation is 27a/ = 4(a;— 20)', which shows that the evolute
of a parabola is a semi-cubical parabola (see below Higher Orders).
The cartesian equation to_a parabola which touches the co-
ordinate axes is Vax+Vby=i, and the polar equation when
the focus is the pole and the axis the initial fine is r cos-5/2 = (2.
The equation to a parabola in triangular co-ordinates is gener-
ally derived by expressing the condition that the line at infinity
is a tangent in the equation to the general conic. For example,
in trilinear co-ordinates, the equation to the general conic
circumscribing the triangle of reference is l/37-f «!7a-|-«o)3 = o;
for this to be a parabola the line aa + b^ + c'y = o
must be a tangent. Expressing this condition we obtain
V/a^ Vntb=^ V«c = oasthe relation which must hold between
the co-efficients of the above equation and the sides of the triangle
of reference for the equation to represent a parabola. Similarly,
the conditions for the inscribed conic V la+V mfi-bV ny = o
to be a parabola is Ibc+mca+nab — o, and the conic for which
the triangle of reference is self-conjugate la^-\-mfi--{-ny'^ = o is
a-mn-{-bhil-\-cHm = o. The various forms in areal co-ordinates
may be derived from the above by substituting Xo for /, nb for m
and vc for n, or directly by expressing the condition for tangency
of the hne x-\-y-\-z = o to the conic expressed in areal co-
ordinates. In tangential (/>, q, r) co-ordinates the inscribed and
circumscribed conies take the forms \qr-\-iirp-\-vpq = o and
\'\p+\/ixq-'ryvr = o; these are parabolas when X-)-j:i-|-i' = o
and VX='=V/u='=V!' = o respectively.
The length of a paraboUc arc can be obtained by the methods
of the infinitesimal calculus; the curve is directly quadrable,
the area of any poition between two ordinates being two thirds
of the circumscribing parallelogram. The pedal equation with
the focus as origin is p^ = ar; the first positive pedal for the
vertex is the cissoid (q.v.) and for the focus the directrix. (See
Infinitesimal Calculus.)
References. — Geometrical constructions of the parabola are to
be found in T. H. Eagles' Plane Curves (1885). See the bibliography
to the articles Conic Sections; Geometry, Analytical; and
Geometry, Projective.
In the geometry of plane curves, the term parabola is often
used to denote the curves given by the general equation a"'x" =
ym+n^ thus ax = y^ is the quadratic or Apollonian
parabola; a-x = y' is the cubic parabola, a'x = y* is orders
the biquadratic parabola; semi parabolas have the
general equation ax"~^ = y", thus ax' = y^ is the semicubical
parabola and a:(? = y* the semibiquadratic parabola. These
curves were investigated by Rene Descartes, Sir Isaac Newton,
Colin Maclaurin and others. Here we shall treat only the more
important forms.
The cartesian parabola is a cubic curve which is also known as
the trident of Newton on account of its three-pronged form. Its
equation is xy = ax'^-'rbx--\-cx-\-d, and it consists of two legs
asymptotic to the axis of y and two parabolic legs (fig. 3). The
simplest form is axy = x^ — a^, in this case the serpentine position
shown in the figure degenerates into a point of inflexion. Descartes
used the curve to solve sextic equations by determining its inter-
sections with a circle; mechanical constructions were given by
Descartes {Geometry, lib. 3) and Maclaurin (Organica geometrica).
The cubic parabola (fig. 4) is a cubic curve having the equation
y = ax''-\-bx'^-\-cx-\-d. It consists of two parabolic branches
tending in opposite directions. John Wallis utilized the intersec-
tions of this curve with a right line to solve cubic equations, and
Edmund Halley solved sextic equations with the aid of a circle.
Diverging parabolas are cubic curves given by the equation
y^ = ax^+bx''-\-cx-\-d. Newton discussed the five forms which arise
from the relations of the roots of the cubic equation. When all the
■e-
Fig. 3.
Fig. 4.
Fig. 5.
roots are real and unequal the curve consists of a closed oval and a
parabolic branch (fig. 5). As the two lesser roots are made more
and more equal the oval shrinks in size and ultimately becomes a
real conjugate point, and the curve, the equation of which is y^ =
(x — a)^(.r — fe) (in which a>b) consists of this point and a bell-like
branch resembling the right-hand member of fig. 5. If two roots are
imaginary the equation is y = (.x^-t-a^) (.x — o) and the curve
resembles the parabolic branch, as in the preceding case. This is some-
times termed the campaniform (or bell-shaped) parabola. If the two
greater roots are equal the equation is y = (x — a) (x — bY (in which
a<b) and the curve assumes the form shown in fig. 6, and is known
as the nodated parabola. Finally, if all the roots are equal, the
equation becomes y^ = {x—a)'\ this curve is the cuspidal or semi-
cubical parabola (fig. 7). This curve, which is sometimes termed the
Neilian parabola after William Neil (1637-1670), is the evolute of
the ordinary parabola, and is especially interesting as being the first
PARACELSUS
749
curve to be rectified. This was accomplished in 1657 by Neil in
England, and in 1659 by Heinrich van Haureat in Holland. Newton
showed that all the five varieties of the diverging parabolas may be
exhibited as plane sections of the solid of revolution of the semi-
cubical parabola. A plane oblique to the axis and passing below
the vertex gives the first variety; If it passes through the vertex,
Fig. 6. Fig. 7.
the second form; if above the vertex and oblique or parallel to the
axis, the third form; if below the vertex and touching the surface,
the fourth form, and if the plane contains the axis, the fifth form
results (see Curve).
The biquadratic parabola has, in its most general form, the equa-
tion y = ax'-\-bx^-\-cx'^+dx+e, and consists of a serpentinous
and two parabolic branches (fig. 8). If all the roots of the quartic in
Fig. 8. Fig. 9. Fig. 10.
X are equal the curve assumes the form shown in fig. 9, the axis of x
being a double tangent. If the two middle roots are equal, fig. 10
results. Other forms which correspond to other relations between
the roots can be readily deduced from the most general form. (See
Curve; and Geometry, Analytical.)
PARACELSUS {c. 1490-1541), the famous German physician
of the i6th century, was probably born near Einsiedeln, in the
canton Schwyz, in 1490 or 1491 according to some, or 1493
according to others. His father, the natural son of a grand-
master of the Teutonic order, was Wilhelm Bombast von
Hohenheim, who had a hard struggle to make a subsistence as
a physician. His mother was superintendent of the hospital
at Einsiedeln, a post she relinquished upon her marriage.
Paracelsus's name was Theophrastus Bombast von Hohenheim;
for the names Philippus and Aureolus which are sometimes
added good authority is wanting, and the epithet Paracelsus,
like some simDar compounds, was probably one of his own
making, and was meant to denote his superiority to Celsus.
Of the early years of Paracelsus's life hardly anything is known.
His father was his first teacher, and took pains to instruct him
in an the learning of the time, especially in medicine. Doubtless
Paracelsus learned rapidly what was put before him, but he
seems at a comparatively early age to have questioned the value
of what he was expected to acquire, and to have soon struck out
ways for himself. At the age of sixteen he entered the university
of Basel, but probably soon abandoned the studies therein
pursued. He next went to J. Trithemius, the abbot of Sponheim
and afterwards of Wiirzburg, under whom he prosecuted
chemical researches. Trithemius is the reputed author of some
obscure tracts on the great elixir, and as there was no other
chemistry going Paracelsus would have to devote himself to the
reiterated operations so characteristic of the notions of that time.
But the confection of the stone of the philosophers was too remote
a possibility to gratify the fiery spirit of a youth like Paracelsus,
eager to make what he knew, or could learn, at once available
for practical medicine. So he left school chemistry as he had
forsaken university culture, and started for the mines in Tirol
owned by the wealthy family of the Fuggers. The sort of know-
ledge he got there pleased him much more. There at least he
was in contact with reality. The struggle with nature before
the precious metals could be made of use impressed upon him
more and more the importance of actual personal observation.
He saw all the mechanical difficulties that had to be overcome
in mining; he learned the nature and succession of rocks, the
physical properties of minerals, ores and metals; he got a notion
of mineral waters; he was an eyewitness of the accidents which
befel the miners, and studied the diseases which attacked them;
he had proof that positive knowledge of nature was not to be
got in schools and universities, but only by going to nature her-
self, and to those who were constantly engaged with her. Hence
came Paracelsus's peculiar mode of study. He attached no
value to mere scholarship; scholastic disputations he utterly
ignored and despised — and especially the discussions on medical
topics, which turned more upon theories and definitions than
upon actual practice. He therefore went wandering over a great
part of Europe to learn all that he could. In so doing he was
one of the first physicians of modern times to profit by a mode of
study which is now reckoned indispensable. The book of nature,
he affirmed, is that which the physician must read, and to do so
he must walk over the leaves. The humours and passions and
diseases of different nations are different, and the physician must
go among the nations if he will be master of his art; the more he
knows of other nations, the belter he will understand his own.
And the commentary of his own and succeeding centuries upon
these very extreme views is that Paracelsus was no scholar, but
an ignorant vagabond. He himself, however, valued his method
and his knowledge very differently, and argued that he knew
what his predecessors were ignorant of, because he had been
taught in no human school. " Whence have I all my secrets,
out of what writers and authors ? Ask rather how the beasts
have learned their arts. If nature can instruct irrational
animals, can it not much more men?" In this new school
discovered by Paracelsus, and since attended with the happiest
results by many others, he remained for about ten years. He
had acquired great stores of facts, which it was impossible for
him to have reduced to order, but which gave him an unquestion-
able superiority to his contemporaries. So in 1526 or 1527, on
his return to Basel, he was appointed town physician, and shortly
afterwards he gave a course of lectures on medicine in the
university. Unfortunately for him, the lectures broke away
from tradition. They were in German, not in Latin; they were
expositions of his own experience, of his own views, of his
own methods of curing, adapted to the diseases that afflicted
the Germans in the year 1527, and they were not commentaries
on the text of Galen or Avicenna. They attacked, not only
these great authorities, but the German graduates who followed
them and disputed about them in 1527. They criticized in no
measured terms the current medicine of the time, and exposed
the practical ignorance, the pomposity, and the greed of those
who practised it.
The truth of Paracelsus's doctrines was apparently confirmed
by his success in curing or mitigating diseases for which the
regular physicians could do nothing. For about a couple of
years his reputation and practice increased to a surprising
extent. But at the end of that time people began to recover
themselves. Paracelsus had burst upon the schools with such
novel views and methods, with such irresistible criticism, that
all opposition was at first crushed fiat. Gradually the sea
began to rise. His enemies watched for slips and failures; the
physicians maintained that he had no degree, and insisted that
he should give proof of his qualifications. Moreover, he had a
pharmaceutical system of his own which did not harmonize
with the commercial arrangements of the apothecaries, and he
not only did not use up their drugs like the Galenists, but, in the
exercise of his functions as town physician, he urged the
authorities to keep a sharp eye on the purity of their wares,
upon their knowledge of their art, and upon their transactions with
their friends the physicians. The growing jealousy and enmity
culminated in a dispute with Canon Cornelius von Lichtenfels,
who, having called in Paracelsus after other physicians had given
up his case, refused to pay the fee he had promised in the event
of cure; and, as the judges, to their discredit, sided with the
canon, Paracelsus had no alternative but to tell them his opinion
of the whole case and of their notions of justice. So little doubt
left he on the subject that his friends judged it prudent for him
to leave Basel at once, as it had been resolved to punish him for
the attack on the authorities of which he had been guilty. He
departed in such haste that he carried nothing with him, and
some chemical apparatus and other property were taken charge
of by J. Oporinus (1507-1568), his pupil and amanuensis. He
went first to Esslingen, where he remained for a brief period, but
had soon to leave from absolute want. Then began his wander-
ing life, the course of which can be traced by the dates of his
750
PARACHUTE
various writings. He thus visited in succession Colmar, Nurem-
berg, Appenzell, Zurich, Pfaflfers, Augsburg, Villach, Meran,
Middelheim and other places, seldom staying a twelvemonth in
any of them. In this way he spent some dozen years, till 1541,
when he was invited by Archbishop Ernst to settle at Salzburg,
under his protection. After his endless tossing about, this
seemed a promise and place of repose. It proved, however, to
be the complete and final rest that he found, for after a few
months he died, on the 24th of September. The cause of his
death, like most other details in his history, is uncertain. His
enemies asserted that he died in a low tavern in consequence
of a drunken debauch of some days' duration. Others maintain
that he was thrown down a steep place by some emissaries either
of the physicians or of the apothecaries, both of whom he had
during his life most grievously harassed. He was buried in the
churchyard of St Sebastian, but in 1752 his bones were removed
to the porch of the church, and a monument of reddish-white
marble was erected to his memory.
The first book by Paracelsus was printed at Augsburg in 1529.
It is entitled Practica D. Theophrasti Paracelsi, gemacht auff Europen,
and forms a small quarto pamphlet of five leaves. Prior to this,
in 1526-1527, appeared a programme of the lectures he intended
to deliver at Basel, but this can hardly be reckoned a specific work.
During his lifetime fourteen works and editions were published,
and thereafter, between 1542 and 1845, there were at least two
hundred and thirty-four separate publications according to Mook's
enumeration. The first collected edition was made by Johann
Huser in German. It was printed at Basel in 1589— 1591, in eleven
volumes quarto, and is the best of all the editions. Huser did not
employ the early printed copies only, but collected all the manu-
scripts which he could procure, and used them also in forming his
text. The only drawback is that rather than omit anything which
Paracelsus may have composed, he has gone to the opposite extreme
and included writings with which it is pretty certain Paracelsus
had nothing to do. The second collected German edition is in four
volumes folio, 1603-1605. Parallel with it in 1603 the first collected
Latin edition was made by Palthenius. It is in eleven volumes
quarto, and was completed in 1605. Again, in 1616-1618 appeared
a reissue of the folio German edition of 1603, and finally in 1658
came the Geneva Latin version, in three volumes folio, edited by
Bitiskius.
The works were originally composed in Swiss-German, a vigorous
speech which Paracelsus wielded with unmistakable power. The
Latin versions were made or edited by Adam von Bodenstein,
Gerard Dorn, Michael Toxites and Oporinus, about the middle of
the 1 6th century. A few translations into other languages exist,
as of the Chiriirgia magna and some other works into French,
and of one or two into Dutch, Italian and even Arabic. The trans-
lations into English amount to about a dozen, dating mostly from the
middle of the 17th century. The original editions of Paracelsus's
works are getting less and less common; even the English versions
are among the rarest of their class. Over and above the numerous
editions, there is a bulky literature of an explanatory and contro-
versial character, for which the world is indebted to Paracelsus's
followers and enemies. A good deal of it is taken up with a defence
of chemical, or, they were called, " spagyric," medicines against
the attacks of the supporters of the Galenic pharmacopoeia.
The aim of all Paracelsus's writing is to promote the progress of
medicine, and he endeavours to put before physicians a grand
ideal of their profession. In his attempts he takes the widest view
of medicine. He bases it on the general relationship which man
bears to nature as a whole; he cannot divorce the life of man from
that of the universe; he cannot think of disease otherwise than as
a phase of life. He is compelled, therefore, to rest his medical practice
upon general theories of the present state of things; his medical
system — if there is such a thing— is an adaptation of his cosmogony.
It is this latter which has been the stumbling-block to many past
critics of Paracelsus, and unless its character is remembered it
will be the same to others in the future. Dissatisfied with the
Aristotelianism of his time, Paracelsus turned with greater expecta-
tion to the Neoplatonism which was reviving. His eagerness to
understand the relationship of man to the universe led him to the
Kabbala, where these mysteries seemed to be explained, and from
these unsubstantial materials he constructed, so far as it can be
understood, his visionary philosophy. Interwoven with it, however,
were the results of his own personal experience and work in natural
history and chemical pharmacy and practical medicine, unfettered
by any speculative generalizations, and so shrewd an observer
as Paracelsus was must have often felt that his philosophy and his
experience did not agree with one another.
Some of his doctrines are alluded to in the article Medicine
(^.w.), and it would serve no purpose to give even a brief sketch of
his views, seeing that their influence has passed entirely away, and
thatthey are of interest only in their place in a general history of
medicine and philosophy. Defective, however, as they may have
been, and unfounded in fact, his kabbalistic doctrines led him to
trace the dependence of the human body upon outer nature for its
sustenance and cure. The doctrine of signatures, the supposed
connexion of every part of the little world of man with a correspond-
ing part of the great world of nature, was a fanciful and false exagger-
ation of this doctrine, but the idea carried in its train that of specifics.
This led to the search for these, which were not to be found in the
bewildering and untested mixtures of the Galenic prescriptions.
Paracelsus had seen how bodies were purified and intensified by
chemical operations, and he thought if plants and minerals could
be made to yield their active principles it would surely be better
to employ these than the crude and unprepared originals. He had
besides arrived by some kind of intuition at the conclusion that the
operations in the body were of a chemical character, and that when
disordered they were to be put right by counter operations of the
same kind. It may be claimed for Paracelsus that he embraced
within the idea of chemical action something more than the
alchemists did. Whether or not he believed in the philosopher's
elixir is of very little consequence. If he did, he was like the rest
of his age; but he troubled himself very little, if at all, about it.
He did believe in the immediate use for therapeutics of the salts
and other preparations which his practical skill enabled him to make.
Technically he was not a chemist ; he did not concern himself either
with the composition of his compounds or with an e.xplanation of
what occurred in their making. If he could get potent drugs to
cure disease he was content, and he worked very hard in an empirical
way to make them. That he found out some new compounds is
certain ; but not one great and marked discovery can be ascribed to
him. Probably, therefore, his positive services are to be summed up
in this wide application of chemical ideas to pharmacy and thera-
peutics; his indirect and possibly greater services are to be found in
the stimulus, the revolutionary stimulus, of his ideas about method
and general theory. It is most difficult to appreciate aright this
man of fervid imagination, of powerful and persistent convictions,
of unbated honesty and love of truth, of keen insight into the errors
(as he thought them) of his time, of a merciless will to lay bare these
errors and to reform the abuses to which they gave rise, who in an
instant offends us by his boasting, his grossness, his want of self-
respect. It is a problem how to reconcile his ignorance, his weak-
ness, his superstition, his crude notions, his erroneous observations,
his ridiculous influences and theories, with his grasp of method,
his lofty views of the true scope of medicine, his lucid statements,
his incisive and epigrammatic criticisms of men and motives.
See Marx, Zur Wiirdigung des Theophrastiis von Hohenheim
(Gottingen, 1842); Mook, Theophrastus Paracelsus, eine kritische
Studie (Wiirzburg, 1876) ; Hartman, Life of P. T. Paracelsus (London,
1887); Schubert und Sudhoff, Paracelsus- Forsckungen (Frankfurt
a.M., 1887-1889); Sudhoff, Versuch einer Kritik der Echtheit der
Paracelsischen Schriften (Berlin, 1894); Waite, The Hermetic and
Alchemical Writings of Paracelsus (London, 1894).
PARACHUTE (from Ital. parare, to shield, protect; cf.
" parasol," " parapet," and Fr. chute, a fall), an instrument
more or less resembling a large umbrella, which by the resistance
it offers to the air enables an aeronaut attached to it to descend
safely from a balloon or flying machine in the air. The principle
of the parachute is so simple that the idea must have occurred
to persons in all ages. Simon de la Loubere (1642-1729), in his
History of Siam (Paris, 1691), tells of a person who frequently
diverted the court by the prodigious leaps he used to take,
having two parachutes or umbrellas fastened to his girdle. In
1783 Sebastien Lenormand practically demonstrated the efficiency
of a parachute by descending from the tower of Montpellier
observatory; but he merely regarded it as a useful means
whereby to escape from fire. To J. P. Blanchard (i 753-1809)
is due the idea of using it as an adjunct to the balloon. As
early as 1785 he had constructed a parachute to which was
attached a basket. In this he placed a dog, which descended
safely to the ground when the parachute was released from a
balloon at a considerable elevation. It is stated that he
descended himself from a balloon in a parachute in 1793; but,
owing to some defect in its construction he fell too rapidly, and
broke his leg. Andre Jacques Garnerin (1769-1823) was the first
person who successfully descended from a balloon in a parachute,
and he repeated this experiment so often that he may be said
to have first demonstrated the practicability of using the
machine, though his elder brother, J. B. O. Garnerin (1766-1849),
also claimed a share in the merit of perfecting it. In 1793 he
was taken prisoner at Marchiennes, and while in captivity at
Bude (Budapest) thought ouj the means of descending from a
balloon by means of a parachute. His first pubhc experiment
was made on the 22nd of October 1797. He ascended from the
park of Monceau, at Paris, and at the height of about ij m. he
PARADE— PARADISE
751
released the parachute, which was attached to the balloon in
place of a car; the balloon, relieved suddenly of so great a weight,
rose very rapidly till it burst, while the parachute descended
very fast, making violent oscillations all the way. Garnerin,
however, reached the earth in safety. He repeated his parachute
experiment in England on the 21st of September 1802. The
parachute was dome-shaped, and bore a resemblance to a large
umbrella (fig. i). The case
or dome was made of
white canvas, and was
23 ft. in diameter. At
the top was a truck or
round piece of wood 10 in.
in diameter, with a hole in
its centre, fastened to the
canvas by 32 short pieces
of tape. The parachute
was suspended from a
hoop atta.ched to the
netting of the balloon,
and below it was placed a
Fig. I.— Parachute (Garnerin type). cylindrical basket, 4 ft.
high and 2j ft. in diameter, which contained the aeronaut.
The ascent took place at about six o'clock from North
Audley Street, London; and at a height of about (it is
believed) 8000 ft. Garnerin separated the parachute from
the balloon. For a few seconds his fate seemed certain,
as the parachute retained the collapsed state in which it
had originally ascended and fell very rapidly. It suddenly,
however, expanded, and the rapidity of its descent was at
once checked, though osciUations were so violent that
the car, which was suspended 20 ft. below, was sometimes on a
level with the rest of the apparatus. Some accounts state that
these oscillations increased, others that they decreased as the
parachute descended; the latter seems the more probable. It
came to the ground in a field at the back of St Pancras Church,
the descent having occupied rather more than ten minutes.
Garnerin was hurt a httle by the violence with which the basket
containing him struck the earth; but a few cuts and a slight
nausea represented all the ill effects of his fall. A few years
later, Jordaki Kuparento, a Pohsh aeronaut, made real use of a
parachute. He ascended from Warsaw on the 24th of July 1808,
in a fire-balloon, which, at a considerable elevation, took fire;
but he was able to effect his descent in safety by means of his
parachute.
The next experiment made with a parachute resulted in the
death of Robert Cocking, who as early as 1814 had become
interested in the subject. The great defect of Garnerin's
umbrella-shaped parachute had been its violent oscillation
during descent, and Cocking considered that if the parachute
were made of a conical form (vertex downwards) the whole
of this oscillation would be avoided; and if it were made of
sufficient size there would be resistance enough to check too
rapid a descent. He therefore constructed a parachute on this
principle (fig.2), the radius
of which at its widest part
was about 17 ft. It was
stated in the public an-
nouncements previous to
the experiment that the
whole weighed 223 lb;
but from the evidence at
the inquest it appeared
that the weight must have
been over 400 lb exclusive
of Cocking's weight, which
was 177 lb. On the 24th
of July 1837, the Nassau
balloon, with Charles
Fig. 2.— Cocking's Parachute. Green, the aeronaut, and
Edward Spencer, a solici-
tor, in the car, and having suspended below it the parachute.
in the car of which was Cocking, rose from Vauxhall Gardens,
London, at twenty-five minutes to eight in the evening. A
good deal of difficulty was experienced in rising to a suitable
height, partly in consequence of the resistance to the air offered
by the expanded parachute, and partly owing to its weight.
Cocking wished the height to be 8000 ft.; but when the balloon
reached the height of 5000 ft., nearly over Greenwich, Green
called out to Cocking that he should be unable to ascend to the
requisite height if the parachute was to descend in daylight.
Cocking accordingly let slip the catch which was to liberate him
from the balloon. The parachute for a few seconds descended
very rapidly, but still evenly, until suddenly the upper rim
seemed to give way and the whole apparatus collapsed (taking
a form resembling an umbrella turned inside out, and nearly
closed), and the machine descended with great rapidity, oscil-
lating very much. When about 200 or 300 ft. from the ground
the basket became disengaged from the remnant of the para-
chute, and Cocking was found in a field at Lee, literally dashed
to pieces.
Many objections were made to the form of Cocking's parachute;
but there is little doubt that had it been constructed of sufficient
strength, and perhaps of somewhat larger size, it would have
answered its purpose. John Wise (1808-1879), the American
aeronaut, made some experiments on parachutes of both forms
(Garnerin's and Cocking's), and found that the latter always
were much more steady, descending generally in a spiral curve.
A descending balloon half-full of gas either does rise, or can
with a little management be made to rise, to the top of the netting
and take the form of a parachute, thus materially lessening the
rapidity of descent. Wise, in fact, having noticed this, once
purposely exploded his balloon when at a considerable altitude,
and the resistance offered to the air by the envelope of the
balloon was sufficient to enable him to reach the ground without
injury. In more recent times the use of the parachute has
become fairly common, but a good many serious accidents have
occurred.
PARADE (Fr. parade, an adaptation from Ital. parala; cf.
Span, parada, from Lat. parare, to prepare, equip, furnish), a word
of which the principal meanings are display, show, a military
gathering of troops for a specific purpose, an assembly of people
for a promenade, the place where the troops assemble, and a
road or street where people may walk. In the military sense,
a " parade " is a mustering of troops on the parade-ground
for driU, for inspection, for the delivery of special orders, or for
other purposes, either at regular stated hours or on special
occasions.
PARADISE (Gr. irapaducos) , the name of a supernatural
locality reserved for God and for chosen men, which occurs in
the Greek Bible, both for the earthly " garden " of Eden (see
Eden), and for the heavenly " garden," where true Israelites
after death see the face of God (4 Esdras viii. 52; Luke xxiii. 43;
2 Cor. xii. 4; Rev. ii. 7). The Hebrew pardes (oins), to which
TrapaSeiaos corresponds, occurs thrice in the Old Testament in
late books, in the general sense of " park, grove "; it is derived
somewhat hazardously from the Zend pairidaeza, an enclosure
(once only in the Avesta), though another word {Vara) is used
in the account of the mythical enclosure of Yima (see Deluge).
But what interests us most is not the name, but the conception
and its imaginative vehicle. The conception is the original
godlikeness of human nature, and the necessity of expecting
a closer union between God and man in the future than is
possible at present. The imaginative form which this concep-
tion takes is that before the present condition arose man
dwelt near to God in God's own mountain home, and that
when the mischief wrought by " the serpent " has been undone,
man — or more strictly the true Israel — shall once more be
admitted to his old privilege. According to the fullest Old
Testament account (Ezek. xxviii. 12-19; see Adam), the holy
mountain was in a definite earthly region, and certainly it was
appropriate for worshippers of Yahweh that it should be so
(i Kings XX. 23, 28). But there are traces in that account
itself as well as in Gen. ii. that an earlier behef placed the divine
752
PARADOS— PARAFFIN
home in heaven. Similarly the Zoroastrians speak of their
Paradise-mountain Alburz both as heavenly and as earthly
{Bundahish, xx. i, with West's note). It appears that originally
the Hebrew Paradise-mountain was placed in heaven, but that
afterwards it was transferred to earth. It was of stupendous
' size; indeed, properly it was the earth itself.' Later on each
Semitic people may have chosen its own mountain, recognizing,
however, perhaps, that in primeval times it was of vaster
dimensions than at present, just as the Jews believed that in
the next age the " mountain of Yahweh's house " would become
far larger (Isa. ii. 2= Mic. iv. i; Ezek. xl. 2; Zech. xiv. 10;
Rev. xxi. 10); compare the idealization of the earthly Alburz of
the Iranians " in revelation " {Bund. v. 3, viii. 2, xii. 1-8).
We now return to the accounts in Ezek. xxviii. and Gen. ii.
The references in the former to the precious stones and to the
" stones of lire " may be grouped with the references in Enoch
(xviii. 6-8, xxiv.) to seven supernatural mountains each com-
posed of a different beautiful stone, and with the throne of
God on the seventh. These mountains are to be connected with
the seven planets, each of which was symbolized by a different
metal, or at least colour.- Ezekiel's mountain therefore has
come to earth from heaven. And a similar result follows if
we group the four rivers of Paradise in Gen. ii. with the phrase
so often applied to Canaan, " flowing with milk and honey "
(Exod. iii. 8; Num. xiii. 27, &c.). For this descriptive phrase is
evidently mythical,' and refers to the belief in the four rivers of
the heavenly Paradise which " poured honey and milk, oil and
wine " {Slavonic Enoch, viii. 5; cf. Vision of Paul, xxiii.).
In fact, the four rivers originally flowed in heavenly soil, and
only when the mountain of Elohim was transferred to this
lower earth could mythological geographers think of determining
their earthly course, and whether Havilah, or Cush, or Canaan,
or Babylonia, was irrigated by one or another of them. But
what happened to Paradise when the affrighted human pair
left it? One view (see Eth. Enoch, xxxii. 2, 3, Ix. 8, Ixxvii.
3, 4, &c.) was that its site was in some nameless, inaccessible
region, still guarded by " the serpents and the cherubim "
(Eth. Enoch, xx. 7), and that in the next age its gates would be
opened, and the threatening sword (Gen. iii. 24) put away by
the Messianic priest-king {Testaments oj the Twelve Patriarchs,
Levi, 18). This agrees with the story in Gen. ii., iii., except
that the original narrator knew the site of the garden. It is a
sufficiently reasonable view, for if Paradise lay in some definite
earthly region, and if no one knows " the paths of Paradise "
(4 Esdras iv. 7), it would seem that it must have ceased to
exist visibly. This idea appears to be implied by those Jewish
writers, who, especially after the fall of Jerusalem (a.d. 70),
dwelt so much on the hope of the heavenly Paradise, reviving,
partly under emotional pressure and partly as the result of a
fresh influx of mythology, the old myth of a celestial garden
of God. To notice only a few leading passages. In Apoc.
Bar. iv. 3 it appears to be stated that when Adam transgressed,
the vision of the city of God and the possession of Paradise were
removed from him, and similarly the stress laid in 4 Esdras iv. 7,
vi. 2, vii. (36), 53, viii. 52, on the heavenly Paradise seems to
show that no earthly one was supposed to exist. ^ Beautiful,
indeed, is the use made of that form of belief in these passages,
with which we may group Rev. xxi. i, xxii. 5, where, as in
4 Esdras viii. 52, Paradise and the city of God are combined.
Some strange disclosures on this subject are made by the
Slavonic Enoch (c. viii.; cf. xlii. 3), according to which there are
two Paradises. The former is in the third heaven, which
explains the well-known saying of St Paul in 2 Cor. xii. 2, 4;
' It was the Babylonian " mountain of the lands," which meant
not only mother earth, but the earth imagined to exist within the
heaven; cf. Jeremias, Atao, pp. 11, 12, 28, and Jastrow, Religion
of Bab. and Ass., p. 558.
'See Zimmern, K.A.T. (3), pp. 616 sqq. '
' See also I Esdras ii. 19. This explains Joel iv. 18 ; Isa. Iv. i (wine
and milk). See also Yasna, xlix. 5 (Zendavesta) ; and cf. Cheyne,
Ency. Bib., col. 2104, and especially Usener, Rheinisches Museum,
Ivii. 177-192.
* The statement in Gen. iii. 24 comes from a form of the story in
which the " garden " was r,ot geographically localized.
the latter is conventionally called the Paradise of Eden. In
fact, the belief in an earthly Paradise never wholly died.
Medieval writers loved it. The mountain of Purgatory in
Dante's poem is " crowned by the delicious shades of the
terrestrial Paradise."
See further The Apocalypse of Baruch and The Ethiopic and the
Slavonic Enoch, both edited by R. H. Charles; also Kautzsch's
Apocrypha, and Volz, Jiidische Eschatologie (1903), pp. 374-8, whose
full references are most useful. On the Biblical references, cf.
Gunkel, Genesis (2), pp. 21-35; Cheyne, Ency. Bib., "Paradise";
and on Babylonian views, Jeremias, " Holle und Paradies " (in Der
alte Orient). The Mahommedan's Paradise is a sensuous trans-
formation of the Jewish; see especially Koran, Sura Iv., and note
the phrase " gardens of Firdaus," Koran, .xviii. 107. For the Koran'
and the Zoroastrian books see the Sacred Books of the East (Oxford
Series). The doorkeeper of the mountain-Paradise of the Parsees
is the Amshaspand Vohu-mano {Vendidad, xix. 31). (T. K. C.)
PARADOS (Fr. = back cover), a term used in fortification,
expressing a work the purpose of which is to cover the defenders
of a line of trenches or parapet from reverse fire, i.e. fire from
the rear.
PARADOX (Gr. -Kapk, beyond, contrary to, hb^a, opinion),
a proposition or statement which appears to be at variance with
generally- received opinion, or which apparently is self-contra-
dictory, absurd or untrue, but either contains a concealed truth '
or may on examination be proved to be true. A " paradox "
has been compared with a " paralogism " (irapa, X670S, reason),
as that which is contrary to opinion only and not contrary
to reason, but it is frequently used in the sense of that which is
really absurd or untrue.
PARAFFIN, the name given to a mineral wax and oil, andi-
also used as a generic name of a particular series of hydro-fl
carbons. ■>
Commercial Paraffin. — Refined commercial paraffin is a white
or bluish-white, translucent, waxy solid substance, of lamino- '
crystalline structure, devoid of taste and smell, and charac- '
terized by chemical indifference. It consists of about 85% of
carbon and 15% of hydrogen. Although the credit of having
first (in 1830) investigated the properties of solid paraffin,
obtained from wood-tar, belongs to Karl Reichenbach, the
existence of paraffin in petroleum had been more or less hazily •
known for some time previous. In 1809 Fuchs found solid
hydrocarbons in the Tegernsee oils, and in 1819 Buchner ■
separated them from these oils in comparative purity. By
the latter they were described as " mountain-fats," and they
were identified with paraffin in 1835 by von Kobel. Reichen-
bach described the results of a series of experiments on the
reactions between various substances and paraffin, and on
account of the inert nature of the material gave to it its present
name (from the Lat. parum, too little, and affinitas, affinity); he
expressly stated that the accent should fall on the second " a,"
but usage has transferred it to the first.
Paraffin was obtained by Laurent in 1830 by the distillation
of bituminous schist, and in 1835 by Dumas from coal-tar; but
the product appears to have been regarded only as a curiosity,
and Lord Playfair has stated that prior to 1850 he never saw
a piece of more than one ounce in weight. Paraffin is asserted
to have been made for sale by Reichenbach's process from
wood-tar by John Thom, of Birkacre, before 1835. In 1833
Laurent suggested the working of the Autun shale, and products
manufactured from this material were exhibited by Selhgue in
1839.
.'According to F. H. Storer, the credit of having first placed
the manufacture of paraffin on a commercial basis is deservedly
given to Selligue, whose patent specifications, both in France
and England, sufficiently clearly show that his processes of
distilling bituminous schist, &c., and of purifying the distillate,
had reached considerable perfection prior to 1845. In its
present form, however, the paraffin or shale-oil industry owes
its existence to Dr James Young. In 1850 he applied for his
celebrated patent (No. 13,292) " for obtaining paraffine oil,
or an oil containing paraffine, and paraffine from bituminous
coals " by slow distillation. The process was extensively
carried out in the United States under licence from Young,
PARAFFIN
753
until crude petroleum was produced in that country in such
abundance, and at so low a cost, that the distillation of bitu-
minous minerals became unprofitable. The highly bituminous
Boghead coal, or TorbanehiU mineral, which yielded 120 to 130
gallons of crude oil per ton, was worked out in 1862, and since
then the Scottish mineral oils and paraffin have been obtained
from the bituminous shales of the coal-measures, the amount of
such shale raised in Great Britain in 1907 being 2,690,028 tons.
The following list represents an attempt to assign a geological
age to the various occurrences of oil-shale and similar substances
throughout the world : —
Oil-Shales
Geological System. Locality.
Miocene France (Vagnas), Servia.
Eocene Brazil.
Cretaceous Syria, Montana, New Zealand.
Neocomian Spain.
Jurassic Dorset, Wurttemberg.
Permian France (.'\utun, &c.).
Carboniferous Scotland, Yorkshire, Stafford,
Flint, France, Nova Scotia.
Kerosene-Shale
Permo-Carboniferous . . , Queensland, New South Wales,
Tasmania.
Tar-Lignite
Miocene Moravia, Lower Austria, Bavaria.
Rhenish Prussia, Hesse, Saxony.
Oligocene Bohemia, Tirol.
Oil-Shale. — The oU-shale of Scotland is dark grey or black,
and has a laminated or horny fracture. Its specific gravity is
about 1-75, and 20 cub. ft. of it weigh rather less than a ton.
The richer kinds yield about 30 gallons of oil per ton of
shale, and in some cases as much as 40 gallons, but the higher
yield is usually obtained at the expense of the solid paraffin
and of the quality of the heavy oils. The inferior shales yield
about 18 gallons of oil, but a much larger amount of sulphate
of ammonia. The oil consists chiefly of members of the paraffin
and olefine series, and thus differs essentially from that obtained
from true coal-shales, in which the hydrocarbons of the benzene
group are largely represented.
A full account of the Scotch shale-oil industry, as the most
important and typical, will be given later, the corresponding
industries in other countries and districts being dealt with first.
In addition to the Carboniferous oil-shales of Flint and
Stafford, the Kimmeridge shale, a bluish-grey slaty clay, con-
taining thin beds of highly bituminous shale, occurs in Dorset-
shire, and [has from time to time attracted attention as a
possible source of shale-oil products. The so-called " Kerosene-
shale " of New South Wales has been extensively mined, and
the industry is now being developed by the Commonwealth Oil
Corporation, Ltd. The French shale-oil industry is much older
than that of Scotland, but has made far less progress, the amount
of shale distilled in 1897 being 200,000 tons, as compared with
2,259,000 tons in Scotland. The shales of New Zealand have
never been extensively worked, the production having decreased
instead of increased. Oil-shale of good quality occurs in Servia,
and has been found to yield from 435 to 545 gallons of oil per
ton. The production of mineral oils and paraffin by the dis-
tillation of lignite is carried on in Saxony, the mineral worked
being a peculiar earthy lignite, occurring within a small portion
of the Saxon-Thuringian brown-coal formation. Other occur-
rences of this mineral have been indicated in the list of localities
above.
The Shale-Oil Industry of Scotland. — The modern development
of the shale-oil industry of Scotland dates from the commence-
ment of Robert Bell's works at Broxburn in 1862.
The oil-shales are found in the Calciferous Sandstone series,
lying between the Carboniferous Limestone and the Old Red
Sandstone. They occur at several points in the belt of Carbon-
iferous rocks across the centre of Scotland, for the most part
in small synclinal basins, the largest of which is that at Pent-
land, where the levels are 2 m. long, without important faults.
Mining is carried on, where the seams are over 4 ft. thick,
by the "pillar and stall" system; seams under 4 ft. are
worked by the " longwall " system. The shale is blasted down
by gunpowder, and passed over a i-in. riddle, the smalls being
left underground. Before being retorted the shale is passed
through a toothed breaker, which reduces it to flat pieces
6 in. square. These fall into a shoot, and thence into iron
tubs of 10 to 25 cwt. capacity, which run on rails to the tops of
the retorts.
The retorts in which the shale is distilled have undergone
considerable variation and improvement since the foundation
of the industry. Originally horizontal retorts, like those used
in the manufacture of coal-gas, were employed, and the heavy
oils and paraffin were burned as fuel. When the latter product
became valuable vertical retorts were adopted, as the solid
hydrocarbons undergo less dissociation under these conditions.
Steam was employed to carry the oil vapours from the retort.
The earliest form of vertical retort was circular ( 2 ft. in diameter)
or oval (2 ft. by i ft. 4 in.) and 8 or 10 ft. long. Six or eight of
these were grouped together, and the heating was so eftected
that the bottoms of the retorts were at the highest temperature.
They were charged by means of hoppers at the top, the exhausted
shale being withdrawn through a water-seal every hour and
fresh added, whence this is known as the " continuous system."
In the first Henderson retort (1873) the spent shale was
used as fuel. The retorts, which were oblong in cross-section,
were arranged in groups of four, and had a capacity of 18 cwt.
They were charged in rotation, as follows: when a sufficient
temperature had been attained in the chamber containing
them, one retort was charged from the top, and in four hours
the one diagonally opposite to it was charged. After eight
hours the one next to the first was charged, and after twelve
hours the fourth. Up to the sixteenth hour only ordinary
fuel was used in the furnace, but the spent shale from the first
retort was then discharged into it. The other retorts were
similarly discharged in the above order at intervals of four
hours, each being at once recharged. The shale was black
when discharged, but soon glowed brightly. Owing to the small
amount of carbon in the spent shale, only a slow draught was
kept up. The outlet for the oil vapours was at the lower and
less heated end of the retorts, and steam, which had been
superheated by passage through pipes arranged along one side
of the retort chamber, was blown in copiously through pipes
to aid in the uniform heating of the shale and to continuously
remove the oil vapours, dissociation from overheating being
thus minimized. It was believed that a temperature of about
800° F. produced the best results. This retort was worked on
what is known as the " intermittent system."
The Pentland Composite retort (1882) and the later Henderson
type (1889) were both continuous-working and gas-heated, the
second being a modification of the first, designed with a view
to obtaining a larger yield of sulphate of ammonia without
detriment to the crude oil. In both the upper part of the
retort was of cast iron and the lower of fire-clay. The upper
portion was heated to a temperature of about 900° F. whilst
the lower was maintained at about 1300° F. The charge in the
retort gradually travelled down, owing to the periodical removal
of spent shale at the bottom, and the descent was so regulated
that no shale passed into the highly-heated part until it had
parted with the oil it was capable of yielding. The shale,
however, still contained nitrogen, which in the presence of
steam produced ammonia at the higher temperature.
The three classes of retorts now employed in the distillation of
shale in the Scottish oil-works are covered by the following patents : —
1. In use at Pumpherston, Dalmeny and Oakbank — No. 8371 of
1894; No. 7113 of 1895; No. 4249 of 1897.
2. In use by Young s Paraffin Light and Mineral Oil Company,
Ltd. — No. 13,665 of 1897; No. 15,238 of 1899.
3. In use by the Broxburn Oil Company, Ltd. — No. 26,647 of 1901.
The objects of the invention for which patent No. 8371 of 1894
was granted to Bryson (of Pumpherston Oil Works), Jones (of
Dalmeny Oil Works), and Fraser (of Pumpherston Oil Company,
Ltd.), are described in the specification as "to so construct the
retorts and provide them with means whereby fluxing or dandering
of the substance being heated is prevented in the retorts: also to
effect an intermittent, continuous, or nearly so, movement within
the retort." In order to carry out these objects, the bottom of the
754
PARAFFIN
retort is provided with a disk or table to support the material within
the retort. Above the table there is a revolving arm or scraper,
by the action of which a portion of the material is continuously
swept off the table and discharged into the hopper below. The
column of material within the retort is thus caused to move down-
wards, and the tendency of the material to flux or dander is thereby
prevented or reduced. In order to pulverize the material before
reaching the hopper, teeth may be formed upon the lower part of
the retort and upon the table, and the revolving scraper may be
similarly toothed. A short revolving worm or screw may be sub-
stituted for the table or scraper. As a modification, the table may
be made convex and provided on each side with rocking-arms
connected together above the table by a cross-arm or scraper.
The principal object of the invention for which patent No. 71 13
of 1895 was granted to the same applicants is stated to be such
arrangement of the parts of the retort as results in the retort, after
being heated and started, requiring " practically no fuel to keep it
going, owing to the great amount of heat generated in the retort
by means of the effectual decomposition of the carbon contained in
the waste material by means of one or more jets of steam (which may
be superheated) being passed into the retort as near the outlet or
discharge-door of the retort as possible, thus utilizing all, or nearly
all, the heat contained in the waste material within the retort, thus
saving labour, time and expense, as well as wear and tear of the
retort."
The object of the invention for which patent No. 4249 of 1897
was granted to Bryson is stated to be " to so construct the hoppers
of the retorts that one or more retorts can be drawn or discharged
through one door, and also to provide simple and efficient means
for operating the said door."
Patent No. 13,665 of 1897 was granted to William Young and
John Fyfe for an invention the objects of which are described in
the specification in the following words: "To reduce labour,
save fuel, and increase the products, and to enable existing but worn-
out retorts that have been erected in accordance with the above
invention to be economically replaced upon existing foundations by
similar retorts, provided with improved and enlarged multiple
hoppers for the reception of the shale to pass through the retorts,
and also enlarged chambers for the reception of the ash or exhausted
shale; the retorts being provided with mechanical arrangements for
the continuous passage of the fresh shale into them from the multiple
hopper, and the continuous discharge of the ash or spent shale into
the receiving chamber. Those improved mechanical alterations
in the structure of the retorts greatly reduce the manual labour,
enabling most of the work to be done during the day, the multiple
hopper and spent-shale chamber being of such dimensions as will
supply fresh shale and receive the spent shale during the night-shift,
the only labour then required being the supervision, regulating tem-
perature of the retorts, and seeing that the mechanical arrangements
are working properly."
The multiple hoppers are constructed of mild steel plates with
flat bottoms to which the retorts are bolted by flanges, the steel
bottoms admitting of the differential expansion, to which the retorts
are subject, taking place without damage to the retorts or hoppers.
To ensure the shale regularly passing from the hoppers to the retorts,
each hopper is provided with a rocking-shaft to which are attached
rods or chains hanging into the mouths of the retorts, these rods or
chains being thus made to rise or fall. The spent shale receiving-
chambers at the lower end of each retort are of greatly enlarged size,
and the lower end of each retort is provided with a mechanical
device for the continuous discharge of the spent shale into these
chambers. The improvements are stated to be specially applicable
to retorts of the Young and Beilby (Pentland) type.
Patent No. 15,238 of 1899 was obtained by the same inventors for
improvements designed to obviate objections found to attach to
retorts constructed on the ordinary Young and Beilby system. In
the use of such retorts, composed of an upper metalHc section and a
lower fire-brick section, with chambers or hoppers at their upper
ends, these upper ends became gradually filled up with hard carbon-
aceous matter, and this necessitated the periodical stopping of the
working to have such matter removed. Moreover, the shale residues
became fluxed and fixed to the walls of the lower section of the
retorts. The residues were further liable to pass through the retort
in an imperfectly exhausted condition, and to pass more quickly
down the front or side of the retort next the discharging door. It
was also found that when air and steam were used difficulties arose
in regulating the quantities and proportions of stearri and air used
to burn the carbon out of the shale residues while preventing
obstructions due to fluxing of the residues. To overcome these
drawbacks each retort is composed of four sections, viz. a hopper
redistillation chamber at the top, a metallic section, a fire-brick
chamber, and a combustion chamljer of large capacity at the bottom.
The combustion chamber is not externally heated, but receives the
spent shale from the retort in a red-hot condition, and the further
supply of heat in this chamber is wholly due to the burning of the
carbon by the introduced air and steam, the danger of the fluxing and
fixing of the shale residue to the walls of the chamber being thus
minimized. To successfully burn the carbon remaining in the shale
residue when it reaches the combustion chamber, so as to obtain the
maximum yield of ammonia, careful regulation of the quantity and
proportions of the air and steam is necessary, and a special device
is provided for this.
The important construction of retorts for which patent No. 26,647
of 1901 was granted to N. M. Henderson of the Broxburn Oil Works,
relates to such retorts as are described in the same inventor's previous
patent, No. 6726 of 1889. The patentee dispenses with the chamber
or space between the upper and lower retorts, the upper cast-iron
retorts being carried direct on the upper end of the lower brick
retorts, thus forming practically one continuous retort from top to
bottom; and instead of one toothed roller being employed for the
purpose of withdrawing the exhausted residue, a pair of toothed
rollers is used for each retort, This improved construction is stated
to give " better and larger results with less labour and expense in
working and for repairs."
The vapour from these retorts, amounting to about 3000
cub. ft. per ton, is partially condensed by being passed through
70 to 100 vertical 4-in. pipes, whose lower ends fit into a
chest. About one-third of the vapour is condensed, the
liquid, consisting of about 75% of ammoniacal liquor and
25% of crude oil, flowing into a separating tank, whence the
two products are separately withdrawn for further treatment.
Part of the uncondensed gas is sometimes purified and used for
illuminating purposes, when it gives a light of about 25 candle-
power. The remainder is used as fuel, usually after compression
or scrubbing to remove all condensable vapours.
Crude shale-oil is of dark green colour, has a specific gravity
o-86o to 0-890, and as at present manufactured, with the newer
forms of retorts, has a setting point of about 90° F. It contains
from 70 to 80% of members of the paraffin and define series,
together with bases of the pyridine series, and some cresols
and phenols. Beilby states that average Scotch shale-oil con-
tains from i-i6 to 1-45% of nitrogen, mainly removable by
sulphuric acid of specific gravity 1-220, and mostly remaining
in the pitchy residues left on distillation. The lightest dis-
tillate, known as naphtha, contains from 60 to 70% of defines
and other hydrocarbons acted upon by fuming nitric acid, and
the lubricating oils consist mainly of olefines. The paraffin wax
chiefly distils over with the oil of specific gravity above 0-840.
In the refining of crude shale-oil, the greatest care is exercised
to prevent dissociation of the paraffin, large volumes of super-
heated steam being passed into the still, through a perforated
pipe, at a pressure of from 10 to 40 lb, to facilitate distillation
at the lowest possible temperature. The original system of
intermittent distillation is now employed only at the works of
Young's Company. The stills have cast-iron bottoms and
malleable-iron upper parts, their former capacity being 1200
to 1400 gallons, but those now made usually holding 2000 to
2500 gallons. Each still has its own water-condenser, the
flow of water being regulated according to the nature of the
distillate. The usual condensing surface is 230 ft. of 4-in.
pipe. The process now in general practice is, with slight varia-
tions, the Henderson system of continuous distillation (patent
No. 13,014 of 1885). It consists of a primary wagon-still,
connected with two side-stills, which are further connected
with pot-shaped coking-stills. The oil is heated in feed-heaters
by the gases evolved from the hottest still before passing into
the first still, where the temperature is so regulated as to
drive off only naphtha up to about 0-760 specific gravity. The
heavier portion of the oil passes to the other stills, the outermost
receiving the heaviest only.
In both these systems the naphtha is collected separately,
while the remainder of the distillate, known as " once-run oil,"
is condensed without fractionation. This " once-run oil " is
treated with sulphuric acid and alkali at a temperature of
100° F. in agitators of varying construction — some being
horizontal cylinders with a shaft carrying paddles, while others
take the form of vertical cylindrical tanks with egg-shaped
bottoms — in which agitation is produced by means of compressed
air. The loss of oil during the agitation is estimated at 1-5
to 2-0 %.
The oil is next fractionated, either by the intermittent or
the continuous system. After the most volatile fractions have
distilled off, steam is blown in through a pipe at the bottom of
the still. In many cases the distillate, with a density up to
PARAFFIN
755
0-770, constitutes the crude naphtha, and that up to a density
of 0850 the burning oil. The remainder of the distillate,
which solidifies at common temperatures, consists chiefly of
lubricating oils and paraffin. These three fractions are delivered
from the condensers into separate tanks. Although the crude-
oil stiUs of Henderson may be employed for the continuous
distillation of the once-run or other oils obtained in the process
of refining, the inventor prefers another form of apparatus
which he patented in 1883 (No. 540), and this is now generally
used. This consists of three horizontal cylindrical stills, 7 ft. in
diameter and 19 ft. in length. The oil enters through a pipe
which passes through one end of the still and discharges at the
opposite end, while the outlet-pipe is fitted below the inlet-pipe
at the bottom of the end through which the latter passes, inlet
and discharge being thus as far as possible from each other.
The oil circulates as in the crude-oil stills. The burning oil
is next treated with acid and alkali, and subsequently again
fractionally distilled, the heavier portion yielding paraffin scale,
while the residues are redistilled. The final chemical purification
of the burning oil resembles that last referred to, but only half
the quantity of acid is employed. The lighter products of these
distillations form the crude shale naphtha, which is treated
with acid and alkali, and redistilled, when the lightest fractions
constitute the Scotch " gasoline " of commerce, and the re-
mainder is known as " naphtha."
The solid paraffin, which is known in its crude state as paraffin
scale, was formerly produced from the heavy oil obtained in
the first, second and third distillations, that from the first
giving " hard scale," whOe those from the second and third gave
" soft scale." The hard scale was crystallized out in shallow
tanks, and the contained oil driven out by compression of the
paraffin in filter bags. Soft scale was obtained by refrigeration,
cooled revolving drums being caused to dip into trays con-
taining the oil, when the paraffin adhered to the drums and was
scraped off by a mechanical contrivance. Later improved
appliances have aimed at the slow cooling of oil in bulk, whereby
large crystals of paraffin are produced. Several processes have
been invented, the most generally used being that patented
by Henderson (No. 9557 of 1884). His cooler consists of a
jacketed trough having a curved bottom, and divided into a
series of transverse casings by metal disks, each consisting of
two thin plates bolted together, but with a space between, in
which, as also in the jacket surrounding the trough, cold brine
is circulated. The paraffin crystallizes on the cold surfaces,
from which it is constantly removed by scrapers, so that
successive portions of the oil are cooled. The solid paraffin
accumulates in a well or channel, where it is stirred up by rotary
arms, so that it may be readily drawn away by a pump to the
filter-press, whereby the solid paraffin is freed from oil. In
the improved process of cooling employed at the works of the
Oakbank Oil Company the oil to be cooled is pumped through
coils submerged in the expressed oil from the filter-presses
into the inner space of vertical coolers formed of two cast-iron
tubes, and thence direct to the filter-presses. In the inner
chamber of the coolers are fitted revolving scrapers, while in
the outer annular space compressed ammonia is expanded.
The crude paraffin is then refined, for which purpose the
" naphtha treatment " was formerly employed, but this has
now given place almost entirely to the " sweating process."
In the former the paraffin is dissolved in naphtha and then
crystallized out. The sweating process consists in heating the
crude wax to such a temperature that the softer portions are
melted and flow away with the oil. In the process patented by
N. M. Henderson (Nos. 1291 of 1887 and 11,799 of 1891), a
chamber, 52 ft. by 13 ft. by 10 ft. high, heated by steam-pipes,
and provided with large doors and ventilators for cooling, is
fitted with a number of superimposed trays, 21 ft. by 6 ft. by
6 in. deep. These rest on transverse heating pipes, and each
tray has a diaphragm of wire gauze. The bottoms communicate
with short pipes fitted with swivel nozzles, worked on a vertical
shaft. The diaphragms are covered with 5 in. of water, and
the crude paraffin is melted and pumped through charging-pipes
on to its surface. When the paraffin has solidified, the water
is drawn off, leaving the cake resting on the gauze. Doors and
ventilators are then closed, and the chamber is heated, where-
upon the liquefied impurities are drained off until the outflowing
paraffin sets on a thermometer bulb at 130° F. The remainder
is melted and decolorized by agitation with finely powdered
charcoal. The charcoal is mainly separated by subsidence,
and the paraffin drawn off into filters, whence, freed from the
suspended charcoal, it runs into moulds, and is thus formed
into cakes of suitable size for packing. The lubricating oils
are refined by the use of sulphuric acid and alkali, substantially
in the same manner as the burning oils.
The following table shows the average yield, in 1895, of the various
commercial products from crude shale-oil at two of the principal
Scottish refineries. The percentages are, however, often varied to
suit market requirements: —
Young's Paraffin Light and Mineral Oil Co.
%
Gasoline and naphtha 6-09
Burning oils 31 '84
Intermediate and heavy oils 23 97
Paraffin scale '3'53
Total
Loss
Broxburn Oil Co.
Naphtha
Burning oil 30-0
Gas oil g-o
Lubricating oil
Paraffin
Loss
75-43
24-57
lOO-OO
3-0
39-0
i8-o
lO-O
30-0
From the ammoniacal liquor the ammonia is driven off by the
application of heat in stills, the evolved vapour being conducted
into " cracker-boxes," which are now usually of circular form,
from 5 to 8 in. in diameter, and 6 to 12 in. in depth. In these
boxes the ammonia is brought into contact with sulphuric
acid of about 50° Tw., and is thus converted into sulphate.
Wilton's form of cracker-box, which is now generally in use, is
provided with an arrangement for the automatic discharge on
to a drying table of the sulphate of ammonia as it is deposited
in the well of the box, and the process is worked continuously.
For the heating of the ammoniacal liquor the ordinary horizontal
boiler-stills formerly used have been superseded by " column-"
stills, in which the liquor is exposed over a large area, as it
passes from top to bottom of the still, to the action of a current
of steam. (B. R.)
Paraffin, in chemistry, the generic name given to the hydro-
carbons of the general formula C„H2r+2- Many of these
hydrocarbons exist as naturally occurring products, the lower
(gaseous) members of the series being met with as exhalations
from decaying organic matter, or issuing from fissures in the
earth; and the higher members of the series occur in petroleum
(chiefly American) and ozokerite. They may be synthetized by
reducing the alkyl halides (preferably the iodides) with nascent
hydrogen, using either sodium amalgam, zinc and hydrochloric
acid, concentrated hydriodic acid (Berthelot, Jour. prak. Chetn.
1868, 104, p. 103), aluminium amalgam (H. Wislicenus, ibid.,
1896 (2), 54) or the zinc-copper couple (J. H. Gladstone and
A. Tribe, Ber., 1873, 6, p. 202 seq.) as reducing agents.
They may also be derived from alkyl halides by heating to 120-140°
with aluminium chloride in the proportion of three molecules of alkyl
halide to one molecule of aluminium chloride (B. Kohnlein, Ber., 1 883,
16, p. 560) ; by heating with zinc and water to 150-160° C. (E. Frank-
land, A7m., 1849, 71, p. 203; 1850, 74, p. 41), 2 RI+2Zn-|-2HjO =
2RH-|-Znl2-|-Zn(OH)2; by conversion into zinc alkyls, which are
then decomposed by water, ZnR2-|-2H20 = 2 RH-t-Zn(0H)2; by
conversion into the Grignard reagent with metallic magnesium and
decomposition of this either by water, dilute acids or preferably
ammonium chloride (J. Houben, Ber., 1905, 38, p. 3019), RMgl-f-
H20 = RH -f Mgl(OH); by the action of potassium hydride
(H. Moissan, Comptes rendus, 1902, 134, p. 389); and by the action
75^
PARAGON— PARAGUAY
of sodium, in absolute ether solution (A. Wurtz, Ann. chim. phys.,
1855 (3), 44. P- 275), 2RI+2Na = R-R+2NaI. They may also be
obtained by the reduction of the higher fatty acids with hydriodic
acid (F. Krafft, Ber., 1882, 15, pp. 1687, 1711), C„H2„02+6HI =
CnHorH-j+aHjO+sIs; by the conversion of ketones into ketone
chlorides by the action of phosphorus pentachloride, these being
then reduced by hydriodic acid,
by the reduction of unsaturated hydrocarbons with hydrogen in
the presence of a " contact " substance, such, for example, as reduced
nickel, copper, iron or cobalt (P. Sabatier and J. B. Senderens,
Ann. chim. phys., 1905 [8], 4, pp. 319, 433); by the elimination of
carbon dioxide from the fatty acids on heating their salts with soda-
lime or baryta, CH3C02Na + NaOH = CH4+Na2C03, or by heating
their barium salts with sodium methylate in vacuo (I. Mai, Ber.,
1889, 22, p. 2133); by the electrolysis of the fatty acids (H. Kolbe,
Ann., 1849, 69, p. 257), 2C2Hi02 = C2H6+2C024-H20; and by the
action of the zinc alkyls on the ketone chlorides, (CH3)2CCl2 +
Zn(CH3)2 = C6H,2+ZnCl2.
The principal members of the series are shown m the following
table:—
Melting-
Boiling-
Name.
Formula.
point.
point.
Methane
CH4
-184°
— 164° (760 mm. 1
Ethane
C2H6
-172-1''
-84-1° (749 „ )
Propane
C3H8
-45°
-44-5°
+ 1*
Normal Butane
C4H10
—
Isobutane
,,
—
-17°
Normal Pentane
C6H12
—
+36-3°
Secondary Pentane
tt
—
+30-4
Tertiary Pentane
—
+9
Hexane
CcHi4
—
+69°
Heptane
C7H16
—
98^9°
Octane
CH.a
—
125-126°
Nonane
C5H20
-Si°
150°
Decane
C10H22
-31°
173-4°
Undecane
C11H24
-26-5°
196°
Dodecane
Cl2H26
— I''
214-216°
Tridecane
ClsHog
-6'2°
2.34°
Tetradecane .
C14H30
+4°
252°
Pentadecane .
C16H32
+ 10°
270°
Hexadecane .
C16H34
+ 18°
287°
Heptadecane .
C„H36
+22°
170° (15 mm.)
Octadecane .
CisHsji
+28°
317°
Nonadccane .
C19H40
+32°
330°
Eicosane .
C20H42
+37
205 (15 mm.)
Heneicosane .
C21H44
+40°
215° ( ,- .. )
Docosane .
C22H46
+44°
224° ( „ „ )
Tricosane
CjsHis
+48°
234° ( .. .. )
Tetracosane
C24H60
+58°
243° ( .. .. )
Hexacosane .
C26H54
Hcntriacontane
C31H64
+68°
302° (15 mm.)
Dotriacontane
C32H66
+ 70-5°
331° ( " •• )
Pentatriacontane
C35H72
+75°
331° ( .. .. )
Dimyricyl
CeoHi:2
+ 102°
The lowest members of the series are gases at ordinary tem-
perature; those of carbon content Cj to Cis are colourless
liquids, and the higher members from Cie onwards are crystalline
solids. The highest members only volatilize without decom-
position when distilled under diminished pressure. They are
not soluble in water, although the lower and middle members
of the series are readily soluble in alcohol and ether, the solubility,
however, decreasing with increase of molecular weight, so that
the highest members of the series are almost insoluble in these
solvents. The specific gravity increases with the molecular
weight but always remains below that of water. The paraffins
are characterized by their great inertness towards most chemical
reagents. Fuming sulphuric acid converts the middle and
higher members of the series into sulphonic acids and dissolves
the lower members (R. A. Worstall, Amcr. Chem. Journ., 1898,
20, p. 664). Dilute nitric acid, when heated with the paraffins
in a tube, converts them into secondary and tertiary nitro-
derivatives (M. Konowalow, Ber., 1895, 28, p. 1852), whilst
long boiling with strong nitric acid or nitro-sulphuric acid
converts the middle and higher members of the series partly
into primary mono- and di-nitro compounds and partly oxidizes
them to carbonic, acetic, oxalic and succinic acids (Worstall,
ibid., 20, p. 202; 21, p. 211). Fuming nitric acid only reacts
slowly with the normal paraffins at ordinary temperature,
but with those containing a tertiary carbon atom the reaction
is very energetic, oxidation products (fatty acids and dibasic
acids) and a small quantity of polynitro compounds are obtained
(W. Markownikow, Cenlralblatt, 1899, i, p. 1064; Ber., 1899,
32, p. 1441). Chlorine reacts with the paraffins, readily sub-
stituting hydrogen. Isomeric hydrocarbons in this series first
appear with butane, the number increasing rapidly as the
complexity of the molecule increases. For a means of deter-
mining the number of isomers see E. Cayley, Ber., 1875, 8,
p. 1056; F. Hermann, Ber., 1898, 31, p. 91.
For Methane see Marsh Gas. Ethane, C2H6, occurs in crude
petroleum. It may be prepared by the general methods given
above; by heating mercury ethyl with concentrated sulphuric acid
(C. Schorlemmer, Ann., 1864, 132, p. 234); or by heating acetic
anhydride with barium peroxide (P. Schiitzenberger, Zeit.fiir Chemie,
1865, p. 703), 2(CH3CO)20-l-Ba02 = C2H6 + Ba(C2H302)2+2C02.
It is a colourless gas which can be liquefied at 4° C. by a pressure of
46 atmospheres. By slow combustion it yields first water and
acetaldehyde, which then oxidizes to oxides of carbon and water
(W. A. Bone; see Flame), whilst in ozonized air at 100° it gives ethyl
alcohol, together with acetaldehyde and traces of formaldehyde
(Bone, Proc. Chem. Soc, 1904, 29, p. 127).
Dimyricyl (hexacontane), C60H122, is prepared by fusing myricyl
iodide with sodium (C. Hell and C. Hagele, Ber., 1889, 22, p. 502).
It is only very slightly soluble in alcohol and ether.
PARAGON, a term for that which is a model of excellence
or pattern of perfection, hence some person or thing which has
no equal. The word was adopted from the O. Fr. paragon.
Mod. parangon, Ital. paragone and Span, paragon. The Spanish
has usually been taken as the source, and the word explained
as from the prepositional phrase para con, in comparison with.
But the word first appears in Italian, meaning a " touchstone."
The Italian word may be connected with the Gr. irapaKovav, to
sharpen by the use of a whetstone (aKovq). The term has been
used in several technical applications, e.g. in printing, of a
large style of type between " great primer " and " double
pica," now usually called "two-line long primer"; of a
diamond weighing more than 100 carats; and formerly of a
fabric used for hangings in the 17th and i8th centuries.
PARAGRAPH, a term for a section or division of written
or printed matter, which, as beginning a new subject, marking
a break in the subject, &c., is signified by beginning the section
on a new line set back or indented; also by the symbol, now^l,
a reversed P, formerly (J or I), to mark such a division. The
Gr. 7rapa7pa06s {ivapa. and ypa.<t>ei.v, to write alongside or
beside) was used of the short horizontal line or stroke which
marked a line in a MS. where such a division occurs; and
■!rapaypa<j)ri of a marginal note, also the division so marked.
The word " paragraph," besides these technical typographical
meanings, is also applied to the separate numbered sections
in an affidavit or other legal document, or in a statute, &c.,
and in journalism to a short item of news or brief notice of
events.
PARAGUAY, an inland republic of South America, between
20° 16' 14" and 26° 31' S. and 54° 37' and 62° W. It is
bounded on the N.W. by Bolivia, N. and E. by Brazil, S.E.,
S. and W. by Argentina. Pop. (1905 estimate), 631,347,
including 50,000 Iguassu Indians; area, about 07,700 sq. m.
By the treaty of 1872 the Brazilian frontier was drawn up the
Parana from the mouth of the Iguassu or Y-Guazu (25° 30' S.)
to the Salto Grande or Great Cataract of La Guayra (24° 7'),
thence west along the watershed of the Sierra de Maracayfi, north
along the Sierra de Ambaya to the sources of the Apa, and
down that stream to its junction with the Paraguay. The
Buenos Aires treaty of the 3rd of February 1876 fixed the
frontier between Argentina and Paraguay, and assigned to
Paraguay the portion of the Gran Chaco between Rio Verde and
Bahia Negra; the appropriation of the portion between Rio
Verde and the Pilcomayo was submitted to the arbitration
of the president of the United States, who in 1878 assigned
it to Paraguay. The frontier line towards Bolivia has long
been in dispute.
Physical Features. — The river Paraguay, running from north
to south, divides the republic into two sections, the eastern
section, or Paraguay Oriental, being the most important. The
PARAGUAY
757
western section forms part of the great plain called the Gran
Chaco (see Argentina), and is to a large extent unexplored.
Paraguay proper, or the country between the Paraguay and the
Parana, is traversed from north to south by a broad irregular
belt of highlands, which are known as the Cordillera Ambaya,
Cordillera Urucury, &c., but partake rather of the character
of plateaus, and form a continuation and outwork of the
great interior plateau of Brazil. The elevation nowhere
much exceeds 2200 ft. On the western side these highlands
terminate with a more or less sharply defined edge, the
country sloping gradually up to their bases in gentle undula-
tions with open, ill-defined valleys; on the eastern side they
send out broad spurs enclosing deep-cut valleys, and the
whole country retains more of an upland character. The
tributaries that flow westward to the Paraguay are conse-
quently to some extent navigable, while those that run eastward
to the Parana are interrupted by rapids and falls, often of a
formidable description. The Pilcomayo, the largest western
tributary of the Paraguay, and an important frontier river,
is only navigable in its upper and lower reaches. From the
Asuncion plateau southwards, near the confluence of the
Paraguay and Parana, there is a vast stretch of marshy
country, draining partly into the Ypoa lagoon, amd smaller
tracts of the same character are found in other parts of the
lowlands, especially in the valley of the Paraguay. Many
parts of the country sloping to the Parana are nearly covered
with dense forest, and have been left in possession of the
sparsely scattered native tribes. But the country sloping to
the Paraguay, and comprising the greater part of the settled
districts, is, in keeping with its proximity to the vast plains
of Argentina, grassy and open, though the hills are usually
covered with forest and clumps of trees are frequent in the
lowlands. Except in the marshy regions and along the rivers,
the soil is dry, porous and sandy.
Geology. — Little is known of the geology of Paraguay. A large
part of the area is covered by Quaternary deposits, which com-
pletely conceal the solid foundation on which they rest. The hills
and plateaus appear to be composed chiefly of the same sand-
stone series which in the Brazilian province of Rio Grande do Sul
contains seams of coal, with plant remains similar to those of the
Karharbari series of India (Permian or Upper Carboniferous).
It is probable, also, that the Palaeozoic rocks of Matto Grosso
extend into the northern part of the country.
Minerals. — The gold mines said to have been concealed by the
Jesuits may have had no existence; and though iron was worked
by F. S. Lopez at Ibicuy (70 m. south-east of Asuncion), and native
copper, oxide of manganese, marbles, lime and salt have been
found, the real wealth of the country consists rather in the variety
and value of its vegetable products.
Climate and Fauna. — The year in Paraguay is divided into two
seasons — " summer," lasting from October to March, and " winter,"
from April to September. December, January and February are
generally the hottest months, and May, June, July and August
the coldest. The mean temperature for the year seems to be
about 75° or 76°; for summer 81°, for winter 71°. The annual
rainfall is about 46 in., fairly well distributed throughout the year,
though the heaviest precipitation occurs in August, September
and October. The prevailing winds blow from the north or south.
The south wind is dry, cool and invigorating, and banishes mos-
quitoes for a time; the north wind is hot, moist and relaxing. Violent
wind storms generally come from the south.
The fauna of Paraguay proper is practically the same as that of
Brazil. Caymans, water-hogs (capinchos), several kinds of deer
(Cervus paludosus the largest), ounces, opossums, armadillos,
vampires, the American ostrich, the ibis, the jabiru, various species
popularly called partridges, the pato real or royal duck, the Pala-
medea cornuta, parrots and parakeets, are among the more notable
forms. Insect life is peculiarly abundant; the red stump-like
ant-hills are a feature in every landscape, and bees used to be kept
in all the mission villages.
Population. — The great majority of the inhabitants are of
Indian (Guarani) descent, with very slight traces of foreign
blood. Civilization has not made much progress, and the
habits of the people are more primitive than those in the more
advanced neighbouring republics. As a general rule the Para-
guayans are indolent, especially the men. Climatic conditions
obviate the necessity of any superfluity of clothing. A cotton
chemise, and a white mania wrapped in Moorish fashion over
head and body, constitute the dress of the women; a cotton
shirt and trousers that of the men. Boots and shoes are worn
only by the upper classes. Goitre and leprosy are the only
endemic diseases; but the natives, being underfed, are prone to
diarrhoea and dyspepsia. The common language of the country
is Guarani, although in a few districts Tupi is spoken. The
country people as a rule understand a little Spanish, if living
near any trading centre. " New Australia " is a pastoral and
agricultural settlement, originally founded in 1803 by immigrants
from Australia as an experiment in communism. The colony
failed at first, and was reconstituted in 1894. The settlers
numbered 161 in 1908. Immigration is on a small scale (1024
in 1908), but tends to increase; it is encouraged by the govern-
ment, which seeks to divert to Paraguay some portion of the
Italian labour immigrant into Brazil and Argentina. In 1908
the total foreign population numbered about 18,000, half of
whom were natives of Argentina. The principal towns are
Asuncion, the capital (pop. IQ05, 60,259), Villa Rica (25,000),
Concepcion (15,000) and Villa del Pilar (10,000); these are
described in separate articles. Encarnacion on the Parana has
a large transit trade.
Government. — The constitution of the republic was voted by
a constituent assembly on the 25th of November 1870. Legis-
lative power is vested in a Congress consisting of a Senate and
a Chamber of Deputies, elected by universal manhood suffrage
in the proportion of one senator for every 12,000 inhabitants and
one deputy for every 6000. Every member of Congress receives
a salary of about £200. The head of the executive is the
president, chosen by an electoral college for four years, and
only re-eligible after eight consecutive years. He is aided by
a cabinet of five ministers, responsible to Congress. Should he
die during his term, or otherwise become unable to fulfil his
duties, the president is succeeded by the vice-president (similarly
elected), who is ex officio chairman of the Senate. The highest
judicial authority is the Supreme Court, which is empowered
to decide upon the constitutional vahdity of acts passed by
Congress; its three members are appointed for four years by
Congress, subject to the approval of the president. There are
five courts of appeal, and inferior tribunals in all the large
towns. The civil and criminal codes at Argentina have been
adopted, almost without change. For purposes of local
administration the republic is divided into 23 counties (parlidos),
which are subdivided into communes.
Religion and Instruction. — Roman Catholicism is the established
religion, but the constitution guarantees full liberty to all other
creeds. Asuncion, the only bishopric in the state, is in the archi-
episcopal province of Buenos Aires. Education is backward and
was long neglected. By law it is free and compulsory, but in
some districts the attendance of many children is impossible. In
1907 there were 554 primary schools with 41,000 pupils.
Defence. — In 1908 the standing army, including cavalry, infantry
and artillery, numbered about 1 150 men; and there were five
government steamers used for transport and revenue purposes.
Finance. — The financial situation of Paraguay has been a source of
anxiety for many years. In 1885, after interest had been unpaid
for II years on bonds amounting to £1,505,400, an agreement was
made for the issue of new scrip to the value of £850,000 in quittance
of all claims for capital and arrears of interest, certain public lands
being also ceded to the bondholders as compensation. In 1895 an
arrangement was made for a reduction of the rate of interest, for
the funding of the arrears, and for the creation of a sinking fund.
The government were unable to meet their obligations under the
new contract, and in 1898 the outstanding amount had risen to
£994,600. Provision has now been made for the service of this
foreign debt, and the authorities have been able regularly to meet
the service of the coupons. The total outstanding on the 31st
of December 1908 was £831,850. Besides the London debt, there
are many other claims on Paraguay, including (1908) about
£1,950,000 due to Brazil, about £2,500,000 due to Argentina, and
an internal debt of £850,000. The guarantee debt due to the
Paraguay Central railway exceeds £1,500,000; and the total
indebtedness of the republic on the 31st of December 1908 may be
estimated at £7,650,000.
The revenue is derived mainly from import duties, and the most
important branches of expenditure are the salaries of public officials,
the army, public instruction and debt. The estimated revenue and
expenditure for the three years 1906-1908 are shown in the following
table :—
758
PARAGUAY
1906
1907
1908
Revenue
Expenditure
£452,812
454,564
£635,000
677,982
£599,828
506,502
The budget for 1906 remained in force in 1907 and 1908.
Industry. — The principal industries are the cultivation and
preparation of ycrba male (Paraguayan tea), cattle-farming, fruit-
growing, tobacco-planting and timber-cutting. Yerba mate, classi-
fied as Ilex paraguayensis, is a shrub. The leaves are stripped,
withered, rolled and sorted, then packed in sacks and exported,
chiefly to Argentina. Paraguayan tea is used in place of the
ordinary tea or coffee in many parts of South America. Medical
experts state that the beverage infused from the leaves has a
stimulating effect, and is also slightly diuretic. The total amount
exported from Paraguay in 1908 was 4133 tons. The majority
of the yerbales (tea plantations) were formerly the property of the
government, but have been acquired by private enterprise. An
important feature about yerba mate is the small expense necessary
for its production, and the cheap rate, notwithstanding the high
tariff on its importation, at which it can be placed on the Argentine
market as compared with ordinary tea or Brazilian coffee.
The cattle industry comes next in importance. The number of
animals was estimated at 5,500,000 on the 31st of December 1908;
an increase of about 45% since the census of 1899. The animals
are small, but Durham and Hereford bulls have been introduced
from Argentina to improve the breed. The increase in the herds
has caused the owners of saladero establishments in Argentina and
Uruguay to try the working of factories in Paraguay for the pre-
paration of tasajo (jerked beef) and the manufacture of extract of
meat. Both grasses and climate are against sheep-farming on a
large scale.
Oranges are exported to Buenos Aires, Rosario and Montevideo,
and are largely used for fattening hogs. The orange groves are
often uncultivated, but yield abundantly; 10,700,000 dozens of
oranges were exported in 1908. Pineapples are also exported, and
sugar-cane, cotton, coffee and ramie are cultivated. Tobacco,
although of inferior quality, is grown to a considerable extent; the
quantity exported rose from about 35 tons in 1900 to 5014 tons in
1908. Tobacco is chiefly exported to Germany. The staple diet
of the Paraguayans is still, as when the Spaniards first came,
maize and mandioca (the chief ingredient in the excellent chipa or
Paraguayan bread), varied, it may be, with the seeds of the Victoria
regia, whose magnificent blossoms are the great feature of several
of the lakes and rivers.
The forests abound in such timber as quebracho, cedar, curupey,
lapacho and urundey. Some of these, such as the lapacho and
quebracho, are of rare excellence and durability, as is shown by the
wonderful state of preservation in which the woodwork of early
Jesuit churches still remains. Fifteen plants are known to furnish
dyes, and eight are sources of fibre — the caraguatay especially
being employed in the manufacture of the exquisite nanduty or
spider web lace of the natives. Rum, sugar, bricks, leather, furniture
and extract of meat are manufactured.
Commerce. — The commercial situation of Paraguay has improved
in consequence of the investment of foreign capital in industrial
enterprise. The principal articles imported are textiles, hardware,
wines, rice, flour, canned goods and general provisions; the exports
are yerba mate, hides, hair, dried meat, wood, oranges, tobacco.
Most of the export trade is with Buenos Aires or Montevideo. The
values for the five years 1904-1908 were: —
1904
1905
1906
1907
1908
I mports
Exports
£713,146
639,252
£935,703
566,602
£1,253,439
539,028
£1,572,255
647,222
£814.591
773,419
Of the imports into Paraguay, 29°'o came from Germany in 1908,
21 % from the United Kingdom and 19% from Argentina.
Communications. — Numerous ocean-going liners, most of which
fly the Brazilian or the Argentine flag, ply on the Paraguay and
the Parana; smaller vessels ascend the tributary streams, which
are also utilized for floating lumber down to the ports. Out of
1320 ships which entered Asuncion in 1908 and 11 84 which cleared,
none was of British or United States nationality. The Brazilian
Lloyd S S. Co. provides direct and regular communication between
Asuncion and New York. The only railway in the republic is the
Paraguay Central which was open in 1906 between Asuncion and
Pirapo (154 m.). The completion of the line to Encarnacion was
then undertaken (1906-1911), a train-ferry across the Parana
affording connexion with Posadas. These extensions, and the
alteration of gauge to that of the Argentine North-Eastern, were
carried out mainly at the cost of the Argentine government, which
acquired a controlling interest in the Paraguay Central. They
were intended to shorten the journey between Buenos Aires and
Asuncion from 5 days to 36 hours. There are some fairly good
wagon roads, and the government appropriates annually a con-
siderable sum for their extension.
Post and Telegraph. — Paraguay entered the Universal Postal
Union in 1884. Telegraph lines connect Asuncion with other
towns, and two cables put the republic in communication with the
rest of the world by way of Corrientes and Posadas.
Money and Credit. — The banks open for business in 1904 were
the Mercantile Bank, the Territorial Bank, the Bank of Los Rios &
Co., and the Agricultural Bank: the last named has a capital of
£207,590, advanced by the government, and lends money to the
agricultural and industrial classes. The Paraguayan Bank, with
a capital of £600,000, was opened in 1905, and the state bank (Banco
de la Republica), with a total authorized capital of £4,000,000,
was opened on the 30th of June 1908. The Conversion Office,
which is authorized to sell or lend gold, receives a fixed revenue
of £30,000 from certain import and export dues; it was reorganized
in 1903 for the administration of the public debt. In the same year
the gold and silver coinage of Paraguay were legally standardized
as identical with those of Argentina (5 gold dollars or pesos = £ i ) ; but
paper money is about the only circulating medium, and gold com-
mands a high premium (1600% in December 1908). The normal
value of the paper or currency dollar is about 4s. 8d. (For pur-
poses of conversion the gold dollar has been taken at 5 =£1 through-
out this article, and the currency dollar at 50 = £l.)
Weights and Measures.— The metric system is officially adopted,
but the weights in common use are the tonelada (2025 fb), the
quintal (101-4 ft), the arroba (25-35 ft), the libra (1-014 ft) and
the onza (-0616 lb). The unit for liquid measure is the cuarta
(-1665 gallon); for dry measure the almud (-66 bushel) a.nd fane ga
(li bushels). The land measures are the legua (2-689 ™-)- the sino
(69! sq. yds.), and the legua cuadrada (l2j sq. m.).
History. — In 1527 Sebastian Cabot reached Paraguay and
built a fort called Santo Espiritu. Asuncion was founded on
the 15th of August 1535 by Juan de Ayolas, and his successor,
Martinez de Irala, determined to make it the capital of the
Spanish possessions east of the Andes. From this centre
Spanish adventurers pushed east to La Guayra, beyond the
Parana, and west into the Gran Chaco; and before long vast
numbers of the less warlike natives were reduced to serfdom.
The name Paraguay was applied not only to the country between
the Paraguay and the Parana, but to the whole Spanish territory,
which now comprises parts of BrazO, Uruguay and the Argentine
provinces of Buenos Aires, Entre Rios, Corrientes, Misiones,
and part of Santa Fe. It was not till 1620 that Paraguay proper
and Rio de la Plata or Buenos Aires were separated as distinct
governments, and they were both dependent on the vice-royalty
of Peru till 1776, when Buenos Aires was erected into a vice-
royalty, and Paraguay placed under its jurisdiction. The
first Christian missions in Paraguay were established by the
Franciscans — Armenta, Lebron, Solano (who was afterwards
canonized as the " Apostle of Paraguay ") and Bolanos— between
1542 and 1560; but neither they nor the first Jesuit missionaries,
Salonio, Field and Ortega, were allowed to make their enterprise
a permanent success. This fell to the lot of the second band of
Jesuits, Cataldino, Mazeta and Lorenzana, who began work
in 1605. Though they succeeded in establishing a kind of
imperium in imperio, and were allowed to drill the natives to the
use of arms, the Jesuits never controlled the government of
Paraguay; indeed they had nearly as often to defend themselves
from the hostility of the governor and bishop at Asuncion as from
the invasions of the Paulistas or Portuguese settlers of Sao Paulo.
It was only by the powerful assistance of Zabala, governor
of Buenos Aires, that the anti-Jesuit and quasi-national party
which had been formed under Antequera was crushed in 1735.
In 1750, however, Ferdinand VI. of Spain ceded to the Portu-
guese, in exchange for the fortified village of Colonia del Sacra-
mento (Uruguay), both the district of La Guayra and a territory
of some 20,000 sq. m. east of the Uruguay. The Jesuits
resisted the transference, and it was only after several engage-
ments that they were defeated by the combined forces of Spain
and Portugal. The treaty was revoked by Spain in 1761, but
the missions never recovered their prosperity, and the Jesuits
were finally expelled in 1769. In 181 1 Paraguay declared
itself independent of Spain; by 1814 it was a despotism in the
hands of Dr J. G. R. Francia (q.v.). On Francia's death, in
1840, the chief power passed to his nephew, Carlos Antonio
Lopez (g.v.), who in 1862 was succeeded by his son Francisco
Solano Lopez. In 1864 a dispute arose between the younger
Lopez and the Brazilian government, and Lopez marched an
army through Argentine territory to invade southern Brazil.
PARAHYBA— PARAHYBA DO SUL
759
This act induced the governments of Brazil, Uruguay and
Argentina to combine for the purpose of suppressing Lopez.
The invasion of Paraguay then took place, and a struggle
involving an enormous sacrifice of life and treasure lasted for
five years, only coming to a close when the Paraguayan forces
were totally defeated and Lopez was killed at the battle of
Aquidaban on the ist of March 1870. During this warfare
every male Paraguayan capable of bearing arms was forced to
fight, whole regiments being formed of boys of from 12 to 15
years of age. Even women were used as beasts of burden to
carry ammunition and stores, and when no longer capable of
work were left to die by the roadside or murdered to avoid any
ill consequences occurring from their capture. When the war
broke out the population of Paraguay was 1,337,439; when
hostilities ceased it consisted of 28,746 men, 106,254 women
above 15 years of age, and 86,079 children. During the retreat
of the Paraguayans the dictator ordered every town and village
passed through to be razed to the ground, and every hving
animal for which no use could be found to be slaughtered.
When the end came the country and people were in a state of
absolute prostration.
After the death of Lopez the government was administered
by a triumvirate consisting of Cirilo Rivarola, Carlos Loizaga
and Jose Diaz de Bedoza, until, in November 1870, the present
constitution was formulated. The policy of Brazil was for a
time directed towards the annexation of Paraguay; the debt
due to Brazil on account of the war was assessed at £40,000,000,
a sum which Paraguay could never hope to pay; and it was
not until 1876 that the Brazilian army of occupation was whoUy
withdrawn. But the rivalry between Brazil and Argentina,
and the necessity of maintaining the balance of power among
the South American republics, enabled Paraguay to remain
independent. No violent constitutional change took place after
1870, though there have been spasmodic outbreaks of revolu-
tion, as in 1881, in 1894, in i8g8, in December 1904 — when a
somewhat serious civil war was ended by the peace of Pilco-
mayo — in July 1908 and in September 1909. None of these
disturbances deeply or permanently affected the welfare of the
repubUc, nor were all of them accompanied by bloodshed. Under
the presidency of J. B. Egusquiza (1894-1898) the boundary
dispute with Bolivia became acute; but war was averted, largely
owing to the success of the revolution, which forced the president
to resign. The main interest of recent Paraguayan history is
economic rather than poUtical. In that history the gradual
development of commerce, the financial reforms in 1895, and
the extension of the Paraguay Central railway after 1906, were
events of far greater importance than any pohtical movement
which took place between 1870 and 1910.
Bibliography. — For an account of physical features, inhabitants,
products, &c., see H. Decoud, Geografia de la republica del Paraguay
(5th ed., Leipzig, 1906) ; E. de B. La Dardye, Paraguay: the Land
and the People, ed. E. G. Ravenstein (London, 1892); W. Vallcntin,
Paraguay: das Land der Guaranis (Berlin, 1907) ; R. V. F. Treven-
feld, Paraguay in Wort und Bild (Berlin, 1904); H. Mangels, Wirl-
schaftliche, naiurgeschichlliche und klimatologische Abhandlungen
aus Paraguay (Munich, 1904); W. B. Grubb, Among the Indians
of the Paraguayan Chaco (London, 1904) ; E. Bolland, Exploraciones
practicadas en el Alto Paraguay y en la Laguna Gaiba (Buenos
Aires, 1901). Commerce and Finance: British consular reports
(London, annual); Report of the Council of the Corporation of
Foreign Bondholders (London, annual^ ; statistical publications of
the Paraguay government and presidential messages, in Spanish
(Asuncion, annual) ; Revue dii Paraguay (Asuncion, monthly) ;
Paraguay (Washington, Bureau of Amer. Republics, 2nd ed. 1902).
History: P. de Angelis, Coleccion de documentos, &c. (1835); H.
Charlevoix, Histoire de Paraguay (1835); G. Funes, Ensayo de la
historia civil del Paraguay, &c. (1816); Lozano, Historia de la
conquista del Paraguay (Buenos Aires, 1873-1874); R. B. Cunning-
hame Graham, A Vanished Arcadia (London, iqoi) ; C. A. Washburn,
The History of Paraguay (New York, 1871); E. C. Jourdan, Guerra
do Paraguay (Rio de Janeiro, 1890); R. F. Burton, Letters from the
Battlefields of Paraguay (London, 1870); A. Audibert, Question de
litnites entre el Paraguay y Bolivia (Asuncion, 1901); H. Decoud,
List of Books . . . relating to Paraguay (Washington, 1905).
PARAHYBA (Parahiba or Parahyba do Norte), a state
of north-eastern Brazil, bounded N. by Rio Grande do Norte,
E. by the Atlantic, S. by Pernambuco, and W. by Ceara. Pop.
(1890), 457,232; (1900), 490,784. Area, 28,854 sq. m. It
consists of a narrow coastal zone, 30 to 40 m. wide, along the
seaboard, behind which the country rises sharply to a highland
region forming part of the great central plateau of Brazil.
The long, dry season (April to October), together with occasional
devastating droughts {seccas) lasting two or more years, prevents
the development of forests and damages the agricultural and
pastoral industries of the state. There is only one river of
importance, the Parahyba do Norte, which crosses the southern
part of the state from west to east with a course of about 240 m.
The state is poorly watered and covered with a scanty vegetation
suitable for pasturage only. Stock-raising is favoured by the
existence of a bromeliaceous plant, called mecambira, which
is sufficiently juicy to satisfy the thirst of the animals. On
the low lands and along some of the river valleys agriculture
is the chief occupation of the people; cotton and sugar are largely
produced and some tobacco is grown. The exports include
hides, skins, cotton, sugar and tobacco. Rubber of the Ceara
type is also found and forms an item among the smaOer exports.
The eastern extremity of the state is served by a railway
originally called the Conde d'Eu railway but now forming
part of the Great Western of Brazil system, which runs westward
and northward from Parahyba to Independencia (72 m.),
where it connects with the extension of the Natal and Nova
Cruz line, and a branch runs southward to Pilar, 15 m. from its
junction and 46 m. from Parahyba. Another small branch
runs westward from the station of Mulungti to Alagoa Grande
(14 m.). The capital is Parahyba iq.v.), and other important
towns, with the populations (in 1890) of their municipalities,
which include large rural districts and sometimes several other
towns, are: Arcia (26,590); Bananeiras (20,058); Campina
Grande (21,475); Guarabira (26,625); Mananguape (20,754);
Pilar (10,133, town); Pombal (12,804); and Souza (11,135).
Parahyba formed part of the original grant, known as the
capitania of Itamaraca, from the Portuguese crown to Pero
Lopes de Souza. It was not settled until 1584, when a fort was
erected near the present port of CabedeUo under the name
of Sao FiUppe.
PARAHYBA (Parahyba do Norte), a city and port of
Brazil, capital of Parahyba state, on the right bank of the
Parahyba do Norte river, 11 m. above its mouth and 65 m. N.
of Recife. Pop. (1890), 18,645, including several suburbs and
CabedeUo; (1908, estimate), 30,000. Parahyba is the starting-
point of the Conde d'Eu railway, now a part of the Great
Western of Brazil system, which includes a main line to
Independencia, where it connects with the Natal & Nova Cruz
line of Rio Grande do Norte, and a branch to CabedeUo. The
entrance to the Parahyba do Norte River being obstructed by a
stone reef and sand bars, only vessels drawing less than 14 ft.
can effect an entrance. The " Varadouro," as the lower part
of the city is caUed, is built on the margin of the river and is
devoted principally to commerce. Behind this is a low hiU on
whose northern slope and broad summit the upper city is buUt,
and a tramway line runs to the suburb of Trincheira. There
are some good pubUc buUdings, including the parish church
(ntatris) of N.S. das Neves, the old Franciscan convent and
church, the government palace, and the treasury. There are a
normal school, a lyceum, a national gymnasium, and a school for
marine apprentices. Parahyba was founded in 1585. It was
caUed Frederickstadt by the Dutch, who occupied the Franciscan
convent as a government house, and FeUppea in honour of the
king of Spain when the Dutch were expelled. Its original
name was resumed on the separation (1640) of Portugal and her
colonies from Spanish rule.
PARAHYBA DO SUL, a river of Brazil, having its source on
the campos of Bocaina, on the northern slope of the Serra do
Mar in the western part of the state of Sao Paulo, and flowing
at first south-westerly and then after a horse-shoe curve in the
vicinity of Jacarehy in a general E.N.E. direction to the Atlantic
in lat. 21° 38' S. Its upper course for a distance of 80 m., or
to the confluence of the Parahybuna, is known as the Para-
hytinga. The navigable channel from Sao Fidelis to the
760
PARALDEHYDE— PARALLAX
Atlantic is 54 m. long, and the total length of the river, including
the Parabytinga, is 540 m. Its source is about 4920 ft. above
sea-level. The Parahyba passes through a fertile, long-settled
country, a part of which was for many years the principal
coffee-producing region of Brazil. Its lower course passes
through the rich alluvial sugar-producing district of Campos.
Among the towns on the Parahyba are Campos, Sao Fidelis,
Parahyba do Sul, Juiz de Fora, Barra do Pirahy (railway
junction), Rezende, Queluz and Lorena.
PARALDEHYDE, in medicine, a clear colourless liquid (for
the chemistry see Aldehydes), soluble in i in 10 of water and
freely in alcohol. Paraldehyde is a powerful hypnotic, giving
a refreshing quiet sleep which is not foUowed by unpleasant
after effects. As it does not depress the heart when used in
medicinal doses, it may be given to patients suffering from
cardiac disease. It is much used to produce sleep in the insane.
As it is largely excreted by the lungs it may be found useful in
bronchial asthma. When taken continuously the drug soon
loses its power as a hypnotic. Its unpleasant taste usually
prevents the formation of a paraldehyde habit, but it occasionally
occurs with symptoms resembling delirium tremens. When
taken in an overdose paraldehyde kills by producing respiratory
failure.
PARALLAX (Gr. TrapaXXa^, alternately), in astronomy, the
apparent change in the direction of a heavenly body when
viewed from two different points. Geocentric parallax is the
angle between the direction of the body as seen from the
surface of the earth and the direction in which it appears from
the centre of the earth. Annual parallax is the angle between
the direction in which a star appears from the earth and the
direction in which it appears from the centre of the sun.
For stellar parallaxes see Star; the solar parallax is discussed
below.
Solar Parallax. — The problem of the distance of the sun
has always been regarded as the fundamental one of celestial
measurement. The difficulties in the way of solving it are very
great, and up to the present time the best authorities are not
agreed as to the result, the effect of half a century of research
having been merely to reduce the uncertainty within continually
narrower limits. The mutations of opinion on the subject
during the last fifty years have been remarkable. Up to about
the middle of the 19th century it was supposed that transits of
Venus across the disk of the sun afforded the most trustworthy
method of making the determination in question; and when
Encke in 1824 published his classic discussion of the transits
of 1 76 1 and 1769, it was supposed that we must wait until the
transits of 1874 and 1882 had been observed and discussed
before any further light would be thrown on the subject. The
parallax 8-5776" found by Encke was therefore accepted without
question, and was employed in the Nautical Almanac from 1834
to i86g. Doubt was first thrown on the accuracy of this number
by an announcement from Hansen in 1862 that the observed
parallactic inequality of the moon was irreconcilable with the
accepted value of the solar parallax, and indicated the much
larger value 8-97". This result was soon apparently confirmed
by several other researches founded both on theory and observa-
tion, and so strong did the evidence appear to be that the
value 8-95" was used in the Nautical Almanac from 1870 to 1881.
The most remarkable feature of the discussion since 1862 is that
the successive examinations of the subject have led to a con-
tinually diminishing value, so that at the present time it seems
possible that the actual parallax of the sun is almost as near to
the old value of Encke as to that which first replaced it. The
value of 8-848", determined by S. Newcomb, was used from 1882
to 1900; and since then the value 8-80" has been employed,
having been adopted at a Paris conference in 1896.'
Five fundamentally different methods of determining the
distance of the sun have been worked out and appHed. They
are as follows: —
I. That of direct measurement. — From the measures of the
parallax of either Venus or Mars the parallax of the sun can
' R. SI Ball, Spherical Astronomy, p. 303.
be immediately derived, because the ratios of distances in
the solar system are known with the last degree of „ .. . .
rjy e -tj • Methods of
precision. Iransits of Venus and observations of oetermiaa-
various kinds on Mars are all to be included in this "on.
class.
II. The second method is in principle extremely simple,
consisting merely in multiplying the observed velocity of light
by the time which it takes light to travel from the sun to the
earth. The velocity is now well determined; the difficulty is
to determine the time of passage.
III. The third method is through the determination of the
mass of the earth relative to that of the sun. In astronomical
practice the masses of the planets are commonly expressed as
fractions of the mass of the sun, the latter being taken as unity.
When we know the mass of the earth in gravitational measure,
its product by the denominator of the fraction just mentioned
gives the mass of the sun in gravitational measure. From this
the distance of the sun can be at once determined by a funda-
mental equation of planetary motion.
IV. The fourth method is through the parallactic inequality
in the moon's motion. For the relation of this inequality to
the solar parallax see Moon.
V. The fifth method consists in observing the displacement
in the direction of the sun, or of one of the nearer planets, due to
the motion of the earth round the common centre of gravity of
the earth and moon. It requires a precise knowledge of the
moon's mass. The uncertainty of this mass impairs the accuracy
of the method.
I. To begin with the results of the first method. The transits
of Venus observed in 1874 and 1882 might be expected to hold
a leading place in the discussion. No purely
. , , . -J * Transits of
astronomical enterprise was ever carried out on so yg^^g^
large a scale or at so great an expenditure of money
and labour as was devoted to the observations of these transits,
and for several years before their occurrence the astronomers of
every leading nation were busy in discussing methods of obser-
vation and working out the multifarious details necessary to
their successful application. In the preceding century rehance
was placed entirely on the observed moments at which Venus
entered upon or left the hmb of the sun, but in 1874 it was
possible to determine the relative positions of Venus and the
sun during the whole course of the transit. Two methods
were devised. One was to use a heliometer to measure the
distance between the hmbs of Venus and the sun during the
whole time that the planet was seen projected on the solar disk,
and the other was to take photographs of the sun during the
period of the transit and subsequently measure the negatives.
The Germans laid the greatest stress on measures with the
hehometer; the Americans, EngUsh, and French on the photo-
graphic method. These four nations sent out well-equipped
expeditions to various quarters of the globe, both in 1874 and
1882, to make the required observations; but when the results
were discussed they were found to be extremely unsatisfactory.
It had been supposed that, with the greatly improved telescopes
of modern times, contact observations could be made with much
greater precision than in 1761 and 1769, yet, for some reason
which it is not easy to explain completely, the modem observa-
tions were but little better than the older ones. Discrepancies
difficult to account for were found among the estimates of even
the best observers. The photographs led to no more definite
result than the observations of contacts, except perhaps those
taken by the Americans, who had adopted a more complete
system than the Europeans; but even these were by no means
satisfactory. Nor did the measures made by the Germans with
heliometers come out any better. By the American photographs
the distances between the centres of Venus and the sun, and the
angles between the line adjoining the centres and the meridian,
could be separately measured and a separate result for the
parallax derived from each. The results were: —
Transit of iSrr- Distances; par.-8-888^
Pes. angles; ,, =8-873.
Transit of 1882: Distances; „ =8-873,'.
■' Pes. angles; ,, =8-772 .
PARALLAX
761
The German measures with the heliometer gave apparently
concordant results, as follows: —
Transit of 1874: par. =8-876".
Transit of 1882: „ =8-879".
The combined result from both these methods is 8-857", while
the combination of all the contact observations made by aU the
parties gave the much smaller result, 8-794". Had the internal
contacts alone been used, which many astronomers would
have considered the proper course, the result would have been
8-776".
In 1877 Sir David GiE organized an expedition to the island of
Ascension to observe the parallax of Mars with the heliometer.
By measurements giving the position of Mars among
p"'']'la'^s neighbouring stars in the morning and evening,
the effect of parallax could be obtained as well as
by observing from two different stations; in fact the rotation
of the earth carried the observer himself round a parallel of
latitude, so that the comparison of his own morning and
evening observations could be used as if they had been made at
different stations. The result was 8-78". The failure of the
method based on transits of Venus led to an international
effort carried out on the initiative of Sir David Gill to measure
the parallax by observations on those minor planets which
approach nearest the earth. The scheme of observations was
organized on an extended scale. The three bodies chosen
for observation were: Victoria (June 10 to Aug. 26, 1889);
Iris (Oct. 12 to Dec. 10, 1888); and Sappho (Sept. 18 to Oct. 25,
1888). The distances of these bodies at the times of opposition
were somewhat less than unity, though more than twice as great
as that of Mars in 1877. The drawback of greater distance
was, however, in GiU's opinion, more than compensated by the
accuracy with which the observations could be made. The
instruments used were heliometers, the construction and use of
which had been greatly improved, largely through the efforts of
Gill himself. The planets in question appeared in the telescope
as star-like objects which could be compared with the stars with
much greater accuracy than a planetary disk like that of Mars,
the apparent form of which was changed by its varying phase,
due to the different directions of the sun's illumination. These
observations. were worked up and discussed by Gill with great
elaboration in the Annals of the Cape Observatory, vols. vi. and
vii. The residts were for the solar parallax ir: —
From Victoria, x = 8-801 "±0-006".
„ Sappho, TT = 8-798"=fco-oii".
„ Iris, TT = 8-8i2"=to-oo9".
The general mean result was 8-802". From the meridian observa-
tions of the same planets made for the purpose of controlling
the elements of motion of the planets Auwers found •;r = 8-8o6".
In 1898 the remarkable minor planet Eros was discovered,
which, on those rare occasions when in opposition near perihehon,
would approach the earth to a distance of o-i6. On these
occasions the actual parallax would be six times greater than that
of the sun, and could therefore be measured with much greater
precision than in the case of any other planet. Such an approach
had occurred in 1892, but the planet was not then discovered.
At the opposition of 1900-1901 the minimum distance was
0-32, much less than that of any other planet. Advantage
was taken of the occasion to make photographic measures for
parallax at various points of the earth on a very large scale.
Owing to the difficulties inherent in determining the position
of so faint an object among a great number of stars, the results
have taken about ten years to work out. The photographic
right ascensions gave the values 8-80" + 0-007" i 00027"
(Hinks) and 8-80" -f 0-0067" + 0-0025" (Perrine); the
micrometric observations gave the value 8-8o6"+o-oo4 (Hinks).'
II. The velocity of light (q.v.) has been measured with all
the precision necessary for the purpose. The latest result is
299,860 kilometres per second, with a probable error of perhaps
30 kilometres — that is, about the ten-thousandth part of the
quantity itself. This degree of precision is far beyond any we
' Mon. Not. i?.^.'5."(May 1909,) p. 544; ibid. (June 1910), p. 588.
can hope to reach in the solar parallax. The other element
which enters into consideration is the time required for light to
pass from the sun to the earth. Here no such precision can
be attained. Both direct and indirect methods are available.
The direct method consists in observing the times of some
momentary or rapidly varying celestial phenomenon, as it
appears when seen from opposite points of the earth's orbit.
The only phenomena of the sort available are eclipses of Jupiter's
satellites, especially of the first. Unfortunately these eclipses
are not sudden but slowly changing phenomena, so that they
cannot be observed without an error of at least several seconds,
and not infrequently important fractions of a minute. As the
entire time required for light to pass over the radius of the earth's
orbit is only about 500 seconds, this error is fatal to the method.
The indirect method is based upon the observed constant of
aberration or the displacement of the stars due to the earth's
motion. The minuteness of this displacement, about 20-50",
makes its precise determination an extremely difficult matter.
The most careful determinations are affected by systematic
errors arising from those diurnal and annual changes of tempera-
ture, the effect of which cannot be wholly eliminated in astro-
nomical observation; and the recently discovered variation of
latitude has introduced a new element of uncertainty into the
determination. In consequence of it, the values formerly
found were systematically too small by an amount which even
now it is difficult to estimate with precision. Struve's classic
number, universally accepted during the second half of the 19th
century, was 20-445". Serious doubt was first cast upon its
accuracy by the observations of Nyren with the same instrument
during the years 1 880-1882, but on a much larger number of stars.
His result, from his observations alone, was 20-52"; and taking
into account the other Pulkowa results, he concluded the most
probable value to be 20-492". In 1895 Chandler, from a general
discussion of aU the observations, derived the value of 20-50".
Since then, two elaborate series of observations made with
the zenith telescope for the purpose of determining the variation
of latitude and the constant of aberration have been carried
on by Professor C. L. Doolittle at the Flower Observatory near
Philadelphia, and Professor J. K. Rees and his assistants at the
observatory of Columbia University, New York. Each of these
works is self-consistent and seemingly trustworthy, but there
is a difference between the two which it is difficult to account
for. Rees's result is 20-47"; Doohttle's, from 20-46" to 20-56".
This last value agrees very closely with a determination made by
Gill at the Cape of Good Hope, and most other recent determina-
tions give values exceeding 20-50". On the whole it is probable
that the value exceeds 20-50"; and so far as the results of direct
observation are concerned may, for the present, be fixed at
20-52". The corresponding value of the solar parallax is 8-782".
In addition to the doubt thrown on this result by the discrepancy
between various determinations of the constant of aberration,
it is sometimes doubted whether the latter constant necessarily
expresses with entire precision the ratio of the velocity of the
earth to the velocity of hght. While the theory that it does
seems highly probable, it cannot be regarded as absolutely
certain.
III. The combined mass of the earth and moon admits of being
determined by its effect in changing the position of the plane
of the orbit of Venus. The motion of the node of
this plane is found with great exactness from observa- ^^th.
tions of the transits of Venus. So exact is the latter
determination that, were there no weak point in the subsequent
parts of the process, this method would give far the most certain
result for the solar parallax. Its weak point is that the apparent
motion of the node depends partly upon the motion of the
ecliptic, which cannot be determined with equal precision. The
derivation of the distance of the sun by it is of such interest
from its simplicity that we shall show the computation.
From the observed motion of the node of Venus, as shown by the
four transits of 1761, 1769, 1874 and 1882, is found
•«. r / ,.u 1 ^ Mass of sun
Mass of (earth -t-moonl = 2
332600
762
PARALLELISM— PARALYSIS
In gravitational units of mass, based on the metre and second
as units of length and time,
Log. earth's mass= 14-60052
,, moon's „ =12-6895.
The sum of the corresponding numbers multiplied by 332600
gives
Log. sun's mass = 20- 1 2773.
Putting a for the mean distance of the earth from the sun, and
n for its mean motion in one second, we use the fundamental
equation
Mo being the sun's mass, and M' the combined masses of the earth
and moon, which are, however, too small to affect the result. For
the mean motion of the earth in one second in circular measure,
we have
n= ^, ; log. n = 7'2qQ07
31558149' s ' ^-^ I
the denominator of the fraction being the number of seconds in the
sidereal year. Then, from the formula
^3 = Mo^ [20-12773]
»' —15-59814
we find
Log. a in metres = 1 1 • 1 7653
Log. equat. rad. © 6-80470
Sine O 's eq. hor. par. 5-62817
Sun's eq. hor. par. 8-762".
IV. The determination of the solar parallax through the
parallactic inequality of the moon's motion also involves two
elements — one of observation, the other of purely
Moon. mathematical theory. The inequahty in question
has its greatest negative value near the time of the
moon's first quarter, and the greatest positive value near the
third quarter. Meridian observations of the moon have been
heretofore made by observing the transit of its illuminated
limb. At first quarter its first limb is illuminated; at third
quarter, its second limb. In each case the results of the observa-
tions may be systematically in error, not only from the uncertain
diameter of the moon, but in a still greater degree from the
varying effect of irradiation and the personal eqtiation of the
observers. The theoretical element is the ratio of the parallactic
inequality to the solar parallax. The determination of this
ratio is one of the most difficult problems in the lunar theory.
Accepting the definitive result of the researches of E. W. Brown
the value of the solar parallax derived by this method is about
8-773"-
V. The fifth method is, as we have said, the most uncertain
Motion of of all; it will therefore suffice to quote the result.
Earth. which is
Tr = 8-8l8".
The following may be taken as the most probable values of
the solar parallax, as derived independently by the five methods
we have described : —
From measures of parallax . 8-802"
,, velocity of light . . 8-781"
,, mass of the earth . . 8-762"
,, par. ineq. of moon . . 8-773"
„ lunar equation . . 8-818"
The question of the possible or probable error of these results
is one on which there is a marked divergence of opinion among
investigators. Probably no general agreement could now be
reached on a statement more definite than this; the last result
may be left out of consideration, and the value of the solar
parallax is probably contained between the limits 8-77" and
8-80." The most likely distance of the sun may be stated in
round numbers as 93,000,000 miles. (S. N.)
PARALLELISM, PSYCHOPHYSICAL, in pyschology, the
theory that the conscious and nervous processes vary concomi-
tantly whether or not there be any causal connexion between
them; in other words " that modifications of consciousness emerge
contemporaneously with corresponding modifications of nervous
process " (Stout). The theory is the third possible alternative
in considering the relation between mind and body, the others
being interaction and one-sided action (e.g. materialism).
It should be observed that this theory is merely a statement,
not an explanation. (See Psychology.)
PARALLEL MOTION, a form of link-work invented by James
Watt, and used in steam-engines (see Sieam-Engine, § 88),
to connect the head of the piston rod, moving up and down in
a vertical path, with the end of the beam, moving in the arc
of a circle. An ordinary form is shown diagrammatically in
figure. My is the path in
which the piston-rod head,
or crosshead, as it is often
called, is to be guided. ABC
is the middle line of half
the beam, C being the fixed
centre about which the beam
oscillates. A hnk BD con-
nects a point in the beam
with a radius link ED, which
oscillates about a fixed centre
taken so that BP : DP
Watt's Parallel Motion.
at E. A point P in BD,
so that Hi' : Uf :: EN : CM, move in a path
which coincides very closely with the straight line MPN.
Any other point F in the line CP or CP produced is made
to copy this motion by means of the links AF and FG, parallel
to BD and AC. In the ordinary application of the
parallel motion a point such as F is the point of attach-
ment of the piston-rod, and P is used to drive a pump-rod.
Other points in the line CP produced are occasionally made
use of by adding other links parallel to AC and BD.
Watt's linkage gives no more than an approximation to
straight-line motion, but in a well-designed example the amount
of deviation need not exceed one four-thousandth of the length
of stroke. It was for long believed that the production of an
exact straight-line motion by pure linkage was impossible,
until the problem was solved by the invention of the PeauceUier
cell. (See also MECH.'i>acs: Applied Mechanics, §§ 77, 78.)
PARALLELS, in siegecraft, a term used to express the trenches
drawn by besiegers in a generally parallel direction to the front
of a fortress chosen for attack. Parallels are employed along
with " zigzag approaches " in the " formal attack " or siege
proper. They are traced in short zigzag lengths (the prolongation
of each length falling clear of the hostile works), in order to avoid
enfilade; but their obliquity is of course made as slight as is
consistent with due protection in order to save time and labour.
The " first parallel " is opened at a convenient distance from the
fortress, by numerous working parties, who dig (under cover
of night) a continuous line of entrenchments facing the point
or points of attack. Zigzags are next dug to the rear (-when
necessary) to give sheltered access to the parallel, and from
this new zigzags are pushed out towards the defenders, to be
connected by a " second parallel," and so on until finally a
parallel is made sufficiently close to the fortress to permit of
an assault over the open, the parallels becoming stronger and
more solid as they approach to closer range. This system of
parallels provides, within range of the defenders' -ft'eapons,
shelter in which the besieger can safely mass men and material
for the prosecution of the attack. Parallels and approaches
are constructed either by ordinary " trench work," executed
simultaneously by a large number of men strung out along the
intended line, or by " sapping " in which one trained " sapper,"
as it were, burrows a trench in the required direction, others
following him to widen and improve the work.
PARALUS and SALAMINIA, the name of two ancient
Athenian triremes used for sacred embassies, the conveyance of
despatches and tribute money, the transportation of state crimi-
nals, and as flagships in time of war. It is probable that a
third vessel of the same kind (called Delia) was used exclusively
for Delian embassies, although it has been identified by some
with the Salaminia.
PARALYSIS, or Palsy (from Gr. TapaXveiv, to relax; Wycliffe
has palesy. and another old form of the word is parlesy), a term
which in its wider acceptation indicates abolition of motor,
sensory, sensorial or vaso-motor functions, but in medical
nomenclature is usually restricted to the loss or impairment of
voluntary muscular power. Paralysis is to be regarded rather
as a symptom than a disease per se; it may arise (i) from injury
PARALYSIS
763
or disease of nervous and muscular structures, and is then termed
organic paralysis; or (2) from purely dynamic disturbances
in the nervous structures of the brain which preside over
voluntary movement. The latter is functional motor paralysis,
a symptom common in certain neuroses, especially hysteria.
For general paralysis of the insane, see Insanity.
Whether the loss of motor power be functional or organic in
origin, it may be generalized in all the muscles of the body,
or localized to one or many. The different forms of paralysis
of the voluntary muscles which may arise from organic disease
can be understood by a consideration of the motor path of
voluntary impulses from brain to muscle. There are two
neural segments in this path, an upper cerebral and a lower
spinal; the former has its departure platform in the brain and
its terminus in the whole of the anterior grey matter of the
spinal cord, whence issues the lower spinal segment of the motor
path to the muscles. The nerve fibres of the upper cerebral
segment are prolongations of the large psycho-motor cells;
the nerve fibres of the lower segment are prolongations by the
anterior roots and motor nerves of the large cells in the grey
matter of the cord. Disease or destruction of any part of the
upper cerebral segment will give rise to loss of voluntary power,
for the influence of the mind on the muscles is removed in
proportion to the destruction of this efferent path (see diagram
in Neuropathology). Disease or destruction of the lower spinal
segment causes not only loss of voluntary power but an atrophy
of the muscles themselves. Paralysis may therefore be divided
into three great groups: (i) loss of voluntary power without
muscular wasting except from disuse, and without electrical
changes in the muscles due to injury or disease of the upper
cerebral segment of the motor path of volition; (2) loss of
muscular power with wasting and electrical changes in the
muscles due to disease or injury of the lower spinal segment
formed by the cells of the grey matter of the spinal cord,
the anterior roots and the peripheral motor nerves; (3) primary
wasting of the muscles.
The more common forms of paralysis wiU now be described.
1. Hemiplegia, or paralysis affecting one side of the body,
is a frequent result of apoplexy {q.v.) ; there is loss of motion of
the tongue, face, trunk and extremities on the side of the body
opposite the lesion in the brain. In a case of severe complete
hemiplegia both arm and leg are powerless; the face is paralysed
chiefly in the lower part, while the upper part moves almost
as well as on the unparalysed side, and the eye can be shut at
will, unlike peripheral facial paralysis (Bell's palsy). The tongue
when protruded deviates towards the paralysed side, and the
muscles of mastication contract equally in ordinary action,
although difficulty arises in eating, from food accumulating
between the cheek and gums on the paralysed side. Speech
is thick and indistinct, and when there is right-sided hemiplegia
in a right-handed person, there may be associated various
forms of aphasia {q-v.), because the speech centres are in the
left hemisphere of the brain. Some muscles are completely
paralysed, others are merely weakened, while others, e.g. the
trunk muscles, are apparently unaflected. In many cases of
even complete hemiplegia, improvement, especially in children,
takes place after a few weeks or months, and is generally first
indicated by return of movement in the muscles which are
habitually associated in their action with those of the opposite
unparalysed side; thus, movement of the leg returns first at
the hip and knee joints, and of the arm at the shoulder and
elbow, although the hand may remain motionless. The recovery
however in the majority of cases is only partial, and the sufferer
of hemiplegia is left with a permanent weakness of one side of
the body, often associated with contracture and rigidity, giving
rise to a characteristic gait and attitude. The patient in walking
leans to the sound side and swings round the affected leg from
the hip, the inner side of the toe of the boot scraping the ground
as it is raised and advanced. The arm is adducted at the shoulder,
flexed at the elbow, wrist and fingers, and resists all attempts
at extension. According to the part of the brain damaged
variations of paralytic symptoms may arise; thus occasionally
the paralysis may be limited more or less to the face, the arm
or the leg. In such case it is termed a monoplegia, a condition
sometimes arising from cerebral tumour. Occasionally the face
is paralysed on one side and the arm and leg on the other side ;
this condition is termed alternate hemiplegia, which is due to
the fact that the disease has damaged the motor path from the
brain to the leg and arm before it has crossed over to the opposite
side, whereas the path to the face muscles is damaged after it
has crossed. In rare cases both leg, arm and face on one side
may be paralysed — triplegia; or all four limbs — bilateral hemi-
plegia. Infantile spastic paralysis, infantile diplegia, or as it
is sometimes called Little's disease, is a birth palsy caused by
injury from protracted labour, the use of forceps or other
causes. The symptoms are generally not observed until long
after birth. Convulsions are common, and the child is unable
to sit up or walk long after the age at which it should do so.
Paraplegia is a term applied to paralysis of the lower extremi-
ties; there are many causes, but in the great majority of instances
it arises from a local or general disease or injury of the spinal
cord. A localized transverse myelitis will interrupt the motor
and sensory paths which connect the brain with the spinal grey
matter below the lesion, and when the destruction is com-
plete, motor and sensory paralysis in all the structures below
the injury results; thus fracture, dislocation and disease of the
spinal column (e.g. tubercular caries, syphilitic disease of the
membranes, localized tumours and haemorrhages) may cause
compression and inflammatory softening, and the result is
paralysis of the voluntary muscles, loss of sensation, loss of
control over the bowel and bladder, and a great tendency to
the development cf bed-sores. The muscles do not waste
except from disuse, nor undergo electrical changes unless the
disease affects extensively the spinal grey matter or roots as
well as the cerebral path. When it does so, as in the case of
acute spreading myelitis, the symptoms are usually more severe
and the outlook is more grave.
In cases of focal myelitis from injury or disease, recovery
may take place and the return of power and sensation may occur
to such an extent that the patient is able to walk long distances;
this happy termination in cases of localized disease or injury
of the spinal cord often takes place by keeping the patient on
his back in bed, daily practising massage and passive movements,
and so managing the case as to avoid bedsores and septic inflam-
mation of the bladder — the two dangerous complications which
are liable to arise.
2. Paralysis may result from acute inflammatory affections
of the spinal cord involving the grey and white matter — myelitis
(see Neuropathology).
Infantile or Essential Paralysis. — This is a form of spinal
paralysis occurring with frequency in young children; in Scan-
dinavian countries the disease is prevalent and sometimes assumes
an epidemic form, whereby one is led to believe that it is due to
an infective organism. The names infantile and essential paralysis
were given before the true nature of the disease in the spinal
cord was known; precisely the same affection may occasionally
occur, however, in adults, and then it is termed adult spinal
paralysis. The medical name for this disease is acute anterior
poliotnyelitis (Gr. ttoXios, grey, and juueXos, marrow), because
the anterior grey matter of the spinal cord is the seat
of acute inflammation, and destruction of the spinal motor
nerve path to the muscles. The extent of the spinal grey matter
affected and the degree of destruction of the motor nerve
elements which ensues determine the extent and permanency
of the paralysis. The term atrophic spinal paralysis is some-
times employed as indicating the permanent wasting of muscles
that results.
Infantile paralysis often commences suddenly, and the
paralysis may not be observed until a few days have elapsed ;
the earliest symptoms noticeable are fever, convulsions and
sometimes vomiting; and, if the child is old enough, it may
complain of pains or numbness or tingling in the limb or limbs
which are subsequently found to be paralysed. It is character-
istic, however, of the disease that there is no loss of sensation
764
PARALYSIS
in the paralysed limb. The whole of the limb is not necessarily
paralysed, often it is only a group of muscles, and even if the
paralysis affects both legs or the arm and leg on one side, it
generally fails in the uniform distribution of the previously
described paraplegia or hemiplegia. The affected muscles
rapidly waste and become flaccid, the electrical reactions change,
and finally the muscles may cease to respond to electrical stimu-
lation whether of the continuous or interrupted current. In
the less severe cases (and they are the most common) only a
group of muscles undergo complete paralysis and atrophy, and
there is always hope of some return of power in a paralysed
limb. Associated with the withered condition of the limb
due to the muscular atrophy is an enfeebled circulation, rendering
the limb cold, blue and livid; the nutrition of the bones and
other parts is involved, so that a limb paralysed in early
infancy does not grow and is shorter than its fellow. Deformities
arise, some the result of simply faihng muscular support; others
due to permanent changes in the position of the Umbs, for
example clubfoot. There is absence of bladder and bowel
troubles, and bedsores do not occur; the disease itself is rarely,
if ever, fatal. About a month after the onset of the disease
local treatment of the atrophied muscles should be commenced,
and every effort should be made by massage, by suitable positions
and passive movements to promote the circulation and prevent
deformities in the affected limbs. Should these measures fail,
surgical aid should be sought.
Sub-acute and chronic forms of atrophic and spinal paralysis
have been described, but some of them were undoubtedly cases
of peripheral neuritis.
Wasting Palsy. Progressive Muscular Atrophy. — This is a
chronic disease characterized by slow and insidious weakness
and wasting of groups of muscles due to disease of the anterior
spinal grey matter. It begins mostly in adult life between
25 and 45 years of age, and affects males more than females.
In the majority of cases it commences in the upper extremities,
and the small muscles of the hand are especially liable to be
affected. The palmar eminences of the thumb and httle
finger, owing to the wasting of the muscles, gradually disappear,
and a flat ape-like hand is the result; in extreme cases all the
small muscles of the hand are atrophied, and a claw-like hand
is the result. The muscles which are next most liable to atrophy
are those of the shoulder and upper arm, and the atrophy may
thence spread to the muscles of the neck and trunk, and the
intercostals and even the diaphragm may be affected, causing
serious difficulties of respiration. The lower extremities are less
often and later affected by wasting. This disease generally runs
a slow and progressive course; it may however be years before it
spreads from the hand to the arm, and a period of arrest may
occur before other muscles become involved. A characteristic
feature of the disease is fibrillary twitching of the wasting
muscles. The electrical excitabihty of the muscles is diminished
rather than changed, except where the wasting is very extreme,
when a partial reaction of degeneration may be obtained.
Sensation is unaffected, as the disease is limited to the motor
cells of the anterior grey matter (see Neuropathology). There
is no affection of the bowel or bladder. Death usually occurs
from intercurrent diseases, e.g. bronchitis, pneumonia, or
broncho-pneumonia. Some patients die owing to failure of
the respiratory muscles; others from the disease spreading
to the medulla oblongata (the bulb of the brain) and causing
bulbar paralysis. The chronic morbid process leading to decay
and destruction of the spinal motor cells which is the essential
pathological feature of this disease is generally accompanied,
and sometimes preceded, by degeneration of the path of volun-
tary impulses from the brain. It is then called amyotrophic
lateral sclerosis, a rapid form of progressive muscular atrophy.
Bulbar Paralysis. — A number of different morbid conditions
may give rise to a group of symptoms, the principal features
of which are paralysis of the muscles concerned in speech,
swallowing, phonation and mastication. These symptoms may
arise suddenly from vascular lesions or inflammatory processes,
which involve the nuclei of origin of the cranial nerves supplying
the muscles of the tongue, lips, pharynx and larynx. But there
is also a slow degenerative insidious progressive bulbar paralysis
affecting both sexes pretty equally; it came on between 40
to 60 years of age, and the cause is unknown. Shght indistinct-
ness of speech, especially in the utterance of consonants requiring
the elevation of the tip of the tongue to the dental arch and
palate, is usually the first symptom. Later the explosive lip
sounds are indistinctly uttered; simultaneously, owing to
paralysis of the soft palate, the speech becomes nasal in character
and sooner or later, associated with this difficulty of speech,
there is a difficulty of swallowing, partly because the tongue
is unable to convey the food to the back of the mouth, and it
accumulates between the cheeks and gums. Moreover the
pharyngeal muscles are unable to seize the food and start the
process of swallowing on account of the paralysis of the soft
palate; liquids are apt to regurgitate through the nostrils, the
patient must therefore be nourished with soft semi-solid food.
As the disease proceeds, the difficulty of speech and swallowing is
increased by the affection of the laryngeal muscles; the pitch
of the voice is lowered and the glottis is imperfectly closed
during deglutition; there is consequently a tendency for hquids
and food to pass into the larynx and set up fits of coughing,
which, however, are ineffectual. Later the muscles of mastica-
tion are affected and the disease may extend to the respiratory
centre, giving rise to attacks of dyspnoea. The intellectual
faculties are as a rule unimpaired, although the facial expression
and the curious emotional mobility of the countenance, with a
tendency of the patient to burst into tears or laughter, would
suggest weak-mindedness. Whilst the lower half of the face
is strikingly affected, the upper half retains its normal expression
and power of movement. This disease is usually rapidly fatal,
since it affects the vital centres, and liability to broncho-
pneumonia excited by the entrance of food into the air
passages is also a constant danger in the later stages.
Bulbar Paralysis without Anatomical Change. — This condition
is also termed " myasthenia gravis "; it differs from acute and
chronic bulbar disease by the absence of muscular atrophy,
by normal electrical excitability of the muscles, by a marked
development of the paralysis by fatigue, and by considerable
remissions of the symptoms. The bulbar symptoms are the
most prominent, but all voluntary muscles are more or less
affected, especially the eye-muscles. It is a rare disease affecting
both sexes equally at almost any age, the causes and pathology
of which are unknown.
3. Paralysis resulting from disease or injury of the motor
path to the muscles in the peripheral nervous system.
Neuritis. — Paralysis may arise in a muscle, a group of muscles,
a whole limb, the lower extremities, or there may be a generalized
paralysis of voluntary muscles as a result of neuritis. A typical
example of neuritis giving rise to paralysis owing to inflammatory
sweUing and compression is afforded by the facial nerve; this
purely motor nerve as it passes out of the skull through a narrow
bony passage is easily compressed and its function interfered
with, causing a paralysis of the whole of one side of the face
and Bell's Palsy. Exposure to a cold draught in a person with
rheumatic diathesis is a frequent cause. As an example of
simple mechanical compression producing paralysis, crutch
palsy may be cited; it is the result of continuous compression
of the musculo-spiral nerve as it winds round the bone of the
upper arm.
Lead poisoning may give rise to a localized neuritis affecting
the posterior inter-osseous nerve, especially in painters and in
those whose occupations necessitate excessive use of the extensors
of the forearm; the result is wrist drop or lead palsy.
Sciatica is a painful inflammatory condition of the sciatic
nerve, in which there may be weakness of the muscles; but
inabihty to move the limb is more on account of the pain it causes
than on account of paralysis of the muscles. Exposure to cold
and wet, e.g. sitting on a damp seat, may lead to sciatica in a
gouty or rheumatic person.
Multiple neuritis is a painful generalized inflammation of the
peripheral nervous system and arises in many toxic conditions
PARAMARIBO— PARAMENT
765
of the blood; among the most important are lead, arsenic
and chronic alcohol poisoning. It also occurs in diabetes, diph-
theria, beri-beri and other conditions (see Neuropathology).
A short description of the commonest form will be given. It
occurs in chronic alcoholism and especially in women, and is
most frequently due to a combination of a septic absorption
from some internal disease and the abuse of alcohol. In a
marked case the patient may suffer from paraplegia, but it is
distinguished from the paraplegia of spinal disease by the fact
that there is loss of control of the sphincters only when there
is associated dementia, and that instead of the hmbs being
insensible they are extremely painful on deep pressure. There
is wasting of the muscles, and electrical changes in them;
frequently there is anaesthesia and analgesia of the skin, which
takes a stocking-hke distribution. In severe cases the upper
limbs may be affected, and all the muscles of the body are more
or less Uable to be paralysed — even the heart may suffer.
The mental condition in such a severe case is usually quite
characteristic; there is delirium, the patient is the subject of
hallucinations and delusions; there is loss of knowledge of
time and place, and illusions of personal identity. A constant
symptom is the loss of memory of recent events, while those
of early life are easily recollected.
Paralyses — termed medically muscular dystrophies — may
arise from a primary atrophy of muscle apparently independent
of any discoverable change in the nervous system, but due to a
congenital developmental defect of the muscles. Heredity plays
an important part in the incidence of these diseases, members
of the same family being affected with the same type of disease,
and at the same period of life. There may be a tendency in a
family to the affection of one se.x and not the other; on the other
hand, children of both sexes may suffer in the same family. It
is curious that the majority of cases are males, and that it is
transmitted by women who are not themselves its subjects.
Many different chnical types have been described based upon
the age of onset, the groups of muscles first affected, and the
presence or absence of apparent hypertrophy; they are however
all varieties of one affection, and in a case where there is an
apparent enlargement of muscles there is really atrophy of the
contractile muscle fibres and overgrowth of fat and interstitial
fibrous tissue; consequently this form of the disease is called
pseudo-hypcrtrophic paralysis.
The muscular dystrophies may be divided into two groups
according to the period of life in which the malady manifests
itself: (i) Those occurring in childhood; (2) those occurring
in youth or adult life. In the first group the muscles may be
atrophied or apparently hypertrophied. A progressive atrophy
of muscles associated with progressive weakness and various
disabilities of movement is soon recognized in the relation of
cause and effect; but the parents whose first child looks hke an
infant Hercules, with abnormally large calves and buttocks,
cannot for some time appreciate any connexion of this condition
with a muscular weakness which is manifested in various ways.
The child stands with its feet widely separated; it waddles
along rather than walks; it falls easily and rises with difficulty,
having to use the hands to push against the floor; it then rests
one hand on the knee, and then the other hand on the other
knee, and climbs, as it were, up its own thighs in order to assume
the erect posture. In this pseudo-hypertrophic form of paralysis
the outlook is very grave, and there is little hope of the patient
reaching adult life.
Paralysis agitans, Shaking Palsy or Parkinson's Disease is a
chronic progressive disease of the nervous system occurring late
in life, and characterized by weakness, tremors and stiffness
of the muscles associated with a peculiar attitude and gait.
The first sign of the disease is weakness followed by tremor
of one hand; this consists of continuous movements of the
thumb and forefinger as in rolling a pill, or of movements of
the hand like beating a tom-tom;then the other hand is affected,
and later there is tremor at the ankle. In some cases there is
a continual nodding movement of the head. These tremors
are at the rate of five per second and cease during sleep. The
attitude and gait are very characteristic; the head is bent
forward, and the patient in beginning to walk takes slow steps,
which soon become short and quick as if he were running after
his centre of gravity. The intellect is clear and in marked
contrast to the mask-like expression. This disease lasts for
years, and but little can be done in the way of treatment, except
passive movements of the limb to prevent contracture.
Treatment. — There are certain general principles in the treatment
of all forms of paralysis which may be summarized as follows.
1. Rest in bed and attention to the vital functions of the body,
the heart's action, the respiratory functions, nutrition and excretion.
The pulse is the best guide to the administration of drugs and
stimulants. As regards the respiratory function, one of the dangers
of paralysis is an intercurrent pneumonia — sometimes unavoidable,
often due, however, to attempts to give nourishment to a patient
in an insensible state, with the result that some of the fluid enters
the bronchial tubes, when either the reflex protective coughing is
not excited or is ineffectual. Attention to the bowels and bladder
is most important. A purge at the onset of paralysis is indicated
when the pulse is full and of high tension, and the regular action
of the bowels is necessary in all conditions. Retention of urine
should be carefully avoided, if necessary by the passing of a catheter,
but too much emphasis cannot be laid upon the importance of
adopting aseptic precautions to avoid infection of the bladder.
Daily inspection of the back should be made of all paralysed patients,
and precautions taken to keep the skin of all parts exposed to pres-
sure clean; the back should be laved with eau-de-Cologne or spirit
to harden the skin. Any sign of a red spot on the back or buttock
of the paralysed side should be a warning note of the possibility of
a bedsore; zinc powder or ointment should be applied and the
effect of pressure on the part be removed if possible by change of
posture and by the use of a water-bed. It is important to cover
all warm bottles with flannel, for owing to insensibility large blisters,
which heal with difiiculty, may result. In cases of paraplegia the
legs should be covered with warm woollen hand-knitted stockings,
and a cradle employed to protect the feet from the continuous
weight of the bed-clothes, a fruitful source of foot drop.
2. As soon as the acute symptoms have passed off passive move-
ment and massage may be employed with advantage; in some
cases electrical treatment is indicated; but as a rule, especially in
children, electrical treatment offers the disadvantage of being
painful and not accomplishing more than can be effected by massage
and passive movements. When the passive movements are being
made the patient should be instructed by the operator to will the
movement which he is performing, and thus try to re-establish the
connexion of the brain with the muscles through the point of
interruption or by a new path if that is not possible.
(F. W. Mo.)
PARAMARIBO, the capital of Dutch Guiana or Surinam
(see Guiana), in 5° 44' 30" N., 55° 12' 54" W., 20 m. from the
sea on the right bank of the Surinam, here a tidal river nearly
a mile broad and 18 ft. deep. Pop. (1905), 33,821. Built on
a plateau about 16 ft. above low-water level, Paramaribo is
weU-drained, clean and in general healthy. The straight canals
running at right angles to the river, the broad, straight tree-
planted streets, the spacious squares, and the sohd plain public
buildings would not be unworthy of a town in the Netherlands.
The Indian village of Paramaribo became the site of a French
settlement probably in 1640, and in 1650 it was made the capital
of the colony by Lord Willoughby of Parham. In 1683 it was
still only a " cluster of twenty-seven dwellings, more than half
of them grog-shops," but by 1790 it counted more than a
thousand houses. The town was partly burned down in 1821,
and again in 1832.
PARAMECIUM, 0. F. Miiller, (often misspelt Paramaecium,
Paramoecium), a genus of aspirotrochous cihate Infusoria iq.v.),
characterized by its slipper-like shape, common in infusions,
especially when they contain a little animal matter. It has
two dorsal contractile vacuoles, each receiving the mouths of
five radiating canals from the inner layer of the ectosarc, and a
large ovoid meganucleus, and one or two micronuclei. From
its abundance, the ease with which it can be cultivated and
observed, its relatively simple structure and adequately large
size (xiB" in.), it is most frequently selected for elementary study
and demonstration, as well as for purposes of research.
PARAMENT (Fr. parement, from Late Lat. paramentiim,
adornment, parare, to prepare, equip), a term applied by
ancient writers to the hangings or ornaments of a room of
state.
766
PARAMOUNT— PARANOIA
PARAMOUNT (Anglo-Fr. paramont, up above, par a monl,
up or on top of the mountain), superior, supreme, holding the
highest authority, or being of the greatest importance. The
word was first used, as a term of feudal law, of the lord, the
" lord paramount," who held his fief from no superior lord,
and was thus opposed to " mesne lord," one who held from a
superior. To those who held their fiefs from one who was not
a " lord paramount " was given the correlative term " paravail,"
par a val, in the valley. The word was confused by English
lawyers with " avail," help, assistance, profit, and apphed to the
actual working tenant of the land, the lowest tenant or occupier.
PARANA, a state of southern Brazil, bounded N. by Sao
Paulo, E. by the Atlantic, S. by Santa Catharina and the republic
of Argentina, and W. by Matto Grosso and the republic of
Paraguay, with the Parana river as its western boundary line.
Area, 85,451 sq. m.; pop. (1890), 249,491; (1900), 327,136.
It includes two dissimilar regions — a narrow coastal zone,
thickly wooded, swampy, and semi-tropical in character, and
a high plateau (2500 to 3000 ft.) whose precipitous, deeply
eroded eastern escarpments are known as the Serra do Mar,
or Serra do Cubatao. The southern part of the state is densely
forested and has large tracts of Paraguay tea {Ilex paraguayensis),
known in Brazil as herva mate, or matte. The plateau slopes west-
ward to the Parana river, is well watered and moderately fertile,
and has a remarkably uniform climate of a mild temperate
character. The larger rivers of the state comprise the Parana-
panema and its tributaries the Cinza and Tibagy, the Ivahy,
Piquiry, Jejuy-guassu, and the Iguassu with its principal tributary
the Rio Negro. The Paranapanema and a smaU tributary,
the Itarare,Vorm the boi^dary line with Sao Paulo west of
the Serra do Mar, and the Iguassu and Negro, the boundary
line with Santa Catharina and Argentina — both streams having
their sources in the Serra do Mar and flowing westward to
the Parana. The other streams have shorter coiyses, and all
are obstructed by falls and rapids. Twenty miles tibove the
mouth of the Iguassu are the Iguassu Falls, 215 ft. high, broken
into twenty or more falls separated by rocks and islands, and
surrounded by a wild, unsettled and wooded country. The falls
are reached by occasional light-draught steamers on the Parana
between Posadas (Argentina) and the mouth of the Iguassu,
and thence by canoe to the vicinity of the falls. The surface
of the plateau is undulating and the greater part is ad-
apted to agricultural and pastoral purposes. There are two
railway systems — the Paranagua to Curityba (69 m.) with an
extension to Ponta Grossa (118 m.) and branches to Rio Negro
(55 m.), Porto Amazonas (6 m.) and Antonina (10 m.); and the
Sao Paulo & Rio Grande, which crosses the state from north-
east to south-west from" Porto Uniao da Victoria, on the Iguassu,
to a junction tvith the Sorocabana line of Sao Paulo at Itarare.
The upper Parana is navigable between the Guayra, or Sete
Quedas, and the Urubu-punga Falls. The chief export of Parana
is Paraguay tea (a forest product). There is a large foreign
element in the population owing to the immigrant colonies
established on the uplands, and considerable progress has been
made in small farjfiing and education. Besides the capital,
Curityba, the principal towns are Paranagua; Antonina, at the
head of the Bay of Paranagua, with a population of 7739 in 1890;
Campo Largo, 20 m. west of Curityba (pop. 10,642 in 1890);
Castro, N.N.W. of the capital on the Sao Paulo & Rio Grande
line (pop. of the municipio, 10,319 in 1890^ and Ponta Grossa
(pop. of municipio, 4774 in 1890), north-west of Curityba at
the junction of the two railway systems of the state. t
Parana was settled by gold prospectors from Sao Paulo and
formed part of that captaincy and province down to 1853, when
it was made an independent province. The first missions
of the Jesuits on the Parana were situated just above 'the
Guayra Falls in this state and had reached a highly prosperous
condition when the Indian slave hunters of Sao Paulo (called
Mamelucos) compelled them to leave their settlements and
emigrate in mass to what is now the Argentine territory of
Misiones. The ruins of their principal mission, known as
Ciudad Real, are overgrown with forest.
PARANA, a city and port of Argentina, capital of the province
of Entre Rios, and the see of a bishopric, situated on the left
bank of the Parana river, 410 m. by navigable channels (about
240 m. direct) N.W. of Buenos Aires. Pop. (1895), 24,261;
(1904, estimate), 27,000. The city occupies a gently rolling
site 120 ft. above the river and about 2 m. from its riverside
port of Bajada Grande, with which it is connected by railway,
tramway and highway. It is classed as a seaport, and ocean-
going vessels of not over 12 ft. draught can ascend to Bajada.
There is also a daily ferry service across the river to Santa Fe
(7 m. distant), which is connected by railway with Rosario
and Buenos Aires. Parana is also the western terminus of a
provincial railway system, which connects with Concepcion and
Concordia, on the Uruguay river, and with other important
towns of the province. The mean annual temperature is about
66° F. and the climate is bracing and healthful. Its port of
Bajada Grande, on the river shore below the bluffs, has the
custom-house and a fine wharf for the accommodation of the
Entre Rios railway and river craft. Parana was founded in
1730 by colonists from Santa Fe and was at first known as
Bajada (a landing place). It was made the capital of the
province by General Mansilla in 1821 (Concepci6n had pre-
viously been the capital), but in 1861 General Urquiza restored
the seat of government to Concepcion, where it remained
until 1882, when Parana again became the capital. Parana
was also the capital of the Argentine Confederation from
1852 to 1861. ^
PARANAGUA, a seaport of the state of Parana, Brazil, on the
southern shore of the Bay of Paranagua, about 9 m. from the
bar of the main channel. Pop. of the municipality (1890),
11,794, of which a little more than one half belonged to the town.
Paranagua is the principal port of the state, and is a port of call
for steamers in the coastwise trade. It is the coastal terminus
of a railway running to Curityba, the capital (69 m.), with exten-
sions to other inland towns and a branch to Antonina, at the
head of the bay, io| m. west of Paranagua by water. Its
exports consist chiefly of mate, or Paraguay tea. The town was
founded in 1560.
The Bay of Paranagua opens into the Atlantic in lat. 25° 32' S.
through three channels and extends westward from the bar
about 19 m. It is irregular in outline, receives the waters of
a large number of small streams, and is comparatively shallow.
Light-draught steamers can ascend to Antonina at the head of
the bay. The broad entrance to the bay, which is the gateway
to the state of Parana is nearly filled by the large Ilha do Mel
(Honey Island) on which stands an antiquated fort commanding
the only practicable channel.
PARANDHAR, a hill fort of British India, in Poona district,
Bombay, 4472 ft. above the sea, 20 m. S.E. of Poona: pop.
(1901), 944. It figures repeatedly in the rising of Sivaji against
the Mahommedans, and was the favourite stronghold of the
Peshwas whenever the unwalled city of Poona was threatened.
It gave its name to a treaty with the Mahrattas, signed in 1776
but never carried into efi'ect. It is now utilized as a sanatorium
for British soldiers.
PARANOIA (Gr. Tapa, beyond, and voiiv, to understand),
a chronic mental disease, of which systematized delusions
with or without hallucinations of the senses are the prominent
characteristics. The delusions may take the form of ideas of
persecution or of grandeur and ambition; these may exist
separately or run concurrently in the same individual, or they
may become transformed in the course of the patient's fife
from a persecutory to an ambitious character. The disease
may begin- during adolescence, but the great majority of the
subjects manifest no symptoms of the affection until fuU
adult life.
The prominent and distinguishing symptom of paranoia is
the delusion which is gradually organized out of a mass of
original but erroneous beliefs or convictions until it forms an
integral part of the ordinary mental processes of the subject and
becomes fused with his personality. This slow process of the
growth of a false idea is technically known as " systematization,"
PARANOIA
/
67
and the resulting delusion is then said to be " systema-
tized." As such delusions are coherently formed there is no
manifest mental confusion in their expression. Notwith-
standing the fi.xity of the delusion it is subject in some cases to
transformation which permits of the gradual substitution of
delusions of grandeur for delusions of persecution. I1 happens also
that periods of remission from the influence of the delusion may
occur from time to time in individual cases, and it may even
happen, though very rarely, that the delusion may permanently
disappear.
It is necessary to point out that there is undoubtecUy what
may be called a paranoiac mental constitution, in which
delusions may appear without becoming fixed or in which they
may never appear. The characteristics of this type of mind
are credulity, a tendency to mysticism and a certain aloofness
from reality, combined, as the case may be, with timidity and
suspicion or with vanity and pride. On such a soil it is
easy to understand that, given the necessary circumstances, a
systematized delusional insanity may develop.
The term paranoia appears to have been first applied by
R. von Krafft-Ebing in 1879 to all forms of systematized
delusional insanity. Werner in 1889 suggested its generic use
to supplant Wahnsinn and Vernicktheit, the German equivalents
of mental states which originally meant, respectively, the
delusional insanity of ambition and the delusional insanity of
persecution^terms which had become hopelessly confused
owing to divergences in the published descriptions of various
authors. •
The rapid development of clinical study has now resulted in
the isolation of a comparatively small group of diseases to which
the term is applied and the relegation of other groups bearing
more or less marked resemblances to it to their proper categories.
Thus, for example, it had formerly been held that acute paranoia
was frequently a curable disease. It is now proved that the
so-called acute forms were not true paranoias, many of them
being transitory phases of E. Kraepelin's dementia praecox,
others being terminal conditions of acute melancholia, of acute
confusional insanity, or even protracted cases of delirium tremens.
While it removes from the paranoia group innumerable phases of
delusional insanity met with in patients labouring under secon-
dary. dementia as a result of alcoholism or acute insanity, such
a statement does not exclude patients who may have had, during
their previous Hfe, one or more attack^ of some acute mental
disease, such as mania, for the paranoiac mental constitution
may be, though rarely, subject to other forms of neurosis.
Attempts have been made to base a differential diagnosis of
paranoia upon the presence or absence of a morbid emotional
element in the mind of the subjects, with the object of referring
to the group only such cases as manifest a purely intellectual
disorder of mind. Though in some cases of the disease the
mental symptoms may, at the time of observation, be of a
purely inteDectual nature, the further back the history of any
case is traced the greater is the evidence of the influence of
preceding emotional disturbances in moulding the intellectual
peculiarities. Indeed it may be said that the fundamental
emotions of vanity or pride and of fear or suspicion are the
groundwork of the disease. We are justified therefore in
ascribing the intellectual aberrations which are manifested by
delusions, in part at least, to the preponderating influence of
morbid emotions which alter the perceptive and aperceptive
processes upon which depend the normal relation of 'the human
mind to its environment. Although, generally speaking,
paranoiacs manifest marked intellectual clearness and a certain
amount of determination of character in the exposition of their
symptoms and in their maimer of reacting under the influence
of their delusions, there is, without any doubt, an element of
original abnormality in their mental constitution. Such a
mental constitution is particularly subject to emotional dis-
turbances which find a favourable field of operation in an innate
mysticism alhed with credulity which is impervious to the
rational appeal of the intellect. In those respects the paranoiac
presents an exaggeration of, and a departure from, the psychical
constitution of normal individuals, who, while subject both t»
emotion and to mystic thought, retain the power of correcting
any tendency to the predominance of these mental qualities by
an appeal to reality. It is just here that the paranoiac fails, and
in this failure lies the key to the pathological condition. For
the present the question as to whether this defect is congenital
or acquired owing to some superimposed pathological condition
cannot be answered. However that may be, it is frequently
ascertained from the testimony of friends and relatives that
the patients have always been regarded as " queer," strange,
and different from other people in their modes of thought. It
is usuaUy stated that nervous or mental diseases occur in the
family histories of over 50% of the subjects of this affection.
Paranoia is classified for clinical purposes according to the
form of delusion which the patients exhibit. Thus there are
described the Persecutory, the Litigious, the Ambitious and the
Amatory types. It will be observed that these divisions depend
upon the prevalence of the primary emotions of fear or suspicion,
pride or vanity and love.
According toV. Magnan, the course of paranoia is progressive,
and each individual passes through the stages of persecution
and ambition successively. Many authorities accept Magnan's
description, which has now attained to the distinction of a
classic, but it is objected to by others on the ground that many
cases commence with delusions of ambition and manifest the
same symptoms unchanged during their whole life, while other
patients suffering from delusions of persecution never develop
the ambitious form of the disease. Against these arguments
Magnan and his disciples assert that the relative duration of
the stages and the relative intensity of the symptoms vary
widely; that in the first instance the persecutory stage may
be so short or so indefinite in its symptoms as to escape obser-
vation; and that in the second instance the persecutory stage
may be so prolonged as within the short compass of a human
life to preclude the possibility of the development of an ambitious
stage. As however there exist types of the disease which,
admittedly, do not conform to Magnan's progressive form it
wiU be more convenient to adopt the ordinary description
here.
I. Persecutory Paranoia. — This form is characterized by
delusions of persecution with hallucinations of a painful and
distressing character. In predisposed persons there is often
observed an anomaly of character dating from early life. The
subjects are of a retiring disposition, generally studious, though
not brilliant or successful workers. They prefer solitude to the
society of their fellows and are apt to be introspective, self-
analytical or given to unusual modes of thought or literary
pursuits. Towards the commencement of the insanity the
patients become gloomy, preoccupied and irritable. Suspicions
regarding the attitude of others take possession of their minds,
and they ultimately come to suspect the conduct of their nearest
relatives. The conversations of friends are supposed by the
patient to be interlarded with phrases which, on examination,
he believes to contain hidden meanings, and the newspapers
appear to abound in veiled references to him. A stray word,
a look, a gesture, a smile, a cough, a shrug of the shoulders on
the part of a stranger are apt to be misinterpreted and brooded
over. The extraordinary prevalence of this imagined con-
spiracy may lead the patient to regard himself as a person of
great importance, and may result in the formation of delusions
of ambition which intermingle themselves with the general
conceptions of persecution, or which may wholly supplant the
persecutory insanity.
At this juncture, however, it genei^ally happens that hallucina-
tions begin to appear. These, in the great majority of instances,
are auditory and usually commence with indefinite noises
in the ears, such as ringing sounds, hissing or whistling. Gradu-
ally they assume a more definite form until isolated words and
ultimately formed sentence- are distinctly heard. There is
great diversity in the completeness of the verbal hallucinations
in different patients. Some patients never experience more
than the subjective annoyance of isolated words generally
768
PARANOIA
1
of an insulting character, while others are compelled to listen
to regular dialogues carried on by unknown voices concerning
themselves. A not uncommon form of verbal hallucination is
formulated in the complaint of the patients that " all their
thoughts are read and proclaimed aloud." Even more than the
enforced hstening to verbal hallucinations this " thought read-
ing " distresses the patient and often leads him to acts of violence,
for the privacy of his inmost thoughts is, he believes, desecrated,
and he often feels helpless and desperate at a condition from
which there is no possible escape.
Though some of the subjects do not develop any other form
of hallucination, it is unfortunately the lot of others to suSer, in
addition, from hallucinations of taste, smell or touch. The
misinterpretation of subjective sensations in these sense organs
leads to the formulation of delusions of poisoning, of being
subjected to the influence of noxious gases or powders, or of
being acted on by agencies such as electricity. Such are the
persons who take their food to chemists for analysis; who
complain to the police that people are acting upon them inju-
riously; who hermetically seal every crevice that admits air
to their bedrooms to prevent the entrance of poisonous fumes;
or who place glass castors between the feet of their beds and the
floor with the object of insulating electric currents. Such
patients obtain little sleep; some of them indeed remain awake
all night — for the symptoms are usually worse at night — and
have to be content with such snatches of sleep as they are able
to obtain at odd times during the day. It is obvious that a
person tormented and distracted in the way described may at
any moment lose self-control and become a danger to the com-
munity. But perhaps the most distressing and most distracting
of all hallucinations are those which for want of a better name
are termed " sexual." The subjects of these hallucinations,
both male and female, under the belief that improper liberties
are taken with them, are more clamant and threatening than
any other class of paranoiac.
During the course of a disease so distressing in its symptoms
the patient's suspicions as to the authors of his persecution
vary much in indefiniteness. He often never fixes the direct
blame upon any individual, but refers to his persecutors as
"they" or a "society," or some corporate body such as
"lawyers," "priests" or "freemasons." It not infrequently
happens however, that suspicions gradually converge upon
some individual or that from an early stage of the disease the
patient has, generally under the influence of hallucinations,
fixed the origin of his trouble upon one or two persons. When
this takes place the matter is always serious from the point of
view of physical danger to the inculpated person, especially
if the patient is of a violent or vindictive disposition.
The persecutory type of the disease may persist for an indefi-
nite period — even for twenty or thirty years — without any
change except for the important fact that remissions in the
intensity of the symptoms occur from time to time. These
remissions may be so marked as to give rise to the belief that the
patient has recovered, but in true paranoia this is hardly ever
the case, and sooner or later the persecution begins again in all
its former intensity.
2. Ambitious Paranoia. — After a long period of persecution
a change in the symptoms may set in, in some cases, and the
intensity of the hallucinations may become modified. At the
same time delusions of grandeur begin to appear, at first faintly,
but gradually they increase in force until they ultimately
supplant the delusions of persecution. At the same time the
hallucinations of a disagreeable nature fade away and are
replaced by auditory hallucinations conformable to the new
delusions of grandeur. Undoubtedly, however, this form of
paranoia may commence, so far as can be observed, with
delusions of grandeur, in which case there is seldom or never
a transformation of the personality or of the delusions from
grandeur to persecution, although delusions of persecution
may engraft themselves or run side by side with the predomi-
nant ambitious delusions.
The emotional basis of ambitious paranoia is pride, and every
phase of human vanity and aspiration is represented in the
delusions of the patients. There is moreover considerably
less logical acumen displayed in the explanations of their behefs
by such patients than in the case of the subjects of persecution.
Many of them affect to be the descendants of historical person-
ages without any regard for accurate genealogical detail. They
have no compunction in disowning their natural parents or
explaining that they have been " changed in their cradles " in
order to account for the fact that they are of exalted or even of
royal birth. Dominated by such beliefs paranoiacs have been
known to travel all over the world in search of confirmation of
their delusions. It is people of this kind who drop into the ears
of confiding strangers vague hints as to their exalted origin and
kindred, and who make desperate and occasionally alarming
attempts to force their way into the presence of princes and
rulers. The sphere of religion affords an endless field for the
ambitious paranoiacs and some of them may even aspire to
divine authority, but as a rule the true paranoiac does not lose
touch with earth. The more extravagant delusions of persons
who caU themselves by divine names and assume omnipotent
attributes are usually found in patients who have passed through
acute attacks of insanity such as mania or dementia praecox
and are mentally enfeebled.
A not uncommon form of paranoia combining both ambition
and persecution is where the subject beheves that he is a man
of unbounded wealth or power, of the rights to which he is,
however, deprived by the machinations of his enemies. These
patients frequently obtain the knowledge on which they base
their delusions through auditory hallucinations. They are
often so troublesome, threatening and persistent in their deter-
mination to obtain redress for their imagined wrongs, that they
have to be forcibly detained in asylums in the public interest.
On the whole, however, the ambitious paranoiac is not trouble-
some, but calm, dignified, self-possessed, and reserved on the
subject of his delusions. He is usually capable of reasoning as
correctly and of performing work as efficiently as ordinary
people. Many of them, however, while living in society are
liable to give expression to their delusions under the influence
of excitement, or to behave so strangely and unconventionaOy
on unsuitable occasions as to render their seclusion either
necessary or highly desirable.
3. Amatory Paranoia. — A distinguishing feature of this form
of paranoia is that the subjects are chivalrous and ideahstic
in their love. Some of them believe that they have been
" mystically " married to a person of the opposite sex usually
in a prominent social position. The fact that they may have
never spoken to or perhaps never seen the person in question is
immaterial. The conviction that their love is reciprocated and
the relationship understood by the other party is unshakable,
and is usually based upon suppositions that to a normal mind
would appear either trivial or whoUy unreal. The object of
affection, if not mythical or of too exalted a position to be
approached, is not infrequently persecuted by the admirer, who
takes every opportunity of obtruding personally or by letter
the evidences of an ardent adoration. The situation thus
created can easily become complicated and embarrassing before
it is realized that the persistent wooer is insane.
The failure of their schemes or repeated repulses may, in
the case of some patients, originate delusions of persecution
directed, not against the object of affection, but against those
who are supposed to have conspired to prevent the success of
the patient's desires. Under the influence of these delusions
of persecution the patient may lose self-control and resort to
violence against his supposed persecutors.
The subjects of this form of paranoia are in the majority
of instances unmarried women well advanced in years who have
led irreproachable lives, or men of a romantic disposition who
have lived their mental lives more in the realm of chimeras than
in the region of real facts. The delusions in this form of paranoia
are never accompanied by hallucinations.
Closely allied, if not identical with amatory paranoia, is
the form in which jealousy forms the basis of morbid suspicions
PARANOIA
769
with or without definite delusions. The subject is usually poor
in mental resource, but proud, vindictive and suspicious. It
is eminently a condition which arises spontaneously in certain
persons whose mental constitution is of the paranoiac type, i.e.
persons who are naturally credulous, mystical and suspicious.
The subjects are extraordinarily assiduous in watching the
objects of their jealousy, whether husbands, wives or sweethearts.
Their conduct in this respect is fertile in producing domestic
dispeace and unhappiness, and in the case of unmarried persons
in creating complicated or delicate situations. It not infre-
quently happens, just as in the case of the class of amatory
paranoiacs, that delusions of persecution establish themselves,
usually directed towards persons who are believed to have
secured the affections of the object of jealousy. The disease
then follows the ordinary course of the insanity of persecution
but usually without hallucinations of the senses. The subjects
are highly dangerous and violent. Under the influence of
their delusions murder and even mutilation may be resorted
to by the male, and poisoning or vitriol-throwing by the female
subjects.
4. Litigious Paranoia {paranoia querulans). — The clinical form
of litigious paranoia presents uniform characteristic features
which are recognized in every civilized community. The basic
emotion is vanity, but added to that is a strong element both of
acquisitiveness and avarice. Moreover the subjects are, as
regards character, persistent, opinionative and stubborn. When
these qualities are superadded to a mind of the paranoiac type,
which as has been pointed out, is more influenced by the passions
or emotions than by ordinary rational considerations, it can
readily be appreciated that the subjects are capable of creating
difficulties and anxieties which sooner or later may lead to
their forcible seclusion in the interests of social order.
It is important to observe that the rights such people lay
claim to or the wrongs they complain of may not necessarily be
imaginary. But, whether imaginary or real, the statement of
their case is always made to rest upon some foundation of fact,
and is moreover presented, if not with ability, at any rate with
forensic skill and plausibility. As the litigants are persons of
one idea, and only capable of seeing one side of the case — their
own — and as they are actuated by convictions which preclude
feelings of delicacy or diffidence, they ultimately succeed in
obtaining a hearing in a court of law under circumstances which
would have discouraged any normal individual. Once in the
law courts their doom is sealed. Neither the loss of the case
nor the payment of heavy expenses have any effect in dishearten-
ing the litigant, who carries his suit from court to court until
the methods of legal appeal are exhausted. The suit may be
raised again and again on some side issue, or some different
legal action may be initiated. In spite of the alienation of the
sympathy of his relations and the advice of his friends and
lawyers the paranoiac continues his futile litigation in the firm
belief that he is only defending himself from fraud or seeking to
regain his just rights. After e.xhausting his means and perhaps
those of his family and finding himself unable to continue
to litigate to the same advantage as formerly, delusions of
persecution begin to establish themselves. He accuses the
judges of corruption, the lawyers of being in the pay of his enemies
and imagines the existence of a conspiracy to prevent him from
obtaining justice. One of two things usually happens at this
stage. Though well versed in legal procedure he may one day
lose self-control and resort to threats of violence. He is then
probably arrested and may on examination be found insane
and committed to an asylum. Another not uncommon result
is that finding himself non-suited in a court of law he commits
a technical assault upon, it may be, some high legal functionary,
or on some person in a prominent social position, with the object
of securing an opportunity of directing public attention to his
grievances. The only result is, as in the former instance, his
medical certification and incarceration.
Paranoia is generally a hopeless affection from the point of
view of recovery. From what has been stated regarding its
genesis and slow development it is apparent that no form of
ordinary medical treatment can be of the least avail in modifying
its symptoms. The best that can be done in the interests of
the patients is to place them in surroundings where they can
be shielded from influences which aggravate their delusions and
in other respects to make their unfortunate lot as pleasant and
as easy to endure as possible.
As has been frequently stated, the subjects of most forms of
paranoia are liable to commit crime, usuaUy of violence, which
may lead to their being tried for assault or murder. The ques-
tion of their responsibility before the law is therefore one of the
first importance (see also Insanity: Law). The famous case of
McNaghten, tried in 1843 for the murder of Mr Drummond,
private secretary to Sir Robert Peel, is, in this connexion, highly
important, for McNaghten was a typical paranoiac labouring
under delusions of persecution, and his case formed the basis
of the famous deHvcrance of the judges in the House of Lords,
in the same year, on the general question of criminal responsi-
bility in insanity. Answer 4 of the judges' deliverance contains
the foUowing statement of law: If "he labours under such
partial delusion only and is not in other respects insane we
think he must be considered in the same situation as to responsi-
bility as if the facts to which the delusion exists were real. For
example, if under the influence of his delusion he supposes
another man to be in the act of attempting to take away his
life, and he kiUs that man, as he supposes, in self-defence, he
would be exempt from punishment. If his delusion was that
the deceased had inflicted a serious injury to his character and
fortune, and he kiUed him in revenge for such supposed injury,
he would be liable to punishment."
In considering this deliverance it must be remembered that
it was given under the influence of the enormous public interest
created by the McNaghten trial. It has also to be remembered
that in a criminal court the term responsibility means liability
to legal punishment. The dictum laid down in answer 4 is
open to several objections, (i) It is based upon the erroneous
assumption that a person may be insane on one point and sane
on every other. This is a loose popular fallacy for which there
is no foundation in clinical medicine. The systematization
of a delusion involves, as has been pointed out, the whole
personality and affects emotion, intellect and conduct. The
human mind is not divided into mutually exclusive compart-
ments, but is one indivisible whole liable to be profoundly
modified in its relation to its environment according to the
emotional strength of the predominant morbid concepts. (2)
It does not take into account the pathological diminution of
the power of self-control. The influence of continued delusions
of persecution, especially if accompanied by painful hallucina-
tions, undermines the power of self-control and tends ultimately
to reduce the subject towards the condition of an automaton
which reacts reflexly and blindly to the impulse of the moment.
(3) The opinion is further at fault in so far as it assumes that the
test of responsibility rests upon the knowledge of right and
wrong, which implies the power to do right and to avoid wrong,
an assumption which is very far from the truth when applied
to the insane. The number of insane criminals who possess
no theoretical knowledge of right and wrong is very few indeed,
so few that for practical purposes they may be disregarded.
The true paranoiac is a person of an anomalous mental
constitution apart from his insanity; although he may to out-
ward appearances be able, on occasion, to converse or to act
rationally, the moment he is dominated by his delusions he
becomes not partially but wholly insane; when in addition his
mind is distracted by ideas of persecution or hallucinations, or
both, he becomes potentially capable of committing crime, not
because of any inherent vicious propensity but in virtue of his
insanity. There is therefore no middle course, from the medical
point of view, in respect to the criminal responsibility of the
subjects of paranoia; they are all insane wholly, not partially,
and should only be dealt with as persons of unsound mind.
See Bianchi, Textbook of Insanity (Eng. trans., 1906); Clouston,
Mental Diseases (6th ed.); Krafft-Ebing, Textbook of Insanity
(American trans., 1904); Kraepelin, Psychiatrie (6th ed., Leipzig,
XX. 25
PARAPET— PARASITIC DISEASES
770
1899); Magnan, Le Delire chronique (Paris, 1890); Stewart Paton,
Psychiatry (Philadelphia, 1905); Percy Smith, "Paranoia," in
Journ. of Mental Science (1904), p. 607. (J. Mn.)
PARAPET (Ital. parapctto, Fr. parapet, from para, imperative
of Ital. pararc, to cover, defend, and petto, breast, Lat. pectus;
the German word is Brnstwehr) , a dwarf wall along the edge
of a roof, or round a lead flat, terrace walk, &c., to prevent
persons from falling over, and as a protection to the defenders
in case of a siege. Parapets are either plain, embattled, perfor-
ated or panelled. The last tv/o are found in aU styles except
the Romanesque. Plain parapets are simply portions of the
wall generaUy overhanging a little, with a copitig at the top and
corbel table below. Embattled parapets are sometimes panelled,
but oftener pierced for the discharge of arrows, &c. Perforated
parapets are pierced in various devices — as circles, trefoils,
quatrefoils and other designs — so that the light is seen through.
Panelled parapets are those ornamented by a series of panels,
either oblong or square, and more or less enriched, but are
not perforated. These are common in the Decorated and
Perpendicular periods.
PARAPHERNALIA (Lat. paraphernalia, sc. bona, from Gr.
vapCKpepva; irapa, beside, and 4)tpvr), dower), a term originally
of Roman law, signifying all the property which a married
woman who was sui juris held apart from her dower {dos).
A husband could not deal with such except with his wife's
consent. Modern systems of law, which are based on the
Roman, mainly follow the same principle, and the word preserves
its old meaning. In English and Scottish law the term is
confined to articles of jewelry, dress and other purely personal
things, for the law relating to which see Husbamd and Wife.
The word is also used in a general sense of accessories, external
equipment, cumbersome or showy trappings.
PARAPHRASE (Gr. ■Kap6.(f>pacns, from irapaippa^tiv, to relate
something in different words, irapa, beside, and (ppa^eiv, speak,
tell), a rendering into other words of a passage in prose or verse,
giving the sense in a fuller, simpler or clearer fashion, also a free
translation or adaptation of a passage in a foreign language.
The term is specifically used in the Scottish and other Presby-
terian churches of metrical versions for singing of certain
passages of the Bible.
PARASCENIUM (Gr. TrapaaKijviov), in a Greek theatre, the
wall on either side of the stage, reaching from the back wall
(cFKr^vq) to the orchestra.
PARASITE (From Gr. Trapa, beside, (Tiros food), literally
" mess-mate," a term originally conveying no idea of reproach
or contempt, as in later times. The early parasites may be
divided into two classes, religious and civil. The former were
assistants of the priests, their chief duty being to collect the
corn dues which were contributed by the farmers of the temple
lands or which came in from other sources (Athenaeus vi. 235;
Pollux vi. 35). Considerable obscurity exists as to their other
functions, but they seem to have been charged with providing
food for the visitors to the temples, with the care of certain
offerings, and with the arrangement of the sacrificial banquets.
In Attica the parasites appear to have been confined to certain
demes (Acharnae, Diomeia), and were appointed by the demes to
which the temples belonged. The " civil " parasites were a class
of persons who received invitations to dine in the prytaneum
and subsequently in the tholos) as distinguished from those
who had the right to dine there ex officio. An entirely different
meaning (" sponger ") became attached to the word from the
character introduced into the Middle and New Comedy, first by
Alexis, and firmly established by Diphilus. The chief object
of this class of parasites was a good dinner, for which they
were ready to submit to almost any humiliation. Numerous
examples occur in the comedies of Plautus; and Alciphron and
Athenaeus (vi. 236 sqq.) give instances of the insults they had
to put up with at the hands of both host and guests. Some of
them played the part of professional jesters (like the later
buffoons and court fools), and kept collections of witticisms
ready for use at their patrons' table; others relied upon flattery,
others again condescended to the most degrading devices
(Plutarch, De adulatore, 23; De cducalione puerorutn, 17). The
term parasite, from meaning a " hanger-on," has been trans-
ferred to any hving creature which lives on another one.
See Juvenal v. 170 with J. E. B. Mayor's note, and the exhaustive
article by M. H. Meier in Ersch and Gruher's AllgemeineEncyclopddie.
PARASITIC DISEASES. It has long been recognized that
various specific pathological conditions are due to the presence
and action of parasites (see Parasitism) in the human body,
but in recent years the part played in the causation of the
so-called infective diseases by various members of the Schizo-
mycetes — fission fungi — and by Protozoan and other animal
parasites has been more widely and more thoroughly investigated
(see Bacteriology). The knowledge gained has not only
modified our conception of the pathology of these diseases, but
has had a most important influence upon our methods of treat-
ment of sufferers, both as individuals and as members of com-
munities. For clinical and other details of the diseases mentioned
in the following classification, see the separate articles on them;
the present article is concerned mainly with important modern
discoveries as regards aetiology and pathology. In certain
cases indeed the aetiology is still obscure. Thus, according to
Guarnieri, and Councilman & Calkins, there is associated with
vaccinia and with small-pox a Protozoan parasite, Cytoryctes
variolae. Guar. This parasite is described as present in the
cytoplasm of the stratified epithelium of the skin and mucous
membranes in cases of vaccinia, but in the nuclei of the same
cells in cases of variola or small-pox, whilst it is suggested that
there may be a third phase of existence, not yet demonstrated,
in which it occurs as minute spores or germs which are very
readily carried in dust and by air currents from point to point.
In certain other conditions, such as mumps, dengue, epidemic
dropsy, oriental sore — with which the Leishman-Donovan
bodies {Helcoso})ia tropicum, Wright) are supposed to be closely
associated (see also Kdla-dzar below) — verruga, framboesia
or yaws — with which is commonly associated a spirochaete
(CasteUani) and a special micrococcus (Pierez, Nicholls) — and
beri-beri, the disease may be the result of the action of specific
micro-organisms, though as yet it has not been possible to
demonstrate any aetiologica relationship between any micro-
organisms found and the special disease. Such diseases as
haemoglobinuric fever or black-water fever, which are also
presumably parasitic diseases, are probably associated directly
with malaria; this supposition is the more probable in that both
of these are recognized as occurring specially in those patients
who have been weakened by malaria.
The following classification is based partly upon the biological
relations of the parasites and partly on the pathological pheno-
mena of individual diseases: —
A. — Diseases due to Vegetable Parasites.
I. — To SCHIZOMYCETES, BACTERIA OR FiSSION FUNGL
I. Caused by the Pyogenetic Micrococci.
Suppuration and Septicaemia. Erysipelas.
Infective Endocarditis. Gonorrhoea.
2. Caused by Specific Bacilli.
(a) Acute laftctive Fevers.
Cholera. ■ Infective Meningitis.
Typhoid Fever. Influenza.
Malta Fever. Yellow Fever and Weil's Disease.
Relapsing Fever. Diphtheria.
Plague. Tetanus.
Pneumonia.
(6) More Chronic lafectlva Diseases (tissue parasUes).
Tuberculosis. Glanders. Leprosy.
II. — To Higher Vegetable Parasites.
Actinomycosis, Madura Foot, Aspergillosis and other Mycoses.
B. — Diseases due to Animal Parasites.
I. — To Protozoa.
Malaria. Kala-azar.
Amoebic Dysentery. Tsetse-fly Disease.
Haemoglobinuric Fever. Sleeping Sickness.
Syphilis.
II. — To OTHER Animal Parasites.
Filariasis, &c. >^'^_
PARASITIC DISEASES
Fig. 9.
Fig. I.— Spirochaeta pallida of Schaudinn (Spironema pallidum), the organism found in the early sores of syphilis; stained by
Giemsa's stain, x 1000 diam.
'- 2 —Preparation of the Glanders bacillus (B. mallei), from a 1 2-hours' agar-agar culture, x 1000 diam. _ . , ,.
" 3.— Negri bodies (.red with blue points) in and around the nerve cells of the cornu ammonis of a dog suffering from rabies.
X 800 diam.
" 4 — Staphylococcus pyogenes aureus from a 1 2-hours' agar culture, x 1000 diam.
" 5.— Malaria. Life cycle, in the blood, of the Tertian malarial parasite commencing with the small amoebulae and passing
through the spore-bearing stages, x looo diam.
" 6 —Section of gland from a guinea-pig inoculated with the Glanders bacillus (B. mallei), x 1000 diam.
" 7._Leishman-Donovan bodies found in the scraping made from the cut surface of the spleen from a case of Kala-Azar. x 1000
diam. . ■. ,.
" 8.— Branched hyphal threads of the Ray fungus (Actinomyces, clubbed through thickening of the sheath.) x 1000 diam.
" 9._The Trypanosoma Gambiense, seen in a blood film taken from a case of sleeping sickness, x 1000 diam.
Drtcwn iy Rti. Muir.
ENCYCLOP/EDIA BRITANNICA, ELEVENTH EDITION
Niagara Lilho. C^.. Bu/falo. A' 1'.
PARASITIC DISEASES
771
C. — Infective Diseases in which an organism has been found, but has
not finally been connected with the disease.
Hydrophobia. Scarlet Fever.
D. — Infective Diseases not yet proved to be due to micro-organisms.
Small-pox.
Typhus Fever.
Measles
Mumps.
Whooping Cough, &c.
A. — Diseases due to Vegetable Parasites.
I. — To SCHIZOMYCETES, BACTERIA OR FiSSION FUNGI.
I. Caused by the Pyogcnclic Micrococci.
Suppuration and Septicaemia. — It is now recognized that
although nitrate of silver, turpentine, castor oil, perchloride
of mercury and certain other chemical substances are capable
of producing suppuration, the most common causes of this
condition are undoubtedly the so-called pus-producing bacteria.
Of these perhaps the most important are the staphylococci
(cocci arranged like bunches of grapes), streptococci (cocci
arranged in chains), and pneumococci, though certain other
organisms not usually associated with pus-formation are
undoubtedly capable of setting up this condition, e.g. Bacillus
pyocyancus, Bacillus coli communis, and the typhoid bacillus.
These organisms (the products of which, by chemical irritation,
stimulate the leucocytes to emigration) bring about the death
and digestion of the tissues and fluids (which no longer " clot ")
with which they come in contact, pus (matter) being thus
formed: this accumulates in the tissues, in the serous cavities,
or even on mucous surfaces; septicaemia or blood-poisoning,
secondary infection of tissues and organs at a distance from
the original site of infection, or pyaemia, with the formation of
secondary abscesses, may thus be set up.
In septicaemia the pus-forming organisms grow at the seat
of introduction, and produce special poisons or toxins,
which, absorbed into the blood, give rise to symptoms of fever.
From the point of introduction, however, the organisms may
be swept away either by the lymph or by the blood, and carried
to positions in which they set up further inflammatory or
suppurative changes. In the streptococcal inflammations
spreading by the lymph channels appears to be specially pre-
valent. In the blood the organisms, if in small numbers,
are usually destroyed by the plasma, which has a powerful
bactericidal action; should they escape, however, they are
carried without multiplication into the capillaries of the general
circulation, of the lung, or of the liver, where, being stopped,
they may give rise to a second focus of infection, especially if
at the point of impaction the vitality of the tissues is in any way
lowered. Unless the blood is very much impoverished, its
bactericidal action is usually sufficiently powerful to bring about
the destruction of anything but comparatively large masses
of pyogenetic organisms. This bactericidal power, however,
may be lost ; in such case the pus- forming organisms may actually
multiply, a general haemic infection resulting. Should micro-
organisms be conveyed by the veins to the heart, and there be
deposited on an injured valve, an infective endocarditis is the
result; from such a deposit numerous organisms may be
continuously poured into the circulation. Simple thrombi or
clots may also become infected with micro-organisms. Frag-
ments of these, washed away, may form septic plugs in the
vessels and give rise to abscesses at the points where they become
impacted. A distinction must be drawn between sapraemia and
septicaemia. In sapraemia the toxic products of saprophytic
organisms are absorbed from a gangrenous or necrotic mass,
from an ulcerating surface, or from a large surface on which
saprophytic organisms are living and feeding on dead tissues:
for example, we may have such a condition in the clots that
sometimes remain after childbirth on the inner surface of the
wall of the womb. So long as no micro-organisms follow the
toxins, the condition is purely sapraemic, but should any
organisms make their way into and multiply in the blood, the
condition becomes one of septicaemia. The term pyaemia is
usually associated with the formation of fresh secondary foci
of suppuration in distant parts of the body. If the primary
abscess occurs in the lungs, the secondary or metastatic
abscesses usually occur in the vessels of the general or systemic
circulation, and less frequently in other vessels of the lung. When
the primary abscess occurs in the systemic area, the secondary
abscess occurs first in the lung, and less frequently in the
systemic vessels; whilst if the primary abscess be in the portal
area (the veins of the digestive tract), the secondary abscesses
are usually distributed over the same area, the lungs and systemic
vessels being more rarely affected.
Infective Endocarditis. — Acute malignant or ulcerative endo-
carditis occurs in certain forms of septicaemia or of pyaemia.
It is brought about by the Streptococcus pyogenes (see Plate II.
fig. 2), the pneumococcus, or the Staphylococcus pyogenes
aureus (see Plate I. fig. 4), or, more rarely, by the gonococcus,
the typhoid bacillus or the tubercle bacillus, as they gain access
to acute or chronic valvular lesions of the heart. The aortic
and mitral valves are usually affected, the pulmonary and
tricuspid valves much more rarely, though Washbourn states
that the infective form occurs on the right side more frequently
than does simple endocarditis. A rapid necrosis of the surface
of the valve is early followed by a deposition of fibrin and leuco-
cytes on the necrosed tissue; the bacteria, though not present
in the circulating blood during life, are found in these vegeta-
tions which break down very rapidly; ulcerative lesions are thus
formed, and fragments of the septic clot {i.e. the fibrinous
vegetations with their enclosed bacteria) are carried in the
circulating blood to different parts of the body, and, becoming
impacted in the smaller vessels, give rise to septic infarcts
and abscesses. The ulceration of the valves, or in the first
part of the aorta, may be so extensive that aneurysm, or even
perforation, may ensue.
In certain cases of streptococcic endocarditis the use of anti-
streptococcic serum appears to have been attended with good
results. Sir A. Wright found that the introduction of vaccines
prepared from the pus-producing organisms after first lowering
the opsonic index almost invariably, after a very short interval,
causes it to rise. He found, too, that the vaccine is specially
efficacious when it is prepared from the organisms associated
with the special form of suppuration to be treated. Whenever
the opsonic index becomes higher under this treatment the
suppurative process gradually subsides: boils, acne, pustules,
carbuncles all giving way to the vaccine treatment. The
immunity so obtained is attributed to the increased activity
of the serum as the result of the presence of an increased amount
of opsonins. Further, Bier maintains that a passive conges-
tion and oedema induced by constriction of a part by means of
a ligature or by a modification of the old method of cupping
without breaking the skin appears to have a similar effect in
modifying localized suppurative processes, that is processes
set up by pus-producing bacteria. Wright holds that this
treatment is always more effective when the opsonic index is
high and that the mere accumulation of oedematous fluid in
the part is sufficient to raise the opsonic index of that fluid
and therefore to bring about a greater phagocytic activity of
the leucocytes that are found in such enormous numbers
in the neighbourhood of suppurative organisms and their
products.
Erysipelas. — In 1883 Fehleisen demonstrated that in all cases
of active erysipelatous inflammation a streptococcus or chain
of micrococci (similar to those met with in certain forms of
suppuration) may be found in the lymph spaces in the skin.
The multiplying streptococci found in the lymph spaces form
an active poison, which, acting on the blood-vessels, causes them
to dilate; it also " attracts " leucocytes, and usually induces
proliferation of the endothelial cells lining the lymphatics.
These cells — perhaps by using up all available oxygen — inter-
fere with the growth of the streptococcus and act as phagocytes,
taking up or devouring the dead or weakened micro-organisms.
Both mild and severe phlegmonous cases of erysipelas are
the result of the action of this special coccus, alone, or in
772
PARASITIC DISEASES
combination with other organisms. It has been observed that
cancerous and other mahgnant tumours appear to recede under
an attack of erysipelas, and certain cases have been recorded
by both Fehleisen and Coley in which complete cessation of
growth and degeneration of the tumour have followed such an
attack. As the streptococcus of erysipelas can be isolated and
grown in pure culture in broth, it was thought by these observers
that a subcutaneous injection of such a cultivation might be of
value in the treatment of cancerous tumours. No difficulty was
experienced in setting up erysipelas by inoculation, but in some
cases the process was so acute that the remedy was more fatal
than the disease. The virulence of the streptococcus of erysipelas,
as pointed out by Fehleisen and Coley, is greatly exalted when
the coccus is grown alongside the Bacillus prodigiosus and
certain other saprophytic organisms which flourish at the body-
temperature. It is an easier matter to control the action of a
non-multiplying poison, even though exceedingly active, than
of one capable, under favourable conditions, of producing an
indefinite amount of even a weaker poison. The erysipelatous
virus having been raised to as high a degree of activity as possible
by cultivating it along with the Bacillus prodigiosus — the
bacillus of " bleeding " bread — in broth, is kQled by heat, and the
resulting fluid, which contains a quantity of the toxic substances
that set up the characteristic erysipelatous changes, is utilized
for the production of an inflammatory process — which can now
be accurately controlled, and which is said to be very beneficial
in the treatment of certain malignant tumours. The accurate
determination of the aetiology of erysipelas has led to the
adoption of a scientific method of treatment of the disease.
The Streptococcus erysipdatis is found, not speciaUy in the zone
in which inflammation has become evident, but in the tissues
outside this zone: in fact, the streptococci appear to be most
numerous in the lymphatics of the tissues in which there is little
change. Before the appearance of any redness there is a dilata-
tion of the lymph spaces with fluid, and the tissues become
slightly oedematous. As soon, however, as the distension of
vessels and the emigration of leucocytes, with the accompanying
swelling and redness, become marked, the streptococci disappear
or are imperfectly stained — they are undergoing degenerative
changes — the inflammatory " reaction " apparently being sufii-
cient to bring about this result.
If it were possible to set up the same reaction outside the
advancing streptococci might not a barrier be raised against their
advance? This theory was tested on animals, and it was found
that the application of iodine, oil of mustard, cantharides and similar
rubefacients would prevent the advance of certain micro-organisms.
This treatment was applied to erysipelatous patients with the most
satisfactory result, the spread of the disease being prevented when-
ever the zone of inflammation was extended over a sufficiently wide
area. The mere " ringing " of the red patch by nitrate of silver
or some other similar irritant, as at one time recommended, is not
sufficient : it is necessary that the reaction should extend for some
little distance beyond the zone to which the streptococci have already
advanced.
Gonorrhoea. — A micro-organism, the gonococcus, is the
cause of gonorrhoea. It is found in the pus of the urethra
and in the conjunctiva lying between the epitheUal cells, where
it sets up considerable irritation and exudation; it occurs in the
fluid of joints of patients affected mth gonorrhoeal arthritis;
also in the pleuritic effusion and in the vegetations of gonorrhoeal
endocarditis. It is a small diplococcus, the elements of which
are flattened or shghtly concave disks apposed to one another;
these, dividing transversely, sometimes form tetrads. They are
found in large numbers, usually in the leucocytes, adherent to
the epithelial ceUs or lying free. They stain readOy with the
basic aniline dyes, but lose this stain when treated by Gram's
method. The gonococcus is best grown on human blood-serum
mixed with agar (Wertheim), though it grows on ordinary
solidified blood-serum or on blood-agar. Like the pneumo-
coccus, it soon dies out, usually before the eighth or ninth day,
unless reinociflations are made. It forms a semi-transparent
disk-Uke growth, with somewhat irregular margins, or with
small processes running out beyond the main colony. It acts
by means of toxins, which have been found to set up irritative
changes when injected, without the gonococci, into the anterior
chamber of the eye of the rabbit, j^ usau tii^am.
2. Caused by Specific Bacilli. • ■."•..»'
(a) Acute Infective Fevers. ■ • -v.^^t rr
Cholera. — In 1884 Koch, in the report of the German Cholera
Commission in Egypt and India, brought forward overwhelming
evidence in proof of his contention that a special bacterium is
the causal agent of cholera; subsequent observers in all countries
in which cholera has been met with have confirmed Koch's
observation. The organism described is the " comma " bacillus
or vibrio, one of the spirUla, which usuaUy occurs as a shghtly
curved rod i to 2n in length and 0-5 to Q-6fi in thickness. These
comma-shaped rods occur singly or in pairs; they may be joined
together to form circles, half-circles, or " S "-shaped curves (see
Plate II. fig. 3).
In cultivations in specially prepared media they may be so
grouped as to form long wavy or spiral threads, each of which may
be made up of ten, twenty, or even thirty, of the short curved vibrios;
in the stools of cholera patients, especially during the earlier stages
of the disease, they are found in considerable numbers; they may also
be found in the contents of the lower bowel and in the substance
of the mucous membrane of the lower part of the small intestine,
especially in the crypts and in and around the epithelium lining
the follicles. It is sometimes difficult, in the later stages of the
disease, to obtain these organisms in sufficiently large numbers to be
able to distinguish them by direct microscopic examination, but by
using the Dunbar-Schottelius method they can be detected even
when present in small numbers. A quantity of faintly alkaline
meat broth, with 2 % of peptone and I °o common salt, is inoculated
with some of the contents of the intestine, and is placed in an
incubator at a temperature of 35° C. for about twelve hours, when,
if any cholera bacilli are present, a delicate pellicle, consisting
almost entirely of short " comma " bacilli, appears on the surface.
If the growth be allowed to continue, the bacilli increase in length,
but after a time the pellicle is gradually lost, the cholera organisms
being overgrown, as it were, by the other organisms. In order to
obtain a pure culture of the cholera bacillus, remove a small frag-
ment of the young film, shake it up thoroughly in a little broth, and
then make gelatine-plate cultivations, when most characteristic
colonies appear as small greyish or white points. Each of these,
when examined under a low-power lens, has a yellow tinge ; the
margins are wavy or crenated; the surface is granular and has a
peculiar ground-glass appearance; around the growing colony
liquefaction takes place, and the colony gradually sinks to the
bottom of the liquefying area, which now appears as a clear ring.
The organism grows very luxuriantly in milk, in which, however,
it gives rise to no very noticeable alteration; its presence can only
be recognized by a faint aromatic and sweetish smell, which can
scarcely be distinguished from the aromatic smell of the milk itself,
except by the most practised nose.
The cholera bacillus may remain alive in water for some
time, but it appears to be less resistant than many of the putre-
factive and saprophytic organisms. It grows better in a saUne
solution (brackish water) than in perfectly fresh water; it
flourishes in serum and other albuminous fluids, especially when
peptones are present. Its power of forming poisonous substances
appears to vary directly with the amount and nature of the
albumen present in the nutrient medium; and though it grows
most readily in the presence of peptone, it appears to form the
most virtilent poison when grown in some form or other of
crude albumen to which there is not too free access of oxygen.
From the experiments carried out by Koch, Nicati and Rietsch,
and Madeod, there appears to be no doubt that the healthy
stomach and intestine are not favourable breeding-grounds for
the cholera bacillus. In the first place, it requires an alkaUne
medium for its full and active development, and the acid found
in a healthy stomach seems to exert an exceedingly deleterious
influence upon it. Secondly, it appears to be incapable of
developing except when left at rest, so that the active peristaltic
movement of the intestine interferes with its development.
Moreover, it forms its poison most easily in the presence of crude
albumen. It is interesting to note what an important bearing
these facts have on the personal and general spread of cholera.
Large quantities of the cholera baciUus may be injected into the
stomach of a guinea-pig without any intoxicative or other
symptoms of cholera making their appearance. Further,
healthy individuals have swallowed, without any iU effect, pills
PARASITIC DISEASES
containing tne dejecta from cnolfera cases, although cases arc
recorded in which " artificial " infection of the human subject has
undoubtedly taken place, whilst, as Metchnikoff demonstrated,
very young rabbits, deriving milk from mothers whose mammary
glands have been smeared with a culture of the cholera vibrio,
soon succumbed, suffering from the classical symptoms of this
disease.
If, however, previous to the injection of the cholera bacillus
the acidity of the stomach be neutralized by an alkaline fluid,
especially if at the same time the peristaltic action of the intes-
tine be paralysed by an injection of morphia, a characteristic
attack of cholera is developed, the animal is poisoned, and
in the large intestine a considerable quantity of fluid faeces
containing numerous cholera bacilli may be found. There
appear to be slight differences in the cholera organisms found
in connexion with different outbreaks, but the main character-
■ istics are preserved throughout, and are sufficiently distinctive
to mark out all these organisms as belonging to the cholera group.
Amongst the known predisposing causes of cholera are the '
incautious use of purgative medicines, the use of unripe fruit,
insufficient food and intemperance. These may be all looked
upon as playing the part of the alkaKne solution in altering
the composition of the gastric juices, and especially as setting
up alkaline fermentation in the stomach and small intestine;
beyond this, however, the irritation Set up may bring about an
accumulation of inflammatory serous fluid, from the albumens
of which, as we have seen, the cholera organism has the power
of producing very active toxins.
The part played by want of personal cleanliness, overcrowding
and unfavourable hygienic conditions may be readily under-
stood if it be remembered that the cholera bacillus may grow
outside the body. The number of cases in which epidemics of
cholera have been traced to the use of drinking-water contami-
nated with the discharges from cholera patients is now consider-
able. The more organic matter present the greater is the
virulence of water so contaminated; and the addition of such
water to milk has, in one instance at least, led to an outbreak.
If cholera dejecta be sprinkled on moist soil or damp linen, and
kept at blood-heat, the bacillus multiplies at an enormous rate
in the first twenty-four or thirty-six hours; but, as seen in the
Dunbar-Schottehus method, at the end of three or four days
it is gradually overcome by the other bacteria present, which,
growing strongly and asserting themselves, cause it to die out.
The importance of this saprophytic growth in the propagation
of the disease can scarcely be over-estimated. Water which con-
tains an ordinary amount of organic and inorganic matter in solu-
tion does not allow of the multiplication of this organism, which
may soon die out; but when organic matter is present in excess,
as at the margin of stagnant pools and tanks, development
Occurs, especially on the floating solid particles. This bacillus
grows at a temperature of 30° C. on meat, eggs, vegetables and
moistened bread; also on cheese, coffee, chocolate and dilute
sugar solutions. In some experiments carried out by Cartwright
Wood and the writer in connexion with the passage of the
cholera organism through filters it remained alive in the charcoal
filtering medium for a period of at least forty-two days, and
probably for a couple of months. It must be remembered
that cholera bacilli are gradually overcome or overgrown by
other organisms, as only on this supposition can the immunity
enjoyed by certain regions, even after the water and soil have
been contaminated, provided that no fresh supply is brought in
" to relight the torch," be explained. In most of the regions
in which cholera remains endemic the wells are merely dug-out
pits beneath the slightly raised houses, and are open for the
reception of sewage and excreta at all times. These dejecta
contain organic material which serves as a nutriment on which
infective organisms, derived from the soil and ground-water,
may flourish. Not only dejecta, but also the rinsings from soiled
linen and utensils used by cholera patients should be removed
as soon as possible, "without allowing them to come into contact
with the surface of the soil, with wells," or with vegetables
and the like. The discovery of Koch's comma bacillus has so
7 73
altered our conceptions of the aetiology of this disease that we
now study the conditions under which the bacillus can multiply
and be disseminated, instead of concerning ourselves with the
cholera itself as some definite entity. Telluric agencies become
merely secondary factors, the dissemination of the disease by
winds from country to country is no longer regarded as being
possible, whilst the spread of cholera epidemics along the lines
of human intercourse and travel is now recognized. The
virulent bacillus requires the human organism to carry it from
those localities in which it is endemic to those in which epidemics
occur. The epidemiologist has come to look upon the study
of the cholera organism and the conditions under which it
exists as of more importance than mere local conditions, which
are only important in so far as they contribute to the propaga-
tion and distribution of the cholera bacillus, and he knows that
the only means of preventing its spread is the careful inspection
of everything coming from cholera-stricken regions. He also
recognizes that the herding together of people of depressed
vitality, under unhygienic and often filthy conditions, in quaran-
tine stations or ships, is one of the surest means of promoting
an epidemic of the disease; that attention should be confined
to the careful isolation of all patients, and to the disinfection
of articles of clothing, feeding utensils, and the like; that the
comma bacillus can only be driven out of rooms by means of
light and fresh air; that thorough personal, cuhnary and house-
hold cleanliness is necessary; that all water except that known
to be pure should be carefully boiled; and that all excess, both
in eating and drinking, should be avoided. The object of the
physician in such cases must be first to isolate as completely
as possible aU his cholera patients, and then to get rid of all
predisposing causes in the patients themselves, causes which
have already been indicated in connexion with the aetiology
of the disease.
Attention has frequently been drawn to the fact that patients
who have lived for some time in a cholera region, or who have
already suffered from an attack of cholera, appear to enjoy a
partial immunity against the disease. Haffkine, working on
the assumption that the symptoms of cholera are produced by a
toxin formed by the cholera organism, came to the conclusion
that, by introducing first a modified and then a more virulent
poison directly into the tissues under the skin, and not into the
alimentary canal, it would be possible to obtain a certain insus-
ceptibility to the action of this poison. He found that for this
purpose the cholera bacillus, as ordinarily obtained in pure
culture from the intestinal canal, is too potent for the preliminary
inoculation, but is not sufficiently active for the second, if any
marked protection is to be obtained. By allowing the organism
to grow in a well-aerated culture the virulence is gradually
diminished, and this virulence, once abolished, does not return
even when numerous successive cultures are made on agar or
other nutrient media. On the other hand, by passing the
cholera bacillus successively through the peritoneal cavities of
a series of about thirty guinea-pigs, he obtains a virus of great
activity; this activity is soon lost on agar cultivations, and ii is
necessary, from time to time, again to pass the bacillus through
guinea-pigs, three or four passages now being sufficient to
reinforce the activity.
From these two cultures the vaccines are prepared as follows:
The surface of a slant agar tube is smeared with the modified
cholera organism. After this has been allowed to grow for twenty-
four hours, a small quantity of sterile water is poured into the tube,
and the surface-growth is carefully scraped off and made into an
emulsion in the water; this is then poured off, and the process is
repeated until the whole of the growth has been removed. The
mixture is made up with water to a bulk of 8 c.c, so that if I c.c. is
injected the patient receives 5 of a surface-growth; it is found that
this quantity, when injected subcutaneously into a guinea-pig,
gives a distinct reaction, but does not cause necrosis of the tissues.
If the vaccine is to be kept for any length of time, the emulsion is
made with 0-5 % carbolic acid solution, prepared with carefully
sterilized water, and the mixture is made up to 6 c.c. instead of
8 c.c, since the carbolic acid appears tc interfere slightly with the
activity of the virus. The stronger virus is prepared in cxaclly
the same way. The preliminary' injection, which is made in the left
flank, is followed by a rise in temperature and by local reaction.
77+
PARASITIC DISEASES
After three or four hours there Is noticeable swelling and some pain ;
and after ten hours a rise in temperature, usually not very marked,
occurs. These signs soon disappear, and at the end of three or four
days the second injection is made, usually on the opposite side.
This is also followed by a rise of temperature, by swelling, pain and
local redness: these, however, as before, soon pass off, and leave no
ill effects behind. A guinea-pig treated in this fashion is now imrnune
against some eight or ten times the lethal dose of cholera poison,
and, from all statistics that can be obtained, a similar protection is
conferred upon the human being.
Pfeiffer found that when a small (quantity of the cholera vibrio
is injected into the peritoneal cavity of a guinea-pig highly
immunized against cholera by Haffkine's or a similar method,
these vibrios rapidly become motionless and granular, then very
much swollen and finally " dissolve." This is known as Pfeiffer's
reaction. A similar reaction may be obtained when a quantity of
a culture of the cholera vibrio mixed with the serum derived from a
guinea-pig immunized against the cholera vibrio, or from a patient
convalescent from the disease, is injected into the peritoneal cavity
of a guinea-pig not subjected to any preliminary treatment; and,
going a step further, it was found that the dissolution of the
cholera vibrio is brought about even when the mixture of vibrio
and serum is made in a test tube. On this series of experiments
as a foundation, the theory of acquired immunity has been
reared.
Evidence has been collected that spirilla, almost identical in
appearance with the cholera bacillus, may be present in water
and in healthy stools, and that it is in many cases almost impos-
sible to diagnose between these and the cholera bacillus; but
although these spirilla may interfere with the diagnosis, they do
not invalidate Koch's main contention, that a special form of
the comma bacillus, which gives a cotnplete group of reactions,
is the cause of this disease, especially when these reactions
are met with in an organism that comes from the human intestine.
Typhoid Fever. — Our information concerning the aetiology
of typhoid fever was largely increased during the last twenty
years of the 19th century. In 1880 Eberth and Klebs indepen-
dently, and in 1882 Coats, described a bacillus which has since
been found to be intimately associated with typhoid fever.
This organism (Plate II. fig. 4) usually appears in the form of
a short bacillus from 2 to Sfiin length and 0-3 to O' 5^1 in breadth;
it has shghtly rounded ends and is stained at the poles; it may
also occur as a somewhat longer rod more equally stained through-
out. Surrounding the young organism are numerous long and
well-formed flagella, which give it a very characteristic appear-
ance under the microscope. At present there is no evidence that
the typhoid bacUlus forms spores. These bacilli are found in the
adenoid follicles or lymphatic tissues of the intestine, in the
mesenteric glands, in the spleen, liver and kidneys, and may also
be detected even in the small lymphoid masses in the lung and
in the post-typhoid abscesses formed in the bones, kidneys, or
other parts of the body; indeed, it is probable that they were
first seen by von Recklinghausen in 1871 in such abscesses.
They undoubtedly occur in the dejecta of patients suffering
from typhoid fever, whilst in recent years it has been demon-
strated that they may also be found in the urine. It is evident,
therefore, that the urine, as well as the faeces, may be the vehicle
by means of which the disease has been unwittingly spread in
certain otherwise inexplicable outbreaks of typhoid fever,
especially as the baciUus may be present in the urine when the
acute stage of the disease has gone by, and when it has been
assumed that, as the patient is convalescent, he is no longer a
focus from which the infection may be spread. Easton and
Knox found typhoid bacilli in the urine of 21% of a series of
their typhoid patients.
In 1906 Kayser demonstrated what had previously been suspected,
that the typhoid bacilli may persist for considerable periods in
the bile duct and gall bladder, whence they pass into the intestinal
tract and are discharged with the evacuations. Patients in whom
this occurs are spoken of as " typhoid carriers." They become
convalescent and except that now and again they suffer from slight
attacks of diarrhoea they appear to be perfectly healthy. It has
been observed, however, especially during these attacks of diarrhoea,
that typhoid bacilli may be found in the faeces. Curiously enough
the bacilli are as virulent as are those isolated when the disease is
at its height. Hence these typhoid carriers are exceedingly danger-
ous centres of infection, and as women act as " carriers " much more
frequently than do men, although, as is well known, typhoid fever
attacks men much more frequently than women, the facilities
for the distribution of the disease are great, as women so frequently
act as laundresses, cooks, housemaids, nurses and the like. Frosch
states that out of 6708 typhoid patients 310 excreted bacilli for more
than 10 weeks after convalescence; 144 of these were no longer
infective at the end of three months; 64 had ceased to be infective
at the end of a year, and 102 at the end of three and a-half years;
further back than this no authentic records could be obtained, but
from a critical examination of the histories of 25 such carrier cases
he was convinced that 14 had been continuously infective for from
four to nine years. Dr Donald Greig, in 1908, reported a case in
which the patient appears to have been a typhoid carrier for fifty-
two years from the time of convalescence. Frosch pointed out,
what has now been fully confirmed, that the bacilli in these cases
though often present in the faeces in enormous numbers may dis-
appear and again reappear from time to time, and that a continuous
series' of examinations is necessary before a convalescent patient
can be acquitted of being a " typhoid carrier." In this connexion
it is interesting to note that Blumenthal and Kayser have discovered
typhoid bacilli in the interior of gall-stones. Drs Ale.xander and
J. C. G. Ledingham, examining the 90 female patients and attendants
in a Scottish asylum in which, during some four or five years, 31
cases of typhoid had occurred in small groups in which the source of
infection could not be traced to any recognized channel, found
amongst them three " typhoid carriers." The importance of such a
discovery amongst asylum patients may be readily understood when
the careless and uncleanly habits of insane patients are borne in
mind. As it has been demonstrated that the typhoid bacillus is
found, not merely in the lymphatic tissue but, in 75 % of the cases,
actually circulatmg in the blood, the appearance of the bacillus in
the secretions and excretions may be readily understood.
There can be little doubt that typhoid bacilli are not, as is
very frequently assumed, present merely in the lymphatic
glands and in the spleen (see Plate II. fig. 5) : they may be found
in almost any part of the lymphatic system, in lymph spaces,
in the connective tissues, where they appear to give rise to
marked proliferation of the endothelial cells, and especially in
the various secreting organs. It is probable that the prolifera-
tion often noticed in the minute portal spaces in the liver, in
cases of typhoid fever, is simply a type of a similar proliferation
going on in other parts and tissues of the body. It was for long
assumed that the typhoid bacillus could multiply freely in water,
but recent experiments appear to indicate that this is not the case,
unless a much larger quantity of soluble organic matter is present
than is usually met with in water. The fact, however, that the
organism may remain alive in water is of great importance; and,
as in the case of cholera, it must be recognized that certain of
the great epidemics of typhoid or enteric fever have been the
result of " water-borne infection." The bacillus, a facultative
parasite, grows outside the body, with somewhat characteristic
appearances and reactions: it flourishes specially well on a
slightly acid medium; in the presence of putrefactive organisms
which develop strongly alkaline products it may gradually die
out, but it appears to retain its vitality longer in the presence
of acid-forming organisms. It may, however, be stated generally
that after a time the typhoid bacillus becomes weakened, and
may even die out, in the presence of rapidly growing putrefactive
organisms. In distilled water it may remain alive for a con-
siderable period — five or six weeks, or even longer. It grows
on all the ordinary nutrient media. It does not coagulate
milk; hence it may grow luxuriantly in that medium without
giving rise to any alteration in its physical characters; con-
taminated milk, therefore, is specially dangerous affording as it
does an excellent vehicle for the dissemination of the typhoid
bacillus which may also be conveyed by food and even by
water. To food the bacillus is readily conveyed by flies, on
their limbs or by the proboscis, which become infected by the
excrement on which they crawl and feed. The observations of
physicians working amongst the British troops in South Africa
afford abundant evidence that the typhoid bacillus may also
be carried along with dust from excreta to fresh patients, for
although these bacilli die very rapidly when they are desiccated,
they remain alive sufficiently long to enable them to multiply
and flourish when again brought into contact with moist food,
milk, &c.
When inoculated on potato, careful examination will reveal
the fact that certain almost invisible moist patches are present;
these are made up of rapidly multiplying typhoid bacilli. The
typhoid bacillus grows in gelatin, especially on the surface.
PARASITIC DISEASES
Plate II.
Fig. 5.
~-^. -^ *^
Fig. 10.
Fig. 3.
Fig. 7.
• ^
/
\
i
^
/
y
1
/
Fig. II.
Fig. 4.
Fig. 15. Fig. 16. Fig. 19.
Fig. 2.— -Streptococcus pyogenes, red blood corpuscles and pus cells in the pus from a case of empyaema. (X 1000 diams.) Fig. 3. — Cholera
spirillum, from eight days' agar culture, showing many involution forms. Flagella well stained. (X 1000.) Fig. 4. — Bacillus tvphi
abdominalis (typhoid bacillus), with well-stained flagella. Young agar cultivation. (X 1000.) Fig. 5. — Group of typhoid bacilli, in a
section of spleen. (X 1000.) Fig. 7. — Preparation from young cultivation of Bacillus pestis (plague bacillus). Flagella well stained
(X 1000.) Fig. 9. — Bacillus diphtheriae, from twenty-four hours' culture. (X 1000.) Fig. 10. — Free edge of false membrane from case
of diphtheria containing numerous diphtheria bacilli. (X looo.) Fig. ii. — Bacillus tetani, with well-stained flagella. Twenty-four
hours' culture. (X 1000.) Fig. 12. — Scraping from a wound in a case of tetanus, showing several spore-bearing and a few non-
spore-bearing tetanus bacilli. (X 1000.) Fig. 15. — Bacillus tuberculosis. Bacilli in a giant-cell in the human liver in a case of acute
tuberculosis. (X 1000.) Fig. 16. — Bacillus leprae. Bacilli in endothelial cells of splenic tissue. (X 1000.) Fig. 19. — Amoebae
in wall of dysenteric abscess of liver, from specimen kindly lent by Professor Greenfield. (X 1000.)
XX. 774.
PARASITIC DISEASES
775
somewhat like the bacillus coli communis, but with a less
luxuriant growth. This organism, when taken from young
broth cultures twelve to twenty-four hours old — during the
period at which flagella are best seen — and examined micro-
scopicaOy, exhibits very lively m.ovements. When, as pointed
out by Gruber and Durham, blood-serum, in certain dilutions,
from a case of typhoid fever is added to such a culture, the broth,
at first turbid, owing to the suspended and moving micro-
organisms, gradually becomes clear, and a deposit is formed
which is found to be made up of masses or clumps of typhoid
bacilli which have lost their motility. This reaction is so
characteristic and definite, that when the mixture is kept under
e.xamination under the microscope, it is quite possible to follow
the slowing-down movement and massing together of the
organisms. It is found, moreover, that normal diluted blood-
serum has no such effect on the bacilli. This property of the
blood-serum is acquired at such an early date of the disease —
sometimes even at the end of the first week — and occurs with such
regularity, that typhoid fever may now actually be diagnosed
by the presence or absence of this " agglutinating " property
in the blood. If serum taken from a patient supposed to be
suffering from typhoid fever, and diluted with saline solution
to I in lo, to I in 50, or in still greater dilution, causes the bacilli
to lose their motility and to become aggregated into clumps
within an hour, it may be concluded that the patient is suffering
from typhoid fever; if this agglutination be not obtained with
a dilution of i in 10, in from 15 to 30 minutes, experience has
shown that the patient is not suffering from this disease.
Certain other diseases, such as cholera, give a similar specific
serum reaction with their specific organisms. These sera have,
in addition, a slight common action — a general agglutinating
power — which, however, is not manifested except in concentrated
solutions, the higher dilutions failing to give any clumping
action at all, except with the specific bacillus associated with
the disease from which the patient, from whom the serum is
taken, is suffering.
Wright and Semple, working on Haffkine's lines, introduced a
method of vaccination against typhoid, corresponding somewhat
to that devised by Haffkine to protect against cholera. They first
obtained a typhoid bacillus of fairly constant virulence and of such
strength and power of multiplication that an agar culture of 24
hours' growth when divided into four, and injected hypodermically,
will kill four fairly large guinea-pigs, each weighing 350 to jjoo
grammes. A similar culture emulsified in bouillon or saline solution
and killed by heating for five minutes at 60° C. is a vaccine sufficient
for from four to twenty doses. In place of the agar culture a bouillon
culture heated for the same period may be used as the vaccine. In
either case the vaccine is injected under the skin of the loin well
above the crest of the ileum. This injection is usually followed
by local tenderness and swelling within three or four hours, and
swelling and tenderness in the position of the nearest lymphatic
glands, marked malaise, headache, a general feeling of restlessness
and discomfort and a rise of temperature. The blood of a patient
so treated early causes agglutination of typhoid bacilli and acts on
these bacilli much as does cholera serum in Pfeiffer's reaction. At
the end of ten days a second and stronger dose is given. After each
injection there is, according to Wright, a "negative phase" during
which the patient is somewhat more susceptible to the attacks of
the typhoid bacillus. This negative phase soon passes off and a
distinct positive or protected phase appears. The practical outcome
of this is that wherever possible £; patient who is going into a typhoid
infectedarea should be vaccinated some little time before he sets out.
There seems to be no doubt that if this be done a very marked,
though not complete, protection is conferred. For a time the agglu-
tinative and lytic powers of the serum continue to rise and the patient
so vaccinated is far less susceptible to the action of the typhoid
bacillus. It is recorded in favour of this method of treatment that
of 4502 soldiers of the Indian army inoculated 0-98 % contracted
typhoid, while of 25,851 soldiers of the same army who were not
inoculated over 25% (2-54) contracted typhoid. Similarly, at
Ladysmith, of the whole of the besieged soldiers only 1705 had been
inoculated.butof these only 2% contracted typhoid, whilst of 10,529
uninoculated men 14% were attacked. Wright, who has been
indefatigable in carrying out and watching this method of treatment,
has been able to accumulate statistics dealing with 49,600 individuals
— of these 8600 were inoculated, and 2^% contracted typhoid, 12%
of these succumbing to the disease. Of the 41,000 uninoculated
men 5f % contracted the disease, 21 % of those attacked succumbing.
Mediterranean or Malta Fever. — Until comparatively recently,
Mediterranean fever was looked upon as a form of typhoid
fever, which in certain respects it resembles; the temperature
curve, however, has a more undulatory character, except in
the malignant type, where the temperature remains high
throughout the course of the attack. According to Hughes,
this disease is widely distributed in the countries bordering
upon the Mediterranean south of latitude 46° N., and along the
Red Sea littoral. Analogous forms of fever giving a " specific "
serum reaction with the micrococcus of this disease are also met
with in parts of India, China, Africa and America.
The Micrococcus melitensis vel Brucei ( 1887), which is found most
abundantly in the enlarged spleen of the patient suffering from
Malta fever, is a very minute organism (o-33m in diameter), ovoid
or nearly round, arranged in pairs or in very short chains. If a
drop of the blood taken directly from the spleen be smeared over
the surface of agar nutrient medium, minute transparent colourless
colonies appear; in thirty-six hours these have a slight amber tinge,
and in four or five days from their first appearance they become
opaque. These colonies, which flourish at the temperature of the
human blood, cease to grow at the room-temperature except in
summer, and if kept moist, soon die at anything below 60° F., though
when dried they retain their vitality for some time. As the organism
grows and multiplies in broth there is opacity of the medium at the
end of five or six days, this being followed by precipitation, so that
a comparatively clear supernatant fluid remains. It grows best
on media slightly less alkaline than human blood; it is very vigorous
and may resist desiccation for several weeks.
This organism is distinctly pathogenetic to monkeys, and its
virulence may be so increased that other animals may be affected
by it. Though unable to live in clean or virgin soil, it may lead
a saprophytic existence in soil polluted with faecal matter.
Hughes maintains that the " virus " leaves the body of goats and
of man along with the faeces and urine. The importance of
this in ambulatory cases is very evident, especially when it is
remembered that goats feeding on grass, &c. which has come
in contact with such urine are readily infected. It seldom
appears to be carried for any considerable distance. Infection
is not conveyed by the sputum, sweat, breath or scraping of
the skin of patients, and infected dust does not seem to play a
very important part in producing the disease. Hughes divides
the fever into three types. In the malignant form the onset is
sudden, there are headache, racking pain over the whole body,
nausea and sometimes vomiting; the tongue is foul, coated and
swollen, and the breath very offensive; the temperature may
continue for some time at 103° to 105° F. The stools in the
diarrhoea which is sometimes present may be most offensive.
At the end of a few days the lungs become congested and pneu-
monic, the pulse weak, hyperpyrexia appears, and death ensues.
A second type, by far the most common, is the " undulatory "
type, in which there is remittent pyrexia, separated by periods
in which the patient appears to be improving. These pyrexial
curves, from one to seven in number, average about ten days
each, the first being the longest, — eighteen to twenty-three days.
In an intermittent type, in which the temperature-curve closely
resembles the hectic pyrexial curve of phthisis or suppuration,
the "undulatory" character is also marked. A considerable
number of toxic symptoms make their appearance — localized
neuritis, synovitis, anaemia, emaciation, bronchial catarrh, weak-
ness of the heart, neuralgia, profuse night-sweats and similar
conditions. Patients otherwise healthy usually recover, even
after prolonged attacks of the disease, but the mortality amongst
patients suffering from organic mischief of any kind may be
comparatively high. The diagnosis from malaria, phthisis,
rheumatic affections and pneumonia may, in most cases, be made
fairly easily, but the serum agglutinating reaction (first demon-
strated by Wright in 1897) with cultures of the Micrococcus
mcliiensis, corresponding to the typhoid reaction with the
typhoid bacillus, is sometimes the only trustworthy feature
by which a diagnosis may be made between this fever and the
above-mentioned diseases. About 50% of the goats in Malta
give a positive agglutinative reaction and about 10% excrete
milk which contains the micrococcus.
Sir David Bruce, in his investigations on the tsetse fly disease,
pointed out that certain wld animals although apparently
in good health might serve as reservoirs for, or storehouses of,
the N'gana parasite. He was therefore quite prepared to find
776
PARASITIC DISEASES
that the Micrococcus melitensis might similarly be " stored "
in an animal which might show but slight, if any, manifestations
of Malta fever. Indications as to the direction in which to
look were given in the following fashion. There was a strike
amongst the dairymen supplying the barracks in Malta and it
became necessary to replace the goat's milk in the dietary of
the troops by condensed milk. What followed ? In the first
half of the year 1906 there had been 144 cases (in 1905 there had
been 750 cases), in the second half after the alteration of the
milk supply, only 32 cases were recorded and in 1907, 7 cases
during the whole year. In the navy during the same period
there were, in 1905, 498 cases, in 1906, 248 cases and, from
January to September 1907, not a single case.
The most common method of infection is by the ingestion of milk,
but the milk when handled may also give rise to infection through
finding its way into cuts, bruises, &c. In the goat the disease is
of an extremely mild character, the clinical symptoms, which
are present for two or three days only, being easily overlooked.
In spite of this the goat is highly susceptible to the infection either
by the various methods of inoculation or as the result of feeding
with contaminated or infected material. The micrococcus is often
found in the circulating blood from which it may be e.xcreted along
with the urine and faeces. In time, however, it disappears, first
from the general circulation and most of the viscera, persisting
longest in the spleen, kidneys and lymphatic glands. In the later
stages of the disease the micrococcus is found in the milk even after
it has disappeared from the above glands. It is during this stage
that the milk of the goat is so dangerous, as now and again it may
contain an enormous number of the specific micrococcus varying
" within wide limits from day to day," although bearing " no rela-
tionship to the severity of the infection, air temperature, &c. ; the
presence of the Micrococcus melitensis in the milk appears to be
merely the result of a mechanical flushing of the mammary glands
by means of which the cocci multiplying therein are removed." As
pointed out by the Mediterranean Fever Commission the micrococcus
of Malta fever from its vantage ground in the milk may make its
way to ordinary ice-creams and to native cheeses, in which it appears
to retain its full virulence. Monkeys are especially susceptible
to this disease, contracting it readily when they are fed with milk
from an infected goat. In 1905 an interesting experiment was,
unintentionally, carried out. An official of the United States
Bureau of Animal Industry visiting Malta in the summer of that
year purchased a herd of 61 milch-goats and four billy goats. These
were shipped via Antwerp to the United States. On arrival at
Antwerp the goats were transferred to a quarantine station, where
they remained for five days and were then consigned by steamer to
New York. On board the SS. "Joshua Nicholson," which took the
goats from Malta to Antwerp, were twenty-three officers and men;
ten out of the twenty-three were afterwards traced. One was found
to have been infected by M. melitensis at an unknown date, and
eight had subsequently suffered from febrile attacks, five yielding
conclusive evidence of infection by M. melitensis. It is interesting
to note, however, that two men who boiled the milk before drinking
it, and an officer and a cabin-boy who disliked the milk and did not
drink it at all, came off scot free.
These cases taken by themselves might leave the question some-
what open, as there was a possibility that the men attacked might
have been in contact with infected patients in Malta. A far more
conclusive case was the following. A woman at the quarantine
station at Athenia, N. J., U.S.A., who partook freely of the mixed milk
from several goats, over a considerable period, suffered from a typical
attack of Mediterranean fever some nine or ten weeks after the goats
had been landed in America. In this case " contact " with and
other modes of exposure to infection by human patients could all be
eliminated.
It may be held then that the M. melitensis leads a more or less
passive existence in the body of the Maltese goat, only exercising
its full pathogenic action when it gains entrance to the human body.
There is some slight evidence that the Micrococcus melitensis may
remain alive with its virulence unimpaired even when taken up by
the mosquitoes Acartomyia and Stegomyia, and again in the common
blood-sucking fly, Stomoxys, for a short period, four or five days.
It can be recovered for a longer period and still in a fairly virulent
condition from the excreta of these insects. In spite of this, trans-
mission of the disease by these insects, though apparently possible,
does not appear to be of very frequent occurrence. Inoculation
with a vaccine prepared from the Micrococcus melitensis appears
to exert a protective influence for a period of about four months,
after which time there is a marked diminution in the immunity
conferred by this vaccination.
Relapsing Fever. — The specific cause of relapsing fever (famine
fever) appears to be the Spirillum Ohermeieri, an organism
which occurs in the blood (during the febrile stages) of patients
suffering from this disease. Between the febril* stages are
periods of intermission, during which the spirillum disappears
from the blood and, apparently, retires to the spleen. This
disease, in epidemic form, follows in the footsteps of famine
and destitution, specially affecting young people between the
ages of fifteen and twenty; it seldom attacks children under
five years of age, but when it attacks patients over thirty it
assumes a very virulent form. In monkeys inoculated with blood
containing the Spirillum Obermeieri the first symptoms appear
between the second and sixth days. In the human subject
this incubation period may last as long as three weeks; then
comes an attack of fever, which continues for about a week,
and is followed by a similar period of apparent convalescence,
on which ensues a pyrexial relapse, continuing about half as long
as the first. The spirilla, the cause of this disease, are fine
spirals with pointed ends, three or four times as long as the
diameter of a red blood corpuscle. Although it has as yet been
found impossible to cultivate these spirilla outside the body,
human beings, and monkeys injected with blood containing
them, contract the disease; and in monkeys it has been found
that during the period before the relapse the spirilla have made
their way into the cells of the spleen. As yet httle is known
as to the mode of development of these organisms, and of the
method of their transmission from one patient to another, but
it is thought that, as in the case of malaria and the tsetse-fly
disease, they may be carried by bloodsucking insects. Relapsing
fever is distinguished from typhoid fever by its sudden onset,
and by the distinct intermissions; and from influenza by the
enlargement of the spleen and liver. The most satisfactory _
method of diagnosis is the examination of the blood for the
presence of the spirillum during the febrile stage. The posl-
morleni appearances are those of a toxic (bacterial) poisoning.
Curious infarction-hke masses, in which are numerous spirilla,
are found in the spleen; in the liver there is evidence of acute
interstitial hepatitis, with cloudy swelhng of the liver cells;
and similar changes occur in the kidney. Fatty degeneration
of the heart and voluntary muscles may also be met with.
Plague. — During recent years opportunities for the study
of plague have unfortunately been only too numerous. In
patients suffering from this disease, a micro-organism, capable
of leading either a saprophytic Ufe or a parasitic existence in
the human body, and in some of the lower animals, was described
independently by Kitasato and Lowson and by Yersin, 1894,
in Hong-Kong. It is a short moderately thick oval bacillus,
with rounded ends, which stain deeply, leaving a clear band in
the centre (see Plate II., fig. 7). It thus resembles the short
diphtheria bacillus and the influenza bacillus. Certain other
forms are met with — long rods and " large oval bacilli, pear-
shaped or round, imperfectly stained pale involution forms " — ,
but the above is the most characteristic. It grows readily on
most media at the temperature of the body, but, like the glanders
bacillus, soon loses its virulence in cultivations. It may be
obtained in pure cultures from the lymph glands, and from
the abscesses that are formed in the groin or other positions
in which the glands become enlarged and softened. It may
also be found in the spleen and in the blood, and, in the case
of patients suffering from the pneumonic form of the disease,
even in the lungs and in the sputum. It has also been found
in the faeces and urine. (It is very important that these excre-
tions from plague patients should always be most carefully
disinfected.) This organism, when obtained in pure culture
and inoculated into rats, mice, guinea-pigs or rabbits, produces
exactly the same symptoms as does material taken fresh from
the softened glands. The symptoms are local swelling, enlarge-
ment and softening of the lymphatic glands, and high fever.
The difficulty of explaining the spread of plague, at one time
apparently almost insuperable, has at last been overcome, as
it has been found that although the acute pneumonic plague
is undoubtedly highly contagious, the spread of the bubonic
and septicaemic forms could not be explained on the same
hypothesis. As the pneumonic form is met w^ith in only about
2-5% of the whole of the cases, transmission by direct contagion
seems to be an utterly inadequate explanation. In the autumn
of 1896, when the plague broke out in India, and those dealing
PARASITIC DISEASES
777
with the outbreak came to the conclusion that certain houses
were centres of infection, it was noticed that these houses were
most infective at night, and that they might actually be centres
of infection although uninhabited; indeed the infection seemed
to spread to houses between which and the infected house there
appeared to be no intercommunication of any kind. This
seemed to be inexplicable except on the assumption that the
infective agent, the Bacillus pest is, was, in some way or other,
carried by animals. It had already been noted that rats
disappeared from plague-stricken houses, many dying before the
appearance of the plague in the human population. Simond,
noting these conditions, suggested that the plague bacillus might
be transmitted by the flea from rat to rat and from rat to man.
Although he was not able to demonstrate this connexion he
indicated a line of research to other observers, who, as knowledge
accumulated, were able to complete each Unk in the chain
of infection. The plague bacillus having been found in the rat,
the next step was to demonstrate its presence in the flea, and
living plague germs were found in the stomachs of fleas inhabiting
plague-infected houses. Several species seem to be able to
transmit this germ, but in none of them does the plague baciUus
appear to undergo any special development —alternation of
generations or the like — as in the case of the protozoon of malaria
in its passage from and to the mosquito and the human subject
,,— it simply passes unchanged through the alimentary canal
■'Of the flea, is excreted in the faeces, and is carried into the wound
made by the epipharynx-mandibles of the flea.
At least three species of animals, two rats and the human
subject, and three species of fleas are involved in this chain. The
rat fleas are Pvlex cheopis found in India, and Ccralophyllus
fasciatus, the rat flea of northern Europe, and Pulex irritans,
the common flea, all of which have the power of transmitting
the disease. In India of course the Pulcx cheopis, usually
solely associated with rats, seems to play the most prominent
part. The two rats involved are the Mus dccumanus, or brown
rat, which is found in the sewers and develops the plague first,
and the Mus rattus, the common black house-rat. From the
sewer-rat the house-rat is infected, and from the house-rat man.
Under ordinary conditions rat fleas do not attack the human
subject, but, as the rats are attacked by plague and die, the
infected fleas, starve out as it were, leave them and transfer
their attentions to other animals and the human subject,
infecting many of those they bite. Colonel Bannerman main-
tains that this infection takes place in the majority of cases, by
this chain of transmission, and that there is no evidence that
the excreta of these rats infect food or contaminate the soil.
Colonel Lamb, summarizing the experimental evidence on this
question, writes: —
\,, ."l. Close contact of plague-infected animals with healthy
animals, if fleas are excluded, does not give rise to an epizootic
among the latter. As the godowns (experimental huts) were never
cleaned out, close contact includes contact with faeces and urine of
infected animals, and contact with and eating of food contaminated
with faeces and urine of infected animals as well as with pus from
open plague ulcers; (2) close contact of young, even when suckled
by plague-infected mothers, did not give the disease to the former;
(3) if fleas are present, then the epizootic, once started, spreads from
animal to animal, the rate of progress being in direct proportion to
the number of fleas present ; (4) an epizootic of plague may start
without direct contact of healthy animal and infected animal;
(5) the rat flea can convey plague from rat to rat; (6) infection can
take place without any contact with contaminated soil; (7) aerial
infection is excluded."
The experiments lead to the conclusion that fleas and fleas
alone, are the transmitting agents of infection. Bannerman
gives in concise form similar evidence in relation to naturally
infected native houses. Infection is carried from place to place
by fleas, usually on the body or in the clothing of the human
being. Such fleas, fed on infected blood, may remain alive
for three weeks, and of this period, we are told, may remain
infective for fifteen days. At the first opportunity these fleas
forsake the human host and return to their natural host the
rat. In most of the epidemics there is a definite sequence of
events. First the brown rats are attacked, then the black rats.
then the human subject, and Colonel Lamb suggests that after
the rat disappears the Ilea starves for about three days and then
attacks the human subject. Then comes the incubation period
of plague, three days. Following this is the period of average
duration of the disease, five or six days. This time-table, he
says, corresponds to the period — when the epidemics are at
their height — that intervenes between the maximum death-rate
in rats and the maximum death-rate in man, about (en to
fourteen days. This history of the connexion between the flea,
the rat, and the human subject reads almost like a fairy tale,
but it is now one of the well-authenticated and sober facts of
modern medicine.
In India, where the notions of cleanliness are somewhat
different from those recognized in Great Britain, most of the
conditions favourable to the spread of the plague bacillus are
of the most perfect character. This organism may pass into
the sofl with faeces; it may there remain for some time, and then
be taken into the body of one of the lower animals, or of man,
and give rise to a fresh outbreak. Kitasato and Yersin were
both able to prove that soil and dust from infected houses contain
the baciUus, that such bacillus is capable of inducing an attack
of plague in the lower animals, and that flies fed on the dejecta
or other bacillus-containing material, die, and in turn contain
bacilli which are capable of setting up infection. Hankin claims
that ants may carry the plague to and from rats, and so to the
human being. It has already been mentioned that the organism
rapidly loses its virulence when cultivated outside the body;
on the other hand, on being passed through a series of animals
its virulence graduaOy increases. Thus may be explained the
fact that in most outbreaks of plague there is an early period
during which the death-rate is very low; after a time the per-
centage mortaUty is enormously increased, the virulence of the
disease being very great and its course rapid. There seem to
be notable differences in the degree of susceptibility of different
races and different individuals, and those who have passed safely
through an attack appear to have acquired a marked degree of
immunity. (
Two methods of treatment, both of which seem to have been
attended with a certain degree of success, are now being tried.
Haffkine, who was the first to produce a vaccine for the treatment of
cholera, prepared a vaccine of a somewhat similar type for the
treatment of plague. For this the Bacillus peslis is cultivated in
flasks of bouillon; to this small drops or particles of ghee (Indian
butter) are added; these form centres around which the organisms
may develop. As the organisms multiply they grow down into
the broth, but gradually becoming fewer in number as the floating
mass on the surface is left, they fine down to a point and so come
to resemble stalactites. These are broken off, from time to time,
by shaking, others immediately beginning to form in their place.
This may go on for six weeks. The flask with its contents is then
well shaken and heated in a water bath to 70° C. for from one to
three hours. On testing by culture the fluid should now be sterile,
i.e. no bacilli should remain alive, and the fluid, ready for use, may
be injected into the subcutaneous tissues of the arm in a dose of from
3 cc. for a man and 2 to 2 j cc. for a woman, children receiving rela-
tively small amounts. A rise of temperature, followed by malaise
and headache, which pass off in about 24 hours, is soon noted, and
some local swelling and redness appear at the seat of injection.
The Indian Plague Commission were satisfied that the use of this
vaccine diminishes the incidence of attacks of plague, and that,
although it does not confer a complete immunity against the disease,
the case mortality is lowered. They are of opinion also that protec-
tion is not conferred at once, but Lieut. -Colonel Bannerman states
that the protection is immediate and lasts for six or even twelve
months. In the official report (Annual Report of the Sanitarj'
Commissioner with the Government of India) for 1904 occurs the
following: " That its value is great is certain, not only does it largely
diminish the danger of plague being contracted, but, if it fails to
prevent the attack, the probability of a fatal event is reduced by
one-half."
This method of treatment, however, is of no avail in the case
of patients already attacked ; for such cases Ycrsin's serum treatment
must be called in. Various other vaccines have been described, but
all consist of some form of killed or attenuated bacilli, and the
results attained do not var>' very greatly. Yersin, who first demon-
strated the plague bacillus also devised the method of preparing an
" antipest serum." A horse was inoculated repeatedly, at intervals,
and with gradually increasing doses of living plague bacilli. It was
afterwards found that cultures sterilized by heat served equally
well for this inoculation of the horse and of course were much more
XX. 25 a
778
PARASITIC DISEASES
easily worked with. This process of preparation may have to be
continued for from six months to a year. The horse is then bled and
from the clot the serum is separated, care being taken to determine
by injection of the blood into mice that no living bacilli have by
accident made their way into, and remained in, the horse's blood.
The serum is not considered to be sufficiently active until a drop and
a half will protect the mouse against a dose of living bacilli fatal to a
control mouse in from 48 to 60 hours. When this serum is injected
in sufficiently large doses subcutaneously in mild cases, and sub-
cutaneously and intravenously (Lancet, 1903, i. 1287) in more severe
cases in doses of 150 to 300 cc. the results seem to be excellent,
especially when the serum is injected into the tissues around the
bubo or swellings formed in this disease. Calmette and Salimbeni
used the serum in 142 cases in the Oporto outbreak. Amongst these
they had a mortality of under i5°'o, whilst amongst 72 patients
not so treated the death-rate was over 63 °o- This serum kills the
bacilli and at the same time neutralizes the toxin formed during
the course of the disease. The best results are obtained when large
doses are given, and when the serum injected subcutaneously is
thrown into the area in which the lymph flows towards the bubo.
As in the case of the diphtheria antitoxic serum joint pains and rashes
may follow its exhibition, but no other ill effects have been noted.
Pneumonia. — The case in favour of acute lobar pneumonia
being an infective disease was a very strong one, even before
it was possible to show that a special organism bore any aetio-
logical relation to it. In 1880, Friedlander claimed that he
had isolated such an organism, but the pneumo-bacillus then
described appears to be inactive as compared with the pneumo-
coccus isolated by Fraenkel and Talamon. This latter organism
which is usually found in the sputum, is an encapsuled diplo-
coccus. Grown on serum or agar over which sterile blood
has been smeared, it occurs as minute, ghstening, rather promi-
nent points, almost like a fine spray of water or dew. When
the organism is cultivated in broth the capsule disappears, and
chains of diplococci are seen. It resembles the influenza bacillus
in a most remarkable manner. It may be found, in almost
every case of pneumonia, in the " rusty " or " prune-juice "
sputum. Injected into rabbits, it produces death with very
great certainty; and by passing the organism through these
animals its virulence may be markedly increased. Like the
influenza bacillus and even the diphtheria bacillus, this organism
may be present in the mouth and lungs of perfectly healthy
individuals, and it is only when the vitality of the system is
lowered by cold or other depressing influences that pneumonia
is induced; two factors, the presence of the bacillus and the
lowered vitality, being both necessary for the production of this
disease in the human subject. It is quite possible, however,
that, as in the case of cholera, a slight inflammatory exudation
may supply a nutrient medium in which the bacillus rapidly
acquires greatly increased virulence, and so becomes a much
more active agent of infection.
It is claimed by the brothers Klemperer, by Washbourn and by
others, that they have been able to produce an anti-pneumococcic
serum, by means of which they are able to treat successfully severe
cases of pneumonia. The catarrhal pneumonia so frequently met
with during the course of whooping-cough, measles and other
specific infective fevers, is also in all probability due to the action of
some organism of which the influenza bacillus and the Diplococcus
pneumoniae are types.
Infective meningitis is, in most of the recent works on medicine,
divided into four forms: (i) the acute epidemic cerebro-spinal
form; (2) a posterior basic form, which, however, is closely
allied to the first; (3) suppurative meningitis, usually associated
with pneumonia, erysipelas, and pyaemia; and (4) tubercular
meningitis, due to the specific tubercle bacillus.
I. The first form, acute infective or epidemic cerebro-spinal
meningitis, is usually associated with Weichselbaum's Diplo-
coccus intracellular is meningitidis (two closely apposed disks),
which is found in the exudate, especially in the leucocytes, of
the meninges of the brain and cord. It grows, as transparent
colonies, on blood-agar at the temperature of the body, but
dies out very rapidly unless reinoculated, and has little patho-
genetic effect on any of the lower animals, though under certain
conditions it has been found to produce meningitis when injected
under the dura mater.
More or less successful attempts have been made to treat acute
epidemic cerebro-spinal meningitis by means of antisera obtained
from different sources. Flexner uses the serum of horses that have
been highly immunized against numerous strains of the meningo-
coccus, the process of immunization extending over four or five
months. Meister, Lucius and Briining supply Ruppel's anti-
bacterial serum derived from animals immunized against several
strains of meningococcus of high pathogenic activity. Both these
sera may be looked upon as polyvalent sera. Ivy Mackenzie and
Martin, pointing out that the cerebro-spinal fluid, even of patients
who have recovered from this form of meningitis, contains no anti-
bodies, tried and recommended injections of the patient's own blood
serum into the spinal canal. In all cases the action seems to be much
the same. These sera contain immune body and complement, and
are distinctly bactericidal, acting on the meningococcus and render-
ing it much more easily taken up and digested by the white blood
corpuscles. It is possible that these sera may also exert some slight
antitoxic action. The serum is injected directly into the spinal
canal, a corresponding quantity of the cerebro-spinal fluid having
first been withdrawn by lumbar puncture. The treatment thus
resembles the treatment of lockjaw, where the antitetanus serum
is brought as directly as possible into contact with the nerve centres.
The dose of these sera ranges from 15 to 40 cc. according to the
severity of the disease. Although the general mortality of the disease
is from 50 to 80%, it is stated that where Flexner's serum is used
the mortality falls to 33 %. The result corresponds somewhat
closely to those obtained with antidiphtheria serum in diphtheria.
In patients injected on the first day of the disease the mortality was
only about 15 "o. on and from the fourth to the seventh day 22%,
but after the seventh day 36 %. From this it is evident that although
the serum has a distinct effect in bringing about the phagocytosis
of the meningococcus and the neutralization of the to.xins produced,
it cannot make good any damage already done to the tissues.
Mackenzie and Martin treated 20 cases with the blood taken from
patients suffering, or convalescent, from meningitis. Of 16 acute
cases treated 14 received serum from patients who had already
recovered from the disease, 8 of the patients recovered, 6 died, and
2 cases which received their own serum both recovered. In the
presence of these anti-cerebro-spinal-fever sera the meningeal cocci
become diminished in number and do not stain so readily, whilst,
simultaneously, the polymorpho-nuclear leucocytes seem to be dimin-
ished in number. The serum should be given until the temperature
becomes normal. Mackenzie and Martin' assert that 'even normal
human blood contains substances which are bactericidal to the
meningeal coccus, but that these substances increase " in amount
and activity in the blood serum of patients suffering from an acute
or chronic meningococcic infection, and the serum of a patient
recently recovered from an infection shows the evidence of the
presence of these substances in a still greater degree." They were
able to demonstrate, moreover, that the destructive action on the
cocci depends on an immune body which requires the presence of a
complement to complete the process. The cerebro-spinal fluid differs
from the serum in that it does not contain substances which kill
this meningeal coccus in vitro, nor are the immune body and comple-
ment present in the blood, found in this cerebro-spinal fluid. Hence
the efficacy of the blood when it is called upon to replace the fluid
in the cerebro-spinal canal.
2. Posterior basic meningitis, according to Dr StiU, " is
frequently seen during the first six months of life, a period at
which tuberculous and epidemic cerebro-spinal meningitis are
quite uncommon." The organism found in this disease resembles
the diplococcus intracellularis meningitidis very closely, but
differs from it in that it remains alive without recultivation for
a considerably longer period. It is less pathogenetic than that
organism, of which possibly it is simply a more highly sapro-
phytic form. This is a somewhat important point, as it would
account for the great resemblance that exists between the
sporadic and the epidemic forms of meningitis.
3. In suppurative meningitis these two organisms may still
be found in a certain proportion of the cases, but their place
may be taken by the pneumococcus or Diplococcus pneumoniae
or Fraenkel's pneumococcus — Diplococcus lanceolatus — which
appears to grow in two forms. In the first it is an encap-
sulated organism, consisting of small oval cocci arranged in
pairs or in short chains; the capsule is unstained. When the
pneumococcus grows in chains — the second form — as when
cultivated outside the body, on blood-serum or on agar over
the surface of which a small quantity of sterile blood has been
smeared, it produces very minute translucent colonies. Like
Weichselbaum's bacillus, it must be recultivated every three or
four days, otherwise it soon dies out. Unlike the other forms
previously described, it may, when passed through animals,
become extremely virulent, very small quantities being suSicient
to kill a rabbit. Although the pneumococcus is found in the
majority of these cases, especially in children, suppurative
PARASITIC DISEASES
779
meningitis may also accompany or follow the various diseases
that are set up by the Streptococcus pyogenes and Streptococcus
erysipclatis; whilst along with it staphylococci and the Bacillus
coli communis have sometimes been found. In other cases,
again, there is a mixed infection of the pneumococcus and the
Streptococcus pyogenes, especially in cases of disease of the
middle ear. As might be expected in meningitis occurring in
connexion with the specific infective diseases, e.g. influenza and
typhoid fever, the presence of the specific baciUi of these diseases
may usually be demonstrated in the meningeal pus or fluid.
4. The fourth form, tubercular meningitis (acute hydrocepha-
lus), is met with most frequently in young children. It is now
generally accepted that this condition is the result of the intro-
duction of the tubercle bacillus into the blood-vessels and lymph
spaces of the meninges at the base of the brain, and along the
fissures of Sylvius.
Influenza. — From 1889 up to the present time, influenza has
every year with unfaiUng regularity broken out in epidemic
form in some part of the United Kingdom, and often has swept
over the whole country. The fact that the period of incubation
is short, and that the infective agent is extremely active at a
very early stage of the disease, renders it one of the most rapidly-
spreading maladies with which we have to deal. The infective
agent, first observed by Pfeiffer and Canon, is a minute bacillus
or diplococcus less that i/i in length and o-5;u in thickness; it is
found in little groups or in pairs. Each diplococcus is stained
at the poles, a clear band remaining in the middle; in this respect
it resembles the plague bacillus. It is found in the blood —
though here it seems to be comparatively inactive — and in
enormous numbers in the bronchial mucus. It is not easily
stained in a solution of carbol-fuchsin, but in some cases such
numbers are present that a cover-glass preparation may show
practically no other organisms. Agar, smeared with blood,
and inoculated, gives an almost pure cultivation of very minute
transparent colonies, similar to those of the Diplococcus pneu-
moniae, but as a rule somewhat smaller. This organism, found
only in cases of influenza, appears to have the power of forming
toxins which continue to act for some time after recovery seems to
have taken place; it appears to exert such a general devitalizing
effect on the tissues that micro-organisms which ordinarily
are held in check are allowed to run riot, with the result that
catarrh, pneumonia and similar conditions are developed,
especially when cold and other lowering conditions co-operate
with the poison. This toxin produces special results in those
organs which, through over-use, impaired nutrition or disease,
are already only just able to carry on their work. Hence in
cases of influenza the cause of death is usually associated with
the failure of some organ that had already been working up to
its full capacity, and in which the margin of reserve power had
been reduced to a minimum. It is for this reason that rest,
nutrition, warmth and tonics are such important and successful
factors in the treatment of this condition.
Yellow Fever, endemic in the West Indies and the north-
eastern coast of South America, may become epidemic wherever
the temperature and humidity are high, especially along the
seashore in the tropical Atlantic coast of North America. It
appears to be one of the specific infective fevers in which the
liver, kidney, and gastro-intestinal systems, and especially
their blood-vessels, are affected. In 1897 Sanarelli reported,
in the Annales de I'lnstitut Pasteur, that he had found a bacillus
in the blood-vessels of the liver and kidneys, and in the ■'cells of
the peritoneal fluid, but never in the alimentary tract, of yellow
fever patients. These, he maintained, were perfectly distinct
from the putrefactive microbes occurring in the tissues in the
later stages, their colonies not growing hke those of the bacillus
coli communis. They grow readily on all the ordinary artificial
nutrient media, as short rods with rounded ends, usually abtttit
2 to 4fi in length and about half as broad as they kre loh'^. ' They
are stained by Gram's method and readily by mos't of the aniline
dyes, are cihated, and do not liquefy gelatine. They flourish
specially well alongside moulds, in the dark, in badly-ventilated,
warm, moist places, and remain alive for some time in sea-water:
these facts, as Sanarelli points out, may afford an explanation
of the special persistence of yellow fever in old, badly-ventilated
ships, and in dark, dirty and insanitary sea-coast towns. Once
the organism, whatever it may be, finds its way into the system,
it soon makes its presence felt, and toxic symptoms are developed.
The temperature rises; the pulse, at first rapid, gradually slows
down; and after some time persistent vomiting of bile comes
on. At the end of three or four days the temperature and pulse
fall, and there is a period during which the patient appears
comparatively well; this is followed in a few hours by icterus
and scanty secretion of urine. There may be actual anuria,
or the small quantity of urine passed may be loaded with casts
and albumen; delirium, convulsions and haemorrhages from
all the mucous surfaces may now occur, or secondary infections
of various kinds, boils, abscesses, suppurations and septicaemia,
may result. These often prove fatal when the patient appears
to be almost convalescent from the original disease. As regards
prognosis, it has been found that the " lower the initial tempera-
ture the milder will the case be " (Macpherson). An initial
temperature of 106° F. is an exceedingly unfavourable sign.
Patients addicted to the use of alcohol are, as a rule, much more
severely affected than are others. Treatment is principally
directed towards prevention and towards the alleviation of
symptoms, though SanareUi has hopes that an " anti "-serum
may be useful. More recently S. Flexner, working with the
American Commission, isolated another organism, which, he
maintains, is the pathogenetic agent in the production of yellow
fever; whilst Durham and Myers maintain that a small bacillus
previously observed by G. M. Sternberg and others is the true
cause of this disease.
Professor Boyce, enumerating the hypotheses as to the cause of
yellow fever, points out that as in the case of malaria, suspicion
turned to " that form of Miasm which was supposed to arise
from the mixture, in a marsh or on a mud flat, of salt with fresh
water." It was early recognized that yellow fever was not
carried directly from person to person, but little of definite
character was known as to the poison and the method of its
dissemination, and Fergusson states that " it is a terrestrial
poison which high atmospheric heat generates amongst the
newly arrived, and without that heat it cannot exist." The
following passage from Beauperthuy (see his collected papers
pubhshed in 1891) is quoted by Boyce: " But rubbish ! the
small amount of sulphuretted hydrogen or marsh gas which
might arise from a marsh could not possibly hurt a fly, much
less a man. It is not that, it is a mosquito called in Cumana
the ' Zancudo bobo,' the striped or domestic mosquito."
Beauperthuy, recently as he wrote, then stood almost alone
in this opinion. Now we know that yellow fever, in common
with other specific diseases, is caused by the action of an organized
virus. The search for a vegetable parasite, bacillus or micro-
coccus, as above indicated, has been very close and strenuous,
but it may now be held that up to the present no bacillus or
micrococcus, well authenticated as capable of causing yellow
fever, has been discovered. Latterly a search has been made for
protozoal organisms, organisms similar to those present in the
blood of malarious patients and like conditions, or for spiro-
chaetes similar to those associated with relapsing fever, and
Boyce draws attention to the fact that a spirochaete has recently
been identified in the tissues taken from cases of yellow fever.
It has however been demonstrated that the virus, whatever it
may be, is carried by a species of mosquito; this seems to favour
the protozoan hypothesis, especially as it is found that the
Stegomyia fasciata, Fab. (or 5. calopus, Meig.), after taking the
blood from an infected patient is not infective immediately
but only becomes capable of infecting by its bite at the end
of twelve days. It would appear therefore that residence
in this mosquito is necessary for the material to become
fully infective. During this period some special meta-
morphosis may occur, and metamorphosis essential to the
development of the parasite, or, on the other hand, the time
may be required for it to make its way to some position from
which it may emerge from the mosquito when that insect
78o
PARASITIC DISEASES
" strikes." In the interval between the bite of an infected
Stegomyia and the appearance of the disease (5 or 6 days) the
blood of the patient contains a virus which, when taken into the
mosquito, may develop into the infective material; moreover,
this virus persists alive and active for three days after the
disease is fully developed, but at the end of this time it dis-
appears, so far, at any rate, as its infective power is concerned,
from the blood, secretions and tissues of the patient. Further,
there is no evidence that the infective virus is ever transmitted
directly from the patient in secretions or in fact in anything
but blood or blood-serum. The infective material, then, is present
in the human subject for about eight days, during which the
blood and even the blood-serum may serve as a vehicle for
the infective agent. If during this period the patient is bitten
by the Stegomyia the mosquito cannot distribute the infection for
twelve days, but after this the power of transmitting reinfection
persists for weeks and even months during cold weather when
the insect is torpid. As soon, however, as the warm weather
comes round and the mosquito becomes active and again begins
to bite there is evidence that it still maintains its power of
transmitting infection; indeed Boyce states that mosquitos
infected in one year are capable of transmitting infection and
starting a fresh epidemic in the following warm season. When
it is remembered that a mosquito by a single bite is capable of
setting up an attack of the disease, we see how important is
this question.
The Stegomyia, known as the domestic or house mosqmto,
is spoken of as the " Tiger " mosquito, " Scots' Grey," or " Black
and White Mosquito," from the fact that there is " a lyre-
shaped pattern in white on the back of the thorax, transverse
white bands on the abdomen, and white spots on the sides of
the thorax; while the legs have white bands with the last hind
tarsal joint also white " (Boyce). It is also spoken of as the
" cistern mosquito," as it breeds in the cisterns, barrels, water
butts, &c., containing the only water-supply of many houses.
It may pass through its various stages of development in any
small vessels, but the larvae are not usually found in natural
collections of water, such as gutters, pools or wells, if
the ovipositing insect can gain access to cleaner and purer
water.
The egg of the Stegomyia deposited on the water develops in
from 10 to 20 hours into the larval form, the so-called " wiggle-
waggle." It remains in this stage for from i to 8 days, then
becomes a pupa, and within 48 hours becomes a fully developed
mosquito. The larvae can only develop if they are left in
water, though a very small amount of water will serve to keep
them alive. The eggs on the other hand are very resistant,
and even when removed from water may continue viable for
as long a period as three months. The Stegomyia affects clean
water-butts and cisterns by preference. Consequently its
presence is not confined to unhygienic districts; they may,
however, " seek refuge for breeding purposes in the shallow
street drains and wells in the town." The Stegomyia does not
announce its advent and attack by a " ping " such as that made
by the Anopheles, it works perfectly noiselessly and almost
ceaselessly (from 3 p.m. to early morning) so that any human
beings in its neighbourhood are not safe from its attacks either
afternoon or night.
The most important prophylactic measures against the Stego-
myia are ample mosquito nets " with a gauge of eighteen
meshes to the inch " (Boyce), so arranged that the person sleeping
may not come near the net; these nets should be used not only
at night but at the afternoon siesta. Then the living room
should be screened against the entrance of these pests, thorough
ventilation should be secured; and all pools and stagnant waters,
especially in the neighbourhood of houses, should be drained,
water-butts and cisterns should be screened and all stagnant
waters oiled with kerosene or petroleum, where drainage is
impossible. What has been done through the carrying out
of these and similar measures may be gathered from the record
of the Panama Canal. In 1884 the French Panama Canal
Company, employing from 15,000 to 18,000 men, lost by death
60 per 1000 annually (in 1885 over 70 per 1000). In iqo4,
when the Americans had taken over the work of construction.
Col. W. C. Gorgas undertook to clear the country of the Stegomyia,
and within two or three years yellow fever had been eradicated.
The death-rate from malaria was also greatly diminished, and
by the end of 1907 the death-rate per annum amongst 45,000
workers was only 18 per 1000, a lower death-rate than is met with
in many large English towns. Similar examples might be cited
from other places, but the above is sufficiently striking to carry
conviction that the methods employed in carrying on the
warfare against tropical diseases have been attended with
unexampled success. These diseases, at one time so greatly
feared, are now so much under control that some one has said
" ere long we shall be sending our patients to the tropics in search
of a health resort." .,
Weil's disease, a disease which may be considered along with>
acute yellow atrophy and yellow fever, is one in which there is an
acute febrile condition, associated with jaundice, inflammation of
the kidney and enlargement of the spleen. It appears to be a toxic
condition of a less acute character, however, than the other two,
in which the functions and structure of the liver and kidney are
specially interfered with. There is a marked affection of the gastro-
intestinal system, and the nervous system is also in some cases
profoundly involved. Haemorrhage into the mucous and serous
membranes is a marked feature. The liver cells and kidney epithe-
lium undergo fatty changes, though in the earlier stages there is a
cloudy swelling, probably also toxic in origin. Organisms of the
Proteus group, which appear to have the power, in certain circum-
stances, of forming toxic substances in larger quantities than can be
readily destroyed by the liver, and which then make their appear-
ance in the kidney and spleen, are supposed to be the cause of this
condition.
Diphtheria. — In regard to no disease has medical opinion under-
gone greater modification than it has in respect of diphtheria.
Accurately applied, bacteriology has here gained one of its
greatest triumphs. Not only have the aetiology and diagnosis
of this disease been made clear, but knowledge acquired in
connexion with the production of the disease has been apphed
to a most successful method of treatment. In 1875 Klebs
described a small bacillus with rounded ends, and with, here
and there, small clear unstained spaces in its substance. He,
however, also described streptococci as present in certain cases
of diphtheria, and concluded that there must be two kinds of
diphtheria, one associated with each of these organisms. In
1883 he again took up the question; and in the following year
Loeffler gave a systematic description of what is now known
as the Klebs-Loeffler bacillus, which was afterwards proved by
Roux and Yersin and many other observers to be the causa
causans of diphtheria. This bacillus is a slightly-curved rod
with rounded, pointed, or club-shaped end or ends (see Plate
II. fig 9). It is usually from 1-2 to 5/i or more in length and
from 0-3 to 0-5/1 in breadth; rarely it may be considerably
larger in both dimensions. It is non-motile, and may exhibit
great variety of form, according to the age of the culture and the
nature of the medium upon which it is growing. It is stained
by Gram's method if the decolorizing process be not too pro-
longed, and also by Loeffler's methylene-blue method. Except
in the very young forms, it is readily recognizable by a series
of transverse alternate stained and unstained bands. The
bacillus may be wedge-shaped, spindle-shaped, comma-shaped
or ovoid. In the shorter forms the polar staining is usually well
marked; in the longer bacilli, the transverse striation. Very
characteristic club-shaped forms or branching filaments are met
with in old cultures, or where there is a superabundance of nutri-
tive material. In what may be called the handle of the club
the banded appearance is specially well marked. These specific
bacilli are found in large numbers on the surface of the diphther-
itic membrane (Plate II. fig. 10), and may easily be detached
for bacteriological examination. In certain cases they may be
found by direct microscopic examination, especially when they
are stained by Gram's method, but it is far more easy to demon-
strate their presence by the culture method. On Loefiler's
special rpedium the bacilli flourish so weU at body-temperature —
about 37° C. — that, like the cholera bacillus, they outgrow the
other organisms present, and may be obtained in comparatively
PARASITIC DISEASES
781
pure culture. Distinct colonies may often be found as early
as the eighth or twelfth hour of incubation; in from eighteen to
Lvventy-four hours they appear as rounded, elevated, moderately
translucent, greyish white colonies, with a yellow tinge, the
surface moist and the margins slightly irregular or scalloped.
They are thicker and somewhat more opaque in the centre.
When the colonies are few and widely separated, each may grow
to a considerable size, 4 to 5 mm.; but when more numerous and
closer together, they remain small and almost invariably discrete,
with distinct intervals between them. In older growths the
central opacity becomes more marked and the crenalion more
distinct, the moist, shiny appearance being lost. When the
surface of the serum is dry, the growth, as a rule, does not attain
any very large size.
These " pure " colonies, when sown in slightly alkaline broth,
grow with great vigour; and if a small amount of such a 48
hours' culture be injected under the skin of a guinea-pig, the
animal succumbs, with a marked local reaction and distinct symp-
toms of to.xic poisoning very similar to those met with in cases of
diphtheriaof thehumansubject. Roux and Yersin demonstrated
that the poison was not contained in the bodies of the bacilli,
but that it was formed and thrown out by them from and into
the nutrient medium. Moreover, they could produce all the toxic
symptoms, the local reactions, and even the paralysis which
often follows the disease in the human subject, by injecting the
culture from which they had previously removed the whole of
the diphtheria bacilli by filtration. This cultivation, then,
contains a poisonous material, which, incapable of multiplying
in the tissues, may be given in carefully graduated doses. If,
therefore, there is anything in the theory that tissues may be
gradually "acclimatized" to the poisons of these toxic substances,
they saw that it should be possible to prove it in connexion
with this disease. Behring, going still further, found that the
tissues so acclimatized have the power of producing a substance
capable of neutralizing the toxin, a substance which, at first
confined to the cells, when formed in large quantities overflows
into the fluids of the blood, with which it is distributed through-
out the body. The bulk of this toxin-neutralizing substance
remains in the blood-serum after separation of the clot. In
proof of this he showed that (1) if this serum be injected into
an animal before it is inoculated with even more than a lethal
dose of the diphtheria bacillus or its products, the animal
remams perfectly well; (2) a certain quantity of this serum,
mixed with diphtheria toxin and injected into a guinea-pig, gives
rise to no ill effects; and (3) that even when injected some
hours after the bacillus or its toxins, the serum is still capable
of neutralizing the action of these substances. In these experi-
ments we have the germ of the present antitoxic treatment
which has so materially diminished the percentage mortality
in diphtheria. This serum may also be used as a prophylactic
agent.
The antitoxic serum as now used is prepared by injecting into
the subcutaneous tissues of a horse the products of the diphtheria
bacillus. The bacillus, grown in broth containing peptone and
blood-serum or blood-plasma, is filtered and heated to a temperature
of 68° or 70° C. for one hour. It then contains only a small amount
of active toxin, but injected into the horse it renders that animal
highly insusceptible to the action of strong diphtheria toxins, and
even induces the production of a considerable amount of antitoxin.
This production of antito.xin, however, may be accelerated by sub-
sequent repeated injections, with increasing doses of strong
diphtheria toxin, which may be so powerful that | to J of a drop, or
even less, is a fatal dose for a medium-sized guinea-pig. The anti-
toxic serum so prepared may contain 200, 400, 600 or even more
" units " of antitoxin per c.c. — the unit being that quantity of
antitoxin that will so far neutralize 100 lethal doses (a lethal dose is
the smallest quantity that will kill a 250-gramme guinea-pig on the
fifth day) of toxin for a 250-gramme gumea-pig, that the animal
continues alive on the fifth day from the injection. This, however,
is a purely arbitrary standard of neutralizing power, as it is found
that, owing to the complicated structure of the toxin, the neutraliz-
ing and the lethal powers do not always go hand in hand; but as the
toxin used in testing the antitoxin is always compared with the
original standard, accurate results are easily obtained.
Diphtheria, though still prevalent in cities, has now lost many
of its terrors. In the large hospitals under the Metropolitan
Asylums Board the death-rate fell from nearly 40% in 1889
to under 10% in 1003; and if antitoxin be given as soon as the
disease manifests itself, the mortality is brought down to a very
insignificant figure. It has been maintained that as soon as
antitoxin came into use the number of cases of paralysis increased
rather than diminished. This may be readily understood when
it is borne in mind that many patients recover under the use
of antitoxin who would undoubtedly have succumbed in the
pre-antitoxin days; and it cannot be too strongly insisted that
although the antitoxin introduced neutralizes the free toxin
and prevents its further action on the tissues, it cannot entirely
neutralize that which is already acting on the cells, nor can it
make good damage already done before it is injected. Even
allowing that antitoxin is not accountable for the whole of the
improvement in the percentage mortality statistics since 1896, it
has undoubtedly accounted for a very large proportion of
recoveries. Antitoxin often cuts short functional albuminuria,
but it cannot repair damage already done to the renal epithelium
before the antitoxin was given. The clinical evidence of the
value of antitoxin in the relief that it affords to the patient
is even more important than that derived from the consideration
of statistics.
The diphtheria bacillus or its poison acts locally as a caustic and
irritant, and generally or constitutionally as a protoplasmic poison,
the most evident lesions produced by it being degeneration of nerves
and muscles, and, in acute cases, changes in the walls of the blood-
vessels. Other organisms, streptococci or staphylococci, when
present, may undoubtedly increase the mortality by producing
secondary complications, which end in suppuration. Diphtheria
bacilli may also be found in pus, as in the discharges from cases of
otorrhoea.
Tetanus {Lockjaw). — Although tetanus was one of the later
diseases to which a definite micro-organismal origin could be
assigned, it has long been looked upon as a disease typical of
the "septic" group. In 1885 Nicolaier described an organism
multiplying outside the body and capable of setting up tetanus,
but this was only obtained in pure culture by Kitasato, a
Japanese, and by the Italians in 1889. It has a very character-
istic series of appearances at different stages of its development.
First it grows as long, very slender threads, which rapidly break
up into shorter sections from 4 tos^u in length (see Plate II. fig.
11). In these shorter rods spores may appear on the second or up
to the seventh day, according to the temperature at which the
growth occurs. The rods then assume a very characteristic pin or
drumstick form; they are non-motile, are somewhat rounded at
the ends, and at one end the spore, which is of greater diameter
than the rod, causes a very considerable expansion. Before
sporulation the organisms are distinctly motile, occurring in rods
of different lengths, in most cases surrounded by bundles of beau-
tiful flagella, which at a later stage are thrown off, the presence
of flagella corresponding very closely with the " motile " period.
The bacillus grows best at the temperature' of the body; it
becomes inactive at 14° C. at the one extreme, and at from 42°
to 43° C. at the other; in the latter case involution forms, clubs
and branching and degenerated forms, often make their appear-
ance. It is killed by exposure for an hour to a temperature of
from 60° to 65° C; the spores however are very resistant to the
action of heat, as they withstand the temperature of boiling
water for several minutes. The organism has been found in
garden earth, in the excrement of animals — horses — and in
dust taken from the streets or from living-rooms, especially
when it has been allowed to remain at rest for a considerable
period. It has also been demonstrated in, and separated from
the pus of wounds (see Plate II. fig. 12) in patients suffering
from lockjaw, though it is then invariably found associated
with the micro-organisms that give rise to suppuration.
It is important to remember that this bacillus is a strict anaerobe,
and can only grow when free oxygen has been removed from the
cultivation medium. It may be cultivated in gelatine to which has
been added from 2 to 3 % of grape-sugar, when, along the line of the
stab culture, it forms a delicate growth, almost like a fir-tree, the
tip of which never comes quite to the surface of the gelatine. The
most luxuriant growth — evidenced by the longest branches — occurs
in the depth of the gelatine away from free oxygen. After a time the
782
PARASITIC DISEASES
gelatine becomes sticky, and then undergoes slow liquefaction, the
growth sinking and leaving the upper layers comparatively clear.
This organism is not an obligate parasite, but a facultative; it may
grow outside the body and remain alive for long periods.
Lockjaw is most common amongst agricultural labourers,
gardeners, soldiers on campaign, in those who go about with
bare feet, or who, like young children, are liable to get their
knees or hands accidentally wounded by rough contact with
the ground. Anything which devitaUzes the tissues — such as
cold, bruising, malnutrition, the action of other organisms and
their products — may all be predisposing factors, in so far as
they place the tissue at a disadvantage and allow of the multipli-
cation and development of the specific bacillus of tetanus. In
order to produce the disease, it is not sufficient merely to inocu-
late tetanus bacQli, especially where resistant animals are
concerned: they must be injected along with some of their
toxins or with other organisms, the presence of which seems to
increase the power of, or assist, the tetanus organism, by divert-
ing the activity of the cells and so allowing the bacUlus to
develop. The poison formed by this organism resembles the
enzymes and diphtheria poison, in that it is destroyed at a
temperature of 65° C. in about five minutes, and even at the
temperature of the body soon loses its strength, although, when
kept on ice and protected from the action of light, it retains its
specific properties for months. Though slowly formed, it is
tremendously potent, jsuJfisu part of a drop (the five-millionth
part of a c.c.) of the broth in which an active culture has been
allowed to grow for three weeks or a month being sufficient to
kill a mouse in twenty-four hours, ^h of a drop killing a rabbit,
T>'.T a dog, or -^ of a drop a fowl or a pigeon; it is from 100 to 400
times as active as strychnine, and 400 times as poisonous as
atropine. It has been observed that, quite apart from size,
animals exhibit different degrees of susceptibility. Frogs kept
at their ordinary temperature are exceedingly insusceptible,
but when they are kept warm it is possible to tetanize them,
though only after a somewhat prolonged incubation period, such
as is met with in very chronic cases of tetanus in the human
subject. In experimentally-produced tetanus the spasms
usually commence and are most pronounced in the muscles near
the site of inoculation. It was at one time supposed that this
was because the poison acted directly upon the nerve termina-
tions, or possibly upon the muscles; but as it is now known that
it acts directly on the cells of the central nervous system, it
may, as in the case of rabies, find its way along the lymphatic
channels of the nerves to those points of the central nervous
system with which these nerves are directly connected, spasms
occurring in the course of the muscular distribution of the nerves
that receive their impulses from the cells of that area. As the
amount of toxin introduced may be contained in a very small
quantity of fluid and still be very dilute, the local reaction of the
connective-tissue cells may be exceedingly slight; consequently
a very small wound may allow of the introduction of a strong
poisonous dose. Many of the cases of so-called idiopathic
tetanus are only idiopathic because the wound is trifling in
character, and, unless suppuration has taken place, has healed
rapidly after the poison has been introduced. In tetanus, as
in diphtheria, the organisms producing the poison, Lf found in
the body at all, are developed only at the seat of inoculation;
they do not make their way into the surrounding tissues. In
this we have an explanation of the fact that all the earlier
experiments with the blood from tetanus patients gave absolutely
negative results. It is sometimes stated that the production
of tetanus toxin in a wound soon ceases, owing to the arrest of
the development of the bacillus, even in cases that ultimately
succumb to the disease. Roux and Vaillard, however, maintain
that no case of tetanus can be treated with any prospect of success
unless the focus into which the bacilli have been introduced is
freely removed. The antitetanus serum was the first antitoxic
serum produced. It is found, however, that though the anti-
tetanic serum is capable of acting as a prophylactic, and of
preventing the appearance of tetanic symptoms in animals that
are afterwards, or simultaneously, injected with tetanus toxin,
it does not give very satisfactory results when it is injected after
tetanic symptoms have made their appearance. It would
appear that in such cases the tetanus poison has become too
firmly bound up with the protoplasm of the nerve cells, and has
already done a considerable amount of damage.
(b) More Chronic Infective Diseases {Tissue Parasites).
Tuberculosis. — In no quarter of the field of preventive medicine
have more important results accrued from the discovery of a.
specific infective organism than in the case of Koch's demon-
stration and separation in pure culture of the tubercle bacillus
and the association of this bacillus with the transmission of
tuberculosis. In connexion with diagnosis — both directly from
observation of the organism in the sputum and urine of tuber-
culous patients, and indirectly through the tuberculin test,
especially on animals — this discovery has been of very great
importance; and through a study of the hfe-history of the bacillus
and its relation to animal tissues much has been learned as to
the prevention of tuberculosis, and something even as to
methods of treatment. One of the great difficulties met with
in the earlier periods of the study of this organism was its slow,
though persistent, growth. At first cultivations in fluid media
were not kept sufficiently long under observation to allow of its
growth; it was exceedingly difficult to obtain pure cultures, and
then to keep them, and in impure cultures the tubercle bacilli
were rapidly overgrown. Taken directly from the body, they
do not grow on most of the ordinary media, and it was only
when Koch used solidified blood-serum that he succeeded in
obtaining pure cultures. Though they may now be demonstrated
by what appear to be very simple methods, before these methods
were devised it was practically impossible to obtain any satis-
factory results.
The principle involved in the staining of the tubercle bacillus
is that when once it has taken up fuchsin, or gentian violet, it
retains the stain much more firmly than do most organisms and
tissues, so that if a specimen be thoroughly stained with fuchsin
and then decolorized by a mineral acid — 25% of sulphuric acid,
say — although the colour is washed out of the tissues and most
other organisms, the tubercle bacilli retain it; and even after
the section has been stained with methylene-blue, to bring the
other tissues and organisms into view, these baciUi still remain
bright red, and stand out prominently on a blue background.
If a small fragment of tuberculous tissue be pounded in a sterile
mortar and smeared over the surface of inspissated blood-serum
solidified at a comparatively low temperature, and if evaporation
be prevented, dry scaly growths make their appearance at the
end of some fourteen days. If these be reinoculated through
several generations, they ultimately assume a more saprophytic
character, and will grow in broth containing 5% of glycerin, or
on a peptone beef-agar to which a similar quantity of glycerin
has been added. On these media the tubercle bacillus grows
more luxuriantly, though after a time its virulence appears to be
diminished. On blood-serum its virulence is preserved for long
periods if successive cultivations be made. It occurs in the
tissues or in cultivations as a dehcate rod or thread 1-5 to 3'5ft in
length and about 0-2 to o-s;u in thickness (see Plate II., fig. 15).
It is usually slightly curved, and two rods may be arranged end to
end at an open angle. There is some doubt as to whether tubercle
bacilli contain spores, but little masses of deeply-stained proto-
plasm can be seen, alternating with clear spaces within the
sheath; these clear spaces have been held to be spores. This
organism is found in the lungs and sputum in various forms of
consumption; it is met with in tuberculous ulcers of the intestine,
in the lymph spaces around the vessels in tuberciflous meningitis,
in tuberculous nodules in all parts of the body, and in tuberculous
disease of the skin — lupus. It is found also in the tuberculous
lesions of animals; in the throat-glands, tonsils, spleen and bones
of the pig; in the spleen of the horse; and in the lungs and pleura
of the cow. Tuberculosis may be produced artificially by inject-
ing the tubercle bacillus into animals, some being much more
susceptible than others. Milk drawn from an udder in which there
are breaking-down tuberculous foci, may contain an enormous
PARASITIC DISEASES
783
number of active tubercle bacilli; and pigs fed upon this
milk develop a typical tuberculosis, commencing in the glands
of the throat, which can be traced from point to point, with the
utmost precision. It must be assumed that what takes place
in the pig may also take place in the human subject; and a
sufficient number of cases are now on record to show that the
swallowing of tuberculous material is a cause of tuberculosis,
especially amongst children and adolescents. Inhaled tubercle
bacilli from the recently-dried sputum of phthisical patients, like
milk derived from tuberculous udders, may set up tuberculosis
of the lungs or of the alimentary tract, especially when the epithe-
lial layer is unhealthy or imperfect. The two main causes of
the prevalence of tuberculosis in the human subject are: (i)
tubercle bacilli may become so modified that they can flourish
saprophytically; as yet it has not been possible to trace the
e.\act conditions under which they live, but we are gradually
coming to recognize that, although when they come from the
body they are almost obligate parasites, they may gradually
acquire saprophytic characters. (2) Many of the domestic
animals are readily infected with tuberculosis, and in turn may
become additional centres from which infection may radiate.
Koch's tuberculin has been of inestimable value in the early
diagnosis of tuberculosis, especially in animals.
Tuberculin, from which the tuberculin test derives its name,
consists of the products of the tubercle bacillus when grown for a
month or si.x weeks in peptone meat-broth to which a small propor-
tion, say 5 or 6%, of glycerin has been added. The tubercle bacilli
are then killed at boiling-temperature, and are partially removed by
sedimentation, and completely by filtration through a Berkfcld
or Pasteur-Chamberland filter. If a large dose of this filtered fluid
be injected under the skin of a healthy man or brute, it is possible
to produce some local swelling and to induce a rise of temperature;
but in a similar patient suffering from tuberculosis a very much
smaller dose (one which does not affect the healthy individual in
the slightest degree) is sufficient to bring about the characteristic
swelling and rise of temperature. To obtain trustworthy results
the dosage must always be carefully attended to. The reaction is
only obtained under certain well-defined conditions. Driven
animals seldom, if ever, react properly. Cattle to be tested should
be allowed to remain at rest for some time; they should be well
fed, and be carefully protected from cold or draughts. After an
injection of tuberculin into the subcutaneous tissues (usually in
front of the shoulder or on the chest-wall) they should be kept under
the same conditions and should be watched very carefully ; the tem-
perature should be taken at the sixth hour, and every three hours
afterwards up to the twenty-first or even twenty-fourth hour. If
during this time the temperature rises to 104° F., there can be little
doubt that the animal is tuberculous; but if it remains under 103°,
the animal must be considered free from disease: if the temperature
remains between these points the case is a doubtful one, and, accord-
ing to Sir John M'Fadyean, should be retested at the end of a month.
It is interesting to note that the test is not trustworthy in the case
of animals in which tuberculosis is far advanced, especially when the
temperature is already high — 103° F. In such cases, however, it
is an easy matter to diagnose the disease by the ordinary clinical
methods. At first objections were raised to this test on two grounds:
(l) that mistakes in diagnosis are sometimes made; (2) that tuber-
cuUn may affect the milk of healthy animals into which it is injected.
As the methods of using the tuberculin have been perfected, and as
the conditions under which the reaction is obtained have become
better known, mistakes have rapidly become fewer; whilst it has
been amply proved that tuberculin has not the slightest deteriorating
effect on the quality of the milk.
Tuberculin and similar substances are sometimes used as specific
reagents in the diagnosis of tuberculosis in the human subject. When
small quantities of old tuberculin are injected subcutaneously into a
tuberculous patient in whom, however, no tubercle bacilli may be
demonstrable, the temperature begins to rise in six or eight hours
and continues to rise for twelve hours or, in rare cases, for an even
longer period, a rise of a single degree being considered sufficient to
indicate the presence of the disease. Along with this there is usually
some swelling and tenderness, with perhaps redness at the seat of
injection, whilst there is also some evidence of a vascular congestion
in the neighbourhood of any tuberculous lesion. A second method
of applying tuberculin as a diagnostic reagent is that of Pirquet,
who, after diluting old tub'erculin with two parts of normal saline
solution and one part of 5% carbolic glycerin, places a drop of the
mixture on the skin and scrapes away the epidermis in lines with
" a small dental burr." The skin is similarly treated with normal
saline some 2 or 3 in. away from that at which the tuberculin is used.
In the tuberculin area a little papule develops; this may become
a vesicle, surrounded by slight redness and swelling (in the " saline "
area nothing of the kind appears). The swelling begins about six
hours after the scarification is made and continues to increase for
24 hours. Reactions, however, are obtained by this test in patients
who are not suffering from any active tubercular lesion, whilst on the
other hand in certain cases it fails to indicate the presence of tubercle
when it is undoubtedly there. Calmette's or Wolff-Eisner's ophthal-
mic reaction test, a third method of using tuberculin, consists in
dropping a weak solution of tuberculin into the conjunctival sac of
one eye; this is followed by a mild attack of conjunctivitis or
inflammation of the eye in the tuberculous patient, whilst in the
normal patient no such inflammation should appear. Although this
test appears to be of considerable value, it fails to give any informa-
tion in cases of advanced tuberculosis, of general miliary tuber-
culosis and of tuberculous meningitis. It certainly possesses one
great advantage over the others — it does not give any reaction in
the presence of dormant tubercle in persons clinically sound and
healthy. The inflammation of the eye may, however, be so acute,
especially where strong solutions of tuberculin are used, that
considerable damage may be done, more especially should there be
any dormant disease of the eye. It must be remembered that in all
these tests the exhibition of tuberculin increases for a time the sensi-
tiveness of the patient each time it is administered. It sets up a
negative phase, as already described, and renders the patient more
susceptible to the action of a fresh dose. It is evident, therefore,
that the carefid worker wishing to oljtain minimal effects will give
small doses and gradually repeat these as he may find necessary.
In 1890 Koch, whose brilliant researches on tuberculosis
had opened up a new field of investigation and had inspired new
hope in the breasts of patients and physicians alike, followed up
his method of diagnosis with a method of vaccination with the
products of the tubercle bacillus separated from glycerinated
broth culture after the vitality of the bacilli had been destroyed.
As is frequently the case with new remedies, this was used so
indiscriminately that it soon fell into disrepute. The results
in certain cases, however, were so successful that careful investi-
gations into the character and action of tuberculin and into the
conditions under which it may be used with advantage were
undertaken. Tuberculins composed of the triturated bodies of
tubercle bacilli, of the external secretions of these bacilli, and of
their various constituents in different combinations, were experi-
mented with, but at the present time Koch's two tuberculins —
especially his new tuberculin — hold the field. The " old
tubercuhn " consists of the glycerin broth culture of the tubercle
bacilli mentioned above. The new tuberculin consists of the
centrifugalized deposit from a saline solution of the extract of
the triturated dead tubercle bacilli; this is stored in small tubes,
each containing two milligrammes of solid substance. This is
diluted with distilled water containing 20% of glycerin, great
care being taken to maintain the sterility of the solution. The
dose is usually from -j^^u to T()W oi a milligramme for an
adult, increasing to ^J(j^; according to Sir A. Wright it should
not go beyond this.
Perhaps no one has done more to rehabilitate the tuberculin
treatment than Sir Almroth Wright, who after a long series of
experiments devised what he called the tuberculo-opsonic index,
about which a few words may be of interest. It is well-known
that certain cells in the human blood have the power of taking
bacteria into their substance and there digesting them. This, the
so-called " phagocytic power " of Metchnikoff, was found to vary
somewhat under different conditions, and Wright set himself to
determine, if possible, what were the factors that modified this
variability. He found that the white blood corpuscles, the poly-
morphonuclear cells, whether from healthy or tuberculous patients,
always showed practically the same phagocytic activity when
mixed with a fine emulsion of tubercle bacilli and the serum from
a healthy patient. If, however, corpuscles from the same individuals,
whether healthy or tuberculous, were allowed to act upon the bacilli
in the presence of seruin drawn from a tuberculous patient, one of
three things might happen: (i) the bacilli might be taken up in
smaller numbers than in the above series of experiments; (2) they
might be taken up in larger numbers; or (3) they might be taken
up in what might bo called normal numbers. In (i) and (2) Wright
holds there is evidence of a tuberculous condition, in (3) of course
the evidence is negative. He found, however, that when a dose
of tuberculin was injected into a tuberculous patient there was
a distinct fall in the number of tubercle bacilli taken up by the
leucocytes treated with the serum of the patient. This condition
Wright speaks of as the " negative phase." Increased phagocytic
activity of the cells is associated with what is spoken of as the posi-
tive phase. The theory is that the blood serum has the power of
preparing bacteria to be eaten by the phagocytes in the same
sense that boiling, say, prepares food for ready digestion by the
human subject, and W'right applied the term opsonin to the un-
known constituent or complex of constituents of the serum that
784
PARASITIC DISEASES
exerts this action upon the bacteria. The opsonic index is obtained
by comparing the average number of bacilli taken up by, say,
100 leucocytes, to which the serum from a tuberculous patient
has been added, with the number of bacteria taken up by ajhundred
similar corpuscles to which normal serum has been added, the
ratio between the two giving the opsonic index. Wright main-
tains that after the injection of small doses of tuberculin during
a negative phase which first appears, i.e. whilst there is a fall in
the number of bacilli taken up by the leucocytes of the blood, the
patient is more susceptible than before to the attacks of the tubercle
bacillus. Following this, however, there is a gradual rise in the
opsonic index until it passes the normal and the patient enters
a positive phase, during which the susceptibility to the attacks
of the tubercle bacillus is considerably diminished. When the
effects of this dose are passing off a fresh injection should be made ;
this again induces a negative phase, but one that should not be so
marked as in the first instance, whilst the positive phase which
succeeds should be still more marked than that first obtained. If
this can be repeated systematically and regularly the patient
should begin, and continue, to improve. The difficulties involved
in the determination of the opsonic index are, however, exceedingly
great, and the personal factor enters so largely into the question
that some observers are very doubtful as to the practical utility
of this method. In Wright's hands, however, and in the hands of
those who work with him, very satisfactory results are obtained.
The tuberculin treatment, fortunately, does not stand or fall by
the success of the opsonic index determination, especially as most
valuable information as to the course of the disease and the effects
of the tuberculin may be obtained by a study of the daily tempera-
ture chart and of the general condition of the patient.
Tuberculin should not be injected more frequently than about
once in 10 or 14 days, and it is well not to increase the dose too
rapidly. Wherever the temperature continues high, even a degree
beyond normal, and where the pulse is over 100, it is not wise to give
tuberculin, nor does it seem to be of any great value where the
disease is making rapid headway or has become generalized,
especially where there is meningitis or bleeding from the lungs.
It is interesting to note, in connexion with the diagnostic
significance of the opsonic index, that in non-tuberculous subjects
the administration of a small dose of tuberculin is followed by no
negative phase such as is met with in the tuberculous subject.
The phagocytic power of the white blood corpuscles is determined
by noting the number of organisms taken up by the leucocytes when
mixed with equal parts of a standard emulsion of tubercle bacilli
and blood serum incubated in fine glass tubes for 15 minutes at
a temperature of 37° C. If the period of incubation is much shorter
than this the results are irregular, whilst if the period is longer so
many organisms are taken up that it becomes impossible to diffe-
rentiate two sets of sera.
As an example we might adduce the following. Taking a tubercu-
lous patient's serum + leucocytes + tubercle bacilli, let us say we
have an average of i-S bacilli per leucocyte in 50 or 100 leucocytes
counted; with normal serum -f- corpuscles -t- tubercle bacilli the
average number of bacilli per leucocyte in the same number of
cells counted is 3. From these figures the opsonic index obtained
is 1-8 -j- 3 = 0-6 = opsonic index.
Leprosy. — Armauer Hansen in 1871, and Neisser in 1881,
described a " leprosy bacillus " corresponding in size and in
certain points of staining reaction to the tubercle bacillus, and
it is now generally accepted that this bacillus is the direct and
specific causal agent of leprosy. The discovery of this organism
paved the way for the proof that the tubercular and anaesthetic
forms of leprosy are essentially the same disease, or rather are the
manifestations of the action of a common organism attacking
different series of tissues.
To demonstrate the presence of the leprosy bacillus, tie an
indiarubber ring firmly around the base of one of the leprosy
tubercles. As soon as the blood is driven out, leaving the
nodule pale, make a puncture with the point of a sharp knife.
From this puncture a clear fluid exudes; this, dried on a cover-
glass, stained with carbol-fuchsin, and rapidly decolorized with a
weak mineral acid, shows bacilli stained red and very like
tubercle bacilli; they differ from that organism, however, in
that they are somewhat shorter, and that if the acid be too strong
or be allowed to act on them for too long a time, the colour is
discharged from them much more readily. These organisms,
which are from 4 to 6/i in length and o-^n in breadth, are as a rule
more rigid and more pointed than are the tubercle bacilli (see
Plate II., fig. 16). It is doubtful whether they form spores.
They are found in large numbers lying embedded in a kind of
gelatinous substance in the lymphatics of the skin, in certain cells
of which they appear to be taken up.
It is curious that these bacilli affect specially the skin and
nerves, but rarely the lungs and serous membranes, thus being in
sharp contrast to the tubercle bacillus, which affects the latter
very frequently and the former more rarely. They are seldom
found in the blood, though they have been described as occuring
there in the later stages of the disease. It is stated that leprosy
has been inoculated directly into the human subject, the patient
dying some five or six years after inoculation; but up to the pre-
sent no pure culture of the leprosy bacillus has been obtained; it
has therefore been impossible to produce the disease by the
inoculation of the bacillus only. What evidence we have at our
disposal, however, is all in favour of the transmissibility of the
disease from patient to patient and through the agency of the
leprosy bacillus. None of the numerous non-bacillary theories
of leprosy account at all satisfactorily for this transmissibility
of the disease, for its progressive nature, and for the peculiar
series of histological changes that are met with in various parts
and organs of the leprous body. Leprosy occurs in all climates.
It is found where no fish diet can be obtained, and where pork and
rice are never used, though to these substances has been assigned
the power of giving rise to the disease. Locality appears to
influence it but little, and with improved sanitation and increased
cleanliness it is being graduaUy eradicated. The only factor
that is common in all forms of leprosy, and is met with in every
case, is the specific baciflus; and in spite of the fact that it has
yet been found impossible to trace the method of transmission,
we must from what is known of the presence and action of bacilli,
in other diseases, especially in tuberculosis, assign to the leprosy
bacillus the role of leprosy-producer, until much stronger evidence
than has yet been obtained can be brought forward in favour of
any of the numerous other causes that have been assigned. Two
cases are recorded in which people have contracted leprosy from
pricking their fingers with needles whilst sewing a leper's clothes;
and a man who had never been out of Dublin is said to have
contracted the disease by sleeping with his brother, a soldier who
had returned from India suffering from leprosy.
Glanders. — Farcy in the human subject resembles the same
disease experimentally produced in animals with material from
a glandered animal, and as there is no pathological distinction
between the two, from the aetiological standpoint, they may be
considered together. If the pus from a glanders abscess be
mixed with a little sterile saline solution and spread over the
cut surface of a boiled potato kept at the body-temperature,
bright yellow or honey-coloured, thick, moist-looking colonies
grow very rapidly and luxuriantly. These colonies gradually
become darker in colour, until they assume a cafe-au-lait, or even
a chocolate, tint. On examining one of them microscopically, it
is found to be made up of bacilli 2 to 5/x long and 1 to |- of their
own length broad (see Plate I., fig. 2 and fig. 6). The bacillus is
usually straight or slightly curved and rounded at one end; it
appears to be non-motile. As first pointed out by Loeffler and
Schiitz, when a portion of a culture is inoculated subcutaneously,
typical farcy, with the acute septicaemia or blood-poisoning so
characteristic of certain cases of glanders and farcy, is the result.
The human subject is usually inoculated through wounds or
scratches, or through the application of the nasal discharge of a
glandered animal to the mucous membrane of the nose or mouth.
Man is not specially susceptible to the glanders virus, but as he
frequently comes into contact with glandered horses a consider-
able number of cases of farcy in man are met with, although
amongst knackers it is a comparatively rare disease. Cattle
never contract it by the ordinary channels, and even when inocu-
lated exhibit nothing more than localized ulceration. The goat
appears to occupy an intermediate position between cattle and
the horse in this respect; in sheep, which are fairly susceptible
the disease runs its course slowly, and appears to resemble
chronic farcy in man. In rabbits and the dog the disease runs
a very slow and modified course. Although field-mice are extra-
ordinarily susceptible, white mice and house mice, unless
previously fed on sugar or with phloridzin, are unaffected by
inoculation of the glanders bacillus. The pigeon is the only
bird in which glanders has been produced. Lions and tigers are
said to contract the disease, and to take it in a very severe and
PARASITIC DISEASES
7H5
rapidly fatal form. The glanders organism soon loses its
virulence and even its vitality. Dry, it dies in about ten
days; placed in distilled water, in about five days; but kept
moist, or on culture media, it retains its vitality for about a
month, although its activity soon becomes considerably lessened.
These bacilli are readily killed at a temperature of 55° C; they
can pass through the kidneys, even when there is no lesion to be
made out either with the naked eye or under the microscope
(Sherrington and Bonome).
The glanders bacillus grows best in the presence of oxygen,
but it may grow anaerobically; it then appears to have the power
of forming toxin, either more in quantity or of greater activity
than when it has access to a free supply of oxygen. This poison
(mallein) is used for the purpose of diagnosing the presence of
glanders. A cultivation is made in peptonized bouillon to which
a small portion of glycerin has been added. The bacillus is allowed
to grow and multiply at the temperature of the body for a month
or six weeks; the organisms are then killed by heat and 0-5%
carbolic acid is added. The cultivation is then filtered through a
porcelain filter in order to remove the bodies of the bacilli, and
the resulting fluid, clear and amber-coloured, should have the
power, when injected in quantities of i c.c, of giving the specific
reaction in an animal suffering from glanders; in a healthy animal
6 c.c. will give no reaction. The suspected animal should be
kept at rest and in a warm stable for twenty-four to forty-eight
hours before the test is applied. The temperature should be
normal, as no proper reaction is obtained in an animal in which
the temperature is high. This reaction, which is a very definite
one, consists in a rise of temperature of from 2° to 4° F., and the
appearance of a swelling of from 3 to 4 iw. in diameter and
from I to 15 in. in height, before the sixteenth or eighteenth
hour; this swelling should continue to increase for some hours.
It has been suggested that the injection of -j"^- to ^3- c.c. of
mallein, at 'intervals of two or three days, may be used with
advantage in the treatment of glanders. Glandered horses seem
to improve under this treatment, and then certainly do not
react even to much larger doses of mallein. The mallein test
has revealed the fact that glanders is a far more common and
more widespread disease than was at one time supposed.
II. — To Higher Vegetable Parasites
Actinomycosis. — This disease is very prevalent in certain
low-lying districts, especially amongst cattle, giving rise to the
condition known as " sarcoma," " wooden tongue," " wens,"
" bony growths on the jaw," &c. It is characterized by the
presence of a fungus, which, at first growing in the form of long
slender threads that may be broken up into short rods and cocci,
ultimately, as the result of a degenerative process, assumes the
form of a " ray-fungus," in which a series of club-like rays are
arranged around a common centre (see Plate I., fig. 8). It is
probably a stTeptothrix—Streptotlirix Forsteri. Numerous
cases have been observed in the human subject. Suppuration
and the formation of fistulous openings, surrounded by exuberant
granulations, " proud flesh," usually supervene where it is
growing and multiplying in the tissues of the human body, and
in the pus discharged are yellowish green or reddish brown points,
each made up of a central irregular mycelium composed of short
rods and spores, along with the clubs already mentioned. The
mycelial threads may reach a considerable length (20 to loo/i);
some of them become thicker, and are thus diflerentiated from
the rest; the peripheral club is the result of swelling of the sheath;
the filaments nearer the centre of the mycelial mass contain
spores, which measure from i to 2jx in diameter. This fungus
appears to lead a saprophytic existence, but it has the power of
living in the tissues of the animal body, to which it makes its
way through or around carious or loose teeth, or through abra-
sions of the tongue or tonsils. After the above positions, the
abdomen, especially near the vermiform appendix, is a special
seat of election, or in some cases the thorax, the lesions being
traceable downwards from the neck. Any of the abdominal
or thoracic organs may thus be affected. The process spreads
somewhat slowly, but once started may extend in any direction,
its track being marked by the formation of a large quantity of
fibrous tissue, often around a long fistula. In the more recent
growths, and in solid organs, cavities of some size, containing
a soft semi-purulent cheesy-looking material, may be found,
this mass in some cases being surrounded by dense fibrous
tissue. When once a sinus is formed the diagnosis is easy, but
before this the disease, where tumours of considerable size are
rapidly formed, may readily be mistaken for sarcoma, or when
the lungs are affected, for tuberculosis, especially as bronchitis
and pleuritic effusion are frequently associated with both
actinomycosis and tuberculosis.
Mycetoma, the Madura foot of India, is a disease very similar
to actinomycosis, and, like that disease, is produced by a some-
what characteristic streptolhrix. It usually attacks the feet and
legs, however, and appears to be the result of infection through
injured tissues. Under certain conditions and in long-standing
cases the fungus appears to become pigmented (black) and
degenerated.
Other forms of fungus disease or Mycoses are described. Asper-
gillosis, or pigeon-breeders' disease, is the result of infection with
the Aspergillus fumigalus. Certain tumours appear to be the result
of the action of a yeast, Blastomycosis or Saccharomycosis. The
spores of the Pcncillium glauciim, and of some of the Mucors, are
also said to have the power of setting up irritation, which may
end in the formation of a so-called granuloma or granulation tissue
tumour. These, however, are comparatively rare.
B. — Diseases due to Animal Parasites.
I.— To Protozoa
Malaria. — Following Laveran's discovery, in 1880, of a
parasite in the blood of patients suffering from malaria, our
knowledge of this and similar diseases has increased by leaps
and bounds, and most important questions concerning tropical
diseases have now been cleared up. Numerous observations
have been carried out with the object of determining the parasitic
forms found in different forms of malaria — the tertian, quartan,
and aestivo-autumnal fever — in each of which, in the red blood
corpuscles, a series of developmental stages of the parasite from
a small pale translucent amoebiform body may be followed.
This small body first becomes lobulated, nucleated and pig-
mented; it then, after assuming a more or less marked rosette-
shape with a deeply pigmented centre, breaks up into a series
of small, rounded, hyaline masses of protoplasm, each of which
has a central bright point. The number of these, contained in a
kind of capsule, varies from 8 to 10 in the quartan, and from 1 2 to
20 in the tertian and aestivo-autumnal forms. There are certain
differences in the arrangement of the pigment, which is present
in larger quantities and distributed over a wider area in the
somewhat larger parasites that are found in the tertian and
quartan fevers. In the parasite of the aestivo-autumnal fever
the pigment is usually found in minute dots, dividing near the
pole at the point of division of the organism, along with it in the
earlier stages (see Plate I., fig. 5). Here, too, the rosette form
is not so distinct as in the parasite of tertian fever, and in the
latter is not so distinct as in the quartan parasites. These
dividing forms make their appearance immediately before the
onset of a malarial paroxysm, and their presence is diagnostic.
The process of division goes on especially in the blood-forming
organs, and is therefore met with more frequently in the spleen
and in bone-marrow than in any other situation. The parasites,
at certain stages of their development, may escape from the red
blood corpuscles, in which case (especially when exposed to
the air for a few minutes) they send out long processes of proto-
plasm and become very active, moving about in the plasma and
between the corpuscles, sometimes losing their processes, which,
however, continue in active movement. In the aestivo-autumnal
fever curious crescent-shaped or ovoid bodies were amongst
the first of the parasitic organisms described as occurring in the
blood, in the red corpuscles of which they develop. Alanson
maintains that from these arise the flagellate forms, all of which,
he thinks, are developed in order that the life of the malarial
parasite may be continued outside the human body. It is
probable that most of the pigment found in the organs taken from
786
PARASITIC DISEASES
malarial patients is derived from red blood corpuscles broken
down by the malarial parasites; many of these, in turn, are
devoured by leucocytes, which in malarial blood are usually
greatly increased in number, and frequently contain much pig-
ment, which they have obtained either directly from the fluid
plasma or from the pigmented parasitic organism. The work
recently carried out by Bruce on the tsetse-fly parasite, by A. J.
Smith on Texas fever, and by W. S. Thayer and Hewitson on the
blood parasites of birds, has opened up the way for the further
study of the malarial parasites outside the human body. There
can be no doubt as to the close relation of the multiplication and
sporulation of the malarial parasite with the ague paroxysm:
the anaemia results from the breaking down of blood corpuscles.
Toxic substances are present in the blood during the setting
free of the spores; of this we have proof in the increased toxicity
of the urine during the paroxysmal stages of the disease; more-
over necrotic areas, similar to those found in acute toxic fevers
produced by other micro-organisms, are met with. It is well to
bear in mind that the accumulation of debris of parasites and
corpuscles in the capillaries may be an additional factor in this
necrosis, especially when to this is added the impairment of
nutrition necessarily involved by the impoverished condition of
the malarial blood. It is interesting to note that, although,
as pointed out by NuttaU, the Italian and Tirolese peasantry
have long been firmly of the opinion that malaria is transmitted
through the mosquito, and although the American, Dr Josiah
Nott, in 1848 referred to malaria as if the mosquito theory had
already been advanced, httle attention was given to this
question by most observers. StiU earlier, Rasori (in 1846) had
stated that " for many years I have held the opinion that inter-
mittent fevers are produced by parasites, which renew the
paroxysm by the act of their reproduction, which recurs more or
less rapidly according to the variety of the species"; and this
appears to be the first well-authenticated reference to this subject.
Nuttall, who gives an excellent summary of the hterature on the
mosquito hypothesis of malaria, assigns to King the honour of
again drawing attention to this question. Laveran in 1891,
Koch in 1892, Manson in 1894, Bignami and Mendini in 1896,
and Grassi in 1898, all turned their attention to this hypothesis.
Manson, basing his hypothesis upon what he had observed as
regards the transmission of Filaria by the mosquito, suggested a
series of experiments to Major Ronald Ross. These were carried
out in 1895, when it was found that in mosquitoes that had taken
up blood containing amoeboid parasites, crescents, which were
first described as cells, appeared in the stomach-wall after four
or five days; these contained a number of stationary vacuoles
and pigment granules, ten to twenty in number, bunched to-
gether or distributed in lines. Grassi, Bignami and Bastianelli
confirm and supplement Ross's observations; they find that
Anopheles daviger, taking the blood from a patient suffering
from malaria, soon develops haemosporidia in the intestine.
These parasites are then found between the muscular fibres of
the stomach; they increase in size, become pigmented, and more
and more vacuolated, until they project into the body-cavity.
On the sixth day these large spheres contain an enormous
number of minute bodies, refractive droplets like fat, and a
diminishing amount of pigment. On the seventh day numerous
filaments, arranged in rows around several foci, are seen. They
are very delicate, are stained with difiiculty, and appear to be
perfectly independent of each other, though grouped within a
capsule. After the capsule has ruptured, these thread-hke
" sporozooites," escaping into the body-cavity, gradually make
their way to and accumulate in the cells or tubules of the salivary
glands, whence their passage through the proboscis into the
human blood is easily understood.
Thus two phases or cycles of existence have been demon-
strated — one within the human body, the second in the mosquito.
Development That within the human body appears to be capable
of the of going on almost indefinitely as long as the patient
Malarial lives, but that in the mosquito appears to be an
arasite. offshoot or an intermediate stage. The minute
specks of protoplasm, the amoebulae, which have already been
described as occurring in the red blood corpuscles of the higher
animals, increase in size, take up blood pigment, probably from
the red corpuscles, and then become developed into sporocytes
or gametocytes. The sporocyte is the form which, remaining
in the body, ultimately breaks up, as already seen, into a series
of minute spores or amoebulae, which in turn go through the same
cycle again, increasing in size and forming spores, and so on
indefinitely. Gametocytes (the true sexual form) are in certain
species, to outward appearance, very similar to the sporocyte,
but in others they assume the crescentic shape, and can thus be
recognized. The male cell resembles the female cell very closely,
except that the protoplasm is hyaline and homogeneous-looking,
whilst that of the female cell is granular. It has already been
noted that when the blood is withdrawn from the body certain
of the malarial parasites become flagellated. These flagefla
may be looked upon as sperm elements, which, forming in the
male gametocyte, are extruded from that cell, and, once set free,
seek out the granular female gametocytes. A single flagellum
becomes attached to a small projection that appears on the female
cell; it then makes its way into the protoplasm of the female
cell, in which rapid streaming movements are then developed.
In certain species the female ceU is somewhat elongated, and may
be pecuUarly constricted. It becomes motile, and appears to
have the power of piercing the tissues. In this way the first stages
of development in the mosquito are passed. The gametocytes,
taken along with the blood into the stomach of this insect,
pass through the various phases above mentioned, though
the zygote form of the human malarial parasite has not yet been
traced. In the blood of a patient bitten by an infected mosquito
the ordinary malarial parasite may be demonstrated without
any difficulty at the end of a week or ten days, and the cycle
recommences.
This theory, now no longer a hypothesis, in which the
mosquito acts as an intermediary host for one stage of the
parasite and transmits the parasite to man, affords an ex-
planation of many apparently anomalous conditions associated
with the transmission of malaria, whilst it harmonizes with
many facts which, though frequently observed, were very
difficult of explanation. Malaria was supposed to be associated
with watery exhalations and with the fall of dew, but
a wall or a row of trees was seemingly quite sufficient to
prevent the passage of infection. It was met with on wet
soils, on broken ground, in marshes, swamps and jungles;
on the other hand, it was supposed to be due to the poisonous
exhalations from rocks. All this is now explained by the fact
that these are the positions in which mosquitoes occur: wherever
there are stagnant pools, even of a temporary nature, mos-
quitoes may breed. It has been observed that although the
malarial "miasma" never produces any ill effects in patients
living at more than a few feet from the surface of the ground,
malaria may be found at a height of from 7000 to 9000 ft. above
sea -level; and the fact that a belt of trees or a wall will stop the
passage of the poison is readily exphcable on the mosquito
theory. These insects are incapable, owing to their limited power
of flight, of rising more than a few feet from the ground, and
cannot make their way through a belt of trees of even moderate
thickness. Broken ground, such as is found in connexion with
railway cuttings and canals, may be a focus from which malaria
may spread. In such broken ground pools are of common
occurrence, and afford the conditions for the development of the
mosquito, and infected tools used in one area may easily convey
the ova to another. AU these facts afford further support of
this theory. The conditions of climate under which malaria is
most rife are those which are most suitable for the development
of the mosquito. The protection afforded by fires, the recognized
value of mosquito curtains, the simultaneous disappearance
of Anopheles and malaria on the complete draining of a neigh-
bourhood, the coincidence of malaria and mosquitoes, and the
protection afforded by large e.xpanses of water near walls and
trees are also important in this conne.xion.
The mosquitoes specially associated with the transmission
of malaria in the human subject belong apparently to the genus
PARASITIC DISEASES
Anopheles. Anopheles claviger (maculipennis) and Anopheles
bifurcatus both are found in Great Britain; Anopheles pictus is
another species found in Europe, but so far not in
Species of Q^g^^ Britain. A member of the genus Culex, the
Mosquito ^ I f . . 1 . 1-
Concerned, grey mosquito or Lulex jahgans, is the mtermcdiate
host of the proteosoma of birds, on which many of
the intermediate phases of the life-history of these parasites
have been studied. Ross describes a dappled-wing mosquito as
the one with which he performed his experiments on birds in
India. Anopheles claviger is interesting in view of the former
prevalence of malaria in Great Britain.
The remedy for malaria appears to be the removal or spoiling
of the breeding grounds of the mosquito, thorough drainage of
pools and puddles, or, where this cannot be easily effected, the
throwing of a certain amount " of kerosene on the surface of these
pools" (Nuttall).
Amoebic Dysentery. — In addition to the dysentery set up by
bacteria, a form — amoebic dysentery or amoebic enteritis — has
been described which is said to be due to an animal parasite, and
it has been proposed to separate the various types of dysentery
according to their aetiology, in which case the amoebic group is
probably more specific than any other. The amoeba {.Amoeba
dysenteriae, Entamoeba histolytica, of Schaudinn) supposed to
give rise to this condition was first described by Losch in 1875.
Since then this amoeba has been described either as a harmless
parasite or as a cause of dysentery in Europe, Africa, the United
States and in Brazil, and more recently in India. This organism,
which is usually placed amongst the rhizopods, consists
of a small rounded, ovoid or pear-shaped globule of proto-
plasm, varying in size frem 6 to 40/x, though, as Lalleur
points out, these limits are seldom reached, the organism being
usually from one and a half to three times the diameter of a
leucocyte — from 12 to 26/i (see Plate II., fig. 19). Its margins
are well defined, and the body appears to consist of a granular
inner portion and a homogeneous outer portion, the latter being
somewhat lighter in colour than the inner; in the resting stage
this division cannot be made out. The organism appears to
pass through at least two phases, one corresponding to a cystic,
the other to an amoeboid, stage. In the latter stage, if the organ-
ism be examined on a warm stage, it is seen to send out processes,
and, as in other amoebae, vacuoles may be seen as clear spaces
lying in the granular and darker-coloured inner protoplasm. In
the small vacuoles a deeply stained point may be seen. These
vacuoles may be extruded through the ectoplasm. In some
cases the vacuoles are so numerous that they occupy the whole
of the space usually occupied by the granular protoplasm, and are
merely surrounded by a zone of variable thickness, which " has
the appearance of finely granular glass of a distinctly pale green
tint" (Lafleur). In the cystic stage a nucleus which appears
amongst the vacuoles may be made out, usually towards one side
of the amoeba. This nucleus is of considerable size, i.e. nearly
as large as a red blood corpuscle, and is readily distinguishable
from the surrounding protoplasm. When stained by the Benda
method (safranin and light green) a more deeply staining nucle-
olus may be seen in the nucleus. The nucleus is perhaps best
seen when stained by this method, but it is always diflicult to
obtain well-stained specimens of this organism. If these amoebae
can be kept under observation for some time evidence of amitotic
division may sometimes be seen. Red blood corpuscles are
often englobed by this amoeba, as are also micrococci and bacilli.
The movements of the amoebae are most active at a temperature
of about 90° to 98° F. From the fact that pigment is contained
in these organisms, it is supposed that they take in the red blood
corpuscles as nutritive material, and that other substances may
be taken in to serve a similar purpose. Nothing is known of the
method of multiphcation of the amoeba., but it is supposed that it
may be both by fission and by spore formation. These organ-
isms are present in the early stage of the acute disease, and dis-
appear at the later stages. Perhaps of some importance is the
fact that the abscesses found in the liver and lung, which occur
so frequently in cases of dysentery, usually contain, especially
in the portions immediately adjoining the suppurating mass, a
considerable number of these amoebae. In the very small
abscesses the amoebae are numerous and active, and occupy the
capillaries in the tissues. It is quite possible that this plugging
of the capillaries with amoebae is the cause both of the haemor-
rhages and of the small areas of necrosed tissue, the supply of
nutriment being cut off from the liver cells and from the lung
tissues, and that suppuration occurs only as a secondary process,
though Councilman and Lalleur maintain that the amoeba itself
is the primary cause of suppuration. It is possible, of course, that
the suppuration is due to the action of pus-forming organisms
conveyed along with, or following, the amoeba, as we know that
the growth of suppurating organisms can go on in dead tissues
when these organisms have no chance of surviving in the healthy
tissues and fluids of the body. Lafleur holds that the amoeba
forms a toxic substance which exerts a direct devitalizing effect
on the liver cells, and that the amoeba itself causes suppuration.
The abscesses in the lung, which invariably extend directly from
the liver and occur at the base of the right lung, also contain these
amoebae. For these reasons this organism is looked upon as the
cause of dysentery and of certain forms of dysenteric abscess.
They differ from the Entamoeba coli — often met with in the
intestine — which has a more distinct nucleus containing larger
chromatin masses and is surrounded by a highly refractile
nuclear membrane. Further, in the Entamoeba coli the cyto-
plasm is of the same character throughout, there being no
differentiation into ectoplasm and endoplasm. The Amoeba
histolytica is often met with in a " resting phase," in which the
nucleus is less distinctly marked, and may consist of small
masses of chromatin distributed throughout the cell or penetrat-
ing small buds formed on the surface. Around each of these
buds, three, four or more, a highly refractile cyst wall is formed,
the cysts becoming separated from the rest of the cell, the
remnant of which undergoes disintegration. These cysts are
extremely resistant, and probably maintain the continuity of
the species outside the body.
In the active phase, the amoeboid form appears able by its
tough membranous pseudopodia to push its way into the mucous
membrane of the large intestine, especially the rectum, the lower
part of the ileum and the flexures. Once it is ensconced in these
tissues, small soft oedematous looking swellings soon appear on
the mucous surface. Marshall points out that the amoebae
probably reach the liver by the portal circulation from the dysen-
teric lesions in which the amoebae are found. Other observers
maintain that the amoebae may pass through the walls of the
intestine, through the peritoneal cavity, and so on to the liver
where they give rise to typical abscesses.
Syphilis. — It has long been recognized that syphilis is a specific
infective disease, but although characterized by fever, anaemia,
and increased growths of tissue followed by rapid degeneration
and ulceration of tissue, it is only within quite recent years that
a definite parasitic organism, present in all cases of typical
syphilis, has been isolated and studied. Schaudinn and Hoff-
mann, foUowed by Metchnikoff and others, have described as of
constant occurrence a spiral or screw-shaped organism in which
are seen from half a dozen to a dozen well-defined, short,
regular, almost semicircular curves. This organism, when
examined fresh, in normal or physiological salt solution,
exhibits active screw-like movements as it rotates along its
long axis; from time to time it becomes more or less bow-
shaped and then straightens out, the while moving about from
point to point in the field of the miscroscope. It is not very
strongly refractile, and can only be examined properly with the
aid of special central illumination and in the presence of minute
particles, by the movements of which the organism is more
readily traced.
In order to obtain this organism for demonstration it is a good
plan to wash the primary or secondary syphilitic sore thoroughly
with alcohol; some of the clear fluid is then collected on a cover-
glass; or, perhaps better still, the lymphatic gland nearest to one
of these sores may be punctured with a hypodermic needle, the
fluid being driven out on to a slide on which some normal saline
solution has been placed. When the organism has been examined
alive the film may be carefully dried and then stained by Giemsa's
788
PARASITIC DISEASES
modification of the Romanowsky stain (see Plate I., fig. i). This
stain, which may be obtained ready prepared from Griibler, of
Leipzig, under the name of " Giemsa'sche Losung fiir die Roman-
owsky Farbung," is made as follows: Azur Il.-eosin compound, 3
grnis. and Azur II. o-8 grm. are mixed and dried thoroughly in
the desiccator over sulphuric acid; this mixture is then very finely
pulverised, passed through a fine-meshed silk sie\'e and dissolved
at 60° C. in Merck's glycerin, 250 grms., the mixture being well
shaken; 250 grms. of methyl-alcohol (Kahlbaum I.), which has
been previously heated to 60° C, is then added. The whole, after
being well shaken, is allowed to stand for twenty-four hours and
filtered. The solution, now ready for use, should be kept in a
yellow glass bottle. To i c.c. of ammonia-free distilled water add
I drop of this stain. Stain for from a quarter to three-quarters of
an hour. Wash in running water, blot, drj', and mount in Canada
balsam. Longer exposure to the action of a more dilute Giemsa
fluid often gives excellent results.
The stained organisms may be seen as delicate, reddish, regular
spirals with pointed extremities. They usually measure from 4
to 14/1 in length, though they may reach 18 or 22/1; the breadth
is about 0-25JJ. In a section of the liver from a case of congenital
syphilis an enormous number of these spirochaetes may be found.
Stain by Levaditi's method as follows: Fix fragments of tissue
not more than i mm. thick in 10% formol solution for twenty-
four hours. Rinse in distilled water and harden in 96 % alcohol
for twenty-four hours. Then wash in distilled water for some
minutes, i.e. until the pieces fall to the bottom of the vessel, and
transfer to a 1*5-3% solution of nitrate of silver (3% is prefer-
able when the tissues have been obtained from the living patient).
This impregnation should be carried on at a temperature of 38° C.
for from three to five days, according to the nature of the tissue.
"Reduce" the silver in the following solution: Pyrogallic acid,
2-4%, Formol, 5 c.c, Aq. dest., 100 c.c. Allow this solution to act
on the tissues for from twenty-four to forty-eight hours at room
temperature. Again wash in distilled water, dehydrate with
alcohol, clear with xylol and cedar-oil, and embed in paraffin.
The sections should not be more than 5^1 thick. In a section so
stained the spirochaetes are seen as dark spirals standing out against
a pale yellow background. On staining with a weak counterstain
many of the spirals may be seen actually within the liver cells.
This organism may be found in the lung, spleen and other visceral
organs, and even in the heart of a patient suffering from syphilis.
It has also been found in syphilitic lesions produced experimentally
in the higher apes, especially the chimpanzee. As a result of
these observations it is now generally accepted as being the primary
cause of syphilitic lesions in the human subject. It is certainly
present in the lesions usually met with in cases of primary and
secondary syphilis of the human subject, and by its action on the
blood and tissues of the body produces an antigen, a specific (?)
substance, the presence of which has been utilized by Wassermann
in the diagnosis of syphilis. He uses the m.ethod of deviation of
complement by the antigen substances contained in the syphilitic
fluid blood or cerebro spinal fluid — by which the lytic action of
a haemolysing fluid is prevented.
Kdla-dzar. — The non-malarial remittent fever, met with in
China, known as dum-dum fever in India and as kala-azar in
Assam, fs associated with peculiar parasitic bodies described by
Donovan and Leishman {Herpetomonas Dotwvani) (? Helcosoma
iropiciim, Wright). This fever is characterized by its great
chronicity, associated with very profound, and ultimately fatal,
bloodlessness, in which there is not only a fall in the number of red
blood corpuscles, but a marked diminution in the number of
white blood corpuscles. Ulceration of the skin and mucous
membrane, especially of the lower parts of the small intestine
and of the first part of the colon is often present, this being
accompanied by dropsy and by distinct enlargement of the liver
and spleen. Leonard Rogers, who has given an excellent
account of this condition, points out that there is a marked
increase in the number of cells in the bone-marrow.
The Leishman-Donovan bodies have been found in large
numbers, especially in the spleen (see Plate I., fig. 7); they may
also be found in the ulcerating surfaces and wherever the cellular
proliferation is marked. These organisms may be found in
sections, or they may be demonstrated in film preparations
made from the material scraped from the freshly-cut surface of
the spleen.
The films are best stained by Leishman's method: Solution A. —
Medicinal methylene-blue (Griibler), i part; distilled water, 100
parts; sodium carbonate, 1-5 parts. This mixture is heated to 65° C.
for twelve hours and then allowed to stand at room temperature
for ten days. Solution B. — Eosin extra B.A. (Griibler), i part;
distilled water, 1000 parts. Mix equal parts of solutions A and B
in a large open vessel and allow to stand for from six to twelve
hours, stirring from time to time wi^h a glass rod. Filter, and wash
the precipitate which remains on the paper with a large volume oi:
distilled water until the washings are colourless or only tinged a
pale blue. Collect the insoluble residue, dry and pulverize.
Make a 0-15 "/o solution of the powder (which may also be obtained
from Grubler & Co., Leipzig) in absolute methyl alcohol (Merck's
" for analysis "), and transfer to a clean, dry, well stoppered
bottle. Pour three or four drops of this stain on to the prepared
film (blood, bone, marrow, &c.) and run from side to side. After
about half a minute add six or eight drops of distilled water, and
mix thoroughly by moving the slide or cover-glass. Allow the stain 1
to act for five minutes longer or, if the film be thick, for ten. Wash
with distilled w'ater, leaving a drop or two on the glass for about a
minute. Examine at once or after drying without heat and mounting
in xylol balsam. 1
These peculiar parasitic bodies appear as deeply stained points, ;,
rounded, oval or cockle-shaped, lying free or grouped in the ,
large endothelial cells of the spleen. Examined under a magnifi- ,
cation of 1000 diameters they are found to measure from 3-5 to ,
2-5/i, or even less, in diameter. Their protoplasm is stained,
somewhat unequally, light blue; and from this light blue back-
ground two very deeply stained violet corpuscles of unequal j
size stand out prominently; the smaller of these is more deeply j
stained than the larger, is thinner, somewhat more elongated or ,^
rod-shaped, and parallel or running at right angles to the large .
corpuscle or obliquely from it. The larger corpuscle is rounded
or oval, conical, or sometimes almost dumb-bell shaped. These ,
bodies may appear to touch one another, though usually they
are disconnected. Most of these Donovan-Leishman bodies are
embedded in the protoplasm of the large endothelial or mono-
nuclear splenic cells, of similar cells in the bone marrow, or of
certain lymphatic glands. They may also be seen lying in the
protoplasm of the endothelial cells lining the capillary vessels
and lymphatics. They are considered by Leishman and Leonard
Rogers to be organisms in an intermediate stage of development
of either a Trypanosome or some form of Herpetomonas. Rogers,
who succeeded in cultivating them outside the body, described
changes which he considers are associated with this latter germ.
Patton goes further than this, and states that the Leishmania
doKovani Lav. et Mesn. taken up by the bed bug closely resembles
in its life cycle that of the Herpetomonas of the common house-
fly. It is thought that the Leishman-Donovan bodies are the
tissue parasite stage, and that the herpetomonas stage is probably
to be sought for in the blood of the patient.
Tsetse-Fly Disease ( Trypanosomiasis) . — The interesting obser-
vations carried out by Sir David Bruce have invested the tsetse-
fly with an entirely new significance and importance. In 1895
Bruce first observed that in the tsetse disease — n'gana — there
may be found a flagellated haematozoon closely resembling the
Trypanosoma Evansii found in Surra. This, like the Surra
organism, is very similar in appearance to, but considerably
smaller than, the haematozoon often found in the blood of the
healthy rat. It has, however, as a rule a single flagellum only.
A small quantity of blood, taken from an affected buffalo, wilde-
beest, koodoo, bushbuck or hyaena — in all of which animals
it was found by Bruce — when inoculated into a horse, mule,
donkey, cow, dog, cat, rabbit, guinea-pig, rat or mouse, produces a
similar disease, the organisms being found sometimes in enormous
numbers in the blood of the inoculated animal, especially in the
dog and in the rat. He then found that the tsetse-fly can produce,
the disease in a healthy animal only when it has first charged
itself with blood from a diseased animal, and he produced
evidence that Clossina morsitans is not capable of producing the
disease except by carrying the parasites from one animal to
another in the blood that it takes through its proboscis into its
stomach. The parasites taken in along with such blood may
remain in the stomach and alive for a period of 118 hours, but
shortly after that the stomach is found to be empty, and the
parasites contained in the excrement no longer retain their
vitality. The mode of multiplication of these organisms has
been studied by Rose-Bradford and Plimmer, who maintain
that the multiplication takes place principally in the spleen and
lymphatic glands. The tsetse-fly parasite, however, is still
imperfectly understood, though much attention is now being
paid to its life-history and development.
PARASITIC DISEASES
789
Sleeping Sickness ( Trypanosomiasis). — To the group of diseases
caused by Trypanosomes must now be added sleeping sickness.
This disease is due to the presence and action in the human body
of a form known as T. gambicnse (Button).
In order to demonstrate the parasite in the blood of a case of
sleeping sickness, where they are very scanty and difficult to
find, the best method is repeated centrifugalization of the blood
(Bruce), 10 c.c. being treated at a time; then the sediment in a
number of these tubes is collected and again centrifugalized.
The living trypanosome may, as a rule, be distinguished in this
final sediment, even under a low power of the microscope. The
organism may be found in greater numbers in the cerebro-spinal
fluid of a case in which the symptoms of sleeping sickness have
been developed, though centrifugalization of from 10 to 15 c.c.
of the cerebro-spinal fluid for half an hour may be necessary
before they can be demonstrated. Greig and Gray, at Mott's
suggestion, were able to find the organism in the fluid removed by
means of a hypodermic syringe from the swollen lymph glands
that appear as one of the earliest signs of infection. Examined
fresh and in its native fluid or in normal saline solution it is seen
as an actively motile, highly refractile, somewhat spindle-shaped
organism (see Plate I., fig. 9). The anterior end is prolonged into
a pointed flagellum, the posterior end being slightly blunted or
rounded. This organism darts about rapidly between the red
blood corpuscles or other corpuscles or particles, and shows
rapid undulations, the flagellum beating quickly and the body
following the flagellum. In this body a couple of very bright
points may be seen. On staining by Leishman's stain (see under
Kdla-dzar) the general protoplasm of the body is stained blue
and is somewhat granular. This trypanosome is from 15 to 25/i
in length (without the flagellum, which is from 5 to 6/i) and from
1-5 to 2-5/ibroad. In the centre of the spindle-shaped mass is a
very distinct reddish purple oval corpuscle corresponding to the
larger of the two bright points seen in the unstained specimen;
this, the nucleus or macronucleus, is slightly granular. Near the
posterior or blunt end of the organism is a second, but much
smaller, deeply stained reddish purple point, the second of the
bright spots seen in the unstained specimen; this is known as the
micro-nucleus or centrosome. Around the micro-nucleus is a
kind of court or area of less deeply stained protoplasm, arising
from or near which and running along the margin of the body is a
narrow band with a very sharply defined wavy free margin.
This thin band of protoplasm seems to be continuous with the
large spindle-shaped body of the trypanosome, but at the free
margin it takes on the red tint of the micro-nucleus instead of
the blue tint of the protoplasm. The undulatory membrane,
as this band is called, is narrowest at the posterior end, getting
broader and broader until the micro-nucleus is reached, beyond
which it tapers off irregularly until finally it merges in the
flagellum. In sleeping sickness the presence of this organism is
usually associated with distinct anaemia, the red cells being
diminished in number and the haemoglobin in quantity. Along
with this there is an increase in the number of mononuclear
leucocytes.
The trypanosome is carried to the human patient by
the Glossina palpalis, in the proboscis of which the organ-
isms may be seen for some short time after the insect
has sucked blood from an infected patient. These trypano-
somes have been found living and active in the stomach
of this insect up to 118 hours, but after 140 hours no living
parasites can be demonstrated. They undergo no metamor-
phoses in this intermediate host and are simply discharged
in the intestinal excreta. It may be readily understood
that the trypanosome under these conditions soon loses its
virulence, and an animal cannot be infected through the bite
of the Glossina for more than 48 hours after the infected blood
has been ingested by the fly. The organism may remain latent
in the human body for a considerable period. It certainly sets
up very tardily any changes by which its presence can be detected.
The first symptoms of its presence and activity are enlargement
of the lymphatic glands, especially those behind the neck, a
condition often accompanied by irregular, and intermittent fever.
After a time, in from three months to three years, according
to Bruce, the organism gains access to the fluid in the cerebro-
spinal canal. Accompanying this latter migration are languor,
lassitude, a gradually increasing apathy, and finally profound
somnolence.
The incubation period, or that between the time of infection
and the appearance of the symptoms associated with trypano-
somiasis may be as short as four weeks, or it may extend over
several years. The inhabitants of the island of Senegal who have
lived in Casamance do not consider themselves safe from the
disease until at least seven years after they have left an infected
area. At first, amongst negroes, according to Button and Todd,
there is no external clinical sign of disease except glandular
enlargement; in mulattoes and whites an irregular and inter-
mittent fever may be the chief sign of infection, " the tempera-
ture being raised for two to four days, then falling to normal or
below normal for four or five days." In other cases the fever is
of the septic type, the temperature being normal in the morning
but rising in the evening to ioi-3°or 102-2° F., rarely to 104° F.,
the curve differing from that characteristic of malaria in which
the rise usually takes place in the morning. Moreover, in sleep-
ing sickness there are no rigors before the rise of temperature
and but slight sweating, such as there is usually occurring at the
end of the rise. Here again we have a distinction between the
malarial condition and that of sleeping sickness. The respiration
and the pulse rate are increased both during the febrile and the
non-febrile attacks; the respiration is from 29 t030 a minute, and
the pulse rises to 90, and even up to 140, a minute, according to
the degree of cardiac excitability which appears to be constantly
present. The localized swelling and redness are seen as puffiness
of the face, oedema of the eyelids and ankles and feet, congested
erythematous patches on the face, trunk or limbs. Anaemia,
general weakness and wasting, at first very slightly marked,
gradually become prominent features, and headache is often
present. The enlargement of the spleen appears to go on con-
currently with enlargement of the lymphatic glands. Manson
points out that trypanosomiasismay terminate fatally without the
appearance of any characteristic symptoms of sleeping sickness,
but as a rule the " sleeping " or second stage supervenes. The
temperature now becomes of the hectic type, rising to 102-2° F.
in the evening and falling to 98-6° F. in the morning. Here
again there are no rigors or sweating. Buring the last stages of
the disease the rectal temperature may fall as low as 95° and for
the last day or two to 92° F., the pulse and respiration falling
with the temperature. The irritability of the heart is still marked.
Headache in the supraorbital region, and pain in the back, and
even in the feet, have been described. Activity and intelligence
give place to laziness, apathy and dullness; the face loses its
brightness, the eyelids approximate, and the muscles around the
mouth and nose become flabby and flaccid, the patient becomes
drowsy, and when questioned replies only after a marked interval.
Fibrillary tremors of the tongue and shaking of the hands and
arms, distinct even during rest, become increased when any
voluntary movement is attempted. These tremors may extend
to the lower limbs and trunk. Epileptiform convulsions, general
weakness and progressive emaciation come on, and shortly before
death there is incontinence of urine and faeces. " The intellec-
tual faculties gradually become impaired, the patient has a
certain amount of difficulty in understanding what is said to him,
and becomes emotional, often crying for no reason whatever;
delirium is usually absent, the drowsiness increases and the
patient's attitude becomes characteristic, the head falls forward
on the chest and the eyelids are closed. At first the patient is
easily aroused from this drowsy condition, but soon he reaches a
stage in which he falls sound asleep almost in any attitude and
under any conditions, especially after meals. These periods of
sleep, which become gradually longer and more profound, lead
eventually to a comatose condition from which the patient can be
aroused only with the greatest difficulty. It is at this stage that
the temperature becomes normal and death occurs." Nabarro
points out, however, that this condition of drowsiness and sleep,
leading eventually to coma, is by no means invariably present.
790
PARASITIC DISEASES
In the early part of the sleeping-sickness stage patients often
sleep more than usual, but later do not sleep excessively. They
become lethargic and indifferent to their surroundings, however,
and often lie with their eyes closed. When spoken to they hear
and understand what is said to them and after a longer or shorter
interval give a very brief reply.
The leucocytosis that occurs during the course of this form of
trypanosomiasis is due, apparently, to secondary or terminal
bacterial infections so frequently associated with the disease in
its later stages. The lirst stage of the disease, that of fever,
may last for several years; the second or nervous stage with
tremors, &c., for from four to eight months. It is quite excep-
tional for the disease to be prolonged for more than a year from
the time that the nervous symptoms become manifest, though a
European who contracted trypanosomiasis in Uganda, having
delusions and becoming drowsy within the year, did not die of
sleeping sickness untU more than eighteen months from the onset
of the nervous symptoms.
The Glossina palpalis is not found in swamps. It affects a
belt of from ten to thirty yards broad along banks bounding
water shaded by scrub and underwood. It may, however,
follow or be carried by the animal or human subject it is attack-
ing for a distance of, say, three hundred yards, but unless carried
it will not cross an artificial clearing of more than thirty yards
made in the natural fly belt. The authorities in the plague-
stricken areas recommend, therefore, the clearance of belts thirty
yards in width along portions of the lake side, at fords and in such
other places as are frequented by natives. No infected person
should be allowed to enter a " fly area," so that they may not
act as centres from which the flies, acting as carriers, may
convey infection. The provision of clothing for natives who are
compelled to work in fly areas is an important precautionary
measure.
There seems to be some doubt as to whether Trypanosoma
gambicnse of Dutton is the same organism and produces the same
conditions as the Trypanosoma of Bruce and Nabarro from Uganda,
but most observers seem to think that the two species are the same
and yield the same results when inoculated into animals. It is
supposed that this trypanosome may pass through certain stages
of metamorphosis in the human or animal body, and different
drugs have been recommended as trjpanocides during these various
stages, an arsenic preparation (atoxyl) first being given, and then,
when the organisms have disappeared, injections of bichloride of
mercury, this salt appearing to prevent the relapses which occur
when atoxyl only is given over a prolonged period. Ehrlich,
treating animals suffering from trypanosomiasis with parafuchsin,
found that although the parasites disappeared from the blood
they soon recurred. On the exhibition of another dose of para-
fuchsin they again disappeared. This was repeated for a con-
siderable number of times, but after a time the parafuchsin lost
its effect, the trj-panosome having acquired an immunity against
this substance; they had in fact become " fuchsin-fast." Such
fuchsin-fast organisms injected into animals still retain their im-
munity against parafuchsin and may transmit it through more
than 100 generations. Nevertheless, they cannot withstand the
action of other trypanocidal drugs. The outcome of all this is
that large doses of the trypanocidal drug should be given at once,
and that the same drug should never be given over too long a period,
a fresh drug often being effective even when the first drug has lost
action.
II. — To OTHER Animal Par.4Sites
Filariasis. — Since Bancroft and Manson first described Filaria
nocturna and its relation to the common form of filariasis, the
most important contribution to our knowledge has been made, at
the suggestion of the younger Bancroft, by Dr G. C. Low, who has
demonstrated that the embryos of the filaria may be found in the
proboscis of the mosquito [Culex ciliaris), whence they probably
find their way into the circulating blood of the human subject.
It appears that the filaria embryo after being taken, with the
blood of the patient, into the stomach of the mosquito, loses its
sheath; after which, leaving the stomach, it passes into the
thoracic muscles of its intermediate host, and becomes more
fully developed, increasing considerably in size and attaining
a mouth, an alimentary canal, and the characteristic trilobed
caudal appendage. It now leaves the thoracic muscles, and,
passing towards the head, makes its way " into the loose cellular
tissue which abounds in the prothorax in the neighbourhood of
the salivary glands." Most of them then " pass along the neck,
enter the lower part of the head," whence they may pass into
the proboscis. Although it has never been demonstrated that
the filaria is directly inoculated into the human subject from the
proboscis of the mosquito, it seems impossible to doubt that when
the mosquito " strikes," the filaria makes its way into the circu-
lation directly from the proboscis. It is important to note that
the mosquito, when fed on banana pulp, does not eject the filaria
from its proboscis. This, however, is not to be wondered at,
as the filaria is apparently unable to live on the juices of the
banana; moreover, the consistence of the banana is very different
from that of the human skin. The importance of this obser-
vation, as affording an additional reason for taking measures
to get rid of the mosquito in districts in which filariasis is rife,
can scarcely be over-estimated.
C . — Infective Diseases in which an Organism has been found,
but has not finally been connected with the Disease.
Hydrophobia is usually contracted by man through inoculation
of an abraded surface with the saliva of an animal affected with
rabies — through the bite of a dog, the animal in which the
so-called rabies of the streets occurs. The puppy is specially
dangerous, as, although it may be suffering from rabies when the
saliva contains an extremely exalted virus, the animal may
exhibit no signs of the disease almost up to the time of its death.
The other animals that may be affected " naturally " are wolves,
cats, foxes, horses, cows and deer; but all warm-blooded animals
may be successfully inoculated with the disease. The principal
changes met with are found in the nervous system, and include
distension of the perivascular lymphatic sheaths, congestion
and oedema of the brain and spinal cord and of the meninges.
Haemorrhages occur into the cerebral ventricles of the brain,
especially in the floor of the fourth, and on the surface and in the
substance of the medulla oblongata, and the spinal cord.
In addition to these small haemorrhages, collections of
leucocytes are met with in hyperaemic areas in the medulla
oblongata and pons, sometimes in the cortical cerebral tissue
and in the spinal cord, in the perivascular lymphatics of the grey
matter of the anterior horns and in the white matter of the
postero-internal and postero-external columns. Here also the
nerve cells are seen to be vacuolated, hyahne and granular, and
often pigmented; thrombi may be present in some of the smaller
vessels, and the collections of leucocytes may be so prominent,
especially in the medulla, that they have been described as
miliary abscesses. Haemorrhages are also common in the
various mucous and serous membranes; hyaline changes in and
around the walls of blood-vessels; proliferation of the endothe-
lium; swelling and vacuolation of nerve cells; pericellular
infiltration with leucocytes, and infiltration of the salivary
glands with leucocytes (Coats). An increased number of leuco-
cytes and microcytes in the blood has also been made out. The
virus, whatever it may be, has a power of multiplying in the
tissues, and of producing a toxic substance which, as in the
case of tetanus to.xin, appears to act specially on the central
nervous system.
In recent years fresh interest has been aroused in the morbid
histology of the brain and cord in hydrophobia by the appear-
ance of Negri's description of " bodies " which he claims are
found in the central nervous system only in hydrophobia or
rabies (see Plate I., fig. 3). These bodies, which are rounded,
oval, triangular, or slightly spindle- or sausage-shaped, when
specially stained consist of a red (acidophile) basis in which stand
out small blue (basophile) granules, rods and circles, often
situated within vacuoles. A small central point which is sur-
rounded by no clear space is supposed to correspond to the
nucleus of a protozoan. But this can be little more than a sug-
gestion. The Negri bodies are certainly present in the central
nervous system in cases of hydrophobia, and have not been found
in similar positions in any other disease. They are present in
large numbers, even at an early stage of the disease, although
they are then so small that they may easily escape detection, so
small indeed that they may pass through the pores of a Berkefeld
PARASITIC DISEASES
79
filter, the filtrate in such cases being capable of acting as a
rabic virus. In the more chronic cases and in the later stages of
the disease the Negri bodies may attain a considerable size and
may be easily seen under the microscope. They are from o-5/x
to 20IX in diameter — the longer the course of the disease the larger
the bodies, these larger forms seldom if ever being met with in
specially susceptible animals, which soon succumb to the disease.
The Negri bodies may be constricted in the middle, or, if some-
what elongated, there may be two or three constrictions which
give it the appearance of a string of sausages. They may be met
with in almost all the nerve cells of the central nervous system
in well-developed cases of hydrophobia, but they are most numer-
ous and are found most readily in the cells of the cornu ammonis,
and then in the Purkinje cells of the cerebellum.
Although there are several methods of preparing these organisms
for microscopical examination, the following is perhaps the simplest.
A fragment of the grey substance, say from the cornu ammonis,
is taken from a section made at right angles to the surface and placed
on a slide about one inch from the end. A coverslip is now " pressed
upon it until it is spread out in a moderately thin layer; then the
coverslip is moved slowly and evenly over the slide," leaving the
first three-quarters of an inch of the slide clear. In making
the smear only slight pressure is used, the pressure beginning on
the edge of the coverslip away from the end of the slide towards
which the coverslip is travelling, thus driving more of the nerve
tissues along the smear " and producing more well-spread nerve
cells." The smears are then air-dried, placed in methyl-alcohol
for one minute, and then in a freshly-prepared mixture of lo c.c.
of distilled water, three drops of a saturated alcoholic solution
of rose anilin violet, and six drops of Loeffler's alkaline methylene
blue, which is warmed until steam rises; the stain is then poured
from the specimen, which after being rinsed in water is allowed to
dry and is then mounted in Canada balsam.
The nature of the disease produced by the inoculation of saliva
from a rabid animal appears to depend upon (i) the quantity
of the rabic virus introduced; (2) the point of its introduction;
(3) the activity of the virus. Thus by diluting the poison with
distilled water or saline solution and injecting small quantities,
the period of incubation may be prolonged. Slight wounds of
the skin, of the limbs and of the back are followed by a long
incubation period; but when the inoculation takes place in the
tips of the fingers or in the skin of the face, where nerves are
numerous, and especially where the wound is lacerated or deep,
the incubation period is much shorter and the attack usually
more severe. This, as in tetanus, is accounted for by the fact
that the lymphatics of the nerves are much more directly con-
tinuous with the central nervous system than are any other set
of lymphatics. The poison appears to act directly upon the
cells of the central nervous system.
Arising out of recent researches on hydrophobia, two methods
of treatment — one of which, at any rate, has been attended by
conspicuous success — have been put into practice. The first of
these, Pasteur's, is based upon the fact that rabic virus may be
intensified or attenuated at will. Pasteur found that although
the virus taken from the cerebrospinal fluid of the dog always
produces death in the same period when inoculated into the same
animal, virus taken from other animals has not the same activity.
If passed through a succession of monkeys it may become so
attenuated that it is no longer lethal. If either the " monkey
virus," which is not fatal to the rabbit, or the " dog virus,"
which kills in twelve to fourteen days, be passed through a series
of rabbits, the virulence may be so exalted that it may kill in
about six days: its activity cannot be increased beyond this
point by any means at present at our disposal. This intensified
virus was therefore named virus fixe by Pasteur, and it forms a
standard from which to work. He found, too, that under certain
conditions of temperature the virus may be readily attenuated,
one hour at 50° or half an hour at 60° C. completely destroying
it. A 5 % solution of carbolic acid acting for half an hour, or a
I per 1000 solution of bichloride of mercury or acetic acid or
permanganate of potash, brings about the same result, as do also
exposure to air and sunHght. The poison contained in the spinal
cord of the rabbit exposed to dry air and not allowed to undergo
putrefactive changes gradually loses its activity, and at the end
of fourteen to fifteen days is incapable of setting up rabic symp-
toms. A series of cords from rabbits inoculated with the virus,
fixe are cut into short segments, which, held in series by the dura
mater, are suspended in sterile glass flasks plugged with cotton-
wool and containing a quantity of potassium hydrate— a powerful
absorbent of water. At the end of twenty-four hours the activity
of the virus is found to have fallen but slightly; at the end of
forty-eight hours there is a still further falling off, until on the
fourteenth or fifteenth day the virus is no longer lethal. With
material so prepared Pasteur treated patients who had been bitten
by mad dogs. On the first day of treatment small quantities
of an emulsion of the cord exposed for thirteen or fourteen days
in saline solution are injected subcutaneously, and the treatment
is continued for from fifteen to twenty-one days, according to
the severity of the bite, a stronger emulsion — i.e. an emulsion
made of a cord that has been desiccated for a shorter period —
being used for each succeeding injection, until at last the patient
is injected with an emulsion which has been exposed to the air
for only three days. In the human subject the period of incu-
bation of the disease is comparatively prolonged, owing to the
insusceptibility of the tissues to the action of this poison; there
is therefore some chance of obtaining a complete protection or
acclimatization of the tissues before the incubation period is
completed. The virus introduced at the bite has then no more
chance of affecting the nerve centres than has the strong virus
injected in the late stages of the protective inoculation: the nerve
centres, having become gradually acclimatized to the poisons
of the rabic virus, are able to carry on their proper functions
in its presence, until in time, as in the case of microbial poisons,
the virus is gradually neutralized and eliminated from the body.
Various modifications and improvements of this method have
from time to time been devised, but all are based on, and are
merely extensions of, Pasteur's original work and method. As
soon as it was found that antitoxins were formed in the tissues
in the case of an attack of tetanus, attention was drawn to
the necessity of determining whether something similar might
not be done in the production of an antirabic scrum for the treat-
ment of rabies. Babes and Lepp, and then Tizzoni and his
colleagues Schwarz and Centanni, starting from vims fixe,
obtained a series of weaker inoculating materials by submitting
it for different periods to the action of gastric juice. Beginning
with a weak virus so prepared, and from time to time injecting
successively stronger emulsions (seventeen injections in twenty
days) into a sheep, they succeeded in obtaining a serum of such
antirabic power that if injected in the proportion of i to 25,000
of body- weight, an animal is protected against a lethal dose of
virus fixe. The activity of this serum is still further reinforced
if a fresh series of injections is made at intervals varying from two
to five months, according to the condition of the animal, each
series occupying twelve days. This antirabic substance stored
in the blood has not only the power of anticipating (neutralizing?)
the action of the poison, but also of acting as a direct curative
agent; as a prophylactic agent, readily kept in stock and easily
and rapidly exhibited, it possesses very great advantages over
the inoculation method. It must be borne in mind that the
longer the period after the infection the greater must be the
amount of serum used to obtain a successful result.
As regards the necessity for any treatment it may be pointed
out that although the saliva of a rabid dog may be infective three
days before the manifestation of any symptoms of the disease
death takes place almost invariably within six days of the first
symptom. If therefore the animal remains alive for ten days
after the patient is bitten, there is no necessity for the antirabic
treatment to be applied and the patient need fear no evil results
from the bite.
There can be little doubt that hydrophobia is a specific disease
due to a multiplication of some virus in the nervous system, in the
elements of which it is ultimately fLxed; that it passes from the
wound to the central nervous system by the lymphatics; and
that, as in tetanus, the muscular spasms are the result of the
action of some special poison on the central nervous system.
Scarlet Fever. — In scarlet fever recent observations have been
comparatively few and unimportant. Crooke, and later Klein,
792
PARASITIC DISEASES
and others have, however, shown that in the glands and throats
of scarlet fever patients a streptococcus, to which is assigned the
chief aetiological role in connexion with this disease, is present.
On the other hand, it is maintained by many observers that these
streptococci are nothing more than the streptococci found in
puerperal fever, erysipelas, and similar infective conditions, and
certainly the organisms described closely resemble Streptococcus
pyogenes. In 1904 Mallory described certain " bodies " which
he considers may be associated with scarlet fever, and which
were sufficiently distinctive to justify him in suggesting that he
was dealing with the " various stages in the developmental cycle
of a protozoan." These bodies, which were demonstrated in
four cases of scarlet fever, " occur in and between the epithelial
cells of the epidermis and free in the superficial lymph vessels
and spaces of the corium." They are small, varying from the
size of a blood platelet to that of a red blood corpuscle, and
" stained deUcately but sharply with methylene blue." Well
formed rosettes with numerous segments may be seen, forms
which MaUory thinks may correspond to the phase of asexual
development of the malarial parasite. He also describes
" coarsely reticulated forms which may represent stages in
sporogony or be due to degeneration of the other forms." He
gives beautiful illustrations, both drawings and photographs, of
these organisms, and without claiming that he has proved any
aetiological relation between these bodies and scarlet fever, states
that his personal opinion is that such relation exists.
D. — Infective Diseases not yet proved to be due to
Micro-organisms.
Small-pox. — ^There have been few recent additions to our
knowledge of the aetiology of small-pox, though Dr Monckton
Copeman now holds that the smaU-pox organism, like that of
vaccine, is probably a very minute bacillus, which, from its
behaviour in the presence of glycerin, is possessed of the power of
forming spores. If vaccine lymph, taken from the calf, be pro-
tected from all extraneous sporebearing organisms and treated
with 50 % solution of glycerin, it, in time, becomes absolutely
sterile as regards ordinary non-sporebearing organisms. Even
the staphylococci and streptococci, usually found in calf lymph,
cannot withstand the prolonged action of this substance, but spore-
bearing organisms still remain alive and active. Moreover, the
lymph still retains its power of producing vaccine vesicles,so that the
vaccine organism, in its powers of resistance, resembles the spore-
bearing, and not the non-sporebearing, organisms with which we
are acquainted. This vaccine organism must be very minute; it
is stated that it can be cultivated only on special media, though it
multiplies freely in the superficial cutaneous tissues of the calf,
the monkey and the human subject. Perhaps the most im-
portant outcome of Dr Monckton Copeman's work on this subject
is that he has obtained a vaccine lymph from which are ehmi-
nated all streptococci and staphylococci, and, if the lymph be
taken with reasonable care, any other organisms which could
possibly give rise to untoward results.
Typhus Fever. — Although it is fuUy recognized that typhus
must be one of the specific infective fevers brought about by the
action of a special micro-organism, no definite information as to
the bacterial aetiology of this condition has been obtained. It is
always looked upon as a " filth " disease; and from the frequency
of minute haemorrhages, and from the resemblance to the
haemorrhagic septicaemias in other respects, it appears probable
that the bacillus of typhus is the organism described by Mott in
1883 as an actively motile dumb-beU coccus, and ten years later
by Dubieff and Bruhl as the Diplococcus typhosus exanthe-
maticus; the polar staining and general resemblance to the
diplococcus of fowl cholera, the plague bacillus, the diplococcus of
" WUdseuche," certain forms of swine fever and hog cholera, and
others of the haemorrhagic septicaemias, are sufficient to suggest
the generic affinity of this organism to this septicaemic group.
We have as yet, however (1910), no absolute proof of the aetio-
logical relation of the bacillus to this disease.
Measles. — In measles, as in scarlet fever, micrococci have had
ascribed to them the power of setting up the specific disease.
Canon and Pielicke have, however, described minute bacilli
somewhat resembling those described as occurring in vaccine
lymph. These are found in the blood in the early stages of the
disease, and also in the profuse catarrhal secretions so character-
istic of this condition. There are no records of the successful
inoculation of this minute bacillus, and until such evidence is
forthcoming this organism must be looked upon as being an
accessory, possibly, but not the prime cause, of measles.
Mumps. — It is generally accepted that mumps is probably
caused by a specific micro-organism, the infective material
making its way in the first instance through the ducts to the
parotid and other sahvary glands. It appears to bring about a
peculiar oedematous inflammation of the interstitial tissue of the
glands, but slight parenchymatous changes may also be observed.
The virus is present in the tissues for some days before there is
any manifestation of parotid sweUing, but during this period it is
extremely active, and the disease may be readily transmitted from
patient to patient. The infectivity continues for some time,
probably for nearly a week after naked-eye manifestations of the
diseased condition have disappeared.
Whooping-Cottgh. — A diplococcus, a streptococcus, and various
higher fungi have in turn been put down as the cause of this
disease. It must, from its resemblance to the other specific
infective fevers, be considered as an infective disease of microbic
origin, which goes through a regular period of incubation and
invasion, and in which true nervous lesions, especially of the
pneumogastric and superior laryngeal nerves, are somewhat
common.
Affanassieff, and later KopUck, have described a minute
bacillus, with rounded ends and bi-polar staining, which occurs in
the mucus discharged at the end of a paroxysm of whooping-
cough. KopUck examined sixteen cases, and found this organism
in thirteen of them. There can be little doubt that the infective
material is contained in the expectoration. It may remain active
for a considerable period, but is then usually attached to
solid particles. It is not readily carried by the breath,
and multiplies specially in the mucous membranes, setting up
inflammation, probably through its toxic products, which appear
to be absorbed, and, as in the case of the tetanus poison, to travel
specially along the lymphatics of the local nerves. Affections of
the lung — bronchitis and broncho-pneumonia — may be directly
associated with the disease, but it is much more hkely that these
affections are the result of secondary infection of tissues already
in a weakened condition.
Authorities. — General: AUbutt and Rolleston, System of Medi-
cine (2nd ed., London, 1905 et seq.) ; Castellani and Chalmers, Manual
of Tropical Medicine (London, 1910); Fischer, The Structure and
Ftinctions of Bacteria, trans, by K. Coppen Jones (Oxford, 1900) ;
Manson, Sir P., Tropical Diseases (3rd ed., London, 1903); Nuttall,
" On the Role of Insects, &c., as carriers in the spread of bacterial
and parasitic diseases of man and animals " (Johns Hopkins
Hospital Reports, viii., 1899); Schneidemiihl, Lehrb. d. vergleich.
Path. u. Therapie d. Menschen u. d. Hausthiere (Leipzig, 1898);
Woodhead, Bacteria and their Products (London, 1891). Actino-
mycosis: Bostrom, Ziegler's Beitr. 2. pathol. Anatomic, Bd. ix.
(1891); lUich, Beitrag z. Klinik d. Actinomykose (Vienna, 1892);
M'Fadyean, Journ. Compar. Path, and Therap., vol. ii. (1899).
Cerebro-Spinal Meningitis: Councilman, Mallory and Wright,
Rep. Bd. Health, Mass. (Boston, 1898); E)avis, Journ. Infect. Dis-
eases, iv. 558 (1907); Mackenzie and Martin, Journ. Path, and
Bacterial, xii. 539 (1908) ; Ruppel, Deutsche med. Wochenschr., S. 1366
(1906); Shennan and Ritchie, Journ. Path, and Bacterial, xii. 456
(1908); Symmers and others, Brit. Med. Journ. ii. 1334 (1908).
Cholera: Dunbar, in Lubarsch u. Ostertag's Ergebn. d. allg. Pathologie,
vol. i. (1896). Diphtheria: Behring, " DieGeschichted. Diphtherie "
(Leipzig, 1893), and various other papers, principally in Zeits. f.
Hygiene, Bd. xii. (1892) onwards; Ehrlich, " Die Werthbemessung d.
Diphtherieheilserums u. d. theoret. Grundlagen," Klinisches Jahrb.,
Bd. vi. (1897); Klebs, " Ueber Diphtherie," Verh. d. II. Congr.f.
inn. Med. in Wiesbaden (1883); Loeffler, " Unters. u. d. Bcdeut. d.
Mikro-org. f. d. Entst. d. Diphtheritis b. Menschen, &c.," Mitth. a.
d. k. Gesundlieitsamte, Bd. ii. (1884); Martin, Sidney, Goulstonian
Lectures, Brit. Med. Journ. vol. i. (1892); Nuttall and Graham Smith,
The Bacteriology of Diphtheria (Cambridge, 1908); Rouxand Yersin,
" Contrib. a T'^tude d. 1. Dipht(5rie," Annates de I'inst. Pasteur,
t. ii.-iv. (1888-1890). Dysentery: Kartulis, " Die Amoeben-
dysenterie," in KoUe and Wassermann's Handb. d. path. Mikro-org.
Ergiinz. Bd. p. 347 (1906) ; Osier, " On the Amoeba coli in Dysentery
PARASITISM
793
and in Dysenteric Liver Abscess," Johns Hopkins Hasp. Bull. vol. i.
(1890). Erysipelas: Coley, Proc. Roy. Soc.Med. (London, 1909), vol. iii.
(Surg. Sect.), p. i; Fehleisen, Aetiologie dcr Erysipels (Berlin, 1883).
Filariasis: Low, " On Filaria Nocturna in ' Cule.x,' " Brit. Med.
Journ. vol. i. (1900); Manson, Tropical Diseases (3rd cd., London,
1903). Gonorrhoea: Bumm, Der Mikro-organismus d. gonorrh.
Schkiinhaut-Erkrankungen (VViesbaden, 1885); See, Le Gonocoque
(Paris, 1896). Glanders: Koranyi, in Nothnagel's Specielle Patho-
logic, Bd. v. (1897); Loeffler and Schiitz, Deutsche nted. Wochenschr.
(1882, Eng. trans., 1886); M'Fadycan, "Pulmonary Lesions of
Glanders," Journ. Comp. Path, and Therap. vol. viii. (1895); Journ.
State Medicine, pp. i, 65, 72, 125 (1905). Hydrophobia: Babes and
Lepp, " Rech. s. 1. vaccination antirabique," Ann. de I'inst. Pasteur,
t. lii. (1889); Hogyes, in Nothnagel's Specielle Pathologie, Bd. v.
(1897); Negri, Boll. soc. nied. chir. di Pavia, Nos. 2, 4 (1903);
Ztschr. j. Hyg., Bd. xliii. S. 507, Bd. xliv. S. 519 (1903); Pasteur,
Traitement de la rage (Paris, 1886), and numerous papers in the
Compt. rend. acad. d. sc. (Paris, from 1881 onwards), and in Ann.
de I'inst. Pasteur, t. i. (1887) and t. ii. (1888); Tizzoni and Centanni,
Lancet, vol. ii. (1895). Influenza: Canon, " Uebereinen Mikro-org. i.,
Blute v. Influenzakranken," Deutsche med. Wochenschr. (1892);
Pfeiffer, " Vorl. Mitth. il. d. Erreger d. Influenza," Deutsche med.
Wochenschr. (1892). K&la-dzar: Laveran et Mesnil, Compt. rend,
acad. d. sc. c.'cx.wii. p. 957 (Paris, 1903) ; Leishman, in Allbutt and
RoUeston's Syst. Med. vol. ii., pt. ii. p. 226 (2nd ed., London, 1909);
Patton, Scientific Memoirs Gov. India, No. 27 (1907), No. 31 (1907) ;
Rogers, Brit. Med. Journ. i. 427, 490, 557 (1907). Leprosy: Hansen
and Looft, Leprosy in its Clin, and Path. Aspects, trans, by N. Walker
(Bristol, 1895) ; Mitth. u. Verhandl. d. internal, wissensch. Lepra-
Conferenz z. Berlin (1897); Rake, Reports of the Trinidad Asylum
(1886-1893); Report of the Leprosy Commission to India (1893).
Mycetoma or Madura Foot: Bocarro, " Analysis of 100 Cases of
Mycetoma," Lancet, vol. ii. (1893); Boyce and Surveyor, Proc. Roy.
Soc. Land. vol. liii. (1893); Vandyke Carter, Trans. Path. Soc. Lond.
vol. xxiv. (1873), and " On Mycetoma or the Fungus Disease of India "
(London, 1874); Kanthack, Journ. Path, and Bact. vol. i. (1892);
Lewis and Cunningham, Physiol, and Pathol. Researches (1875);
" Fungus Disease of India," Quoin's Diet, of Medicine, vol. i.
(1894); Unna and Delbanco, Monats. f. prakt. Derm. Bd. xxx.,
S. 545 (1900); Vincent, " Et. s. 1. parasite d. pied Madure,"
Ann. de I'inst. Pasteur, t. viii. (1894). Malaria: Celli, Malaria,
trans, by Eyre (London, 1900) ; Nuttall, " Neuere Forsch. ii. d. Rolle
d. Mosquitos, &c.," Centralbl. f. Bact. u. Parasitenk. Abt. I. (1900),
and in Journ. Trop. Med. vols, ii., iii. (1900), and Journ. Hyg. vols.
i., ii. (1901); Nuttall and Shipley, Journ. Hyg. i. 4, 45, 269, 451
(1901), ii. 58 (1902); Ruge in KoUe and Wassermann's Handb. d.
path. Mikro-org. Erganz. Bd. (Jena, 1907). Malta Fever: Bruce,
" Note on the Discovery of a Micro-organism in Malta Fever,"
Practitioner (1887) ; " Obs. on Malta Fever," Brit. Med. Journ. vol. i.
(1889); " Malta Fever," in Davidson's Hygiene of Warm Climates
(Edinburgh, 1893); Eyre, Quart. Journ. Med. i. 209 (1908); Hughes,
" Investig. into the Etiology of Mediterranean Fevers," Lancet, ii.
(1892); and in Ann. de I'inst. Pasteur, t. viii. (1893); Reports of
Commission on Mediterranean Fever (London, 1905 et seq.). Infective
Meningitis: Neumann and Schafi^er, Z. Aetiol. d. eiterig. Meningitis ;
Virch. Archiv. Bd. cix. (1887); Weichselbaum, Fortschritte d.
Medicin, Bd. v. (1887). Plague: Bannerman, Journ. Hyg. vi. 179
(1906); and Edin. Med. Journ. n.s., xxiii. 417 (1908); Bitter, " Ueb.
d. Haflfkine'schen Schutzimpfungen gegen Pest," Zeits. f. Hygiene,
Bd. .\xx. (1899); Calmette et Salimbeni, Ann. de I'inst. Pasteur,
xiii. 865 (1899); Haffkine, "Further Papers relating to the
Outbreak of Plague in India, No. III." (London, 1898), and Brit.
Med. Journ., i. 1461 (1897); Kitasato, The Lancet, ii. 325, 428
(1894), and Brit. Med. Journ. ii. 369 (1894); Klein, Studies in the
iBacteriology and Etiology of Oriental Plague (London, 1906); Lamb,
" Summary of Work of the Plague Commission " (Calcutta, 1908);
Lowson, Lancet, ii. 325 (1894), see also Brit. Med. Journ. ii. 369
(1894); Reports on Plague Investigations in India, in Journ. Hyg.
vi. 421 (1906), vii. 323, 693 (1907-1908); Simond, Ann. de I'inst.
Pasteur, xii. 625 (1898); Yersin, "La Peste bubonique a Hong-
Kong," Ann. de I'inst. Pasteur, t. viii. (1894); also Yersin, Calmette
and Borrel, op. cit., t. ix. (1895). Relapsing Fever: Koch, Deutsche
med. Wochenschr. (1879); Soudakewitch, " Recherches s. 1. fievre
recurrente," Ann. de I'inst. Pasteur, t. v. (1891). Sleeping Sickness:
Browning, Journ. Path, and Bacterial, xii. 166 (1908); Bulletin of
the Sleeping Sickness Bureau (No. i, London, Oct. 1908 onwards);
Dutton and Todd, " First Report of the Trypanosomiasis Expedition
to Senegal, 1902" (Liverpool, 1903); Dutton, Todd and Christy,
Brit. Med. Journ. i. 186 (1904); Ehrlich, Berl. klin. Wochenschr.
S.S. 233, 280, 310, 341 (1907) ; Laveran and Mensil, Trypanosomes and
Trypanosomiases, trans, by Nabarro (London, 1907) ; Royal Society,
Reports of the Sleeping Sickness Commission, No. i (London, Aug.
1903 onwards). Suppuration and Septicaemia: Watson Cheyne,
Suppuration and Septic Diseases (Edinburgh and London, 1889).
Surra: Evans, Report on "Surra" Disease (Bombay, 1880);
Lewis, Appendix, 14th Ann. Rep. of Sanit. Commission with the
Govt, of India (1878); Lingard, Report on Surra in Equines, Bovines,
Buffaloes and Canines (2 vols., Bombay, 1893 and 1899); Steci,
Investig. into an Obscure and Fatal Disease among Transport Mules
in British Burma (1883). Syphilis: Metchnikoff, Lancet, i. 1553,
1629 (1906); The New Hygiene (Harbcn Lectures, London, 1906);
Ann. de I'inst. Pasteur, xxi. 753 (1907); Metchnikoff and Roux,
Ann. de I'inst. Pasteur, t. xvii.-xx. (1903-1906); Schaudinn and
Hoffmann, Arb. a. d. Kaiserl Gesundheitsamte, xxii. 527 (1905);
Berl. klin. Wochenschr. S. 673 (1905); Wassermann, Bsrl. klin.
Wochenschr. S.S. 1599, 1634 (1907); Wassermann, Neisscr and
Bruck, Deutsche med. Wochenschr. S. 745 (1906). Tetanus: Behring,
" Die Blutscrumthcrapie," Zeits. f. Hygiene, Bd. xii. (1892); Knud
Faber, Om Tetanos som Infrktionssygdom (Copenhagen, 1890);
Kitasato, Zeits. f. Hygiene, Bd. vii. (1889), and Bd. xii. (1892);
Nicolaier, Beitr. z. Aetiol. d. Wundstarrkrampfes (Gottingen, 1885);
Rose, Der Starrkrampf b. Menschen (Stuttgart, 1897); Roux and
Borrel, " Tetanos cerebral et immunite contre le tetanos," Ann. de
I'inst. Pasteur, t. xii. (1898); Vaillard, Vaillard and Rouget, Vaillard
and Vincent, various articles in the Ann. de I'inst. Pasteur, t. v.
(1891), and t. vi. (1892); Wassermann and Takaki, " Ueb. tetanus-
antitox. Eigenschaftcn d. normalcn Centralncrvensystems," Berl.
klin. Wochenschr. (1898). Tsetse-fly Disease: Bradford and Plim-
mer, Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. Ixv. 274 (1899); Bruce, Tsetse-fly
Disease or Nagana, in Zidtdand (Durban, 1895); and London, 1897;
Kanthack, Durham and Blandford, Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. Ixiv. 100
(1898). 'Tuberculosis: Bosanquet and Eyre, Serums, Vaccines and
Toxines (2nd ed., London, 1909); Calmette, Compt. rend. acad. d.
sc. cxiiv. 1324 (Paris, 1907); Fortescue-Brickdale, Bristol Med.
Chir. Jouryi. xxvi. 112 (1908); Koch, Deutsche med. Wochenschr.
S. 1029 (1890); S. 209 (1897); Mitth. a. d. kaiserl. Gesundheitsamte,
Bd. ii. (1884); von Pirquct, Deutsch. med. Wochenschr. S. 865 (1907);
Report, with Appendices, of the Royal Commission on Tuberculosis
(London, 1895); Reports, Royal Commission on Tuberculosis
(London, 1904-1907); Wolff-Eisner, The Ophthalmic and Cutaneous
Diagnosis of Tuberculosis (Eng. trans., New York, 1908); Wright,
Lancet, ii. 1598, 1674 (1905). Typhoid Fever: Chantemesse, in
Charcot's Traite de medecine, t. i. (1891); Chantemesse and Widal,
"Etude exper. s. I'exaltation, I'immuns. et 1. therap. d. I'infection
typhique," Ann.de I'inst. Pasteur, t. vi. (1892); Davies and Walker
Hall, Proc. Roy. Soc. Med. vol. i. (London, 1908), (Epidem. Section),
p. 175; Durham, "On a Special Action of the Serum of highly
immunized Animals," Journ. Path, and Bact. vol. iv. (1896-1897);
Easton, Boston Med. and Surg. Journ. cliii. 195 (1905); Forster,
Miinch. med. Wochenschr. S. i (1908); Frosch, Klin. Jahrb. xix.
537 (Jena, 1908); Max Gruber, " Z. Theorie d. Agglutination,"
Miinch. med. Wochenschr. (18^9); Griinbaum, Lancet, vol. ii. (1896);
Kayser, Arb. a. d. kaiserl. Gesitndheitsamte, Bd. 24, S.S. 173, 176
(Berlin, 1906) ; Bd. 25, S. 223 (1907) ; Ledingham and Ledinghani, Brit.
Med. Journ. i. 15 (London, 1908); Sanarelli, " Etudes s. 1. Fievre
typhoide experimentale," Ann. de I'inst. Pasteur, t. vi. (1892), and
t. viii. (1894); Thomson and Ledingham, sSth Annual Report, Local
Government Board, p. 260 (London, 1909); Wright and Semple,
British Med. Journ. (1897), i. 256; Variola: Calkins, Journ. Med.
Research (1904), xi. 136; Councilman, Magrath and Brinckerhoff,
Journ. Med. Research (1903), ix. 372, (1904), xi. 12; Guarnieri, Arch,
per le sci. med. (1892) xxvi. 403; Centralbl. f. Bact. u. Parasitenk.,
Bd. xvi. (1894), S. 299. Weil's Disease: Weil, "Ueb.eineeigenthiiml.
m. Milztumor, Ikterus . . . akute Infectionskrankheit," Deutsche
Arch. f. klin. Med. (1886), Bd. xxxix. Yellow Fever: Beauperthuy,
Travaux scientifiques (Bordeaux, 1891); Boyce, Yellow Fever Pro-
phylaxisin New Orleans (1905; being Memoir XIX. Liverpool School
of Tropical Medicine, London, 1906) ; Health Progress and Adminis-
tration in the West Indies (London, 1910); Sanarelli, " Etiol. et
Path. d. 1. Fievre jaune," and other papers in Ann. de I'inst. Pasteur,
(1897) t. xi., and (1898) t. xii.; Durham and Myeers, " Interim
Report on Yellow Fever," Brit. Med. Journ. (1901), i. 450.
(G. S. W.)
PARASITISM, in biology, the condition of an organism which
obtains its nourishment wholly or partially from the body of
another living organism, and which usually brings about exten-
sive modifications in both guest and host, a phenomenon
widespread amongst animals and plants. The term has been
appropriated by biologists as a metaphor from the Greek (see
Parasite). The lives of organisms are so closely intermeshed
that if dependence on other organisms for food be the criterion
of parasitism it is doubtful if any escape the taint. Green
plants, it is true, build up their food from the inorganic elements
of the air and the soil, and are farthest removed from the sus-
picion of dependence; but most, if not all, thrive only by the aid
of living microbes either actually attached to their roots or
swarming in the nutrient soil. Saprophytes, organisms that
live on organic matter, are merely parasites of the dead, whilst
all animals derive their nourishment from the bodies of plants,
either directly or indirectly through one or more sets of other
animals. It is plain, therefore, that if parasitism is to be em-
ployed as a scientific term it must connote something more
than mere dependence on another living organism for nutrition.
The necessary additional conceptions are two: the bodies of
794
PARASITISM
host and parasite must be in temporary or permanent physical
contact other than the mere preying of the latter on the former;
and the presence of the parasite must not be beneficial, and is
usually detrimental to the host.
It is obvious that within the limits of the strictest definition
of parasitism that will cover the facts many degrees occur.
The terms symbiosis and commensalism have been appUed to
conditions really outside the definition of parasitism, but closely
related and usually described in the same connexion. Both
terms cover the physical consortipg of organisms in such a
fashion that mutual service is rendered.
The name symbiosis was invented by the botanist A. de Bary
in 1879, and is applied to such an extraordinary community as
the thaUus of a lichen, which is composed of a fungus and an
alga so intimately associated, physically and physiologically,
that it was not until 1868 that the dual nature of the whole
was discovered. The presence of chlorophyll, which had always
been associated only with vegetable organisms, was detected
by Max Schultze in 1851 in the animals Hydra and Vortex, and
later on by Ray Lankester in Spongilla and by P. Geddes in
some Turbellarian worms. On the theory that the chlorophyll
occurs in independent vegetable cells embedded in the animal
tissues, such cases form other instances of symbiosis, for the
oxygen liberated by the green cells enables their animal hosts
to live in fouler water, whilst the hosts provide shelter and
possibly nitrogenous food to their guests.
The term commensalism was introduced in 1876 by P. J. Van
Beneden to cover a large number of cases in which " animals
have established themselves on each other, and live together on
a good understanding and without injury," The most familiar
instance is that of fishes of the genus Fierasfer which live in
the digestive tube of sea-cucumbers {Holutluiria; see Echino-
derma). a variety of commensalism was termed mutualism
by Van Beneden and applied to cases where there appeared to be
an exchange of benefits. A well-known instance of mutualism
is the relation between sea-anemones and hermit crabs. The
hermit crab occupies the discarded shell of a mollusc, and
anemones such as Sagartia or Adamsia are attached to the out-
side of the shell. The bright colours of the anemone advertise
its distasteful capacity for stinging, and secure protection for
the crab, whilst the anemone gains by vicarious locomotion and
possibly has the benefit of floating fragments from the food of
the crab.
It is plain that such terms as symbiosis, commensalism and
mutualism cannot be sharply marked off from each other or
from true parasitism, and must be taken as descriptive terms
rather than as definite categories into which each particular
association between organisms can be fitted.
R. Leuckart has made the most useful attempt to classify
true parasites. Occasional, or temporary, parasites are to be
distinguished from permanent, or stationary, parasites. The
former seek their host chiefly to obtain food or shelter and Are
comparatively httle modified by their habits when compared
with their nearest unparasitic relatives. They may infest
either animals or plants, and as they attack only the superficial
surfaces of their hosts, or cavities easy of access from the exterior,
they correspond closely with another useful term introduced by
Leuckart. They are Epizoa or Ectoparasites, as distinguished
from Entozoa or Endoparasites. They include such organisms
as plant-lice, and caterpillars which feed on the green parts of
plants, and animals such as the flea, the bed-bug and the leech,
which usually abandon their hosts when they have obtained their
object. Many ectoparasites, however, pass their whole lives
attached to their hosts; hce, for instance, lay their eggs on the
hairs or feathers or in rugosities of the skin of birds and mammals ;
the development of the egg, the larval stages and the adult life
are all parasitic. Permanent or stationary parasites are in the
most cases endoparasitic, inhabiting the internal organs;
bacteria, gregarines, nematodes and tapeworms are familiar
instances. But here also there are no sharp lines of demarcation.
Leuckart divided endoparasites according to the nature and
duration of their strictly parasitic life: (i) Some have free-li\ang
and self-supporting embryos that do not become sexually
mature until they have reached their host; (2) others have
embryos which are parasitic but migratory, moving either to
another part of their host, to another host, or to a free life
before becoming mature; (3) others again are parasitic in
every stage of their lives, remaining in the same host, and being
without a migratory stage.
Origin of Parasitism. — Now that the theory of spontaneous
generation has been disproved, the problem of parasitism is no
more than detection of the various causes which may have led
organisms to change their environment. Every kind of parasite
has relations more or less closely akin which have not acquired
the parasitic habit, and every gradation exists between tem-
porary and permanent parasites, between creatures that have
been only slightly modified and those that have been
profoundly modified in relation to this habit. There are
many opportunities for an animal or plant in its adult or em-
bryonic stage to be swallowed accidentally by an animal, or
to gain entrance to the tissues of a plant, whUst in the case of
ectoparasites there is no fundamental difference between an
organism selecting a dead or a living environment for food or
shelter. If the living environment in the latter case prove
to have special advantages, or if the interior of the body first
reached accidentally in the former case prove not too different
from the normal environment and provide a better shelter, a
more convenient temperature, or an easier food supply, the
accident may pass into a habit. From the extent to which
parasitism exists amongst animals and plants it is clear that it
must have arisen independently in an enormous number of cases,
and it may be supposed that there must be many cases in which
it has been of recent occurrence; E. Metchnikoff, indeed, has
suggested that amongst parasites we are to look for the latest
products of evolution. In any case it is impossible to suppose
that parasites form a natural group; no doubt in many cases
the whole of a group, as for instance the group of tapeworms,
is parasitic, but indications point clearly to the tapeworms
having had free-living ancestors. Parasitism is in short a
physiological habit, which theoretically may be assumed by any
organism, and which actually has been assumed by members of
nearly every living group.
List of Parasites
A. — Animals.
Vertebrata. — These are rarely parasitic, and cases are unknown
amongst mammals, birds, reptiles and amphibia. Amongst fish
and cyclostomes, Myxine burrows into codfish, Remora attaches
itself to the external surface of sharks; Rhodens amarus, the
bitterling, a small, carp-like fresh-water fish, injects its eggs into
the mantle-cavity of pond-mussels, where the fry develop, whilst
the mollusc reciprocates by throwing off its embryos on the
parent fish; Slegophilus insidiosus, a small colourless fish from
Brazil and the Argentine, lives parasitically in the gill-cavity
of large cat-fishes and sucks the blood in the gills of a large Silurid ;
Vandellia cirrhosa, the candiru of Brazil, a minute fish 60 mm.
in length, enters and ascends the urethra of people bathing, being
attracted by the urine; it cannot be withdrawn, owing to the
erectile spines on its gill-covers. The natives in some parts of
the Amazon protect themselves whilst in the water by wearing
a sheath of minutely perforated coco-nut shell.
MoUusca. — Few if any are true parasites. The Gasteropods,
Eulimae, Styliferae and Entoconchae lodge in Echinoderms, the latter
at least being truly parasitic.
Protochorda and Hemichorda. — Most of these are sessile and may
lodge on other animals, but are not parasitic.
Arachnida. — Mites and Ticks are Arachnids, the vast majority
of which are parasitic, and species of which infest almost every
vertebrate group, but there are some free-living forms. Pycno-
gonids are parasitic in their youthful stages on Hydroids, whilst the
Pentastomids have been so much modified by parasitism that they
were long regarded as worms; they may occur in most vertebrates.
Crustacea. — These contain an immense number of forms in all
stages of parasitism. Some Copepods are amongst the most de-
generate parasites known, the so-called fish-lice being for the most
part Copepods with piercing mouth-organs, elaborate clinging
apparatus, and degenerate organs of locomotion. In Lernea, the
female, after becoming attached to its host, undergoes a retro-
gressive metamorphosis, losing almost completely the segmentation
of the body and discarding the appendages and sense-organs,
whilst the male, although not so degenerate in structure, is dwarfed
in size and itself becomes a parasite of the female. The Cirripeds
PARASITISM
795
are all sessile in the adult condition. The Lepadidae are the least
modified and are rarely parasitic; the Balanidae are more modified
and frequently become embedded in the skin of whales. The
Abdominalia live as parasites buried in the shells of other Cirripeds
and of molluscs. The Apoda live as parasites in the mantle of
other Cirripeds, whilst the Rhizocephala live chiefly on the abdomen
of Decapod Crustacea, sending burrowing root-like nutritive pro-
cesses into their tissues.
Insecta. — A very large number of insects are temporary or
permanent parasites of animals or plants, the adult stages being
chiefly ectoparasitic, the larval stages endoparasitic. The Ilemi-
meridae, allies of the earwigs, are ectoparasites on rats. The
Mallophaga or bird-lice are degenerate wingless insects spending
their whole lives as ectoparasites on birds and mammals. The
larvae of Hemerobiinae are parasitic on Aphides. The saw-flies are
parasitic on plants. There are over 200,000 species known of the
Hymenoptera parasitica or Terebrantia. The adults deposit their eggs
in the eggs, caterpillars or adults of other insects, particularly
Lepidoptera. The clothes-moth, for instance, is known to be subject
to the attack of over sixty species of Hymenoptera. To such; an
extent has parasitism been developed in this group, that the para-
sites themselves are attacked by other parasites, giving rise to the
phenomena known as hyperparasitism. The gall-flics (see Galls)
are included amongst the Terebrantia, but in their case the early
stages are passed in vegetable galls more frequently than in the
bodies of other insects. The ruby-flics {Hymenoptera Tiibulifera),
in the larval condition are parasitic on the larvae of wasps and
bees. The Demidatae are bees that in the larval stage are parasitic
on other bees, the larvae of the parasites being deposited in the
food-cells prepared for their own larvae by other bees. Many of
the fossorial Hymenoptera form no special nests for their young,
but take advantage of the abodes and food-stores prepared by
other insects. The very large number of Hymenopterous insects
that collect living larvae to be shut up as provender for their
developing young are in a sense parasitic. The complex relations
of ants with other insects must be referred to in this connexion.
The nests of many species are inhabited by foreign insects of various
orders, such insects being termed myrmecophilous or ants'-nest
insects. The relations between the ants and their guests are very
complex, and the guests migrate with their hosts. Aphidae,
Coccidae and other bugs that secrete sugary matter are cherished
and tended by ants; so also the caterpillars of some Lycaenid
butterflies are kept as a kind of domesticated animal for some
useful purpose. There are also many Orthoptera, Hemiptera, and
other insects, as well as some acarids and wood-lice found only in
ants'-nests as cherished or tolerated guests. The relations between
ants and plants is also interesting; the ants live as parasites on the
plants or trees, but in return protect them from more harmful
intruders. Such phenomena are on the border-line between sym-
biosis and true parasitism. Although most beetles live on decaying
animal or vegetable matter, a large number are parasitic in the
adult or larval condition on animals or plants. The curious beetle
known as Platypsyllus castoris is known only as an ectoparasite
of the beaver, whilst the Leptinidae are parasites of several species
of mammals. The minute beetles of the families Mordellidae and
Rhi pi phoridae are endoparasites of wasps and cockroaches, whilst
the larvae of many of the Cantharidae are parasites of locusts.
The Strepsiptera are endoparasites of Hymenoptera and Hemiptera.
The habits of the Diptera easily pass over into parasitism, and a
very large number are temporary or permanent parasites in the
adult or larval stages. Most of the larvae of the Cecidomyiidae
live in plants and form galls or other deformities. The blood-
sucking habits of mosquitoes and gnats and sand-flies have not
led to any special development in the direction of parasitism.
The larvae of Bombyliidae are endoparasites of the larvae of mason-
bees, and some of the Cyrtidae similarly infest spiders, whilst
the Tachinidae deposit their larvae in other living insects, cater-
pillars being especially selected. The larvae of some of the Sarco-
phagidae may be deposited in the nostrils of man and other animals,
where they may cause death, whilst those of the South American
genus Lucilia infest the nasal fos,sae and frontal sinuses of man,
producing great suffering, and the larvae of the numerous kinds of
bot-fly attack man and many animals. The very large group of
Pupipara live by sucking the blood of mammals and birds, and many
of them are reduced to wingless permanent parasites. The single
member of the family Braulidae is a parasite of the bee. All the
known fleas (Aphaniptera or Siphonaptera) are ectoparasites in
the adult condition; the larval stages are usually to be found in
organic refuse. The larvae of most Lepidoptera are temporary
ectoparasites of plants, but a few attack other insects, such as
coccids and aphids. All the Hemiptera (bugs) have sucking-mouth
organs and the majority of them are temporary parasites of plants
or other animals. Some, such as the bed-bug, have been so modified
by parasitism as to be found only in human dwellings, others,
such as the aphids or plant-lice, are permanent parasites of plants,
many of them producing galls. The coccids. or scale insects, have
been still further modified as plant ectoparasites. The Pediculidae,
or lice, are the most completely parasitic of insects, and are de-
graded wingless insects found on almost any kind of bird or mammal,
but in most cases so highly modified as to be capable of existence
only on the particular species with which they are associated.
Lower Invertebrates. — No true Chactopods are parasitic, but a
few are commensal. The leeches are probably Chaetopods modi-
fied by parasitism; and Myzostomes are still more highly modified
relatives of the group, very degenerate and parasitic on Crinoids.
A few rotifers are ecto- and endo-parasites. No Brachiopods,
Folyzoa or Echinoderms are true parasites. The flat-worms and
round-worms contain the most characteristic endoparasites, and
parasitism is so characteristic a feature of most of the groups
that it is discussed in the separate articles dealing with the various
natural assemblages of such worms. All the Cestodcs (see Tape-
WOR}*), most of the Treniatodes (q.v.), and a few of the Planarians
{q.v.) are parasites of animals. Most Nemertines are free-living,
but Cephalothrix galatheae is endoparasitic in the ovaries of the
Crustacean Calathea strigosa, whilst Eunemertes and Tetraslemma
occur on Ascidians, and Malacobdella in lamellibranch Molluscs.
The degraded Mesozoa (q.v.) are endoparasites of Planarians, Nemer-
tines and Ophiurids. The Nematoda (q.v.) or typical round-worms,
exhibit every degree from absolute free-life to absolute para-
sitism in animals and plants. The Echiuroidea (q.v.) are mostly
free-living, but the male of Bonellia lives as a very degenerate
parasite in the uterus and pharynx of the female. Although
Coclcntera and I^orifera arc usually sessile, very few are true
parasites; young stages of the Narcomediisae are parasitic in the
mouth of adults of different species, whilst Mnestra parasites
is a degenerate medusa living on the pelagic mollusc Pbyllirhoe.
The Protozoa, from their minute size and capacity to live in fluids,
naturally include an enormous number of parasitic forms, the
importance of which in producing disease in their hosts is so great
that a very large special literature on parasitic protozoology is
being formed (see Pathology). Of the Sarcodina (q.v.) many forms
of Amoeba such as Amoeba coli are associated with dysentery
and kindred diseases. A very large number of the Mastigophora
(q.v.), including such forms as the trypanosome of sleeping-sickness,
are parasitic; in fact, observation by adequate means of the juices
of almost any animal reveals the occasional presence of some kind
of mobile protozoon, provided with a whip-like process. The
enormous group of Sporozoa (q.v.) are entirely parasitic, and have
been found in every group of animals except the Protozoa and
Coelentera. Infusoria (q.v.) contain a considerable number of
parasitic forms, some endoparasitic; others like the Suctoria,
ectoparasitic.
B.— Plants.
Bacteria. — Every degree of adaptation to parasitism occurs
amongst bacteria, a majority of which pass at least some stage
of their lives in a parasitic condition.
Fungi. — As in the case of Bacteria, the absence of chlorophyll
from the tissues of fungi makes it necessary that they should take
up carbon compounds already assimilated by other organisms, and
accordingly they are either saprophytes or parasites. The mycelium
is, so to say, the parasitic organ of the fungus, ramifying in the
tissues of the host. The plant may obtain access to its host by
means of spores which enter usually by wounds in the case of animal
and plant hosts, but occasionally by natural apertures such as the
stomata of plants. The fungi Ihat develop in the organs of warm-
blooded animals reach the blood-stream through wounds, and
thence spread to the tissues where germination takes place. Many
fungi, especially those that are epiphytic, reach the tissues of their
host by germ-tubes which emerge from the spore and penetrate
either by a natural or artificial aperture, whilst in other cases the
germ-tubes or hyphae actually penetrate uninjured tissues or
membranes.
The fungi parasitic on animals are in most cases little known,
and additions to the list, of which the pathological rather than the
botanical features have been worked out, are constantly being
made. A number of species of Eurotium and Aspergillus, usually
saprophytic, may migrate to the bodies of animals, spreading in
the tissues and exciting a disease known as mycosis or aspergillosis.
They were first discussed in the disease of the human ear known as
otomycosis, but they occur also in lungs and air-passages of mammals
and birds. Recent pathological investigations conducted at the
Prosectorium of the Zoological Society of London, show that mycosis
is extremely frequent and fatal in birds and reptiles, and rather
less frequent in mammals. Almost any organ of the body is liable
to attack. The Laboulbenieae are probably Ascomycetes restricted
to parasitism on insects, chiefly beetles and flies, sometimes forming
a thick fur on the bodies and spreading by spores. The Ento-
mophthoreae, possibly Mucorini. are also restricted to insects, the
fungus that kills the common house-fly being the most familiar
example. Cordyceps mililaris and Botrylis bassii are familiar
examples of Ascomycete fungi that attack the caterpillars of
insects, the latter producing the fatal disease " muscardine " of the
silkworm. The group of Saprolegnieae usually vegetate as sapro-
phytes but readily settle on aquatic animals such as goldfish,
salmon, salamanders and frogs, with fatal results. It is not yet
entirely certain if diseases of this kind, of which the salmon disease
is the most notorious, are produced on healthy animals, by the
79^
PARASITISM
attacks of the fungi, or if some antecedent predisposing condition
be necessary'. There are a number of well-known fungi that pro-
duce diseases of the skin in man and other vertebrates. Achorion
Schoenleinii produces favus in man, rabbits, cats, fowls and other
' birds and mammals. Trichophyton tonsurans (Malmsten), is the
fungus of tinea or ringworm in man, oxen, horses, dogs and rabbits.
Saccharomyces albicans (Reess), produces thrush of the mouth in
young herbivora and birds. Actinomyces bovis (Harz) is associated
with swellings on the jaw-bone of cattle and kangaroos, but has
been found in pigs and human beings.
The fungi parasitic on plants are much better known and are
responsible for a large number of diseases. They display every
gradation from occasional to complete parasitism. Amongst the
Pyrenomycetes, the group Erysipheae contain a large number of
common parasites; the main body of the fungus is usually epiphytic
as in various mildews l?.!!.). Ergot iq.v.) is the most familiar
example of the group. The Discomycetes are chiefly saprophytic,
being common on dead fruits, roots and so forth, but many of
them kill living plants: Exoascus on plums, peaches and cherries.
Sclerotinia is most common on dead juicy fruits, but will destroy
turnips in store, and has been known to attack living Phaseolus
and Petunia. The Hymenocytes are naturally saprophytes, but
when they gain access through wounds are the most destructive
parasites of living timber. The Ustilagineae are endoparasites in
Phanerogams, and are especially notorious for their attacks on
grain-crops and grasses. The species of Ustilego set up hypertrophy
in the tissues of their hosts, and the enlarged spaces thus formed
become filled with the spores of the parasite. The Uredineae are
also endoparasites of the higher plants and produce the diseases
known as rusts which specially affect cultivated plants. The
Peronosporeae are all parasites of plants and are the most destructive
enemies of agriculture and horticulture. Phytophthora infesians
(de Bary), the potato-disease fungus, is a typical example.
Algae. — The chlorophyll-containing green and yellow cells found
in Hydroids and Planarians referred to in connexion with symbiosis
and the small green algae that infest the hairs of sloths are on
the border-line of parasitism. A species of Nostoc occurs in the
intercellular spaces of other plants; Chlorochytrium is found in
the tissues of Lemna, and Phyllosiphon arisari (Kiihn) infests the
parenchyma of Arum arisarum.
The flowering plants have a considerable number of representa-
tives which have become epiphytes and which exhibit various
degrees of parasitic degeneration. The Monotropeae allied to the
heaths, are degenerate, with no chlorophyll and with scale-like
leaves but the evidence as to their parasitism is more than doubtful;
they are possibly only saprophytic. The allied Lennoaceae, a
small group also devoid of chlorophyll and with scale-leaves, are
true root-parasites. The genus Cusctita of the Convolvulaceae
consists of the true parasites known as dodders. They are destitute
of chlorophyll and attach themselves to other plants by twining
stems on which occur haustoria that penetrate the tissues of the host
and absorb nutritive material. Cuscuta europaea, the great dodder, is
a parasite of nettles and hops; Cuscuta epilinum is the flax dodder;
Cuscuta epithymum attacks a number of low-growing plants; and
Cuscutum trifolii is very destructive to clover. Several genera of
Scrophulariaceae are partially parasitic; they contain chlorophyll
but have degenerate roots with haustoria. Euphrasia, the eye-
bright, attacks the roots of grasses; Pedi^tdaris, the lousewort,
Rhinanthus, the rattle, Melampyrum, the cow-wheat and Bartsia
are all partly parasitic on the roots of other plants. The Oroban-
chaceae or broomworts, are all destitute of chlorophyll and have
scale-leaves; they are parasitic on the roots of other plants, species
attacking various Leguminosae, ivy, hemp and hazel. The
Cytinaceae arc true parasites devoid of chlorophyll and leaves, with
deformed bodies and conspicuous flowers or inflorescences. Most of
them are tropical, and the group is widely scattered throughout
the world. The Santalales are all parasitic; some members like
Thesium linophyllum (the bastard toad-flax), a root parasite, and
Viscum album (the mistletoe), parasitic on branches, have chlorophyll,
but rather degenerate leaves; others like the tropical Balanophora-
ceae are devoid of chlorophyll and foliage leaves and have deformed
bodies. Of the Lauraceae, a few genera such as Cassytha (the tropical
" dodder-laurels,") are true parasites, without chlorophyll and with
twining stems.
EJfect of Parasitism on Parasites. — The phenomena of parasi-
tism occur so generally in the animal and vegetable kingdoms
and are repeated in degrees so varying that no categorical
statements can be laid down as to the efTects produced on the
organisms concerned. All living creatures have a certain degree
of correspondence with the conditions of their environment,
and parasitism is only a special case of such adaptation. The
widest generalization that can be made regarding it is that
parasitism tends towards a rigid adaptation to a relatively
limited and stable environment, whOst free life tends towards a
looser correspondence with a more varying environment. The
summum boniim of a parasite is to reach and maintain existence
in the limited conditions afforded by its host; the goal of the
free-living organism is a varying or experimental fitness for
varying surrounding conditions. And, if the metaphor be
continued, the danger of parasitism for the parasite, is that if it
become too nicely adjusted to the special conditions of its host,
and fail to attain these, it wLU inevitably perish. The degenera-
tion of parasites is merely a more precise adaptation; in the
favourable environment the degenerate, or specialized parasite
is best equipped for successful existence, but the smallest change
of environment is fatal. Such a generalization as has been
formulated covers nearly all the peculiarities of parasitism.
Organs of prehension are notably developed; parasitic plants
have twining stems, boring roots and special clinging organs;
parasitic animals display hooks, suckers and boring apparatus.
The normal organs of locomotion tend to disappear, whether
these be wings or walking legs. Organs of sense, the chief
purpose of which is to make animals react quickly to changes
in the environment, become degenerate in proportion as the
changes which the parasite may have to encounter are
diminished. The changes correlated with nutrition equally
conform with the generalization. The chlorophyll of the plant
becomes unnecessary and tends to disappear; the stem has no
longer to thrust a spreading crown of leaves into the tenuous air
or groping rootlets into the soil, but absorbs already prepared
nourishment from the tissues of its host through compact
conduits. And so the parasitic higher plant tends to lose its
division into stem and leaves and roots, and to acquire a compact
and amorphous body. The animal has no longer to seek its
food, and the lithe segmentation of a body adapted for locomotion
becomes replaced by a squat or insinuating form. Jaws give
place to sucking and piercing tubes, the alimentary canal
becomes simplified, or may disappear altogether, the parasite
living in the juices of its host, and absorbing them through the
skin. So, also, parasites obtaining protection from the tissues
of their host lose their intrinsic protective mechanisms.
The reproduction of parasites offers many peculiarities, all of
which are readily correlated with our generalization. A creature
rigidly adapted to a special environment fails if it does not
reach that environment, and hence species most successful in
reproduction are able to afford the largest number of misses to
secure a few hits and so to maintain existence. High repro-
ductive capacity is still more urgent when the parasites tend to
bring to an end their own environment by killing their hosts.
Reproduction in parasites, so far from being degenerate, displays
an exuberance of activity, and an extraordinary efficiency. In
parasitic flowering plants the flowers tend to be highly con-
spicuous, the seeds to be numerous, and specially adapted to
ready diffusion. Amongst the fungi, the reproductive processes
are most prolific, spores are produced by myriads, and verj' many
special adaptations exist for the protection of the latter during
their transference from host to host. It is notorious that the
spores of bacteria and the higher fungi resist changes of tempera-
ture, desiccation, and the action of physical and chemical agents,
to an astonishing extent. Vegetative reproduction is extremely
active under favourable conditions, and resting reproductive
bodies of varying morphological character are produced in
great abundance. Amongst fungi, a phenomenon known as
heteroecism is developed as a special adaptation to parasitic
conditions, and recalls the similar adaptations in many animal
parasites. At one stage of its existence, the fungus is adapted
to one host, at another stage to another host. Puccinia graminis,
the fungoid rust affecting many grasses, is a typical instance.
It inhabits wheat, rye and other grasses, developing a mycelium
in the tissues of young plants. During the summer, the myce-
lium gives rise to large numbers of simple processes which break
through the tissues of the host and bud off orange-coloured
urcdogonidia. These small bodies are scattered by the wind,
and reach other plants on which they germinate, enter the new
host through the stomata and give rise to new mycelia. Towards
autumn, when the tissues of the host are becoming hard and dry,
darker-coloured tclcutogonidia are produced, and these remain
quiescent during the winter. In spring they germinate, produce
PARASNATH
■797
small free-living mycelia on which in due course sporidia are
formed. When these, scattered by the wind, fall on the leaf
of the barberry-plant, they germinate, and entering the leaf-
tissue of the new host by the stomata produce a mycelium
bearing reproductive organs so different from those of the phase
on the grass-plant, that it was described as a distinct fungus
(Accidium berbcridis), before its relation with the rust of grasses
was known. The spores of the Accidium when they reach
grasses give rise to the Puccinia stage again.
The reproductive processes of animal parasites are equally
exuberant. In the first place, hermaphroditism is very common,
and the animals in many cases are capable of self-fertilization.
Parthenogenetic reproduction and various forms of vegetative
budding are found in all stages of the life-history of animal
parasites. Theprolificnessof manyparasites is almost incredible.
R. Leuckart pointed out that a human tapeworm has an
average life of two years, and produces in that time about
1500 proglottides, each containing between fifty and si.xty
thousand eggs, so that the single tapeworm has over eighty
million chances of successfully reproducing its kind. The
devices for nourishing and protecting the eggs and embryos
are numerous and elaborate, and many complex cases of larval
migration and complicated cases of heteroecism occur. (See
Trematode and Tapeworm.)
The physiological adaptations of parasites are notable,
especially in cases where the hosts are warm-blooded. The
parasites tend to become so specialized as to be peculiar to
particular hosts; ectoparasites frequently differ from species to
species of host, and the flea of one mammal, for instance, may
rapidly die if it be transferred to another although similar host.
The larval and adult stages of endoparasites become similarly
speciaHzed, and although there are many cases in which the
parasites that excite a disease in one kind of animal are able
to infect animals of different species, the general tendency is in
the direction of absolute limitation of one parasite, and indeed
one stage of one parasite to one kind of host. The series of
events seems to be a gradual progression from temporary or
occasional parasitism to obligatory parasitism and to a further
restriction of the obUgatory parasite to a particular kind of
host.
Efect of Parasitism on Hosts. — The intensity of the effect of
parasitism on the hosts of the parasites ranges from the slightest
local injury to complete destruction. Most animals and plants
harbour a number of parasites, and seem to be unaffected by
them. On the other hand, as special knowledge increases, the
range of the direct and indirect effect of parasites is seen to be
greater. It is probable that in a majority of cases, the tissues
of animals and plants resist the entrance of microbes unless there
is some abrasion or wound. In the case of plants the actual
local damage caused by animal or vegetable ectoparasites may
be insignificant, but the wounds afford a ready entrance to the
spores or hyphae of destructive endoparasites. So also in the
case of animals, it is probable that few microbes can enter
the skin or penetrate the walls of the alimentary canal if these
be undamaged. But as knowledge advances the indirect effect
of parasites is seen to be of more and more importance. Through
the wounds caused by biting-insects the microbes of various
skin diseases and inflammations may gain entrance subsequently,
or the insects may themselves be the carriers of the dangerous
endoparasites, as in the cases of mosquitoes and malaria,'fleas and
plague, tsetse flies and sleeping sickness. Similarly the wounds
caused by small intestinal worms may be in themselves trifling,
but afford a means of entrance to microbes. It has been shown,
for instance, that there is an association between appendicitis
and the presence of small nematodes. The latter wound the
coecum and allow the microbes that set up the subsequent
inflammation to reach their nidus. It has been suggested that
the presence of similar wounding parasites precedes tubercular
infection of the gut.
The parasites themselves may cause direct mechanical
injury, and such injury is greatly aggravated where active re-
production takes place on or in the host, with larval migrations.
A tangled mass of Ascarid worms may occlude the gut ; masses
of eggs, larvae or adults may block bloodvessels or cause pressure
on important nerves. The irritation caused by the movements
or the secretions of the parasites may set up a reaction in the
tissues of the host leading to abnormal growths ie.^. galls and
pearls) or hypertrophies. Migrations of the parasites or larvae
may cause serious or fatal damage. The abstraction of food-
substances from the tissues of the host may be insignificant
even if the parasites are numerous, but it is notable that in many
cases the effect is not merely that of causing an extra drain on
the food-supply of the host which might be met by increased
appetite. The action is frequently selective; particular sub-
stances, such as glycogen, are absorbed in quantities, or particular
organs are specially attacked, with a consequent overthrow of
the metabolic balance. Serious anaemia out of all proportion to
the mass of parasites present is frequently produced, and the
hosts become weak and fail to thrive. A. Giard has worked
out the special case which he has designated as " parasitic
castration " and shown to be frequent amongst animal hosts.
Sometimes by direct attacks on the primary sexual organs, and
sometimes by secondary disturbance of metabolism, the presence
of the parasites retards or inhibits sexual maturity, with the
result that the secondary sexual characters fail to appear. The
most usual and serious effect on their hosts of parasites is,
however, the result of toxins hberated by them. (See Parasitic
Diseases.)
Finally, the attacks of parasites have led to the development
by the hosts of a great series of protective mechanisms. Such
adaptations range from the presence of thickened cuticles, and
hairs or spines, the discharge of waxy, sticky or slimy secretions,
to the most elaborate reactions of the tissues of the host to the
toxins liberated by the parasites.
History and Literature of Parasitism. — The history and literature
of parasitism are inextricably involved with the history and litera-
ture of zoology, botany, medicine and pathology. Pliny recog-
nized the mistletoe as a distinct parasitic plant and gave an account
of its reproduction by seed. Until the i8th century little more
was done. In 1755 PfcifFer in his treatise on Fungus melitensis
(in Linnaeus's Anioenitat. acad. Dissert. LXV. vol. iv.) made a group
of parasitic flowering plants, but included epiphytes like the ivy.
In 1832 A. de Candolle (Physiol, vcgetale, vol. iii.) attempted to divide
and classify flowering parasites on morphological and physiological
grounds, and since then, the study of parasitism has been a part of
all botanical treatises. With regard to Fungi, A. de Bary's treatise
on the Comparative Morphology and Biology of the Fungi, Mycetozoa
and Bacteria (Eng. ed., 1887) remains the standard work. There is
in addition a large special literature on bacteriology. With regard
to animal parasites, the first real steps in knowledge were the
refutation of spontaneous generation (see Biogenesis). Linnaeus
traced the descent of the liver fluke of sheep from a free-living
stage, and although his particular observations were erroneous,
they laid the foundation on which later observers worked, and
pointed the way towards discovery of larval migrations and hete-
roecism. O. Fr. Mijller in 1773, and L. H. Bojanus in the beginning
of the 19th century reached more nearly to a correct interpretation.
J. J. Steenstrup in his famous monograph of which an English
edition was published by the Ray Society in 1845 (On the Alternation
of Generations, or the Propagation and Development of Animals
through Alternate Generations) interpreted many scattered obsers'a-
tions by a clear and coherent theory. Thereafter there was a steady
and consistent progress, and the literature of animal parasites
merges in that of general zoology. The two best-known names
are those of T. S. Cobbold (Entozoa: an Introduction to the Study
of Helminthology, 1869) and R. Leuckart (The Parasites of Man.
Eng. trans., 1886), the former describing a very large number of
types, and the latter adding enormously to scientific knowledge
of the structure and life-history. Of more modern books, G.
Fleming's Eng. ed. of L. G. Neumann's Parasites and Parasitic
Diseases of the Domesticated Animals, and the Eng. ed. of Max
Braun's Animal Parasites of Man (1906), are the most com-
prehensive. (P. C. M.)
PARASNATH, a hiU and place of Jain pilgrimage in British
India, in Hazaribagh district, Bengal; 4480 ft. above the sea;
18 m. from Giridih station on the East Indian railway. It derives
its name from the last of the twenty-four Jain saints, who is
believed to have here attained nirvana or beatific annihilation.
It is crowded with temples, some of recent date; and the scruples
of the Jains have prevented it from being utilized as a sanatorium,
for which purpose it is otherwise well adapted ■ - •
798
PARASOL— PARCHMENT
PARASOL (Fr., from Ital. parasole: parare, to shield, and
sole, sun), a sunshade, a light or small form of umbreUa, covered
with coloured silk or other material. In Japan and China
gaily coloured parasols of paper stretched on bamboo frames are
used by all classes. The parasol of an elaborate and highly
ornamented type has been the symbol of high honour and office
in the East, being borne over rulers, princes and nobles. The
negro chiefs of West Africa reserve to themselves the privilege
of bearing parasols of considerable size and substantial con-
struction, the size varying and denoting gradations in rank.
PARAVICINO Y ARTEAGA, HORTENSIO FELIX (1580-
1633), Spanish preacher and poet, was born at Madrid on the
1 2th of October 1580, was educated at the Jesuit college in
Ocana, and on the i8th of April 1600 joined the Trinitarian
order. A sermon pronounced before Philip III. at Salamanca
in 1605 brought Paravicino into notice; he rose to high posts
in his order, was entrusted with important foreign missions,
became royal preacher in 1616, and on the death of PhiUp III. in
162 1 deUvered a famous funeral oration which was the subject of
acute controversy. He died at Madrid on the 12th of December
1633. His Oraciones evangelicas (1638-1641) show that he was
not without a vein of genuine eloquence, but he often degenerates
into vapid declamation, and indulges in far-fetched tropes and
metaphors. His Obras posthumas, divinas y humanas (1641)
include his devout and secular poems, as well as a play entitled
Gridonia; his verse, hke his prose, exaggerates the characteristic
defects of Gongorism.
PARAY-LE-MONIAL, a town of east-central France in the
department of Saone-et-Loire, 58 m. W.N.W. of Macon by the
Paris-Lyon railway, on which it is a junction for Moulins,
Lozanne, Clermont and Roanne. Pop. (1906), 3382. It lies on
the slope of a hiU on the right bank of the Bourbince and has a
port on the Canal du Centre. The chief building in the town
is the priory church of St Pierre. Erected in the 12th century
in the Romanesque style of Burgundy, it closely resembles the
abbey church of Cluny in the length of the transepts, the height
of the vaulting and the general plan. The town is the centre
of a district important for its horse-raising; bricks, tiles and
mosaics are the chief manufactures of the town. In the 10th
century a Benedictine priory was founded at Paray-le-Monial.
In the i6th century the town was an industrial centre, but its
prosperity was retarded by the wars of rehgion and still more
by the revocation of the edict of Nantes. In 1685 the visions
of Marguerite Marie Alacoque, a nun of the convent of the
Visitation, who believed herself to possess the Sacred Heart of
Jesus, attracted religious gatherings to the town, and yearly
pilgrimages to Paray-le-Monial still take place.
PARCEL (Fr. parcelle, Ital. particella, Lat. parlicida, diminu-
tive of pars, part), a small part or division of anything; particu-
larly, in the law of real property and conveyancing, a portion
of a manor or estate, and so the name of that portion of a legal
document, such as a conveyance or lease relating to lands,
which contains a description of the estate dealt with. The
word is also used of a package of goods contained in a wrapping
or cover for transmission by carriage, &c., or by post; hence the
term " parcel-post " for the branch of the post-oiSce service
which deals with the transmission of such packages. " Parcel "
was formerly used in an adverbial or quasi-adverbial sense,
meaning " partly," " to some extent," thus " parcel-Protestant,"
"parcel-lawyer," &c. This use survives in "parcel-gilt," i.e.
partly gilt, a term applied to articles made of silver with a gilt
lining.
PARCHIM (Parchem), a town of Germany, in the grand
duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, on the Elde, which flows
through it in two arms, 23 m. S.E. of Schwerin, on the railway
from Ludwigslust to Neubrandenburg. Pop. (1905), 10,397.
It was the birthplace of Moltke, to whom a monument was
erected in 1876. It is an ancient place surrounded with walls,
and contains a Gothic town hall and two interesting churches.
Founded about 1210, Parchim was during part of the 14th
century the residence of one branch of the family of the dukes
of Mecklenburg. It became a prosperous industrial town during
the i6th century, but this prosperity was destroyed by the
Thirty Years' War. A revival, however, set in during the
19th century.
See Hijbbe, Zur topographischen Entwickelung der Stadt Parchim
(Parchim, 1899); and VVeltzien, Zur Geschichte Parchims (Parchim,
1903)-
PARCHMENT. Skins of certain animals, prepared after
particular methods, have supplied writing material on which has
been inscribed the literature of centuries. Such a durable
substance, in most cases easily obtainable in fair abundance,
would naturally suggest itself for the purpose, and we are
therefore prepared for evidence of its use, and also for the
survival of actual specimens, from very ancient times. The
tradition of the employment of skins as writing material by
the ancient Egyptians is to be traced back to the period of the
Pharaohs of the IVth Dynasty; and in the British Museum and
elsewhere there exist skin-rolls which date back to some 1500
years B.C. But the country which not only manufactured but
also e.xported in abundance the writing material made from
the papyrus plant (see PAPYRtJS) hardly needed to make use
of any other material, and the instances of skin-roUs inscribed
in Egypt must at all times have been rare. But in western
Asia the practice of using skins as writing material must have
been widespread even at a very early period. The Jews made
use of them for their sacred books, and it may be presumed
for other Hterature also; and the old tradition has been main-
tained by this conservative race down to our own day, requiring
the synagogue rolls to be inscribed on this time-honoured
material. No doubt their neighbours the Phoenicians, so ready
to adapt the customs of other nations to their own advantage,
would also have followed the same practice. The Persians
inscribed their annals on skins; and skins were employed by the
Ionian Greeks, as proved by the words of Herodotus (v. 58).
There is no evidence forthcoming that the same usage was
followed by the western Greeks and by the ItaKc tribes; but it is
difficult to suppose that at a remote period, before the importa-
tion of papyrus, such an obviously convenient writing material
as skin was not used among the early civilized races of Greece
and Italy.
The method of preparation of skins for the service of literature
in those distant ages is unknown to us; but it may be assumed
that it was more or less imperfect, and that the material was
rather of the character of tanned leather than of the thinner and
better prepared substance which was to follow at a later time.
The improvement of the manufacture to which we refer was to
be of a nature so thorough as to endow the material with a new
name destined to last down to the present day.
The new manufacture was traditionally attributed to Eumenes
II. of Pergamum, 197-158 B.C. The common story, as told
by Pliny on the authority of Varro, is that Eumenes, when seek-
ing to enlarge the library of his capital, was opposed by the
jealousy of the Ptolemies, who forbade the export of papyrus
from Egypt, thus hoping to check the growth of the rival hbrary;
and that the Pergamene king was thus compelled to revert to
the old custom of using skins as writing material. It is needless
to regard this story as literally true, or as other than a popular
explanation of a great development of the manufacture of skin
material for books in the reign of Eumenes. In former times
the prepared skins had been known by the natural titles bi<i>dk-
pai, nffifipavai, the Latin membranae, and these were at first
also attached to the new manufacture; but the latter soon
received a special name after the place of its origin, and became
known as irtprya.jxqvrj, charla pergamena, from which descends
our English term parchment, through the French parchemin.
The title of pergamena actually appears first in the edict De
pretiis rerum of Diocletian (a.d. 301), and in a passage in one
of St Jerome's Epistles.
The principal improvement in the new manufacture was the
dressing of the skins in such a way as to render them capable
of receiving writing on both sides, the older methods probably
treating only one side for the purpose, a practice which was
sufficient in times when the roll was the ordinary form of book
PARCLOSE— PARDESSUS, J. M.
799
and when it was not customary to write on the back as well as
on the face of the material. The invention of parchment with
its two surfaces, recto and verso, equally available for the scribe,
ensured the development of the codex. (See Manuscript.)
The animals whose skins were found appropriate for the
manufacture of the new parchment were chiefly sheep, goats and
calves. But in course of time there has arisen a distinction
between the coarser and finer qualities of the material; and,
while parchment made from ordinary skins of sheep and goats
continued to bear the name, the finer kinds of manufacture
produced from the more delicate skins of the calf or kid, or of
still-born or newly-born calves or lambs, came to be generally
known as vellum (Fr. vdin). The skin codices of the early and
middle ages being for the most part composed of the finer kinds
of material, it has become the custom to describe them as of
vellum, although in some instances it would be more correct to
call the material parchment.
The ordinary modern process of preparing the skins is by
washing, liming, unhairing, scraping, washing a second time,
stretching evenly on a frame, scraping a second time and paring
down inequalities, dusting with sifted chalk and rubbing with
pumice. Somewhat similar methods, no doubt varying in
details, must have been employed from the first.
The comparatively large number of ancient and medieval
MSS. that have survived enables us to gather some knowledge of
the varieties of the material in different periods and in different
countries. We know from references in Roman authors that
parchment or vellum was entering into competition with papyrus
as a writing material at least as early as the 2nd century of our
era (see Manuscript), though at that time it was probably not
so skilfully prepared as to be a dangerous rival. But the sur-
viving examples of the 3rd and 4th centuries show that a rapid
improvement must almost at once have been effected, for the
vellum of that age is generally of a thin and delicate texture,
firm and crisp, with a smooth and glossy surface. Here it
should be noticed that there was always, and in some periods
and in some countries more than in others, a difference in colour
between the surface of the skin from which the hair had been
removed and the inner surface next to the flesh of the animal,
the latter being whiter than the other. This difference is gene-
rally more noticeable in the older examples, those of a later period
having usually been treated more thoroughly with chalk and
pumice. To obviate any unsightly contrast, it was customary,
when making up the quires for a volume, to lay hair-side next
to hair-side and flesh-side to fiesh-side, so that, at whatever place
the codex was opened, the tint of the open pages should be
uniform.
As a rule, the vellum of early MSS., down to and including
the 6th century, is of good quality and well prepared. After
this, the demand increasing, a greater amount of inferior material
came into the market. The manufacture necessarily varied in
different countries. In Ireland and England the vellum of the
early MSS. is usually of stouter quahty than that of foreign
examples. In Italy and Greece and in the European countries
generally bordering on the Mediterranean, a highly polished
surface came into favour in the middle ages, with the ill effect
that the hardness of the material resisted absorption, and that
there was always a tendency for ink and paint to fiake off. On
the other hand, in western Europe a soft pliant vellum was in
vogue for the better classes of MSS. from the 12th century
onwards. In the period of the Italian Renaissance a material
of extreme whiteness and purity was affected.
Examples of uterine vellum, prepared from still-born or
newly-born young, are met with in choice volumes. A remark-
able instance of a codex composed of this delicate substance
is the Additional MS. 23935, of the 13th and 14th centuries,
in the British Museum, which is made up of as many as 579
leaves, without being a volume of abnormal bulk.
In conclusion, we must briefly notice the employment of
vellum of a sumptuous character to add splendour to specially
choice codices of the early middle ages. The art of dyeing
the material with a rich purple colour was practised both in
Constantinople and in Rome; and, at least as far back as the
3rd century, MSS., generally of the Scriptures, were produced
written in silver and gold on the j)rccious stained vcUum: a
useless luxury, denounced by St Jerome in a well-known passage
in his preface to the Book of Job. A certain number of early
examples still survive, in a more or less perfect condition: such
as the MS. of the Gospels in the Old Latin version al Verona,
of the 4th or 5th century; the celebrated codex of Genesis in the
Imperial Library at Vienna; the Rossano MS. and the Patmos
MS. of the Gospels in Greek; the Gothic Gospels of Uliilas at
Upsala, and others, of the 6th century, besides a few somewhat
later specimens. In the revival of learning under Charlemagne
a further encouragement was given to the production of such
codices; but soon afterwards the art of purple-staining appears
to have been lost or abandoned. A last trace of it is found in
a few isolated instances of stained vellum leaves inserted for
ornament in MSS. of the period of the Renaissance.
Authorities. — Particulars of the early manufacture and use of
parchment and vellum are to be found in most of the handbooks on
palaeography and book-development, such as W. Wattenbach,
Das Schrijtwesen im Millelalter (3rd ed., 1896); G. Birt, Das antike
Bncliwesen (1882); Sir E. M. Thompson, Handbook of Greek and
Latin Palaeography (3rd ed., 1906). See also La Landc, Art de
faire le parchemin (1762) ; G. Peignot, Essai sur I'histoire du parchemin
el du velin (1S12); A. Watt, The Art of Leather Manufacture (1885J.
(E. M. T.J
PARCLOSE (from the O. Fr. pardore, to close thoroughly;
Lat. daudcrc), an architectural term for a screen or railing used
to enclose a chantry, tomb, chapel, &c., in a church, and for the
space thus enclosed.
PARDAILLAN, thenameof anold French family of Armagnac,
of which several members distinguished themselves in the service
of the kings of France in the i6th and 17th centuries. Antoine
Arnaud de Pardaillan, maredial de camp, served Henry IV. in
Franche-Comte, Picardy and Savoy, and was created marquis
de Montespan in 161 2 and marquis d'Antin in 161 5 under
Louis XIII. His grandson Louis Henri, marquis de Montespan,
was the husband of Mme de Montespan, the mistress of
Louis XIV. Louis Antoine de Pardaillan de Gondrin (1665-
1736), legitimate son of the famous marquise, became lieutenant-
general of the armies of the king in 1702, governor of the
Orleanais, director-general of buildings in 1708, lieutenant-
general in Alsace, member of the council of regency, and
minister of state. He was created due d'Antin in 1711.
The last due d'Antin, Louis, died in 1757.
PARDESSUS, JEAN MARIE (1772-1853), French lawyer,
was born at Blois on the nth of August 1772. He was educated
by the Oratorians, and then studied law, at first under his
father, a lawyer at the Presidial, who was a pupil of Robert
J. Pothier. In 1796, after the Terror, he married, but his wife
died at the end of three years. He was thus a widower at the
age of twenty-seven, but refused to remarry and so give his
children a step-mother. He wrote a Traite des servitudes (1806),
which went through eight editions, then a Traite du contrat el
dcs Ictires de change (1809), which pointed him out as fitted for
the chair of commercial law recently formed at the faculty of
law at Paris. The emperor, however, had insisted that the
position should be open to competition. Pardessus entered
(1810) and was successful over two other candidates, Andre
M. J. J. Dupin and PersU, who afterwards became brilliant
lawyers. His lectures were published under the title Coiirs
dc droit commercial (4 vols., 1813-1817). In 1815 Pardessus was
elected deputy for the department of Loir-et-Cher, and from 1820
to 1830 was constantly re-elected; then, however, he refused to
take the oath of allegiance to Louis Philippe, and was deprived
of his oflice. After the publication of the first volume of his
Collection des Ids mariiimes antericurcs au xviiii' siecle (1828) he
was elected a member of the Academic des Inscriptions et
Belles Lettres. He continued his collection of maritime laws
(4 vols., 1828-1845), and published Les Us et coutumes de la mer
(2 vols., 1847). He also brought out two volumes of Merovingian
diplomas {Diplomata, chartac, epistolae, leges, 1843-1840);
vols, iv.-vi. of the Table dironologique des diplomes; and
8oo
PARDO BAZAN— PARDON
vol. xxi. of Ordonnances des rois de France (1849), preceded
by an Essai sur I'ancienne organisation judiciaire, which was
reprinted in part in 1851. In 1843 Pardessus published a critical
edition of the Loi salique, followed by 14 dissertations, which
greatly advanced the knowledge of the subject. He died at
Pimpeneau near Blois on the 27th of May 1853.
See notices in Journal general de Vinstruction publique (July 27,
1853), in the Bibliothique de I'ecole des chartes (3rd series, 1854,
V. 453), and in the " Histoire de I'acad^mie des inscriptions et
belles lettres " (vol. xx. of the Memoires de I'academie, 1861).
PARDO BAZAN, EMILIA (1851- ), Spanish author, was
born at Corunna, Spain, on the i6th of September 1851.
Married in her eighteenth year to Sr D. Jose Quiroga, a Galician
country gentleman, she interested herself in pohtics, and is
believed to have taken an active part in the subterranean
campaign against Amadeo of Savoy and, later, against the
repubhc. In 1876 she came into notice as the successful com-
petitor for a literary prize offered by the municipality of Oviedo,
the subject of her essay being the Benedictine monk, Benito
Jeronimo Feijoo. This was followed by a series of articles
inserted in La Ciencia cristiana, a magazine of the purest
orthodoxy, edited by Juan M. Orti y Lara. Her first novel,
Pascual Lopez (1879), is a simple exercise in fantasy of no
remarkable promise, though it contains good descriptive
passages of the romantic type. It was foOowed by a more
striking story, Un Viaje de novios (1S81), in which a discreet
attempt was made to introduce into Spain the methods of
French reaUsm. The book caused a sensation among the literary
cHques, and this sensation was increased by the appearance of
another naturalistic tale. La Tribuna (1885), wherein the
influence of Zola is unmistakable. Meanwhile, the writer's
reply to her critics was issued under the title of La Cuestiin
palpilante (1883), a clever piece of rhetoric, but of no special
Value as regards criticism or dialectics. The naturalistic scenes
of El Cisne de Vilamorta (1885) are more numerous, more pro-
nounced, than in any of its predecessors, though the authoress
shrinks from the logical application of her theories by supplying
a romantic and inappropriate ending. Probably the best of
Sra Pardo Bazan's work is embodied in Los Pazos de Ulloa
(1886), the painfully exact history of a decadent aristocratic
family, as notable for its portraits of types like Nucha and
Juhan as for its creation of characters like those of the political
bravos, Barbacana and Trampeta. Yet perhaps its most
abiding merit lies in its pictures of country life, its poetic realiza-
tion of Galician scenery set down in an elaborate, highly-coloured
style, which, if not always academically correct, is invariably
effective. A sequel, with the significant title of La Madre
naluraleza (1887), marks a further advance in the path of
naturaUsm, and henceforward Sra Pardo Bazan was uni-
versally recognized as one of the chiefs of the new naturalistic
movement in Spain. The title was confirmed by the pubUcation
of Insolacion and Morrina, both issued in 1889. In this year
her reputation as a novelist reached its highest point. Her
later stories. La Cristiana (1890), Cuenlos de amor (1894), Arco
Iris (1895), Mistcrio (1903) and La Qiawera (1905), though not
wanting in charm, awakened less interest. In 1905 she pubhshed
a play entitled Verdad, remarkable for its boldness rather than
for its dramatic quaUties. (J. F.-K.)
PARDOE, JULIA (1806-1862), English writer, was born at
Beverley, Yorkshire, in 1806. When fourteen years old she
pubhshed a volume of poems. In 1835 she went to Constanti-
nople and her experiences there furnished her with material
for vivid pictures of Eastern life in the City of the Sultan (1837),
Romance of the Harem (1839) and Beauties of the Bosphorus
(1839). Her other works, not always historically accurate,
include Louis XI V. and the Court of France in the Seventeenth
Century (1847); The Court and Reign of Francis /.(1849); The
Life and Memoirs of Marie de Medici (1852); Episodes of French
History during the Consulate and the First Empire (1859);
and several sprightly and pleasant novels. In i860 she was
granted a civU list pension. She died on the 26th of November
1862.
PARDON (through the Fr. from Late Lat. perdonare, to remit
a debt or other obhgation on a penalty), the remission, by the
power entrusted with the execution of the laws, of the penalty
attached to a crime. The right of pardoning is coextensive
with the right of punishing. In a perfect legal system, says
Beccaria, pardons should be excluded, for the clemency of the
prince seems a tacit disapprobation of the laws {Dei Delitti e
dclle penc, ch. xx.).' In practice the prerogative is extremely
valuable, when used with discretion, as a means of adjusting
the different degrees of moral guilt in crimes or of rectifying a
miscarriage of justice. By the law of England pardon is the
sole prerogative of the king, and it is declared by 27 Hen. VIII.
c. 24 that no other person has power to pardon or remit any
treasons or felonies whatsoever. This position follows logically
from the theory of EngUsh law that all offences are breaches of
the king's peace. Indictments still conclude with a statement
that the offence was committed " against the peace of our lord
king, his crown and dignity." The Crown by pardon only remits
the penalty for an attack upon itself. The prerogative is in
modern times exercised by delegation, the Crown acting upon
the representation of the secretary of state for the home depart-
ment in Great Britain, or of the lord lieutenant in Ireland. The
prerogative of the Crown is subject to some restrictions : (i)
The committing of a subject of the realm to a prison out of the
realm is by the Habeas Corpus Act a praemwiire, unpardonable
even by the king (31 Car. II. c. 2, § 12). (2) The king cannot
pardon an offence in a matter of private rather than of public
wrong, so as to prejudice the person injured by the offence.
Thus a common nuisance cannot be pardoned while it remains
unredressed, or so as to prevent an abatement of it. A fine or
penalty imposed for the offence may, however, be remitted.
By an act of 1859 (22 Vict. c. 32) his majesty is enabled to remit
wholly or in part any sum of money imposed upon conviction,
and, if the offender has been imprisoned in default of payment, to
extend to him the royal mercy. There are other statutes dealing
with special offences, e.g. by the Remission of Penalties Act 1875
his majesty may remit any penalty imposed under 21 Geo. III.
c. 49 (an act for preventing certain abuses and profanations on
the Lord's Day called Sunday). (3) The king's pardon cannot
be pleaded in bar of an impeachment. This principle, first
asserted by a resolution of the House of Commons in the earl of
Danby's case (May 5, 1679), forms one of the provisions of the
Act of Settlement, 12 & 13 Will. III. c. 2. It is there enacted
" that no pardon under the great seal of England shall be plead-
able to an impeachment by the Commons in parliament," § 3,
This provision does not extend to abridging the prerogative
after the impeachment has been heard and determined. Thus
three of the rebel lords were pardoned after impeachment and
attainder in 1715. (4) In the case of treason, murder or rape
a pardon is ineffectual unless the offence be particularly specified
therein (13 Rich. II. c. i, § 2). Before the Bill of Rights, i Will.
& M. c. 2, § 2, this statute seems to have been frequently evaded
by a non obstante clause. But, since by the Bill of Rights no
dispensation by non obstante is allowed, general words contrary
to the statute of Richard II. would seem to be ineffectual.
Pardon may be actual or constructive. Actual pardon is by
warrant under the great seal, or under the sign-manual counter-
signed by a secretary of state (7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 28, § 13). Con-
structive pardon is obtained by endurance of the punishment.
By 9 Geo. IV. c. 32, § 3, the endurance of a punishment on
conviction of a felony not capital has the same effect as a pardon
under the great seal. This principle is reaffirmed in the Larceny
Act 1861, § 109, and in the Malicious Injuries to Property Act
1861, § 67. Further, pardon may be free or conditional. A
conditional pardon most commonly occurs where an offender
sentenced to death has his sentence commuted to penal servitude
or any less punishment. The condition of his pardon is the
endurance by him of the substituted punishment. The effect
of pardon, whether actual or constructive, is to put the person
pardoned in the position of an innocent man, so that he may have
' See further, on the ethical aspect, Montesquieu, &^n< des lois,
bk. vi. ch. 21 ; Bentham, Principles of Penal Law, bk. vi. ch. 4.
PARDUBITZ— PARENZO
8oi
an action against any one thenceforth calling him traitor or
felon. He cannot refuse to give evidence respecting the offence
pardoned on the ground that his answer would tend to criminate
him. A pardon may be pleaded on arraignment in bar of an
indictment (though not of an impeachment), or after verdict
in arrest of judgment. No doubt it would generally be advan-
tageous to plead it as early as possible.
It is obvious that, though the Crown is invested with the right
to pardon, this does not prevent pardon being granted by the
higher authority of an act of parHament. Acts of indemnity
have frequently been passed, the effect of which is the same as
pardon or remission by the Crown. Examples of acts of
indemnity are two private acts passed in 1880 to relieve Lords
Byron and Plunket from the disabilities and penalties to which
they were liable for sitting and voting in the House of Peers
without taking the oath.
Civil rights are not divested by pardon. The person injured
may have a right of action against the offender in spite of the
pardon of the latter, if the right of action has once vested, for
the Crown cannot affect private rights. In Scotland this civil
right is specially preserved by various statutes. Thus 1593,
c. 174, provides that, if any respite or remission happen to be
granted before the party grieved be first satisfied, the same is
to be null and of none avail. The assythment, or indemnification
due to the heirs of the person murdered from the murderer, is
due if the murderer has received pardon, though not if he has
suffered the penalty of the law. The pardon transmitted by
the secretary of state is applied by the supreme court, who grant
the necessary orders to the magistrates in whose custody the
convict is.
In the United States the president is empowered to pardon
oflfences against the United States, except in cases of impeach-
ments (U. S. Constitution, art. ii. § 2). The power of pardon is
also vested in the executive authority of the different states,
with or without the concurrence of the legislative authority,
although in some states there are boards of pardon of which the
governor is a member ex officio. Thus by the New York Code
of Criminal Procedure the governor of the state of New York has
power to grant reprieves, commutations and pardons, except
in the case of treason, where he can only suspend the execution
of the sentence until the case can be reported to the legislature,
with whom the power of pardon in this case rests. The usual
form of pardon in the United States is by deed under seal of
the executive.
PARDUBITZ (Czech, Parduhic), a town of Bohemia, Austria,
65 m. E. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900), 17,029, mostly Czech.
The most interesting buildings are the old fortified chateau of
the i6th century, with its Gothic chapel restored in 1880; the
church of St Bartholomew, dating in its present form from
1538; the new town hall (1894); the Griines Tor, also built in
1538; and the handsome new synagogue. Pardubitz has a
tolerably active trade in grain and timber, and the horse-fairs
attract numerous customers.
PAR6, AMBROISE (1510-1590), French surgeon, was born
at Laval, in the province of Maine, and died at Paris in 1590.
His professional career and services to his art are described in
the article Surgery. A collection of his works was pubhshed
at Paris in 1575 and they were afterwards frequently reprinted.
Several editions have appeared in German and Dutch, and
among the English translations was that of Thomas Johnson
(1665).
See J. F. Malgaignc, CEiivres computes (Paris, 1840); Le Paulmier,
Ambroise Pare d'apris de nouveaux documents decouverts aux archives
nationales et de papiers de famille (Paris, 1885); Stephen Paget,
Ambroise Pare and his Times (London, 1897).
PAREJA, JUAN DE (1606-1670), Spanish painter, was born
a slave in the West Indies about 1606, and in early life passed
into the service of Velazquez, who employed him in colour-
grinding and other menial work of the studio. By day he
closely watched his master's methods, and by night stealthily
practised with his brushes until he had attained considerable
manipulative skill. The story goes that, having succeeded in
producing a picture satisfactory to himself, he contrived furtively
to place it among those on which Velazquez had been working,
immediately before an expected visit of King Philip IV. The per-
formance was duly discovered and praised, and Pareja forthwith
received his freedom, which, however, he continued to devote
to his former employer's service. His extant works are not very
numerous; the best known, the " Calling of St Matthew," now in
the Prado, Madrid, has considerable merit as regards technique,
but does not reveal much originality, insight or devotional
feeling. He died in 1670.
PARENT, SIMON NAPOLEON (1855- ), Canadian politi-
cian, son of Simon Polycarpe Parent,' merchant, was born in the
village of Beauport, in the province of Quebec, on the 12th of
September 1855. He was educated at Laval University, where
he graduated in 1881. In the same year he was called to the bar
of the province of Quebec. He married in 1877 Marie Louise
Clara Gendron, of Beauport. In 1890 Parent was elected a
member of the municipal council of Quebec, and served as mayor
of the city from 1894 to 1906. From the year 1890 to 1905 he
represented the county of Saint-Sauveur as a Liberal in the
legislative assembly of his native province, and on the formation
of the Marchand administration in 1897 he accepted the port-
folio of minister of lands, forests and fisheries. After Marchand's
death in September 1900 he was caUed by the lieutenant-governor
to form a cabinet, and continued in ofhce as prime minister
until his retirement from pubhc hfe in August 1905. Parent
proved a capable administrator of provincial and municipal
affairs. Under his administration the finances of the city of
Quebec were improved, an electric car service was provided,
public parks were opened, a system of electric light was estab-
lished and the streets were well paved. In 1905 he became
chairman of the Transcontinental railway of Canada.
PARENTHESIS (from Gr. irapevrLdhai, put in alongside),
the grammatical term denoting the insertion (and so also the
signs for such insertion) of a word, phrase or sentence between
other words or in another sentence, without interfering with the
construction, and serving a qualifying, explanatory or supple-
mentary purpose. In writing or printing such parenthetical
words or sentences are marked off by commas, dashes, or, more
usually, by square or semi-circular brackets.
PARENZO, a seaport of Austria, in Istria, 95 m. S. by W. of
Trieste by rail. Pop. (1900), 9962, mostly Italian. It is situated
on the west coast of Istria, and is built on a peninsula nowhere
more than 5 ft. above the sea-level; and from the fact that the
pavements of the Roman period are 3 ft. below the present
surface it is inferred that this part of the coast is slowly subsiding.
Parenzo has considerable historic and architectural interest,
and its well-preserved cathedral of St Maurus, erected probably
between 535 and 543, is one of the most interesting buildings
in the whole of Austria. The basilican type is very pure; there
are three naves; the apse is hexagonal without and round within.
The total length of the church proper is only 120 ft.; but in front
of the west entrance is a square atrium with three arches on
each side; to the west of the atrium is a now roofless baptistery,
and to the west of that rises the campanile; so that the total
length from campanile to apse is about 230 ft. Mosaics, now
greatly spoiled, form the chief decoration of both outside and
inside. The high altar is covered with a noble baldachin,
dating from 1277. The basilica is one of those churches in which
the priest when celebrating mass stands behind the altar with his
face to the west. An older church is referred to in the inscrip-
tion of Euphrasius in the mosaic of the apse of the cathedral,
and remains of its mosaic pavement and of its apse have
been found under the floor of the present church; it belongs
perhaps to the 5th century A.D.; while at a still lower level
another pavement, perhaps of the 4th century A.D., has been
discovered, belonging to the first church, which lay to the north
of the present. Several inscriptions mention the name of
donors of parts of it. The mosaic pavement of the present
church was almost entirely destroyed in 1880, when the floor-
level was raised. Small portions of two temples and an inscribed
stone are the only remains of the ancient Roman city that
XX. 26
8o2
u
PARGA— PARINI
readily catch the eye. Parenzo is the seat of the Provincial
Diet of Istria, and is also an episcopal see.
Parenzo (Lat. Pare«<u<»j), conquered by the Romans in 178 B.C.,
was made a colony probably by Augustus after the battle of
Actium, for its title in inscriptions is Colonia Julia and not, as it
has often been given, Colonia Ulpia. It grew to be a place of
some note with about 6000 inhabitants within its walls and
10,000 in its suburbs. The bishopric, founded in 524, gradually
acquired ecclesiastical authority over a large number of abbeys
and other foundations in the surrounding country. The city,
which had long been under the influence of Venice, formally
recognized Venetian supremacy in 1267, and as a Venetian town
it was in 1354 attacked and plundered by Paganino Doria of
Genoa. The bishoprics of Pola and Parenzo were united in
1827.
See John Mason Neale, Notes on Dalmatia, Istria, &c. (London,
1861), with ground plan of cathedral; E. A. Freeman, Sketches from
the Subject and Neighbour Lands of Venice (London, 1881); and
Neumann, Der Dam von Parenzo (Vienna, 1902).
PARGA, a seaport of Albania, European Turkey, in the
vilayet of lannina, and on the Ionian Sea. Pop. (1905), about
5000, of whom the majority are Greeks. Parga has a rock-built
citadel and a harbour formed by a mole which the Venetians
constructed in 1572. It exports citrons, wool, oak, bark and
skins. Originally occupying the site of the ancient Toryne
(or Palaeo-Parga) , a short distance to the west, Parga was
removed to its present position after the Turkish invasion in the
15th century. Under Venetian protection, freely accepted in
1401, the inhabitants maintained their municipal independence
and commercial prosperity down to the destruction of the
Venetian repubhc in 1797, though on two occasions, in 1500 and
1560, their city was burned by the Turks. The attempts of Ali
Pasha of lannina to make himself master of the place were
thwarted partly by the presence of a French garrison in the
citadel and partly by the heroic attitude of the Pargiotes them-
selves, who were anxious to have their city incorporated with the
Ionian Repubhc. To secure their purpose they in 1814 expelled
the French garrison and accepted British protection; but the
British Government in 1815 determined to go back to the
convention of 1800 by which Parga was to be surrendered to
Turkey, though no mosque was to be built or Mussulman to
settle within its territory. Rather than subject themselves to
the tyranny of Ali Pasha, the Pargiotes decided to forsake their
country; and accordingly in 1819, having previously exhumed
and burned the remains of their ancestors, they migrated to the
Ionian Islands. The Turkish government was constrained to
pay them £142,425 by way of compensation.
PARGETTING (from 0. Fr. pargeter or parjeler; par, all over,
und Jeter, to throw, i.e. " rough cast "; other derivations sugges-
ted have been from Lat. spargere, to sprinkle, and from paries, a
wall, the last due to writing the parjet in the form pariet), a term
applied to the decoration in rehef of the plastering between the
studwork on the outside of half-timber houses, or sometimes
covering the whole waU. The devices were stamped on the
wet plaster. This seems generally to have been done by sticking
a number of pins in a board in certain hnes or curves, and then
pressing on the wet plaster in various directions, so as to form
geometrical figures. Sometimes these devices are in relief, and
in the time of Ehzabeth represent figures, birds, foliages, &c.;
fine examples are to be seen at Ipswich, Maidstone, Newark,
&c. (See Plaster-work.) The term is also applied to the
lining of the inside of smoke flues to form an even surface for
the passage of the smoke.
PARIAH, a name long adopted in European usage for the
" outcastes " of India. Strictly speaking the Paraiyans are
the agricultural labourer caste of the Tamil country in Madras,
and are by no means the lowest of the low. The majority are
ploughmen, formerly adscripti glebae, but some of them are
weavers, and no less than 350 subdivisions have been distin-
guished. The name can be traced back to inscriptions of the
nth century, and the " Pariah poet," Tiruvalluvar, author of
the famous Tamil poem, the Kurral, probably lived at about that
time. The accepted derivation of the word is from the Tamil
parai, the large drum of which the Paraiyans are the hereditary
beaters at festivals, &c. In 1901 the total number of Paraiyans
in all India was 2^ millions, almost confined to the south of
Madras. In the Telugu country their place is taken by the
Malas, in the Kanarese country by the Holeyas and in the
Deccan by the Mahars. Some of their privileges and duties
seem to show that they represent the original owners of the land,
subjected by a conquering race. The Pariahs supphed a notable
proportion of Chve's sepoys, and are still enlisted in the Madras
sappers and miners. They have always acted as domestic
servants to Europeans. That they are not deficient in intelli-
gence is proved by the high position which some of them, when
converted to Christianity, have occupied in the professions.
In modern official usage the " outcastes " generally are termed
Panchamas in Madras, and special efforts are made for their
education.
See Caldwell, Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian Languages
(pp. 540-554), and the Madras Census Reports for 1 89 1 and 1901.
PARIAH DOG, a dog of a domesticated breed that has
reverted, in a greater or less degree, to a half-wild condition.
Troops of such dogs are found in the towns and villages of
Eastern Europe, Asia and Africa; and they probably interbreed
with wolves, jackals and wild dogs. The Indian breed is near
akin to the Australian dingo.
PARIAN CHRONICLE {Chronicon or Marmor Parium), a
marble tablet found in the island of Paros in 1627, now among
the Arundel Marbles at Oxford. It originally embraced an
outline of Greek history from the reign of Cecrops, legendary
king of Athens, down to the archonship of Diognetus at
Athens (264 B.C.). The Chronicle seems to have been set up by
a private person, but, as the opening of the inscription has
perished, we do not know the occasion or motives which prompted
the step. The author of the Chronicle has given much attention
to the festivals, and to poetry and music; thus he has recorded
the dates of the estabhshment of festivals, of the introduction
of various kinds of poetry, the births and deaths of the poets,
and their victories in contests of poetical skill. On the other
hand, important political and military events are often entirely
omitted; thus the return of the Heraclidae, Lycurgus, the wars
of Messene, Draco, Solon, Cleisthenes, Pericles, the Peloponnesian
War and the Thirty Tyrants are not even mentioned. The years
are reckoned backwards from the archonship of Diognetus, and
the dates arc further specified by the kings and archons of
Athens. The reckoning by Olympiads is not employed. The
Chronicle consists of 93 lines, written chiefly in the Attic dialect.
The Parian Chronicle (first published by Selden in 1628) is printed
by A. Bcickh in the Corpus inscriptionum graecarum, vol. ii.. No. 2374,
and by C. W. Miiller in the Fragmenta historicorum graecorum, vol. i. ;
there are separate editions by J. Flach (1883) and F. Jacoby (1904).
A New fragment was discovered in 1897, bringing the Chronicle
down to the year 299 (cd. Crispi and Wilhelm in Mittheilungen des
archaeologischen Instituts, athenische Abtheilung, vol. x.xii., 1897). See
also " Notes on the Text of the Parian Marble " and review of
Jacoby 's edition by J. A. R. Munro in Classical Review (March and
October 1 90 1 and June 1905).
PARINI, GIUSEPPE (1729-1709), Italian poet, was born at
Bosio in the Milanese, on the 22nd of May 1729. His parents,
who possessed a small farm on the shore of Lake Pusiano, sent
him to Milan, where he studied under the Barnabites in the
Academy Arcimboldi, maintaining himself latterly by copying
manuscripts. In 1752 he published at Lugano, under the
pseudonym of Ripano Eupihno, a small volume of sciolta
verse which secured his election to the Accademia dei
Trasformati at Milan and to that of the Arcadi at Rome. His
poem, II Maltino, which was published in 1763, and which
marked a distinct advance in Itahan blank verse, consisted of
ironical instructions to a young nobleman as to the best method
of spending his mornings. It at once established Parini's
popularity and influence, and two years later a continuationof
the same theme was published under the title of // Mezrogiorno.
The Austrian plenipotentiary, Count Firmian, interested himself
in procuring the poet's advancement, appointing him. in the
PARIS— PARIS, F. DE
803
first place, editor of the Milan Gazette, and in 1769, in despite
of the Jesuits, to a specially created chair of belles lettres in the
Palatine School. On the French occupation of Milan he was
appointed magistrate by Napoleon and Saliceti, but almost
immediately retired to resume his literary work and to complete
// Vespro and La Nottc (published after his death), which with
the two other poems already mentioned compose what is collec-
tively entitled II Giorno. Among his other poems his rather
artificial Odi, composed between 1757 and 1795, have appeared
in various editions. He died on the 15th of August 1799.
His works, edited by Reina, were published in 6 vols. 8vo (Milan,
1801-1804) ; and an excellent critical edition by G. Mazzoni appeared
at Florence in 1897.
PARIS (also called Alexandros), in Greek legend, the son of
Priam, king of Troy and Hecuba. Before he was born his
mother dreamed that she was delivered of a firebrand. The
dream was interpreted that her child would ruin his country,
and when Paris was born he was exposed on Mt Ida. His
life was saved by the herdsmen, and he grew up among them,
distinguished for beauty and strength, till he was recognized and
received by his parents. He was said to have been called
Alexandros from his bravery in defending the herds against
raids. When the strife arose at the marriage of Peleus and
Thetis between Hera, Athena and Aphrodite, each claiming the
apple that should belong to the most beautiful, Paris was selected
as the judge. The three rivals unveiled their divine charms
before a mortal judge on Mt Ida. Each tried to bribe the
judge, Hera by promising power, Athena wisdom. Aphrodite
the most beautiful woman in the world. Paris decided in favour
of Aphrodite, and thus made Hera and Athena bitter enemies
of his country (Homer, Iliad, xxiv. 25; Euripides, Troades, 925;
Andromache, 284; Helena, 23). To gain the woman whom
Aphrodite had promised, Paris set sail for Lacedaemon, deserting
his old love Oenone, daughter of the river-god Cebren, who in
vain warned him of the consequences. He was hospitably
received by Menelaus, whose kindness he repaid by persuading
his wife Helen to flee with him to Troy (Iliad, vi. 290). The
siege of Troy by the united Greeks followed. Paris proved a
lazy and backward fighter, though not wanting in actual courage
when he could be roused to exert himself. Before the capture
of the city he was mortally wounded by Philoctetes with an
arrow (Sophocles, Philoctetes, 1426). He then bethought him of
the slighted nymph Oenone, who he knew could heal the wound.
He was carried into her presence, but she refused to save him.
Afterwards, when she found he was dead, she committed suicide
(Apollodorus iii. 12). The judgment of Paris became a favour-
ite subject in Greek art. Paris is represented as a beautiful
young man, beardless, wearing the pointed Phrygian cap, and
often holding the apple in his hand.
PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-1881), French savant, was
born at Avenay (Marne) on the 25th of March 1800. He
published in 1824 an Apologie pour I'icole romantique, and took
an active part in Parisian journalism. His appointment, in
1828, to the department of manuscripts in the Bibliotheque
royale left him leisure to pursue his studies in medieval French
literature. Paulin Paris lived before minute methods of
research had been generally applied to modern literature, and
his chief merit is that by his numerous editions of early French
poems he continued the work begun by Dominique Meon in
arousing general interest in the then little-known epics of
chivalry. Admitted to the Academie des Inscriptions et Belles
Lettres in 1837, he was shortly afterwards appointed on the
commission entrusted with the continuation of the Histoire
litieraire de la France. In 1853 a chair of medieval literature
was founded at the College de France, and Paulin Paris became
the first occupant. He retired in 1872 with the title of honorary
professor, and was promoted officer of the Legion of Honour in
the next year. He died on the 13th of February 1881 in Paris.
His works include : Manuscrits frangais de la bibliothique du roi
(7 vols., 1836-1848); Li Romans di Garin le Loherain, precedi d'un
examen des romans carlovingiens (1883-1885); Li Romans de Bertc
aux grans piis (1832); Le Romancero frangais, histoire de quelques
anciens trouveres et choix de leurs chansons (1833); an edition of the
Grandes chroniqucs de France (1836-1840); La Chanson d'Anlioche
(1848); Les Aventures de maitre Renart et d'Ysengrtn (1861J and
Les Romans de la table ronde (1868-1877), both put into modern
French.
His son Gaston Paris contributed a biographical notice to vol. xxix.
of the Histoire litteraire.
PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903), French
scholar, son of Paulin Paris, v/as born at Avenay (Marne) on the
9th of August 1839. In his childhood Gaston Paris learned to
appreciate the Old French romances as poems and stories,
and this early impulse to the study of Romance literature was
placed on a solid basis by courses of study at Bonn (1856-1857)
under Friedrich Diez, at Gottingen (1857-1858) and finally at the
£cole des Chartes (1858-1861). His first important work was an
Etude siir le rdle de I'accent latin dans la languc franiaise (1862).
The subject was developed later in his Lcttre a M. Lion Gauticr
siir la versification latine rhythmique (1S66). Gaston Paris
maintained that French versification was a natural develop-
ment of popular Latin methods which depended on accent
rather than quantity, and were as widely different from classical
rules as the Low Latin was from the classical idiom. For his
degree as doctor he presented a thesis on the Histoire poetique
de Charlemagne (1865). He succeeded his father as professor of
medieval French literature at the College de France in 1872; in
1876 he was admitted to the Academy of Inscriptions and in
1896 to the French Academy; and in 1895 he was appointed
director of the College de France. Gaston Paris won a European
reputation as a Romance scholar. He had learnt German
methods of exact research, but besides being an accurate
philologist he was a literary critic of great acumen and breadth
of view, and brought a singularly clear mind to bear on his
favourite study of medieval French literature. His Vie de
Saint-Alexis (1872) broke new ground and provided a model
for future editors of medieval texts. It included the original
text and the variations of it dating from the 12th, 13th and 14th
centuries. Gaston Paris contributed largely to the Histoire
litteraire de la France, and with Paul Meyer published Romania,
a journal devoted to the study of Romance literature. Among
his other numerous works may be mentioned Les Plus anciens
monuments de la langue Jranqaise (1875); a Manuel d'ancien
Fran^ais (1888); an edition of the Mystere dela passion d' Arnold
Cretan (1878), in collaboration with M. Gaston Raynaud;
Deux redactions du roman des sept sages de Rome (1876); a
translation of the Grammaire des latigues romancs {i?,']^-!?}-]?)) of
Friedrich Diez, in collaboration with MM. Brachet and Morel-
Fatio. Among his works of a more popular nature are La Poisie
du moyen dge (1885 and 1895); Penseurs et po'etcs (1897); Poemes
et ISgendes du moyen dge (1900); Francois Villon (1901), an
admirable monograph contributed to the " Grands ficrivains
Franfais " series; Legendes du moyen dge (1903). His excellent
summary of medieval French literature forms a volume of the
Temple Primers. Gaston Paris endeared himself to a wide
circle of scholars outside his own country by his unfailing
urbanity and generosity. In France itself he trained at the
ficole des Chartes and the College de France a band of disciples
who continued the traditions of exact research that he estab-
lished. Among them were: Leopold Pannier; Marius Sepet,
the author of Le Drame chretien au moyen dge (1878) and of the
Origines catholiques du theatre moderne (1901); Charles Joret;
Alfred Morel-Fatio; Gaston Raynaud, who is responsible for
various volumes of the excellent editions published by the
Societe des anciens textesfranQais; Arsene Darmesteter and others.
Gaston Paris died in Paris on the 6th of March 1903.
See " Hommage k Gaston Paris " (1903), the opening lecture of his
successor, Joseph B^dier, in the chair of medieval literature at the
College de France; A. Thomas, Essais de philologie frangaise (1897);
W. P. Ker, in the Fortnightly Review (July, 1904); M. Croiset,
Notice sur Gaston Paris (1904) ; J. B^dier et M. Roques, Bibliographie
des travaux de Gaston Paris (1904).
PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (1690-1727), French theologian, was
born in Paris on the 3rd of June 1690. He zealously opposed
the bull Unigenitus (1713), which condemned P. Quesnel's
8o4
PARIS, COMTE DE— PARIS
annotated translation of the Bible. He gave further support
to the Jansenists, and when he died (May i, 1727) his grave in
the cemetery of St Medard became a place of fanatical pilgrimage
and wonder-working. The king ordered the churchyard to be
closed in 1732, but earth which had been taken from the grave
proved equally efficacious and helped to encourage the disorder
which marked the close of the Jansenist struggle (see Jansenism).
Lives by B. de la Bruyere and B. Doyen (1731). See also P. F.
Matthieu, Histoire des miracles et des cowulsionnaires de St Medard;
M. ToUemache, French Jansenists (London, 1893).
PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT D'ORL^ANS, Comte de
(1838-1894), son of the due d'Orleans, the eldest son of King
Louis Philippe, was born on the 24th of August 1838. His
mother was the princess Helen of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, a
Protestant. By the death of his father through a carriage
accident in 1842, the count, who was then only four years of
age, became heir-apparent to the French throne. On the
deposition of Louis Philippe in 1848, the duchess of Orleans
struggled to secure the succession to her son, and bore him
through an excited populace to the chamber of deputies. The
chamber itself was soon invaded, however, and the Republic
proclaimed. The Orleanists were driven into exile, and the
duchess proceeded with her two sons, the comte de Paris and
the due de Chartres, first to Eisenach in Saxony, and then to
Claremont in Surrey. After his mother's death in 1858 the
count made a long foreign tour. In 1S61 he and his brother
accompanied their uncle, the prince de Joinville, to the United
States. The brothers were attached to the staff of General
McClellan, commanding the" Army of the Potomac." In April
1862 the count took part in the siege of Yorktown, and was
present at the action of Williamsburg on the 5th of May. He was
also with McClellan at the battle of Fair Oaks, and was personally
engaged in the sanguinary battle at Gaines Mill on the 27th of
June. When difficulties arose between France and the United
States with regard to the affairs of Mexico, the Orleans princes
withdrew from the American army and returned to Europe.
During the winter of 1862-1863 the count took a special interest
in the organization of the Lancashire Cotton Famine Fund, and
contributed an article to the Revue des deux mondes entitled
" Christmas Week in Lancashire." On the 30th of May 1864 he
married his cousin, the princess Marie Isabelle, daughter of the
due de Montpensier; and his son and heir, the due d'Orleans,
was born at York House, Twickenham, in 1869. The count was
refused permission to serve in the Franco-Prussian War, but after
the fall of Napoleon III. he returned to France. Abstaining
from putting himself forward, he hved quietly on his estates,
which had been restored to him by a vote of the Assembly. In
August 1873 there was an important political conference at
Frohsdorf, the result of which was that a fusion was effected,
by which the comte de Paris agreed to waive his claims to the
throne in favour of those of the comte de Chambord. By the
death of the latter in 18S3 the count became undisputed head
of the house of Bourbon; but he did not show any disposition to
push his claims. The popularity of the Orleans family, however,
was shown on the occasion of the marriage of the comte de Paris's
eldest daughter with the duke of Braganza, son of the king of
Portugal, in May 1886. This so alarmed the French government
that it led to a new law of expulsion, by which direct claimants
to the French throne and their heirs were banished from France
(June II, 1886). The comte de Paris again retired to England,
taking up his abode at Sheen House, near Richmond Park.
Here he devoted his leisure to his favourite studies. In addition
to his work Lcs Associations ouvrieres en Angletcrre, which was
published in 1869 and translated into English, the count edited
the letters of his father, and pubhshed at intervals in eight
volumes his Histoire de la guerre civile en Ameriquc. In his
later years the count seriously compromised the prospects of
the Royalist party by the relations into which he entered with
General Boulanger. He died on the 8th of September 1894.
PARIS, the capital of France and the department of Seine,
situated on both banks of the Seine, 233 m. from its mouth and
2S5 m. S.S.E. of London by rail and steamer via Dover and
Calais, in 48° 50' 14" N., 2° 20' 14" E. (observatory). It occupies
the centre of the so-called Paris basin, which is traversed by the
Seine from south-east to north-west, open towards the west,
and surrounded by a line of Jurassic heights. The granitic
substratum is covered by Jurassic, Cretaceous and Tertiary
formations; and at several points building materials — freestone,
limestone or gypsum — have been laid bare by erosion. It is
partly, indeed, to the existence of such quarries in its neighbour-
hood, and to the vicinity of the grain-bearing regions of the
Beauce and Brie that the city owes its development. Still
more important is its position at the meeting-place of the great
natural highways leading from the Mediterranean to the ocean
by way of the Rhone valley and from Spain northwards over the
lowlands of western France. The altitude of Paris varies
between 80 ft. (at the Point du Jour, the exit of the Seine from
the fortifications) and 420 ft. at the hill of Montmartre in the
north of the city; the other chief eminence is the hill of Ste
Genevieve, on the left bank. Since 1840 Paris has been com-
pletely surrounded by a wall, which since i860 has served also as
the limit for the collection of municipal customs dues (octroi).
Proposals are constantly being brought forward to demolish this
wall — which, with its talus, is encircled by a broad and deep
ditch — either entirely or at least from the Point du Jour, where
the Seine intersects the wall below the city, to Pantin, so as to
extend the limits of the city as far as the Seine, which runs
almost parallel with the wall for that distance. Within the wall
the area of the city is 19,279 acres; the river runs through it
from east to west in a broad curve for a distance of nearly 8 m.
Climate. — Paris has a fairly uniform climate. The mean tempera-
ture, calculated from observations extending over fifty years (1841-
1890), is 49°-8 F. The highest reading (observed in July 1874 and
again in July 1881) is 101° F., the lowest (in December 1879) is —14°.
The monthly means for the fifty years 1841-1890 were: January
35°-9, February 38°-3, March 42°-3, April 49°-5, May 55°-6, June
6i°-7, July 64°-6, August 63°-5, September 58°-2, October 49°-8,
November 40°'2, December 36°'6. The Seine freezes when the tem-
perature falls below 18°. It was frozen in nearly its whole extent
from Bercy to Auteuil in the winters of 1819-1820, 1829-1830,
1879-1880 and 1890-1891. Rain falls, on an average, on about
200 days, the average quantity in a year being between 22 and 23 in.
The rainfall from December to April inclusive is less than the average,
while the rainfall from May to November exceeds the average for
the whole year. The driest month is February, the rainiest June —
the rainfall for these months being respectively i'3 in. and 2-3 in.
The prevailing winds are those from the south, south-west and west.
The general character of the climate, somewhat continental in winter
and oceanic in summer, has been more closely observed since the three
observatories at different heights on the Eiffel Tower were added in
1889 to the old-established ones of the parks of St Maur and Mont-
souris.' The observatory at the old church-tower St Jacques (i6th
century) in the centre of the city, and since 1896 a municipal estab-
lishment, is of special interest on account of the study made there
of the transparency and purity of the air. There are barely 100 days
in the year when the air is very clear. Generally the city is covered
by floating mists, possibly 1500 ft. in thickness. During the preva-
lence of north-easterly winds the sky is most obscured, since on that
side lies the greatest number of factories with smoking chimneys.
Defences. — Paris, described in a recent German account as
the greatest fortress in the world, possesses three perfectly
distinct rings of defences. The two inner, the enceinte and the
circle of detached forts around it, are of the bastioned type which
French engineers of the Noizet school favoured; they were
built in the time of Louis Philippe, and with very few additions
sustained the siege of 1870-71. The outer works, of more
modern type, forming an entrenched camp which in area is
rivalled only by the Antwerp system of defences, were built
after the Franco-German War.
The enceinte (" the fortifications " of the guide-books) is of
plain bastion trace, without ravelins but with a deep dry ditch
(escarp, but not counterscarp revetted). It is nearly 22 m. in
perimeter and has 93 bastions, 67 gates and 9 railway passages.
The greater part of the enceinte has, however, been given up,
and a larger one projected — as at Antwerp — by connecting up
the old detached forts.
' The observatories of the Tour St Jacques and of Montsouris
belong to the municipality of Paris; that of St Maur depends on the
Central Bureau of Meteorologj', a national institution.
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DEFENCES)
PARIS
805
.■These forts, which endured the siege in 1870-71, have ;i
perimeter of about 34 m. Each is designed as a miniature
fortress with ample casemates and high cavahers, the tenailles
and ravelins, however, being as a rule omitted. On the north
side there are three forts (connected by a plain parapet) around
St Denis, one of these being arranged to control an inundation.
Ne.\t, to the right, or eastward, comes Fort Aubcrvillers, which
commands the approaches north of the wood of Bondy. These
four works lie in relatively low ground. The eastern works are
situated on higher ground (300-350 ft.); they consist of four
forts and various small redoubts, and command the approaches
from the great wood of Bondy. In low ground again at the
narrowest point of the great loop of the Marne (near St Maur-
Ics-Fosses) there are two redoubts connected by a parapet, and
between the Seine and the Marne, in advance of their conlluencc.
Fort Charenton. On the south side of the city, hardly more
than a mile from the enceinte, is a row of forts, Ivry, Bi'cetrc,
Montrouge, Vanves and Issy, solidly constructed works in them-
selves but, as was shown in 1870, nearly useless for the defences
of the city against rilled guns, as (with the exception of Bicetre)
they are overlooked by the plateau of Chatillon. On the west
side of Paris is the famous fortress of Mont Valerien, standing
536 ft. above the sea and about 450 above the river. This
completes the catalogue of the inner fort-line. It is strengthened
by two groups of works which were erected in " provisional "
form during the siege,' and afterwards reconstructed as perma-
nent forts — Hautes Bruyeres on the plateau of Villejuif, i m.
south of Fort Bicetre, and the Chatillon fort and batteries which
now prevent access to the celebrated plateau that overlooks
Paris from a height of 600 ft., and of which the rear batteries
sweep almost the whole of the ground between Bicetre and Mont
Valerien.
The new works are 11 m. from the Louvre and 8 from the
enceinte. They form a circle of 75 m. circum-ference, and an
army which attempted to invest Paris to-day would have to be
at least 500,000 strong, irrespective of all field and covering
forces. The actual defence of the works, apart from troops
temporarily collected in the fortified area, would need some
170,000 men only.
The entrenched camp falls into three sections — the north, the
east and the south-west. The forts (of the general 1874-1875
French type, see Fortification and Siegecraft) have from
24 to 60 heavy guns and 600 to 1200 men each, the redoubts,
batteries and annexe-batteries generally 200 men and 6 guns.
In the northern section a ridge crosses the northern extremities
of the St Germain-Argenteuil loop of the Seine after the fashion
of the armature of a horse-shoe magnet; on this ridge (about
560 ft.) is a group of works, named after the village of Cormeilles,
commanding the lower Seine, the Argenteuil peninsula and the
lower ground towards the Oise. At an average distance of
5 m. from St Denis lie the works of the Montlignon-Domont
position (about 600-670 ft.), which sweep aU ground to the
north, cross their fire with the Cormeilles works, and deny
the plateau of Montmorency-Mery-sur-Oise to an enemy. At
Ecouen, on an isolated hill, are a fort and a redoubt, and to the
right near these Fort Stains and two batteries on the ceinture
railway. The important eastern section consists of the \'aujours
position, the salient of the whole fortress, which commands the
countryside to the north as far as Dammartin and Clayc, crosses
its fire with Stains on the one hand and Villiers ontheolher,and
itself lies on a steep hill at the outer edge of the forest of Bondy
which allows free and concealed communication between the
fort and the inner line of works. The Vaujours works are
armoured. Three miles to the right of Vaujours is Fort Chcllcs,
which bars the roads and railways of the Marne valley. On the
other side of the Marne, on ground made historic by the events
of 1870, are forts Villiers and Champigny, designed as a bridge-
head to enable the defenders to assemble in front of the Marne.
To the right of these is a fort' near Boissy-St-Leger, and on
the right of the whole section are the armoured works of the
' The plateau of Mont Avron on the east side, which was provision-
ally fortified in 1870, is not now defended.
Villeneuve-St-Georges position, which command the Seine and
Yeres country as far as Brie and Corbeil. The left of the south-
western section is formed by the powerful Fort Palaiseau and its
annexe-batteries, which command the Yvette valley. Behind
Fort Palaiseau, midway between it and Fort Chatillon, is the
Verrieres grou[), overlooking the valley of the Bievre. To the
right of Palaiseau on the high ground towards Versailles are
other works, and around Versailles itself is a semi-circle of
batteries right and left of the armoured Fort St Cyr. In various
positions around Marly there are some seven or eight batteries.
Topography. — The development of Paris can be traced out-
wards in approximately concentric rings from the Gallo-Roman
town on the lie de la Cite to the fortifications which now form
its boundary. A line of boulevards known as the Grands
Boulevards,^ coinciding in great part with ramparts of the 14th,
i6th and 17th centuries, encloses most of old Paris, a portion of
which extends southwards beyond the Boulevard St Germain.
Outside the Grands Boulevards lie the faubourgs or okl suburbs,
round which runs another enceinte of boulevards — boulevards
cxlerieurs — corresponding to ramparts of the i8lh century.
Beyond them other and more modern suburbs incorporated
with the city after i860 stretch to the boulevards which line the
present fortifications. On the north, east and south these are
commercial or industrial in character, inhabited by the working
classes and petite bourgeoisie, while here and there there are still
areas devoted to market gardening; those on the west are resi-
dential centres for the upper classes (Auteuil and Passy). Of
the faubourgs of Paris those to the north and east are mainly
commercial (Faubourgs St Denis, St Martin, Poissonniere) or in-
dustrial (Faubourgs du Temple and St Antoinc) in character, while
to the west the Faubourg St Honore, the Champs Elysees and
the Faubourg St Germain are occupied by the residences of the
upper classes of the population. The chief resorts of business
and pleasure are concentrated within the Grands Boulevards,
and more especially on the north bank of the Seine. No uni-
formity marks the street-plan of this or the other quarters of
the city. One broad and almost straight thoroughfare bisects
it under various names from Neuilly (W.N.W.) to Vincennes
(E.S.E.). Within the limits of the Grands Boulevards it is
known as the Rue de Rivoli (over 2 m. in length) and the Rue
St Antoine and runs parallel with and close to the Seine from the
Place de la Concorde to the Place de la Bastille. From the
Eastern station to the observatory Paris is traversed N.N.E.
and S.S.W. for 2 2 m. by another important thoroughfare —
the Boulevard de Strasbourg continued as the Boulevard de
Sebastopol, as the Boulevard du Palais on the lie de la Cite,
and on the south bank as the Boulevard St Michel. The
line of the Grands Boulevards from the Madeleine to the
Bastille, by way of the Place de I'Opera, the Porte St Denis
and the Porte St Martin (two triumphal arches erected in the
latter half of the 17th century in honour of Louis XIV.) and the
Place de la Repubhque stretches for nearly 3 m. It contains
most of the large cafes and several of the chief theatres, and
though its gaiety and animation are concentrated at the western
end — in the Boulevards des Italiens, des Capucines and de la
Madeleine — it is as a whole one of the most celebrated avenues
in the world. On the right side of the river may also be men-
tioned the Rue Royale, from the Madeleine to the Place de la
Concorde; the Malesherbes and Haussmann boulevards, the
first stretching from the Place Madeleine north-west to the
fortifications, the second from the Grands Boulevards near the
Place de I'Opera nearly to the Place de I'fitoile; the Avenue de
rOpera, which unites the Place du Palais Royal, approximately
the central point of Paris, with the Place de I'Opera; the Rue de
la Paix, connecting the Place Vend6me with the Place de I'Opera,
and noted for its fashionable dress-making establishments, and
the Rue Auber and Rue du Quatre Septembre, also terminating
in the Place de I'Opera, in the vicinity of which are found some
^ The word boulevard means " bulwark " or fortification and thus
has direct rt-ference to the old ramparts. But since the middle of
the iQth century the title has been applied to new thoroughfares
not traced on the site of an old enceinte.
8o6
PARIS
[TOPOGRAPHY
of the finest shops in Paris; the Rue St Honore running parallel
with the Rue de Rivoli, from the Rue Royale to the Central
Markets; the Rue de Lafayette, one of the longest streets of
Paris, traversing the town from the Opera to the Bassin de la
Villette; the Boulevard Magenta, from Montmartre to the
Place de la Republique; and the Rue de Turbigo, from this
place to the Halles Centrales. On the left side of the river the
main thoroughfare is the Boulevard St Germain, beginning at
the Pont Sully, skirting the Quartier Latin, the educational
quarter on the north, and terminating at the Pont de la Concorde
after traversing a quarter mainly devoted to ministries, embassies
and other official buildings and to the residences of the noblesse.
Squares. — Some of the chief squares have already been mentioned.
The finest is the Place de la Concorde, laid out under Louis XV. by
J. A. Gabriel and noted as the scene of the execution of Louis XVL,
Marie Antoinette and many other victims of the Revolution. The
central decoration consists of an obelisk from the great temple at
Luxor in Upper Egypt, presented to Louis Philippe in 1831 by
Mehemet AH, and flanked by two monumental fountains. The forma-
tion of the Place Vendome was begun towards the end of the 17th
century. In the middle there is a column surmounted by a statue
of Napoleon t. and decorated with plates of bronze on which are
depicted scenes from the campaign of 1805. The Place de I'Etoile
is the centre of twelve avenues radiating from it in all directions.
The chief of these is the fashionable Avenue des Champs Elysdes
which connects it with the Place de la Concorde; while on the other
side the Avenue de la Grande Armee leads to the fortifications, the
two forming a section of the main artery of Paris; the well-wooded
Avenue du Bois de Boulogne forms the threshold of the celebrated
park of that name. In the centre of the Place, the Arc de Triomphe
de I'Etoile, the largest triumphal arch in the world (162 ft. high by
147 ft. wide), commemorates the military triumphs of the Revolu-
tionary and Napoleonic troops. The finest of the sculptures on its
fagades is that representing the departure of the volunteers in 1792
by Frangois Rude. The Place de la R6publique, in which stands a
huge statue of the Republic, did not receive its present form till 1879.
The Place de la Bastille stands a little to the east of the site of the
famous state prison. It contains the Colonne de Juillet erected in
memory of those who fell in the revolution of July 1830. The Place
du Carrousel, enclosed within the western wings of the Louvre and so
named from a revel given there by Louis XIV., was enlarged about
the middle of the 19th century. The triumphal arch on its west side
commemorates the victories of 1805 and formed the main entrance
to the Tuileries palace (see below). Facing the arch there is a stone
pyramid forming the background to a statue of Gambetta. Other
squares are the Place des Victoires, dating from 1685, with the
equestrian statue of Louis XIV.; the Place des Vosges, formerly
Place Royale, formed by Henry IV. on the site of the old Tournelles
Palace and containing the equestrian statue of Louis XIII. ; the
Place de I'Hotel de Ville, once the Place de Greve and the scene of
many state executions from the beginning of the 14th century till
1830; the Place du Chatelet, on the site of the prison of the Grand
Ch&telet, pulled down in 1802, with a fountain and a column com-
memorative of victories of Napoleon, and the Place de la Nation
decorated with a fountain and a bronze group representing the
Triumph of the Republic, and with two columns of 1788 surmounted
by statues of St Louis and Philip Augustus, corresponding at the
east of the city to the Place de 1 Etoile at the west.
South of the Seine are the Place St Michel, adorned with a monu-
mental fountain, and one of the great centres of traffic in Paris;
the Carrefour de I'Observatoire, with the monument to Francis
Jarnier, the explorer, and the statue of General Ney standing on
the spot where he was shot ; the Place du Panthfon ; the Place Denfert
Rochereau, adorned with a colossal lion symbolizing the defence of
Belfort in 1S71 ; the Place St Sulpice, with a modern fountain
embellished with the statues of the preachers Bossuet, Fenclon,
Massillon and Flechier; the Place Vauban, behind the Invalides;
and the Place du Palais Bourbon, in front of the Chamber of Depu-
ties. On the lie de la Cite in front of the cathedral is the Place
du Parvis-Notre-Dame, with the equestrian statue of Charlemagne.
Besides those already mentioned, Paris possesses other
monumental fountains of artistic value. The Fontaine des Inno-
cents in the Square des Innocents belonged to the church of that
name demolished in 1786. It is a graceful work of the Renaissance
designed by Pierre Lescot and retains sculptures by Jean Goujon.
On its reconstruction on the present site other carvings were added
by Augustin Pajou. A fountain of the first half of the l8th century
in the Rue de Grenelle is remarkable for its rich decoration, while
another in the Avenue de I'Observatoire is an elaborate modern
work, the central group of which by J. B. Carpeaux represents the
four quarters of the globe supporting the terrestrial sphere. The
Fontame de Medicis (17th centur>-) in the Luxembourg garden
is a work of Salomon E)ebrosse in the Doric style; the fountain in
the Place Louvois (1844) representing the rivers of France is by
Louis Visconti. In 1872 Sir Richard Wallace gave the municipality
fifty drinking-fountains which are placed in different parts of the
city.
The Seine. — The Seine flows for nearly 8 m. through Paris.
As it enters and as it leaves the city it is crossed by a viaduct
used by the circular railway and for ordinary traffic; that of
Point du Jour has two storeys of arches. Three bridges — the
PassereUe de I'Estacade, between the lie St Louis and the right
bank, the Pont des Arts and the PassereUe DebiUy (close to the
Trocadero) — are for foot passengers only; all the others are for
carriages as well. The most famous, and in its actual state the
oldest, is the Pont Neuf, begun in 1578, the two portions of which
rest on the extremity of the island called La Cite, the point at
which the river is at its widest (863 ft.). On the embankment
below the Pont Neuf stands the equestrian statue of Henry IV.
Between La Cite and the left bank the width of the lesser channel
is reduced to 95 ft. The river has a width of 540 ft. as it enters
Paris and of 446 ft. as it leaves it. After its entrance to the city
it passes under the bridges of Tolbiac, Bercy and Austerhtz,
that of Sully, those of Marie and Louis Philippe between the lie
St Louis and the right bank; that of La Tournelle between the
lie St Louis and the left bank; that of St Louis between the lie
St Louis and La Cite. The Cite communicates with the right
bank by the Pont d'Arcole, the Pont Notre-Dame, built on
foundations of the 15th century, and the Pont au Change, owing
its name to the shops of the money-changers and goldsmiths
which bordered its medieval predecessor; with the left bank by
that of the Archeveche, the so-called Pont au Double, the Petit
Pont and the Pont St Michel, the original of which was built
towards the end of the 14th century. Below the Pont Neuf
come the Pont des Arts, Pont du Carrousel, Pont Royal (a fine
stone structure leading to the Tuileries), and those of Solferino,
La Concorde, Alexandre IIL (the finest and most modern bridge
in Paris, its foundation-stone having been laid by the czar
Nicholas II. in 1896), Invalides, Alma, lena (opposite the Champ
de Mars), Passy, Grenelle and Mirabeau. The Seine has at
times caused disastrous floods in the city, as in January 1910.
(See Seine.)
The houses of Paris nowhere abut directly on the river banks,
which in their whole extent from the bridge of Austerhtz to
Passy arc protected by broad embankments or " quais." At the
foot of these lie several ports for the unloading and loading of
goods, &c. — on the right side Bercy for wines, La Rapee for
timber, Port Mazas, the Port de I'Arsenal at the mouth of the
St Martin canal, ^ the Port Henry IV., des Celestins, St Paul,
des Ormes, de I'Hotel de Ville (the two latter for fruit) and the
Port St Nicolas (foreign vessels) ; on the left bank the Port de la
Gare for petroleum, St Bernard for wines and the embarcation
of sewage, and the ports of La Tournelle (old iron), Orsay
(building material), the Invalides, Gros Caillou, the Cygnes,
Grenelle and Javel (refuse). Besides the river ports, the port
of Paris also includes the canals of St Martin and the portions of
the canals of St Denis and the Ourcq within the walls. All three
debouch in the busy and extensive basin of La Villette in the
north-east of the city. The traffic of the port is chiefly in coal,
building materials and stone, manure and fertilizers, agricultural
produce and food-stuffs.
Promenades and Parks. — In the heart of Paris are situated
the gardens of the Tuileries ^ (56 acres), designed by Andre Le
Notre under Louis XIV. Though added to and altered after-
wards they retain the main outlines of the original plan. They
are laid out in parterres and bosquets, planted with chestnut
trees, lindens and plane trees, and adorned with playing foun-
tains and basins, and numerous statues mostly antique in sub-
ject. From the terrace along the river-side a fine view is to be
had over the Seine to the park and palace of the Trocadero; and
' This canal (3 m. long) leaving the Seine below Austerhtz bridge,
passes by a tunnel under the Place de la Bastille and Boulevard
Richard Lenoir, and rises by sluices to the La Villette basin, from
which the St Denis canal (4 m. long) descends to the Seine at St
Denis. In this way boats going up or down the river can avoid
passing through Paris. The canal de I'Ourcq, which supplies the
two canals mentioned, contributes to the water-supply of Paris
as well as to its transport facilities.
' These gardens are the property of the state, the other areas
mentioned being the property of the town.
BUILDINGS]
PARIS
807
from the terraces along the Place de la Concorde the eye takes in
the Place and the Avenue of the Champs Elysees. The gardens
of the Luxembourg,' planned by S. Debrosse (17th century)
and situated in front of the palace occupied by the senate, are
about the same size as those of the Tuileries; with less regularity
of form they present greater variety of appearance. In the line
of the main entrance extends the beautifid Observatory Walk,
terminating in the monumental fountain mentioned above.
Besides these gardens laid out in the P'rench taste, with straight
walks and regular beds, there are several in what the French
designate the English style. The finest and most extensive of
these, the Buttes-Chaumont Gardens, in the north-east of the
city, occupy S7 acres of very irregular ground, which up to 1866
was occupied by plaster-quarries, limekilns and brickworks.
The " buttes " or knolls are now covered with turf, flowers and
shrubbery. Advantage has been taken of the varying relief of
the site to form a fme lake and a cascade with picturesque
rocks. The Montsouris Park, in the south of the city, 38 acres
in extent, also consists of broken ground; in the middle stands
the meteorological observatory, built after the model of the
Tunisian palace of Bardo, and it also contains a monument in
memory of the Flatters expedition to the Sahara in 1881. The
small Monceau Park, in the aristocratic quarter to the north of
the Boulevard Haussmann, is a portion of the old park belonging
to King Louis Philippe, and contains monuments to Chopin,
Gounod, Guy de Maupassant and others.
The Jardin des Plantes' (founded in the first half of the 17th
century), about 58 acres in extent, combines both styles. Its museum
of natural history (1793), with its zoological gardens, its hothouses
and greenhouses, its nursery and naturalization gardens, its museums
of zoology, anatomy, anthropology, botany, mineralogy and geology,
its laboratories, and its courses of lectures by the most distinguished
professors in all branches of natural science, make it an institution of
universally acknowledged eminence.
Other open spaces worthy of mention are the Champs Elys6es
(west of the Place de la Concorde), begun at the end of the 17th
century but only established in their present form since 1858; the
Trocad6ro Park, laid out for the exhibition of 1878, with its lakes,
cascade and aquarium; the Champ de Mars (laid out about 1770
as a manoeuvring ground for the £cole Militaire), containing the
Eiffel Tower {q.v.) ; the gardens of the Palais Royal, surrounded by
galleries; and the Ranelagh in Passy.
The Bois de Boulogne and Bois de Vincennes situated outside the
fortifications are on a far larger scale than the parks within them.
The Bois de Boulogne, commonly called the " Bois," is reached
by the wide avenue of the Champs £lys6es as far as the Arc de
Triomphe and thence by the avenue of the Bois de Boulogne or that
of the Grande Arm^e. The first of these, with its side walks for foot
Eassengers and equestrians, grass-plots, flower-beds and elegant
uildings, affords a wide prospect over the Bois and the hills of St
Cloud and Mont Val(5rien. The Bois de Boulogne covers an area
of 2100 acres, is occupied by turf, clumps of trees, sheets of water or
running streams. Here are the two race-courses of Longchamp
(flat races) and Auteuil (steeplechases), the park of the small chateau
of Bagatelle, 1777, the grounds of the Polo Club and the Racing
Club and the gardens of the Acclimatization Society, which, with
their menageries, conservatories and aquarium, are largely visited
by pleasure-seekers. Trees for the public parks and squares are
grown in the municipal nurseries situated on the south border of the
Bois. On the east it is adjoined by the Park of La Muette, with the
old royal chiteau. The Bois de Vincennes (see Vincennes) is
2300 acres in area and is similarly adorned with streams, lakes and
cascades.
Churches. — The most important chtirch in Paris is the
cathedral of Notre-Dame, founded in 1163, completed about
1240. Measuring 139 yds. in length and 52 yds. in breadth, the
church consists of a choir and apse, a short transept, and a nave
with double aisles which are continued round the choir and are
flanked by square chapels added after the completion of the rest
of the church. The central spire, 148 ft. in height, was erected in
the course of a restoration carried out between 1846 and 1879
under the direction of Viollet le Due. Two massive square
towers crown the principal fagade. Its three doors are decorated
with fine early Gothic carving and surmounted by a row of
figures representing twenty-eight kings of Israel and Judah.
Above the central door is a rose window, above which is a third
storey consisting of a graceful gallery of pointed arches supported
' These gardens arc the property of the state, the other areas
mentioned being the property of the town.
on slender columns. The transept has two fagades, also richly
decorated with chiselled work and containing rose windows.
Of the elaborate decoration of the interior all that is medieval
is a part of the screen of the choir (the first half of the 14th
century), with sculptures representing scenes from the life of
Christ, and the stained glass of the rose windows (13th century).
The woodwork in the choir (early 18th century), and a marble
group called the "Vow of Louis Xlll." (17th century) by
Couston and Coysevox, are other noticeable works of art. The
church possesses the Crown of Thorns and a fragment of the
Cross, which attract numerous pilgrims.
Paris is poor in Romanesque architecture, which is represented
chiefly in the nave and transept of St Germain-des-Pr6s, the choir
of which is Gothic in tendency. The church, which once belonged
to the celebrated abbey of St Germain founded in the 6th century,
contains fine modern frescoes by Hippolyte Flandrin. The Transi-
tion style is also exemplified in St Pierre-de-Montmartre (12th
century). Besides the cathedral there are several churches of the
Gothic period, the most important being St Julien-le-Pauvrc, now
serving as a Greek church, which is contemporary with Notre-
Dame; St Germain-l'Auxerrois (13th to i6th centuries), whose
projecting porch is a graceful work of 1435; St Severin (mainly of
the 13th and i6th centuries); St Gervais, largely in the Flamboyant
Gothic style with an interesting facade by S. Debrosse in the classical
manner; and St Merry (1520-1612), almost wholly Gothic in archi-
tecture. St Gervais, St Merry and St Germain all contain valuable
works of art, the stained glass of the two former being especially
noteworthy.
St £tienne-du-Mont combines the Gothic and Renaissance styles
in its nave and transept, while its choir is of Gothic, its fagade of
pure Renaissance architecture. In the interior, one of the most
beautiful in the city, there is a fine rood-loft (1600-1609) by Pierre
Biard and a splendid collection of stained windows of the i6th and
early 17th centuries; a chapel contains part of the sarcophagus
of Ste Genevieve, which is the object ot a pilgrimage. St Eustache
(1532-C. 1650), though its construction displays many Gothic
characteristics, belongs wholly, with the exception of a Classical
facade of the 18th century, to the Renaissance period, being unique
in this respect among the more important of F'rench churches. The
church contains the sarcophagus and statue (by A. Coysevox) of
Colbert and the tombs of other eminent men.
Of churches in the Classical style the principal are St Sulpice
(1655-1777), almost equalling Notre-Dame in dimensions and pos-
sessing a facade by J. N. Servandoni ranking among the finest of
its period; St Roch (1653-1740), which contains numerous works of
art of the 17th and i8th centuries; St Paul-St Louis (1627-1641);
and the church (1645-1665) of the former nunnery of Val-de-Grace
(now a military hospital and medical school), which has a dome built
after the model of St Peter's at Rome. AH these churches are in
the old city.
Of the churches of the 19th century, the most remarkable is that
of the Sacr6 Coeur, an important resort of pilgrims, begun in 1876
and overlooking Paris from the heights of Montmartre. The Sacr6
Coeur is in the Romanesque style, but is surmounted by a Byzantine
dome behind which rises a lofty belfry. The bell presented by the
dioceses of Savoy and known as " la Savoyarde " weighs between
17 and 18 tons. Of the other modern churches the oldest is the
Madeleine, built under Napoleon I. by Pierre Vignon on the founda-
tions of a church of the i8th century and finished in 1842. It was
intended by the emperor as a " temple of glory " and is built on
the lines of a Roman temple with a fine colonnade surrounding it.
The interior, consisting of a single nave bordered by chapels and
roofed with cupolas, is decorated with sculptures and painting by
eminent modern artists. Notre-Dame-de-Lorette (1823-1836) and
St Vincent-de-Paul (1824-1844) are in the style of early Christian
basilicas. Both contain good frescoes, the frieze of the nave in
St Vincent-de-Paul being an elaborate work by Hippolyte Flandrin.
Ste Clotilde, the most important representation of modern Gothic
in Paris, dates from the middle of the centur>'. St Augustin and
La Trinitd in the Renaissance style were both built between i860
and 1870. With the exception of Ste Clotilde in the St Germain
quarter and the Madeleine, the modern churches above mentioned
are all in the northern quarters of Paris.
Civil Buildings. — The most important of the civil buildings
of Paris is the palace of the Louvre (Lupara), the south front
of which extends along the Seine for about half a mile. It owes
its origin to Philip Augustus, who erected a huge keep defended
by a rectangle of fortifications in what is now the south-west
corner of the quadrangle, where its plan is traced on the pave-
ment. The fortress was demolished by Francis I. and under
that monarch and his successors Pierre Lescot built the portions
of the wings to the south and west of the courtyard, which rank
among the finest examples of Renaissance architecture. The rest
8o8
PARIS
(BUILDINGS
of the buildings surrounding the courtyard date from the reigns
of Louis XIII. and XIV., the most noteworthy feature being the
colonnade (1666-1670) of the east facade designed by Claude
Perrault. The two wings projecting westwards from the corners
of the quadrangle, each consisting of two parallel gaUeries with
pavilions at intervals, were built under Napoleon III., with
the exception of the Grande Galerie and at right angles to it the
Pavilion Henry IV., containing the ApoUo gallery, which were
erected on the river front by Catherine de Medici and Henry IV.
Of these two wings that on the north is occupied by the ministry
of finance. The history of the palace of the Tuileries (so called
in allusion to the tile kOns which occupied its site) is intimately
connected with that of the Louvre, its origin being due to
Catherine de Medici and Henry IV. The latter built the wing,
rebuilt under Napoleon III., which united it with the Grande
Galerie, the corresponding wing on the north side dating from
various periods of the igth century. The palace itself was
burnt by the Communists in 1871, with the exception of the
terminal pavilion on the south (Pavilion de Flore); only the
northern terminal paviUon (Pavilion de Marsan, now occupied
by the museum of decorative arts) was rebuilt.
Next in importance to the Louvre is the Palais de Justice (law
courts)>_a huge assemblage of buildings covering the greater part
of the lie de la Cite to the west of the Boulevard du Palais. During
the Gallo-Roman period the site was occupied by a citadel which
became the palace of the Merovingian kings and afterwards of the
Capetian kings. In the 12th and 13th centuries it was altered and
enlarged by the latter, and during part of that period was also
occupied by the parlement of Paris, to which it was entirely made
over under Charles V. In 1618, 1737 and 1776 the building was
ravaged by fire, and in its present state is in great part the outcome
of a systematic reconstruction begun in 1840. In the interior the
only medieval remains are the Sainte-Chapelle, the Conciergcrie,
an old prison where Marie Antoinette and other illustrious victims
of the Revolution were confined, and some halls and kitchens of
the 13th century. All these are on the ground floor, a portion of
which is assigned to the police. The courts, which include the Cour
de Cassation, the supreme tribunal in France, the Court of Appeal
and the Court of First Instance, are on the first floor, the chief
feature of which is the fine Salle des Pas Perdus, the successor of
the Grand' Salle, a hall originally built by Philip the Fair and rebuilt
after fires in 1618 and 1871. The Sainte-Chapelle, one of the most
perfect specimens of Gothic art, was erected from 1245 to 1248 by
St Louis as a shrine for the crown of thorns and other relics now at
Notre-Dame, and was restored in the 19th century. It comprises
a lower portion for the use of the servants and retainers and the
upper portion or royal chapel, the latter richly decorated and lighted
by lofty windows set close together and filled with beautiful stained
glass. The Palais de Justice presents towards the west a Greek
facade by J. L. Due (d. 1879), which is reckoned among the finest
achievements of modern art. The fagade towards the Seine embodies
four towers which date in parts from the reconstruction under the
Capetian dynasty. That at the east angle (the Tour de I'Horloge)
contains a clock of 1370, said to be the oldest public clock in France.
A handsome iron railing of 1787 separates the courtyard on the cast
side from the Boulevard du Palais.
About a quarter of a mile south of the Palais de Justice adjoining
the Jardin de Cluny lies the Hotel de Cluny, acquired in 1833 by the
antiquarian A. du Sommerard as a repository for his collections and
now belonging to the state. It is a graceful and well-preser\-ed
building in late Gothic style distinguished for the beautiful carving
of the doors, dormer windows and open-work parapet. The mansion,
which contains a rich Gothic chapel, was erected at the end of the
15th century by Jacques d'Amboise, abbot of Cluny. It stands on
the site of a Roman palace said to have been built by the emperor
Constantius Chlorus (d. 306), and ruins of the baths are still to be
seen adjoining it.
The other civil buildings of Paris are inferior in interest and
attraction. The Hotel, des Invalides on the left bank of the Seine
opposite the Champs Elysees dates from the reign of Louis XIV.;
by whom it was founded as a retreat for wounded and infirm soldiers,
its inmates are few in number, and the building also serves as head-
quarters of the military governor of Paris. A garden and a spacious
esplanade stretching to the Quai d'Orsay precede the north facade;
the entrance to this opens into the Cour d'Honneur, a courtyard
enclosed by a moat above which is a battery of cannon used for
salutes on important occasions. On either side of the Cour
d'Honneur lie the museums of military' history and of artillery
(weapons and armour). The parish church of St Louis, decorated
with flags captured in the wars of the Second Empire, closes the south
side of the Cour d'Honneur, while behind all rises a magnificent
gilded dome sheltering another church, the Eglise royale, built
by J. H. Mansart from 1693 to 1706. The central crypt of this
church contains a fine sarcophagus of red porphyry in which lie
the remains of Napoleon I., brought from St Helena in 1840, while
close by are the tombs of his friends Duroc and Bertrand.
The Pantheon, on the left bank near the Luxembourg garden,
was built to the plans of J. G. Soufflot in the last half of the i8th
century under the name of Ste Genevieve, whose previous sanctuary
it replaced. In 1791 the Constituent Assembly decreed that it
should be no longer a church but a sepulchre for great Frenchmen.
Voltaire and Mirabeau were the first to be entombed in the Pantheon
as it then came to be called. Reconsecrated and resecularizcd
more than once during the 19th century, the building finally regained
its present name in 1885, when Victor Hugo was buried there. The
Pantheon is an imposing domed building in the form of a Greek
cross. The tympanum above the portico by David d'Angers and,
in the interior, paintings of the life of Ste Genevieve by Puvis de
Cha\-annes are features of its artistic decoration.
Various public bodies occupy mansions and palaces built under
the ancient regime. The Palais Royal, built by Richelieu about 1630
and afterwards inhabited by Anne of Austria, the regent Philip II.
of Orleans and Philippe Egalite, is now occupied by the Council
of State and the Theatre Franjais. The Palace of the Luxembourg
stands on the site of a mansion belonging to Duke Francis of Luxem-
bourg, which was rebuilt by Marie de Medici, wife of Henry IV. The
architect, Salomon Debrosse, was ordered to take the Pitti Palace
at Florence as his model, but notwithstanding the general plan of
the building is French. The south facade facing the Lu.xembourg
garden was rebuilt in the original style under Louis Philippe. The
residence of various royal personages during the 17th and l8th
centuries, the Luxembourg became during the revolutionary period
the palace of the Directory and later of the Consulate. In the
19th century it was occupied by the senate of Napoleon I., by the
chamber of peers under Louis Philippe, by the senate under Napo-
leon III., and since 1879 by the republican senate. The chamber
of deputies meets in the Palais Bourbon, built in the l8th century
for members of the Bourbon-Conde family. The facade, which faces
the Pont de la Concorde, is in the style of an ancient temple and dates
from the early years of the 19th century, when the corps legislatif
held their sittings in the building. The Palais de I'filysee, the
residence of the president of the republic, was built in 1718 for
Louis d'Auvergne, count of Evreux, and was afterwards acquired
by Madame de Pompadour; during the 19th century Napoleon I.,
Napoleon 111., and other illustrious persons resided there. The
building has been often altered and enlarged. The hotel-de-ville
(1873-1882), on the right bank of the Seine opposite the lie de la
Cite, stands on the site of a town hall built from 1535 to 1628, much
enlarged towards 1840, and destroyed by the Communists in 1 871.
It is an isolated building in the French Renaissance style, the west
fagade with its statuary, pilasters, high-pitched roofs and dormer
windows being specially elaborate. The interior has been decorated
by many prominent artists.
Certain of the schools and museums of Paris occupy buildings of
architectural interest. The Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers, a
technical school and museum of machiner>', &c., founded by the
engineer Vaucanson in 1775, is established in the old Cluniac priory
of St Martin-des-Champs, enlarged in the 19th century. The re-
fectory is a fine hall of the 13th century; the church with an interest-
ing choir in the Transition style dates from the nth to the 13th
centuries. The Musee Carnavalet was built in the 16th century for
Frangois de Kernevenoy, whence its present name, and enlarged
in 1660; Mme de Sevigne afterwards resided there. The national
archives are stored in the Hotel Soubise, a mansion of the early i8th
century with 19th-century additions, standing on the site of a house
built by Olivier de Clisson in 1370. It was afterwards added to
by the family of Guise and rebuilt by Frangois de Rohan, duke of
Soubise. The palace of Cardinal Mazarin, augmented in modern
times, contains the Bibliotheque Nationale. The Palais de
I'lnstitut, formerly the College Mazarin, dates from the last half
of the 17th century; it is the seat of the academies (except the
Academy of Medicine, which occupies a modern building close to the
Ecole des Beaux-Arts) and of the Bureau des Longitudes, the great
national astronomical council. The Military School overlooking
the Champ de Mars is a fine building of the i8th century'. The huge
Sorbonne buildings date from the latter years of the 19th century
with the exception of the church, which belonged to the college as
reconstructed by Richelieu. The astronomical observatory, through
the centre of which runs the meridian of Paris, is a splendidly
equipped building erected under Louis XIV., according to the designs
of Claude Perrault. The Ecole des Beaux-Arts (facing the Louvre
on the left bank of the Seine), with its interesting collections, partly
occupies the site of an Augustine convent and comprises the old
Hotel Chimay. It was erected from 1820 to 1838 and added to
later. The most striking feature is the fagade of the principal
building designed by F. L. J. Duban. The courtyard contains part
of the fagade of the Norman chateau of Gaillon (i6th centur>').
which was destroyed at the Revolution, and the portal of the chateau
of Anet (erected by Philibert Delorme in 1548) has been adapted
as one of the entrances. The Grand Palais des Beaux-Arts, where
horse-shows, &c., as well as annual exhibitions of paintings and
sculptures are held, and the Petit Palais des Beaux-Arts, which
contains art collections belonging to the city, date from 1897-
POPULATION]
PARIS
809
1900. Both buildings stand close to the north end of the Pont
Alexandre 111.
The Bourse, built in imitation of an ancient temple, dates from the
first half of the 19th century; the Tribunal of Commerce and
the Palais du Trocad^ro, built for the exhibition of 1878, are both
imposing buildings of the latter half of that period, to which also
belongs the Hotel dus Postes et T616graphes.
Among the numerous historic mansions of Paris a few demand
special mention. The so-called Maison de Francois I. (on the
Cours la Reine overlooking the Seine) is a small but beautifully
decorated building erected at Moret in 1527 and re-erected in Paris
in 1826. In the St Gervais quarter are the Hotel de Beauvais of
the latter half of the 17th century and the Hotel Lamoignon, built
after 1580 for Diane de France, duchess of AngoulSme, both of which
have handsome courtyards; in the same quarter is the Hotel do
Sens, of the 15th century, residence of the archbishops of Sens,
whose province then included the diocese of Paris. The H6tel
Lambert on the lie St Louis, built by L. Levau in the 17th century
for Nicholas Lambert and afterwards inhabited by Mme du
Ch^telet and Voltaire and George Sand, has a magnificent staircase
and many works of art. The H6tel de Sully, built for the duke of
Sully from 1624 to 1630, is in the Rue St Antoine and has an interest-
ing courtyard. Of the fine mansion of the dukes of Burgundy the only
relic is a tower of the early 15th century built by Jean Sans Peur.
Theatres, &c. — Of the theatres of Paris four — the Op(5ra, the
Op^ra-Comique, the Theatre Fran^ais and the Od6on- -receive
state subventions, amounting in all to £51,000 per annum. The
Op6ra (entitled the National Academy of Music) was originally
founded in 1671 by Pierre Perrin, from whom the management was
taken over by J. B. Lully. After several changes of locale, it was
eventually transferred from the Rue Le Peletier to the present opera-
house. ..The building, which covers 2f acres, is one of the finest
theatres in the world. The process of erection, directed by Charles
Garnier, lasted from 1861 to 1875 and cost nearly Ij million sterling.
The front is decorated on the ground storey with allegorical groups
(Music by Guillaume; Lyrical Poetry by Jouffroy; Lyrical Drama
by Pcrraud ; and Dancing by Carpeaux) and allegorical statues.
Surmounting its angles are huge gilded groups representing music
and poetry, and above it appears the dome which covers the
auditorium. Behind that rises the vast pediment above the stage
decorated at the corners with Pegasi by Lequesne. On the summit
of the pediment an Apollo, raising aloft his lyre, is seen against the
sky. The interior is decorated throughout with massive gilding,
flamboyant scroll-work, statues, paintings, &c. The grand vestibule,
with statues of Lulli, Ramcau, Gluck and Handel, the grand stair-
case, the avant-foyer or corridor leading to the foyer, and the foyer
or crush-room itself are especially noteworthy. The last is a
majestic apartment with a ceiling decorated with fine painting
by Paul Baudry. The auditorium is seated for 2156; its ceiling is
painted by J. E. Lenepveu. Behind the stage is the foyer de la
danse or green-room for the ballet, adorned with large allegorical
panels and portraits of the most eminent danseuses.
The Theatre Frangais or Comedie Fran^aise was formed in 1 681
under the latter name by the union of Moliere's company with two
other theatrical companies of the time. The name Th<:'atre
Frangais dates from 1 791, when part of the company headed by
the tragedian Talma migrated to the south-west wing of the Palais
Royal, which the company, reunified in 1799, has since occupied.
Both the Thi^atre Franfais and the less important Odf^on, a building
of 1782 twice rebuilt, close to the Lu.xembourg garden, represent
the works of the classical dramatists and modern dramas both tragic
and comic. The Op6ra-Comique, founded in the early 18th cen-
tury, occupies a building in the Boulevard des Italiens reconstructed
after a fire in 1887. Serious as well as light opera is performed there.
Other theatres well known and long established are the Gymnase
(chiefly comedy), the Vaudeville and the Porte St Martin (serious
drama and comedy), the Varietfis and the Palais Royal (farce and
vaudeville) ; and the theatres named after and managed by Sarah
Bernhardt and Rejane, the Theatre Antoine, the Gait6 and the
Ambigu may also be mentioned. The finest concerts in Paris are
those of the Conservatoire de Musique et de Declamation (Rue du
Faubourg Poissonniere), while the Concerts Lamoureu.x and the
Concerts Colonne are also of a high order. Musical and local
performances of a more popular kind are given at the music
halls, cafes concerts and cabarets artistiques, with which the city
abounds.
Paris is the chief centre for sport in France, and the principal
societies for the encouragement of sport have their headquarters in
the city. Among these may be mentioned the Societe d'encourage-
ment pour V amelioration des races de chevaux en France (associated
with the Jockey Club), which is the chief authority in the country
as regards racing, and the Union des societcs fratifaises de sports
athletiques, which comprises committees for the organization of
athletics, football, lawn tennis and amateur sport generally. The
Racing Club de France, the Stade fran^ais and the Union athUtiqtie
du premier arrondissement are the chief Parisian athletic clubs.
Race meetings are held at Longchamp and Auteuil in the Bois de
Boulogne, and at Chantilly, Vincennes, St Cloud, St Ouen, Maisons-
Laffitte and other places in the vicinity.
Museums. — Some of the more important museums of Paris require
notice. The richest and most celebrated occupies the Louvre.
On the ground floor are museums (i) of ancient sculpture, containing
such treasures as the Venus of Milo, the Pallas of Velletri (the most
beautiful of all statues of Minerva), the colossal group of the Tiber,
discovered at Rome in the 14th century, &c. ; (2) of Medieval and
Renaissance sculpture, comprising works of Michelangelo, Jean
Goujon, Germain Pilon, &c., and rooms devoted to early Christian
antiquities and works by the Delia Robbia and their school; (3) of
modern French sculpture, with works by Puget, the brothers Coustou
Coysevox, Chaude, Houdin, Rude, David of Angers, Carpeaux,
&c. ; (4) of Egyptian sculpture and inscriptions; (5) of antiquities
from Assyria, Palestine, Phoenicia and other parts of Asia; (b) of
engravings.
On the first floor are (i) the picture galleries, rich in works of the
Italian painters, especially of Leonardo da Vinci (including his Mona
Lisa), Raphael, Titian and Paolo Veronese; of the Spanish masters
Murillo is best represented ; and there are numerous works by Rubens,
Van Dyck and Teniers, and by Rembrandt and Holbein. The
examples of French art form about one-third of the collection, and
include (i) the collection bequeathed in 1869 by Dr La Caze (chiefly
works of the l8th century); (2) a collection of ancient bronzes;
(3) a collection of furniture of the 17th and i8th centuries; (4) a rich
museum of drawings by great masters; (5) a museum of Medieval,
Renaissance and modern art pottery, objects in bronze, glass and
ivory, &c.; (5) the Rothschild collection of objects of art; (7) smaller
antiquities from Susiana, Chaldaea and Egypt; (8) a collection of
ancient pottery embodying the Campana collection purchased from
the Papal government in 1861; (9) the royal jewels and a splendid
collection of enamels in the spacious Apollo galler>' designed by
Charles Lebrun. On the second floor are French pictures of the
19th century, the Thomy-Thi<^'ry art-collection bequeathed in 1903,
and the marine, ethnographical and Chinese museums. The Pavilion
de La Tr^-moille contains a continuation of the Egyptian museum and
antiquities brought from Susiana by Augustus De Morgan between
1897 and 1905. A museum of decorative art occupies the Pavilion
de Marsan.
The museum of the Lu.xembourg, installed in a building near
the palace occupied by the senate, is devoted to works of living
painters and sculptors acquired by the state. They remain there
for ten years after the death of the artists, that the finest may be
selected for the Louvre.
The Cluny museum occupies the old mansion of the abbots of that
order (see above). It contains about 11,000 examples of Medieval
and Renaissance art-sculptures in marble, wood and stone, ivories,
enamels and mosaics, pottery and porcelain, tapestries, bronzes,
specimens of goldsmith's work, both religious and civil, including
nine gold crowns of the 7th century found near Toledo, Venetian
glass, furniture, iron-work, state carriages, ancient boots and shoes
and pictures.
The Carnavalet museum comprises a collection illustrating the
history of Paris. The Petit Palais des Beaux-Arts contains art-
collections belonging to the city (especially the Dutuit collection).
The house of Gustave Moreau, Rue Rochefoucauld, is now a museum
of his paintings, and that of Victor Hugo, Place des Vosges, contains
a collection of objects relating to the poet.
The Trocad^ro Palace contains a museum of casts illustrating the
progress of sculpture, chiefly that of France, from the nth to the
1 8th century, it also possesses a collection of Khmer antiquities from
Cambodia and an ethnographical museum. In the same neighbour-
hood are the Guimet museum, containing the collections of Oriental
pottery, of objects relating to the Oriental religions and of antiquities
presented to the state in 1885 by Emile Guimet of Lyons; and the
Galli<>ra museum, erected by the duchess of Galliera and containing
a collection of tapestries and other works of art belonging to the city.
The Cernuschi Oriental museum, close to the Monceau Park, was
bequeathed to the city in 1895 by M. Cernuschi.
The collection of MSS., engravings, medals and antiques in the
Bibliotheque Nationale are important, as also are the industrial and
machinery exhibits of the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers.
For libraries see Libraries.
Poptdation. — Paris is divided into twenty arrondissements.
Only the first twelve belonged to it previous to i860; the others
correspond to the old suburban communes then annexed. The
first four arrondissements occupy the space on the right of the
river, extending from the Place de la Concorde to the Bastille,
and from the Seine to the line of the Grands Boulevards; the
5th, 6th and 7th arrondissements he opposite them on the left
side; the 8th, gth, loth, nth and 12th surround the first four
arrondissements on the north; the 13th, 14th and 15th are formed,
out of the old suburban communes of the left side; and the i6th,
17th, i8th, iqth and 20th out of the old suburban communes
of the right side.
The growth of the population during the loth centurj' is shown
in the following table, which gives the population present on the
census day, including the population comptee a part, i.e. troops,
inmates of hospitals, prisons, schools, &c.
XX. 26 a
8io
PARIS
[MUNICIPAL ADMINISTRATION
Years.
Population.
Years.
Population.
1801
547.756
1866
1,825,274
1817
713.966
1872
1. 851. 792
1831
785.862
1876
1,988,806
1836
899.313
1881
2,239,928
1 841
935.261
1886
2,260,945
1846
1.053.897
1891
2.424.705
1851
1,053,262
1896
2,511,629
1856
1. 174.346
1 901
2,660,559
i86i
I.6g6.i4i
1906
2.722,731
Below is shown the population of the arrondissements separ-
ately (in 1906), together with the comparative density of popula-
tion therein. The most thickly populated region of Paris
comprises a zone stretching northwards from the lie de la Cite
and the lie St Louis to the fortifications, and including the
central quarters of St Gervais with 400 inhabitants to the acre,
Ste Avoie with 391 inhabitants to the acre, and Bonne-Nouvelle
with 406 inhabitants to the acre. The central arrondissements
on the north bank, which (with the exception of I., the Louvre)
are among the most densely populated, tended in the latter part
of the 19th century to decrease in density, while the outlying
arrondissements (XII.-XX.), which with the exception of
Batignolles and Montmartre are comparatively thinly populated,
increased in density, and this tendency continued in the early
years of the 20th century.
Quarters.
Population.
IE
I. Louvre .
St Germain I'Auxerrois,
Halles, Palais Royal,
Place Vendome.
60,906
130
II. Bourse
Gaillon, Vivienne, Mail,
Bonne-Nouvelle.
6l,li6
253
III. Temple . .
Arts-et-M(Stiers, Enfants-
Rouges, Archives, Ste
Avoie.
86,152
300
IV. H6tel-dc-Ville
St Merri, St Gervais,
Arsenal, Notre-Dame.
96,490
249
V. Pantheon .
St Victor, Jardin des
Plantes, Val de Grace,
Sorbonne.
117,666
191
VT. Lu.\embourg.
Monnaie, Od6on, Notre-
Dame des Champs, St
Germain des Pr&.
97,055
186
VII. Palais Bour-
St Thomas d'Aquin, In-
97.375
98
bon
valides, Ex:ole-Militaire,
Gros-Caillou.
VIII. Elys6e . .
Champs Elysees, Fau-
bourg-du-Roule, Made-
leine, Europe.
99.769
106
IX. Opfira . .
St Georges, Chaussee
d'Antin, Faubourg Mont-
martre, Rochechouart.
118,818
226
X. St Laurent .
St Vincent de Paul, Porte
St Denis, Porte St Mar-
tin, Hopital St Louis.
151.697
215
XI. Popincourt .
Folic-M6ricourt, St Am-
broise, Roquette, Ste
Marguerite.
232,050
260
XII. Reuilly . .
Bel-Air, Picpus, Bercy,
Quinze-Vingts.
138,648
99
XIII. Gobelins . .
Salpetriere, Gare, Maison-
Blanche, Croulebarbe.
133.133
86
XIV. Observatoire
Montparnasse,Sante,Petit-
Montrouge, Plaisance.
150.136
i3>
XV. Vaugirard
St Lambert, Neckcr,
Crenelle, Javel.
168,190
94
XVI. Passy. . .
Auteuil, Muctte, Porte-
Dauphine, Chaillot.
130,719
75
XVII. BatignoUes-
Ternes, Plaine-Monceau,
207,127
188
Monceau
Batignolles, Epinette.
XVIII. Montmartre .
Grandes-Carriferes, Clig-
nancourt, Goutte-d'Or,
Chapelle.
258,174
201
XIX. Buttes-Chau-
Villette, Pont-de-Flandre,
148,081
106
mont
Am^rique, Combat.
XX. Menilmontant
Belleville, St Fargeau,Pere-
Lachaise, Charonne.
169,429
132
The birth-rate, which diminished steadily in the 19th century,
is low — on an average 54,000 births per annum (1901-1905) or
20'2 per 1000 inhabitants as compared with 3i'i in 1851-1855.
The death-rate also is low, 48,000 deaths per annum (1901-1905),
averaging I7'9 deaths per 1000 inhabitants. This is accounted
for by the fact that Paris is pre-eminently a town of adults, as the
following figures, referring to the year 1908, show: —
Inhabitants under i year of age 41,107
,, from I to 19 years of age .... 676,995
,. 20 ,,39 1,108,340
.. 40 .,59 663,435
,, of 60 years and over 223,836
,, ,, unknown age 9.018
In these circumstances there is nothing remarkable in the annual
number of marriages in Paris (26,000), a high marriage rate (9-8 per
1000) for the total number of inhabitants, but a low one (28-4 per
1000) compared with the number of marriageable persons.
A large number of the inhabitants (on an average 636 out of every
1000) are not Parisians by birth. The foreign nationalities chiefly
represented are Belgians, Germans, Swiss, Italians, Luxembourgers,
English, Russians, Americans, Austrians, Dutch, Spaniards. The
Belgians, Germans and Italians, mostly artisans, live chiefly in the
industrial districts in the north and east of the city. The English
and Americans, on the other hand, congregate in the wealthy
districts of the Champs Elysfes and Passy.
Municipal Administration. — Each arrondissement is divided
into four quarters, each of which nominates a member of the
municipal council. These 80 councillors, together with 21
additional councillors elected by the cantons of the rest of the
department, form the departmental council. The chief function-
aries of the arrondissement are a mayor (maire) and three
deputies (adjoints) appointed by the president. The mayors
act as registrars, draw up electoral and recruiting lists and
superintend the poor-reHef of their arrondissement. There
is a justice of the peace (Juge de paix) nominated by the govern-
ment in each arrondissement. There is no elective mayor of
Paris: the president of the municipal council, who is nominated
by his colleagues, merely acts as chairman of their meetings.
When occasion requires, the function of mayor of Paris is dis-
charged by the prefect of Seine. The municipal council discusses
and votes the budget of the city, scrutinizes the administrative
measures of the two prefects and deUberates on mimicipal
affairs in general. The prefect of Seine and the prefect of police
(both magistrates named by the government, but each with a
quitedistinct sphere of action) represent the executive authority
as opposed to the municipal council, which latter has no power,
by refusing a vote of credit, to stop any pubhc service the
maintenance of which legally devolves on the city: in case of
such refusal the minister of the interior may officially insert the
credit in the budget. In like manner he may appeal to the head
of the state to cancel any decision in which the council has
exceeded its legal functions.
The prefecture of Seine comprises the following departments
(directions), subdivided into bureaux: —
1. Municipal affairs, including bureaux for the supervision of city
property, of provisioning, of cemeteries, of public buildings, &c.
2. Departmental affairs (including the bureau concerned with the
care of lunatics and foundlings).
3. Primary education.
4. Streets and public works, including the bureau of water, canals
and sewers, and the bureau of public thoroughfares, promenades and
lighting.
5. Finance.
The administrative functions of the prefect necessitate a
large technical staff of engineers, inspectors, &c., who are
divided among the various services attached to the departments.
There are also a number of councils and committees on special
branches of pubHc work attached to the prefecture (commission
des logements insaliibres, de statistique municipale, &c.). The
administration of the three important departments of the octroi,
poor-relief (assistance publique) and pawnbroking (the mont-de-
picte) is also under the control of the prefect.
The prefecture of pohce includes the whole department of
Seine and the neighbouring communes of the department of
Seine-et-Oise — Meudon, St Cloud, Sevres and Enghicn. Its
sphere embraces the apprehension and punishment of criminals
(police judiciaire), general police-work (including poHtical service)
and municipal policing. The state, in view of the non-municipal
functions of the Paris police, repays a proportion of the annual
MUNICIPAL ADMINISTRATION]
PARIS
8ii
budget which this prefecture receives from the city. The
budget of the prefect of police is voted en bloc by the municipal
council.
Besides numerous duties consequent on the maintenance of
order, the inspection of weights and measures, authority over
public spectacles, surveillance of markets and a wide hygienic
and sanitary authority belong to the sphere of this prefect. In
the last connexion mention may be made of an important
body attached to the prefecture of police — the Conseil d'Hygiene
Publique et de Salubrite of the department of the Seine, composed
of 24 members nominated by the prefect of police and 17 mem-
bers called to it in virtue of their office. To it are referred such
questions as the sources from which to obtain drinking-water
for the town, the sanitary measures to be taken during important
works, the work connected with the main sewers for the cleaning
of the Seine and the utilization of the sewage water, the health
of workpeople employed in factories, the sanitary condition of
the occupants of schools and prisons, questions relating to the
disinfection of infected districts, the heating of public vehicles
and dwellings, the conveyance of infected persons, night shelters,
&c. Board of health {commissions d'hygiene) in each of the
twenty arrondissements act in co-operation with this control
council. The municipal police, consisting of brigades of gardicns
de la paix, are divided among the arrondissements in each of
which there is an officier de paix in command. There are besides
six brigades in reserve, one attached to the central markets,
another entrusted with the surveillance of cabs, while the others
are held in readiness for exceptional duties, e.g. to reinforce the
arrondissement brigades at public ceremonies or in times of
disorder. In nearly every quarter there is a commissaire de
police, whose duties are of a semi-legal nature; the police
require his sanction before they can commit an arrested indi-
vidual to prison, and he also fulfils magisterial functions in
minor disputes, &c.
Finance. — The chief item of ordinary expenditure is the service
of the municipal debt, the total of which in 1905 was nearly
£125,000,000. Its annual cost rose from £722,000 in i860 to
£3,583,000 in 1875 and £4,826,000 in 1905. In the latter year the
other chief items of expenditure were: —
Poor relief £1,490,000
Prefecture of police ' 1,448,000
Primary instruction 1,206,000
Streets and roads 916,000
Water and drainage 579,000
Collection of octroi 471,000
The general total of ordinary expenditure was £14,192,000, and
of ordinary and extraordinary expenditure £16,995,000.
The chief of the ordinary sources of revenue are : —
Octroi (municipal customs) £4.351,000
Communal centimes, dog tax and other special taxes . 3,268,000
Revenue from gas company 969,000
Water rate and income from canals 943,000
Public vehicles 614,000
State contribution to, and receipts of prefecture of police 514,000
Revenue from public markets 367,000
The total of ordinary revenue was £14,365,000, and of all revenue,
ordinary and extraordinary, £25,426,000.
Communications. — Passenger-transport is in the hands of com-
panies. The ordinary omnibuses are the property of the Compagnie
G6n6rale des Omnibus, founded in 1855, which has a charter con-
ferring a monopoly until 1910 in return for a payment of £80 per
annum for each vehicle. The organization of the omnibus service
is under the supervision of the prefect of the Seine. Since 1906
motor-driven omnibuses have been in use. The Compagnie G<3n6rale
owns a number of tramways, and there are several other tramway
companies. The cab companies, the chief of which are the Com-
pagnie G6n6rale des Voitures and the Compagnie Urbaine, have no
monopoly. The use of the taximeter is general and motor-cabs are
numerous. Cabs pay a license fee and are under the surveillance
of the prefect of the Seine as regards tariff and the concession of
stands. The steamers {bateaux-omnibus) of the Compagnie G^n^rale
des Bateaux Parisiens ply on the Seine between Charenton and
Suresnes.
The great railways of France, with the exception of the Midi
railway, have terminal stations in Paris. The principal stations of
the northern, eastern and western systems (that of the latter known
as the Gare St Lazare) lie near the outer boulevards in the north-
centre of the city; the terminus of the Paris-Lyon-M6diterranee
railway is in the south-east, close to the right bank of the Seine;
opposite to it, on the left bank, is the station du Quai d'Austerlitz,
and on the Quai d'Orsay the Gare du Quai d'Orsay, both belonging
to the Orleans railway. The Gare Montparnasse, to the south-west
of the Luxembourg, is used by the western and the state railways.
Other less important stations are the Gare de Vincennes (line of the
eastern railway to Vincennes), the Gares du Lu.xembourg and de
Paris- Denfert (line of the Orleans railway to Sceaux and Limours),
and the Gare des Invalides (line of western railway to Versailles).
Railway communication round Paris is afforded by the Chemin
de Fer de Ceinture, which has some thirty stations along the line
of ramparts or near it. The M6tropolitain, an electric railway begun
in 1898, and running chiefly underground, has a line traversing
Paris from east to west (Porte Maillot to the Cours de Vincennes)
and a line following the outer boulevards; within the ring formed by
the latter there are transverse lines.
Streets. — The total length of the thoroughfares of Paris exceeds
600 m. For the most part, and especially in the business and in-
dustrial quarters where traffic is heavy and incessant, they are paved
with stone, Yvette sandstone from the neighbourhood of Paris
being the chief material. Wood and macadam come next in impor-
tance to stone, and there is a small proportion of asphalte roadway.
The upkeep and cleansing is under the supervision of a branch of tlie
department of public works {service technique de la voie publique et
de I'eclairage), and for this purpose the city is divided into sections,
each comprising two or three arrondissements. All streets having
a width of 25 ft. or more are planted with rows of trees, chestnuts and
planes being chiefly used for this purpose, and in many of the wide
thoroughfares there are planted strips down the middle.
The upkeep (exclusive of cleansing) of the thoroughfares cost about
£500,000, towards which the state, as usual, contributed £120,000
and the department £16,000. In the same year the cleansing cost
about £450,000. The original cost of paving a street is borne by
the owners of the property bordering it; but in the case of avenues
of exceptional width they bear only a proportion of the outlay.
Payments are exacted in return for the right to erect newspaper
kiosks, &c., to place chairs and tables on the footways and similar
concessions.
Water. — The water and sewage system of Paris is supervised by a
branch of the public works department {bureau des eaux, canaux
et assainissement). The water supply comprises a domestic supply
of spring water and a supply for industrial and street cleansing
purposes, derived from rivers and artesian wells. The domestic
supply, which averaged 55,000,000 gallons daily in 1905, has three
sources of origin : —
1. The springs of the Dhuis, to the east of Paris, whence the water
is conveyed by an aqueduct 82 m. in length to a reservoir in the
quarter of M6nilmontant.
2. The springs of the Vanne, south-east of Paris, whence the water
comes by an aqueduct 108 m. in length to a reservoir near Mont-
souris Park. The springs of the Loing and Lunain, south-east of
Paris, also supply the Montsouris reservoir.
3. The springs of the Avre, near Verneuil, to the west of the city,
the aqueduct from which is 63 m. in length and ends at the St Cloud
reservoir.
In addition, filtering installations at the pumping station of Ivry,
St Maur and elsewhere make it possible to supplement the domestic
supply with river water in hot summers.
Water for public and industrial purposes is obtained (l) from
pumping stations at Ivry and other points on the banks of the Seine,
and at St Maur on the Marne; (2) from the Ourcq canal, which starts
at Mareuil on the Ourcq and ends in the Villette basin; (3) from
artesian wells and the aqueduct of Arcueil from Rungis, the latter
being of trifling importance. The water is stored in reservoirs in the
higher localities of the city, which for the purposes of distribution
is divided into zones of altitude; thus the water from the Vanne,
stored at the Montsouris reservoir at an altitude of only 260 ft.,
is supplied to the central and lowest part of the city. The upper
parts of the quarters of Montmartre, Belleville and Montrouge,
being too high to benefit by the supply from the ordinary reservoirs,
are supplied from elevated reservoirs, to which the water is pumped
by special works.
The water is distributed throughout the city by two systems:
the low or variable pressure, carrying the river water for use in the
streets, courts and industrial premises; the high pressure, taking
the spring water to the various floors of buildings, and supplying
hydraulic lifts, drinking fountains and fire-plugs. The total length
of pipes is nearly 1600 m. The water arrives in all cases from two
different directions, so that in case of accident the interruptions of
the supply may be reduced to a minimum. Consumers are supplied
by meter {compleur) at a price of 35 centimes the cubic metre
(domestic supply) and at a minimum charge of 16 centimes for river
water. In its dealings with individuals the municipality is repre-
sented by a company {Compagnie generate des eaux), which acts as
a collecting agent and receives a commission on the takings. Its
charter expires at the end 'of 1910. In 1905, for the first time,
the gross takings reached £800,000.
Drainage. — The drainage system of Paris comprises four main
collectors, with a length in all of nearly 20 m.; 27 m. of secondary
collectors and several hundred miles of ordinary sewers. Its
capacity is such that the Seine (except in certain cases of exceptional
pressure, such as sudden and violent storms) is kept free from sewage
8l2
PARIS
[MUNICIPAL ADMINISTRATION
water, which is utilized on sewage farms. The larger sewers, which
vary between 9 and 20 ft. in width, are bordered by ledges, between
which the water runs, and are cleansed by means of slides exactly
fitting the channel and mounted on wagons or boats propelled by
the force of the stream. Of the main collectors, that serving the
north-eastern quarters of the city and debouching in the Seine at
St Denis is the longest {yi m.). The other main sewers converge
at Clichy, on the right bank of the Seine, where a powerful elevator
forces the sewage partly across the bridge, partly through a tunnel
acting as a syphon below the river-level, to the left bank. Thence
part of it is distributed over the estate of Gennevilliers, from which
it returns purified, after having fertilized the plots, to the Seine.
At Colombes a second elevator drives the surplus unused sewage
to the hills above Argenteuil (right bank), where begins a conduit
extending westwards. This conveys a portion of the sewage to a
third elevator at Pierrelaye, whence it is distributed on the hills of
Mery and the remainder to the Pare d'Acheres (left bank), the irriga-
tion fields of Carrieres-sous-Poissy (right bank), and finally those of
Mureaux, opposite Meulan. Certain parts of Paris lie too low for
their drains to run into the main sewers, and special elevators are
required to raise the sewage of the districts of Bercy, Javel and the
Cit6. The sewers are used as conduits for water-pipes, gas-pipes,
telegraph and telephone wires and pneumatic tubes.
Lighting. — Gas-lighting in Paris is in the hands of a company
whose operations are supervised and directed by municipal
engineers. The company pays to the municipality an annual
sum of £8000 for the privilege of laying pipes in the streets and
2 centimes for every cubic metre of gas consumed; in addition,
the profits of the company, after a fixed dividend has been paid
on the stock, are divided with the municipality. The company is
bound to supply gas at 30 centimes per cubic metre to private
consumers and at half that price for public services. In 1905 the
total sum paid by the company amounted to nearly £1,000,000.
It was provided that on the expiration of its charter the plant should
be made over to the municipality. Electric light is supplied by a
number of companies, to each of which in return for certain payments
a segment (secteur clectrique) of the city is assigned, though the con-
cession carries with it no monopoly ; the municipality has an electrical
station of its own beneath the central markets.
Law and Justice (see France: Justice, for an account of the
judicial system of the country as a whole). — Paris is the seat of four
courts having jurisdiction over all France: (i) the Tribunal des
Contlits, for settling disputes between the judicial and administrative
authorities on questions as to their respective jurisdiction; (2) the
Council of State, which includes a section for cases of litigation
between private persons and public departments; (3) the Cour des
Comptes; and (4) the Cour de Cassation. The first three sit in the
Palais Royal, the fourth in the Palais de Justice, which is also the
seat of (l) a coin d'appel for seven departments (seven civil chambers,
one chamber of appeal for the correctional police, one chamber for
preliminary proceedings) ; (2) a cour d'assises ; (3) a tribunal of first
instance for the department of Seine, comprising seven chambers
for civil affairs, four chambers of correctional police; (4) a police
court where each juge de paix presides in his turn assisted by a com-
missaire de police. Litigations between the departmental or muni-
cipal administrations and private persons are decided by the conseil
de prefecture. Besides these courts there are conseils de prud'hommes
and a tribunal of commerce. The conseils de prud'hommes settle
differences between workmen and workmen, or between workrnen
and masters; the whole initiative, however, rests with the parties.
There are four of these bodies in Paris (for the metal trades, the
chemical trades, the textile trades and building industries), composed
of an equal number of masters and men. The tribunal of commerce,
sitting in a building opposite the Palais de Justice, is composed of
business men elected by the " notables " of their order, and deals
with cases arising out of commercial transactions; declarations of
bankruptcy are made before it; it also acts as registrar of trade-
marks and of articles of association of companies; and as court of
appeal to the conseils de prud'hommes. _
Prisons. — There are three places of detention in Pans — the Depot
of the prefecture of police (in the Palais de Justice), where persons
arrested and not released by the commissaries of police are tem-
porarily confined, the Conciergerie or maison de justice, for the recep-
tion of prisoners accused of crimes, who are there submitted to a
preliminary examination before the president of the court of assizes,
and the Sante (near the Place Denfert-Rochereau), for prisoners
awaiting trial and for remanded prisoners. The old prisons of
Mazas, Ste P^lagie and La Grande-Roquette, the demolition of which
was ordered in 1894, have been replaced by the prison of Fresnes-
les-Rungis for condemned prisoners. The prisoners, kept in solitary
confinement, are divided into three groups: those undergoing short
sentences, those sentenced to hard labour while awaiting transference
to their final place of detention or to sentences over a year, and sick
prisoners occupying the central infirmary of the prison. The
Petit Roquette (occupied by children) was replaced by the agricul-
tural and horticultural colony of Montesson, inaugurated in 1896.
Education (see also France). — In 1905 there were 170 public
ecoles maternelles (kindergartens) with 57,000 pupils, and 48 private
schools of the kind with 7800 pupils, besides a certain number of
ecoles enfantines, exclusively managed, as are the ecoles maternelles.
by women, and serving as a lin.k between the latter and the ecoles
primaires, for timid and backward children of from 6 to 8 years of
age. There were 374 public primary schools with 173,000 pupils,
while over 63,000 children were educated in private primary schools.
Subsidiary to the primary schools are the caisses des ecoles (school
treasuries), which give clothing, &c., to indigent children and main-
tain the cantines scolaires for the provision of hot mid-day meals;
the classes de garde and ihe garderies, which look after children beyond
the ordinary school hours; the classes de vacances, school camps and
school colonies for children during the holidays; and the internals
primaires, which for a small payment board and lodge children
whose parents or guardians are unable to do so satisfactorily.
The higher primary schools (ecoles primaires superieures), which
give a course of 3 or 4 years, number 86 for boys (College Chaptal,'
ecoles, J. B. Say, Turgot, Colbert, Lavoisier, Arago) and two for girls
(Sophie Germain and Edgar Quinet). Supplementary courses take
the place of these schools for children who can afford two years at
most for schooling after leaving the primary school. Side by side
with the higher primary school, the teaching in which has a com-
mercial rather than an industrial bias, are the ecoles professionelles,
technical schools for the training of craftsmen. , The ficole Diderot
trains pupils in wood- and iron-working; the Ecole Germain Pilon
teaches practical, drawing, and the £cole Barnard Palissy teaches
applied art; the Ecole Boulle trains cabinet-makers, and the Ecole
Estienne teaches all the processes connected with book-production.
The school of physics and chemistry imparts both theoretical and
practical knowledge of these sciences. The ficole Dorian is a school
of the same type as the ficole Diderot, but is intended for very poor
children, who are received from the age of seven and boarded and
lodged. Six ecoles menageres train girls in the duties and employ-
ments of their sex. The municipality also provides gratuitous
popular courses in scientific and historical subjects at the Hotel de
Ville, and there are numerous private associations giving courses
of instruction (the Philotechnic Association, the Polytechnic Asso-
ciation, the Union franqaise de la jeunesse, &c.). Teachers for the
elementary primary schools are recruited from two training colleges
in the city.
Secondary attd Higher Education. — There are 13 lyc^es for boys
and a municipal college — the College Rollin. These give classical
and modem courses, and usually have classes preparing pupils for
one or more of the government schools. For girls there are five
lyc6es.
The five faculties of medicine, law, science, literature and Pro-
testant theology, and the higher school of pharmacy, form the body of
faculties, the association of which is known as the University of
Paris. The faculties of science and literature, together with their
library, are established at the Sorbonne, which is also the seat of
the academie, of which Paris is the centre, and of the £cole des chartes.
The faculty of medicine with its laboratories (ecole pratique) occupies
separate buildings near the Sorbonne. The law school is also close
to the Sorbonne. Of the 12,600 students at the university in 1905—
1906 some 1260 were foreigners, Russians and Rumanians being
most numerous among the latter. The faculty of law is the most
largely attended, some 6000 students being enrolled therein. The
College de France, founded by Francis 1. and situated opposite the
Sorbonne, gives instruction of a popular kind to adults of the general
public; the various branches of learning are represented by over
40 chairs. The Museum d'histoire naturelle gives instruction in
the natural sciences; the Ecole pratique des Jiautes etudes, whose
students are instructed at the Sorbonne and other scientific estab-
lishments in the city, has for its object the encouragement of scientific
research. In addition, there are several great national schools
attached to various ministries. Dependent on the ministry of
education are the Ecole normale superieure, for the training of teachers
in lyc6es ; the Ecole des chartes (palaeography and the use of archives) ;
the Ecole speciale des langues orientates, for the training of inter-
preters; the Ecole nationale et speciale des beaux-arts (painting,
sculpture, architecture, &c.), in the various departments of which are
conferred the prix de Rome, entitling their winners to a four years'
period of study in Italy; the Conservatcrire national de miisiqve et de
declam-ation (music and acting), which also confers a grand prix
and possesses a fine library and collection of musical instruments;
the &ole nationale des arts decoratifs (art applied to the artistic
industries); the Ecole du Louvre, for the instruction of directors of
museums. Depending on the ministry of war are the £,cole poly-
tcchnigtie, which trains military, governmental and civil engineers;
the Ecole superieure de guerre (successor of the officers' training
school, founded in 1751) for advanced military studies. Attached
to the ministry of commerce and industry are the Ecole centrale
des arts et manufactures for the training of industrial engineers,
works managers, &c. ; the Conservatoire des arts et metiers, which has
a rich museum of industrial inventions and provides courses in
science as applied to the arts. The Institut national agrono-
mique, a higher school of scientific agriculture, is dependent on the
ministry of agriculture, and the &cole coloniale for the instruction
' The Coll6ge Chaptal has a wider scope than the higher primary
schools; it has in view general cultuie rather than commercial apti-
tude, and also prepares students for the great scientific schools
(ecole des mines, icole polyter.hnique, &c.). ■ JUioqi-iO
HISTORY]
PARIS
813
both of natives of French colonies and of colonial functionaries, on
the ministry of the colonies. The Acole nationale des ponls el
chaussees for the training of government engineers, and the Rcole
nationale superieure des mines for mining engineers, arc under the
minister of public works. Of free institutions of higher education
the most prominent are the Catholic institute, with faculties of law
and theology and schools of advanced literarj' and scientific studies,
the Pasteur institute, founded by Pasteur in 1886 and famous for the
treatment of hydrophobia and for its research-laboratories, and the
school of political science which prepares candidates for political
and governmental careers. The two latter receive state subvention.
There are numerous private associations giving courses of instruction,
the more important being the Philotechnic Association, the Poly-
technic Association and the Union fran^aise de la jeunesse.
Among the numerous learned societies of Paris the first in import-
ance is the Institut de France (see Academies). The French Asso-
ciation for the advancement of the sciences, founded in 1872, is
based on the model of the older British society, and, like it, meets
every year in a different town.
In art Paris has long held a leading place. The Societe des
Artistes frangais holds an annual salon or exhibition in May and
June at the Palais d'lndustrie. It is open to artists of all national-
ities. Works are selected and awards (including the Prix de Rome)
made by a jury of experts selected by the exhibitors. The society
was founded in 1S72, but the salon takes its name from the academy
; exhibitions, which, first held in the Palais Royal in 1667, were trans-
ferred to the Salon Carre in the Louvre in 1669. As a result of
dissension over the awards of 1889, the society of fine arts (Societe
Nationale des Beaux-Arts) established a separate salon, in the Champ
de IVIars, in May, June and July. There is also a Societe du Salon
d'Automne.
Charity. — The administration of public charity is entrusted to a
responsible director, under the authority of the Seine prefect, and
assisted by a board of super\'ision, the members of which are nomi-
nated by the president. The funds at his disposal are derived (l)
from the revenue of certain estates, houses, farms, woods, stocks,
shares; (2) from taxes on seats in the theatres (one-tenth of the
price), balls, concerts, the mont de piete, and allotments in the
cemeteries; (3) from the municipal subsidy; (4) from other sources
(including voluntary donations). The charges on the administration
consist of (i) the treatment of the sick in the hospitals; (2) the lodging
of old men and of incurables in the hospices; (3) the support of charity
children; (4) the distribution of out-door relief {secours a domicile) by
the bureaux de bienfaisance ; (5) the dispensation of medical assistance
4 domicile.
The doctors, surgeons, chemists, both resident and non-resident,
connected with the numerous hospitals, are all admitted by com-
petitive examination. They are assisted by three grades of students,
internes (who receive a salary), externes and stagiaires (probationers).
Of the hospices and similar institutions, the following are the chief:
Bicetre (men), less than a mile south of the fortifications; La Sal-
petriere (women), Ivr>' (both sexes); maisons de retraite (for persons
not without resources) Issy, La Rochefoucauld, Ste Perine;
fondations (privately endowed institutions) — Brezins at Garches (for
ironworkers), Devillas, Chardon-Lagache, Lenoir-Jousseran, Galig-
nani (booksellers, printers, &c.), Alquicr-Debrousse; and sections for
the insane — Bicetre (men), SalpStriere (women), these being distinct
from the ordinary departmental asylums controlled by the prefect.
Foundlings and orphans are sent to the Hospice des enfants
assistes, which also receives children whose parents are patients
in the hospitals or undergoing imprisonment. This institution is
not intended as a permanent home. Infants are not kept in the
institution, but are boarded out with nurses in the country; the older
ones are boarded out with families or placed in technical schools.
Up to thirteen years of age the children are kept at the expense of
the department of Seine, after which they are apprenticed.
The following establishments in or near Paris belong to the nation
and are dependent on the ministry of the interior: The Quinze-
Vingts gives shelter to the 300 blind for whom it was founded by
St Louis, and gives outdoor assistance besides. The blind asylum
for the young {Institution des jeunes aveugles) has 250 pupils of both
sexes. The deaf-mute institution {Institution nationale des
sourds-muets) is for boys only, and they are generally paid for by the
state, the departments and the communes. The Charenton asylum is
for the insane. Those of Vincennes (for male patients) and Le
Vesinet (for female patients) take in convalescents from the hospitals.
The Vacassy asylum at Charenton is for workmen incapacitated by
accident. The Hotel des invalides is for old and infirm soldiers.
Private bodies also maintain a great number of institutions.
Religion. — Some 75 °o of the population of Paris is Roman Catholic.
The department of Seine forms the diocese of the archbishop of Paris,
and the city is divided into 70 parishes. It has the important
higher ecclesiastical seminary of St Sulpice, two lower seminaries and
otners for training the clergy for missionary and colonial work.
Paris is also the seat of the central council of the Reformed Church
and of the executive committee of the General Synod of the Lutheran
Church, and forms a consistory of both these churches, whose adher-
ents together number about 90,000. There are also some 50,000
Jews, Paris being the seat of the Grand Rabbinate of France and of
the central consistory.
Indiistries. — The larger manufacturing cstaljlishments of Paris
comprise engineering and repairing works connected with the
railways, similar private works, foundries and sugar refineries.
Government works are the tobacco factories of Gros Cailiou and
ReuiUy, depending on the ministry of finance; the national printing
establishment, under the ministry of justice; the mint (with a collec-
tion of medals and coins), established in an l8th century building
close to the Pont Neuf and under the control of the ministry of finance;
and the famous tapestry factory and dye-works (with a tapestry
rnuseum) of the Gobelins, under the minister of education. The
list of minor establishments is varied, most of them being devotetl
to the production of the so-called articles de Paris (feathers, artificial
flowers, dolls, toys and fancy goods in general), and carPidng the
principle of the division of labour to an extreme. The establish-
ments which rank next to those above mentioned in the number
of workmen are the pharmaceutical factories, the gasworks, the
printing-offices, cabinet-makers' workshops, tailoring and dress-
making establishments (very numerous) and hat factories.
The textile industries hardly exist in Paris; there are a few tan-
neries on the Bievre, but the leather industry is chiefly represented by
the production of morocco leather goods classed as articles de Paris.
Mention may be made here of the bureaux de placement gratuit,
maintained by the municipality, where those in search of work or
workers are put in touch with one another.
Markets. — The slaughter-houses, cattle-yards, and with few excep-
tions the markets of Paris, belong to the municipality. The chief
slaughter-house is the abattoir genhal of La Villette, covering
a space of 47 acres in the e-xtreme north-east of the city on the bank
of the Canal de I'Ourcq; adjoining it, with an area of about 55 acres,
on the opposite bank of the canal, are the municipal cattle-yards
and markets, which have accommodation for many thousands of
animals, and are connected with the Ceinture railway so that the
cattle-trucks are brought straight into the market. Cattle-traders
and butchers pay dues for the use of these establishments. There
are other less extensive slaughter-yards at Vaugirard. Most of the
cattle come from Calvados, Maine-et-Loire, Vaucluse, Nievre,
Loire-Inferieure and Orne; sheep from Seine-et-Marne, Avevron,
Aisne, Seine-et-Oise, Lot and Cantal; pigs from Loire-lnferieure
and other western departments; calves from Loiret, Eure-et-Loir
and others of the northern departments. Dead meat, game, poultry,
fruit, vegetables, fish and the other food-supplies have their centre
of wholesale distribution at the Halles Centrales, close to the Louvre,
which comprise besides a large uncovered space a number of pavilions
of iron and glass covering some 10 acres. Close to the Halles is the
Bourse de Commerce, which is a centre for transactions in alcohol,
wheat, rye and oats, flour, oil and sugar; and a market for flour,
the trade in which is more important than that in wheat, is held in
the Place St Germain I'Auxerrois, sales being effected chiefly by
the medium of samples. Most of the wines and spirits consumed
in Paris pass through the entrepots of Bercy and the wine-market
on the Quai St Bernard, the first specially connected with the
wine-trade, the second with the brandy-trade. In addition, there
are other provision markets in various quarters of the city, owned
and supervised by the municipality, as well as numerous flower-
markets, bird-markets, a market for horses, carriages, bicycles and
dogs, &c. Two fairs are still held in Paris — the foire aux jambons
in the Boulevard Richard Lenoir during Holy week, and the foire
au pain d'epices in the Place de la Nation and its vicinity at Easter
time. Market and market-places are placed under the double
supervision of the prefect of Seine and the prefect of police. The
former official has to do with the authorization, removal, suppression,
and holding of the markets, the fixing and collecting of the dues,
the choice of sites, the erection and maintenance of buildings, and the
location of vehicles. The latter maintains order, keeps the roads
clear, and watches against fraud. There is a municipal laboratory,
where any purchaser can have the provisions he has bought analysed,
and can obtain precise information as to their quality. Spoiled
provisions are seized by the agents of the prefecture.
The Chamber of Commerce occupies a building close to the Bourse.
Bibliography. — P. Joanne, Dictionnaire geographique et adminis-
tratifdela France, vol. v. (Paris, 1899), s.v. " Paris," a comprehensive
and detailed account from the topographical, administrative and
historical points of view; M. Block, Dictionnaire de I' administration
franqaise, vol. ii. (Paris, 1905), s.v. " Paris " •,Annuaire statistique dela
ville de Paris, issued by the Service de la statistique municipale;
Baedeker's Paris; T. Okey, The Story of Paris (London, 1906);
W. F. Lonergen, Historic Churches of Paris (London, 1896); G.
Pessard, Nouveau dictionnaire historique de Paris (Paris, 1904) ;
E. Fournier, Paris i trovers les dges (Paris, 1876-1882) ; C. Normand,
Nouvel itincraire-gtiide artistique et archeologique de Paris (Paris,
1889), &c. (R. Tr.)
History. — At its first appearance in history there was nothing
to foreshow the important part which Paris was to play in
Europe and in the world. An island in the Seine, now almost lost
in the modern city, and then much smaller than at present, was
for centuries the entire site. The sole importance of the town lay
in its being the capital of a similarly insignificant Gallic people,
which navigated the lower course of the Seine, and doubfless
8i4
PARIS
[HISTORY
from time to time visited the coasts of Britain. So few were
its inhabitants that they early put themselves under the protec-
tion of their powerful neighbours, the Senones, and this vassal-
ship was the source of the political dependence of Paris on Sens
throughout the Roman period, and of a religious subordination
which lasted tiU the 17th century. The capital did not at once
take the name of the Parisii, whose centre it was, but long kept
that of Lucetia, Lucotetia or Lutetia, of which Lutece is the
generally recognized French form.
During the War of Gallic Independence, after being subjugated
by Caesar, who even in 53 B.C. made their territory the meeting-
place of deputies from all Gaul, the Parisii took part in the great
rising of the year 52, at the same time separating their cause
from that of the Senones, who v/ere held in check by Caesar's
lieutenant, Labienus. They joined their forces to the army
commanded by an Aulercian, the old Camulogenus, which in
turn was to unite with the BeUovaci to crush Labienus advancing
from Sens to attack the Parisians. Having marched along the
right bank of the river till opposite Lutetia, Labienus learned
that the Bellovaci were in arms, and, fearing to find himself
between two armies at a distance from his headquarters, he
sought to get rid of Camulogenus, who, posted on the left bank,
endeavoured to bar his way. The bridges had been cut and the
town burned by order of the Gallic chief. By means of a strata-
gem Labienus drew his opponent up the river to the district
now occupied by the Jardin des Plantes, and quietly by night
crossed the Seine lower down in the neighbourhood of Crenelle,
near a place which Caesar calls Metiosedum, identified, but not
conclusively, with Meudon. The Gauls, retracing their steps a
little, met the Romans and allowed themselves to be routed
and dispersed; their leader fell in the fore-front of the battle.
Still unsubdued, the Parisii were called upon by the general
council assembled in Alesia to furnish eight thousand men to
help in raising the siege of that city. It is doubtful whether
they were able to contribute the whole of this contingent, when
their powerful neighbours the Bellovaci managed to send only
two thousand of the ten thousand demanded of them. This was
their last effort, and after the check at Alesia they took no
part in the desperate resistance offered by the Bellovaci.
Lutetia was somewhat neglected under the Roman emperors
of the first centuries. Its inhabitants continued quietly carrying
on their river traffic, and devoted part of their wealth to the
maintenance of a great temple to Jupiter built on the site of the
present cathedral of Notre Dame. It is not known at what date
Christianity was introduced into the future capital of France;
but it is probable, judging by the use of the title " city," that
Lutetia was the see of one of the earliest of the bishoprics of
Gallia Celtica. The name of the founder of the church is known,
but a keen controversy, not yet settled, has recently been raised
with regard to the date when the first Roman missionary,
St Dionysius or Denis, reached the banks of the Seine, along
with his two deacons, Rusticus and Eleutherius. A pious belief,
which, in spite of its antiquity, has its origin in nothing better
than parochial vanity, identifies the first-named with Dionysius
the Areopagite, who was converted by St Paul at Athens, and
thus takes us back to the middle of the ist century of the
Christian era. Better founded in the opinion which dates the
evangelization of the city two centuries later; the regular list of
bishops, of whom, after Denis, the most famous was St Marcel,
begins about 250.
Lutetia was in some sort the cradle of Christian liberty, having
been the capital, from 292 to 306, of the mild Constantius
Chlorus, who put an end to persecution in Brittany, Gaul and
Spain, over which he ruled. This emperor fixed his residence
on the banks of the Seine, doubtless for the purpose of watching
the Germans without losing sight of Brittany, where the Roman
authority was always unstable; perhaps he also felt something
of the same fancy for Lutetia which Julian afterwards expressed
in his works and his letters. Be that as it may, the fact that
these two princes chose to live there naturally drew attention to
the city, where several buildings now rose on the left side of the
river which could not have been reared within the narrow
boundaries of the island. There was the imperial palace, the
remains of which, a magnificent vaulted chamber, beside the
H6tel de Cluny, are now known, probably correctly, as Julian's
Baths. At some distance up the river, in the quarter of St
Victor, excavations in 1870 and in 1883 laid bare the foundations
of the amphitheatre, which was capable of holding about 10,000
spectators, and thus suggests the existence of a population of
20,000 to 25,000 souls. Dwelling-houses, villas, and probably
also an extensive cemetery, occupied the slope of the hill of
St Genevieve.
It was at Lutetia that, in 360, Julian, already Caesar, was in
spite of himself proclaimed Augustus by the legions he had more
than once led to victory in Germany. The troops invaded his
palace, which, to judge by various circumstances of the mutiny,
must have been of great extent. As for the city itself, it was
as yet but a little town (TroXixi^) according to the imperial
author in his Misopogon. The successive sojourns of Valen-
tinian I. and Gratian scarcely increased its importance. The
latest emperors preferred Treves, Aries, and Vienne in Gaul, and,
besides, allowed Paris, about 410, to be absorbed by the powerful
Armorican league. When the patricians, Aetius, Aegidius and
Syagrius, held almost independent sway over the small portion
of Gaul which still held together, they dwelt at Soissons, and it
was there that Clovis fi.xed himself during the ten or eleven years
between the defeat of Syagrius (486) and the surrender of Paris
(497), which opened its gates, at the advice of St Genevieve, only
after the conversion of the Prankish king. In 508, at the return
of his victorious expedition against the south, Clovis made Paris
the official capital of his realm — Cathedram regni constiluit, says
Gregory of Tours. He chose as his residence the palace of the
Thermae, and lost no time in erecting on the summit of the hill,
as his future place of interment, the basilica of St Peter and St
Paul, which became not long afterwards the church and abbey
of St Genevieve. After the death of Clovis, in spite of the
supremacy granted to the kingdom of Austrasia, or Metz, Paris
remained the true political centre of the various Prankish states,
insomuch that the four sons of Clothaire, fearing the prestige
which would attach to whoever of them might possess it, made
it a sort of neutral town, though after all it was seized by Sigebert,
king of Austrasia, Chilperic, king of Neustria (who managed to
keep possession for some time, and repaired the amphitheatre),
and Guntram, king of Burgundy. The last sovereign had to
defend himself in 585 against the pretender Gondovald, whose
ambition aspired to uniting the whole of Gaul under his dominion,
and marching on Paris to make it the seat of the half-barbarian
half-Roman administration of the kingdom of which he had
dreamed.
Numerous calamities befell Paris from 586, when a terrible
conflagration took place, to the close of the Merovingian dynasty.
During a severe famine Bishop Landry sold the church plate
to alleviate the distress of the people, and it was probably he
who, in company with St Eloi (Eligius), founded the Hotel Dieu.
The kings in the long run almost abandoned the town, especially
when the Austrasian influence under the mayors of the palace
tended to shift the centre of the Prankish power towards the
Rhine.
Though the Merovingian period was for art a time of the
deepest decadence, Paris was nevertheless adorned and enriched
by pious foundations. Mention has already been made of the
abbey of St Peter, which became after the death of Clovis the
abbey of St Genevieve. On the same side of the river, but in the
valley, Chiidebert, with the assistance of Bishop St Germain,
founded St Vincent, known a little later as St Germain-des-Pres,
which was the necropolis of the Prankish kings before St Denis.
On the right bank the same king built St Vincent le Rond
(afterwards St Germain I'Auxerrois), and in La Cite, beside the
cathedral of St Etienne, the basilica of Notre Dame, which excited
the admiration of his contemporaries, and in the 12th century
obtained the title of cathedral. Various monasteries were
erected on both sides of the river, and served to group in thickly-
peopled suburbs the population, which had grown too large for
the island.
HISTORY]
PARIS
815
The first Carolingian, Pippin the Short, occasionally lived at
Paris, sometimes in the palace of Julian, sometimes in the old
palace of the Roman governors of the town, at the lower end of
the island; the latter ultimately became the usual residence.
Under Charlemagne Paris ceased to be capital; and under
Charles the Bald it became the scat of mere counts. But the
invasions of the Northmen attracted general attention to the
town, and showed that its political importance could no longer
be neglected. When the suburbs were pillaged and burned by
the pirates, and the city regularly besieged in 885, Paris was
heroically defended by its " lords," and the emperor Charles the
Fat felt bound to hasten from Germany to its relief. The
pusillanimity which he showed in purchasing the retreat of the
Normans was the main cause of his deposition in 887, while
the courage displayed by Count Odo, or Eudes, procured him the
crown of France; Robert, Odo's brother, succeeded him; and,
although Robert's son, Hugh the Great, was only duke of France
and count of Paris, his power counterbalanced that of the last
of the Carolingians, shut up in Laon as their capital.
With Hugh Capet in 987 the capital of the duchy of France
definitively became the capital of the kingdom, and in spite of
the frequent absence of the kings, several of whom preferred to
reside at Orleans, the town continued to increase in size and
population, and saw the development of those institutions
which were destined to secure its greatness. Henry I. founded
the abbey of St Martin-des-Champs, Louis VI. that of St Victor,
the mother-house of an order, and a nursery of literature and
theology. Under Louis VII. the royal domain was the scene
of one of the greatest artistic revolutions recorded in history:
the Romanesque style of architecture was exchanged for the
Pointed or Gothic, of which Suger, in his reconstruction of the
basilica of St Denis, exhibited the earliest type. The capital
could not remain aloof from this movement; several sumptuous
buildings were erected; the Romanesque choir of St Germain-
des-Pres was thrown down to give place to another more spacious
and elegant; and when, in 1163, Pope Alexander III. had solemnly
consecrated it, he was invited by Bishop Maurice de Sully to lay
the first stone of Notre Dame de Paris, a cathedral on a grander
scale than any previously undertaken. Paris still possesses
the Romanesque nave of St Germain-des-Pres, preserved when
the building was rebuilt in the 12th century; the Pointed choir,
consecrated in 1163; and the entire cathedral of Notre Dame,
which, completed sixty years later, underwent various modifica-
tions down to the beginning of the 14th century. The sacristy is
modern; the site previous to 1831 was occupied by the episcopal
palace, also built by Maurice de Sully, who by a new street had
opened up this part of the island. It was Louis VII. also who
granted to the Templars the piece of marshland on the left bank
of the Seine on which the Paris Temple,' the headquarters of the
order in Europe, was built (see Templars).
Philip Augustus may be considered the second founder of
Paris. He seldom quitted it save for his military expeditions,
and he there built for himself, near St Germain I'Auxerrois, the
Louvre, the royal dwelling par excellence, whose keep was the
official centre of feudalism. He created or organized a regular
system of administration, with its headquarters at Paris; and
under his patronage the pubhc lectures delivered at Pre-aux-
Clercs were regulated and grouped under the title of a university
in 1200.
This university, the most famous and flourishing in Christen-
dom, considerably augmented the local population, and formed
as it were a new town on the left side of the river, where the great
fortified precincts of the Templars, the important abbeys of
Ste Genevieve, St Germain-des-Pres and St Victor, and a vast
i 'After the suppression of the Templars in 1312 the Temple was
assigned to the Knights of St John. It was used as a state prison
in the 14th century, and as barracks in the i6th. The church and
the greater part of the other buildings survived in the 17th century.
At the Revolution the keep (1265 or 1270) alone survived of the
Templars' buildings. It was here that Louis XVI. and the royal
family were imprisoned. It became a place of pilgrimage for the
Royalists, and was, in consequence, pulled down under the Empire
in 181 1. Its site is occupied by the Place du Temple.
JUUgliJCJt -jilj
Carthusian monastery already stood. Colleges were erected to
receive the students of the different countries, and became the
great meeting-place of the studious youth of all Europe.
The right side of the river, where commerce and industry
had taken up their abode, and where the Louvre, the abbey of
St Martin, and a large number of secondary religious establish-
ments were already erected, became a centre of activity at least
as important as that on the left. The old suburbs, too, were
now incorporated with the town and enclosed in the new line
of fortifications constructed by Philip Augustus, which, however,
did not take in the great abbeys on the left side of the river, and
thus obliged them to buUd defensive works of their own.
Philip Augustus issued from the Louvre a celebrated order,
that the streets of the town should be paved. Not far from his
palace, on the site of the present Halles Centrales, he laid out an
extensive cemetery and a market-place, which both took their
name from the Church of the Innocents, a building of the same
reign, destroyed at the Revolution. Fountains were placed in
all the quarters. As for the lighting of the town, till the close of
the i6th century the only lamps were those in front of the
madonnas at the street corners. But the first " illumination "
of Paris occurred under Philip Augustus: on his return from a
victorious expedition to Flanders in 1214 he was welcomed by the
Parisians as a conqueror; and the public rejoicings lasted for
seven days, "interrupted by no night," says the chronicler,
alluding to the torches and lamps with which the citizens lighted
up the fronts of their houses. Ferrand, count of Flanders, the
traitor vassal, was dragged behind the king to the dungeons of
the Louvre.
In 1226 there was held at Paris a council which, by excommuni-
cating Raymond VII., count of Toulouse, helped to prepare the
way for the most important treaty which had as yet been signed
in the capital. By this treaty (April 12, 1229) the regent,
Blanche of Castile, the widow of Louis VIII., obtained from
Raymond VII. a great part of his possessions, while the
remainder was secured to the house of Capet through the
marriage of Alphonse of Poitiers, brother of St Louis, with
Jeanne, the heiress of Languedoc.
In affection for his capital St Louis equalled, or even surpassed,
his grandfather Philip, and Paris reciprocated his goodwill.
The head of the administration was at that time the provost
of Paris, a judiciary magistrate and police functionary whose
extensive powers had given rise to the most flagrant abuses.
Louis IX. reformed this office and filled it with the judge of
greatest integrity to be found in his kingdom. This was the
famous Etienne Boileau, who showed such vigilance and upright-
ness that the capital was completely purged of evildoers; the
sense of security thus produced attracted a certain number of
new inhabitants, and, to the advantage of the public revenue,
increased the value of the trade. It was fitienne Boileau who,
by the king's express command, drew up those statutes of the
commercial and industrial gilds of Paris which, modified by the
necessities of new times and the caprice of princes, remained in
force till the Revolution.
St Louis caused a partial restoration of St Germain I'Auxerrois,
his parish church (completed in the 15th century, and deplorably
altered under Louis XV.); and besides preferring the palace of
La Cite to the Louvre, he entirely rebuilt it, and rendered it
one of the most comfortable residences of his time. Of this
edifice there still remain, among the buildings of the present
Palais de Justice, the great guard-room, the kitchens with their
four enormous chimneys, three round towers on the quay, and,
one of the marvels of the middle ages, the Sainte Chapelle,
erected in 1248 to receive the crown of thorns sent from Con-
stantinople. This church, often imitated during the 13th and
14th centuries, is like an immense shrine in open work; its
large windows contain admirable stained glass of its own date,
and its paintings and sculptures (restored in the loth century
by Viollet-le-Duc) give a vivid picture of the religious beliefs
of the middle ages. It has a lower storej' ingeniously arranged,
which served as a chapel for the palace servants. The Sainte
Chapelle was designed by Pierre de Montereau, one of the most
8i6
PARIS
[HISTORY
celebrated architects of his time, to whom is attributed another
marvel still extant, the refectory of the abbey of St Martin,
now occupied by the library of the Conservatoire des Arts et
des Metiers. This incomparable artist was buried in the abbey
of St Germain-des-Pres, where, too, he had raised magnificent
buildings now no longer existing. Under St Louis, Robert de
Sorbon, a common priest, founded in 1253 an unpretending
theological college which afterwards became the celebrated
faculty of the Sorbonne, whose decisions were wellnigh as
authoritative as those of Rome.
The capital of France had but a feeble share in the communal
movement which in the north characterizes the nth, 12th and
13th centuries. Placed directly under the central power, it was
never strong enough to force concessions; and in truth it did
not claim them, satisfied with the advantages of all kinds secured
for it by its political position and its university. And, besides,
the privileges which it did enjoy, while they could be revoked
at the king's pleasure, were of considerable extent. Its inhabit-
ants were not subjected to forced labour or arbitrary imposts,
and the liberty of the citizens and their commerce and industry
were protected by wise regulations. The university and all
those closely connected with it possessed the fullest rights and
liberties. There was a municipal or bourgeois militia, which
rendered the greatest service to Philip Augustus and St Louis,
but afterwards became an instrument of revolt. The communal
administration devolved on echcmns or jures, who, in conjunction
with the notables, chose a nominal mayor called provost of
the merchants {prevot des marchands). The powers of this
ofiScial had been grievously curtailed in favour of the provost
of Paris and his lieutenants, named by the sovereign. His main
duties were to regulate the price of provisions and to control
the incidence of taxation on merchandise. He was the chief
inspector of bridges and public wells, superintendent of the
river pohce, and commander of the guard of the city walls, which
it was also his duty to keep in repair. And, finally, he had
jurisdiction in commercial affairs until the creation of the
consular tribunals by the chancellor Michel L'Hopital. The
violent attempts made by Etienne Marcel in the 14th century,
and those of the communes of 1793 and 1871, showed what
reason royalty had to fear too great an expansion of the
municipal power at Paris.
The town council met in the 13th and 14th centuries in an
unpretending house on Ste Genevieve, near the city walls on
the left side of the river. The municipal assemblies were
afterwards held near the Place de Greve, on the right side of
the river, in the " Maison aux Piliers," which Francis I. allowed
to be replaced by an imposing hotel de ville.
The last of the direct descendants of Capet, and the first
two Valois kings did little for their capital. Philip the Fair,
however, increased its political importance by making it the
seat of the highest court in the kingdom, the parlement, which
he organized between 1302 and 1304, and to which he surrendered
a part of his cite palace. Under the three sons of Philip the Fair,
the Tour de Nesle, which stood opposite, on the site now occupied
by the buildings of the Institute, was the scene of frightful
orgies, equally celebrated in history and romance. One of
the queens, who, if the chronicles are to be trusted, took part
in these expiated her crimes in Chateau-Gaillard, where she
was strangled in 1315 by order of her husband, Louis X. During
the first part of the War of the Hundred Years, Paris escaped
being taken by the English, but felt the effects of the national
misfortunes. Whilst destitution excited in the country the
revolt of the Jacquerie, in the city the miseries of the time were
attributed to the vices of the feudal system, and the citizens
seemed ready for insurrection. The provost of the merchants,
fitienne Marcel, equally endowed with courage and intellect,
sought to turn this double movement to account in the interest
of the municipal hberties of Paris and of constitutional guaran-
tees. The cause which he supported was lost through the
violence of his own acts. Not content with having massacred
two ministers under the very eyes of the dauphin Charles, who
was regent whilst his father John lay captive in London, he
joined the Jacquerie, and was not afraid to call into Paris
the king of Navarre, Charles the Bad, a notorious firebrand,
who at that time was making common cause with the English.
Public sentiment, at first favourable to Marcel's schemes, shrank
from open treason. A watch was set on him, and, at the mom.ent
when, having the keys of the town in his possession in virtue
of his office, he was preparing to open one of the gates, he was
assassinated by order of Jean Maillard, one of the heads of the
niilice, on the night of the 31st of July 1358. Marcel had en-
larged Philip Augustus's line of fortifications on the right side
of the river, and had begun a new one.
When he became king in 1364, Charles V. forgot the outrages
he had suffered at the hands of the Parisians during his regency.
He robbed the Louvre to some extent of its miUtary equipment,
in order to make it a convenient and sumptuous residence;
his open-work staircases and his galleries are mentioned in terms
of the highest praise by writers of the time. This did not,
however, remain always his favourite palace; having built or
rebuilt in the St Antoine quarter the mansion of St Paul or
St Pol, he was particularly fond of living in it during the latter
part of his life, and it was there that he died in 1380. It was
Charles V. who, in conjunction with the provost of Paris, Hugues
Aubriot, erected the famous Bastille to protect the St Antoine
gate as part of an enlarged scheme of fortification. A library
which he founded — a rich one for the times — became the nucleus
of the national library. With the exception of some of the upper
portions of the Sainte Chapelle, which were altered or recon-
structed by this prince or his son Charles VI., there are no remains
of the buildings of Charles V.
The reign of Charles VI. was as disastrous for the city as that
of his father had been prosperous. From the very accession
of the new king, the citizens, who had for some time been relieved
by a great reduction of the taxes, and had received a promise
of further alleviation, found themselves subjected to the most
odious fiscal exactions on the part of the king's uncle, who was
not satisfied with the well-stored treasury of Charles V., which he
had unscrupulously pillaged. In March 1382 occurred what is
called the revolt of the " Maillotins " (i.e. men with mallets).
Preoccupied with his expedition against the Flemings, Charles
VI. delayed putting down the revolt, and for the moment
remitted the new taxes. On his victorious return on the loth
of January 1383, the Parisians in alarm drew up their forces
in front of the town gates under the pretext of showing their
sovereign what aid he might derive from them, but really in
order to intimidate him. They were ordered to retire within
the walls and to lay down their arms, and they obeyed. The
king and his uncles, having destroyed the gates, made their
way into Paris as into a besieged city; and with the decapitation
of Desmarets, one of the most faithful servants of the Crown,
began a series of bloody executions. Ostensibly through the
intercession of the regents an end was put to that species of
severities, a heavy fine being substituted, much larger in amount
than the annual value of the abolished taxes. The municipal
administration was suspended for several years, and its functions
bestowed on the provost of Paris, a magistrate nominated by
the Crown.
The calamities which followed were due to the weakness
and incapacity of the government, given over, because of the
madness of Charles VI., to the intrigues of a wicked queen
and of princes who brought the most bloodthirsty passions to
the service of their boundless ambition. First came the rivalry
between the dukes of Orleans and Burgundy, brought to an
end in 1407 by assassination of the former. Next followed the
relentless struggle for supremacy between two hostile parties:
the Armagnacs on one side, commanded by Count Bernard of
Armagnac (who for a brief period had the title of constable),
and supported by the nobles and burgesses; and on the other
side the Burgundians, depending on the common people, and
recognizing John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, as their head.
The mob was headed by a skinner at the Hotel Dieu called
Simon Caboche, and hence the name Cabochiens was given to
the Burgundian party in Paris. They became masters of Paris
HISTORY]
PARIS
817
in 141 2 and 1413; but so violent were their excesses that the
most timid rose in revolt, and the decimated bourgeoisie managed
by a bold stroke to recover possession of the town. The
Armagnacs again entered Paris, but their intrigues with England
and their tyranny rendered them odious in their turn; the
Burgundians were recalled in 1418, and returned with Cabochc
and a formidable band of pillagers and assassins. Perrinet
Leclerc, son of a bourgeois guard, secretly opened the gates
to them one night in May. The king resided in the Hotel
St Paul, an unconscious spectator of those savage scenes which
the princes Louis and John, successively dauphins, were helpless
to prevent.
The third dauphin, Charles, afterwards Charles VII., managed
to put an end to the civil war, but it was by a crime as base
as it was impolitic — the assassination of John the Fearless on
the bridge of Montereau in 1419. Next year a treaty, from the
ignominy of which Paris happily escaped, gave a daughter of
Charles VI. to Henry V. of England, and along with her, in spite
of the Salic law, the crown of France. The king of England
made his entry into Paris in December 1420, and was there
received with a solemnity which ill concealed the misery and
real consternation of the poor people crushed by fifteen years
of murders, pillage and famine. Charles VI. remained almost
abandoned at the Hotel St Paul, where he died in 1422, whilst
his son-in-law went to hold a brilliant court at the Louvre
and Vincennes. Henry V. of England also died in 1422.
His son Henry VI., then one year old, came to Paris nine
years later to be crowned at Notre Dame, and the city
continued under the government of the duke of Bedford till his
death in 1435.
The English rule was a mild one, but it was not signalized
by the execution of any of those works of utility or ornament
so characteristic of the kings of France. The choir of St Severin,
however, shows a style of architecture peculiarly English, and
Sauval relates that the duke of Bedford erected in the Louvre
a line gallery decorated with paintings. Without assuming
the mission of delivering Paris, Joan of Arc, remaining with
Charles VII. after his coronation at Reims, led him towards the
capital; but the badly conducted and abortive enterprise almost
proved fatal to the Maid of Orleans, who was severely wounded
at the assault of the gate of St Honore on the 8th of September
1429. The siege having been raised, Charles awaited the invi-
tation of the Parisians themselves upon the defection of the
Burgundians and the surrender of St Denis. The St Jacques
gate was opened by the citizens of the guard to the constable de
Richemont' on the 13th of April 1436; but the solemn entry of
the king did not take place till November of the following year;
subsequently occupied by his various expeditions or attracted
by his residences in Berry or Touraine, he spent but little time
in Paris, where he retired either to the Hotel St Paul or to a
neighbouring palace, Les Tournelles, which had been acquired
by his father.
Louis XI. made equal use of St Paul and Les Tournelles, but
towards the close of his life he immured himself at Plessis-lcs-
Tours. It was in his reign, in 1469, that the first French printing-
press was set up in the Sorbonne. Charles VIII. scarcely left
Plessis-les-Tours and Amboise e.xcept to go to Italy; Louis XII.
alternated between the castle at Blois and the palace of Les
Tournelles, where he died on the ist of January 1515.
Francis I. lived at Chambord, at Fontainebleau, at St Germain,
and at Villers-Cotterets; but he proposed to form at Paris a
residence in keeping with the taste of the Renaissance. Paris had
remained for more than thirty years almost a stranger to the
artistic movement begun between 1498 and 1500, after the
Italian expedition. Previous to 1533, the date of the com-
mencement of the H6tel de Ville and the church of St Eustache,
Paris did not possess, apart from the " Court of Accounts,"
any important building in the new style. Between 1527 and
1540 Francis I. demolished the old Louvre, and in 1541 Pierre
Lescot began a new palace four times as large, which was
' Arthur, earl of Richmond, afterwards Arthur III. (g.r.), duke
of Brittany.
not finished till the reign of Louis XIV. The buildings were not
sufficiently advanced under Henry II. to allow of his leaving
Les Tournelles, where in 1559 he died from a wound received
at a tournament. His widow, Catherine de' Medici, immediately
caused this palace to be demolished, and sent her three sons —
Francis II., Charles IX. and Henry III. — to the unfinished
Louvre. Outside the line of the fortifications she laid the
foundations of the Chateau des Tuileries as a residence for
herself.
Of the three brothers, it was Charles IX. who resided most at
the Louvre; it was there that in 1572 he signed the order for
the massacre of St Bartholomew. Henry III. remained for the
most part at Blois, and hardly came to Paris except to be witness
of the power of his enemies, the Guises.
Taking advantage of the absence of the kings, the League had
made Paris a centre of opposition. The municipal militia were
restored and reorganized; each of the 16 quarters or arron-
dissements had to elect a deputy for the central council, which
became the council, or rather faction, of The Sixteen, and for four
years, from 1587 to 1591, held the city under a yoke of iron.
Henry III., having come to the Louvre in 1588, unwillingly
received there the duke of Guise, and while endeavouring to
take measures for his own protection provoked a riot known
as the Day of the Barricades (May 12). It was with difficulty
that he escaped from his palace, which at that time had no
communication with the country, and which Henry IV. after-
wards proposed to unite with the Tuileries in order to provide
a sure means of escape in case of need.
When, after the murder of the duke of Guise at Blois at the
close of 1588, Henry III. desired to return to Paris, he was not
yet master of the city, and was obliged to besiege it in concert
with his presumptive heir, the king of Navarre. The operations
were suddenly interrupted on the ist of August 1589, by the
assassination of the king, and Henry IV. carried his arms else-
where. He returned with his victorious forces in 1590. This
second siege lasted more than four years, and was marked by
terrible suffering, produced by famine and the tyranny of The
Sixteen, who were supported by the intrigues of the king of
Spain and the violent harangues of the preachers. Even the
conversion of the king did not allay the spirit of fanaticism, for
the king's sincerity was suspected, and the words (which history,
however, fails to substantiate), " Paris is surely worth a mass,"
were attributed to him. But after the coronation of the king
at Chartres the commonalty of Paris, weary of intriguing with
strangers and Leaguers, gave such decided expression to its
feelings that those of its leaders who had kept aloof, or broken
off from the faction of The Sixteen attached themselves to the
parlement, which had already evaded the ambitious designs
of the king of Spain; and after various negotiations the provost
of the merchants, L'HuilUer, offered the keys of the city to
Henry IV. on the 22nd of March 1594. The king met no resist-
ance except on the part of a company of German landsknechts,
which was cut in pieces, and the students of the university,
who, steeped in the doctrines of the League, tried to hold their
quarter against the royal troops, but were dispersed. The
Spanish soldiers who had remained in the town decamped
next day.
Henry IV., who carried on the building of the Louvre, was
the last monarch who occupied it as a regular residence.
Attempts on his life were made from time to time, and at last,
on the 14th of May 1610, he fell under Ravaillac's knife near
the market-house in Rue de la Ferronnerie.
Whether royalty gave it the benefit of its presence or not,
Paris continued all the same to increase in political importance
and in population. Here is the picture of the city presented
about 1560 by Michel de Castelnau, one of the most celebrated
chroniclers of the i6th century: —
" Paris is the capital of all the kingdom, and one of the most
famous in the world, as well for the splendour of its parlement
(which is an illustrious company of thirty judges attended by three
hundred advocates and more, who have reputation in all Christendom
of being the best seen in human laws and acquainted with justice)
as for its faculty of theology and for the other tongues and sciences,
8i8
PARIS
[HISTORY
which shine more in this town than in any other in the world,
besides the mechanic arts and the marvellous traffic which render
it very populous, rich and opulent ; in such sort that the other towns
of France and all the magistrates and subjects have their eyes
directed thither as to the model of their decisions and their political
administrations."
Castelnau spoke rather as a statesman and a magistrate,
and did not look close enough to see that the university was
beginning to decUne. The progress of the sciences somewhat
lessened the importance of its classes, too specially devoted
to theology and literature; the eyes of men were turned towards
Italy, which was then considered the great centre of intellectual
advance; the colleges of the Jesuits were formidable rivals; the
triumphs of Protestantism deprived it of most of the students,
who used to flock to it from England, Germany and Scandi-
navia; and finally the unfortunate part it played in political
affairs weakened its influence so much that, after the reign of
Henry IV. it no longer sent its deputies to the states-general.
If the city on the left side of the river neither extended its
circuit nor increased its population, it began in the i6th century
to be filled with large mansions (hotels), and its communi-
cations with the right bank were rendered easier and more
direct when Henry IV'. constructed across the lower end of the
island of La Cite the Pont Neuf, which, though retaining its
original name, is now the oldest bridge in Paris. On the right
side of the river commerce and the progress of centralization
continued to attract new inhabitants, and old villages become
suburbs were enclosed within the line of a bastioned first
enceinte, the ramparts of Etienne Marcel being, however, still
left untouched. Although Louis XIII., except during his
minority, rarely stayed much in Paris, he was seldom long
absent from it. His mother, Mary de' Medici, built the palace
of the Luxembourg, which, after being extended imder Louis
Philippe, became the seat of the senate.
Louis XIII. finished, with the exception of the eastern front,
the buildings enclosing the square court of the Louvre, and
carried on the wing which was to join the palace to the Tuileries.
Queen Anne of Austria founded the Val de Grlce, the dome of
which, afterwards painted on the interior by Mignard, remains
one of the finest in Paris. Richelieu built for himself the Palais
Royal, since restored, and rebuilt the Sorbonne, where now
stands his magnificent tomb by Girardon. The island of St
Louis above La Cite, till then occupied by gardens and meadows,
became a populous parish, whose streets were laid out in straight
lines, and whose finest houses still date from the 17th century.
Building also went on in the Quartier du Marais (quarter of
the marsh); and the whole of the Place Royale (now Place des
Vosges), with its curious arcaded galleries, belongs to this period.
The church of St Paul and St Louis was built by the Jesuits
beside the ruins of the old Hotel St Paul; the church of St Gervais
received a facade which has become in our time too famous.
St fitienne du Mont and St Eustache were completed (in the
latter case with the exception of the front). The beautiful
Salle des Pas-Perdus (Hall of Lost Footsteps) was added to
the Palais de Justice. Besides these buildings and extensions
Paris was indebted to Louis XIII. and his minister Richelieu
for three important institutions — the royal printing press in
1620, the Jardin des Plantes in 1626, and the French Academy
in 1635. The bishopric of Paris was separated from that of
Sens and erected into an archbishopric in 1623.
As memorials of Mazarin Paris still possesses the CoUege des
Quatre-Nations, erected with one of his legacies immediately
after his death, and since appropriated to the Institute, and
the palace which, enlarged in the igth century, now accom-
modates the national library.
The stormy minority of Louis XIV. was spent at St Germain
and Paris, where the court was held at the Palais Royal. The
intrigues of the prince of Conde, Cardinal de Retz, and (for
a brief space) Turenne resulted in a siege of Paris, during which
more epigrams than balls were fired off; but the cannon of the
Bastille, discharged by order of Mademoiselle de Montpensier,
enabled Conde to enter the city. Bloody riots foDowed, and
came to an end only with the exhaustion of the populace and
its voluntary submission to the king. Though Louis XIV.
ceased to stay in Paris after he grew up, he did not neglect the
work of embellishment. On the site of the fortifications of
fitienne Marcel, which during the previous hundred years had
been gradually disappearing, he laid out the Une of botdevards
connecting the quarter of the Bastille with that of the Madeleine.
Though he no longer inhabited the Louvre (and it never was
again the seat of royalty), he caused the great colonnade to be
constructed after the plans of Claude Perrault. This immense
and imposing fafade, 548 ft. long, has the defect of being quite
out of harmony with the rest of the buOding, which it hides
instead of introducing. The same desire for effect, altogether
irrespective of congruity, appears again in the observatory
erected by the same Perrault, without the smallest consideration
of the wise suggestions made by Cassini. The Place Vend6me,
the Place des Victoires, the triumphal gates of St Denis and
St Martin and several fountains, are also productions of the
reign of Louis XIV. The hospital of La Salpetriere, with its
majestically simple dome, was finished by Liberal Bruant. The
Hotel des Invaiides, one of the finest institutions of the grand
monarque, was also erected, with its chapel, between 1671 and
1675, by Bruant; but it was reserved for the architect Hardouin
Mansart to give to this imposing edifice a complement worthy
of itself: it was he who raised the dome, admirable aUke for its
proportions, for the excellent distribution of its ornaments,
and for its gilded lantern, which rises 344 ft. above the ground.
" Private persons," says Voltaire, " in imitation of their king,
raised a thousand splendid edifices. The number increased
so greatly that from the neighbourhood of the Palais Royal
and of St Sulpice there were formed in Paris two new towns
much finer than the old one." All the aristocracy had not
thought fit to take up their residence at Versailles, and the
great geniuses of the century, Corneille, Racine, La Fontaine,
Moliere, Madame de Sevigne, had their houses in Paris; there
also was the Hotel de RambouiUet, so famous in the literary
history of the 17th century.
The halls of the Palais Royal during the minority of Louis XV.
were the scene of the excesses of the regency; later on the king
from time to time resided at the Tuileries, which henceforward
came to be customarily regarded as the official seat of the
monarchy. To the reign of Louis XV. are due the rebuilding of
the Palais Royal, the " Place " now called De la Concorde, the
military school, the greater part of the church of Ste Genevieve,
or Pantheon (a masterpiece of the architect Soufilot), the church
of St Roch, the palace of the filysee (now the residence of the
president of the republic), the Palais Bourbon (with the exception
of the fagade), now occupied by the chamber of deputies, and
the mint, a majestic and scholarly work by the architect Antoine,
as well as the rebuOding of the College de France.
Louis XVT. finished or vigorously carried on the works begun
by his grandfather. He did not come to live in Paris tiU com-
pelled by the Revolution. That historical movement began
indeed at Versailles on the 17th of June 1789, when the states-
general were transformed into a constituent assembly; but the
first act of violence which proved the starting-point of all its
excesses was performed in Paris on the 14th of July 1789
when Paris inaugurated, with the capture of the Bastille, its
" national guard," organized and then commanded by the
celebrated La Fayette. At the same time the assassination
of the last provost of the merchants, Jacques de Flesselles, gave
the opportunity of establishing, with more extended powers,
the mairie (mayoralty) of Paris, which was first occupied by
Bailly, and soon became, under the title of commune, a political
power capable of effectively counterbalancing the central
authority.'
Paris had at that time once more outgrown its limits. The
quarter on the left side of the river had more than doubled
its extent by the accession of the great monasteries, the faubourgs
of St Germain and St Marceau, the Jardin des Plantes, and
' Owing to the armed and organized revolutionary' elements in
the assemblies of the Sections, which enabled the revolutionary'
commune to direct and control popular imeutes.
HISTORY]
PARIS
819
the whole of Mont Ste Genevieve. The line of the new enceinte
is still marked by a circuit of boulevards passing from the
Champs de Mars at Pont d'Austerlitz by Place de I'Enfer and
Place d'ltalie. Similar enlargements, also marked out by a
series of boulevards, incorporated with the town on the right
side of the faubourgs of St Antoine and Poissonniere and the
quarters of La Chaussee d'Antin and Chaillot. In 1784 was
begun, instead of a line of fortifications, a simple customs-wall,
with sixty propylaea or pavilions in a heavy but characteristic
style, of which the finest are adorned with columns or pilasters
like those of Paestum. In front of the Place du Tr6ne (now
Place de la Nation), which formed as it were a fagade for Paris
on the east side, there were erected two lofty rostral columns
bearing the statues of Philip Augustus and St Louis. Towards
the west, the city front was the Place Louis XV. (Place de la
Concorde), preceded by the magnificent avenue of the Champs
filysees. Between the barriers of La Villette and Pantin,
where the highways for Flanders and Germany terminated,
was built a monumental rotunda flanked on the ground floor by
four peristyles arranged as a Greek cross, and in the second
storey lighted by low arcades supported by columns of the
Paestum type. None of these works were completed till the
time of the empire. It was also in the latter part of the reign
of Louis XIV., and under the first republic, that the quarter of
La Chaussee d'Antin was built.
The history of Paris during the Revolutionary period is
the history rather of France, and to a certain extent of the
whole world (see France: History; French Revolution; and
the articles on the Jacobins and other clubs). During the
Consulate hardly anything of note took place at Paris except
the explosion of the infernal machine directed against Bonaparte
on the 24th of December 1800.
The coronation of Napoleon by Pope Pius VII. was celebrated
in Notre Dame on the 2nd of December 1804. Eight years
later, during the Russian campaign, the conspiracy of General
Malet, happily suppressed, was on the point of letting loose on
all France a dreadful civil war. The empire, however, was
then on the wane, and Paris was witness of its fall when, after
a battle on the heights of Montmartre and at the harricre de
Clichy, the city was obliged to surrender to the allies on the
30th of March 1814.
For the next two months the city was in the occupation of
the allies and witnessed a hitherto unique assembly of sovereigns
and statesmen. Their deliberations issued on the 30th of May
1814 in the first treaty of Paris (see Paris, Treaties of, below).
So far as the city itself was concerned, the only permanent
loss that it suffered through the occupation was that of the art
treasures with which Napoleon had enriched it at the expense
of other capitals; among these were many paintings and pieces
of statuary from the Louvre, and the famous bronze horses
from Venice, which were taken down from the triumphal arch
of the Carrousel and restored to the fagade of St Mark's. The
expressed determination of Bliicher and his Prussians to blow
up the Pont de Jena, built to commemorate Napoleon's crush-
ing victory of 1806, was frustrated by the vigorous intervention
of Wellington and of the emperor Alexander I.
Paris under the Restoration witnessed the revival of religious
ceremonials to which it had long been unaccustomed, notably
the great Corpus Christi procession, in which the king himself
carried a candle. Then came Napoleon's return from Elba
(March 181 5) and the interlude of the Hundred Days. After
Waterloo, though there was fighting round Paris, there was
no eflfort to defend the city against the allied armies; for the
Parisians had grown thoroughly weary of Napoleon, and Louis
XVIII., though he returned " in the baggage train of the
enemy," was received by the populace with rapturous acclama-
tion (see Louis XVIII.). The second treaty of Paris was
signed on the 20th of November of the same year (see below).
It left France in the occupation of 150,000 foreign troops,
and the crown and government under the tutelage of a committee
of representatives of the foreign great powers in Paris.
Paris now became the centre of the royalist reaction, and of
a political proscription which reflected, though without its
popular excesses, the White Terror of the South. The most
conspicuous event of this time was the tragedy of the trial
and execution of Marshal Ney (q.v.). For the rest, the only
event of note that occurred in Paris under Louis XVIII. was
the assassination of the duke of Berry by Louvel on the 13th
of February 1820. Ten years later the revolution of 1830,'
splendidly commemorated by the Column of July in Place
de la Bastile, put Charles X. to flight and inaugurated the
reign of Louis Philippe, a troublous period which was closed by
the revolution of 1848 and a new republic. It was this reign,
however, that surrounded Paris with bastioned fortifications
with ditches and detached forts, the outcome of the warlike fever
aroused by the exclusion of France from the treaty of London
of 1840 (see Mehemet Ali). The republic of 1848 brought no
greater quiet to the city than did the reign of Louis Philippe.
The most terrible insurrection was that of the 23rd-26th of
June 1848, distinguished by the devotion and heroic death of
the Archbishop Afire. It was quelled by General Cavaignac,
who then for some months held the executive power. Prince
Louis Napoleon next became president of the republic, and after
dissolving the chamber of deputies on the 2nd of December
1851, caused himself to be proclaimed emperor just a year
later.
The second empire completed that material transformation
of Paris which had already been begun at the fall of the ancient
monarchy. First came numerous cases of destruction and
demolition caused by the suppression of the old monasteries
and of many parish churches. A number of medieval buildings,
civil or military, were cleared away for the sake of regularity
of plan and improvements in the public streets, or to satisfy
the taste of the owners, who thought more of their comfort
or profit than of the historic interest of their old mansions or
houses.
It was under the first empire that the new series of improve-
ments were inaugurated which have made Paris a modern city.
Napoleon began the Rue de Rivoli, built along this street the
wing intended to connect the Tuileries with the Louvre, erected
in front of the court of the Tuileries the triumphal arch of the
Carrousel, in imitation of that of Septimius Severus at Rome.
In the middle of the Place Vendome was reared, on the model of
Trajan's column, the column of the Grand Army, surmounted
by the statue of the emperor. To immortalize this same Grand
Army he ordered from the architect Pierre Vignon a Temple of
Victory, which without changing the form of its Corinthian
peristyle has become the church of the Madeleine; the entrance
to the avenue of the Champs Elysees was spanned by the vast
triumphal arch De I'Etoile (of the star), which owes its celebrity
not only to its colossal dimensions and its magnificent situation,
but also to one of the four subjects sculptured upon its faces
— the Chant du depart or Marseillaise, one of the masterpieces of
Rude and of modern sculpture. Another masterpiece was
executed by David of Angers — the pediment of the Pantheon,
not less famous than Soufflot's dome. The museum of the
Louvre, founded by decree of the Convention on the 27 th of
July 1793, was organized and considerably enlarged; that of
the Luxembourg was created in 1805, but was not appropriated
exclusively to modern artists till under the Restoration. The
Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers, due to the Convention,
received also considerable additions in the old priory or abbey
of St Martin des Champs, where the council of the Five Hundred
had installed it in 1798. >
Under the Restoration and under the government of July
many new buildings were erected; but, with the exception of
the Bourse, constructed by the architects Brongniart and
Labarre, and the colonnade of the Chamber of Deputies, these
are of interest not so much for their size as for the new artistic
tendencies affected in their architecture. People had grown
weary of the eternal Graeco-Roman compilations rendered
• Notable in the history of the city for the discovery by the
populace of the effectiveness of barricades against regular troops.
These had been last used in the Fronde.
820
PARIS
[HISTORY
fashionable by the Renaissance, and reduced under the empire
to mere imitations, in producing which all inspiration was
repressed. The necessity of being rational in architecture,
and of taking full account of practical wants, was recognized;
and more suggestive and plastic models were sought in the past.
These were to be found, it was believed, in Greece; and in conse-
quence the government under Louis Philippe saw itself obliged
to found the French school at Athens, in order to allow young
artists to study their favourite types on the spot. In the
case of churches it was deemed judicious to revive the Christian
basihcas of the first centuries, as at Notre Dame de Lorette and
St Vincent de Paul; and a little later to bring in again the
styles of the middle ages, as in the ogival church of St Clotilde.
Old buildings were also the object of labours more or less
important. The Place de la Concorde was altered in various
ways, and adorned with eight statues of towns and with two
fountains; on the 25th of October 1836 the Egyptian obelisk,
brought at great expense from Lu.xor, was erected in the centre.
The general restoration of the cathedral of Notre Dame was
voted by the Chamber in 1S45, and entrusted to VioUet-le-Duc;
and the palace of the Luxembourg and the Hotel de Ville were
considerably enlarged at the same time, in the style of the
existing edifices.
But the great transformer of Paris in modern times was
Napoleon III. To him or to his reign we owe the Grand Opera,
the masterpiece of the architect Garnier; the new Hotel-Dieu;
the finishing of the galleries which complete the Louvre and
connect it with the Tuileries; the extension of the Palais de
Justice and its new front on the old Place Dauphine; the tribunal
of commerce; the central markets; several of the finest railway
stations; the viaduct at Auteuil; the churches of La Trinite,
St Augustin, St Ambroise, St Francois Xavier, Belleville,
Menilmontant, &c. For the first international Paris exhibition
(that of 1855) was constructed the "palace of industry"; the
enlargement of the national library was commenced; the
museum of French antiquities was created by the savant Du
Sommerard, and installed in the old " hotel " built at the end
of the 15th century for the abbots of Cluny.
All this is but the smallest part of the memorials which
Napoleon III. left of his presence. Not only was the city
traversed in all directions by new thoroughfares, and sumptuous
houses raised or restored in every quarter, but the line of the
fortifications was made in 1859 the Umit of the city. The area
was thus doubled, extending to 7450 hectares or 18,410 acres,
instead of 3402 hectares or 8407 acres. It was otherwise with
the population; to the 1,200,000 inhabitants which Paris pos-
sessed in 1858 the incorporation of the suburban zone only
added 600,000.
Paris had to pay dear for its growth and prosperity under
the second empire. This government, which, by straightening
and widening the streets, thought it had effectually guarded
against the attempts of its internal enemies, had not sufficiently
defended itself from external attack, and at the first reverses
of 1870 Paris found itself prepared to overthrow the empire,
but by no means able to hold out against the approaching
Prussians.
The two sieges of Paris in 1870-71 are among the most
dramatic episodes of its history. The first siege began on the
igth of September 1870, with the occupation by the Germans
of the heights on the left side of the river and the capture of
the unfinished redoubt of Chatillon. Two days later the invest-
ment was complete. General Trochu, head of the French
Government and governor of the city, had under his command
400,000 men — a force which ought to have been able to hold
out against the 240,000 Germans by whom it was besieged,
had it not been composed for the most part of hurried levies of
raw soldiers with inexperienced officers, and of national guards
who, never having been subjected to strict military disciphne,
were a source of weakness rather than of strength. The guards,
it is true, displayed a certain warlike spirit, but it was for the
sole purpose of exciting disorder. Open revolt broke out on
the 31st of October; it was suppressed, but increased the
demoralization of the besieged and the demands of the Prussians.
The partial successes which the French obtained in engagements
on both sides of the river were rendered useless by the Germans
recapturing all the best positions; the severity of winter told
heavily on the garrison, and the armies in the provinces which
were to have co-operated with it were held in check by the
Germans in the west and south. In obedience to public opinion
a great sortie was undertaken; this, in fact, was the only alter-
native to a surrender; for, the empire having organized every-
thing in expectation of victory and not of disaster, Paris,
insufficiently provisioned for the increase of population caused
by the influx of refugees, was already suffering the horrors of
famine. Accidental circumstances combined with the indecision
of the leaders to render the enterprise a failure. Despatches
sent by balloon to the army of the Loire instructing it to make
a diversion reached their destination too late; the bridge of
Champigny over the Mame could not be constructed in time;
the most advantageous positions remained in the hands of the
Germans; and on the 2nd and 3rd of December the French
abandoned the positions they had seized on the 29th and 30th
of November. Another sortie made towards the north on the
2 1 St of December was repulsed, and the besieged lost the Avron
plateau, the key to the positions which they still held on that
side. The bombardment began on the 17th of December,
and great damage was done to the forts on the left of the Seine,
especially those of Vanves and Issy. directly commanded by
the Chatillon battery. A third and last sortie (which proved
fatal to Regnault the painter) was attempted in January 187 1,
but resulted in hopeless retreat. An armistice was signed
on the 27th of January, the capitulation on the 28th. The
revictuaUing of the city was not accompUshed wthout much
difficulty, in spite of the generous rivalry of foreign nations
(London alone sending provisions to the value of £80,000).
On the ist of March the Germans entered Paris. This event,
which marked the close of the siege, was at the same time the
first preparation for the " commune; " for the national guard,
taking advantage of the general confusion and the powerlessness
of the regular army, carried a number of cannon to the heights
of Montmartre and Belleville under pretext of saving them.
President Thiers, appreciating the danger, attempted on the
i8th of March to remove the ordnance; his action was the signal
of an insurrection which, successful from the first, initiated
a series of terrible outrages by the murder of the two generals,
Lecomte and Thomas. The government, afraid of the defection
of the troops, who were demoralized by failure and suffering,
had evacuated the forts on the left side of the river and con-
centrated the army at Versailles (the forts on the right side
were still to be held for some time by the Germans). Mont
\'alerien happily remained in the hands of the government
and became the pivot of the attack during the second siege.
All the sorties made by the insurgents in the direcdon of Ver-
sailles (where the National Assembly was in session from the
2oth of March) proved unsuccessful, and cost them two of their
improvised leaders — Generals Flourens and Duval. The in-
capacity and mutual hatred of their chiefs rendered all
organization and durable resistance impossible. On Sunday
the 2ist of May the government forces, commanded by Marshal
MacMahon, having already captured the forts on the right side
of the river, made their way within the walls; but they had
still to fight hard from barricade to barricade before they were
masters of the city; Belleville, the special Red Repubhcan
quarter, was not assaulted and taken tiU Friday. Meanwhile
the communists were committing the most horrible excesses:
the archbishop of Paris (Georges Darboy, q.v.), President
Bonjean, priests, magistrates, journalists and private individuals,
whom they had seized as hostages, were shot in batches in the
prisons; and a scheme of destruction was ruthlessly carried
into effect by men and women with cases of petroleum (pHroleurs
and petroleiises). The Hotel de \'ille, the Palais de Justice,
the Tuileries, the Ministry of Finance, the palace of the Legion
of Honour, that of the Council of State, part of the Rue de
Rivoli, &c., were rayaged by the flames; barrels of gunpowder
HISTORY]
JO anii PARIS amA*!
821
were placed in Notre Dame and the Pantheon, ready to blow
up the buildings; and the whole city would have been involved
in ruin if the national troops had not gained a last and crowning
victory in the neighbourhood of La Roquette and I'ere-la-Chaisc
on the 28th of May. Besides the large number of insurgents
who, taken in arms, were pitilessly shot, others were afterwards
condemned to death, to penal servitude, to transportation; and
the survivors only obtained their liberty by the decree of 187Q.
From this double trial Paris emerged diminished and almost
robbed of its dignity as capital; for the parliamentary assemblies
and the government went to sit at Versailles. For a little it
was thought that the city would not recover from the blow
which had fallen on it. All came back, however — confidence,
prosperity, and, along with that, increasing growth of population
and the execution of great public works. The Hotel de Ville was
rebuilt, the school of medicine adorned with an imposing fagadc,
a vast school of pharmacy established in the old gardens of
the Luxembourg, and boulevards completed. The exhibition
of 1878 was more marvellous than those of 1855 and 1S67, and
left a lasting memorial — the palace of the Trocadero. And
the chambers in 1871) considered quiet suHiciently restored to
take possession of their customary quarters in the Palais Bourbon
and the Luxembourg. (A. S.-P. ; W. A. P.)
The Universal Exhibition of 1878, destined to show Europe
that France had recovered her material prosperity and moral
power, attracted a large concourse. The number of admissions
was about 13,000,000. A grand fete, full of gaiety and enthu-
siasm, was held on the 30th of June. This was the first public
rejoicing since the war. The terrible winter of 1879-1880 was
the severest of the century; the Seine, entirely frozen, resembled
a sea of ice. The 14th of July, the anniversary of the taking
of the Bastille, was adopted as the French national holiday and
celebrated for the first time in 1880. A grand military review
was held in the Bois de Boulogne, at which President Grevy
distributed flags to all the regiments of the army. On the
17th of March 1881 a national loan of a thousand million francs
was issued for the purpose of executing important public works.
This loan was covered fifteen times, Paris alone subscribing
for ten thousand millions. At the time of the legislative
elections, on the 21st of August and the 4th of September 1S81,
several tumults occurred in the Belleville district, Gambctta, who
was a candidate in the two wards of that district vainly tried
to address the electors. The great orator died in the following
year, on the 31st of December, from the effects of an accident,
and his funeral, celebrated in Paris at the expense of the State,
was attended by an immense gathering. A slight Legitimist
agitation followed Gambetta's death. An unfortunate event
occurred on the 2gth of September 1883, the day when the
king of Spain, Alphonso XII., returned from his visit to Berlin,
where he had reviewed the 15th regiment of Prussian Uhlans,
of which he was the honorary colonel. The cries of " Down
with the Uhlan I " with which he was greeted by the Paris
crowd, gave rise to serious diplomatic incidents. On the 26th
of May 1885 the following decree was rendered: " The Pantheon
is restored to its primitive and legal destination. The remains
of the great men who have merited national recognition will
be disposed therein." But it was only on the 4th of August
1899 that the ashes of Lazare Carnot, Hoche, Marceau, Latour
d'Auvergne and Baudin were solemnly transported to the
Pantheon. Victor Hugo's funeral was celebrated on the 1st of
June 1885, and by an urgency vote they were made national
obsequies. It was decided that the corpse should be exposed
one day and one night under the Arc de Triomphe, veiled with
an immense crape. A few days before, upon the occasion of
the anniversary of the fall of the Commune, a tumultuous
political manifestation had been made in front of the tomb of
the Communists buried in Pere Lachaise cemetery.
In 1 886 the Monarchists renewed their political demonstra-
tions; the most important one was the reception given by the
Count of Paris at the Galliera mansion on the occasion of the
marriage of his daughter with the King of Portugal. The
Count of Paris had invited to this reception all the foreign
ambassadors, and some disturbance having taken place, the
Chamber of Deputies, on the nth of June 1886, voted a law-
interdicting sojourn upon French territory to the Orleanist
and Bonapartist pretenders to the throne of France, and also
to their direct heirs. At that epoch Paris was in a state of
agitation and discontent, and various catastrophes occurred.
First of all came the disastrous bankruptcy of a large financial
concern called the Union Generale; then the scandal concerning
the traffic in decorations, in which M. Wilson, son-in-law of
M. Jules Grevy, was compromised, and which eventually led
to the resignation of the President; finally the deplorable
Panama affair profoundly enervated the Parisians, and made
them feel the necessity of shouting for a military master, some
adventurer who would promise them a revenge. All this led
to Boulangism. It was by wild acclamations and frantic shouts
that General Boulanger was greeted, first at the review of the
army on the 14th of July, then two days later at the opening
of the Military Club, afterwards at the Winter Circus, where
the Patriots' League held a mass meeting under the presidency
of Paul Deroulede, and finally, on the 8th of July, at an immense
demonstration at the Lyons railway station, when " le brav'
General " left Paris to take command of the 13th army corps
at Clermont Ferrand. Popular refrains were sung in the streets
in the midst of immense excitement on the 27th of January
1889 at the time of the election of General Boulanger as deputy
for the Seine department. A majority of 80,000 votes had
invested him with an immense moral authority, and he appeared
as though elected as the candidate of the entire country; but
he lacked the necessary audacity to complete his triumph, and
the Government having decided to prosecute him for conspiracy
against the security of the state, before the Senate acting as
a High Court of Justice, he fled with his accomplices, Rochefort
and Dillon. All three were condemned by default, on the
14th of August, to imprisonment in a fortified enclosure.
Other events had also troubled this astonishing interlude
of Boulangism. On the 23rd of February 1887 a terrible fire
destroyed the Opera Comique during a performance, and a
great many of the audience perished in the flames. The first
performance of Lohc 11 grin, which took place at the Eden Theatre
on the ist of May 1887, was also the cause of street rioting.
In 1888 there were several strikes. That of the day labourers,
which lasted more than a month, occasioned violent scenes,
owing to the sudden death of Emile Eudes, a Communist,
while he was speaking in favour of the strike at a public meeting.
On the 2nd of December there were manifestations in memory
of Baudin, a representative of the people, killed upon the
barricades in 1851 while fighting in the defence of the Republic.
But a calm finally came, and then the Parisians thought only
of celebrating the centenary of the Revolution of 1789 by a
universal exhibition. This exhibition contained a profusion
of marvels such as had never before been seen, and indicated
what enormous industrial progress had been accomplished.
Sadi Carnot, who had succeeded M. Jules Grevy as President
of the Republic on the 3rd of December 1887, officially opened
the exhibition on ^the 6th of May 18S9. Numerous fetes
were held in the grounds while the exhibition lasted. The
Eiffel Tower and the illuminated fountains enraptured the
crowd of visitors, while the Rue du Caire, with its Egyptian
donkey-drivers, obtained a prodigious success. Most of the
nations were represented at this exhibition. Germany alone
confined her co-operation to the display of some paintings.
The Shah of Persia, in honour of whom splendid fetes were
organized, and the King of Greece, the Prince of Wales, the
Lord jNIayor of London, several Russian grand dukes, Annamite,
Tunisian, Moorish, Egyptian and African princes successively
visited the Exhibition. There were 30,000,000 visitors. On
the 1 8th of August a banquet was given in the Palais de
I'lndustrie by the Paris Municipal Council to all the mayors
in France, and 15,000 of these oflicials were present.
In 1890 the duke of Orleans, having attained his majority,
came to Paris to draw for military service with the youngest
conscripts of his class. He was arrested, and placed, first in
822
PARIS, TREATIES OF
[HISTORY
the Conciergerie, and later in the prison at Clairvaux, but was
released after a few months' incarceration. The following
years were remarkable for more strikes and several demonstra-
tions by the students, which led in 1803 to conflicts with the
police, in one of which a student was killed. On the 17th of
October an enthusiastic welcome was extended to Admiral
Avellan and the Russian sailors upon their arrival in Paris.
It was about this time that dynamite began to be used by the
Anarchists. After Ravachol, who commenced the sinister
exploits of the " propaganda by acts," it was Vaillant who threw
a bomb into the " Temple of the Laws " on the 9th of December
1893, and wounded forty-six deputies. Then there was a
succession of these attacks during the two following months,
for Ravachol and Vaillant had found emulators. Henry
scattered fright and death among the peaceable customers
of a brasserie, while bombs were thrown into the doorways and
staircases of houses inhabited by wealthy people. Upon the
steps of the Madeleine Church, Parvels, who was already the
author of two dynamite plots, was struck down by the destruc-
tive machine that he was about to throw into the body of the
church. Laurent Tailhade himself, who had celebrated with
his pen the beauty of Vaillant 's gesture, was subsequently
wounded by dynamite thrown into the Cafe Foy, where he
was lunching.
The visit of the emperor and empress of Russia, on the
5th, 6th and 7th of October 1896, was celebrated by incom-
parable fetes. The Rue de la Paix was decorated with ropes
and sails, stretched across the street like the rigging of a vast
vessel, in honour of the Russian sailors. Nothing could be seen
anywhere except flags, cockades and badges formed of the
colours of the two friendly nations. In the evening there were
open-air balls, with farandoles and orchestras at all the street
corners. Popular enthusiasm was again manifested on the
31st of August, when President Faure returned from his visit
to the Russian court. On the 4th of May 1897 the terrible
conflagration at the Charity Bazaar in the Rue Jean Goujon
threw into mourning one hundred and forty families of the
nobility or the aristocracy of Paris, and spread sorrow among
the class always considerate in its benevolence. Then all minds
were again troubled and disturbances occurred in the streets for
more than two years over the Dreyfus case, dividing the French
people into two camps.
President Faure died suddenly on the i8th of February 1899.
The very day of his funeral, Paul Deroulede and Marcel Habert
tried to make a coup d'etat by urging General Roget to lead
his troops, which had formed part of the guard of honour at
the obsequies, against the Elysee. Immediately arrested and
put on trial, Deroulede and Habert were acquitted by a
timorous jury.
M. Emile Loubet, President of the Senate, was chosen
successor to M. F61ix Faure. Upon his return to Paris from
the Versailles Congress, where he had been elected President
of the French Republic, he was greeted by hisses and cries of
" Panama! " cries in no wise justiiiable. Some time afterwards,
Jules Guerin, by a desperate resistance against a summons of
the police to give himself up, made the public believe for two
months in the existence of an impregnable fortress in the Rue
Chabrol, in the very centre of Paris. On the 4th of June there
was a great scandal at the Auteuil Races, which President Loubet
had been, according to custom, invited to attend. He was
insulted and struck by Baron de Christiani, who was encouraged
by the young royalists of the " CEillets Blancs " Association.
A week later, the extraordinary and excessive police measures
taken to prevent a disturbance at the Grand Prix occasioned
the downfall of the Dupuy ministry. M. Waldeck-Rousseau
then formed a cabinet, himself becoming president of the
council. The new premier immediately took energetic measures
against the enemies of the Republic. Compromising documents
found in various domiciliary searches made among the Monarch-
ists and Nationalists formed the basis of prosecutions before the
High Court of Justice. The trial resulted in the condemnation
of Jules Guerin to a term of imprisonment, and the banishment
of Paul Deroulede, Marcel Habert, Andre Buffet and the
Marquis de Lur Saluces, thereby ridding France of all these
promoters of disorder, and opening a new era of peace, which
lasted throughout the Universal Exhibition of 1900.
This exhibition covered an enormous space, including the
slope of the Trocadero, the Champ de Mars, the Esplanade of
the Invalides and both sides of the Seine bordered by the
Rue de Paris and the Rue des Nations. Seen from the new
Alexandre III. bridge, the spectacle was as fairy-like as a stage
setting. Close beside, at the left, were the palaces of the different
nations, each one showing its characteristic architecture, and
all being of an astonishing diversity. To the right were the
pavilion of the city of Paris and the enormous greenhouses, and
in the distance Old Paris, so picturesquely constructed by
Robida. In short, exotic edifices and scintillating cupolas
arose with unparaUeled profusion, creating in the heart of
Paris a veritable city of dreams and illusion. The most distant
countries sent their art treasures or the marvels of their industry.
The number of visitors was 51,000,000, and the personages
of mark included the Shah of Persia, the King of Sweden, the
King of the Belgians and the King of Greece, all of whom were
successively the guests of France. On the 22nd of September
22,000 mayors accepted the invitation to the banquet offered
in their honour by President Loubet, and thus solemnly
affirmed their Republican faith. This admirably organized
banquet was spread in the Tuileries Gardens. The exhibition
of 1900, a brilliant epilogue of the closing century, was a grand
manifestation of universal concord, of the union of peoples by
art, science, industry, all branches of human genius. (De B.)
The bibliography of the history of Paris is immense, and it must
suffice here, so far as authorities on the medieval period are concerned,
to refer to the long list of works, &c., given by Ulysse Chevalier
in his Repertoire des sources hislorignes du moyen dgf, topo-biblio-
graphi (Montbeliard, 1903), pp. 2267-2290. See also Lacombe,
Bibliographic parisienne, tableaux de mceurs, 1600-1880 (Paris,
1886), and Pessard, Nouveau diet. hist, de Paris (1904). Of general
works may be mentioned specially J. C. Dulaure, Hist, physique,
civile et morale de Paris (1821; new ed. continued by Leynadier
and Roquette, 1874; Paul Robiquet, Hist, municipale de Paris,
up to Henry IV. (i 880-1904) ; J. Lebeuf, Hist, de la ville et de tout le
diocese de Paris (Paris, 1 754-1 758; new ed. revised and enlarged,
by H. Cocheris, 1863-1867); and the Hist, gfnirale de Paris, pub-
lished under the authority of the municipality, of which vol. xx.xix.
was issued in 1906. Important special works on later periods are
W. A. Schmidt, Pariser Zustdnde wdhrend der Revolutionszeit,
178^1800 (Jena, 1 874-1 876; French trans., Paris pendant la revolu-
tion, by P. Viollet, 1880-1894), and Tableaux de la rh'olution
frani;aise (Leipzig, 1867-1870); F. Aulard, Collection de documents
relatifs d I'hist. de Paris pendant la revolution (1899-1903); Lanzac
de Laborie, Paris sous Napoleon (1905); Simond, Paris de 1800 a,
IQOO (1902); Cilleuls, Hist, de V administration parisienne au xix"'
si'ecle (1900).
PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815). Among the very many
treaties and conventions signed at Paris those which bear the
title of " treaties of Paris " par excellence are the two sets of
treaties, both of the highest importance in the history of the
international politics of Europe and the formation of its public
law, signed in Paris on the 30th of May 1814 and the 20th of
November 1815. The first embodied the abortive attempt
made by the Allies and Louis XVIII. of France to re-establish
lasting peace in Europe after the first abdication of Napoleon
at Fontainebleau on the nth of April 1814. The second
contained the penal and cautionary measures which the Allies
found it necessary to impose when the practically unopposed
return of Napoleon from Elba, and his resumption of power,
had proved the weakness of the Bourbon monarchy. (See
Europe: History.)
The treaty of the 30th of May 1814 and the secret treaty
which accompanied it, were signed by Talleyrand for France;
by Lords Castlereagh, Aberdeen and Cathcart for Great Britain;
by Counts Rasumovski and Nesselrode for Russia; by Prince
Metternich and Count Stadion for Austria; and by Baron
Hardenberg and W. von Humboldt for Prussia. Sweden and
Portugal adhered later, and Spain adhered on the 20th of July
to the public treaty, to which there were in all eight signatories.
It is this public treaty which is known as the first treaty of Paris.
PARIS— PARISH
823
It was signed in eight instruments identical in substance. The
Allies, who appear as acting in the most friendly co-operation
with Louis XVIII., declare that their aim is to establish a lasting
peace based on a just distribution of forces among the powers,
and that as France has returned to " the paternal government
of her kings " they no longer think it necessary to exact those
guarantees which they had been regretfully compelled to insist on
from her late government. The preamble is more than a flourish
of diplomatic humanity; for the treaty is extraordinarily favour-
able to France. Putting aside as much of the treaty as is
common form, and minute details for which the text must be
consulted, it secured her in the possession of all the territory
she held in Europe on the ist of January 1792 (Art. II.); it
restored her colonies, except Tobago, Santa Lucia, lie de France
(Mauritius), Rodriguez, and the Seychelles, surrendered to Eng-
land and the part of San Domingo formerly Spanish, which was
to return to Spain (Art. VIII.). Sweden resigned her claim on
Guadaloupe (Art. IX.); Portugal resigned French Guiana
(Art. X.). The rectifications of the European frontier of France
are detailed in the eight subsections of Art. III. They were
valuable. France obtained (i) a piece of territory south of
Mons; (2 and 3) a larger piece around Philippeville, on the
Sambre and Meuse; (4) a rectification including Sarrelouis;
(5) a piece of land to connect the formerly isolated fortress of
Landau with her own dominions; (6) a better frontier on the
east at Doubes; (7) a better frontier as against Geneva; (8) the
subprefectures of Annecy and Chambery (Savoy). By the
same article she secured all the German enclaves in Alsace,
Avignon, the Venaissin and Montbeliard. Art. VI. secured
Holland to the house of Nassau, with an addition of territory,
not defined in this instrument; asserted the independence, and
right to federate of the German states, and the full sovereignty
of all the states of Italy outside of the Italian dominions
of Austria. Art. VII. gave Malta to Great Britain. By Art.
XV. France was to retain two-thirds of all warships and naval
stores existing in ports which had belonged to the empire of
Napoleon, but were outside the borders of France, with exception
of the Dutch ships. Arts. XVIII. to XXXI. dealt with
pecuniary claims, return of documents, renunciation of all
claims for compensation, &c. By Art. XXXII. the powers
bind themselves to meet at Vienna within two months to arrange
a final settlement of Europe. Additional articles provided for
the settlement of pecuniary claims in the late grand-duchy of
Warsaw, for the abrogation of treaties signed with Prussia
since the Peace of Basel. By her additional article with Great
Britain, France undertook to suppress the slave trade within
five years, and to help to bring about its general suppression.
The separate and secret articles of the treaty (or " Secret
Treaty " as they are commonly called), were meant to bind
France to agree in principle to the readjustments and allotments
of territory and population to be made at the approaching
Congress of Vienna (q.v.).
The treaties of the 20th of November 1815 and their dependent
instruments, were signed in very different circumstances. The
representative of France was the due de Richelieu; Great
Britain was represented by Castlereagh and Wellington; Austria
by Metternich and Count Wessenberg; Prussia by Hardenberg
and W. von Humboldt; Russia by Rasumovski and Capo
d'lstria. The preamble stated the altered spirit and purpose of
the Allies. It insisted that, as the powers had saved France
and Europe from Napoleon's last adventure, they were entitled
to compensation and security for the future. They had decided
to exact indemnities, partly pecuniary and partly territorial,
such as could be exacted without injuring the essential interest of
France. The territorial penalty imposed was moderate. France
retained the enclaves she had secured by the previous treaty.
She had to resign her gains on the north and eastern frontier,
to surrender Philippeville, Marienbourg, Bouillon, Sarrelouis
and Landau, to cede certain territories to Geneva, and she
lost Annecy and Chambery. The standard taken was the
frontier of 1790 (Art. I.). By Art. III. she agreed to dismantle
the fortress of Huningen near Basel. The most grievous articles
of the treaty are those which imposed the payment of an in-
demnity, and the occupation of a part of French territory as
security for payment. Art. IV. fixed the indemnity at
700,000,000 frs. Art. V. fixed the strength of the army of
occupation at 150,000 under a commander-in-chief to be named
by the powers, and specified the fortresses it was to hold in the
north and north-east of France. The period of occupation was
limited to five years, but might be reduced to three. All pro-
visions of the treaty of the 30lh of May 1814, and of the Final
Act of the Congress of Vienna not expressly revoked were to
remain in force. By an additional article the powers agreed to join
Great Britain in suppressing the slave trade. Certain comphmen-
tary instruments were attached to the treaty. (1) A separate
article with Russia in regard to pecuniary claims in Poland.
(2) A convention as to payment of indemnity under Art. IV. (3)
Convention as to the occupation and the rationing of the foreign
troops. (4) A convention as to settlement of claims of British
bondholders. The retrocession of the colonies was made
dependent on the partial settlement of these claims. (5) A
convention to arrange for settlement of claims under Art.
XIX., &c., of the treaty of the 30th of May 1814.
On the day of the signing of the second treaty of Paris, a
treaty of alliance, commonly spoken of as the treaty of the 20th
of November 1815, was signed in Paris by Great Britain, Austria,
Russia and Prussia. It contained six articles. The first declared
the determination of the Allies to enforce the treaty signed with
France; the second, third and fourth reaflirmed their determina-
tion to exclude the Bonaparte family from the throne, and
specified the measures they were prepared to take to support
one another. The fifth declared that the aUiance for the
purposes stated would continue when the five years' occupation
of France was ended. The sixth article stated that in order
to facilitate and assure the execution of the present treaty, the
High Contracting Parties had decided to hold periodical meetings
of the sovereigns or their ministers, for the examination of
such measures as appeared to be salutary for the repose and
prosperity of their peoples and the maintenance of the peace
of Europe. It was in accordance with this last article that the
congresses of Aix-la-Chapelle (1S18), Troppau (1820), Laibach
(1821), and Verona (1822) were held (see Europe: History).
BinLiOGRAPHY. — See Sir E. Hertslet, The Map of Europe by
Treaty, i. (London, 1875), and Martens, Nouveau recueit de trailes, &c.,
ii. (Gottingen, 1818).
PARIS, a city and the county seat of Edgar county, Illinois,
U.S.A., in the E. part of the state, about 19 m. N.W. of Terra
Haute, Ind. Pop. (1890), 4906; (1900), 6105, of whom 179
were foreign-born and 277 negroes; (1910) 7664. Paris is
served by the Vandalia, and the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago
& St Louis (New York Central system) railways; the main
line and the Cairo division of the latter intersect here, and the
city is the transfer point for traffic from the E. and W. to the
N. and S., and vice versa. It is in a rich farming region, of which
Indian corn and oats are important products, and has a large
trade. Paris was founded about 1825, was incorporated in 1853,
and was re-incorporated in 1873.
PARIS, a city and the county-seat of Lamar county, Texas.
U.S.A., about 93 m. N.E. of Dallas. Pop. (1890), 8254; (1900),
935S, of whom 3061 were negroes; (1906 estimate), 10,018. It
is served by the St Louis & San Francisco (of which it is a
terminus), the Gulf, Colorado & Santa Fe, the Texas & Pacific,
and the Texas Midland railways. The city has cotton gins
and a cotton compress, and various manufactures. In 1905 its
factory products were valued at $854,930. Paris was settled in
1841, incorporated as a town in 1874, and chartered as a city
in 1005.
PARISH (Gr. irapoiKia, district, neighbourhood; TrdpoiKos, one
dwelling near or beside, from vapa, oIkos. house; Lat. paroecia,
Late Lat. parochia; cf. Fr. parolsse), originally an episcopal
district or diocese. In the early Christian Church each district
was administered by a bishop and his attendant presbyters and
deacons, and the word parochia was frequently applied to such
a district (Du Cange, sub. tit.). Scattered congregations or
824
PARISH
churches within the parochia were served by itinerant presbyters.
Towards the close of the 4th century it had become usual for
the bishop to appoint resident presbyters to defined districts
or territories, to which the term " parish " came gradually to
be applied (see also Diocese). Parish, in English ecclesiastical
law, may be defined as the township or cluster of townships
which was assigned to the ministration of a single priest, to
whom its tithes and other ecclesiastical dues were paid; but
the word has now acquired several distinct meanings.
The Old Ecclesiastical Parish. — In the absence of evidence
to the contrary, the ecclesiastical parish is presumed to be com-
posed of a single township or vill, and to be conterminous with
the manor within the ambit of which it is comprised. Before
the process of subinfeudation became prevalent, the most
ancient manors were the districts which we call by that name
when speaking of the tenants, or " townships " when we regard
the inhabitants, or " parishes " as to matters ecclesiastical.
The parish as an institution is in reality later in date than the
township. The latter has been in fact the unit of local adminis-
tration ever since England was settled in its several states and
kingdoms; the beginnings of the parochial system in England are
attributed to Theodore of Tarsus, who was archbishop of Canter-
bury towards the close of the 7th century. The system was
extended in the reign of Edgar, and it appears not to have been
complete until the reign of Edward III. It has been considered
that the intimate connexion of church and state militates
against the view that the parochial system was founded as a
national institution, since any legislation on the subject of the
township and parochial systems would probably have resulted
in the merging of the one into the other. " The fact that the
two systems, the parish and the township, have existed for more
than a thousand years side by side, identical in area and ad-
ministered by the same persons, and yet separate in character
and machinery, is a sufficient proof that no legislative act
could have been needed in the first place; nor was there any
lay council of the whole nation which could have sanctioned
such a measure " (Stubbs, Const. Hist. i. 227). The boundaries
of the old ecclesiastical parishes are usually identical with those
of the township or townships comprised within its precinct;
they are determined by usage, in the absence of charters or
records, and are evidenced by perambulations, which formerly
took place on the " gang-days " in Rogation week, but are now,
where they still survive, for the most part held triennially, the
Poor-Law Act of 1844 permitting the parish officers to charge
the expense on the poor-rate, " proxaded the perambulations
do not occur more than once in three years." The expense
of preserving the boundary by land-marks or bound-stones is
chargeable to the same rate. Many parishes contain more
than one township, and this is especially the case in the
northern counties, where the separate townships are organized
for administrative purposes under an act passed in 1662. In
the southern and midland districts the parishes are for the
most part subdivided into hamlets or other local divisions
known as "ty things," "boroughs," and the like; the distinction
between a parish and a subordinate district hes chiefly in the
fact that the latter will be found to have never had a church
or a constable to itself. The select committee of 1873, ap-
pointed to inquire into parochial boundaries, reported to the
effect that the parish bears no definite relation to any other
administrative area, except indeed to the poor-law union. It
may be situated in different counties or hundreds, and in many
instances it contains, in addition to its principal district, several
outlying portions intermixed with the lands in other parishes.
After the abolition of compulsory church rates in 1868 the
old ecclesiastical parish ceased to be of importance as an instru-
ment of local government. Its officers, however, have still
important duties to perform. The rector, vicar or incumbent is
a corporation-sole, in whom is vested the freehold of the church
and churchyard, subject to the parishioners' rights of user; their
rights of burial have been enlarged by various acts. The
churchwardens are the principal lay ofiicers. Their duties consist
in keeping the church and churchyard in repair and in raising
a voluntary rate for the purpose to the best of their power;
they have also the duty of keeping order in church during divine
service. The other officials are the parish clerk and sexton.
They have freeholds in their offices and are paid by customary fees.
The office of the clerk is regulated by an act of 1844, enabling
a curate to undertake its duties, and providing facilities for
vacating the office in case of misconduct. The only civil
function of the parish clerk remaining in 1894 was the custody
of maps and documents, required to be deposited with him
under standing orders of parliament before certain pubhc works
were begun. By the Local Government Act 1894 they are now
deposited with the chairman or clerk of a parish council.
The New Ecclesiastical Parish. — Under the powers given by
the Church Building Acts, and acts for making new parishes,
many populous parishes have been subdivided into smaller
ecclesiastical parishes. This division has not affected the parish
in its civil aspect.
The Civil Parish. — For purposes of civil government the
term " parish " means a district for which a separate poor-rate
is or can be made, or for which a separate overseer is or can be
appointed; and by the Interpretation Act 1889 this definition
is to be used in interpreting aU statues subsequent to i866,
except where the context is inconsistent therewith. This
district may of itself constitute a poor law union; but in the
great majority of cases the unions, or areas under the jurisdiction
of boards of guardians according to the Poor-Law Amendment
Act of 1S54, are made up of aggregated poor-law parishes.
Each of these poor-law parishes may represent the extent of
an old ecclesiastical parish, or a township separately rated by
custom before the practice was stayed in 1819 or separated
from a large parish under the act of 1662, or it may represent
a chapelry, tything, borough, ward, quarter or hamlet, or other
subdivision of the ancient parish, or, under various acts, an area
formed by the merger of an extra-parochial place with an
adjoining district by the union of detached portions with
adjoining parishes, or by the subdivision of a large parish for
the better administration of the relief of the poor. The civil
importance of the poor-law parishes may be dated from the
introduction of the poor law by the statute of 43 Elizabeth,
which directed overseers of the poor to be appointed in every
parish, and made the churchwardens into e.x-ojficio overseers.
The statute was preceded by tentative provisions of the same
kind enacted in the reigns of Edward VL and INIary and in the
fifth year of Elizabeth, and after several renewals was made
perpetual in the reign of Charles I. The chief part of the parochial
organization was the vestry-meeting. It derived its name
from the old place of assembly, the vestry room attached to
the church or chapel. The vestry represented the old assembly
of the township, and retained so much of its business as had not
been insensibly transferred to the court-baron and court-leet.
The freemen, now appearing as the ratepayers, elected the
" parish officers," as the churchwardens and way-wardens,
the assessors, the overseers, and (if required) paid assistant-
overseers, a secretary or vestry-clerk, and a collector of rates
if the guardians applied for his appointment. Common vestries
were meetings of all the ratepayers assembled on a three days'
notice; select vestries were regulated by local custom, or
derived their power from the Vestries Act 183 1 (Hobhouse's
Act). The vestries could adopt various acts, and appoint
persons to carry those acts into execution. The Local Govern-
ment Act 1894 restored the parish to its position as the unit
of local government by establishing parish councils. (See
England: Local Governmeyit.)
The Parish in Scotland. — There can be little doubt that about
the beginning of the 13th century' the whofe, or almost the whole,
of the kingdom of Scotland was parochially divided. It seems pro-
bable (though the point is obscure) that the bishops presided at the
first formation of the parishes — the parish being a subdivision
of the diocese — and at any rate down to the date of the
Reformation they exercised the power of creating new parishes within
their respective dioceses (Duncan, Parochial Law, p. 4). After
the Reformation the power of altering parishes was assumed by
the legislature. The existing parochial districts being found
unsuited to the ecclesiastical requirements of the time, a general
PARISITE— PARK, EDWARDS AMASA
825
act was passed in 1581, which made provision for the parochial
clergy, and, inter alia, directed that " a suiilicicnt and competent "
district should be appropriated to each church as a parish (1581,
cap. 100). Thereafter, by a series of special acts in the first place,
and, subsequent to the year 1617, by the decrees of parliamentary
commissions, the creation of suitable parochial districts was pro-
ceeded with. In the year 1707 the powers exercised by the com-
missioners were permanently transferred to the court of session,
whose judges were appointed to act in future as " commissioners
for the Plantation of Kirks and Valuation of Teinds " (Act, 1707,
cap. 9). Under this statute the areas of parishes continued to be
altered and defined down to 1844, when the act commonly known as
Graham's Act was passed (7 & 8 Vict. c. 44). This act, which applied
to the disjunction and erection of parishes, introduced a simpler
form of procedure, and to some extent dispensed with the consent
of the heritors, which had been required under the earlier statute.
The main division of parishes in Scotland was into civil and
ecclesiastical, or, to speak more accurately, into parishes proper
{i.e. for all purposes, civil and ecclesiastical) and ecclesiastical
parishes. This division is expressed in legal language by the terms,
parishes quoad omnia (i.e. quoad civilia el sacra) and parishes quoad
sacra — civilia being such matters as church rates, education, poor
law and sanitary purposes, and sacra being such as concern the
administration of church ordinances, and fall under the cognizance
of the church courts. There are other minor divisions which will
be noticed below, (i) The Parish Proper. — In a number of instances
it is difficult to determine the exact areas of such parishes at the
present day. The boundaries of the old ecclesiastical parish
were nowhere recorded, and the descriptions in the titles of private
properties which appear to lie in the parish have sometimes to be
taken as evidence, and sometimes the fact that the inhabitants
attended a particular church or made payments in favour of a par-
ticular minister. Where there has been a union or disjunction
and erection of parishes the evidence of the boundaries is the relative
statute, order in council, or decree of commission or of court of
teinds. The parishes proper vary to a great degree both in size
and population. For ecclesiastical purposes, the minister and kirk-
session constitute the parochial authority. The minister is vested
with the manse and glebe, to be held by him for himself and his
successors in office, and along with the kirk-session he administers
church ordinances and exercises church discipline. The oldest
governing authority was the meeting of the heritors or landowners
of the parish. Though gradually shorn of much of its old importance,
the heritors' meeting retained the power of imposing an assessment
for the purpose of providing and maintaining a church and church-
yard and a manse and glebe for the minister. It also possessed
power to assess under the Parochial Buildings Acts of 1862 and 1866.
Kirk-session and heritors were the educational authority until the
establishment of school boards in 1872. (2) Quoad Sacra- Parishes. — •
The ecclesiastical or quoad sacra parish is a modern creation. Under
Graham's Act, above mentioned, a parish may be disjoined and
erected quoad sacra tantum on the application of persons who have
built and endowed a church, and who offer securities for its proper
maintenance. By the Education Act of 1872 the quoad sacra
parish was adopted as a separate school district. (3) Extra-Burghal
Parishes. — For sanitary purposes, highways and some others, certain
classes of burghs were made separate areas from the parishes in
which they lay. This fact created a set of incomplete parishes,
called extra-burghal. (4) Biirghal, Landward and Biirghal- Land-
ward (or Mixed) Parishes. — This division of parishes depends, as
the names imply, upon local character and situation of the parochial
districts. The importance of the distinction arose in connexion
with the rule of assessment adopted for various parochial burdens,
and the nature of the rights of the minister and corresponding
obligations of the parishioners. (5) Combined Parishes. — Under
the Poor-Law, Education and Registration Acts power was given
to the central authority to combine parishes for purposes of local
administration. The Local Government (Scotland) Act 1894
reformed parish government, although not to the same extent as
the corresponding English act. It established a local government
board for Scotland, with a parish council in every parish, and
abolished all parochial boards. The number of councillors for a
parish council was fixed at not less than five nor more than thirty-
one, the number being determined, in the case of landward parishes,
by the county council; in the case of burghal parishes by the town
council and, in the case of mixed parishes, by county and town
councils jointly.
The Parish in the United Slates. — The term " parish " is not
in use as a territorial designation except in Louisiana, the
si.xty parishes of which correspond to the counties of the
other states of the Union. In the American Episcopal Church
the word is frequently used to denote an ecclesiastical district.
Authorities. — The principal records from which information
may be gained as to the oldest parochial system in England are the
records called Nomina villarum, the Taxalio papae Nicholai made
in 1291, the Nonarum inquisitiones relating to assessments made
upon the clergy, the Valor ecclcsiaslicus of Henry VIII., the lay
subsidies from the reign of Edward III. to that of Charles II., the
hearth-tax assessments and the land-tax accounts. On the subject
of the parish generally see Stubbs's Constitutional History; Glen's
Parish Law; Steer's Parish Law; Toulmin Smith's work on the
Parish ; S. and B. Webb, English Local Government, vol. i. ; Kedlich
and Hirst, Local Government in England; O. J. Reichel, Rise oj the
Parochial System in England (1905). For fuller information regard-
ing the Scottish parish see Connell on Teinds; Duncan's Parochial
Ecclesiastical Law; the Cobden Club essays on Local Government
and Taxation in the United Kingdom (1882); Goudy and Smith's
Local Government in Scotland; Atkinson, Local Government in
Scotland.
PARISITE, a rare mineral, consisting of cerium, lanthanum,
didymium and calcium fluo-carbonate, (CeF)2Ca(C03)3-
It is found only as crystals, which belong to the hexagonal
system and usually have the form of acute double pyramids
terminated by the basal planes; the faces of the hexagonal
pyramids are striated horizontally, and parallel to the basal
plane there is a perfect cleavage. The crystals are hair-brown
in colour and are translucent. The hardness is 45 and the
specific gravity 4-36. Light which has traversed a crystal
of parisite exhibits a characteristic absorption spectrum.
Until recently the only known occurrence of this mineral was
in the famous emerald mine at Muzo in Colombia, South America,
where it was found by J. J. Paris, who re-discovered and worked
the mine in the early part of the 19th century; here it is associated
with emerald in a bituminous limestone of Cretaceous age (see
Emerald).
Closely allied to parisite, and indeed first described as such,
is a mineral from the nepheline-syenite district of Julianehaab
in south Greenland. To this the name synchysite (from Gr.
(TUYxOffis, confounding) has been given. The crystals are
rhombohedral (as distinct from hexagonal; they have the
composition CeFCa(C03)2, and specific gravity 2-90. At the
same locality there is also found a barium-parisite, which
differs from the Colombian parisite in containing barium in
place of calcium, the formula being (CeF)2Ba(C03)3: this is
named cordylite on account of the club-shaped form (Kop5i)Xij,
a club) of its hexagonal crystals. Bastnasite is a cerium lan-
thanum and didymium fluo-carbonate (CeF)C03, from Bastnas,
near Riddarhyttan, in Vestmanland, Sweden, and the Pike's
Peak region in Colorado, U.S.A. (L. J. S.)
PARK, EDWARDS AMASA (1808-1900), American Con-
gregational theologian, was born in Providence, Rhode Island, on
the 2gth of December 1808, the son of Calvin Park (1774-1847),
a Congregational minister, professor from 1804 to 1825 at Brown
University, and pastor at Stoughton, Massachusetts, in 1826-
1840. The son graduated at Brown University in 1826, was
a teacher at Braintree for two years, and in 1831 graduated
from Andover theological seminary. He was co-pastor (with
R. S. Storrs) of the orthodox Congregational church of
Braintree in 1831-1833; professor of mental and moral
philosophy at Amherst in 1835; and Bartlett professor
of sacred rhetoric (1836-1847), and Abbot professor of Christian
theology (1847-1881) at Andover. He died at Andover on
the 4th of June 1900. An ardent admirer of Jonathan
Edwards, whose great-grand-daughter he married, Park was
one of the most notable American theologians and orators.
He was the most prominent leader of the " new school "
of " New England Theology." He left his theological impress
on the Bihliotheca sacra, which he and Bela B. Edwards
took over in 1844 from Edward Robinson, who had founded
it in 1843, and of which Park was assistant editor until 1851
and editor-in-chief from 1851 to 1884. As a general statement
of the position of orthodox Congregationalism he drew up and
annotated the " Associate Creed of Andover Theological Semin-
ary " (1883), and the anonymously published " Worcester
Creed " of 1884 was his popularized and simplified statement.
He edited in i860 The Atonement, a collection of essays by various
hands, prefaced by his study of the " Rise of the Edwardean
Theory of the Atonement." Dr Park's sermon, " The Theology
of the Intellect and that of the Feelings," delivered in 1850
before the convention of the Congregational ministersof Massa-
chusetts, and published in the Bihliotheca sacra of July 185°,
826
A8AMA gGJPARK, MUNGO-:iiidi>iAH
was the cause of a long and bitter controversy, metaphysical
rather than doctrinal, with Charles Hodge. Some of Park's
sermons were published in 1885, under the title Discourses on
Some Theological Doctrines as Related to the Religious Character.
With Austin Phelps and Lowell Mason he prepared The Sabbath
Hymn Book (1858).
See Professor Park and His Pupils (Boston, 1899), a memorial
of his 90th birthday, with articles by R. S. Storrs, G. R. W. Scott,
Joseph Cook, G. Frederick Wright and others.
PARK, MUNGO (1771-1806?), Scottish e.xplorer of the Niger,
was born in Selkirkshire, Scotland, on the 20th of September
1 77 1, at Foulshiels on the Yarrow — the farm which his father
rented from the duke of Buccleuch. He was the seventh in
a family of thirteen. Having received a good education, he
was apprenticed to a surgeon named Thomas Anderson in
Selkirk, and then attended the university of Edinburgh for
three sessions (1789-1791), obtaining the surgical diploma. By
his brother-in-law, James Dickson, a botanist of repute, he
was introduced to Sir Joseph Banks, then president of the
Royal Society, and through his good ofEces obtained the post
of assistant-surgeon on board the " Worcester" East Indiaman.
In this capacity he made the voyage in 1792 to Benkulen, in
Sumatra, and on his return in 1793 he contributed a description
of eight new Sumatran fishes to the Transactions of the Linnean
Society.
Park in 1794 offered his services to the African Association,
then looking out for a successor to Major Daniel Houghton,
who had been sent out in 1790 to discover the course of the
Niger and had perished in the Sahara. Supported by the
influence of Sir Joseph Banks, Park was successful in his
application. On the 21st of June 1795 he reached the Gambia
and ascended that river 200 miles to a British trading station
named Pisania. On the 2nd of December, accompanied by
two negro servants, he started for the unknown interior. He
chose the route crossing the upper Senegal basin and through
the semi-desert region of Kaarta. The journey was full of
difficulties, and at Ludamar he was imprisoned by a Moorish
chief for four months. He escaped, alone and with nothing
save his horse and a pocket compass, on the ist of July 1796,
and on the 21st of the same month reached the long-sought
Niger at Segu, being the first European to gaze on its waters.
He followed the river down stream 80 m. to Silla, where he
was obliged to turn back, being without means and utterly
exhausted. On his return journey, begun on the 30th of July,
he took a route more to the south than that originally followed,
keeping close to the Niger as far as Bamako, thus tracing the
course of that stream in all for some 300 miles. At Kamalia
he fell ill, and owed his life to the kindness of a negro in whose
house he lived for seven months. Eventually he reached Pisania
again on the loth of June 1797, returning to England by way
of America on the 22nd of December. He had been thought
to be dead, and his return home with the news of the discovery
of the Niger evoked great public enthusiasm. An account
of his journey was at once drawn up for the African Association
by Bryan Edwards, and a detailed narrative from his own pen
appeared in 1799 {Travels in the Interior of Africa). Abundance
of incident and an unaffected style rendered the work extremely
popular, and it still holds its place as an acknowledged classic
in this department of literature.
Settling at Foulshiels, Park in August 1799 married a daughter
of his old master, Thomas Anderson. Two offers made to him
to go to New South Wales in some official capacity came to
nothing, and in October 1801 Park removed to Peebles, where
he practised as a doctor. In the autumn of 1803 he was invited
by the government to lead another expedition to the Niger.
Park, who chafed at the hardness and monotony of life at
Peebles, accepted the offer, but the starting of the expedition
was delayed. Part of the waiting time was occupied in the
perfecting of his Arabic — his teacher being Sidi Ambak Bubi,
a native of Mogador; whose vagaries both amused and alarmed
the people of Peebles. In May 1804 Park went back to Foul-
shiels, where he made the acquaintance of Sir Walter Scott,
then living near by at Ashesteil, with whom he soon became
on terms of warm friendship. In September he was summoned
to London to leave on the new expedition; he parted from Sir
Walter with the hopeful proverb on his lips, " Freits (omens)
follow those that look to them." Park had at that time adopted
the theory that the Niger and the Congo were one, and in a
memorandum drawn up before he left England he wrote: " My
hopes of returning by the Congo are not altogether fanciful."
He sailed from Portsmouth for the Gambia on the 31st of
January 1805, having been given a captain's commission as
head of the government expedition. Alexander Anderson,
his brother-in-law, was second in command, and on him was
bestowed a lieutenancy. George Scott, a fellow Borderer,
was draughtsman, and the party included four or five artificers.
At Goree (then in British occupation) Park was joined by
Lieutenant Martyn, R.A., thirty-five privates and two seamen.
The expedition did not reach the Niger until the middle of
August, when only eleven Europeans were left alive; the rest
had succumbed to fever or dysentery. From Bamako the
journey to Segu was made by canoe. Having received per-
mission from the ruler of that town to proceed, at Sansandig,
a little below Segu, Park made ready for his journey down the
still unknown part of the river. Park, helped by one soldier,
the only one left capable of work, converted two canoes into
one tolerably good boat, 40 ft. long and 6 ft. broad. This he
christened H.M. schooner "Joliba" (the native name for the
Niger), and in it, with the surviving members of his party, he
set sail down stream on the 19th of November. At Sansandig,
on the 28th of October, Anderson had died, and in him Park
lost the only member of the party — except Scott, already dead —
who had been of real use. Those who embarked in the " Joliba "
were Park, Martyn, three European soldiers (one mad), a guide
and three slaves. Before his departure Park gave to Isaaco,
a Mandingo guide who had been with him thus far, letters to
take back to the Gambia for transmission to England. The
spirit with which Park began the final stage of his enterprise
is well illustrated by his letter to the head of the Colonial
Office:—
" I shall," he wrote, " set sail for the cast with the fixed resolution
to discover the termination of the Niger or perish in the attempt
. . . though all the Europeans who are with me should die, and
though I were myself half dead, I would still persevere, and if I
could not succeed in the object of my journey, I would at least
die on the Niger."
To his wife he wrote stating his intention not to stop nor land
anywhere till he reached the coast, where he expected to arrive
about the end of January 1806. These were the last communica-
tions received from Park, and nothing more was heard of the
party until reports of disaster reached the settlements on the
Gambia. At length the British government engaged Isaaco
to go to the Niger to ascertain the fate of the explorer. At
Sansandig Isaaco found the guide who had gone down stream
with Park, and the substantial accuracy of the story he told
was later confirmed by the investigations of Hugh Clapperton
and Richard Lander. This guide (Amadi) stated that Park's
canoe descended the river to Yauri, where he (the guide) landed.
In this long journey of about 1000 miles Park, who had plenty
of provisions, stuck to his resolution of keeping aloof from the
natives. Below Jenne, came Timbuktu, and at various other
places the natives came out in canoes and attacked his boat.
These attacks were all repulsed. Park and his party having
plenty of firearms and ammunition and the natives having
none. The boat also escaped the many perils attendant on the
navigation of an unknown stream strewn with many rapids —
Park had built the " Joliba " so that it drew only a foot of
water. But at the Bussa rapids, not far below Yauri, the boat
struck on a rock and remained fast. On the bank were gathered
hostile natives, who attacked the party with bow and arrow
and throwing spears. Their position being untenable. Park,
Martyn, and the two soldiers who still survived, sprang into
the river and were drowned. The sole survivor was one of
the slaves, from whom was obtained the story of the final scene.
Isaaco, and later Lander, obtained some of Park's effects, but
PARK— PARKER, J. H.
827
his journal was never recovered. In 1827 his second son, Thomas,
landed on the Guinea coast, intending to make his way to Bussa,
where he thought his father might be detained a prisoner, but
after penetrating some little distance inland he died of fever.
Park's widow died in 1840.
J. Thomson's Mungo Park and the Niger (London, 1890) contains
the best critical estimate of the explorer and his work. See also the
Life (by Wishaw) prefixed to Journal of a Mission into the Interior
of Africa in 180$ (London, 1815); H. B., Life of Mungo Park (Edin-
burgh, 1835); and an interesting passage in Lockhart's Life of
Sir Walter Scott, vol. ii.
PARK (Fr. pare; Ital. parco; Sp. parquc; O.Eng. pearroc;
connected with Ger. pfcrch, fold, and pfarrci, district, translating
med. Lat. parochia, parish), a word ordinarily used in two senses:
(a) an enclosed tract of ground, consisting of grass-land, planted
with trees and shrubs, and surrounding a large country house;
{b) a similar space in or near a town, laid out ornamentally, and
used by the pubHc as an " open space " for health or recreation.
The term " park " first occurs in English as a term of the
forest law of England for a tract of ground enclosed and
privileged for beasts of the chase, the distinguishing charac-
teristics of which were " vert," i.e. the green leaves of trees,
" venison," i.e. deer, and " enclosure." A " park " was a
franchise obtained by prescription or by grant from the crown
(see Forest Law; also Deer Park).
The word has had a technical military significance since the
early part of the 17th century. Originally meaning the space
occupied by the artillery, baggage and supply vehicles of an
army when at rest, it came to be used of the mass of vehicles
itself. I'rom this mass first of all the artillery, becoming more
mobile, separated itself; then as the mobility of armies in general
became greater they outpaced their heavy vehicles, with the
result that faster moving transport units had to be created to
keep up communication. A " park " is thus at the present
day a large unit consisting of several hundred vehicles carrying
stores; it moves several days' marches in rear of the army,
and forms a reservoir from " whence the mobile ammunition and
supply columns " draw the supplies and stores required for the
army's needs. " Parking " vehicles is massing them for a
halt. The word " park " is still used to mean that portion
of an artillery or adminstrative troops' camp or bivouac in
which the vehicles are placed.
PARKER, SIR GILBERT (1862- ), British novelist and
poUtician, was born at Camden East, Addington, Ontario, on
the 23rd of November 1862, the son of Captain J. Parker, R.A.
He was educated at Ottawa and at Trinity University, Toronto.
In 1886 he went to Australia, and became for a while associate-
editor of the Sydney Morning Herald. He also travelled exten-
sively in the Pacific, and subsequently in northern Canada;
and in the early 'nineties he began to make a growing reputation
in London as a writer of romantic fiction. The best of his
novels are those in which he first took for his subject the history
and life of the French Canadians; and his permanent literary
reputation rests on the fine quality, descriptive and dramatic, of
his Canadian stories. Pierre and his People (1892) was followed
by Mrs Falchion (1893), The Trail of the Sword (1894), When
Valmond came to Ponliac (1895), An Adventurer of the North
(1895), and The Seats of the Mighty (1896, dramatized in 1897).
The Lane that had no Turning (1900) contains some of his best
work. In The Battle of the Strong (1898) he broke new ground,
laying his scene in the Channel Islands. His chief later books
were The Right of Way (igoi), Donovan Pasha {tgo2), The Ladder
of Swords (1904), The Weavers (1907) and Northern Lights {igog) .
In 1895 he married Miss Van Tine of New York, a wealthy heiress.
His Canadian connexion and his experience in Australia and
elsewhere had made him a strong Imperialist in politics, and from
that time he began to devote himself in large measure to a
political career. He still kept up his literary work, but some
of the books last mentioned cannot compare with those by which
he made his name. He was elected to parliament in 1900
(re-elected 1906 and 1910) as Conservative member for Gravesend
and soon made his mark in the House of Commons. He was
knighted in 1902, and in succeeding years continually
strengthened his position in the party, particularly by his energetic
work on behalf of Tariff Reform and Imperial Preference. If
he had given up to public life what at one time seemed to be due
to literature, he gave it for enthusiasm in the Imperialist move-
ment; and with the progress of that cause he came to rank by
1910 as one of the foremost men in the Unionist party outside
those who had held office.
PARKER, SIR HYDE, Bart. (1714-1782), British vice-
admiral, was born at Tredington, Worcestershire, on the 2Sth
of February, 1714, his father, a clergyman, being a son of Sir
Henry Parker, Bart. His paternal grandfather had married
a daughter of Bishop Alexander Hyde, of Salisbury. He began
his career at sea in the merchant service. Entering the royal
navy at the age of twenty-four, he was made lieutenant in 1744,
and in 1748 he was made post-captain. During the latter
part of the Seven Years' War he served in the East Indies,
taking part in the capture of Pondicherry (1761) and of Manila
(1762). In the latter year Parker with two ships captured one
of the valuable Spanish plate ships in her voyage between
Acapulco and Manila. In 1778 he became rear-admiral, and
went to North American waters as second-in-command. For
some time before Rodney's arrival he was in command on the
Leeward Islands station, and conducted a skilful campaign
against the French at Martinique. In 1781, having returned
home and become vice-admiral, he fell in with a Dutch fleet of
about his own force, though far better equipped, near the Dogger
Bank (Aug. 5). After a fiercely contested battle, in which
neither combatant gained any advantage, both sides drew
off. Parker considered that he had not been properly equipped
for his task, and insisted on resigning his command. In 1782
he accepted the East Indies command, though he had just
succeeded to the family baronetcy. On the outward voyage
his flagship, the " Cato " (60), was lost with all on board.
His second son. Admiral Sir Hyde Parker (1739-1807),
entered the navy at an early age, and became lieutenant in 1758,
having passed most of his early service in his father's ships. Five
years later he became a post-captain, and from 1766 onwards
for many years he served in the West Indies and in North
American waters, particularly distinguishing himself in break-
ing the defences of the North river (New York) in 1776. His
services on this occasion earned him a knighthood in 1779.
In 1778 he was engaged in the Savannah expedition, and in
the following year his ship was wrecked on the hostile Cuban
coast. His men, however, entrenched themselves, and were
in the end brought off safely. Parker was with his father at
the Dogger Bank, and with Howe in the two actions in the
Straits of Gibraltar. In 1793, having just become rear-admiral,
he served under Lord Hood at Toulon and in Corsica, and two
years later, now a vice-admiral, he took part, under Hotham,
in the indecisive fleet actions of the 13th of March and the 13th
of July 1795. From 1796 to 1800 he was in command at
Jamaica and ably conducted the operations in the West Indies.
In 1801 he was appointed to command the fleet destined to
break up the northern armed neutrality, with Nelson as his
second-in-command. Copenhagen, the first objective of the expe-
dition, fell on the 2nd of April to the fierce attack of Nelson's
squadron, Parker with the heavier ships taking little part.
Subsequently Parker hesitated to advance up the Baltic after
his victory, a decision which was severely criticised. Soon after-
wards he was recalled and Nelson succeeded him. He died
in 1S07.
The family name was continued in the navy in his eldest
son, who became vice-admiral and was First Sea Lord of the
Admiralty in 1853 (dying in 1854); and also in that son's son,
who as a captain in the Black Sea was killed in 1854 when
storming a Russian fort.
PARKER, JOHN HENRY (1806-1884), English writer on
architecture, the son of a London merchant, was born on the
ist of March 1806. He was educated at Manor House School,
Chiswick, and in 182 1 entered business as a bookseller. Succeed-
ing his uncle, Joseph Parker, as a bookseller at Oxford in 1832,
828
PARKER, JOSEPH— PARKER, MATTHEW
he conducted the business with great success, the most important
of the firm's publications being perhaps the series of the " Oxford
Pocket Classics." In 1836 he brought out his Glossary of
Architecture, which, pubUshed in the earlier years of the Gothic
revival in England, had considerable influence in extending the
movement, and supplied a valuable help to young architects.
In 1848 he edited the fifth edition of Rickman's Gothic Architec-
ture, and in 1849 he published a handbook based on his earlier
volume and entitled Introduction to the Study of Gothic Architec-
ture. The completion of Hudson Turner's Domestic Architecture
of the Middle Ages next engaged his attention, three volumes
being published (1853-1860). In 1858 he published Medieval
Architecture of Chester. Parker was one of the chief advocates
of the " restoration " of ecclesiastical buildings, and published
in 1866 Architectural Antiquities of the City of Wells. Latterly he
devoted much attention to explorations of the history of Rome
by means of excavations, and succeeded in satisfying himself
of the historical truth of much usually regarded as legendary.
Two volumes of his Archaeology of Rome were pubhshed at
Oxford in 1874 and 1876. In recognition of his labours he was
decorated by the king of Italy, and received a medal from Pope
Pius IX. In 1869 he endowed the keepership of the Ashmolean
Museum with a sum jaelding £250 a year, and under the new
arrangement he was appointed the first keeper. In 187 1 he was
nominated C.B. He died at 0.xford on the 31st of January 18S4.
PARKER, JOSEPH (1830-1902), English Nonconformist
divine, was born at Hexham-on-Tyne on the 9th of April 1830,
his father being a stonemason. He managed to pick up a fair
education, which in after-life he constantly supplemented.
In the revolutionary years from 1845 to 1S50 young Parker
as a local preacher and temperance orator gained a reputation
for vigorous utterance. He was influenced by Thomas Cooper,
the Chartist, and Edward Miall, the Liberationist, and was much
associated with Joseph Cowen, afterwards M. P. for Newcastle.
In the spring of 1852 he wrote to Dr John Campbell, minister
of Whitefield Tabernacle, Moorfields, London, for advice
as to entering the Congregational ministry, and after a short
probation he became Campbell's assistant. He also attended
lectures in logic and philosophy at University College, London.
From 1853 to 1858 he was pastor at Banbury. His next charge
was at Cavendish Street, Manchester, where he rapidly made
himself felt as a power in English Nonconformity. While here
he published a volume of lectures entitled Church Questions,
and, anonymously, Ecce Dcus (1868), a work provoked by Seeley's
Ecce Homo. The university of Chicago conferred on him the
degree of D.D. In 1869 he returned to London as minister of
the Poultry church, founded by Thomas Goodwin. Almost at
once he began the scheme which resulted in the erection of the
great City Temple in Holborn Viaduct. It cost £70,000, and was
opened on the 19th of May 1874. From this centre his influence
spread far and wide. His stimulating and original sermons,
with their notable leaning towards the use of a racy vernacular,
made him one of the best known personalities of his time.
Dr Parker was twice chairman of the London Congregational
Board and twice of the Congregational Union of England and
Wales. The death of his second wife in 1899 was a blow from
which he never fully recovered, and he died on the 28th of
November 1902.
Parker was pre-eminently a preacher, and his published works
are chiefly sermons and expositions, chief among them being City
Temple Sermons (1869-1870) and The People's Bible, in 25 vols.
(1885-1895). Other volumes include the autobiographical Spring-
dale Abbey (1869), The Inner Life of Christ (1881), Apostolic Life
(1884), Tyne Chylde: My Life and Teaching (1883; new ed., 1889),
A Preacher's Life (1899).
See E. C. Pike, Dr Parker and his Friends (1905); Congregational
Year-Book (1904).
PARKER, MARTIN (c. i6oo-f. 1656), English ballad writer,
was probably a London tavern-keeper. About 1625 he seems
to have begun publishing ballads, a large number of which
bearing his signature or his initials, "M. P.," are preserved in
the British Museum. Dryden considered him the best ballad
writer of his time. His sympathies were with the Royalist
cause during the Civil War, and it was in support of the declining
fortunes of Charles I. that he wrote the best known of his ballads,
" When the King enjoys his own again," which he first pub-
hshed in 1643, and which, after enjoying great popularity at
the Restoration, became a favourite Jacobite song in the i8th
century. Parker also wrote a nautical ballad, " Sailors for
my Money," which in a revised version survives as " When
the stormy winds do blow." It is not known when he died,
but the appearance in 1656 of a " funeral elegy," in which the
ballad writer was satirically celebrated is perhaps a correct
indication of the date of his death.
See The Roxburghe Ballads, vol. iii. (Ballad Soc, 9 vols., 1871-1899) ;
Joseph Ritson, Bibliographia Poelica (London, 1802); Ancient Songs
and Ballads from Henry II. to the Revolution, ed. by W. C. Hazlitt
(London, 1877); Sir S. E. Br>'dges and J. Haslewood, The British
Bibliographer, vol. ii. (London, 1810); Thomas Corser, Collectanea
Anglo-poetica (London, 1860-1883).
PARKER, MATTHEW (i 504-1 575), archbishop of Canterbury,
was the eldest son of William Parker, a citizen of Norwich,
where he was born, in St Saviour's parish, on the 6th of August
1504. His mother's maiden name was Alice Monins, and a John
Monins married Cranmer's sister Jane, but no definite relation-
ship between the two archbishops has been traced. WiUiam
Parker died about 1516, and his widow married a certain John
Baker. Matthew was sent in 1522 to Corpus Christi College,
Cambridge, where he is said by most of his biographers, including
the latest, to have been contemporary with Cecil; but Cecil
was only two years old when Parker went to Cambridge. He
graduated B.A. in 1525, was ordained deacon in April and priest
in June 1527, and was elected fellow of Corpus in the following
September. He commenced M.A. in 1528, and was one of
the Cambridge scholars whom Wolsey wished to transplant
to his newly founded Cardinal College at Oxford. Parker,
like Cranmer, decKned the invitation. He had come under
the influence of the Cambridge reformers, and after Anne
Boleyn's recognition as queen he was made her chaplain.
Through her he was appointed dean of the college of secular
canons at Stoke-by-Clare in 1535. Latimer wrote to him in
that year urging him not to fall short of the expectations
which had been formed of his ability. In 1537 he was appointed
chaplain to Henry VHL, and in 1538 he was threatened with
prosecution by the reactionary party. The bishop of Dover,
however, reported to Cromwell that Parker " hath ever been
of a good judgment and set forth the Word of God after a
good manner. For this he suffers some grudge." He graduated
D.D. in that year, and in 1541 he was appointed to the second
prebend in the reconstituted cathedral church of Ely. In 1544
on Henry VIII.'s recommendation he was elected master of Corpus
Christi College, and in 1545 vice-chancellor of the university.
He got into some trouble with the chancellor, Gardiner,
over a ribald play, " Pammachius," performed by the students,
deriding the old ecclesiastical system, though Bonner wrote
to Parker of the assured affection he bore him. On the passing
of the act of parhament in 1545 enabling the king to dissolve
chantries and colleges, Parker was appointed one of the com-
missioners for Cambridge, and their report saved its colleges,
if there had ever been any intention to destroy them. Stoke,
however, was dissolved in the following reign, and Parker
received a pension equivalent to £400 a year in modern currency.
He took advantage of the new reign to marry in June, 1547,
before clerical marriages had been legalized by parliament
and convocation, Margaret, daughter of Robert Harlestone, a
Norfolk squire. During Kett's rebelhon he was allowed to
preach in the rebels' camp on Mousehold Hill, but without much
effect; and later on he encouraged his chaplain, Alexander
Neville, to write his history of the rising. His Protestantism
advanced with the times, and he received higher promotion
under Northumberland than under the moderate Somerset.
Bucer was his friend at Cambridge, and he preached Bucer's
funeral sermon in 1551. In 1552 he was promoted to the rich
deanery of Lincoln, and in July 1553 he supped with Northum-
berland at Cambridge, when the duke marched north on his hope-
less campaign against Mary.
' PARKER, S.— PARKER. "-p.^IHAq
829
As a supporter of Northumberland and a married man,
Parker was naturally deprived of his deanery, his mastership
of Corpus, and his other preferments. But he found means
to live in England throughout Mary's reign without further
molestation. He was not cast in a heroic mould, and he had
no desire to figure at the stake; like Cecil, and Elizabeth herself,
he had a great respect for authority, and when his time came
he could consistently impose authority on others. He was not
eager to assume this task, and he made great efforts to avoid
promotion to the archbishopric of Canterbury, which Elizabeth
designed for him as soon as she had succeeded to the throne.
He was elected on the ist of August 1559; but it was difficult
to find the requisite four bishops willing and qualified to conse-
crate him, and not until the 17th of December did Barlow,
Scory, Coverdale and Hodgkins perform that ceremony
at Lambeth. The legend of an indecent consecration at the
Nag's Head tavern in Fleet Street seems first to have been
printed by the Jesuit, Christopher Holywood, in 1604; and it has
long been abandoned by reputable controversialists. Parker's
consecration was, however, only made legally valid by the plenti-
tude of the royal supremacy; for the Edwardine Ordinal, which
was used, had been repealed by Mary and not re-enacted by
the parliament of iS59-
Parker owes his fame to circumstances rather than to personal
qualifications. This wise moderation of the Elizabethan settle-
ment, which had been effected before his appointment, was
obviously not due to him; and Elizabeth could have placed Knox
or Bonner in the chair of St Augustine had she been so minded.
But she wanted a moderate man, and so she chose Parker.
He possessed all the qualifications she expected from an arch-
bishop except celibacy. He distrusted popular enthusiasm,
and he wrote in horror of the idea that " the people " should
be the reformers of the Church. He was not inspiring as a
leader of religion; and no dogma, no original theory of church
government, no prayer-book, not even a tract or a hymn is
associated with his name. The 56 volumes published by the
Parker Society include only one by its eponymous hero, and
that is a volume of correspondence. He was a disciplinarian, a
scholar, a modest and moderate man of genuine piety and
irreproachable morals. His historical research was exemplified
in his De antiqtdtatc ecdcsiae, and his editions of Asser, Matthew
Paris, Walsingham, and the compiler known as Matthew of
Westminster; his liturgical skill was shown in his version of
the psalter and in the occasional prayers and thanksgivings
which he was called upon to compose; and he left a priceless
collection of manuscripts to his college at Cambridge.
He was happier in these pursuits than in the exercise of his
jurisdiction. With secular politics he had little to do, and
he was never admitted to Elizabeth's privy council. But
ecclesiastical politics gave him an infinity of trouble. Many
of the reformers wanted no bishops at all, while the Catholics
wanted those of the old dispensation, and the queen herself
grudged episcopal privilege until she discovered in it one of
the chief bulwarks of the royal supremacy. Parker was there-
fore left to stem the rising tide of Puritan feeling with little
support from parliament, convocation or the Crown. The
bishops' Interpretations and Further Considerations, issued in
1 560, tolerated a lower vestiarian standard than was prescribed by
the rubric of 1559; the Advertisements, which Parker published in
1 566, to check the Puritan descent, had to appear without specific
royal sanction; and the Reformatio legiim ecclesiasticarum,
which Foxe published with Parker's approval, received neither
royal, parliamentary nor synodical authorization. Parliament
even contested the claim of the bishops to determine matters
of faith. " Surely," said Parker to Peter Wentworth, " you
will refer yourselves wholly to us therein. " " No, by the
faith I bear to God," retorted Wentworth," we will pass nothing
before we understand what it is; for that were but to make
you popes. Make you popes who list, for we will make you
none." Disputes about vestments had expanded into a con-
troversy over the whole field of Church government and authority,
and Parker died on the 17th of May, rS7S, lamenting that Puritan
ideas of " governance " would " in conclusion undo the queen and
all others that depended upon her." By his personal conduct
he had set an ideal example for Anglican priests, and it was not
his fault that national authority failed to crush the individualistic
tendencies of the Protestant Reformation.
John Strype's Life of Parker, originally published in 171 1, and
rc-editcd for the Clarendon Press in 1 821 (3 vols.), is the principal
source for Parker's life. A biographical sketch written from a
different point of view was published by W. M. Kennedy in 1908.
Sec also J. Bass Mullinger's scholarly life in Did. Nat. Biog.;
W. H. Frere's volume in Stephens and Hunt's Church History;
Strype's Works (General Index); Gough's Index to Parker Soc.
Puhl. Fuller, Burnet, Collier and R. W. Dixon's Histories of the
Church; Birt's Elizabethan Settlement; H. Gee's Elizabethan Clergy
(1898); Froudc's Hist, of England; and vol. vi. in Longman's
Political History. (A. F. P.)
PARKER, SAMUEL (1640-1688), English bishop, was born
at Northampton, and educated at Wadham College, Oxford.
His Presbyterian views caused him to move to Trinity College,
where, however, the influence of the senior fellow induced him
to join the Church of England, and he was ordained in 1664.
In 1665 he published an essay entitled Tcnlamitia physico-
thcologica de Deo, dedicated to Archbishop Sheldon, who in
1667 appointed him one of his chaplains. He became rector
of Chartham, Kent, in the same year. In 1670 he became
archdeacon of Canterbury, and two years after he was appointed
rector of Ickham, Kent. In 1673 he was elected master of Eden-
bridge Hospital. His Discourse of Ecclesiastical Politic (London,
1670), advocating state regulation of religious affairs, led him
into controversy with Andrew Marvell (1621-1675). James II.
appointed him to the bishopric of Oxford in 1686, and he
in turn forwarded the king's policy, especially by defending
the royal right to appoint Roman Catholics to office. In 1687
the ecclesiastical commission forcibly installed him as president
of Magdalen College, Oxford, the fellows having refused to elect
any of the king's nominees. He was commonly regarded as
a Roman Catholic, but he would appear to have been no more
than an extreme exponent of the High Church doctrine of
passive obedience. After he became president the action of
the king in replacing the expelled fellows with Roman Catholics
agitated him to such a degree as to hasten his end; to the priests
sent to persuade him on his death-bed to be received into the
Roman Church he declared that he " never had been and never
would be of that religion," and he died in the communion of
the Church of England.
Parker's second son, Samuel Parker (1681-1730), was the
author of Bibliotheca biblica, or Patristic Commentary on the
Scriptures (1720-1735), an abridged translation of Eusebius, and
other works. He was also responsible during 1708 and 1709
for a monthly periodical entitled Censura temporum, or Good
and III Tendencies of Books. He passed most of his life in retire-
ment at Oxford. His younger son Richard founded the well-
known publishing firm in Oxford.
See Magdalen College and James II. 1686-1688, by the Rev.
J. R. Bloxam (O.\ford Historical Society, 1886).
PARKER, THEODORE (1810-1860), American preacher
and social reformer, was born at Lexington, Massachusetts,
on the 24th of August 1810, the youngest of eleven children.
His father, John Parker, a small farmer and skilful mechanic,
was a typical New England yeoman. His mother took great
pains with the religious education of her children, " caring,
however, but httle for doctrines," and making religion to
consist of love and good works. His paternal grand-father.
Captain John Parker (i 729-1775), was the leader of the Lexington
minute-men in the skirmish at Lexington. Theodore obtained
the elements of knowledge in the schools of the district, which
were open during the winter months only. During the rest
of the year he worked on his father's farm. At the age of
seventeen he became himself a winter schoolmaster, and
in his twentieth year he entered himself at Harvard, working
on the farm as usual (until 1831) while he followed his
studies and going over to Cambridge for the examinations
only. For the theological course he took up in 1S34 his
830
PARKERSBURG— PARKES, SIR H. S.
residence in the college, meeting his expenses by a small
sum amassed by school-keeping and by help from a poor
students' fund, and graduating in 1836. At the close of
his college career he began his translation (published in
1843) of Wilhelm M. L. De Wette's Bcitrage zur Einkitung
in das Alte Testament. His journal and letters show that he
had made acquaintance with a large number of languages,
including Hebrew, Chaldee, Syriac, Arabic, Coptic, Ethiopic,
as well as the classical and the principal modern European
languages. When he entered the divinity school he was an
orthodox Unitarian; when he left it, he entertained strong
doubts about the infallibihty of the Bible, the possibility of
miracles, and the exclusive claims of Christianity and the Church.
Emerson's transcendentalism greatly influenced him, and
Strauss's Leben Jesu left its mark upon his thought. His first
ministerial charge was over a small village parish, West Roxbury,
a few miles from Boston; here he was ordained as a Unitarian
clergyman in June 1837 and here he preached until January
1846. His views were slowly assuming the form which sub-
sequently found such strong expression in his writing; but the
progress was slow, and the cautious reserve of his first rational-
istic utterances was in striking contrast with his subsequent
rashness. But on the 19th of May 1841 he preached at Boston
a sermon on " the transient and permanent in Christianity,"
which presented in embryo the main principles and ideas of
his final theological position, and the preaching of which deter-
mined his subsequent relations to the churches with which he
was connected and to the whole ecclesiastical world. The
Boston Unitarian clergy denounced the preacher, and declared
that the " young man must be silenced." No Unitarian
publisher could be found for his sermon, and nearly all the
pulpits of the city were closed against him. A number of
gentlemen in Boston, however, invited him to give a series of
lectures there. The result was that he delivered in the Masonic
Hall, in the winter of 1841-1842, as lectures, substantially the
volume afterwards published as the Discourse of Matters pertain-
ing to Religion. The lectures in their published form made
his name famous throughout America and Europe, and con-
firmed the stricter Unitarians in America in their attitude
towards him and his supporters. His friends, however, resolved
that he should be heard in Boston, and there, beginning with
1845, he preached regularly for fourteen years. Previous to
his removal from West Roxbury to Boston Parker spent a
year in Europe, calling in Germany upon Paulus, Gervinus,
De Wette and Ewald, and preaching in Liverpool in the pulpits
of James Martineau and J. H. Thorn. After January 1846
he devoted himself exclusively to his work in Boston. In
addition to his Sunday labours he lectured throughout the
States, and prosecuted his wide studies, coUecting particularly the
materials for an opus magnum on the development of religion
in mankind. Above all he took up the question of the emancipa-
tion of the slaves, and fearlessly advocated in Boston and else-
where, from the platform and through the press, the cause of
the negroes. He made his influence felt also by correspondence
with political leaders and by able pohtical speeches, one of
which, delivered in 1858, contained the sentence, " Democracy
is direct self-government, over all the people, by all the people,
for all the people," which probably suggested Abraham Lincoln's
oft-quoted variant. Parker assisted actively in the escape of
fugitive slaves, and for trying to prevent the rendition of perhaps
the most famous of them, Anthony Burns, was indicted, but
the indictment was quashed. He also gave his aid to John
Brown {q-v.). By his voice, his pen, and his utterly fearless
action in social and political matters he became a great power
in Boston and America generally. But his days were numbered.
His mother had suffered from phthisis; and he himself now fell
a victim to the same disease. In January 1859 he suffered a
violent haemorrhage of the lungs, and sought relief by retreating
first to the West Indies and afterwards to Europe. He died
at Florence on the loth of May i860.
The fundamental articles of Parker's religious faith were
the three " instinctive intuitions " of God, of a moral law, and
of immortality. His own mind, heart and life were undoubtedly
pervaded, sustained and ruled by the feelings, convictions
and hopes which he formulated in these three articles; and
he rationalized his own religious conceptions in a number of
expositions which do credit to his sincerity and courage. But
he was a preacher rather than a thinker, a reformer rather
than a philosopher.
Parker's principal works are : A Discourse of Matters pertaining to
Religion (1842); Ten Sermons of Religion (1853); and Sermons of
Theism, Atheism and the Popular Theology (1853). A collected
edition of his works was published in England by Frances Power
Cobbe (14 vols., 1863-1870), and another— the Centenary edition
— in Boston, Mass., by the American Unitarian Association (14 vols.,
1907-1911); a volume of Theodore Parker's Proye«, edited by Rufus
Leighton and Matilda Goddard, was published in America m 1861,
and a volume of Parker's West Roxbury Sermons, yfxth abiographical
sketch by Frank B. Sanborn, was published in Boston, Mass., in
1892. A German translation of part of his works was made by
Ziethen (Leipzig 1854-1857).
The best biographies are John Weiss's Life and Correspondence of
Theodore Parker (New York, 1864); O. B. Frothingham's Theodore
Parker: a Biography (Boston, 1874); and John White Chadwick's
Theodore Parker, Preacher and Reformer (Boston, 1900), the last
containing a good bibliography. Valuable reviews of Parker's
theological position and of his character and work have appeared
— by James Martineau, in the National Review (April i860), and
J. H. Thorn, in the Theological Review (March 1864).
PARKERSBURG, a city and the county-seat of Wood county,
West Virginia, U.S.A., on the Ohio river, at the mouth of the
Little Kanawha, about 95 m. below Wheeling. Pop. (1890),
840S; (1900), 11,703, of whom 5x5 were foreign-born and 783
were negroes; (1906, estimate), 16,477. Parkersburg is served
by the Baltimore & Ohio, the Baltimore & Ohio South-
western, and the Little Kanawha railways, by electric railway
to Marietta, Ohio, and by passenger and freight boats to Pitts-
burg, Cincinnati, intermediate ports, and ports on the Little
Kanawha. Parkersburg is the see of a Protestant Episcopal
bishop. Oil, coal, natural gas and fire-clay abound in the
neighbouring region, and the city is engaged in the refining of
oil and the manufacture of pottery, brick and tile, glass, lumber,
furniture, flour, steel, and foundry and machine-shop products.
In 1905 the value of the factory products was $3,778,139
(21-9% more than in 1900). Parkersburg was settled in 1789,
was incorporated in 1820, and received a new charter in 1903,
when its boundaries were enlarged. About 2 m. below the
city is the island which was the home of Harman Blenner-
hassett (q.v.) and bears his name.
PARKES, SIR HARRY SMITH (1828-1885), English diploma-
tist, son of Harry Parkes, founder of the firm of Parkes,
Otway & Co., ironmasters, was born at BirchiUs Hall, near
Walsall in Staffordshire, in 1828. When but four years old his
mother died and in the following year his father was killed in a
carriage accident. Being thus left an orphan, he found a home
with his uncle, a retired naval officer, at Birmingham. He re-
ceived his education at King Edward's Grammar School. In 1837
his uncle died, and in 1841 he sailed for Macao in China, to take
up his residence at the house of his cousin, Mrs Gutzlaff. At
this time what was known as the " Opium War " had broken
out, and Parkes eagerly prepared himself to take part in the
events which were passing around him by dihgently applying
himself to the study of Chinese. In 1842 he received his first
appointment in the consular service. Fortunately for him,
he was privileged to accompany Sir Henry Pottinger in his
expedition up the Yangtsze-kiang to Nanking, and after having
taken part in the capture of Chinkiang and the surrender of
Nanking, he witnessed the signing of the treaty on board the
" Cornwallis " in August 1842. By this treaty the five ports of
Canton, Amoy, Fuchow, Ningpo and Shanghai were opened
to trade. After short residences at Canton and the newly
opened Amoy, Parkes was appointed to the consulate at Fuchow.
Here he served under Mr (afterwards Sir) Rutherford Alcock,
who was one of the few Englishmen who knew how to manage
the Chinese. In 1849 he returned to England on leave, and
after visiting the Continent and doing some hard work for the
foreign office he returned to China in 1851. After a short stay
PARKES, SIR H.— PARKIN
831
at Amoy as interpreter he was transferred in the same capacity
to Canton. In May 1854 he was promoted to be consul at Amoy,
and in 1855 was chosen as secretary to the mission to Bangkok,
being largely instrumental in negotiating the first European
treaty with Siam. In June 1856 he returned to Canton as
acting consul, a position which brought him into renewed
contact with Commissioner Yeh, whose insolence and obstinacy
led to the second China War. Yeh had now met a man of
even greater power and determination than himself, and when,
in October 1856, as a climax to many outrages, Yeh seized
the British lorcha " Arrow " and made prisoners of her crew,
Parkes at once closed with his enemy. In response to a strongly
worded despatch from Parkes, Sir John Bowring, governor of
Hong-Kong, placed matters in the hands of Admiral Sir M.
Seymour, who took Canton at the close of the same month but
had not a sufficient force to hold it. In December 1857 Canton
was again bombarded by Admiral Seymour. Parkes, who was
attached to the admiral's staff, was the first man to enter the
city, and himself tracked down and arrested Commissioner Yeh.
As the city was to be held, an allied commission was appointed
to govern it, consisting of two Englishmen, of whom one was
Parkes, and a French naval oflicer. Parkes virtually governed
this city of a million inhabitants for three years. Meanwhile
the treacherous attack at Taku upon Sir Frederick Bruce led to
a renewal of hostilities in the north, and Parkes was ordered up
to serve as interpreter and adviser to Lord Elgin (July, i860).
In pursuance of these duties he went in advance of the army
to the city of Tungchow, near Peking, to arrange a meeting
between Lord Elgin and the Chinese commissioners who had
been appointed to draw up the preliminaries of peace. While
thus engaged he, Mr (afterwards Lord) Loch, Mr de Norman,
Lord Elgin's secretary of legation, Mr Bowlby, the Times
correspondent, and others, were treacherously taken prisoners
(Sept. 18, i860). Parkes and Loch were carried off to the
prison of the board of punishments at Peking, where they were
separately herded with the lowest class of criminals. After
ten days' confinement in this den of iniquity they were removed
to a temple in the city, where they were comfortably housed and
fed, and from which, after a further detention, they were granted
their liberty. For this signal instance of treachery Lord Elgin
burned down the Summer Palace of the emperor. Towards
the end of i860 Parkes returned to his post at Canton. On the
restoration (Oct. 1861) of the city to the Chinese he returned
to England on leave, when he was made K.C.B. for his services;
he had received the companionship of the order in i860. On
his return to China he served for a short time as consul at
Shanghai, and was then appointed minister in Japan (1865).
For eighteen years he held this post, and throughout that
time he strenuously used his influence in support of the Liberal
party of Japan. So earnestly did he throw in his lot with
these reformers that he became a marked man, and incurred
the bitter hostihty of the reactionaries, who on three separate
occasions attempted to assassinate him. In 1882 he was trans-
ferred to Peking. While in Peking his health failed, and he
died of malarial fever on the 21st of March 1885. In 1856 Sir H.
(then Mr) Parkes married Miss Fanny Plumer, who died in 1879.
The standard Life is by Stanley Lane-Poole (1894). (R. K. D.)
PARKES, SIR HENRY (1815-1896), Austrahan statesman,
was born at Stoneleigh, in Warwickshire, on the 27th of May
1815. The son of parents in very humble circumstances, he
received only a rudimentary education, and at an early age
was obliged to earn his living as a common labourer. Failing to
make his way in England, he emigrated to Australia in 1839, and
after a time settled in Sydney as an ivory-turner. Conscious
of his great powers, he worked unremittingly to repair the
deficiencies of his education, and developed a genuine taste for
Hterature, and a gift for versification which won the approval
of so severe a judge as Tennyson. His first volume of poems
was published in 1842, under the title of Stolen Moments. He
now began to take an active part in politics, and soon showed
himself the wielder of an incisive style as a leader-writer, and a
popular orator of unrivalled influence. He took a prominent
part in the movement against the transportation of convicts,
and in 1849 started the Empire newspaper to inculcate his policy
of attacking abuses while remaining loyal to the Crown. The
paper at once made its mark, but owing to financial difficulties
ceased to appear in 1858. One of the reforms for which Parkes
fought most strenuously was the full introduction of responsible
government. He was returned to the legislative council under
the old constitution as member for Sydney, and on the estab-
lishment of a legislative assembly in 1856 was elected for
East Sydney. His parliamentary career was twice interrupted
by pecuniary embarrassments; indeed, he never acquired the
art of making money, and in spite of a public subscription raised
in 1887 died in absolute penury. He was elected for East
Sydney in 1859 at the first general election under the new
electoral act, and sat till 1861, when he was sent to England
as a commissioner for promoting emigration. He made a
prolonged stay in England, and described his impressions in a
series of letters to the Sydney Morning Herald, some of which
were reprinted in 1869 under the title of Australian Views of
England. He returned to Austraha in 1863, and, re-entering
the Assembly, became colonial secretary in the Martin ministry
from 1866 to 1868. He succeeded in passing the Public Schools
Act of 1866, which for the first time instituted an efficient
system of primary education in the colony. His great chance
came in 1872, when the Martin ministry resigned on the question
of the sum payable by Victoria in lieu of border duties. Parkes
had for several years persistently advocated free imports as
a remedy for the financial distress of the colony. He now
became prime minister and colonial secretary; and rising to
the height of his opportunity, he removed the cause of dispute
by throwing the colony open to trade. He held office till 1875,
and on the fall of the Robertson ministry again became premier
and colonial secretary from March tiU August 1877. At the
end of this year he was made K.C.M.G. Finding that the state
of parties did not allow of the existence of a stable ministry,
he formed a coalition with Sir John Robertson, and became
premier and colonial secretary for the third time from December
1878 to January 1883. In 1882 and in 1883-1884 he paid
prolonged visits to England. Already distinguished among
Australian statesmen for breadth of outlook and passionate devo-
tion to the Empire, he returned with those qualities enhanced.
For a time he found himself almost in a position of isolation, but
in 1887 the policy of protection adopted by his successors
brought him again into ofiice. His free trade policy was once
more successful. Other important measures of his administra-
tion were the reform of the civil service, the prohibition of Chinese
immigration, and the railways and public works acts. He
fell from office in January 1889, but in the following March
became for the fifth time premier and colonial secretary. The
remainder of his life was chiefly devoted to the question of
Australian federation. The Federal Convention at Melbourne
in 1890 was mainly his work; and he presided over the convention
at Sydney in 1891, and was chiefly responsible for the draft
constitution there carried. Defeated in October 1891 on his
refusal to accept an eight hours' day for coal-miners, he remained
in opposition for the rest of his career, sacrificing even free trade
in the hope of smoothing the path of federation. He died at
Sydney on the 27th of April 1896; but though he did not live
to see the realization of his efforts, he may justly be called the
Father of the Australian Commonwealth.
He published, in addition to" the works already named and
numerous volumes of verse, a collection of speeches on the Federal
Government of Australia (1890), and an autobiography. Fifty Years
in the making of Australian History (1892).
PARKIN, GEORGE ROBERT (1846- ), British Canadian
educationist, was born at Salisbury, New Brunswick, on the
8th of February 1846. His father had gone to Canada from
Yorkshire. Parkin was the youngest of a family of thirteen, and
after attending the local schools he started at an early age as a
teacher. Bent on improving his own education, he then entered
the university of New Brunswick, where he carried off high
honours in 1866-1868. From 1868 to 1872 he was head master
832
PARKINSON— PARKMAN
of Balhurst grammar school; but he was not content with the
opportunities for study open to him in Canada, and he went to
England and entered Oxford. Here the enthusiastic young
Canadian was not only profoundly affected himself by entering
strenuously into the hfe of the ancient university (he was secre-
tary of the Union when H. H. Asquith was president), but in
his turn was instrumental in bringing the possibilities of British
Imperialism to the minds of some of the ablest among his con-
temporaries — his juniors by six or eight years. It is hardly too
much to say that in his intercourse at Oxford in the early 'seven-
ties with men of influence who were then undergraduates the
imperialist movement in England substantially began. On
returning to Canada he became principal of the chief New Bruns-
wick school at Fredericton (where in 1878 he married), and for
fifteen years he did excellent work in this capacity. But in
1889 he was again drawn more directly into the imperialist
cause. The federation movement had gone ahead in the
meanwhile, and Parkin had always been associated with it;
and now he became a missionary speaker for the Imperial
Federation League, travelling for several years about the empire
for that purpose. He also laecame Canadian correspondent of
The Times, and in that capacity helped to make Canada better
known in the mother country. In 1894 he was given the
honorary degree of LL.D. by Oxford. In 1895 he returned to
scholastic work as principal of Upper Canada College, Toronto,
and retained this post till 1902; but he continued in the mean-
while to support the imperialist movement by voice and pen.
When in 1902 an organizer was required for the Rhodes Scholar-
ship Trust (see Rhodes, Cecil), in order to create the machinery
for working it in the countries to which it applied, he accepted
the appointment; and his devotion to this task was largely
responsible for the success with which Rhodes's idea was carried
out at Oxford. His publications include Reorganization of the
British Empire (1882), Lmperial Federation (1892), Round the
Empire (1892), Life of Edward Thring (1897), Life of Sir John
Macdonald (1907).
PARKINSON, JAMES (d. 1824), English palaeontologist, was
educated for the medical profession, and practised in Hoxton,
from about the year 1785. He was a Fellow of the Royal
College of Surgeons, and one of the original members of the
Geological Society of London (1807). He was author of
numerous chemical and medical books, the most important of
which were Organic Remains of a Former World (3 vols., 1804,
1808, 1811), and Outlines of Oryctology (1822). Parkinson died
in London, on the 21st of December 1824.
See Hist, of Collections in Brit. Mus. Nat. Hist. Dep. (1904),
PP- 315-316-
PARKMAN, FRANCIS (1823-1893), American historian, was
born in Boston on the i6th of September 1S23. His great-
grandfather, Ebenezer Parkman, a graduate of Harvard in 1721,
was for nearly sixty years minister of the Congregational Church
in Westborough, and was noted for his devotion to the study
of history. One of this good clergyman's sons, Samuel Parkman,
became an eminent merchant in Boston, and exhibited much
skill in horticulture. Samuel's son, Francis Parkman, a graduate
of Harvard in 1807, was one of the most eminent of the Boston
clergymen, a pupil and friend of Channing, and noted among
Unitarians for a broadly tolerant disposition. This Dr Park-
man, a man of rare sagacity and exquisite humour, was the
father of Francis Parkman, the historian. His mother was a
descendant of the celebrated John Cotton. She was the daughter
of Nathaniel Hall of Medford, member of a family which was
represented in the convention that framed the constitution of
Massachusetts in 1780.
Francis Parkman was the eldest of her six children. As a
boy his health was delicate, so that it was thought best for him
to spend much of his time at his grandfather Hall's home in
Medford rather than in the city. That home was situated on
the border of the Middlesex Fells, a rough and rocky woodland,
4000 acres in extent, as wild and savage in many places as the
primeval forest. The place is within 8 m. of Boston, and it
may be doubted if anywhere else can be found another
such magnificent piece of wilderness so near to a great city.
There young Parkman spent his leisure hours in collecting eggs,
insects and reptiles, trapping squirrels and woodchucks, and
shooting birds with arrows. This breezy life saved him from
the artificial stupidity which is too often superinduced in boys
by their school training. At the age of fourteen Parkman
began to show a strong taste for literary composition. In 1841,
while a student at Harvard, he made a rough journey of explora-
tion in the woods of northern New Hampshire, where he had
a taste of adventure slightly spiced with hardship. About
this time he made up his mind to write a history of the last
French war in America, which ended in the conquest of Canada,
and some time afterwards he enlarged the plan so as to include
the whole course of the American conflict between France and
Great Britain; or, to use his own words, " The history of the
American forest; for this was the light in which I regarded it.
My theme fascinated me, and I was haunted with wilderness
images day and night." The way in which true genius works
could not be more happily described. In the course of 1842
an attack of illness led to his making a journey in Italy, where
he spent some time in a monastery belonging to one of the
strictest of all the monastic orders, the Passionists, brethren
addicted to wearing hair shirts and scourging themselves without
mercy. In the young historian's eyes these good brethren were
of much value as living and breathing historic material. In
1S44 he graduated at Harvard with high rank.
He now made up his mind to study the real wilderness in its
gloom and vastness, and to meet face to face the dusky warriors of
the Stone Age. To-day such a thing can hardly be done within
the United States, for nowhere does the primitive wilderness
e.xist save here and there in shreds and patches. So recently as
the middle of the 19th century, however, it covered the western
half of the continent, and could be reached by a journey of 1600
or 1700 miles from Boston to the plains of Nebraska. Parkman
had become an adept in woodcraft and a dead shot with the
riile, and could do such things with horses, tame or wild, as
civilized people never see done except in a circus. In company
with his friend and classmate, Mr Quiney Shaw, he passed
several months with the Ogillalah band of Sioux. Knowledge,
intrepidity and tact carried Parkman through these experiences
unscathed, and good luck kept him clear of encounters with
hostQe Indians, in which these qualities might not have sufiiced
to avert destruction. It was a very important exjierience in
relation to his life-work. This outdoor life, however, did not
suffice to recruit Parkman 's health, and by 1848, when he
began writing The Conspiracy of Pontiac, he had reached a
truly pitiable condition. The trouble seems to have been some
form of nervous exhaustion, accompanied with such hyper-
sensitiveness of the eyes that it was impossible to keep them
open except in a dark room. Against these difiiculties he
struggled with characteristic obstinacy. He invented a machine
which so supported his hand that he could write legibly with
closed eyes. Books and documents were read aloud to him,
while notes were made by him with eyes shut, and were after-
wards deciphered and read aloud to him till he had mastered
them. After half an hour his strength would give out, and in
these circumstances his rate of composition for a long time
averaged scarcely six lines a day. The superb historical mono-
graph composed under such difficulties was published in 185 1.
It had but a small sale, as the American public was then too
ignorant to feel much interest in American history.
Undeterred by this inhospitable reception, Parkman took up
at the beginning his great work on France and England in the
New World, to which the book just mentioned was in reality
the sequel. This work obliged him to trace out, coUect, arrange,
and digest a great mass of incongruous material scattered on
both sides of the Atlantic, a large portion of which was in manu-
script, and required much tedious exploration and the employ-
ment of trained copyists. This work involved several journeys
to Europe, and was performed with a thoroughness approaching
finality. In 1865 the first volume of the great work appeared,
under the title of Pioneers oj France in the New World; and then
PARLA KIMEDI— PARLEMENT
833
seven-and-twenty years more elapsed before the final volumes
came out in 1892. Nowhere can we find a better illustration
of the French critic's definition of a great life — a thought con-
ceived in youth, and realized in later years. After the Pioneers
the sequence is The Jesuits in North America, La Salle and the
Discovery of the Great West, The Old Regime in Canada, Frontcnac
and New France and Louis XIV., Montcalm and Wolfe, A Half
Century of Conflict. As one obstacle after another was sur-
mounted, as one grand division of the work after another became
an accomplished fact, the effect upon Parkman's condition
seems to have been bracing, and he acquired fresh impetus
as he approached the goal. There can be little doubt that his
physical condition was much improved by his habit of cultivating
plants in garden and conservatory. He was a horticulturist
of profound attainments, and himself originated several new-
varieties of flowers. His work in this department made him
an enthusiastic adherent of the views of Darwin. He was
professor of horticulture in the agricultural school of Harvard
in 1871-1872, and published a few books on the subject of
gardening. He died at Jamaica Plain, near Boston, on the 8th
of November 1893.
The significance of Parkman's work consists partly in the
success with which he has depicted the North-American Indians,
those belated children of the Stone Age, who have been so
persistently misunderstood alike by romancers, such as Cooper,
and by detractors like Dr Palfrey. Parkman was the first great
literary author who really understood the Indian's character
and motives. Against this savage background of the forest
Parkman shows the rise, progress and dramatic termination
of the colossal struggle between France and Great Britain for
colonial empire. With true philosophic insight he shows that
France failed in the struggle not because of any inferiority
in the abihty and character of the men to whom the work was
entrusted, but chiefly by reason of her despotic and protective
regime. There is no more eloquent commentary upon the whole-
some results of British self-government than is to be found in
Parkman's book. But while the author deals with history
philosophically, he does not, like Buckle, hurl at th; reader's
head huge generalizations, or, like Carlyle, preach him into
somnolence. With all its manifold instructiveness, his book
is a narrative as entertaining as those of Macaulay or Froude.
In judicial impartiality Parkman may be compared with
Gardiner, and for accuracy of learning with Stubbs.
There is a good Life by G. H. Farnham (Boston, 1900). (J. Fl.)
PARLA KIMEDI, a town of British India, in Ganjam dis-
trict of Madras. Pop. (igoi), 17,336. It is the residence of a
raja, who claims descent from the ancient kings of Orissa. His
estate covers an area of 614 sq. m., and pays a revenue of £7000
out of an estimated income of £26,000. He maintains a college,
and has constructed a light railway (25 m.) to the station of
Naupada on the East Coast railway. There is a trade in rice,
and mats and other articles are woven of reeds.
PARLEMENT (see Parli.-wient) , in O. Fr. the name given
to any meeting for discussion or debate {parler, to speak),
a sense in which it was still used by Joinville, but from
the latter half of the 13th century employed in France in a
special sense to designate the sessions of the royal court [curia
regis). Finally, when the Parlement of Paris had become a
permanent court of justice, having the supreme authority in
cases brought before it, and especially in appeals against the
sentences of the baillis and seneschals, it retained this name,
which was also given to the other supreme courts of the same
nature which were created after its model in the provinces.
The early Capetians had a custom, based upon ancient
precedents, of summoning periodically to their court their
principal vassals and the prelates of their kingdom. These
gatherings took place on the occasion of one of the great festivals
of the year, in the town in which the king was then in residence.
Here they deliberated upon political matters and the vassals
and prelates gave the king their advice. But the monarch also
gave judgment here in those cases which were brought before
him. These were few in number during the early days of the
Capetian dynasty; for though the king always maintained the
principle that he was judge, and even that his competence in
this respect was general and unlimited, this competence was at
the same time undefined and it was not compulsory to submit
cases to the king. At this period, too, appeals, striclly so called,
did not exist. Nevertheless when a suit was brought before
the king he judged it with the assistance of his prelates and
vassals assembled around him, who formed his council. This
was the curia regis. But in law the king was sole judge, the
vassals and prelates being only advisers. During the 12th
and at the beginning of the 13th centuries the curia regis con-
tinued to discharge these functions, except that its importance
and actual competence continued to increase, and that we
frequently find in it, in addition to the vassals and prelates who
formed the council, consiliarii, who are evidently men whom
the king had in his entourage, as his ordinary and professional
councillors. Under the reign of St Louis (which was also the
period at which the nam.e parlement began to be applied to
these judicial sessions) the aspect of affairs changed. The
judicial competence of the Parlement developed and became
more clearly defined; the system of appeals came into existence,
and appeals against the judgments of the baillis and seneschals
were brought before it; cases concerning the royal towns, the
bonnes villes, were also decided by it. Again, in the old registers
of the Parlement at this period, the first Olim books, we see the
names of the same councillors recurring from session to session.
This suggests that a sufficient numberof councillors was assured
beforehand, and a list drawn up for each session; the vassals
and prelates still figuring as a complementary body at the
council.
Next came the series of ordinances regulating the tenure
of the Parlement, those of 1278, 1291, 1296 and 1308, and the
institution was regularized. Not only were the persons who
were to constitute each Parlement named in advance, but those
who were not placed on this list, even though vassals or prelates,
were excluded from judging cases. The royal baillis had to
attend the Parlement, in order to answer for their judgments,
and at an early date was fixed the order of the different bailliages.
in which the cases coming from them were heard. The baillis,
when not interested in the case, formed part of the council, but
were afterwards excluded from it. Before the middle of the
14th century the personnel of the Parlement, both presidents
and councillors, became fixed de facto if not de jure. Every year
a list was drawn up of those who were to hold the session, and
although this list was annual, it contains the same names year
after year; they are as yet, however, only annual commissaries
(commissaires). In 1344 they became ofScials {officiers) fixed
but not yet irremovable. At the same time the Parlement had
become permanent; the number of the sessions had diminished,
but their length had increased. In the course of the 14th centurj-
it became the rule for the Parlement to sit from Martinmas
(Nov. 11) till the end of May; later the session was prolonged
till the middle of August, the rest of the year forming the vaca-
tion. The Parlement had also become fixed at Paris, and,
by a development which goes back to fairly early times, the
presidents and councillors, instead of being merely the king's
advisers, had acquired certain powers, though these were con-
ferred by the monarch; they were, in fact, true magistrates.
The king held his court in person less and less often, and it
pronounced its decrees in his absence; we even find him pleading
his cause before it as plaintiff or defendant. In the 14th century,
however, we still find the Parlement referring delicate affairs to
the king; but in the 15th century it had acquired a jurisdiction
independent in principle. As to its composition, it continued
to preserve one notable feature which recalled its origin. It
had originally been an assejnbly of lay vassals and prelates;
when its composition became fi.xed and consisted of councillor-
magistrates, a certain number of these offices were necessarily
occupied by laymen, and others by ecclesiastics, the conseillers
lais and the conseillers clercs.
The Parlement was at the same time the court of peers (cour
des pairs). This had as its origin the old principle according
834
PARLEMENT
to which every vassal had the right to be tried by his peers, i.e.
by the vassals holding fiefs from the same lord, who sat in
judgment with that lord as their president. This, it is well
known, resulted in the formation of the ancient college of the
peers of France, which consisted of six laymen and six ecclesias-
tics. But although in strict logic the feudal causes concerning
them should have been judged by them alone, they could not
maintain this right in the curia ngis; the other persons sitting
in it could also take part in judging causes which concerned the
peers. Finally the peers of France, the number of whom was
increased in course of time by fresh royal creations of peerages,
became c.r officio members of the Parlement; they were the
hereditary councillors, taking the oath as official magistrates,
and, if they wished, sitting and having a deliberative function
in the Parlement. In suits brought against them personally
or involving the rights of their peerage they had the right of
being judged by the Parlement, the other peers being present,
or having been duly summoned.
While maintaining its unity, the Parlement had been sub-
divided into several chambres or sections. In the first place
there was the Grand Chambre, which represented the primitive
Parlement. To it was reserved the judgment in certain impor-
tant cases, and in it a peculiar procedure was followed, known
as oral, though it admitted certain written documents. Even
after the offices of the Parlement had become legally saleable
the councillors could only pass from the other chambers into
the Grand Chambre by order of seniority. The Chambres dcs
enquHcs and dcs rcquetcs originated at the time when it became
customary to draw up lists for each session of the Parlement.
The enqiiHcurs or audileurs of the Parlement had at first been
an auxiliary staff of clerks to whom were entrusted the inquests
ordered by the Parlement. But later, when the institution of
the appeal was fully developed, and the procedure before the
various jurisdictions became a highly technical matter, above
all when it admitted written evidence, the documents connected
with other inquests also came before the Parlement. A new
form of appeal grew up side by side with the older form, which
had been mainly an oral procedure, namely the appeal by
writing {appcl par ecrit). In order to judge these new appeals
the Parlement had above all to study written documents,
the inquests which had been made and written down under the
jurisdiction of the court of first instance. The duty of the
enquHeurs was to make an abstract of the written documents
and report on them. Later the reporters {rapporteurs) were
admitted to judge these questions together with a certain number
of members of the Parlement, and from 1316 onwards these
two kinds of member formed together a chambre des enquetes.
As yet, no doubt, the rapporteur only gave his opinion on the
case which he had prepared, but after 1336 all those who formed
part of the chamber were put on the same footing, taking it in
turn to report and giving judgment as a whole. For a long
time, however, the Grand Chambre received aU cases, then sent
them to the Chambre des enquetes with directions; before it too
were argued questions arising out of the inquiry made by the
Chambre dcs enquetes, to the decisions of which it gave effect and
which it had the power to revise. But one by one it lost all
these rights, and in the i6th century they are no longer heard of.
Several Chambres des enquetes were created after the first one,
and it was they who had the greater part of the work.
The Chambre des requites was of an entirely different nature.
At the beginning of the r4th century a certain number of t Dse
who were to hold the session of the Parlement were set apart to
receive and judge the petitions (requetes) on judicial questions
which had been presented to the king and not yet dealt with.
This eventually led to the formation of a chamber, in the strict
sense of the word, the Requetes du palais. But this became
purely a jurisdiction for privileged persons; before it (or before
the Requetes de Fhotd, as the case might be) were brought
the civil suits of those who enjoyed the right of Committimus.
The Chambre des requetes had not supreme jurisdiction, but
appeals from its decisions could be made to the Parlement
proper.
The Parlement had also a criminal chamber, that of La
Tournellc, which was not legally created until the i6th century,
but was active long before then. It had no definite member-
ship, but the conseillers lais served in it in turn.
Originally there was only one Parlement, that of Paris, as
was indeed logical, considering that the Parlement was simply
a continuation of the curia regis, which, like the king, could only
be one. But the exigencies of the administration of justice led
to the successive creation of a certain number of provincial
parlements. Their creation, moreover, was generally dictated
by political circumstances, after the incorporation of a province
in the domain of the Crown. Sometimes it was a question of
a province which, before its annexation, possessed a superior
and sovereign jurisdiction of its own, and to which it was desired
to preserve this advantage. Or else it might be a province
forming part of feudal France, which before the annexation had
had a superior jurisdiction from which the Crown had endea-
voured to institute an appeal to the Parlement of Paris, but
for which after the annexation it was no longer necessary to
maintain this appeal, so that the province might now be given
a supreme court, a parlement. Sometimes an intermediate
regime was set up between the annexation of the province and
the creation of its provincial parlement, under which delegates
from the Parlement of Paris went and held assizes there. Thus
were created successively the parlements of Toulouse, Grenoble,
Bordeaux, Dijon, Rouen, Aix, Rennes, Pau, Metz, Douai,
Besanfon and Nancy. From 1762 to 1771 there was even a
parlement for the principality of Dombes. The provincial
parlements reproduced in a smaller scale the organization of
that of Paris; but they did not combine the functions of a court
of peers. They each claimed to possess equal powers within their
own province. There were also great judicial bodies exercismg
the same functions as the parlements, though without bearing
the name, such as the Conseil souverain of Alsace at Colmar,
the Conseil superieur of Roussillon at Perpignan; the provincial
council of Artois had not the supreme jurisdiction in all respects.
The parlements, besides their judicial functions, also possessed
pohtical rights; they claimed a share in the higher policj' of the
realm, and the position of guardians of its fundamental laws.
In general the laws did not come into effect within their province
until they had been registered by the parlements. This was the
method of promulgation admitted by the ancient law of France,
but the parlements verified the laws before registering them,
i.e. they examined them to see whether they were in conformity
with the principles of law and justice, and with the interests of
the king and his subjects; if they considered that this was not
the case they refused their registration and addressed remon-
strances {rcmontrances) to the king. In acting thus they were
merely conforming to the duty of counselling {devoir de conseil)
which all the superior authorities had towards the king, and the
text of the ordinances {ordonnances) had often invited them to
do so. It was natural, however, that in the end the royal will
should seek to impose itself. In order to enforce the registra-
tion of edicts the king would send lettres de cachet, known as
letires de jussion, which were not, hoy,fever, always obeyed. Or
he could come in person to hold the parlement, and have the
law registered in his presence in a lit de justice. This was
explained in theory by the principle that if the king himself held
his court, it lost, by the fact of his presence, all the authority
which he had delegated to it; for the moment the only authority
existing in it was that of the king, just as in the ancient curia
regis there was the principle that apparente rcge cessat magis-
tratus. But, principally in the i8th century, the parlements
maintained that only a voluntary registration, by the consent
of the parlement, was valid.
The parlements had also a wide power of administration.
They could mak : regulations {pouvoir reglementaire) having
the force of law within their province, upon all points not
settled by law, when the matter with which they dealt fell
within their judicial competence, and for this it was only neces-
sary that their interference in the matter was not forbidden
by law. These were what were called arrete de r'eglement.
PARLIAMENT
By this means the parlements took part in the administration,
except in matters the cognisance of which was attributed to
another supreme court as that of taxation was to the cours
des aides. They could also, within the same limits, address
injunctions {injonctions) to officials and individuals.
See La Roche-Flavin, Treize livres des parlements de France
(1617); Felix Aubert, Histoire dti parlement de Paris, des origines
h Francois I. (2 vols., 1894); Ch. V. Langlois, Texles relatifs d
V histoire du parlement depuis les origines jusqu'en 13 14 (1888);
Guilhiermoz, Enquetes et proces (1892); Glasson, Le Parlement de
Paris, son role politique depuis le rhgne de Charles VII. jusqu'd la
revolution (2 vols., 1901). (J. P. E.)
PARLIAMENT (Anglo-Lat. parliamentum, Fr. parlement, from
parley, to speak), the name given to the supreme legislature of
the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. (For the
old French parlement, see Parlement; and for analogous
foreign assemblies see the articles on their respective countries.)
The word is found in English from the 13th century, first for a
debate, then for a formal conference, and for the great councils
of the Plantageiiet kings; and the modern sense has come to be
applied retrospectively. William the Conqueror is said in the
Chronicle to have had "very deep speech with his Witan ";
this " deep speech " (in Latin colloquium, in Frer.ch parlement)
was the distinguishing feature of a meeting between king and
people, and thus gave its name to the national assembly itself.
The Statute of Westminster (1275) first uses " parlement " of
the great council in England.
The British Parliament consists of the King (or Queen regnant),
the Lords spiritual and temporal, and the Commons'; and it
meets in two houses, the House of Lords (the Upper or Second
chamber) and the House of Commons.
The Crown, pre-eminent in rank and dignity, is the legal
source of parliamentary authority. The sovereign virtually
appoints the lords spiritual, and all the peerages of the lords
temporal havs been created by the Crown. The king summons
parliament to meet, and prescribes the time and place of its
meeting, prorogues and dissolves it, and commands the issue
of writs for the election of members of the House of Commons.
By several statutes, beginning with the 4 Edward III. c. 14,
the annual meeting of parhament had been ordained; but these
statutes, continually disregarded, were virtually repealed in the
reigns of Charles II. and WiUiam and Mary (16 Ch. 11. 31; 6 & 7
Will. & Mary, 32). The present statute law merely exacts the
meeting of parliament once in three years; but the annual voting
of supplies has long since superseded obsolete statutes. When
parliament is assembled it cannot proceed to business until the
king has declared the causes of summons, in person or by com-
mission; and though the veto of the Crown on legislation has
long been obsolete, bills passed by the two houses only become
law on receiving the royal assent.
The House of Lords is distinguished by peculiar dignities,
privileges and jurisdictions. Peers individually enjoy the rank
and precedence of their several dignities, and are hereditary
councillors of the Crown. Collectively with the lords spiritual
they form a permanent councO of the Crown; and, when
assembled in parliament, they form the highest court of judicature
in the realm, and are (in constitutional theory at all events) a
co-equal branch of the legislature, without whose consent no
laws can be made (see below, House of Lords Question). Their
judicature is of various kinds, viz. for the trial of peers; for
determining claims of peerage and offices of honour, under
references from the Crown; for the trial of controverted elections
of Scotch and Irish peers; for the final determination of appeals
from courts in England, Scotland and Ireland; and lastly, for
the trial of impeachments.
The House of Commons also has its own peculiar privileges
I and jurisdictions. Above all, it has the paramount right of
' originating the imposition of all taxes, and the granting of
supplies for the service of the state. It has also enjoyed, from
l_ early times, the right of determining all matters concerning the
' Or rather, the representatives of the Commons (see Represen-
tation) ; but the terra has long been used for the deputies them-
selves collectively.
election of its own members, and their right to sit and vote in
parliament. This right, however, has been greatly abridged,
as, in 1868, the trial of controverted elections was transferred to
the courts of law; but its jurisdiction in matters of election, not
otherwise provided for by statute, is still retained intact. As
part of this jurisdiction the house directs the Speaker to issue
warrants to the clerk of the Crown to make out new writs for
the election of members to fill up such vacancies as occur during
the sitting of parliament.
Privileges of Parliament. — Both houses are in the enjoyment of
certain privileges, designed to maintain their authority, indepen-
dence and dignity. These privileges are founded mainly upon the
law and custom of parliament, while some have been confirmed,
and others abridged or abrogated by statute. The Lords rely
entirely upon their inherent right, as having " a place and voice
in parliament "; but, by a custom dating from the 6th Henry VIII.,
the Commons lay claim, by humble petition to the Crown at the
commencement of every parliament, " to their ancient and un-
doubted rights and privileges." Each house has its separate
rights and jurisdictions; but privileges properly so-called, being
founded upon the law and custom of parliament, are common to
both houses. Each house adjudges whether any breach of privi-
lege has been committed, and punishes offenders by censure or
commitment. This right of commitment is incontestably estab-
lished, and it extends to the protection of officers of the house,
lawfully and properly executing its orders, who are also empowered
to call in the assistance of the civil power. The causes of such
commitments cannot be inquired into by courts of law, nor can
prisoners be admitted to bail. Breaches of privilege may be
summarized as disobedience to any orders or rules of tlie house,
indignities offered to its character or proceedings, assaults, insults,
or libels upon members, or interference with officers of the house
in discharge of their duty, or tampering with witnesses. Such
offences are dealt with as contempts, according to the circum-
stances of the respective cases, of which numerous precedents are
to be found in the journals of both houses. The Lords may imprison
for a fi.xed period, and impose fines; the Commons can only imprison
generally, the commitment being concluded by the prorogation,
and have long discontinued the imposition of fines.
Freedom of speech has been one of the most cherished privileges
of parliament from early times. Constantly asserted, and often
violated, it was finally declared by the Bill of Rights " that the free-
dom of speech, and debates and proceedings in parliament, ought
not to be impeached or questioned in any court or place out of
parliament." Such a privilege is essential to the independence of
parliament, and to the protection of members in discharge of their
duties. But, while it protects members from molestation else-
where, it leaves them open to censure or other punishment by the
house itself, whenever they abuse their privilege and transgress
the rules of orderly debate.
Freedom from arrest is a privilege of the highest antiquity. It
was formerly of extended scope, but has been reduced, by later
legislation, within very narrow limits. Formerly not only the
persons of members but their goods were protected, and their
privilege extended to their servants. At present members are
themselves free from arrest, but otherwise they are liable to all
the processes of the courts. If arrested, they will be immediately
discharged, upon motion in the court whence the process issued.
Peers and peeresses are, by the privilege of peerage, free from arrest
at all times. Members of the House of Commons are free only for
forty days after prorogation and forty days before the ne.xt appointed
meeting; but prorogations are so arranged as to ensure a con-
tinuance of the privilege. Formerly, even suits against members
were stayed, but this offensive privilege has been abolished by
statute. Exemption from attending as witnesses upon subpoena,
once an acknowledged privilege, is no longer insisted upon; but
immunity from service upon juries is at once an ancient privilege
and a statutory right. The privilege of freedom from arrest is
limited to civil causes, and has not been suffered to exempt members
from the operation of the criminal law, nor even from commitments
for contempt by other courts. But, whenever the freedom of a
mem.ber is so interfered with, the courts are required immediately
to inform the house of the causes of his commitment. Witnesses,
suitors, counsel and agents in attendance upon parliament are
protected from arrest and molestation, and from the consequences
of statements made by them, or other proceedings in the conduct
of their cases.
As both houses, in enforcing their privileges, are obliged to commit
offenders or otherwise interfere with the liberty of the subject, the
exercise of these privileges has naturally been called in question
before the courts. Each house is the sole judge of its own privileges;
but the courts are bound to administer the law, and. where law
and privilege have seemed to be at variance, a conflict of juris-
diction has arisen between parliament and the courts. IVIany
interesting controversies have arisen upon such occasions; but of
late years privilege has been carefully restrained within the
proper limits of the law. and the courts have amply recognized
the authority of parliament.
836
PARLIAMENT
Parliamentary Procedure. — It will be convenient here to
sketch the general lines of procedure. On the day appointed
by royal proclamation for the meeting of a new parliament both
houses assemble in their respective chambers, when the Lords
Com.missioners for opening the parliament summon the Commons
to the bar of the House of Lords, by the mouth of Black Rod, to
hear the commission read. The lord chancellor states that, when
the members of both houses shall be sworn, the king will declare
the causes of his calling this parliament; and, it being necessary
that a Speaker of the House of Commons shall be first chosen,
the Commons are directed to proceed to the appointment of
a Speaker, and to present him, on the following day, for His
Majesty's royal approbation. The Commons at once withdraw
to their own house and proceed to the election of their Speaker.
The next day the Speaker-elect proceeds, with the house, to the
House of Lords, and, on receiving the royal approbation, lays
claim, in the accustomed form, on behalf of the Commons, " to
their ancient and undoubted rights and privileges." The
Speaker, now fuUy confirmed, returns to the House of Commons,
and, after repeating his acknowledgments, reminds the house
that the first thing to be done is to take and subscribe the oath
required by law. Having first taken the oath himself, he is
followed by other members, who come to the table to be sworn.
The swearing of members in both houses proceeds from day to
day, until the greater number have taken the oath, or affirmation,
when the causes of summons are declared by His Majesty in
person, or by commission, in " the King's speech." This speech
being considered in both houses, an Address (g.v.) in answer is
agreed to, which is presented to His Majesty by the whole house,
or by " the lords with white staves " ir one house and privy
councillors in the other.
The debate on the Address being over, the real business of the
session now commences: the committees of supply and ways and
means are set up; bills are introduced; motions are made;
committees are appointed; and both houses are, at once, in fuU
activity. The Lord Chancellor presides over the deliberations
of the Lords, and the Speaker over those of the Commons. A
quorum of the House of Lords, including the chancellor, is three
(thirty for divisions) ; that of the House of Commons, including
the Speaker, is forty.
Every matter is determined, in both houses, upon questions
put from the chair, and resolved in the affirmative or negative, or
otherwise disposed of by the withdrawal of the motion, by
amendments, by the adjournment of the house, by reading the
orders of the day, or by the previous question. Notices are
required to be given of original motions; and the different stages
of bills, and other matters appointed for consideration by the
house, stand as orders of the day. Questions of privilege are
allowed precedence of all the business on any day; but this rule,
being liable to grave abuses, is guarded by strict limitations.
Debates arise when a question has been proposed from the chair;
and at the close of the debate (for the " closure " in the House of
Commons, see below. House of Commons, Internal Reforms) the
question is put, with or without amendment, as the case may
be, and is determined, when necessary, by a division. No
question or bill, substantially the same as one upon which the
judgment of the house has already been given, may be again
proposed during the same session.
Members claim to be heard in debate by rising in their places.
When more than one member rises at the same time, in the
Lords the member who is to speak is called by the house, in the
Commons by the Speaker. Every member, when called, is
bound to speak to the question before the house; and caUs to
order are very frequent. A member may speak once only to
any question, except to explain, or upon a point of order, or to
reply when a member has himself submitted a motion to the
house, or when an amendment has been moved which constitutes
a new question. He may not refer to past debates, nor to
debates in the other house; nor may he refer to any other member
by name, or use offensive and disorderly language against the
king, either House of Parliament, or other members. Members
offending against any of the rules of debate are called to order by
the Speaker, or the attention of the chair is directed to the breach
of order by another member. Order is generally enforced by
the authority of the chair; but in extreme cases, and especially
when obstruction is being practised, the offending member is
named by the Speaker, and suspended by an order of the house,
or otherwise punished at the discretion of the house.
At the conclusion of a debate, unless the motion be withdrawn,
or the question (on being put from the chair) be agreed to or
negatived, the house proceeds to a division, which effects the two-
fold purpose of ascertaining the numbers supporting and opposing
the question, and of recording the names of members voting on
either side. On each side of the house is a division lobby; and
in the Lords the " contents " and in the Commons the " ayes "
are directed to go to the right, and the " not contents " or
" noes " to the left. The former pass into the right lobby, at
the back of the Speaker's chair, and return to the house through
the bar; the latter pass into the left lobby, at the bar, and return
at the back of the chair. The opposing parties are thus kept
entirely clear of one another. In each lobby there are two
members acting as tellers, who count the members as they pass,
and two division clerks who take down their names. After the
division the four tellers advance to the table, and the numbers
are reported by one of the tellers for the majority. In case of an
equality of numbers, in the Lords the question is negatived in
virtue of the ancient rule "semper praesumitur pro negante ";
in the Commons the Speaker gives the casting vote.
Committees of the Whole House. — For the sake of convenience in
the transaction of business there are several kinds of committees.
Of these the most important is a committee of the whole house,
which, as it consists of the entire body of members, can scarcely
be accounted a committee. It is presided over by a chairman, who
sits in the clerk's chair at the table, the mace, which represents
the authority of the house itself, being for the time placed under
the table. In this committee are discussed the several provisions
of bills, resolutions and other matters requiring the consideration
of details. To facilitate discussion, members are allowed to speak
any number of times to the same question; otherwise the proceed-
ings are similar to those of the house itself. In the Lords the
chair is taken by the chairman of committees; and in the Commons
by the chairman of the committee of ways and means, or in his
absence by any other member. The quorum of such a committee
is the same as that of the house itself. It reports from time to
time to the house, but has no power of adjournment.
Grand and Standing Committees. — In the House of Commons
there were formerly four grand committees, viz. for religion, for
grievances, for courts of justice, and for trade. They were founded
upon the valuable principle of a distribution of labours among
several bodies of members; but, having fallen into disuse, they were
discontinued in 1832. The ancient committee of privileges, in
which " all who come are to have voices," is still appointed at the
commencement of every session, but is rarely called into action,
as it has been found more convenient to appoint a select committee
to inquire into any question of privilege as it arises. In 1882 a
partial revival of grand committees was effected by the appointment
of two standing committees for the consideration of bills relating to
law and courts of justice and to trade; and grand committees have
since been considerably extended.
Select Committees. — In select committees both houses find the
means of delegating inquiries, and the consideration of other matters,
which could not be undertaken by the whole house. The reports
of such committees have formed the groundwork of many important
measures ; and bills are often referred to them which receive a fuller
examination than could be expected in a committee of the whole
house. Power is given to such committees, when required, to send
for persons, papers and records. In the Lords the power of examin-
ing witnesses upon oath has always been exercised, but it was not
until 1 87 1 that the same power was extended to the Commons, by
statute.
Communications between the Two Houses. — In the course of the
proceedings of parliament, frequent communications between the
two houses become necessary. Of these the most usual and con-
venient form is that of a message. Formerly the Lords sent a
message by two judges or two masters in chancery, and the
Commons by a deputation of their own members; but since 1S55
messages have been taken from one house to the other by one of
the clerks at the table. A more formal communication is effected
by a conference, in reference to amendments to bills or other
matters; but this proceeding has been in great measure superseded
by the more simple form of a message. The two houses are also
occasionally brought into communication by means of joint com-
mittees and of select committees communicating with each other.
Communications hetweeti the Crown and Parliament. — Communi-
cations, in various forms, are also conducted between the Crown
PARLIAMENT
8
7
and both Houses of Parliament. Of these the most important are
those in which the king, in person or by commission, is present
in the House of Lords to open or prorogue parliament, or to give
the royal assent to bills. His Majesty is then in direct communi-
cation with the three estates of the realm, assembled in the same
chamber. The king also sends messages to both houses under the
royal sign manual, when all the members are uncovered. Verbal
messages are also sent, and the king's pleasure, or royal recommenda-
tion or consent to bills or other matters, signified through a minister
of the Crown or a privy councillor. Messages under the sign manual
are acknowledged by addresses, except where grants of money
are proposed, in which case no address is presented by the Commons,
who acknowledge them by making provision accordingly.
Both houses approach the Crown, sometimes by joint addresses,
but usually by separate addresses from each house. Such addresses
are presented to His Majesty, either by the whole house, or by the
lords with white staves in one house and by privy councillors in
the other. His Majesty answers, in person, addresses presented
by the whole house; but, when presented otherwise, an answer
is brought by one of the lords with white staves, or by one of
the privy councillors, by whom the address has been presented.
Resolutions of either house are also sometimes directed to be
laid before His Majesty; and messagec- of congratulation or condo-
lence are sent to other members of the royal family.
The Passing of Ptiblic Bills. — The passing of bills forms the
most considerable part of the business of parliament; but a brief
notice will suffice to explain the methods of procedure. These are
substantially the same in both houses; but the privileges of the
Commons, in regard to supply and taxation, require that all bills
imposing a charge upon the people should originate in that house.
On the other hand, the Lords claim that bills for restoration of
honours or in blood, or relating to their own privileges and juris-
diction, should commence in their house. An act of grace, or
general pardon, originates with the Crown, and is read once only
in both houses. Bills are divided into public and private; but
here the former only are referred to. In the Lords any peer is
entitled to present a bill, but in the Commons a member is required
to obtain the previous leave of the house to bring in the bill; and,
in the case of bills relating to religion, trade, grants of public
money, or charges upon the subject, a preliminary committee is
necessary before such leave will be given. A bill, when presented,
is read a first time, and ordered to be printed ; and a day is ap-
pointed for the second reading. At this latter stage the principle
of the bill is discussed; and, if disapproved of by an adverse vote,
the bill is lost and cannot be renewed during the sam.e session.
If approved^ of, it is usually committed to a committee of the
whole house, where every provision is open to debate and amend-
ment. When the bill has been fully considered it is reported to
the house, with or without amendments, and is ready to pass
through its remaining stages. Sometimes, however, the bill is first
referred to a select committee; or to a grand committee and not to
committee of the whole house.
When a bill has been reported from a committee of the whole
house, or from a standing committee, with amendments, the bill,
as amended, is ordered to be considered on a future day, when
further amendments may be made, or the bill may be recommitted.
The next and last stage is the third reading, when the principle
of the measure, and its amended provisions, are open to review.
Even at this stage the bill may be lost; but if the third reading
be agreed to, it is at once passed and sent to the other house.
There it is open to the like discussions and amendments, and
may be rejected. If returned without amendment, the bill merely
awaits the royal assent; but if returned with amendments, such
amendments must be agreed to, or otherwise adjusted by the two
houses, before it can be submitted for the royal assent. The
royal assent consummates the work of legislation, and converts
the bill into an act of parliament.
Petitions. — Both houses are approached by the people by means
of petitions, of which prodigious numbers are presented to the
House of Commons every session. They are referred to the com-
mittee on public petitions, under whose directions the^' are classified,
analysed, and the number of signatures counted; and, when
necessary, the petitions are printed in extenso.
Parliamentary Papers. — Another source of information is found
in parliamentary papers. These are of various kinds. The greater
part are obtained either by a direct order of the house itself, or by
an address to the Crown for documents relating to matters in which
the prerogatives of the Crown are concerned. Other papers, relating
to foreign and colonial afTairs and other public matters, are pre-
sented to both houses by command of His Majesty. Again, many
papers are annually presented in pursuance of acts of parliament.
The Granting of Supplies. — The exclusive right of the Commons
to grant supplies, and to originate all measures of taxation, imposes
a very onerous service upon that house. This is mainly performed
by two committees of the whole house — the committee of supply,
and the committee of ways and means. The former deals with
all the estimates for the public service presented to the house by
command of His Majesty; and the latter votes out of the Consoli-
dated Fund such sums as are necessary to meet the supplies already
granted, and originates all taxes for the service of the year. It is
here that the annual financial statement of the chancellor of the
exchequer, commonly known as " the Budget," is delivered. The
resolutions of these committees are reported to the house, and,
when agreed to, form the foundation of bills, to be passed by both
houses, and submitted for the royal a.ssent ; and towards the close
of the session an Appropriation Act is passed, applying all the
grants for the service of the year.
Elections. — The extensive jurisdiction of the Commons in matters
of election, already referred to, formerly occupied a considerable
share of their time, but its exercise has now been contracted nithin
narrow limits. Whenever a vacancy occurs during the continu-
ance of a parliament, a warrant for a new writ is issued by the
Speaker, by order of the house during the session, and in pursuance
of statutes during the recess. The causes of vacancies are the
death of a member, his being called to the House of Peers, his
acceptance of an office from the Crown, or his bankruptcy. When
any doubt arises as to the issue of a writ, it is usual to appoint a
committee to incjuire into the circumstances of the case; and during
the recess the Speaker may reserve doubtful cases for the determina-
tion of the house.
Controverted elections had been originally tried by select com-
mittees, afterwards by the committee of privileges and elections,
and ultimately by the whole house, with scandalous partiality,
but under the Grenville Act of 1770, and other later acts, by select
committees, so constituted as to form a more judicial tribunal.
The influence of party bias, however, too obviously prevailed
until 1839, when Sir Robert Peel introduced an improved system
of nomination, which distinctly raised the character of election
committees; but a tribunal constituted of political partisans, how-
ever chosen, was still open to jealousy and suspicion, and at length,
in 1868, the trial of election petitions was transferred to judges of
the superior courts, to whose determination the house gives effect,
by the issue of new writs or otherwise. The house, however, still
retains and exercises its jurisdiction in all cases not relegated, by
statute, to the judges.
Impeachments and Trial of Peers. — Other forms of parliamentary
judicature still remain to be mentioned. L'pon impeachments by
the Commons, the Lords exercise the highest criminal judicature
known to the law; but the occasions upon which it has been brought
into action have been very rare in modern times. Another judica-
ture is that of the trial of peers by the House of Lords. And,
lastly, by a bill of attainder, the entire parliament may be called
to sit in judgment upon offenders.
Private Bill Legislation. — One other important function of
parliament remains to be noticed — that of private bill legislation.
Here the duties of parliament are partly legislative and partly
judicial. Public interests are promoted, and private rights secured.
This whole juiisdiction has been regulated by special standing
orders, and by elaborate arrangements for the nomination of
capable and impartial committees. A prodigious legislative work
has been accomplished — but under conditions most costly to the
promoters and opponents of private bills, and involving a serious
addition to the onerous labours of members of parliament.
History of the British Parliament
The Anglo-Saxon Polity. — The origin of parliament is to be
traced to Anglo-Saxon times. The Angles, Saxons and other
Teutonic races who coiiquered Britain brought to their new
homes their own laws and customs, their settled framework of
society, their kinship, their village communities, and a certain
rude representation in local affairs. And we find in the Anglo-
Saxon poKty, as developed during their rule in England, all the
constituent parts of parliament. In their own lands they had
chiefs and leaders, but no kings. But conquest and territorial
settlement were followed by the assumption of royal dignities;
and the victoiious chiefs were accepted by their followers as
kings. They were quick to assume the traditional attributes
of royalty. A direct descent from their god Woden, and heredi-
tary right, at once clothed them with a halo of glory and with
supreme power; and, when the pagan deity was deposed, the
king received consecration from a Christian archbishop, and
was invested with sacred attributes as " the Lord's anointed."
But the Saxon monarch was a patriarchal king of limited autho-
rity, who acted in concert with his people; and, though his
succession was hereditary, in his own family, his direct descend-
ant was liable to be passed over in favour of a worthier heir.
Such a ruler was a fitting precursor of a line of constitutional
kings, who in later times were to govern with the advice and
consent of a free parliament.
Meanwhile any council approaching the constitution of a
House of Lords was of slow growth. Anglo-Saxon society,
indeed, was not without an aristocracy. The highest in rank
838
PARLIAMENT
were aethelings — generally, if not exclusively, sons and brothers
of the king. The ealdorman, originally a high officer, having the
executive government of a shire, and a seat in the king's witan,
became hereditary in certain families, and eventually attained
the dignity of an earl. But centuries were to pass before the
English nobility was to assume its modern character and denomi-
nations. At the head of each village was an eorl, the chief of
the freemen, or ceorls — their leader in war and patron in peace.
The king's gesiths and thegns formed another privileged class.
Admitted to offices in the king's household and councils, and
enriched by grants of land, they gradually formed a feudal
nobility.
The revival of the Christian Church, under the Anglo-Saxon
rule, created another order of rulers and councillors, destined
to take a leading part in the government of the state. The
archbishops and bishops, having spiritual authority in their
own dioceses, and exercising much local influence in temporal
affairs, were also members of the national council, or witenagc-
mot, and by their greater learning and capacity were not long
in acquiring a leading part in the councils of the realm. Ecclesi-
astical councils were also held, comprising bishops, abbots, and
clergy, in which we observe the origin of convocation. The
abbots, thus associated with the bishops, also found a place
with them in the witenagemot. By these several orders, sum-
moned to advise the king in affairs of state, was formed a
council of magnates — to be developed, in course of time, into an
upper chamber, or House of Lords.
The rise of the Commons (see Representation) as a political
power in the national councils, was of yet slower development:
but in the Anglo-Saxon moots may be discerned the first germs
of popular government in England. In the town-moot the
assembled freemen and cultivators of the " folk-lands " regulated
the civil affairs of their own township, tithing, village or parish.
In the burgh-moot the inhabitants administered their municipal
business, under the presidency of a reeve. The hundred-moot
assumed a more representative character, comprising the reeve
and a selected number of freemen from the several townships
and burghs within the hundred. The shire-moot, or shire-gemot,
was an assembly yet more important. An ealdorman was its
president, and exercised a jurisdiction over a shire, or district
comprising several hundreds. Attended by a reeve and four
freemen from every hundred, it assumed a distinctly representa-
tive character. Its members, if not elected (in the modern sense)
by the popular voice, were, in some fashion, deputed to act on
behalf of those whose interests they had come to guard. The
shire-moot was also the general folk-moot of the tribe, assembled
in arms, to whom their leaders referred the decision of questions
of peace and war.
Superior to these local institutions was the witenagemot, or
assembly of wise men, with whom the king took counsel in
legislation and the government of the state. This national
council was the true beginning of the parliament of England.
Such a council was originally held in each of the kingdoms
commonly known as the Heptarchy; and after their union in
a single realm, under King Edgar, the witenagemot became the
deliberative and legislative assembly, or parliament, of the
extended estate. The witenagemot made laws, imposed taxes,
concluded treaties, advised the king as to the disposal of public
lands and the appointment and removal of officers of state,
and even assumed to elect and depose the king himself. The
king had now attained to greater power, and more royal dignities
and prerogatives. He was unquestionably the chief power in
the witenagemot; but the laws were already promulgated, as
in later times, as having been agreed to with the advice and
consent of the witan. The witan also exercised jurisdiction as
a supreme court. These ancient customs present further
examples of the continuity of English constitutional forms.
The constitution of the witenagemot, however, was necessarily
less popular than that of the local moots in the hundred or the
shire. The king himself was generally present; and at his
summons came prelates, abbots, ealdormen, the king's gesiths
and thegns. officers of state and of the royal household, and
leading tenants in chief of lands held from the crown. Crowds
sometimes attended the meetings of the witan, and shouted
their acclamations of approval or dissent ; and, so far, the popular
voice was associated with its deliberations; but it was at a
distance from all but the inhabitants of the place in which it was
assembled, and until a system of representation {q.v.) had slowly
grown up there could be no further admission of the people to its
deliberations. In the town-moot the whole body of freemen
and cultivators of the folk-lands met freely under a spreading
oak, or on the village green; in the hundred-moot, or shire-
gemot. deputies from neighbouring communities could readily
find a place; but all was changed in the wider council of a king-
dom. When there were many kingdoms, distance obstructed
any general gathering of the Commons; and in the wider area of
England such a gathering became impossible. Centuries were
yet to pass before this obstacle was to be overcome by representa-
tion; but, in the meantime, the local institutions of the Anglo-
Saxons were not without their influence upon the central council.
The self-government of a free people informed the bishops,
ealdormen, ceorls and thegns who dwelt among them of their
interests and needs, their sufferings and their wrongs; and,
while the popular forces were increasing with an advancing
societ)'. they grew more powerful in the councils of their rulers.
Another circumstance must not be overlooked in estimating
the political influence of the people in Anglo-Saxon times.
For five centuries the country was convulsed with incessant wars
— wars with the Britons, whom the invaders were driving from
their homes, wars between the several kingdoms, wars with the
Welsh, wars with the Picts, wars with the Danes. How could
the people continue to assert their civil rights amid the clash of
arms and a frequent change of masters? The warrior-kings
and their armed followers were rulers in the land which they
had conquered. At the same time the unsettled condition of
the country repressed the social advancement of its people.
.Agriculture could not prosper when the farm of the husbandman
too often became a battlefield. Trade could not be extended
without security to property and industry. Under such con-
ditions the great body of the people continued as peasants,
handicraftsmen and slaves. The time had not yet come when
they could make their voice heard in the councils of the state.
The Norman Conquest. — The Anglo-Saxon polity was suddenly
overthrown by the Norman Conquest. A stern foreign king
had seized the crown, and was prepared to rule his conquered
realm by the sword. He brought with him the absolutist
principles of continental rulers, and the advanced feudal system
of France and Normandy. Feudalism had been slowly gaining
ground under the Saxon kings, and now it was firmly established
as a military organization. William the Conqueror at once
rewarded his warlike barons and followers with enormous grants
of land. The Saxon landowners and peasants were despoiled,
and the invaders settled in their homesteads. The king claimed
the broad lands of England as his own, by right of conquest;
and when he allowed his warriors to share the spoil he attached
the strict condition of military service in return for every grant
of land. An effective army of occupation of all ranks was thus
quartered upon every province throughout the realm. England
was held by the sword; a foreign king, foreign nobles, and a
foreign soldiery were in possession of the soil, and swore fealty
to their master, from whom they held it. Saxon bishops were
deposed, and foreign prelates appointed to rule over the English
Church. Instead of calling a national witenagemot, the king
took counsel with the officers of his state and household, the
bishops, abbots, earls, barons and knights by whom he v.as
phased to surround himself. Some of the forms of a national
council were indeed maintained, and its counsel and consent
were proclaimed in the making of laws; but, in truth, the king
was absolute.
Such a revolution seemed fatal to the liberties and r.-cient
customs of Saxon England. What power could withstand the
harsh conqueror? But the indestructible elements of English
society prevailed over the sword. The king grasped, in his own
hands, the higher administration and judicature of the realm;
PARLIAMENT
B39
but he continued the old local courts of the hundred and the
shire, which had been the basis of Saxon freedom. The Norman
polity was otherwise destined to favour the liberties of the people,
through agencies which had been designed to crush them. The
powerful nobles, whom William and his successors exalted,
became formidable rivals of the Crown itself; while ambitious
barons were in their turn held in check b}' a jealous and exacting
church. The ruhng powers, if combined, would have reduced
the people to slavery; but their divisions proved a continual
source of weakness. In the meantime the strong rule of the
Normans, bitter as it was to Englishmen, repressed intestine
wars and the disorders of a divided realm. Civil justice was
fairly administered. When the spoils of the conquerors had
been secured, the rights of property were protected, industry
and trade were left free, and the occupation of the soil Ijy
foreigners drove numbers of landowners and freemen into the
towns, where they prospered as merchants, traders and artificers,
and collected thriving populations of townsmen. Meanwhile,
foreign rulers having brought England into closer relations with
the Continent, its commerce was extended to distant lands, ports
and shipping were encouraged, and English traders were at once
enriched and enlightened. Hence new classes of society were
growing, who were eventually to become the Commons of
England. _ '
The Crown, the Barons, the Church and the People. — While
these social changes were steadily advancing, the barons were
already preparing the way for the assertion of popular rights.
Ambitious, turbulent and grasping, they were constantly at
issue with the Crown. Enjoying vast estates and great com-
mands, and sharing with the prelates the government of the
state, as members of the king's council, they were ever ready
to raise the standard of revolt. The king could always count
upon barons faithful to his cause, but he also appealed for aid
to the Church and the people. The baronage was thus broken
by insurrections, and decimated by civil wars, while the value
of popular alliances was revealed. The power of the people
was ever increasing, while their oppressors were being struck
down. The population of the country was still Saxon; they had
been subdued, but had not been driven forth from the land, like
the Britons in former invasions. The English language was
still the common speech of the people; and Norman blood was
being mingled with the broader stream of Saxon life. A con-
tinuous nationality was thus preserved, and was outgrowing the
foreign element.
The Crown was weakened by disputed successions and foreign
wars, and the baronage by the blood-stained fields of civil war-
fare; while both in turn looked to the people in their troubles.
Meanwhile the Church was struggling, alike against the Crown
and the barons, in defence of its ecclesiastical privileges and
temporal possessions. Its clergy were brought by their spiritual
ministratioES into close relations with the people, and their
culture contributed to the intellectual growth of English society.
When William Rufus was threatened by his armed barons he
took counsel with Archbishop Lanfranc, and promised good laws
and justice to the people. His promises were broken; but, like
later charters, as lightly set aside, they were a recognition of
the political rights of the people. By the charter of Henry I.
restoring to the people the laws of Edward the Confessor, the
continuity of English institutions was acknowledged; and this
concession was also proclaimed through Archbishop Anselm,
the church and the people being again associated with the Crown
against the barons. And throughout his reign the clergy and
the English people were cordially united in support of the Crown.
In the anarchic reign of Stephen — also distinguished by its
futile charters — the clergy were driven into opposition to the
king, while his oppressions alienated the people. Henr>' II.
commenced his reign with another charter, which may be taken
as a profession of good intentions on the part of the new king.
So strong-willed a king, who could cripple his too powerful
nobles, and forge shackles for the Church, was not predisposed
to extend the liberties of his people; but they supported him
loyally in his critical struggles; and his vigorous reforms in the
administrative, judicial and financial organization of his realm
promoted the prosperity and political iniluence of the Commons.
At the same time the barons created in this and the two
previous reigns, being no longer exclusively Norman in blood
and connexion, associated themselves more readily with the
interests and sympathies of the people. Under Richard I. the
principle of representation was somewhat advanced, but it
was confined to the assessment and collection of taxes in the
dift'erent shires.
Magna Carta (q.v.). — It was under King John that the greatest
progress was made in national liberties. The loss of Normandy
served to draw the baronage closer to the English people; and
the king soon united all the forces of the realm against him. He
outraged the Church, the barons and the people. He could
no longer play one class against another; and they combined to
extort the Great Charter of their liberties at Runnymede (1215).
It was there ordained that no scutage or aid, except the three
regular feudal aids, should be imposed, save by the common
council of the realm. To this council the archbishops, bishops,
abbots, earls and greater barons were to be summoned per-
sonally by the king's letters, and tenants in chief by a general
writ through the sheriff. The summons was required to
appoint a certain place, to give 40 days' notice at least, and
to state the cause of meeting. At length we seem to reach
some approach to modern usage.
Growth of the Commons. — The improved administration of
successive kings had tended to enlarge the powers of the
Crown. But one hundred and fifty years had now passed since
the Conquest, and great advances had been made in the con-
dition of the people, and more particularly in the population,
wealth and self-government of towns. Many had obtained
royal charters, elected their own magistrates, and enjoyed
various commercial privileges. They were already a power
in the state, which was soon to be more distinctly recognized.
The charter of King John was again promulgated under
Henry III., for the sake of a subsidy; and henceforth the Com-
mons learned to insist upon the redress of grievances in return
for a grant of money. This reign was memorable in the history
of parliament.' Again the king was in conflict with his barons,
who rebelled against his gross misgovernment of the realm.
Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, was a patriot in advance
of his age and fought for the English people as well as for his
own order. The barons, indeed, were doubtful allies of the
popular cause, and leaned to the king rather than to Simon.
But the towns, the clergy, the universities and large bodies of
the commonalty rallied round him, and he overthrew the king
and his followers at Lewes. He was now master of the realm,
and proclaimed a new constitution. Kings had made promises,
and granted illusory charters; but the rebel earl called an English
parliament (1265) into being. Churchmen were on his side,
and a few barons; but his main reliance was upon the Commons.
He summoned to a national council, or parliament, bishops,
abbots, earls and barons, together with two knights from every
shire and two burgesses from every borough. Knights had
indeed been summoned to former councils; but never until now
had delegates from the towns been invited to sit with bishops,
barons and knights of the shire.
In the reign of Edward I. parliament assumed substantially
its present form of king, lords and commons. The irregular and
unauthorized scheme of Simon de Montfort was fully adopted;
and in 1295 the king summoned to a parliament two knights from
' In 1254 we have a distinct case of two knights summoned from
each shire by royal writ. A war was going on in Gascony, and
the king wanted money. He called the barons and asked if they
would provide the necessary funds. The barons said that un-
fortunately the minor gentry were exceedingly unwilling to con-
tribute, and the king sent to ask that two knights from each shire
might be sent up to consult with him. In the result, the Commons
refused to grant a subsidy, and the king had to fall back on the
Church; but though the summoning of the knights of the shire was
in form a small change from the previous practice of sending some
one down to the counties to put pressure on them, the innovation
is important as the first occasion on which their representati\'e3
met in a central assembly. — [H. Ch.]
840
PARLIAMENT
every shire chosen by the freeholders at the shire court, and two
burgesses from every city, borough and leading town.' The
rebel earl had enlarged the basis of the national council; and,
to secure popular support, the politic king accepted it as a
convenient instrument of taxation. The knights and freeholders
had increased in numbers and wealth; and the towns, continually
advancing in population, trade and commerce, had become
valuable contributors to the revenue of the state. The grant
of subsidies to the Crown, by the assembled baronage and
representatives of the shires and towns, was a legal and
comprehensive impost upon the entire realm.
Secession of the Clergy. — It formed part of Edward's poHcy
to embrace the clergy in his scheme for the representation of
all orders and classes of his subjects. They were summoned
to attend the parliament of 12Q5 and succeeding parliaments
of his reign, and their form of summons has been continued until
the present time; but the clergy resolutely held aloof from the
national council, and insisted upon voting their subsidies in
their own convocations of Canterbury and York. The bishops
retained their high place among the earls and barons, but
the clergy sacrificed to ecclesiastical jealousies the privilege of
sharing in the political councils of the state. As yet, indeed,
this privilege seemed little more than the voting of subsidies,
but it was soon to embrace the redress of grievances and the
framing of laws for the general welfare of the realm. This
great power they forfeited; and who shall say how it might have
been wielded, in the interests of the Church, and in the legislation
of their country? They could not have withstood the Reforma-
tion; they would have been forced to yield to the power of the
Crown and the heated resolution of the laity; but they might
have saved a large share of the endowments of the Church, and
perhaps have modified the doctrines and formularies of the
reformed establishment.
Reluctance of the Commons to Attend. — Meanwhile the Com-
mons, unconscious of their future power, took their humble
place in the great council of the realm. The knights of the
shire, as lesser barons, or landowners of good social standing,
could sit beside the magnates of the land without constraint ;
but modest traders from the towns were overawed by the power
and dignity of their new associates. They knew that they were
summoned for no other purpose than the taxing of themselves
and their fellow townsmen; their attendance was irksome; it
interrupted their own business; and their journeys exposed them
to many hardships and dangers. It is not surprising that they
should have shrunk from the exercise of so doubtful a privilege.
Considerable numbers absented themselves from a thankless
service; and their constituents, far from exacting the attendance
of their members, as in modern times, begrudged the sorry
stipend of 2S. a day, paid to their representatives while on duty,
and strove to evade the burden imposed upon them by the
Crown. Some even purchased charters, withdrawing franchises
which they had not \'et learned to value. Nor, in truth, did the
representation of towns at this period aft'ord much protection
to the rights and interests of the people. Towns were enfran-
chised at the will or caprice of the Crown and the sheriffs; they
could be excluded at pleasure; and the least show of indepen-
dence would be followed by the omission of another writ of
' It now appears that substantially this was effected as early as
1275. The transition period between Simon de Montfort's parlia-
ment of 1265 and the " model parliament " of 1295 was long a
puzzle to historical students, since, e.xcept for two provincial
councils in 1283, no trace was found in the records, between 1265
and 1295, of the representation — of cities or boroughs, or of repre-
sentation of the counties between 1275 and 1290. But in 1910
Mr C. Hilary Jenkinson (see English Historical Review, for April)
found in the Record Office some old documents which proved to
be fragments of three writs and of returns of members for the
Easter parliament of 1275. They make it certain that knights of
the shire were then present, and that burgesses and citizens were
summoned (not as in 1265 through the mayors, but as since 1295
through the sheriffs). The importance of the 1295 parliament
thus appears to be smaller in English constitutional history', the
full reforms appearing to have been adopted 20 years earlier.
It is noteworthy, however, that in the writs of 1275 the instruction
to the sheriff is " venire facias," not " cligi facias." — [H. Ch.]
summons. But the principle of representation iq.v.), once estab-
lished, was to be developed with the expansion of society; and
the despised burgesses of Edward I., not having seceded, like
the clergy, were destined to become a potential class in the
parliaments of England.
Sitting of Parliament at Westminster. — Another constitutional
change during this reign was the summoning of parliament to
Westminster instead of to various towns in dift'erent parts of
the country. This custom invested parliament with the char-
acter of a settled institution, and constituted it a high court for
the hearing of petitions and the redress of grievances. The
growth of its judicature, as a court of appeal, was also favoured
by the fixity of its place of meeting.
Authority of Parliament recognized by Law. — Great was the
power of the Crown, and the king himself was bold and statesman-
like; but the union of classes against him proved too strong for
prerogative. In 1297, having outraged the Church, the barons,
and the Commons, by illegal exactions, he was forced to confirm
the Great Charter and the Charter of Forests, with further
securities against the taxation of the people without their consent
and, in return, obtained timely subsidies from the parliament.
Henceforth the financial necessities of a succession of kings
ensured the frequent assembling of parliaments. Nor were they
long contented with the humble function of voting subsidies,
but boldly insisted on the redress of grievances and further
securities for national liberties. In 1322 it was declared by
statute 15 Edw. II. that " the matters to be established for
the estate of the king and of his heirs, and for the estate of
the realm and of the people, should be treated, accorded, and
established in parliament, by the king, and by the assent of the
prelates, earls and barons, and the commonalty of the realm,
according as had been before accustomed." The constitutional
powers of parliament as a legislature were here amply recognized
— not by royal charter, or by the occasional exercise of preroga-
tive, but by an authoritative statute. And these powers were
soon to be exercised in a striking form. Already parliament
had established the principle that the redress of grievances
should have precedence of the grant of subsidies; it had main-
tained the right of approving councillors of the Crown, and
punishing them for the abuse of their powers; and in 1327 the
king himself was finally deposed, and the succession of his son,
Edward III., declared by parliament.
Union of Knights of the Shire and Burgesses. — At this period
the constitution of parliament was also settling down to its later
and permanent shape. Hitherto the different orders or estates
had deliberated separately, and agreed upon their several
grants to the Crown. The knights of the shire were naturally
drawn, by social ties and class interests, into alliance with the
barons; but at length they joined the citizens and burgesses,
and in the first parliament of Edward III. they are found
sitting together as " the Commons."
This may be taken as the turning point in the political history
of England. If all the landowners of the country had become
united as an order of nobles, they might have proved too strong
for the development of national liberties, while the union of the
country gentlemen with the burgesses formed an estate of the
realm which was destined to prevail over all other powers.
The withdrawal of the clergy, who would probably have been
led by the bishops to take part with themselves and the barons,
further strengthened the united Commons.
Increasing Influence of Parliament. — The reign of Edward III.
witnessed further advances in the authority of parliament, and
changes in its constitution. The king, being in continual need
of subsidies, was forced to summon parliament every year, and
in order to encourage its liberality he frequently sought its
advice upon the most important issues of peace or war, and
readily entertained the petitions of the Commons praying for
the redress of grievances. During this reign also, the advice
and consent of the Commons, as well as of the Lords spiritual and
temporal, was regularly recorded in the enacting part of every
statute.
PARLIAMENT
8 + 1
Separation of the Two Houses. — But a more important event
is to be assigned to this reign, — the formal separation of parlia-
ment into the two houses of Lords and Commons. There is
no evidence — nor is it probable — that the different estates ever
voted together as a single assembly. It appears from the rolls
of parUament that in the early part of this reign, the causes of
summons having been declared to the assembled estates, the
three estates deliberated separately, but afterwards dehvered
a collective answer to the king. While their deliberations were
short they could be conducted apart, in the same chamber;
but, in course of time, it was found convenient for the Commons
to have a chamber of their own, and they adjourned their
sittings to the chapter-house of the abbot of Westminster,
where they continued to be held after the more formal and
permanent separation had taken place. The date of this event
is generally assigned to the 17th Edward III.
The Commons as Petitioners. — Parliament had now assumed
its present outward form. But it was far from enjoying the
authority which it acquired in later times. The Crown was still
paramount; the small body of earls and barons — not exceeding
40 — were connected with the royal family, or in the service of
the king, or under his influence; the prelates, once distinguished
by their independence, were now seekers of royal favour; and
the Commons, though often able to extort concessions in return
for their contributions to the royal exchequer, as yet held an
inferior position among the estates of the realm. Instead of
enjoying an equal share in the framing of laws, they appeared
before the king in the humble guise of petitioners. Their
petitions, together with the king's answers, were recorded in the
rolls of parliament; but it was not until the pariiament had
been discharged from attendance that statutes were framed by
the judges and entered on the statute roUs. Under such con-
ditions legislation was, in truth, the prerogative of the Crown
rather than of parliament. Enactments were often found in
the statutes at variance with the petitions and royal answers,
and neither prayed for by the Commons nor assented to by the
Lords. In vain the Commons protested against so grave an abuse
of royal authority; but the same practice was continued during
this and succeeding reigns. Henry V., in the second year of his
reign, promised " that nothing should be enacted to the petitions
of the Commons, contrary to their asking, whereby they should be
bound without their assent;" but, so long as the old method
of framing laws was adhered to, there could be no security against
abuse: and it was not until the reign of Henry VI. that the intro-
duction of the more regular system of legislating by bill and
statute ensured the thorough agreement of all the estates in the
several provisions of every statute.
Increasing Boldness of the Commons. — The Commons, however,
notwithstanding these and other discouragements, were con-
stantly growing bolder in the assertion of their rights. They
now ventured to brave the displeasure of the king, without
seeking to shelter themselves behind powerful barons, upon
whose forwardness in the national cause they could not reckon.
Notably in 1376 their stout Speaker, Peter de la Mare, inveighed,
in their name, against the gross mismanagement of the war,
impeached ministers of the realm, complained of the heavy
burdens under which the people suffered, and even demanded
that a true account should be rendered of thepubUc expenditure.
The brave Speaker was cast into prison, and a new parUament
was summoned which speedily reversed the resolutions of the
last. But the death of the king changed the aspect of affairs.
Another parliament was called, when it was found that the
spirit of the Commons was not subdued. Peter de la Mare was
released from prison, and again elected to the chair. The
demands of the former parUament were reiterated with greater
boldness and persistence, the evil councillors of the late reign
were driven out, and it was conceded that the principal officers
of state should be appointed and removed, during the minority
of Richard II., upon the advice of the lords. The Commons also
insisted upon the annual assembling of parliament under the
stringent provisions of a binding law. They claimed the right,
not only of voting subsidies, but of appropriating them, and of
examining public accounts. They inquired into public abuses,
and impeached ministers of the Crown. Even the king himself
was deposed by the parliament. Thus during this reign all
the great powers of parliament were asserted and exercised.
The foreign wars of Henry IV. and Henry V., by continuing
the financial necessities of the Crown, maintained for a while
the powers which parUament had acquired by the struggles of
centuries.
Relapse of Parliamentary Influence. — But a period of civil
wars and disputed successions was now at hand, which checked
the further development of parliamentary liberties. The
effective power of a political institution is determined, not by
assertions of authority, nor even by its legal recognition, but
by the external forces by which it is supported, controlled or
overborne. With the close of the Wars of the Roses the life of
parUament seems to have weU-nigh expired.
To this constitutional relapse various causes contributed at
the same period. The Crown had recovered its absolute supre-
macy. The powerful baronage had been decimated on the
battlciicld and the scaffold; and vast estates had been confiscated
to the Crown. Kings had no longer any dread of their prowess
as defenders of their own order or party, or as leaders of the
people. The royal treasury had been enriched by their ruin;
while the close of a long succession of wars with France and
Scotland reUeved it of that continual drain which had reduced
the Crown to an unwelcome dependence upon parliament. Not
only were the fortunes of the baronage laid low, but feudalism
was also dying out in England as on the continent. It was no
longer a force which could control the Crown; and it was being
further weakened by changes in the art of war. The mailed
horseman, the battle-axe and cross-bow of the burgher and
yeoman, could not cope with the cannon and arquebus of the
royal army.
In earlier times the Church had often stood forth against
the domination of kings, but now it was in passive submission
to the Throne. The prelates were attracted to the court, and
sought the highest offices of state; the inferior clergy had long
been losing their influence over the laity by their ignorance and
want of moral elevation at a period of increasing enUghtenment;
while the Church at large was weakened by schisms and a wider
freedom of thought. Hence the Church, Uke the baronage, had
ceased to be a check upon the Crown.
Meanwhile what had become of the ever-growing power of
the Commons? It is true they had lost their stalwart leaders,
the armed barons and outspoken prelates, but they had them-
selves advanced in numbers, riches and enlightenment; they had
overspread the land as knights and freeholders, or dwelt in
populous towns enriched by merchandise. Why could they
not find leaders of their own? Because they had lost the liberal
franchises of an early age. AU freeholders, or suitors present
at the county court, were formerly entitled to vote for a knight
of the shire; but in the eighth year of Henry VI. (1430) an act
was passed (c. 37) by which this right was confined to 40s.
freeholders, resident in the county. Large numbers of electors
were thus disfranchised. In the view of parUament they were
" of no value," and complaints had been made that they were
under the influence of the nobles and greater landowners; but
a popular element had been withdrawn from the cotmty repre-
sentation, and the restricted franchise cannot have impaired
the influence of the nobles.
As for the cities and boroughs, they had virtually renounced
their electoral privileges. As we have seen, they had never
valued them very highly; and now by royal charters, or by the
usurpation of smaU self-elected bodies of burgesses, the choice
of members had f'ilen into the hands of town councils and
neighbouring landowners. The anomalous system of close and
nomination boroughs, which had arisen thus early in EngUsh
history, was suffered to continue without a check for four
centuries, as a notorious blot upon a free constitution.
All these changes exalted the prerogatives of the Crown. Amid
the clash of arms and the strife of hostile parties the voice of
parUament had been stifled; and, when peace was restored, a
XX. 27 a
842
PARLIAMENT
powerful king could dispense with an assembly which might
prove troublesome, and from whom he rarely needed help.
Hence for a period of two hundred years, from the reign of
Henry VI. to that of Elizabeth, the free parliaments of England
were in abeyance. The institution retained its form and con-
stituent parts; its rights and privileges were theoretically
recognized, but its freedom and national character were little
more than shadows.
The Three Estates of the Realm. — This check in thj fortunes of
parliament affords a fitting occasion for examining the composition
of each of the three estates of the realm.
Lords Spiritual and Temporal. — The archbishops and bishops
had held an eminent position in the councils of Saxon and Norman
kings, and many priors and abbots were from time to time asso-
ciated with them as lords spiritual, until the suppression of
the monasteries by Henry VIII. They generally outnumbered
their brethren, the temporal peers, who sat with them in the same
assembly.
The lords temporal comprised several dignities. Of these the
baron, though now the lowest in rank, was the most ancient. The
title was familiar in Sa.xon times, but it was not until after the
Norman Conquest that it was invested with a distinct feudal
dignity. Next in antioiuity was the earl, whose official title was
known to Danes and Saxons, and who after the Conquest obtained
a dignity equivalent to that of count in foreign states. The highest
dignity, that of duke, was not created until Edv/ard III. conferred
it upon his son, Edward the Black Prince. The rank of marquess
was first created by Richard II., with precedence after a duke.
It was in the reign of Henry VI. that the rank of viscount was
created, to be placed between the earl and the baron. Thus the
peerage consisted of the five dignities of duke, marquess, earl,
viscount and baron. During the 15th century the number of
temporal peers summoned to parliament rarely exceeded fifty, and
no more than twenty-nine received writs of summons to the first
parliament of Henry VII. There were only fifty-nine at the death
of Queen Elizabeth. At the accession of William III. this number
had been increased to about one hundred and fifty.
Life Peerages. — The several orders of the peerage are alike dis-
tinguished by the hereditary character of their dignities. Some
life peerages, indeed, were created between the reigns of Richard II.
and Henry VI., and several ladies had received life peerages between
the reigns of Charles II. and George II. The highest authorities
had also held that the creation of life peerages was within the
prerogative of the Crown. But four hundred years had elapsed
since the creation of a life peer, entitled to sit in parliament, when
Queen Victoria was advised to create Sir James Parke, an eminent
judge, a baron for life, under the title of Lord Wensleydale. The
object of this deviation from the accustomed practice was to
strengthen the judicature of the House of Lords, without unduly
enlarging the numbers of the peerage. But the Lords at once took
exception to this act of the Crown, and, holding that a prerogative
so long disused could not be revived, in derogation of the hereditary
character of the peerage, resolved that Lord Wensleydale was not
entitled by his letters patent and writ of summons to sit and vote
in parliament. His lordship accordingly received a new patent,
and took his seat as an hereditary peer. But the necessity of
some such expedient for improving the appellate jurisdiction of
the House of Lords could not be contested; and in 1876 three lords
of appeal in ordinary were constituted by statute, enjoying the
rank of baron for life, and the right of sitting and voting in the
House of Lords so long as they continue in office.
The Commons. — The Commons formed a more numerous body.
In the reign of Edward I. there were about 275 members, in that
of Edward III. 250, and in that of Henry VI. 300. In the reign
of Henry VIII. parliament added 27 members for Wales and four
for the county and city of Chester, and in the reign of Charles II.
4 for the county and city of Durham. Between the reigns of
Henry VIII. and Charles II. 130 members were also added by
royal charter.
Parliament under Henry VIII. — To resume the history of
parliament at a later period, let us glance at the reign of
Henry VIII. Never had the power of the Crown been greater
than when this king succeeded to the throne, and never had a
more imperious will been displayed by any king of England.
Parliament was at his feet to do his bidding, and the Reforma-
tion enormously increased his power. He had become a pope
to the bishops; the old nobles who had re "isted his will had
perished in the field or on the scaffold; the new nobles were his
creatures; and he had the vast wealth of the Church in his hands
as largesses to his adherents. Such was the dependence of
parliament upon the Crown audits advisers dtiring the Reforma-
tion period that in less than thirty years four vital changes
were decreed in the national faith. Each of the successive
reigns inaugurated a new religion.
Queen Elisabeth and her Parliaments. — With the reign of
Elizabeth commenced a new era in the life of parliament. She
had received the royal prerogatives unimpaired, and her hand was
strong enough to wield them. But in the long interval since
Edward IV. the entire framework of English society had been
changed; it was a new England that the queen was called upon
to govern. The coarse barons of feudal times had been succeeded
by English country gentlemen, beyond the influence of the
court, and identified with all the interests and sympathies of
their country neighbours. From this class were chosen nearly
all the knights of the shire, and a considerable pioportion of the
members for cities and boroughs. They were generally dis-
tinguished by a manly independence, and were prepared to
uphold the rights and privileges of parliament and the Interests
of their constituents. A change no less remarkable had occurred
in other classes of society. The country was peopled with
yeomen and farmers, far superior to the cultivators of the soil
in feudal times; and the towns and seaports had grown into
important centres of commerce and manufactures. Advances
not less striking had been made in the enlightenment and culture
of society. But, above all, recent religious revolutions had
awakened a spirit of thought and inquiry by no means confined
to questions of faith. The Puritans, hostile to the Church,
and jealous of every semblance of Catholic revival, were
embittered against the state, which was identified, in their eyes,
with many ecclesiastical enormities; and stubborn temper was
destined to become a strong motive force in restoring the
authority of parliament.
The parliaments of Elizabeth, though rarely summoned,
displayed an unaccustomed spirit. They discussed the succession
to the Crown, the marriage of the queen, and ecclesiastical
abuses; they upheld the privileges of the Commons and their
right to advise the Crown upon all matters of state; and they
condemned the grant of monopolies. The bold words of the
Wentworths and Yelvertons were such as had not been heard
before in parliament. The conflicts between Elizabeth and
the Commons marked the revival of the independence of parlia-
ment, and foreshadowed graver troubles at no distant period.
Conflicts of James I. with the Commons. — James I., with
short-sighted pedantry, provoked a succession of conflicts with
the Commons, in which abuses of prerogative were stoutly
resisted and the rights and privileges of parliament resolutely
asserted. The " remonstrance " of 1610 and the " protestation "
of 1621 would have taught a politic ruler that the Commons
could no longer be trifled with; but those lessons were lost upon
James and upon his ill-fated son.
Charles I. and the Commonwealth. — The momentous struggles
between Charles I. and his parliaments cannot be followed m
this place. The earlier parliaments of this reign fairly repre-
sented the earnest and temperate judgment of the country.
They were determined to obtain the redress of grievances and
to restrain undue prerogatives; but there was no taint of dis-
loyalty to the Crown; there were no dreams of revolution. But
the contest at length became embittered, until there was no issue
but the arbitrament of the sword. The period of the Great
Rebellion and the Commonwealth proved the supreme power
of the Commons, when supported by popular forces. Every-
thing gave way before them. They raised victorious armies
in the field, they overthrew the Church and the House of Lords,
and they brought the king himself to the scaffold. It also
displayed the impotence of a parliament which has lost the
confidence of the country, or is overborne by mobs, by an army,
or by the strong will of a dictator.
Political Agitation of this Period. — It is to this time of fierce
political passions that we trace the origin of political agitation
as an organized method of influencing the deliberations of
parliament. The whole country was then aroused by passionate
exhortations from the pulpit and in the press. No less than
thirty thousand political tracts and newspapers during this
period have been preserved. Petitions to parliament were
multiplied in order to strengthen the hands of the popular
leaders. Clamorous meetings were held to stimulate or overawe
PARLIAMENT
«+3
parliament. Such methods, restrained after the Restoration,
have been revived in later times, and now form part of the
acknowledged system of parliamentary government.
Parliament after the Restoration. — On the restoration of
Charles II. parliament was at once restored to its old constitu-
tion, and its sittings were revived as if they had suffered no
interruption. No outward change had been effected by the
late revolution; but that a stronger spirit of resistance to abuses
of prerogative had been aroused was soon to be disclosed in
the deposition of James II. and " the glorious revolution "
of 1 688. At this time the full rights of parliament were ex-
plicitly declared, and securities taken for the maintenance of
public liberties. The theory of a constitutional monarchy and a
free parliament was established; but after two revolutions it is
curious to observe the indirect methods by which the Commons
were henceforth kept in subjection to the Crown and the terri-
torial aristocracy. The representation had long become an
illusion. The knights of the shire were the nominees of nobles
and great landowners; the borough members were returned
by the Crown, by noble patrons or close corporations; even
the representation of cities, with greater pretensions to inde-
pendence, was controlled by bribery. Nor were rulers content
with their control of the representation, but, after the Restora-
tion, the infamous system of bribing the members themselves
became a recognized instrument of administration. The country
gentlemen were not less attached to the principles of rational
liberty than their fathers, and would have resisted further
encroach ;nents of prerogatives; but they were satisfied with the
Revolution settlement and the remedial laws of William III.,
and no new issue had yet arisen to awaken opposition. Accord-
ingly, they ranged themselves with one or other of the political
parties into which parliament was now beginning to be divided,
and bore their part in the more measured strifes of the iSth
century. From the Revolution till the reign of George III. the
effective power of the state was wielded by the Crown, the
Church and the territorial aristocracy; but the intluence of
public opinion since the stirring events of the 17th century had
greatly increased. Both parties were constrained to defer to it;
and, notwithstanding the flagrant defects in the representation,
parhament generally kept itself in accord with the general
sentiments of the country.
Union of Scotland. — On the union of Scotland in 1707
important changes were made in the constitution of parlia-
ment. The House of Lords was reinforced by the addition
of sixteen peers, representing the peerage of Scotland, and
elected every parliament; and the Scottish peers, as a body,
were admitted to all the privileges of peerage, except the right
of sitting in parhament or upon the trial of peers. No pre-
rogative, however, was given to the Crown to create new
peerages after the union; and, while they are distinguished
by their antiquity, their number is consequently decreasing.
To the House of Commons were assigned forty-five members,
representing the shires and burghs of Scotland.
Parliament under George III. — With the reign of George III.
there opened a new period in the history of parliament. Agita-
tion in its various forms, an active and aggressive press, public
meetings and political associations, the free use of the right of
petition, and a turbulent spirit among the people seriously
changed the relations of parliament to the country. And the
publication of debates, which was fully established in 1771,
at once increased the direct responsibility of parliament to the
people, and ultimately brought about other results, to which
we shall presently advert.
Union of Ireland. — In this reign another important change
was effected in the constitution of parliament. Upon the
union with Ireland, in 1801, four Irish bishops were added to
the lords spiritual, who sat by rotation of sessions, and repre-
sented the episcopal body of the Church of Ireland. But those
bishops were deprived of their seats in parliament in 1S69, on
the disestablishment of the Church of Ireland. Twenty-eight
representative peers, elected for life by the peerage of Ireland,
were admitted to the House of Lords. All the Irish peers were
also entitled to the privilege of peerage. In two particulars
the Irish peerage was treated in a different manner from the
peerage of Scotland. The Crown was empowered to create a
new Irish peerage whenever three Irish peerages in existence
at the time of the Union have become extinct, or when the
number of Irish peers, exclusive of those holding peerages of
the United Kingdom, has been reduced to one hundred. And,
further, Irish peers were permitted to sit in the House of
Commons for any place in Great Britain, forfeiting, however,
the privilege of peerage while sitting in the lower house.
At the same time one hundred representatives of Ireland
were added to the House of Commons. This addition raised
the number of members to six hundred and fifty-eight. Parlia-
ment now became the parliament of the United Kingdom.
Schemes for Improving the Representation. — By the union of
Scotland and Ireland the electoral abuses of those countries
were combined with those of England. Notwithstanding a
defective representation, however, parliament generally sus-
tained its position as fairly embodying the political sentiments
of its time. Public opinion had been awakened, and could not
safely be ignored by any party in the state. Under a narrow
and corrupt electoral system the ablest men in the country
found an entrance into the House of Commons; and their rivalry
and ambition ensured the acceptance of popular principles
and the passing of many remedial measures. As society
expanded, and new classes were called into existence, the
pressure of pubhc opinion upon the legislature was assuming
a more decisive character. The grave defects of the representa-
tion were notorious, and some minor electoral abuses had been
from time to time corrected. But the fundamental evils —
nomination boroughs, limited rights of election, the sale of seats
in parliament, the prevalence of bribery, and the enormous
expense of elections — though constantly exposed, long held
their ground against all assailants. So far back as 1770 Lord
Chatham had denounced these flagrant abuses. " Before the end
of this century," he said, " either the parliament will reform itself
from within, or be reformed with a vengeance from without."
In 1782, and again in 1783 and 1785, his distinguished son,
William Pitt, condemned the abuses of the representation,
and proposed schemes of parliamentary reform. In 1793
Mr Grey (afterwards Earl Grey) submitted a motion on the
same subject; but the excesses of the French Revolution,
political troubles at home, and exhausting wars abroad dis-
couraged the supporters of reform for many years. Under
more favourable conditions the question assumed greater
proportions. Lord John Russell especially distinguished him-
self in 1820, and in several succeeding years, by the able
exposure of abuses and by temperate schemes of reform. His
efforts were assisted by the scandalous disclosures of bribery
at Grampound, Penryn and East Retford. AU moderate
proposals were rejected; but the concurrence of a dissolution,
on the death of George IV., with the French Revolution in 1S30,
and an ill-timed declaration of the duke of Wellington that the
representation was perfect and could not be improved, suddenly
precipitated the memorable crisis of parliamentary reform. It
now fell to the lot of Earl Grey, as premier, to be the leader
in a cause which he had espoused in his early youth. , -
The Reform Acts of i8j2. — The result of the memorable
struggle which ensued may be briefly told. By the Reform
Acts of 1832 the representation of the United Kingdom was
reconstructed. In England, fifty-six nomination boroughs
returning one hundred and eleven members were disfranchised;
thirty boroughs were each deprived of one member, and Wey-
mouth and Melcombe Regis, which had returned four members,
were now reduced to two. Means were thus found for the
enfranchisement of populous places. Twenty-two large towns,
including metropolitan districts, became entitled to return
two members, and twenty less considerable towns acquired
the right of returning one member each. The number of county
members was increased from ninety-four to one hundred and
fifty-nine, the larger counties being divided for the purposes
of representation.
844
PARLIAMENT
The elective franchise was also placed upon a new basis. In
the boroughs a £io household suffrage was substituted for the
narrow and unequal franchises which had sprung up — the
rights of freemen, in corporate towns, being alone respected.
In the counties, copyholders and leaseholders for terms of
years, and tenants at will paying a rent of £50 a year, were
added to the 40s. freeholders.
By the Scottish Reform Act the number of members repre-
senting Scotland was increased from forty-five, as arranged
at the union, to fifty-three, of whom thirty were assigned to
counties and twenty-three to cities and burghs. In counties
the franchise was conferred upon owners of property of £10
a year, and certain classes of leaseholders; in burghs, upon £10
householders, as in England.
By the Irish Reform Act, no boroughs, however small, were
disfranchised; but the franchise was given to £10 householders,
and county constituencies were enlarged. These franchises,
however, were extended in 1850, when an £8 household suffrage
was given to the boroughs, and additions were made to the
county franchises. The hundred members assigned to that
country at the union were increased to one hundred and five.
Notwithstanding these various changes, however, the total
number of the House of Commons was still maintained at
six hundred and fifty-eight.
The legislature was now brought into closer relations with
the people, and became more sensitive to the pressure of popular
forces. The immediate effects of this new spirit were per-
ceptible in the increased legislative activity of the reformed
parliament, its vigorous grappling with old abuses, and its
preference of the pubUc welfare to the narrower interests of
classes. But, signal as was the regeneration of parliament,
several electoral evils still needed correction. Strenuous efforts
were made, with indifferent success, to overcome bribery and
corruption, and proposals were often ineffectually made to
restrain the undue influence of landlords and employers of
labour by the ballot; improvements were made in the registra-
tion and polling of electors, and the property quaUfication of
members was abolished. Complaints were also urged that
the middle classes had been admitted to power, while the work-
ing classes were excluded from the late scheme of enfranchise-
ment. It was not till 1867 however that any substantial
advance was made.
Increased Power of the Commons. — Prior to the reign of
Charles I. the condition of society had been such as naturally
to subordinate the Commons to the Crown and the Lords. After
the Revolution of 1688 society had so far advanced that, under
a free representation, the Commons might have striven with
both upon equal terms. But, as by far the greater part of
the representation was in the hands of the king and the territorial
nobles, the large constitutional powers of the Commons were
held safely in check. After 1832, when the representation
became a reality, a corresponding authority was asserted by
the Commons. For several years, indeed, by reason of the
weakness of the Liberal party, the Lords were able successfully
to resist the Commons upon many important occasions; but
it was soon acknowledged that they must yield whenever a
decisive majority of the Commons, supported by public
opinion, insisted upon the passing of any measure, however
repugnant to the sentiments of the upper house. And it
became a political axiom that the Commons alone determined
the fate of ministries.
Later Measures of Reform. — In 1852, and again in 1854, Lord
John Russell introduced measures of parliamentary reform;
but constitutional changes were discouraged by the Crimean
War. In 1859 Lord Derby's Conservative government pro-
posed another scheme of reform, which was defeated; and in
i860 Lord John Russell brought in another bill, which was
not proceeded with; and the question of reform continued in
abeyance until after the death of Lord Palmerston. Earl
Russell, who succeeded him as premier, was prompt to redeem
former pledges, and hastened to submit to a new parliament,
in 1866, another scheme of reform. This measure, and the
ministry by whom it was promoted, were overthrown by a
combination of the Conservative opposition and the memorable
" cave " of members of the Liberal party. But the popular
sentiment in favour of reform, which had for some years been
inert, was suddenly aroused by the defeat of a Liberal ministry
and the triumph of the party opposed to reform. Lord Derby
and his colleagues were now constrained to undertake the
settlement of this embarrassing question; and by a strange
concurrence of poUtical events and party tactics a scheme
far more democratic than that of the Liberal government
was accepted by the same parUament, under the auspices of a
Conservative ministry.
The Reform Acts of 1867-1868.— By the English Reform
Act of 1867 four corrupt boroughs were disfranchised, and
thirty-eight boroughs returning two members were henceforth
to return one only. A third member was given to Manchester,
Liverpool, Birmingham and Leeds; a second member to
Merthyr Tydfil and Salford; the Tower Hamlets were divided
into two boroughs, each returning two members; and ten new
boroughs were created, returning one member each, with the
exception of Chelsea, to which two were assigned. By these
changes twenty-six seats were taken from boroughs, while a
member was given to the university of London. But before
this act came into operation seven other English boroughs
were disfranchised by the Scottish Reform Act of 1868, these
seats being given to Scotland. Thirteen new divisions of
counties were erected, to which twenty-five members were
assigned. In counties the franchise of copyholders and lease-
holders was reduced from £10 to £5, and the occupation franchise
from £50 to £12. In boroughs the franchise was extended to
all occupiers of dwelling-houses rated to the poor-rates, and to
lodgers occupying lodgings of the annual valueof £iounfurnished.
By the Scottish Reform Act of 1868, the number of members
representing Scotland was increased from fifty-three to sixty —
three new members being given to the shires, two to the univer-
sities, and two to cities and burghs. The county franchise
was extended to owners of lands and heritages of £5 yearly
value, and to occupiers of the rateable value of £14; and the
burgh franchise to all occupiers of dwelling-houses paying rates,
and to tenants of lodgings of £10 annual value unfurnished.
By the Irish Reform Act of 1868 no change was made in
the number of members nor in the distribution of seats; but
the boroughs of Sligo and Cashel, already disfranchised, were
still left without representation. The county franchise was
left unchanged; but the borough franchise was extended to
occupiers of houses rated at £4, and of lodgings of the annual
value of £10 unfurnished.
That these changes in the representation — especially the
household suffrage in boroughs — were a notable advance upon
the reforms of 1832, in the direction of democracy, cannot be
questioned. The enlarged constituencies speedily overthrew the
ministry to whom these measures were due; and the new
parhament further extended the recent scheme of reform
by granting to electors the protection of the ballot (q.v.), for
which advanced reformers had contended since 1832. Nor
was the existing representation long suffered to continue
without question. First, it was proposed, in 1872, to extend
the household franchise to counties, and this proposal found
favour in the country and in the House of Commons; but, the
Conservative party having been restored to power in 1874, no
measure of that character could be promoted with any prospect
of success. At the dissolution of 1880 a more general revision
of the representation was advocated by leading members of
the Liberal party, who were soon restored to power.
(T. E. M.; H. Ch.)
Acts of 1S84-1SSJ.— The Reform Act of 1884 was ultimately
carried with the goodwill of both of the great political parties.
The Conservatives resisted Mr Gladstone's attempt to carry
a great extension of the franchise before he had disclosed his
scheme of redistribution, and the bill was thrown out by the
House of Lords in August 18S4. But after a conference of
Mr Gladstone with Lord Salisbury, to whom the whole scheme
PARLIAMENT
845
was confided, an agreement was reached, and the bill was
passed in the autumn session. In the following session (1885)
the Redistribution Act was passed.
A uniform household and lodger franchise was established
in counties and boroughs. If a dwelling was held as part
payment for service, the occupier was not deprived of his vote
because his home was the property of his master. The obliga-
tion was thrown on the overseers of ascertaining whether any
other man besides the owner was entitled to be registered as
an inhabitant occupier, and the owner was bound to supply
the overseers with information. The Registration Acts were
otherwise widely amended. Polling-places were multiplied,
so that little time need be lost in recording a vote. These
and other beneficial changes went a long way towards giving
a vote to every one who had a decent home. By the Redistribu-
tion of Seats Act 1885 all boroughs with less than 15,000
inhabitants ceased to return a member. These small towns
were merged into their counties, and the counties were sub-
divided into a great number of single-member constituencies,
so that the inhabitants of the disfranchised boroughs voted
for the member for the division of the county in which they
were situated. Boroughs with less than 50,000 inhabitants
returning two members were in future to return only one, and
towns of over 100,000 were divided into separate constituencies,
and received additional members in proportion to their popula-
tion. The members for the City of London were reduced to
two, but Greater London, including Croydon, returned sixty.
Divided Liverpool returned nine, Glasgow seven, Edinburgh,
Dublin and Belfast each four, and so on. Si.x additional seats
were given to England and twelve to Scotland, so that, allowing
for a diminution by disfranchisement for corruption, the numbers
of the House of Commons were raised to 670 members.
Results of Reform since 1S32. — From a constitutional stand-
point it is important to recognize the results of the successive
Reform Acts on the working of parliament as regards the position
of the executive on the one hand and the electorate on the other.
Before 1832 the functions of ministers were mainly adminis-
trative, and parliament was able to deal much as it pleased
with their rare legislative proposals without thereby depriving
them of office. Moreover, since before that date ministers
were, generally speaking, in fact as well as in theory appointed
by the king, while the general confidence of the majority in
the House of Commons followed the confidence not so much
of the electorate as of the Crown, that house was able on
occasions to exercise an effective control over foreign policy.
Pitt, after 1784, was defeated several times on foreign and
domestic issues, yet his resignation was neither expected nor
desired. In 1788, when the regency of the prince of Wales
appeared probable, and again in 1812, it was generally assumed
that it would be in his power to dismiss his father's ministers
and to maintain the Whigs in office without dissolving parlia-
ment. This system, while it gave to ministers security of tenure,
left much effective freedom of action to the House of Commons.
But the Reform Act of 1832 introduced a new order of things.
In 1835 the result of a general election was for the first time
the direct cause of a change of ministry, and in 1841 a House
of Commons was elected for the express purpose of bringing a
particular statesman into power. The electorate voted for
Sir Robert Peel, and it would have been as impossible for the
house then elected to deny him their support as it would be
for the college of electors in the United States to exercise their
private judgment in the selection of a president. As time went
on, and the party system became more closely organized in
the enlarged electorate, the voting power throughout the
country came to exercise an increasing influence. The premier
was now a party leader who derived his power in reality neither
from the Crown nor from parliament, but from the electorate,
and to the electorate he could appeal if deserted by his parlia-
mentary majority. Unless it was prepared to drive him from
the office in which it was elected to support him, that majority
would not venture to defeat, or even seriously to modify, his
legislative proposals, or to pass any censure on his foreign policy,
for all such action would now be held to be equivalent to a vote
of no confidence. From the passing of the Reform Act of 1867
down to 1900 (with a single exception due to the lowering of
the franchise and the redistribution of seats) the electorate
voted alternately for the rival party leaders, and it was the
function of the houses elected for that purpose to pass the
measures and to endorse the general pohcy with which those
leaders were respectively identified. The cabinet iq.v.), com-
posed of colleagues selected by the prime minister, had
practically, though indirectly, become an executive committee
acting on behalf of the electorate, that is to say, the majority
which returned their party to oflke; and the House of Commons
practicaUy ceased to exercise control over ministers except
in so far as a revolt in the party forming the majority could
influence the prime minister, or force him to resign or dissolve.
Meanwhile, the virtual identification of the electorate with
the nation by the successive extensions of the franchise added
immensely to its power, the chief limitation being supplied
by the Septennial Act. The House of Lords, whatever its
nominal rights, came henceforth in practice to exercise restric-
tion rather on the House of Commons than on the will of the
electorate, for the acquiescence of the upper house in the decision
of the electors, when appealed to on a specific point of issue
between the two houses, was gradually accepted by its leaders
as a constitutional convention.
The history of parliament, as an institution, centres in this
later period round two points, (A) the friction between Lords
and Commons, resulting in proposals for the remodelling of
the upper house, and (B) the changes in procedure within
the House of Commons, necessitated by new conditions of
work and the desire to make it a more business-like assembly.
These two movements will be discussed separately.
A. House of Lords Question. — In the altered position of the
House of Lords, the occasional checks given by it to the House
of Commons were bound to cause friction with the representa-
tives of the people. In the nature of things this was a matter
of importance only when the Liberal party was in power and
measures were proposed by the Liberal leaders which involved
such extreme changes that the preponderantly Conservative
upper house could amend or reject them with some confidence
in its action being supported by the electorate. The frequent
differences between the two houses during the parliament
of 1880-1885, culminating in the postponement by the upper
house of the Reform Bill, caused the status of that house
to be much discussed during the general election of 1885, and
proposals for its " mending or ending " to be freely canvassed
on Radical platforms. On the 5th of March 1886 Mr Labouchere
moved a resolution in the House of Commons condemning the
hereditary principle. This was resisted by Mr Gladstone, then
prime minister, on the ground that he had never supported
an abstract resolution unless he was prepared to follow it up
by action, and that the time for this had not arrived. On
a division the motion was negatived by 202 votes against 166.
The question of the constitution of the House of. Lords was
much agitated in 1888. The Conservatives were again in
power, but many of them thought that it would be prudent
to forestall by a moderate reform the more drastic remedies
now openly advocated by their opponents. On the other
hand. Radicals were disposed to resist all changes involving
the maintenance of the hereditary principle, lest they should
thereby strengthen the House of Lords. On the gth of March Mr
Labouchere again moved his resolution in the House of Commons.
Mr W. H. Smith, the leader of the house, in resisting the motion,
admitted that some changes were desirable, and agreed with
a previous speaker that it was by the Conservatives that such
changes ought to be effected. On the iqth of March in the same
year Lord Roseber)', in the House of Lords, moved for a select
committee to inquire into the subject. He took the oppor-
tunity to explain his own plan of reform. While he did not
wish to abolish the hereditary principle, he desired that no peer,
outside the Royal family, should be a member of the house
by right of birth alone. To the representatives of the peers
846
PARLIAMENT
he proposed to add other men who had achieved distinction
in a pubhc career. He attached a high importance to the
existence of a second chamber. His motion was negatived
by 97 votes against 50. On the 26th of April Lord Dunraven with-
drew a bill for the reform of the House of Lords on the promise
of the government to deal with the matter, and on the iSth of
June Lord Salisbury fulfilled this pledge. He introduced a bill
on that day to provide for the creation of a limited number
of life peers and for the exclusion of unworthy members from the
house. Under this measure a maximnm of five life-peerages
in any one 3'ear m.ight be created, but the total number was
never to exceed fifty. In respect of three out of these five
life-peers the choice of the Crown was restricted to judges,
generals, admirals, ambassadors, privy councillors and ex-
governors of colonies. The two additional fife-peers were to
be appointed in regard to some special qualification to be stated
in the message to the house announcing the intention of the
Crown to make the appointment. Power was also to be given
to the house to e.xpel members for the period of the current
parliament by an address to the Crown praying that their writs
of summons might be cancelled. The biU was read a second
time on the loth of July, but it met with a cold reception and was
dropped. The only outcome of all that was written and said
in this year was that in 18S0, after the report of a select committee
set up in 18S8, the Lords made a few changes in their standing
orders, among which the order establishing a quorum of thirty
in divisions and those for the constitution of standing committees
were the most important.
The parliament which met at Westminster in August 1S92
was more democratic in its tendencies than any of its prede-
cessors. At the beginning of the session of 1893, in the course
of which the Home Rule BUI was passed by the House of
Commons, government bills were introduced for quinquennial
parliaments, for the amendment of registration, and for the
Hmitation of each elector tc a single vote. The introduction
of these bills served merely as a declaration of government
policy, and they were not further pressed. On the 24th of March
a resolution in favour of payment of members was carried by
276 votes against 229, and again in 1895 by 176 to 158. But
the rejection of the Home Rule Bill by the House of Lords,
with the apparent acquiescence of the country, combined
with the retirement of Mr Gladstone to weaken the influence
of this House of Commons, and small importance was attached
to its abstract resolutions. In the ensuing session of 1894 an
amendment to the Address condemning the hereditary principle
was moved by Mr Labouchere, and carried by 147 to 145.
The government, however, holding that this was not the way
in which a great question should be raised, withdrew the Address,
and carried another without the insertion. In his last public
utterance Mr Gladstone directed the attention of his party to
the reform of the House of Lords, and Lord Rosebery endeavoured
to concentrate on such a policy the energies of his supporters
at the general election. But the result of the dissolution of
1895, showing, as it did, that on the chief political issue of the
day the electorate had agreed with the House of Lords and
had disagreed with the House of Commons, greatly strengthened
the upper house, and after that date the subject was but little
discussed until the Liberal party again came into power ten
years later. The House of Lords claimed the right to resist
changes made by the House of Commons until the will of the
people had been definitely declared, and its defenders contended
that its ultimate dependence on the electorate, now generally
acknowledged, rendered the freedom from ministerial control
secured to it by its constitution a national safeguard.
In 1907, under the Radical government of Sir H. Campbell-
Bannerman (?.».), the conflict between the Commons and the
Lords again became more acute. And the prime minister in
May obtained a large majority in the lower house for a resolu-
tion, on which a bill was to be founded, involving a complicated
method of overriding the will of the Lords when the Commons
had three times passed a bill. But no further immediate step
was taken. In 1908 a strong committee of the House of Lords
with Lord Rosebery as chairman, which had been appointed
in consequence of the introduction by Lord Newton of a bill
for reforming the constitution of the upper house, presented
an interesting report in favour of largely restricting the hereditary
element and adopting a method of selection.
So the question stood when in 1909 matteis came to a head
through the introduction of Mr Lloyd George's budget. It had
always been accepted as the constitutional right of the House of
Lords to reject a financial measure sent up by the Commons but
not to amend it, but the rejection of the budget (which was, in
point of form, referred to the judgment of the electorate) now
precipitated a struggle with the Liberal party, who had
persistently denied any right on the part of the upper house to
force a dissolution. The Liberal leaders contended that, even if
constitutional, the claim of the House of Lords to reject a budget
was practically obsolete, and having been revived must now be
formally abolished; and they went to the country for a mandate
to carry their view into law. The elections of January 1910 gave
an unsatisfactory answer, since the two principal parties, the
Liberals and the Unionists, returned practically equal; but the
Liberal government had also on their side the Irish Nationalist
and the Labour parties, which gave them a majority in the House
of Commons if they could concentrate the combined forces on the
House of Lords question. This Mr Asquith contrived to do; and
having introduced and carried through the House of Commons a
series of resolutions defining his proposals, he had also tabled a
bill which was to be sent up to the House of Lords, when the
death of the king suddenly interrupted the course of the consti-
tutional conflict, and gave a breathing-space for both sides to
consider the possibility of coming to terms. In June Mr Asquith
took the initiative in inviting the leaders of the Opposition to a
conference with closed doors, and a series of meetings between
four representatives of each side were begun. The government
were represented by Mr Asquith, Mr Lloyd George, Mr Birrell
and Lord Crewe. The Unionists were represented by Mr Balfour,
Lord Lansdowne, Mr Austin Chamberlain and Lord Cawdor.
The situation on the Radical side at this juncture may be best
understood by setting out the resolutions passed in the House
of Commons, and the text of the parliament bill of which
Mr Asquith had given notice: —
The Resolutions. — " I. That it is expedient that the House of
Lords be disabled by law from rejecting or amending a money bill,
but that any such limitation by law shall not be taken to diminish
or qualify the existing rights and privileges of the House of Commons.
" For the purpose of this resolution, a bill shall be considered
a money bill if in the opinion of the Speaker it contains only
provisions dealing with all or any of the following subjects — namely,
the imposition, repeal, remission, alteration or regulation of taxa-
tion; charges on the Consolidated Fund or the provision of money
by parliament; supply; the appropriation, control or regulation
of public mone>' ; the raising or guarantee of any loan or the repay-
ment thereof; or matters incidental to those subjects or any of
them.
" 2. That it is expedient that the powers of the House of Lords,
as respects bills other than money bills, be restricted by law, so
that any such bill which has passed the House of Commons in
three successive sessions and, having been sent up to the House of
Lords at least one month before the end of the session, has been
rejected by that house in each of those sessions, shall become
law without the consent of the House of Lords, on the royal assent
being declared : provided that at least two years shall have elapsed
between the date of the first introduction of the bill in the House
of Commons and the date on which it passes the House of Commons
for the third time.
" For the purpose of this resolution a bill shall be treated as
rejected by the House of Lords if it has not been passed by the
House of Lords either without amendment or with such amend-
ments only as may be agreed upon by both houses.
" 3. That it is expedient to limit the duration of parliament to
five years."
The Parliament Bill, IQIO. — " Whereas it is expedient that pro-
vision should be made for regulating the relations between the two
Houses of Parliament: And whereas it is intended to substitute
for the House of Lords as it at present exists a second chamber
constituted on a popular instead of hereditary basis, but such
substitution cannot be immediately brought into operation: And
whereas provision will require hereafter to be made by parlia-
ment in a measure effecting such substitution for limiting and
defining the powers of the new second-chamber, but it is expedient
PARLIAMENT
847
to make such provision as in this act appears for restricting the
existing powers of the House of Lords: Be it therefore enacted
by the liing's most excellent majesty, by and with the advice and
consent of the Lords spiritual and temporal, and Commons, in
this present parliament assembled, and by the authority of the
same, as follows; —
" I. (l) If a money bill, having been passed by the House of
Commons, and sent up to the House of Lords at least one month
before the end of the session, is not passed by the House of Lords
without amendment within one month after it is so sent up to that
house, the bill shall, unless the House of Commons direct to the
contrary, be presented to His Majesty and become an act of
parliament on the royal assent being signified, notwithstanding
that the House of Lords have not consented to the bill.
" (2) A money bill means a bill which in the opinion of the Speaker
of the House of Commons contains only provisions dealing with
all or any of the following subjects — namely, the imposition, repeal,
remission, alteration or regulation of taxation ; charges on the
consolidated fund or the provision of money by parliament ; supply;
the appropriation, control or regulation of public money; the
raising or guarantee of any loan or the repayment thereof; or
matters incidental to those subjects or any of them.
" (3) When a bill to which the House of Lords has not consented
is presented to His Majesty for assent as a money bill, the bill
shall be accompanied by a certificate of the Speaker of the House
of Commons that it is a money bill.
" (4) No amendment shall be allowed to a money bill which, in
the opinion of the Speaker of the House of Commons, is such as to
prevent the bill retaining the character of a money bill.
" 2. (i) It any bill other than a money bill is passed by the House
of Commons in three successive sessions (whether of the same
parliament or not), and, having been sent up to the House of Lords
at least one month before the end of the session, is rejected by the
House of Lords in each of those sessions, that bill shall, on its
rejection for the third time by the House of Lords, unless the
House of Commons direct to the contrary, be presented to His
Majesty and become an act of parliament on the royal assent
being signified thereto, notwithstanding that the House of Lords
has not consented to the bill : provided that this provision shall
not take effect unless two years have elapsed between the date of
the first introduction of the bill in the House of Commons and
the date on which it passes the House of Commons for the third
time.
" (2) A bill shall be deemed to be rejected by the House of Lords
if it is not passed by the House of Lords either without amendment
or with such amendments only as may be agreed to by both houses.
" (3) A bill shall be deemed to be the same bill as a former bill
sent up to the House of Lords in the preceding session if, when it
is sent up to the House of Lords, it is identical with the former
bill or contains only such alterations as are certified by the Speaker
of the House of Commons to be necessary owing to the time which
has elapsed since the date of the former bill, or to represent amend-
ments which have been made by the House of Lords in the former
bill in the preceding session.
" Provided that the House of Commons may, if they think fit,
on the passage of such a bill through the house in the second
or third session, suggest any further amendments without insert-
ing the amendments in the bill, and any such suggested amend-
ments shall be considered by the House of Lords, and if agreed to
by that house, shall be treated as amendments made by the House
of Lords and agreed to by the House of Commons; but the exercise
of this power by the House of Commons shall not affect the
operation of this section in the event of the bill being rejected by
the House of Lords.
" 3. .Any certificate of the Speaker of the House of Commons
given under this act shall be conclusive for all purposes, and shall
not be questioned in any court of law.
" 4. Nothing in this act shall diminish or qualify the existing
rights and privileges of the House of Commons.
" 5. Five years shall be substituted for seven years as the time
fixed for the maximum duration of parliament under the Septennial
Act 1715."
M.eanwhile, in the House of Lords, Lord Rosebery had carried
three resolutions declaring certain principles for the reform of
the second chamber, which were assented to by the Unionist
leaders; the policy opposed to that of the government thus
became that of willingness for reform of the constitution of
the Upper Chamber, but not for abolition of its powers.
Lord Rosebery's Resolutions. — (l) " That a strong and efficient
Second Chamber is not merely an integral part of the British Con-
stitution, but is necessary to the well-being of the State and to
the balance of Parliament." (2) " Such a Chamber can best be
obtained by the reform and reconstitution of the House of Lords."
(3) " That a necessary preliminary to such reform and reconstitution
IS the acceptance of the principle that the possession of a peerage
should no longer of itself give the right to sit and vote in the House
of Lords."
During the summer and autumn the private meetings
between the eight leaders were continued, until twenty had
been held. But on the loth of November Mr Asquith issued a
brief statement that the conference on the constitutional
question had come to an end, without arriving at an agree-
ment. Within a few days he announced that another appeal
would at once be made to the electorate. The Parliament
Bill was hurriedly introduced into the House of Lords, with a
statement by Lord Crewe that no amendments would be
accepted. The dissolution was fixed for the 28th of November.
Time was short for any declaration of policy by the Unionist
peers, but it was given shape at once, first by the adoption of
a further resolution moved by Lord Rosebery for the remodel-
ling of the Upper House, and secondly by Lord Lansdowne's
shelving the Parliament Bill by coupling the adjournment of
the debate on it with the adoption of resolutions providing
for the settlement of differences between a reconstituted
Upper House and the House of Commons.
Lord Rosebery's additional resolution provided that " in future
the House of Lords shall consist of Lords of Parliament: (a) chosen
by the whole body of hereditary peers from among themselves
and by nomination by the Crown; (i) sitting by virtue of offices
and of qualifications held by them; (c) chosen from outside." The
Lansdowne resolutions provided in effect that, when the House of
Lords had been " reconstituted and reduced in numbers " in accor-
dance with Lord Rosebery's plan, (i) any differences arising between
the two houses with regard to a Bill other than a Money Bill, in
two successive sessions, and within an interval of not less than one
year, should be settled, if not adjustable otherwise, in a joint
sitting composed of members of both houses, except in the case of
" a matter which is of great gravity and has not been adequately
submitted to the judgment of the people," which should then be
" submitted for decision to the electors by Referendum "; (2) and
as to Money Bills, the Lords were prepared to forgo their constitu-
tional right of rejection or amendment, if effectual provision were
made against " tacking," the decision whether other than financial
matters were dealt with in the Bill resting with a joint committee
of both Houses, with the Speaker of the House of Commons as
chairman, having a casting vote only.
The general election took place in December, and resulted
practically in no change from the previous situation. Both
sides won and lost seats, and the eventual numbers were:
Liberals 272, Labour 42, Irish Nationalists 84 (8 being " inde-
pendents" following Mr William O'Brien), Unionists 272.
Thus, including the doubtful votes of the 8 Independent
Nationalists, Mr Asquith retained an apparent majority of 126
for the ministerial policy, resting as it did on the determination
of the Irish Nationalists to pave the way for Home Rule by
destroying the veto of the House of Lords.
B. House of Commons Internal Reforms. — We have already
sketched the main lines of English parliamentary procedure.
Until the forms of the House of Commons were openly utilized
to delay the progress of government business by what became
known as " obstruction " the changes made in the years
following 1832 were comparatively insignificant. They con-
sisted in (i) the discontinuance of superfluous forms, questions
and amendments; (2) restrictions of debates upon questions of
form; (3) improved arrangements for the distribution of busi-
ness; (4) the delegation of some of the minor functions of the
house to committees and officers of the house; and (5") increased
publicity in the proceedings of the house. But with the entry
of Mr Parnell and his Irish Nationalist followers into parlia-
ment (1875-1880) a new era began in the history of the House
of Commons. Their tactics were to oppose all business of
whatever kind, and at all hours.
It was not until February 1880 that the house so far overcame
its reluctance to restrict liberty of discussion as to pass, in its
earliest form, the rule dealing with " order in debate." It
provided that whenever a member was named by the Speaker
or chairman as " disregarding the authority of the chair, or
abusing the rules of the house by persistently and wilfully
obstructing the rules of the house," a motion might be made,
to be decided without amendment or debate, for his suspension
from the service of the house during the remainder of the sitting;
and that if the same member should be suspended three times
848
PARLIAMENT
in one session, his suspension on the third occasion should
continue for a week, and until a motion had been made upon
which it should be decided, at one sitting, by the house, whether
the suspension should then cease or not. The general election,
which took place two months later, restored Mr Gladstone to
power and to the leadership of the house. Mr Parnell returned
to parliament with a more numerous following, and resumed his
former tactics. In January 1881 the Protection of Persons and
Property (Ireland) Bill was introduced. For twenty-two hours
Parnell fought the motion giving precedence to the bill, and for
four sittings its introduction. The fourth sitting lasted forty-
one hours. Then Mr Speaker Brand intervened, and declined
to call on any other member who might rise to address the
house, because repeated dilatory motions had been supported
by small minorities in opposition to the general sense of the
house. He added: " A crisis has thus arisen which demands
the prompt interposition of the chair and of the house. The
usual rules have proved powerless to ensure orderly and effective
debate. An important measure, recommended by Her Majesty
nearly a month since, and declared to be urgent in the interests
of the state by a decisive majority, is being arrested by the
action of an inconsiderable minority, the members of which
have resorted to those modes of obstruction which have been
recognized by the house as a parliamentary offence. The dignity,
the credit, and the authority of this house are seriously threat-
ened, and it is necessary they should be vindicated. . . . Future
measures for ensuring orderly debate I must leave to the judg-
ment of the house. But the house must either assume more
effectual control over its debates, or entrust greater powers to
the chair." The Speaker then put the question, which was
carried by an overwhelming majority. Then followed the
decisive struggle. Mr Gladstone gave notice for the next day
(Feb. 3) of an urgency rule, which ordered, " That if the
house shall resolve by a majority of three to one that the state
of public business is urgent, the whole power of the house to
make rules shall be and remain with the Speaker until he shall
declare that the state of public business is no longer urgent."
On the next day a scene of great disorder ended in the suspension
of the Nationalist members, at first singly, and afterwards in
groups. The urgency rule was then passed without further
difficulty, and the house proceeded to resolve, " That the state
of pubhc business is urgent." The Speaker laid upon the table
rules of sufficient stringency, and while they remained in force
progress in public business was possible. During this session the
Speaker had to intervene on points of order 935 times, and the
chairman of committees 939 times; so that, allowing only five
minutes on each occasion, the wrangUng between the chair and
members occupied 1 50 hours.
The events of the session of 1881 and the direct appeal of the
Speaker to the house proved the necessity of changes in the rules
■w.. ^ — of procedure more drastic than had hitherto been
The Closure. ,. ,.,.,r ir,
proposed. Accordingly, m the first week of the
session of 1882 Mr Gladstone laid his proposals on the table,
and in moving the first resolution on 20th February, he reviewed,
in an eloquent speech, the history of the standing orders. It
was his opinion, on general grounds, that the house should
settle its own procedure, but he showed that the numerous
committees which, since 1832, had sat on the subject, had failed
for the most part to carry their recommendations into effect
from the lack of the requisite " propelling power," and he
expressed his regret that the concentration of this power in the
hands of the government had rendered it necessary that they
should undertake a task not properly theirs. He noted two main
features in the history of the case: (i) the constantly increasing
labours of the house, and (2) its constantly decreasing power to
despatch its duties; and while he declared that " the fundamental
change which has occurred is owing to the passing of the first
great Reform Bill," he pointed out that the strain had not
become intolerable till the development in recent years of ob-
structive tactics. He defined obstruction as " the disposition
either of the minority of the house, or of individuals, to resist
the prevailing will of the house otherwise than by argument," and
reached the conclusion that the only remedy for a state of things
by which the dignity and efficiency of the house were alike
compromised, was the adoption in a carefully guarded form of the
process known on the Continent as the " cloture." He explained
that in his early years the house was virtually possessed of a
closing power, because it was possessed of a means of sufficiently
making known its inchnations; and to those inclinations uniform
deference was paid by members, but that since this moral
sanction had ceased to be operative, it was necessary to substitute
for it a written law. The power to close debate had been of
necessity assumed by almost all the European and American
assemblies, the conduct of whose members was shaped by no
traditional considerations; and the entry into parliament of a
body of men to whom the traditions of the house were as nothing
made it necessary for the House of Commons to follow this
example. He proposed, therefore, that when it appeared to the
Speaker, or to the chairman of committees, during any debate to
be the evident sense of the house, or of the committee, that the
question be now put, he might so inform the house, and that
thereupon on a motion being made, " That the question be now
put," the question under discussion should be forthwith put from
the chair, and decided in the affirmative if supported by more
than 200 members, or. when less than 40 members had voted
against it, by more than 100 members. This resolution was
vehemently contested by the opposition, who denounced it as an
unprecedented interference with the liberty of debate, but was
eventually carried in the autumn session of the same year, after
a discussion extending over nineteen sittings.
On the 20th of November the standing order of the 28th of
February 1880, providing for the suspension of members who
persistently and wilfully obstructed the business of the house or
disregarded the authority of the chair, was amended by the in-
crease of the penalty to suspension on the first occasion for one
week, on the second occasion for a fortnight, and on the third,
or any subsequent occasion, for a month. The other rules,
framed with a view to freeing the wheels of the parliamentary
machine, and for the most part identical with the regulations
adopted by Mr Speaker Brand under the urgency resolution of
1881, were carried in the course of the autumn session, and
became standing orders on the 27th of November.
Mr Gladstone's closure rule verified neither the hopes of its
supporters nor the fears of its opponents. It was not put into
operation until the 20th of February 1885, when the Speaker's
declaration of the evident sense of the house was ratified by a
majority of 207 — a margin of but seven votes over the necessary
quorum. It was clear that no Speaker was likely to run the risk
of a rebuff by again assuming the initiative unless in the face
of extreme urgency, and, in fact, the rule was enforced twice only
during the five years of its e.xistence.
In 1887 the Conservative government, before the introduction
of a new Crimes Act for Ireland, gave efficiency to the rule by
an important amendment. They proposed that any member
during a debate might claim to move. " That the question be
now put," and that with the consent of the chair this question
should be put forthwith, and decided without amendment or
debate. Thus the initiative was transferred from the Speaker
to the house. Mr Gladstone objected strongly to this alteration,
chiefly on the ground that it would throw an unfair burden of
responsibility upon the Speaker, who would now have to decide
on a question of opinion, whereas under the old rule he was only
called upon to determine a question of evident fact. The
alternative most generally advocated by the opposition was the
automatic closure by a bare majority at the end of each sitting,
an arrangement by which the chair would be relieved from an
invidious responsibility; but it was pointed out that under such a
system the length of debates would not vary with the importance
of the questions debated. After fourteen sittings the closure rule
was passed on the i8th of March and made a standing order.
In the next session, on the 28th of February 1888, the rule
was yet further strengthened by the reduction of the majority
necessary for its enforcement from 200 to 100, the closure rule
remaining as follows: —
PARLIAMENT
849
That, after a question has been proposed, a member rising in
his place may claim to move, " That the question be now put,"
and, unless it shall appear to the chair that such motion is an abuse
of the rules of the house or an infringement of the rights of the
minority, the question, " That the question be now put," shall be
put forthwith, and decided without amendment or debate.
When the motion " That the question be now put " has been
carried, and the question consequent thereon has been decided,
any further motion may be made (the assent of the chair as afore-
said not having been withheld), which may be requisite to bring
to a decision any question already proposed from the chair; and
also if a clause be then under consideration, a motion may be
made (the assent of the chair as aforesaid not having been with-
held), " That the question ' That certain words of the clause defined
in the motion stand part of the clause,' or ' That the clause stand
part of, or be added to, the bill,' be now put." Such motions shall
be put forthwith, and decided without amendment or debate.
That questions for the closure of debate shall be decided in the
affirmative, if, when a division be taken, it appears by the numbers
declared from the chair that not less than one hundred members
voted in the majority in support of the motion.
The closure, originally brought into being to defeat the tactics
of obstruction in special emergencies, thus became a part of
parliamentary routine. And, the principle being
Gu/7/otfne. °"'^'^ accepted, its operation was soon extended.
The practice of retarding the progress of govern-
ment measures by amendments moved to every line, adopted
by both the great political parties when in opposition, led
to the use of what became known as the " guillotine," for
forcing through parliament important bills, most of the
clauses in which were thus undiscussed. The " guillotine,"
means that the house decides how much time shall be devoted
to certain stages of a measure, definite dates being laid down
at which the closure shall be enforced and division taken. On
the 17th of June 1887, after prolonged debates on the Crimes
Bill in committee, clause 6 only having been reached, the
remaining 14 clauses were put without discussion, and the bill
was reported in accordance with previous notice. This was the
first use of the " guillotine," but the precedent was followed by
Mr Gladstone in 1893, when many of the clauses of the Home
Rule Bill were carried through committee and on report by the
same machinery. To the Conservatives must be imputed the in-
vention of this method of legislation, to their opponents the use
of it for attempting to carry a great constitutional innovation
to which the majority of English and Scottish representatives
were opposed, and subsequently its extension and development
(1906-1009) as a regular part of the legislative machinery.
The principle of closure has been extended even to the debates
on supply. The old rule, that the redress of grievances should
precede the granting of money, dating from a time
"PP y "*'Yvijgjj jijg minister of the Crown was so far from
commanding the confidence of the majority in the House of
Commons that he was the chief object of their attacks, neverthe-
less continued to govern the proceedings of the house in relation
to supply without much resultant inconvenience, until the period
when the new methods adopted by the Irish Nationalist party
created a new situation. Until 1872 it continued to be possible
to discuss any subject by an amendment to the motion for going
into supply. In that year a resolution was passed limiting the
amendments to matters relevant to the class of estimates about
to be considered, and these relevant amendments were further
restricted to the first day on which it was proposed to go into
committee. This resolution was continued in 1873, but was
allowed to drop in 1874. It was revived in a modified form in
1876, but was again allowed to drop in 1877. In 1879, on the
recommendation of the Northcote committee, it was provided
in a sessional order that whenever the committees of supply or
of ways and means stood as the first order on a Monday, the
Speaker should leave the chair without question put, except on
first going into committee on the army, navy and civil service
estimates respectively. In 1882 Thursday was added to Monday
for the purposes of the order, and, some further exceptions
having been made to the operation of the rule, it became a
standing order. The conditions, however, under which the
estimates were voted remained unsatisfactory. The most
useful function of the opposition is the exposure of abuses in the
various departments of administration, and this can best be
performed upon the estimates. But ministers, occupied with
their legislative proposals, were irresistibly temjited to post[)one
the consideration of the estimates until the last weeks of the
session, when they were hurried through thin houses, the members
of which were impatient to be gone. To meet this abuse, and
to distribute the time with some regard to the comparative
importance of the subjects discussed, Mr Balfour in 1896 proposed
and carried a sessional order for the closure of supply, a maxi-
mum of twenty-three days being given to its consideration, of
which the last three alone might be taken after the 5th of
August. On the last but one of the allotted days at 10 o'clock
the chairman was to put the outstanding votes, and on the last
day the Speaker was to put the remaining questions necessary
to complete the reports of supply. In 1901 Mr Balfour so
altered the resolution that the question was put, not with
respect to each vote, but to each class of votes in the Civil
Service estimates, and to the total amounts of the outstanding
votes in the army, navy and revenue estimates.
It is only possible here to refer briefly to some other changes
in the procedure of the house which altered in various respects
its character as a business-like assembly. The chief other
of these is as regards the hours. On Mondays, Changes in
Tuesdays, Wednesdays and Thursdays the house 'Wet/iods.
meets at 2.45 p.m., " questions " beginning at 3 and ending
(apart from urgency) at 3.45; and opposed business ends at ii.
On Fridays the house meets at 12 noon, and opposed business
is suspended at 5 p.m.; this is the only day when government
business has not precedence, and private members' bills have the
first call, though at 8.15 p.m. on Tuesdays and Wednesdays up
to Easter and on Wednesdays up to Whitsuntide the business
is interrupted in order that private members' motions may be
taken. These arrangements, which only date from 1906,
represent a considerable change from the old days before 1879
when the standing order was formed that no opposed business,
with certain exceptions, should be taken after 12.30 a.m.,
or 1888 when the closing hour was fixed at midnight. In fact
the hours of the house have become generally earlier. Another
important change has been made as regards motions for the
adjournment of the house, which used to afford an opportunity
to the private members at any time to discuss matters of urgent
importance. Since 1902 no motion for the adjournment of the
house can be made until all " questions " have been disposed of,
and then, if forty members support it, the debate takes place at
8.15 p.m. This alteration has much modified the character of
the debates on such motions, which used to be taken when feel-
ings were hot, whereas now there is time for reflection. In other
respects the most noticeable thing in the recent evolution of the
House of Commons has been its steady loss of power, as an
assembly, in face of the control of the government and party
leaders. In former times the private members had far larger
opportunities for introducing and carrying bills, which now have
no chance, unless the government affords " facilities "; and the
great function of debating " supply " has largely been restricted
by the closure, under which millions of money are voted without
debate. The house is still ruled by technical rules of procedure
which are, in the main, dilatory and obstructive, and hamper the
expression of views which are distasteful to the Whips or to the
government, who can by them arrange the business so as to suit
their convenience. It is true indeed that this dilatory character
of the proceedings assists to encourage debate, within limits;
but with the influx of a new class of representatives, especially
the Labour members, there has been in recent years a rather
pronounced feeling that the procedure of the house might weU
be drastically revised with the object of making it a more
business-like assembly. Reform of the House of Commons has
been postponed to some extent because reform of the House of
Lords has, to professed reformers, been a better " cry "; but
when reform is once " in the air " in parliament it is not likely
to stop, with so large a field of antiquated procedure before it as
is represented by many of the traditional methods of the House
of Commons. (H. Ch.)
850
PARMA
PARMA, a town and episcopal see of Emilia, Italy, capital
of the province of Parma, situated on the Parma, a tributary of
the Po, 55 m. N.W. of Bologna by rail. Pop. (1906), 48,523.
Parma, one of the finest cities of northern Italy, lies in a fertile
tract of the Lombard plain, within view of the Alps and sheltered
by the Apennines, 170 ft. above sea-level. From south to north
it is traversed by the channel of the Parma, crossed here by three
bridges; and from east to west runs the line of the Via Aemilia,
by which ancient Parma was connected on the one hand with
Ariminum (Rimini), and on the other with Placcntia (Piacenza).
The old ramparts and bastions (excluding the circuit of the citadel
of 1591, now in great part demolished, in the south-east) make
an enceinte of about 45 m., but the enclosed area is not all
occupied by streets and houses.
In the centre of the city the Via Aemiha widens out into the
Piazza Garibaldi, a large square which contains the Palazzo del
Governo and the Palazzo Municipale, both dating from 1627.
The cathedral of the Assumption (originally S. Herculanus),
erected between 1064 and 1074, and consecrated in 1106 by
Pope Paschal II., is a Lombardo-Romanesque building in the
form of a Latin cross. The severe west front is reUeved by three
rows of semicircular arches, and has a central porch (there were
at one time three) supported by huge red marble lions, sculptured
no doubt with the rest of the fagade by Giovanni Bono da Bissone
in 1 281. On the south side of the fafadc is a large brick campa-
nile, and the foundations of another may be seen on the north.
The walls and ceiling of the fine Rom_ancsque interior are covered
with frescoes of 1570, subdued in colour and well suited to the
character of the building; those of the octagonal cupola repre-
senting the Assumption of the Virgin are by Correggio, but much
restored. The crypt contains the shrine of the bishop S. Bernar-
dino degli Uberti and the tomb of Bartolommeo Prato — the
former by Prospero Clementi of Reggio. In the sacristy are fine
intarsias. To the south-west of the cathedral stands the baptis-
tery, designed by Benedetto Antelami; it was begun in 1196 and
not completed till 1281. The whole structure is composed of red
and grey Verona marble. Externally it is an irregular octagon,
each face consisting of a lower storey with a semicircular arch
(in three cases occupied by a portal), with sculptures by Antelami,
four tiers of small columns supporting as many continuous
architraves, and forming open galleries, and above these (an
addition of the Gothic period) a row of five engaged columns
supporting a series of pointed arches and a cornice. Internally
it is a polygon of sixteen unequal sides, and the cupola is supported
by sixteen ribs, springing from the same number of columns.
The frescoes are interesting works of the early 13th century. In
the centre is an octagonal font bearing date 1294. The episcopal
palace shows traces of the building of 1232. To the east of
the cathedral, and at no great distance, stands the church of
S. Giovanni Evangelista, which was founded along with the
Benedictine monastery in 981, but as a building dates from 1510,
and has a fagade erected by Simone Moschino early in the 17th
century. The interior is an extremely fine early Renaissance
work. The frescoes on the cupola representing the vision of
S. John are by Correggio, and the arabesques on the vault of
the nave by Anselmi. The Madonna della Steccata (Our Lady of
the Palisade), a fine church in the form of a Greek cross, erected
between 1521 and 1539 after Zaccagni's designs, contai'ns the
tombs and monuments of many of the Bourbon and Farnese
dukes of Parma, and preserves its pictures, Parmigiano's
" Moses Breaking the Tables of the Law " and Anselmi's " Coro-
nation of the Virgin." S. Francesco, probably the earhest
Franciscan church in northern Italy (i 230-1 298; now a prison),
is a Gothic building in brick with a fine rose-window. The
Palazzo della Pilotta is a vast and irregular group of buildings
dating mainly from the T6th and i7Lh centuries; it now com-
prises the academy of fine arts (1752) and its valuable picture
gallery. Among the most celebrated pictures here are Cor-
reggio's " Madonna di San Girolamo " and " Madonna della
Scodella." The Teatro Farnese, a remarkable wooden structure
erected in 1618-1619 from Aleotti d'.-Xrgenta's designs, and
capable of containing 4500 persons, is also in this palace. There
are other beautiful ceiling frescoes by Correggio in the former
Benedictine nunnery of S. Paolo, executed in 1518-1519; in an
adjoining chamber are fine arabesques by Araldi (d. 1528);
thence come also some fine majolica tiles (1471-1482), now in
the museum. The royal university of Parma, founded in 1601
by Ranuccio I., and reconstituted by Philip of Bourbon in 1768,
has faculties in law, medicine and natural science, and possesses
an observatory, and natural science collections, among which is
the Eritrean Zoological Museum. A very considerable trade is
carried on at Parma in grain, cattle and the dairy produce of the
district. The grana cheese known as Parmesan is not now so
well made at Parma as in some other parts of Italy — Lodi, for
example.
From archaeological discoveries it would appear that the
ancient town was preceded by a prehistoric settlement of the
Bronze Age, the dwellings of which rested upon piles — one,
indeed, of the so-called terremare, which are especially frequent in
the neighbourhood of Parma. Parma became a Roman colony
of 2000 colonists in 183 B.C., four years after the construction of
the Via Aemilia, on which it lay. The bridge by which the Via
Aemiha crossed the river Parma, from which it probably takes
its name, is still preserved, but has been much altered. A bishop
of Parma is mentioned in the acts of the council of Rome of a.d.
378. It fell into the power of Alboin in 569 and became the seat
of a Lombard duchy; it was still one of the wealthiest cities of
Aemilia in the Lombard period. During the nth, 12th and 13th
centuries Parma had its full share of the Guelph and Ghibelline
struggles, in which it mainly took the part of the former, and also
carried on repeated hostilities with Borgo San Donnino and
Piacenza. Its bishop Cadalus (1046-107 1) was elected to the
papacy by the Lombard and German bishoDS in 1061, and
marched on Rome, but was driven back by the partisans
of Alexander III. To him is due the building of the
cathedral. As a republic its government was mainly in
the hands of the Rossi, Pallavicino, Correggio and Sanvi-
tale famihes. The fruitless siege of Parma in 1248 was the
last effort of Frederick II. In the cathedral flags captured
in this siege are preserved. In 1307 the city becatne a
lordship for Giberto da Correggio, who laid the basis of its
territorial power by conquering Reggio, Brescello and Gaustalla,
and was made commander-in-chief of the Guelphs by Robert of
Apulia. The Correggio family never managed to keep possession
of it for long, and in 1346 they sold it to the Visconti (who
constructed a citadel. La Rocchetta, in 1356, of which some
remains exist on the east bank of the river, while the later tete du
pout may be seen en the west bank), and from them it passed to
the Sforza. Becoming subject to Pope Julius II. in 1512, Parma
remained (in spite of the French occupation from 1515 to 1521) a
papal possession till 1545, when Paul III. (Alexander Farnese)
invested his son Pierluigi with the duchies of Parma and Piacenza.
There were eight dukes of Parma of the Farnese line — Pierluigi
(d. 1547), Ottavio (1586), Alessandro (1592), Ranuccio I. (1622),
Odoardo (1646), Ranuccio II. (1694), Francesco (1727), Antonio
(1731). Antonio and Francesco both having died childless,
the duchy passed to Charles of Bourbon (Don Carlos), infante
of Spain, who, becoming king of Naples in 1734, surrendered
Parma and Piacenza to Austria, but retained the artistic
treasures of the Farnese dynast}' which he had removed from
Parma to Naples. Spain reconquered the duchies in the war of
succession (1745); they were recovered by Austria in 1746; and
Maria Theresa again surrendered them to Don Philip, infante of
Spain, in 1748. Ferdinand, Philip's son, who succeeded under
Dutillot's regency in 1765, saw his states occupied by the revolu-
tionary forces of France in 1796, and had to purchase his life-
interest with 6,000,000 lire and 25 of the best paintings in Parma.
On his death in 1802 the duchies were incorporated with the
French republic and his son Louis became " king of Etruria."
Parma was thus governed for several years by Moreau de Saint-
Mery and by Junot. At the congress of Vienna, Parma, Pia-
cenza and Guastalla were assigned to Marie Louise (daughter of
Francis I. of .Austria and Napoleon's second consort), and on her
death they passed in 1847 to Charles II. (son of Louis of Etruria
PARMENIDES OF ELEA
851
and Alarie Louise, daughter of Charles IV., king of Spain). The
new duke, unwiUing to yield to the wishes of his people for
greater political liberty, was soon compelled to take flight, and
the duchy was for a time ruled by a provisional government and
by Charles Albert of Sardinia; but in April 1S49 Baron d'Aspre
with 15,000 Austrians took possession of Parma, and the ducal
government was restored under Austrian protection. Charles II.
(who had in 1S20 married Theresa, daughter of Victor Emmanuel
of Sardinia) abdicated in favour of his son Charles III., on the
14th of March, 1849. On the assassination of Charles III. in
1S54, his widow, Marie Louise (daughter of Ferdinand, prince of
.\rtois and duke of Berry), became regent for her son Robert. In
i860 his possessions were formally incorporated with the new
kingdom of Italy.
The duchy of Parma in 1849 had an area of 2376 sq. m.
divided into five provinces — Borgo San Donnino, Valditaro,
Parma, Lunigiana Parmense and Piacenza. Its population in
1S51 was 497,343. Under Marie Louise (1815-1847) the
territory of Guastalla (50 sq. m.) formed part of the duchy,
but it was transferred in 1847 to Modena in exchange for the
communes of Bagnone, Filattiera, &c., which went to constitute
the Lunigiana Parmense.
See AfFo, Sloria di Parma (1792-1795); Scarabelli, Sloria dei
diicali di Parma, Piacenza, e Guastalla (1858); Buttafuoco, Dizion.
corogr. dei ducati, &c. (1853); Moti. hist, ad provincias parmensein
et placentinam pertinentia (1855, &c.); L. Testi, Parma (Bergamo,
1905)-
PARMENIDES OF ELEA (Velia) in Italy, Greek philosopher.
.\ccording to Diogenes Laertius he was " in his prime " 504-500
B.C., and would thus seem to have been born about 539. Plato
indeed (Parmenidcs, 1 27 B) makes Socrates see and hear Parmen-
ides when the latter was about sixty-five years of age, in which
case he cannot have been born before 519; but in the absence of
evidence that any such meeting took place this may be regarded
as one of Plato's anachronisms. However this may be, Parmen-
ides was a contemporary, probably a younger contemporary, of
Heraclitus, with whom the first succession of physicists ended,
while Empedocles and Ana.xagoras, with whom the second
succession of physicists began, were very much his juniors.
Belonging, it is said, to a rich and distinguished family, Parmen-
ides attached himself, at any rate for a time, to the aristocratic
society or brotherhood which Pythagoras had established at
Croton; and accordingly one part of his system, the physical
part, is apparently Pythagorean. To Xenophanes, the founder
of Eleaticism — whom he must have known, even if he was never
in any strict sense of the word his disciple — Parmenides was,
perhaps, more deeply indebted, as the theological speculations of
that thinker unquestionably suggested to him the theory of
Being and Not-Being, of the One and the Many, by .vhich he
sought to reconcile Ionian " monism," or rather " hcnism," with
Italiote dualism. Tradition relates that Parmen'.les Lamed laws
for the Eleates, who each year took an oath to observe them.
Parmenides embodied his tenets in a short poem, called
Nature, of which fragments, amounting in all to about 160
Lines, have been preserved in the writings of Sextus Empi-
ricus, Simplicius and others. It is traditionally divided into
three parts — the "Proem," "Truth " {tcl-kpo^ aKi]dti.a.v), and
"Opinion" (to. -rrposbb^av). In "Truth," starting from the
formula " the Ent (or existent) is, the Nonent(or non-existent)
is not," Parmenides attempted to distinguish between the unity
or universal element of nature and its variety or particularity,
insisting upon the reality of its unity, which is therefore the
object of knowledge, and upon the unreality of its variety, which
is therefore the object, not of knowledge, but of opinion. In
" Opinion " he propounded a theory of the world of seeming
and its developm.ent, pointing out however that, in accord-
ance with the principles already laid down, these cosmological
speculations do not pretend to anything more than probability.
In spite of the contemptuous remarks of Cicero and Plutarch
about Parmenides's versification. Nature is not without literary
merit. The introduction, though rugged, is forcible and
picturesque; and the rest of the poem is written in a simple and
effective style suitable to the subject.
Proem. — In the " Proem " the poet describes his journey from
darkness to light. Borne in a whirling chariot, and attended by
the daughters of the sun, he reaches a temple sacred to an unnamed
goddess (variously identified by the commentators with Nature,
Wisdom or ThemisJ, by whom the rest of the poem is spoken. He
must learn all things, she tells him, both truth, which is certain,
and human opinions; for, though in human opinions there can be
no"true faith," they must be studied notwithstanding for what they
are worth.
Truth. — " Truth " begins with the declaration of Parmenides's
principle in opposition to the principles of his predecessors. There
are three ways of research, and three ways only. Of these, one
a.sserts the non-existence of the existent and the existence of the
non-e.xistent [i.e. Thales, Anaximander and Ana.ximenes suppose
the single element which they respectively postulate to be trans-
formed into the various sorts of matter which they discover in the
world around them, thus assuming the non-existence of that which
is elemental and the existence of that which is non-elemental];
another, pursued by " restless " persons, whose " road returnj upon
itself." assumes that a thing " is and is not," " is the same and
not the same " [an obvious reference, as Bernays points out in the
Rheinisches Museum, vii. 114 seq., to Heraclitus, the philosopher of
flux]. These are ways of error, because they confound existence
and non-existence. In contrast to them the way of truth starts
from the proposition that " the Ent is, the Nonent is not."
On the strength of the fundamental distinction between the Ent
and the Nonent, the goddess next announces certain characteristics
of the former. The Ent is uncreated, for it cannot be derived
either from the Ent or from the Nonent; it is imperishable, for it
cannot pass into the Nonent ; it is whole, indivisible, continuous,
for nothing exists to break its continuity in space; it is unchangeable
[for nothing exists to break its continuity in time] ; it is perfect,
for there is nothing which it can want ; it never was, nor will be,
but only is; it is evenly extended in every direction, and therefore
a sphere, exactly balanced; it is identical with thought [i.e. it is
the object, and the sole object, of thought as opposed to sensation,
sensation being concerned with variety and change].
As then the Ent is one, invariable and immutable, all plurality,
variety and mutation belong to the Nonent. Whence it follows
that all things to which men attribute reality, generation and
destruction, being and not-being, change of place, alteration of
colour are no more than empty words.
Opinion. — The investigation of the Ent [i.e. the existent unity,
extended throughout space and enduring throughout time, which
reason discovers beneath the variety and the mutability of things]
being now complete, it remains in " Opinion " to describe the
plurality of things, not as they are, for they are not, but as they
seem to be. In the phenomenal world then, there are, it has been
fhought [and Parmenides accepts the theory, which appears to
be of Pythagorean origin], two primary elements — namely, fire,
which is gentle, thin, homogeneous, and night, which is dark,
thick, heavy. Of these elements [which, according to Aristotle,
were, or rather were analogous to, the Ent and the Nonent
respectively] all things consist, and from them they derive their
several characteristics. The foundation for a cosmology having
thus been laid in dualism, the poem went on to describe the genera-
tion of " earth and sun, and moon and air that is common to all,
and the milky way, and furthest Olympus, and the glowing stars ";
but the scanty fragments which have sur\-ived suffice o..ly to show
that Parmenides regarded the universe as a series of concentric
rings or spheres composed of the two primary elements and of
combinations of them, the whole system being directed by an
unnamed goddess established at its centre. Next came a theory of
animal development. This again was followed by a psychology,
which made thought [as well as sensation, which was conceived to
differ from thought only in respect of its object] depend upon the
excess of the one or the other of the two constituent elements, fire
and night. " Such, opinion tells us, was the generation, such is the
present existence, such will be the end, of those things to which
men have given distinguishing names."
In the truism "the Ent is, the Nonent is not," 6v ean, yui) 6v
ovK ecTTL, Parmenides breaks with his predecessors, the physicists of
the Ionian succession. Asking themselves — What is the material
universe, they had replied respectively — It is water. It is fiera^v
TL, It is air. It is fire. Thus, while their question meant, or
ought to have meant. What is the single element which
underlies the apparent plurality of the material world? their
answers, Parmenides conceived, by attributing to the selected
clement various and varying qualities, reintroduced the plurality
which the question sought to eliminate. If we would discover
that which is common to all things at all times, we must, he
submitted, exclude the differences of things, whether simul-
taneous or successive. Hence, whereas his predecessors had
confounded that which is universally existent with that which is
not universally existent, he proposed to distinguish carefully
between that which is universally existent and that which is
852
PARMENIDES OF ELEA
not universally existent, between ov and /117 6v. The fundamental
truism is the epigrammatic assertion of this distinction.
In short, the single corporeal element of the Ionian physicists
was, to borrow a phrase from Aristotle, a permanent ovala having
irddr] which change; but they either neglected the iradr] or con-
founded them with the ovala. Parmenides sought to reduce the
variety of nature to a single material element; but he strictly
discriminated the inconstant iraOi] from the constant ovcrla, and,
understanding by " existence " universal, invariable, immutable
being, refused to attribute to the Tradri anything more than the
semblance of existence.
Having thus discriminated between the permanent unity of
nature and its superficial plurality, Parmenides proceeded to the
separate investigation of the Ent and the Nonent. The univer-
sality of the Ent, he conceived, necessarily carries with it certain
characteristics. It is one; it is eternal; it is whole and continu-
ous, both in time and in space; it is immovable and immutable;
it is limited, but limited only by itself; it is evenly extended in
every direction, and therefore spherical. These propositions
having been reached, apart from particular experience, by
reflection upon the fundamental principle, we have in them,
Parmenides conceived, a body of information resting upon a
firm basis and entitled to be caOed " truth." Further, the
information thus obtained is the sum total of "truth";
for, as " existence " in the strict sense of the word cannot be
attributed to anything besides the universal element, so nothing
besides the universal element can properly be said to be "known."
If Parmenides's poem had had " Being '.' for its subject it
would doubtless have ended at this point. Its subject is,
however, " Nature "; and nature, besides its unity, has also the
semblance, if no more than the semblance, of plurality. Hence
the theory of the unity of nature is necessarily followed by a
theory of its seeming plurality, that is to say, of the variety
and mutation of things. The theory of plurality cannot indeed
pretend to the certainty of the theory of unity, being of necessity
untrustworthy, because it is the partial and inconstant represen-
tation of that which is partial and inconstant in nature. But, as
the material world includes, together with a re?.l unity, the
semblance of plurality, so the theory of the material world
includes, together with the certain theory of the former, a
probable theory of the latter. " Opinion " is then no mere
excrescence; it is the necessary sequel to " Truth."
Thus, whereas the lonians, confounding the unity and the
plurahty of the universe, had neglected plurality, and the
Pythagoreans, contenting themselves with the reduction of the
variety of nature to a duality or a series of dualities, had neglected
unity, Parmenides, taking a hint from Xenophanes, made the
antagonistic doctrines supply one another's deficiencies; for, as
Xenophanes in his theological system had recognized at once the
unity of God and the plurahty of things, so Parmenides in his
system of nature recognized at once the rational unity of the Ent
and the phenomenal plurahty of the Nonent.
The foregoing statement of Parmenides's position differs from
Zeller's account of it in two important particulars. First,
whereas it has been assumed above that Xenophanes was
theologian rather than philosopher, whence it would seem to
follow that the philosophical doctrine of unity originated, not
with him, but with Parmenides, Zeller, supposing Xenophanes
to have taught, not merely the um'ty of God, but also the unity
of Being, assigns to Parmenides no more than an exacter con-
ception of the doctrine of the unity of Being, the justification
of that doctrine, and the denial of the plurality and the mut-
ability of things. This view of the relations of Xenophanes and
Parmenides is not borne out by their writings; and, though
ancient authorities may be quoted in its favour, it would seem
that in this case as in others, they have fallen into the easy
mistake of confounding successive phases of doctrine, " constru-
ing the utterances of the master in accordance with the principles
of his scholar — the vague by the more definite, the simpler by
the more finished and elaborate theory " (W. H. Thompson).
Secondly, whereas it has been argued above that " Opinion " is
necessarily included in the system, ZeUer, supposing Parmenides
to deny the Nonent even as a matter of opinion, regards that part
of the poem which has opinion for its subject as no more than a
revised and im.proved statement of the views of opponents,
introduced in order that the reader, having before him the false
doctrine as well as the true one, may be led the more certainly
to embrace the latter. In the judgment of the present writer,
Parmenides, while he denied the real existence of plurahty,
recognized its apparent existence, and consequently, however
little value he might attach to opinion, was bound to take
account of it : " pour celui meme qui nie I'existence reelle de la
nature," says Renouvier, " il restc encore a faire une histoire
naturelle de I'apparence et de I'illusion."
The teaching of Parmenides variously influenced both his
immediate successors and subsequent thinkers. By his recog-
nition of an apparent plurahty supplementary to the real unity,
he effected the transition from the " monism " or " henism " of the
first physical succession to the " pluralism " of the second. While
Empedocles and Democritus are careful to emphasize their
dissent from " Truth," it is obvious that " Opinion " is the basis
of their cosmologies. The doctrine of the deceitfulness of " the
undiscerning eye and the echoing ear " soon estabhshed itself,
though the grounds upon which Empedocles, Anaxagoras and
Democritus maintained it were not those which were alleged by
Parmenides. Indirectly, through the dialectic of his pupil and
friend Zeno and otherwise, the doctrine of the inadequacy of
sensation led to the humanist movement, which for a time
threatened to put an end to philosophical and scientific specula-
tion. But the positive influence of Parmenides's teaching was
not yet exhausted. To say that the Platonism of Plato's
later years, the Platonism of the Parmenides, the Philcbus and
the Timaeus, is the philosophy of Parmenides enlarged and
reconstituted, may perhaps seem paradoxical in the face of the
severe criticism to which Eleaticism is subjected, not only in the
Parmenides, but also in the Sophist. The criticism was, however,
preparatory to a reconstruction. Thus may be explained the
selection of an Eleatic stranger to be the chief speaker in the
latter, and of Parmenides himself to take the lead in the former.
In the Sophist criticism predominates over reconstruction, the
Zenonian logic being turned against the Parmenides metaphysic
in such a way as to show that both the one and the other need
revision: see 241 D, 244 B seq., 257 B seq., 258 D. In particular,
Plato taxes Parmenides with his inconsistency in attributing
(as he certainly did) to the fundamental unity extension and
sphericity, so that " the worshipped ov is after all a pitiful //ij bv "
(W. H. Thompson). In the Parmenides reconstruction pre-
dominates over criticism — the letter of Eleaticism being here
represented by Zeno, its spirit, as Plato conceived it, by Parmen-
ides. Not the least important of the results obtained in this
dialogue is the discovery that, whereas the doctrine of the
"one" and the "many" is suicidal and barren so long as the
"solitary one" and the "indefinitely many" are absolutely
separated (137 C seq. and 163 B seq.), it becomes consistent and
fruitful as soon as a " definite plurality " is interpolated between
them (142 B seq., 157 B seq., 160 B seq.). In short, Parmenides
was no idealist, but Plato recognized in him, and rightly, the
precursor of idealism.
Bibliography. — The fragments have been skilfully edited by
H. Diels, in Parmenides Lehrgedicht, griechisch v. deutsch (Berlin,
1897), with commentarj'; in Poeiarum philosophorum fragntenta,
with brief Latin notes, critical and interpretative (Berlin, 1901);
and in Die Fragmente d. Vorsokraliker (Berlin, 2nd ed., 1906), with
German translation) ; and Diels' text is reproduced with a helpful
Latin commentary in Ritter and Preller's Historia philosophiae
graecae (8th ed., revised by E. VVellmann, Gotha, 1898). The
philosophical system is expounded and discussed by E. Zeller,
D. Philosophie d. Griechen (5th ed., Leipzig, 1892; Eng. trans.,
London, 1881); by T. Gomperz, Griechische Denker (Leipzig,
1896; Eng. trans., London, 1901); and by J. Burnet, Early
Greek Phihsophy (London, 1908). For the cosmology, see A. B.
Krische, D. theologischen Lehren d. griechischen Denker (Gottingen,
1840). On the relations of Eleaticism and Platonism, see W. H.
Thompson, "On Plato's Sophist," in the Journal of Philology
viii. 303 seq. For other texts, translations, commentaries and
monographs see the excellent bibliography contained in the
Gnmdriss d. Geschichte d. Philosophie of Uberweg and Heinze
(10th ed., Berlin, 1909; Eng. Trans., London, 1880). (H. Ja.)
PARMENIO— PARMIGIANO
«53
PARMENIO (c. 400-330 B.C.), Macedonian general in the
service of Pliilip II. and Alexander the Great. During the reign
of Philip Parmenio obtained a great victory over the lUyrians
(356); he was one of the Macedonian delegates appointed to
conclude peace with Athens (346), and was sent with an army to
uphold Macedonian influence in Euboea (342). In 336 he was
sent with Amyntas and Attains to make preparations for the
reduction of Asia. He led the left wing in the battles of the
Granicus, Issus and Gaugamela. After the conquest of Dran-
giana, Alexander was informed that Philotas, son of Parmenio,
was involved in a conspiracy against his life. Philotas was
condemned by the army and put to death. Alexander, thinking
it dangerous to allow the father to live, sent orders to Media
for the assassination of Parmenio. There was no proof that
Parmenio was in any way implicated in the conspiracy, but he
was not even afforded the opportunity of defending himself.
See Arrian, Anabasis; Plutarch, Alexander; Died. Sic. xvii. ;
Curtius vii. 2, 11; Justin xii. 5; for modern authorities see under
Alexander III., the Great.
PARMIGIANO (1504-1540). The name of this celebrated
painter of the Lombard school was, in full, Girolamo Francesco
Maria Mazzuoli, or Mazzola; he dropped the name Girolamo, and
was only known as Francesco. He has been more commonly
named II Parmigiano (or its diminutive, II Parmigianino), from
his native city, Parma. Francesco, born on the nth of January
1504, was the son of a painter. Losing his father in early child-
hood, he was brought up by two uncles, also painters, Michele
and Pier-Ilario Mazzola. His faculty for the art developed at
a very boyish age, and he addicted himself to the style of
Correggio, who visited Parma in 1519. He did not, however,
become an imitator of Correggio; his style in its maturity may
be regarded as a fusion of Correggio with Raphael and Giulio
Romano, and thus fairly original. Even at the age of fourteen
(Vasari says sixteen) he had painted a " Baptism of Christ,"
surprisingly mature. Before the age of nineteen, when he
migrated to Rome, he had covered with frescoes seven chapels
in the church of S. Giovanni Evangelista, Parma. Prior to
starting for the city of the popes in 1523 he deemed it expedient
to execute some specimen pictures. One of these was a portrait
of himself as seen in a convex mirror, with all the details of
divergent perspective, &c., wonderfully exact — a work which
both from this curiosity of treatment and from the beauty of the
sitter — for Parmigiano was then" more like an angel than a man "
— could not fail to attract. Arrived in Rome, he presented his
specimen pictures to the pope, Clement VII., who gladly and
admiringly accepted them, and assigned to the youthful genius
the painting of the Sala de' Pontefici, the ceilings of which had
been already decorated by Giovanni da Udine. But while for-
tune was winning him with her most insinuating smiles, the utter
ruin of the sack by the Constable de Bourbon and his German
and other soldiers overtook both Rome and Parmigiano. At the
date of this hideous catastrophe he was engaged in painting that
large picture which now figures in the National Gallery, the
" Vision of St Jerome " (with the Baptist pointing upward and
backward to the Madonna and infant Jesus in the sky). It is said
that through aU the crash and peril of this barbarian irruption
Parmigiano sat quietly before his vast panel, painting as if
nothing had happened. A band of German soldiery burst into
his apartment, breathing fire and slaughter; but, struck with
amazement at the sight, and with some reverence for art and her
votary (the other events of the siege forbid us to suppose that
reverence for religion had any part in it), they calmed down, and
afforded the painter all the protection that he needed at the
moment. Their captain, being something of a connoisseur,
exacted his tribute, however — a large number of designs. Rome
was now no place for Parmigiano. He left with his uncle,
intending apparently to return to Parma; but, staying in
Bologna he settled down there for a while, and was induced
to remain three or four years. Here he painted for the nuns of
St Margaret his most celebrated altarpiece (now in the Academy
of Bologna), the " Madonna and Child, v/ith Margaret and other
saints."
Spite of the great disaster of Rome, the life of Mazzola had
hitherto been fairly prosperous — the admiration which he excited
being proportionate to his charm of person and manner, and to
the precocity and brilliancy (rather than depth) of his genius;
but from this time forward he became an unfortunate, and it
would appear a soured and self-neglected, man. In 1531 he
returned to Parma, and was commissioned to execute an exten-
sive series of frescoes in the choir of the church of S. Maria della
Steccata. These were to be completed in November 1532; and
half-payment, 200 golden scudi, was made to him in advance.
A ceiling was allotted to him, and an arch in front of the ceiling;
on the arch he painted six figures — two of them in full colour, and
four in monochrome — Adam, Eve, some Virtues, and the
famous figure (monochrome) of Moses about to shatter the tables
of the law. But, after five or six years from the date of the
contract, Parmigiano had barely made a good beginning with his
stipulated work. According to Vasari, he neglected painting in
favour of alchemy — he laboured over futile attempts to " congeal
mercury," being in a hurry to get rich anyhow. It is rather
difficult to believe that the various graphic and caustic phrases
which Vasari bestows upon this theory of the facts of Mazzola's
life are altogether gratuitous and wide of the mark; nevertheless
the painter's principal biographer, the Padre Aflo, undertook
to refute Vasari's statements, and most subsequent writers
have accepted AiTo's conclusions. Whatever the cause, Parmi-
giano failed to fulfil his contract, and was imprisoned in
default. Promising to amend, he was released; but instead of
redeeming his pledge he decamped to Casal Maggiore, in the
territory of Cremona. Here, according even to Vasari, he
relinquished alchemy and resumed painting; yet he still
hankered (or is said by Vasari to have hankered) after his
retorts and furnaces, lost all his brightness, and presented a
dim, poverty-stricken, hirsute and uncivilized aspect. He
died of a fever on the 24th of August 1540, before he had
completed his thirty-seventh year. By his own desire he was
buried naked in the church of the Servites called La Fontana,
near Casal Maggiore.
Grace has always and rightly been regarded as the chief artistic
endowment of Parmigiano — grace which is genuine as an
expression of the painter's nature, but partakes partly of the
artificial and affected in its developments. " Un po'di grazia del
Parmigianino " (a little, or, as we might say, just a spice, of
Parmigianino's grace) was among the ingredients which Agostino
Caracci's famed sonnet desiderates for a perfect picture. Mazzola
constantly made many studies of the same figure, in order to get
the most graceful attainable form, movement and drapery — the
last being a point in which he was very successful. The pro-
portions of his figures are over-long for the truth of nature — the
stature, fingers and neck; one of his Madonnas, now in the Pitti
Gallery, is currently named " La Madonna del collo lungo."
Neither expression nor colour is a strong point in his works; the
figures in his compositions are generally few — the chief exception
being the picture of " Christ Preaching to the Multitude." He
etched a few plates, being apparently the earliest Italian painter
who was also an etcher; but the statement that he produced
several woodcuts is not correct — he overlooked the production
of them by other hands.
The most admired easel-picture of Parmigiano is the " Cupid
Making a Bow," with two children at his feet, one crying, and
the other laughing. This was painted in 1536 for Francesco
Boiardi of Parma, and is now in the gallery of Vienna. There are
various rephcas of it, and some of these may perhaps be from
Mazzola's own hand. Of his portrait-painting, two interesting
examples are the likeness of Amerigo Vespucci (after whom
America is named) in the Studj Gallery of Naples, and the
painter's own portrait in the UfSzi of Florence. One of
Parmigiano's principal pupils was his cousin, Girolamo di
Michele Mazzola; probably some of the works attributed to
Francesco are really by Girolamo.
See B. Bossl, Disegni originali di Francesco Mazzuoli (1789);
A. S. Mortara, Delia Vita di Francesco Mazzuoli (1846); Toschi,
I Affreschi. &c. (1846). (W. M. R.)
854
PARNAHYBA— PARNELL, C, S.
PARNAHYBA, or Parnahiba, a port of the state of Piauhy,
Brazil, on the right bank of the Parnahyba river, 250 m. below
the c pital, Therezina. Pop. of the municipahty (1890), 4415.
Parnahyba is situated at the point where the most easterly of the
delta outlets, or channels, called the Rio Iguarassii, branches off
from the main stream. All the outlet channels of the river are
obstructed by bars built up by the strong current along the
Atlantic coast, and only vessels of light draught can enter. The
town has some well-constructed buildings of the old Portuguese
type, including two churches and a fine hospital. Parnahyba
is the commercial entrepot of the state. It exports hides,
goat-skins, cotton and tobacco, chiefly through the small
port of Amarragao, at the mouth of the Rio Iguarassu, 11 m.
distant. ■
PARNASSUS (mod. Lidkniira or Likcri) , a mountain of Greece,
S070 ft., in the south of Phocis, rising over the town of Delphi.
It had several pruminent peaks, the chief known as Tithorea
and Lycoreia (whence the modern name). Parnassus was one
of the most holy mountains in Greece, hallowed by the worship
of Apollo, of the Muses, and of the Corycian nymphs, and by the
orgies of the Bacchantes. Two projecting cliffs, named the
Phaedri.adae, frame the gorge in which the Castalian spring
flows out, and just to the west of this, on a sheK above the ravine
of the Pleistus, is the site of the Pythian shrine of Apollo and the
Delphic oracle. The Corycian cave is on the plateau between
Delphi and the summit.
PARNASSUS PLAYS, a series of three scholastic entertain-
ments performed at St John's College, Cambridge, between
1597 and 1603. They are satirical in character and aim at
setting forth the wretched state of scholars and the small respect
paid to learning by the world at large, as exemplified in the
adventures of two university men, Philomusus and Studioso.
The first part. The Pilgrimage to Parnassus, describes allegori-
cally their four year's journey to Parnassus, i.e. their progress
through the university course of logic, rhetoric, &c., and the
temptations set before them by their meeting with Madido, a
drunkard, Stupido, a puritan who hates learning, Amoretto, a
lover, and Ingenioso, a disappointed student. The play was
doubtless originally intended to stand alone, but the favour
with which it was received led to the writing of a sequel. The
Return jrom Parnassus, which deals with the adventures of
the two students after the completion of their studies at the
university, and shows them discovering by bitter experience of
how little pecuniary value their learning is. They again meet
Ingenioso, who is making a scanty living by the press, but is
on the search for a patron, as well as a new character, Luxurioso.
All four now leave the university for London, while a draper, a
tailor and a tapster lament their unpaid bills. Philomusus and
Studioso find work respectively as a se.\ton and a tutor in a
merchant's family, while Luxurioso becomes a writer and singer
of ballads. In the meanwhile Ingenioso has met with a patron,
a coxcombical fellow named Gullio, for whom he composes
amorous verses in the style of Chaucer, Spenser and Shake-
speare, the last alone being to the patron's satisfaction. Gullio
is indeed a great admirer of Shakespeare, and in his conversations
with Ingenioso we have some of the most interesting of the early
allusions to him.
A further sequel. The Second Part of the Return from Parnassus,
or the Scourge oj Simony, is a more ambitious, and from every
point of view more interesting, production than the two earlier
pieces. In it we again meet with Ingenioso, now become a
satirist, who on pretence of discussing a recently-pubhshed
collection of extracts from contemporary poetrj', John Boden-
ham's Belvedere, briefly criticizes, or rather characterizes, a
number of writers of the day, among them being Spenser,
Constable, Drayton, John Davies, Marston, Marlowe, Jonson,
Shakespeare and Nashe — the last of whom is referred to as dead.
It is impossible here to detail the plot of the play, and it can only
be said that Philomusus and Studioso, having tried all means
of earning a living, abandon any further attempt to turn their
learning to account and determine to become shepherds. Several
new characters are introduced in this part, real persons such as
Danter, the printer, Richard Burbage and William Kemp, the
actors, as well as such abstractions as Furor Poeticus and Phan-
tasma. The second title of the piece, " The Scourge of Sinionj-,"
is justified by a sub-plot dealing with the attempts of one,
Academico, to obtain a living from an ignorant country patron,
Sir Roderick, who, however, presents it, on the recommendation
of his son Amoretto, who has been bribed, to a non-university
man Immerito.
The three pieces have but small literary and dramatic value,
their importance consisting almost wholly in the allusions to,
and criticisms of contemporary literature. Their author is
unknown, but it is fairly certain, from the evidence of general
style, as well as some peculiarities of language, that they are
the work of the same writer. The only name which has been
put forward with any reasonable probability is that of John Day,
whose claim has been supported with much ingenuity by
Professor I. GoUancz (see full discussion in Dr A. W. Ward's
Eiig. Dram. Lit. ii. 640, note 2), but the question stOl awaits
definitive solution.
As to the date there is more evidence. The three pieces were
evidently performed at Christmas of different years, the last
being not later than Christmas 1602, as is shown by the refer-
ences to Queen Elizabeth, while the Pilgrimage mentions books
not printed until 1598, and hence can hardly have been earlier
than that year. The prologue of 2 Return states that that play
had been written for the preceding year, and also, in a passage
of which the reading is somewhat doubtful, implies that the
whole series had extended over four years. Thus we arrive at
either 1599, 1600 and 1602, or 1598, 1599 and 1601, as, on the
whole, the most likely dates of performance. Mr Fleay, on
grounds which do not seem conclusive, dates them 1598, 1601
and 1602.
The question of how far the characters are meant to represent
actual persons has been much discussed. Mr Fleay maintains
that the whole is a personal satire, his identifications of the chief
characters in 2 Return being (i) Ingenioso, Thomas Nashe,
(2) Furor Poeticus, J. Marston, (3) Phantasma, Sir John Davies,
(4) Philomusus, T. Lodge, (5) Studioso, Drayton. Professor
GoUancz identifies Judicio with Henry Chettle (Proc. oj Brit.
Acad., 1903-1904, p. 202). Dr Ward, while rejecting Mr Fleay's
identifications as a whole, considers that by the time the final
part was written the author may have more or less identified
Ingenioso with Nashe, though the character was not originally
conceived with this intention. This is of course possible, and
the fact that Ingenioso himself speaks in praise of Nashe, who is
regarded as dead, is not an insuperable objection. W'e must
not, however, overlook the fact that the author was evidently
very familiar with Nashe's works, and that all three parts, not
only in the speeches of Ingenioso, but throughout, are full of
reminiscences of his writings.
Bibliography. — The only part of the trilogy which was in print
at an early date was 2 Return, called simply The Return from Parnas-
sus, or the Scourge of Simony (1606), two editions bearing the same
date. This has been several times reprinted, the best separate
edition being that of Professor Arber in the " English Scholars'
Library " (1879). Manuscript copies of all three plays were found
among T. Hearne's papers in the Bodleian by the Rev. W. D.
Macray and were printed by him in 1886 (the last from one of the
editions of 1606, collated with the MS.). A recent edition in modern
spelling by Mr O. Smeaton in the " Temple Dramatists " is of
little value, rtll questions connected with the play have been
elaborately discussed by Dr W. Liihr in a dissertation entitled
Die drei camhridger Spiele vom Parnass (Kiel, 1900). See also,
Dr Ward's English Dramatic Literature, ii. 633-642; F. G. Fleay's
Biog. Chron. of the Eng. Drama, ii. 347-355. (R- B. McK.)
PARNELL, CHARLES STEWART (1846-1891), Irish Nation-
alist leader, was born at Avondale, Co. Wicklow, on the 27th
of June 1846. His father was John Henry Parnell; a country
gentleman of strong Nationalist and Liberal sympathies, who
married in 1S34 Delia Tudor, daughter of Commodore Charles
Stewart of the United States navy. The Parnell family was of
English origin, and more than one of its members attained civic
note at Congleton in Cheshire under the Stuarts and during the
PARNELL, C. S.
H55
Commonwealth. Among them was Thomas Parnell, who
migrated to Ireland after the Restoration. He had two sons,
Thomas Parnell the poet and John Parnell, who became an
Irish judge. From the latter Charles Stewart Parnell was
lineally descended in the fifth generation. Sir John Parnell,
chancellor of the exchequer in Grattan's parliament, and one of
O'Connell's lieutenants in the parliament of the United Kingdom,
was the grandson of Parnell the judge. The estate of Avondale
was settled on him by a friend and bequeathed by him to his
youngest son William (grandfather of Charles Stewart Parnell).
His eldest son was imbecile. His second son was Sir Henry
Parnell, a noted poHtician and financier in the early part of the
19th century, who held office under Grey and Melbourne, and
after being raised to the peerage as Baron Conglcton, died by his
own hand in 1842. WiUiam Parnell was a keen student of Irish
politics, with a strong leaning towards the popular side, and in
1S05 he published a pamphlet entitled " Thoughts on the Causes
of Popular Discontents," which was favourably noticed by
Sydney Smith in the Edinburgh Review. Thus by birth and
ancestry, and especially by the influence of his mother, who
inherited a hatred of England from her father, Charles Stewart
Parnell was, as it were, dedicated to the Irish national cause.
He was of English extraction, a landowner, and a Protestant.
Educated at private schools in England and at Magdalen
College, Cambridge, his temperament and demeanour were
singularly un-Irish on the surface — reserved, cold, repellent and
unemotional. He appears to have been rather turbulent as a
school-boy, contentious, insubordinate, and not over-scrupulous.
He was fond of cricket and devoted to mathematics, but had
little taste for other studies or other games. He was subject
to somnambulism, and liable to severe fits of depression — facts
which, taken in connexion with the existence of mental affliction
among his ancestors, with his love of solitude and mystery, and
his invincible superstitions about omens, numbers and the like,
may perhaps suggest that his own mental equilibrium was not
always stable. He was as little at home in an English school or
an English university as he was afterwards in the House of
Commons. " These English," he said to his brother at school,
" despise us because we are Irish , but we must stand up to them.
That's the way to treat an Enghshman — stand up to him."
Parnell was not an active politician in his early years. He
found salvation as a Nationalist and even as a potential rebel
over the execution of the " Manchester Martyrs " in 1867, but
it was not until some years afterwards that he resolved to enter
parhament. In the meanwhile he paid a lengthened visit to
the United States. At the general election of 1874 he desired
to stand for the county of Wicklow, of which he was high sheriff
at the time. The lord-lieutenant declined to relieve him of his
disqualifying office, and his brother John stood in his place, but
was unsuccessful at the poll. Shortly afterwards a bye-election
occurred in Dublin, owing to Colonel Taylor having accepted
office in the Disraeli government, and Parnell resolved to oppose
him as a supporter of Isaac Butt, but was heavily beaten. He
was, however, elected for Meath in the spring of 1875.
Butt had scrupulously respected the dignity of parliament
and the traditions and courtesy of debate. He looked very
coldly on the method of " obstruction " — a method invented
by certain members of the Conservative party in opposition to
the first Gladstone Administration. Parnell, however, entered
parliament as a virtual rebel who knew that physical force was
of no avail, but believed that political exasperation might attain
the desired results. He resolved to make obstruction in parha-
ment do the work of outrage in the country, to set the church-
bell ringing — to borrow Mr Gladstone's metaphor — and to keep
it ringing in season and out of season in the ears of the House of
Commons. He did not choose to condemn outrages to gratify
the Pharisaism of English members of parliament. He courted
the alliance of the physical force party, and he had to pay the
price for it. He invented and encouraged " boycotting," and
did not discourage outrage. When a supporter in America
offered him twenty-five dollars, " five for bread and twenty for
lead," he accepted the gift, and he subsequently told the story
on at least one Irish platform. In the course of the negotiations
in 1882, which resulted in what was known as the Kilmainham
Treaty, he wrote to Captain O'Shea: " If the arrears question
be settled upon the lines indicated by us, I have every confidence
that the exertions we should be able to make strenuously and
unremittingly would be effective in stopping outrages and
intimidation of all kinds." This is at least an admission that
he had, or could place, his hand on the stop-valve, even if it be
not open to the gloss placed on it by Captain O'Shea in a conver-
sation repeated in the House of Commons by Mr Forstcr, " that
the conspiracy which has been used to get up boycotting and
outrage will now be used to put them down."
In 1877 Parnell entered on an organized course of obstruction.
He and Mr Joseph Gillis Biggar, one of his henchmen, were
gradually joined by a small band of the more advanced Home
Rulers, and occasionally assisted up to a certain point by one or
two English members. Butt was practically deposed and
worried into his grave. WiUiam Shaw, a "transient and em-
barrassed phantom," was elected in his place, but Parnell became
the real leader of a Nationalist party. The original Home Rule
party was spht in twain, and after the general election of 18S0
fhe more moderate section of it ceased to exist. ObsLruction
in Parnell's hands was no mere weapon of delay and exaspera-
tion; it was a calculated policy, the initial stage of a campaign
designed to show the malcontents in Ireland and their kinsmen
in other lands that Butt's stricth' constitutional methods werj
quite helpless, but that the parliamentary armoury still contained
weapons which he could so handle as to convince the Irish people
and even the Fenian and other physical force societies that the
way to Irish legislative independence lay through the House of
Commons. The Fenians were hard to convince, but in the
autumn of 1877 Parnell persuaded the Home Rule Confederation
of Great Britain (an association founded by Butt, but largely
supported by Fenians) to depose Butt from its presidency and
to elect himself in his place. He defined his attitude quite
clearly in a speech delivered in New York early in 1880: " A
true revolutionary movement in Ireland should, in my opinion,
partake both of a constitutional and illegal character. It should
be both an open and a secret organization, using the constitution
for its own purposes, but also taking advantage of its secret
combination." Parnell's opportunity came with the general
election of 1880, which displaced the Conservative government
of Lord Beaconsficld and restored Mr Gladstone to power with a
majority strong enough at the outset to overpower the Opposition,
even should the latter be reinforced by the whole of Parnell's
contingent. Distress was acute in Ireland, and famine was
imminent. Ministers had taken measures to relieve the situation
before the dissolution was announced, but Lord Beaconsfield
had warned the country that there was a danger ahead in
Ireland " in its ultimate results scarcely less disastrous than
pestilence and famine. ... A portion of its population is attempt-
ing to sever the constitutional tie which unites it to Great
Britain in that 'oond which has favoured the power and prosperity
of both. It is to be hoped that all men of light and leading wiU
resist this destructive doctrine." The Liberal party and its
leaders retorted that they were as strongly opposed to Home
Rule as their opponents, but Lord Beaconsfield's manifesto
undoubtedly had the eft'ect of aUenating the Irish vote in the
English constituencies from the Tory party and throwing it on
the side of the Liberal candidates. This was Parnell's deliberate
policy. He would have no aUiance with either English party.
He would support each in turn with a sole regard to the balance
of pohtical power in parliament and a fixed determination to
hold it in his own hands if he could. From the time that he
became its leader the Home Rule party sat together in the House
of Commons and always on the Opposition side.
In the government formed by Mr Gladstone in 1880 Lord
Cowper became viceroy and Mr W. E. Forster chief secretary
for Ireland. The outlook was gloomy enough, but the Gladstone
government do not seem to have anticipated, as Peel anticipated
in 1841, that Ireland would be their difficulty. Yet the Land
League had been formed by Michael Davitt and others in the
856
PARNELL, C. S.
autumn of 1S79 for the purpose of agrarian agitation, and
Parnell after some hesitation had given it his sanction. He
visited the United States at the close of 1S79. It was then and
there that the " new departure " — the aUiance of the open and
the secret organizations — was confirmed and consolidated.
Parnell obtained the countenance and support of the Clan-na-
Gael, a revolutionary organization of the American-Irish, and the
Land League began to absorb all the more violent spirits in
Ireland, though the Fenian brotherhood still held officially aloof
from it. As soon as the general election was announced Parnell
returned to Ireland in order to direct the campaign in person.
Though he had supported the Liberals at the election, he soon
found himself in conllict with a government which could neither
tolerate disturbance nor countenance a Nationalist agitation,
and he entered on the struggle with forces organized, with money
in his chest, and with a definite but still undeveloped plan of
action. The prevailing distress increased and outrages began
to multiply. A fresh Relief Bill was introduced by the govern-
ment, and in order to stave off a measure to prevent evictions
introduced by the Irish party, Mr Forster consented to add
a clause to the Relief Bill for giving compensation in certain
circumstances to tenants evicted for non-payment of rent. This
clause was afterwards embodied in a separate measure known as
the Compensation for Disturbance Bill, which after a stormy
career in the House of Commons was summarily rejected by the
House of Lords.
The whole Irish question was once more opened up in its
more dangerous and more exasperating form. It became
clear that the land question — supposed to have been settled by
llr Gladstone's Act of 1870 — would have to be reconsidered in all
its bearings, and a commission was appointed for the purpose.
In Ireland things went from bad to worse. Evictions increased
and outrages were multiphed. Intimidations and boycotting
were rampant. As the winter wore on, Mr Forster persuaded his
colleagues that exceptional measures were needed. An abortive
prosecution of Parnell and some of his leading colleagues had by
this time intensified the situation. Parliament was summoned
early, and a Coercion Bill for one year, practically suspending
the Habeas Corpus Act and allowing the arrest of suspects
at the discretion of the government, was introduced, to be
followed shortly by an Arms Bill. Parnell regarded the measure
as a declaration of war, and met it in that spirit. Its discussion
was doggedly obstructed at every stage, and on one occasion the
debate was only brought to a close, after lasting for forty-one
hours, by the Speaker's claiming to interpret the general sense
of the house and resolving to put the question without further
discussion. The rules of procedure were then amended afresh
in a very drastic sense, and as soon as the bill was passed Mr
Gladstone introduced a new Land Bill, which occupied the greater
part of the session. Parnell accepted it with many reserves.
He could not ignore its concessions, and was not disposed to
undervalue them, but he had to make it clear to the revolutionary
party, whose support was indispensable, that he regarded it
only as a payment on account, even from the agrarian point of
view, and no payment at all from the national point of view.
Accordingly the Land League at his instigation determined to
" test " the act by advising tenants in general to refrain from
taking their cases into court until certain cases selected by the
Land League had been decided. The government treated this
policy, which was certainly not designed to make the act work
freely and beneficially, as a dehberate attempt to intercept its
benefits and to keep the Irish people in subjection to the Land
League; and on this and other grounds — notably the attitude of
the League and its leaders towards crime and outrage — Parnell
vi'as arrested under the Coercion Act and lodged in Kilmainham
gaol (October 17, 1881).
Parnell in prison at once became more powerful for evil than
he had ever been, either for good or for evil, outside. He may
have known that the pohcy of Mr Forster was little favoured
by several of his colleagues, and he probably calculated that the
detention of large numbers of suspects without cause assigned
and without trial would sooner or later create opposition in
England. Mr Forster had assured his colleagues and the House
of Commons that the power of arbitrary arrest would enable the
police to lay their hands on the chief agents of disturbance, and
it was Parnell's policy to show that so long as the grievances of
the Irish tenants remained unredressed no number of arrests
could either check the tide of outrage or restore the country to
tranquillity. Several of his leading colleagues followed him into
captivity at Kilmainham, and the Land League was dissolved,
its treasurer, Patrick Egan, escaping to Paris and carrying with
him its books and accounts. Before it was formally suppressed
the League had issued a manifesto, signed by Parnell and several
of his fellow-prisoners, calling upon the tenants to pay no rents
until the government had restored the constitutional rights of
the people. Discouraged by the priests, the No-Rent manifesto
had little effect, but it embittered the struggle and exasperated
the temper of the people on both sides of the Irish Channel.
Lord Cowper and Mr Forster were compelled to ask for a
renewal of the Coercion Act with enlarged powers. But there
were members of the cabinet who had only accepted it with
reluctance, and were now convinced not only that it had failed,
but that it could never succeed. A modus vivcndi was desired
on both sides. Negotiations were set on foot through the agency
of Captain O'Shea — at that time and for long afterwards a firm
political and personal friend of Parnell, but ultimately his accuser
in the divorce court — and after a somewhat intricate course
they resulted in what was known as the Kilmainham Treaty.
As a consequence of this informal agreement, Parnell and two of
his friends were to be released at once, the understanding being,
as Mr Gladstone stated in a letter to Lord Cowper, " that Parnell
and his friends are ready to abandon ' No Rent ' formally, and
to declare against outrage energetically, intimidation included,
if and when the government announce a satisfactory plan for
deahng with arrears." Parnell's own version of the under-
standing has been quoted above. It also included a hope that
the government would allow the Coercion Act to lapse and govern
the country by the same laws as in England. Parnell and his
friends were released, and Lord Cowper and Mr Forster at once
resigned.
The Phoenix Park murders (May 6, 1882) followed (see Ire-
l.^nd: History). Parnell was prostrated by this catastrophe.
In a public manifesto to the Irish people he declared that " no
act has ever been perpetrated in our country, during the exciting
struggle for social and pohtical rights of the past fifty years, that
has so stained the name of hospitable Ireland as this cowardly
and unprovoked assassination of a friendly stranger." Privately
to his own friends and to Mr Gladstone he expressed his desire
to withdraw from public life. There were those who beheved
that nevertheless he was privy to the Invincible conspiracy.
There is some prima facie foundation for this behef in the
indifference he had always displayed towards crime and outrage
when crime and outrage could be made to serve his purpose; in
his equivocal relation to the more violent and unscrupulous forms
of Irish sedition, and in the fact that Byrne, an official of the
Land League, was in collusion with the Invincibles, that the
knives with which the murder was done had been concealed at
the offices of the Land League in London, and had been conveyed
to Dubhn by Byrne's wife. But the maxim is fecit cui prodest
disallows these suspicions. Parnell gained nothing by the
murders, and seemed for a time to have lost everything. A new
Crimes Bill was introduced and made operative for a period of
three years. A regime of renewed coercion was maintained by
Lord Spencer and Mr (afterwards Sir George) Trevelyan, who
had succeeded Lord Frederick Cavendish in the olhce of chief
secretary; Ireland was tortured for three years by the necessary
severity of its administration, and England was exasperated by
a succession of dynamite outrages organized chiefly in America,
which Parnell was powerless to prevent. The Phoenix Park
murders did more than any other incident of his time and career
to frustrate Parnell's policy and render Home Rule impossible.
For more than two years after the Phoenix Park murders
Parnell's influence in parliament, and even in Ireland, was
only intermittently and not very energetically exerted. His
PARNELL, C. S.
857
health was indifferent, his absences from the House of Commons
were frequent and mysterious, and he had already formed those
relations with Mrs O'Shea which were ultimately to bring him
to the divorce court. The Phoenix Park murderers were arrested
and brought to justice early in 1883. Mr Forster seized the
opportunity to deliver a scathing indictment of Parnell in the
House of Commons. In an almost contemptuous reply Parnell
repudiated the charges in general terms, disavowed all sympathy
with dynamite outrages, their authors and abettors — the only
occasion on which he ever did so — declined to plead in detail
before an English tribunal, and declared that he sought only the
approbation of the Irish people. This last was shortly after-
wards manifested in the form of a subscription known as the
" Parnell Tribute," which quickly reached the amount of
£37,000, and was presented to Parnell, partly for the liquidation
of debts he was known to have contracted, but mainly in recog-
nition of his public services. The Irish National League, a
successor to the suppressed Land League, was founded in the
autumn of 1882 at a meeting over which Parnell presided, but
he looked on it at first with little favour, and its action was
largely paralysed by the operation of the Crimes Act and the
vigorous administration of Lord Spencer.
The Crimes Act, passed in 18S2, was to expire in 1S85, but the
government of Mr Gladstone was in no position to renew it as it
stood. In May notice was given for its partial renewal, subject
to changes more of form than of substance. The second reading
was fixed for the loth of June. On the 8th of June Parnell,
with thirty-nine of his followers, voted with the Opposition
against the budget, and defeated the government by a majority
of 264 votes to 252. Mr Gladstone forthwith resigned. Lord
Salisbury undertook to form a government, and Lord Carnarvon
became viceroy. The session was rapidly brought to an end
with a view to the dissolution rendered necessary by the Fran-
chise Act passed in 1884 — a measure which was certain to increase
the number of Parnell's adherents in parliament. It seems
probable that Parnell had convinced himself before he resolved to
join forces with the Opposition that a Conservative government
would not renew the Crimes Act. At any rate, no attempt to
renew it was made by the new government. Moreover, Lord
Carnarvon, the new viceroy, was known to Parnell and to some
others among the Irish leaders to be not unfavourable to some
form of Home Rule if due regard were paid to imperial unity and
security. He sought and obtained a personal interview with
Parnell, explicitly declared that he was speaking for him.self
alone, heard Parnell's views, expounded his own, and forth-
with reported what had taken place to the Prime Minister. In
the result the new cabinet refused to move in the direction
apparently desired by Lord Carnarvon.
Parnell opened the electoral campaign with a speech in
Dublin, in which he pronounced unequivocally in favour of self-
government for Ireland, and expressed his confident hope " that
it may not be necessary for us in the new parliament to devote
our attention to subsidiary measures, and that it may be possible
for us to have a programme and a platform with only one plank,
and that one plank National Independence." This was startling
to English ears. The press denounced Parnell; LordHartington
(afterwards the duke of Devonshire) protested against so fatal
and mischievous a programme; Mr Chamberlain repudiated it
with even greater emphasis. Meanwhile Mr Gladstone was
slowly convincing himself that the passing of the Franchise Act
had made it the duty of English statesmen and English party
leaders to give a respectful hearing to the Irish National demand,
and to consider how far it could be satisfied subject to the gover-
ning principle of " maintaining the supremacy of the crown, the
unity of the Empire, and all the authority of parliament necessary
for the conservation of the unity." This was the position he
took up in the Hawarden manifesto issued in September before
the general election of 1885. Speaking later at Newport in
October, Lord Salisbury treated the Irish leader with unwonted
deference and respect. Parnell, however, took no notice of the
Newport speech, and waited for Mr Gladstone to declare himself
more fully in Midlothian. But in this he was disappointed.
Mr Gladstone went no farther than he had done at Hawarden,
and he implored the electorate to give him a majority indepen-
dent of the Irish vote. Subsequently Parnell invited him in a
public speech to declare his policy and to sketch the constitution
he would give to Ireland subject to the limitations he had
insisted on. To this Mr Gladstone replied, " through the same
confidential channel," that he could not consider the Irish
demand before it had been constitutionally formulated, and that,
not being in an official position, he could not usurp the functions
of a government. The reply to this was the issue of a manifesto
to the Irish electors of Great Britain violently denouncing the
Libeial party and directing all Irish Nationalists to give their
votes to the Tories. In these circumstances the general election
was fought, and resulted in the return of 3,35 Liberals, four of
whom were classed as '' independent," 249 Conservatives and
86 followers of Parnell.
Mr Gladstone had now ascertained the strength of the Irish
demand, but was left absolutely dependent on the votes of those
who represented it. Through Mr Arthur Balfour he made infor-
mal overtures to Lord Salisbury proffering his own support in
case the Prime Minister should be disposed to consider the Irish
demand in a "just and liberal spirit"; but he received no
encouragement. Towards the close of the year it became known
through various channels that he himself was considering the
matter and had advanced as far as accepting the principle of
an Irish parliament in Dublin for the transaction of Irish affairs.
Before the end of January Lord Salisbury's government was
defeated on the Address, the Opposition including the full
strength of the Irish party. Mr Gladstone once more became
prime minister, with Mr John Morley (an old Home Ruler) as
chief secretary, and Mr Chamberlain provisionally included in
the cabinet. Lord Hartington, Mr Bright and some other
Liberal chiefs, however, declined to join him.
Mr Gladstone's return to power at the head of an administra-
tion conditionally committed to Home Rule marks the culmina-
ting point of Parnell's influence on English politics and English
parties. And after the defeat of the Home Rule ministry in
1886, Parnell was naturally associated closely with the Liberal
Opposition. At the same time he withdrew himself largely from
active interposition in current parliamentary affairs, and relaxed
his control over the action and policy of his followers in Ireland.
He entered occasionally into London society — where in certain
quarters he was now a welcome guest — but in general he lived
apart, often concealing his whereabouts and giving no address
but the House of Commons, answering no letters, and seldom
fulfilling engagements. He seems to have thought that Home
Rule being now in the keeping of an English party, it was time to
show that he had in him the qualities of a statesman as well as
those of a revolutionary and a rebel. His influence on the
remedial legislation proposed by the Unionist government for
Ireland was considerable, and he seldom missed an opportunity
of making it felt. It more than once happened to him to find
measures, which had been contemptuously rejected when he
had proposed them, ultimately adopted by the government;
and it may be that the comparative tranquillity which Ireland
enjoyed at the close of the 19th century was due quite as
much to legislation inspired and recommended by himself as
to the disintegration of his following which ensued upon his
appearance in the divorce court and long survived his death.
No sooner was Lord Salisbury's new government installed
in office in 1886, than Parnell introduced a comprehensive
Tenants' Relief Bill. The government would have none of it,
though in the following session they adopted and carried many
of its leading provisions. Its rejection was followed by renewed
agitation in Ireland, in which Parnell took no part. He was
ill — " dangerously ill," he said himself at the time — and some
of his more hot-headed followers devised the famous " Plan of
Campaign," on which he was never consulted and which never
had his approval. Ireland was once more thrown into a turmoil
of agitation, turbulence and crime, and the Unionist government,
which had hoped to be able to govern the country by means of
the ordinary law, was compelled to resort to severe repressive
858
PARNELL, C. S.
measures and fresh coercive legislation. Mr Balfour became
chief secretary, and early in the session of 1S87 the new measure
was introduced and carried. Parnell took no very prominent
part in resisting it. In the course of the spring The Times had
begun pubhshing a series of articles entitled " Parnellism and
Crime," on lines following Mr Forster's indictment of Parnell in
18S3, though with much greater detail of circumstance and
accusation. Some of the charges were undoubtedly well founded,
some were exaggerated, some were merely the colourable fictions
of political prepossession, pronounced to be not proven by the
special commission which ultimately inquired into them. One
of the articles, which appeared on the iSth of April, was accom-
panied by the facsimile of a letter purporting to be signed but
not written by Parnell, in which he apologized for his attitude
on the Phoenix Park murders, and specially excused the murder
of Mr Burke. On the same evening, in the House of Commons,
Parnell declared the letter to be a forgery, and denied that he
had ever written any letter to that effect. He was not believed,
and the second reading of the Crimes Act followed. Later in the
session the attention of the house was again called to the subject,
and it was invited by Sir Charles Lewis, an Ulster member and
a bitter antagonist of the Nationalists, to declare the charges
of The Times a breach of privilege. The government met this
proposal by an offer to pay the expenses of a libel action against
The Times to be brought on behalf of the Irish members incrimi-
nated. This offer was refused. Mr Gladstone then proposed
that a select committee should inquire into the charges, including
the letter attributed to Parnell, and to this Parnell assented.
But the government rejected the proposal. For the rest,
Parnell continued to maintain for the most part an attitude of
moderation, reserve and retreat, though he more than once came
forward to protest against the harshness of the Irish administra-
tion and to plead for further remedial legislation. In July 1888
he announced that Mr Cecil Rhodes had sent him a sum of
£10,000 in support of the Home Rule movement, subject to the
condition that the Irish representation should be retained in
the House of Commons in any future measure deaUng with the
question. About the same time the question of " Parnellism
and Crime " again became acute. Mr F. H. O'Donnell, an
ex-M.P. and former member of the Irish party, brought an
action against Tlic Times for libel. His case was a weak one, and
a verdict was obtained by the defendants. But in the course of
the proceedings the attorney-general, counsel for The Times,
affirmed the readiness of his clients to establish all the charges
advanced, including the genuineness of the letter which Parnell
had declared to be a forgery. Parnell once more invited the
House of Commons to refer this particular issue — that of the
letter — to a select committee. This was again refused; but after
some hesitation the government resolved to appoint by act of
parliament a special commission, composed of three judges of
the High Court, to inquire into all the charges advanced by The
Times. This led to what was in substance, though not perhaps
in judicial form, the most remarkable state trial of the 19th
century. The commission began to sit iu September 1888, and
issued its report in February 1890. It heard evidence of
immense volume and variety, and the speech of Sir Charles
Russell in defence was afterwards published in a bulky volume.
Parnell gave evidence at great length, with much composure
and some cynicism. On the whole he produced a not unfavour-
able impression, though some of his statements might seem to
justify Mr Gladstone's opinion that he was not a man of exact
veracity. The report of the commission was a very voluminous
document, and was very variously interpreted by different
parties to the controversy. Their conclusions may be left to
speak for themselves: —
" L We find that the respondent members of parliament collec-
tively were not members of a conspiracy having for its object to
establish the absolute independence of Ireland, but we find that
some of them, together with Mr Davitt, established and joined in
the Land League organization with the intention, by its means, to
bring about the absolute independence of Ireland as a separate
nation.
" II. We find that the respondents did enter into a conspiracy,
by a system of coercion and intimidation, to promote an agrarian
agitation against the payment of agricultural rents, for the purpose
of impoverishing and expelling from the country the Irish landlords,
who were styled ' the English garrison.'
III. We find that the charge that ' when on certain occasions
they thought it politic to denounce, and did denounce, certain
crimes in public, they afterwards led their supporters to believe
such denunciations were not sincere,' is not established. We
entirely acquit Mr Parnell and the other respondents of the charge
of insincerity in their denunciation of the Phoenix Park murders,
and find that the ' facsimile ' letter, on which this charge was
chiefly based as against Mr Parnell, is a forgery-.
IV. We find that the respondents did disseminate the Irish
World and other newspapers tending to incite to sedition and the
commission of other crime.
" V. We find that the respondents did not directly incite persons
to the commission of crime other than intimidation, but that they
did incite to intimidation, and that the consequence of that incite-
ment was that crime and outrage were committed by the persons
incited. We find that it has not been proved that the respondents
made payments for the purpose of inciting persons to commit
crime.
" VI. We find, as to the allegation that the respondents did
nothing to prevent crime, and expressed no bona fide disapproval,
that some of the respondents, and in particular Mr Davitt, did
express bona fide disapproval of crime and outrage, but that the
respondents did not denounce the system of intimidation that led
to crime and outrage, but persisted in it with knowledge of its
effect.
" VII. We find that the respondents did defend persons charged
with agrarian crime, and supported their families; but that it has
not been proved that they subscribed to testimonials for, or were
intimately associated with, notorious criminals, or that they made
payments to procure the escape of criminals from justice.
" VIII. We find, as to the allegation that the respondents made
payments to compensate persons who had been injured in the
commission of crime, that they did make such payments.
" IX. As to the allegation that the respondents invited the
assistance and co-operation of, and accepted subscriptions of money
from, known advocates of crime and the use of dynamite, we find
that the respondents did invite the assistance and co-operation of,
and accepted subscriptions of money from, Patrick Ford, a known
advocate of crime and the use of dynamite; but that it has not
been proved that the respondents, or any of them, knew that the
Clan-na-Gael controlled the League, or was collecting money for
the Parliamentan,' Fund. It has been proved that the respondents
invited and obtained the assistance and co-operation of the Physical
Force Party in America, including the Clan-na-Gael, and in order
to obtain that assistance abstained from repudiating or condemning
the action of that party."
The specific charges brought against Parnell personally were
thus dealt with by the commissioners: —
" (a) That at the time of the Kilmainham negotiations Mr Parnell
knew that Sheridan and Boyton had been organizing
outrage, and therefore wished to use them to put down
outrage.
"We find that this charge has not been proved.
" (6) That Mr Parnell was intimate with the leading Invincibles;
that he probably learned from them what they were
about when he was released on parole in April 1882; and
that he recognized the Phoenix Park murders as their
handiwork.
" We find that there is no foundation for this charge. We have
already stated that the Invincibles were not a branch of the Land
League.
" (c) That Mr Parneil on 23rd January 1883, by an opportune
remittance, enabled F. Byrne to escape from justice to
France.
" We find that Mr Parnell did not make any remittance to enable
F. Byrne to escape from justice.''
The case of the facsimile letter alleged to have been written by
Parnell broke down altogether. It was proved to be a forgery.
It had been purchased with other documents from one Richard
Pigott, a needy and disreputable Irish journahst, who afterwards
tried to blackmail Archbishop Walsh by offering, in a letter
which was produced in court, to confess its forgery. Mercilessly
cross-examined by Sir Charles Russell on this letter to the arch-
bishop, Pigott broke down utterly. Before the commission
sat again he fled to Madrid, and there blew his brains out. He
had confessed the forgery to Mr Labouchere in the presence of
Mr G. A. Sala, but did not stay to be cross-examined on his
confession. The attorney-general withdrew the letter on behalf
of The Times, and the commission pronounced it to be a forgery.
Shortly after the letter had been withdrawn, Parnell filed an
action against The Times for libel, claiming damages to the
PARNELL, T.
859
amount of £100,000. The action was compromised without
going into court by a payment of £5000.
Practically, the damaging effect of some of the findings of
the commission was neutralized by ParncU's triumphant vindica-
tion in the matter of the facsimile letter and of the darker charges
levelled at him. Parties remained of the same opinion as before:
the Unionists still holding that Parnell was steeped to the lips
in treason, if not in crime; while the Home Rulers made abun-
dance of capital out of his personal vindication, and sought to
excuse the incriminating findings of the commission Ijy the
historic antecedents of the Nationalist cause and party. The
failure to produce the books and papers of the Land League was
overlooked, and little importance was attached by partisans to
the fact that in spite of this default (leaving unexplained the
manner in which over £100,000 had been expended), the com-
missioners " found that the respondents did make payments to
compensate persons who had been injured in the commission of
crime." Parnell and his colleagues were accepted as allies
worthy of the confidence of an English party; they were made
much of in Gladstonian Liberal society; and towards the close
of 1889, before the commission had reported, but some months
after the forged letter had been withdrawn, Parnell visited
Hawarden to confer with Mr Gladstone on the measure of
Home Rule to be introduced by the latter should he again be
restored to power. What occurred at this conference was after-
wards disclosed by Parnell, but Mr Gladstone vehemently denied
the accuracy of his statements on the subject.
But Parnell's fall was at hand. In December 1889 Captain
O'Shea filed a petition for divorce on the ground of his wife's
adultery with Parnell. Parnell's intimacy with Mrs O'Shea
had begun in iSSi, though at what date it became a guilty one
is not in evidence. Captain O'Shea had in that year challenged
him to a duel, but was pacified by the explanations of Mrs O'Shea.
It is known that Captain O'Shea had been Parnell's confidential
agent in the negotiation of the Kilmainham Treaty, and in 1885
Parnell had strained his personal authority to the utmost to
secure Captain O'Shea's return for Galway, and had quelled a
formidable revolt among some of his most influential followers in
doing so. It is not known why Captain O'Shea, who, if not
blind to a matter of notoriety, must have been complaisant in
1885, became vindictive in 18S0. No defence being offered, a
decree of divorce was pronounced, and in June 1891 Parnell and
Mrs O'Shea were married.
At first the Irish party determined to stand by Parnell. The
decree was pronounced on the 17th of November 1S90. On the
20th a great meeting of his political friends and supporters was
held in Dublin, and a resolution that in all political matters
Parnell possessed the confidence of the Irish nation was carried
by acclamation. But the Irish party reckoned without its
English aUies. The " Nonconformist conscience," which had
swallowed the report of the commission, was shocked by the
decree of the divorce court. At a meeting of the National
Liberal Federation held at Sheffield on the 21st of November,
Mr John Morley was privately but firmly given to understand
that the Nonconformists would insist on Parnell's resignation.
Parliament was to meet on the 25th. Mr Gladstone tried to
convey to Parnell privately his conviction that unless Parnell
retired the cause of Home Rule was lost. But the message never
reached Parnell. Mr Gladstone then requested Mr John Morley
to see Parnell; but he could not be found. Finally, on the 24th,
Mr Gladstone wrote to Mr Morley the famous and fatal letter,
in which he declared his conviction " that, notwithstanding
the splendid services rendered by Mr Parnell to his country, his
continuance at the present moment in the leadership would be
disastrous in the highest degree to the cause of Ireland," and that
" the continua.nce I speak of would not only place many hearty
and effective friends of the Irish cause in a position of great
embarrassment, but would render my retention of the leadership
of the Liberal party, based as it has been mainly upon the presen-
tation of the Irish cause, almost a nullity." This letter was not
published until after the Irish parliamentary party had met in
the House of Commons and re-elected Parnell as its chairman
without a dissentient voice. But its publication was a thunder-
clap. A few days later Parnell v/as requested by a majority of
the party to convene a fresh meeting. It took place in Com-
mittee Room No. 15, which became historic by the occasion,
and after several days of angry recrimination and passionate
discussion, during which Parnell, who occupied the chair, scorn-
fully refused to put to the vote a resolution for his own deposition,
45 members retired to another room and there declared his
leadership at an end. The remainder, 26 in number, stood by
him. The party was thus divided into Parncllites and anti-
Parnellites, and the schism was not healed until several years
after Parnell's death.
This was practically the end of Parnell's political career in
England. The scene of operations was transferred to Ireland,
and there Parnell fought incessantly a bitter and a losing fight,
which ended only with his death. He declared that Ireland
could never achieve her emancipation by force, and that if she
was to achieve it by constitutional methods, it could only be
through the agency of a united Nationalist party rigidly eschew-
ing alliance with any English party. This was the policy he
proclaimed in a manifesto issued before the opening of the
sittings in Committee Room No. 15, and with this policy, when
deserted by the bulk of his former followers, he appealed to the
Fenians in Ireland — " the hillside men," as Mr Davitt, who had
abandoned him early in the crisis, contemptuously called them.
The Fenians rallied to his side, giving him their votes and their
support, but they were no match for the Church, which had
declared against him. An attempt at reconciliation was made
in the spring, at what was known as " the Boulogne negotia-
tions," where Mr William O'Brien endeavoured to arrange an
understanding; but it came to nothing in the end. Probably
Parnell was never very anxious for its success. He seems to
have regarded the situation as fatally compromised by the extent
to which his former followers were committed to an English
alliance, and he probably saw that the only way to recover his
lost position was to build up a new independent party. He
knew well enough that this would take time — five years was the
shortest period he allowed himself — but before many months
were passed he was dead. The life he led, the agonies he endured,
the labours he undertook from the beginning of 1891, travelling
weekly to Ireland and intoxicating himself with the atmosphere
of passionate nationalism in which he moved, would have
broken down a much stronger man. He who had been the most
impassive of men became restless, nervous, almost distracted
at times, unwilling to be alone, strange in his ways and demean-
our. He visited Ireland for the last time in September, and the
last public meeting he attended was on the 27th of that month.
The next day he sent for his friend Dr Kenny, who found him
suffering from acute rheumatism and general debihty. He left
Ireland on the 30th, promising to return on the following
Saturday week. He did return on that day, but it was in his
coffin. He took to his bed shortly after his return to his home
at Brighton, and on the 6th of October he died. His remains
were conveyed to Dublin, and on Sunday, the nth of October,
they were laid to rest in the presence of a vast assemblage of the
Irish people in Glasnevin Cemetery, not far from the grave of
O'Connell.
The principal materials for a biography of Parnell and the histor>-
of the Parnellite movement are to be found in Hansard's Parlia-
mentary Debates (1275-1891); in the Annual Register for the same
period; in the Report of the Special Commission issued in 1890:
in The Life of Charles Stewart Parnell, by R. Barn,^ O'Brien; in
The Parnellite Movement, by T. P. O'Connor, M.P. : and in a copious
biography of Parnell contributed by an anonymous but well-
informed writer to the Diet, of Nat. Biog., vol. xliii.
(J. R. T.)
PARNELL, THOMAS (1679-1718), English poet, was born in
Dublin in 1679. His father, Thomas Parnell, belonged to a
family (see above) which had been long settled at Congleton.
Cheshire, but being a partisan of the Commonwealth, he removed
with his children to Ireland after the Restoration, and purchased
an estate in Tipperary which descended to his son. In 1693
the son entered Trinity College, Cambridge, and in 1700 took his
86o
PARNON— PAROS
M.A. degree, being ordained deacon in the same year in spite of
his youth. In 1704 he became minor canon of St Patrick's
Cathedral and in 1706 archdeacon of Clogher. Shortly after
receiving this preferment he married Anne Minchin, to whom he
was sincerely attached. Swift says that nearly a year after her
death (171 1) he was still ill with grief. His visits to London are
said to have begun as early as 1706. He was intimate with
Richard Steele and Joseph Addison, and although in 17 11 he
abandoned his Whig politics, there was no change in the friend-
ship. Parnell was introduced to Lord BoHngbroke in 1712 by
Swift, and subsequently to the earl of Oxford. In 1713 he con-
tributed to the Poetical Miscellanies edited for Tonson by Steele,
and pubhshed his Essay on the Different Styles of Poetry. He
was a member of the Scriberlus Club, and Pope says that he had
a hand in " An Essay of the learned Martinus Scriblerus con-
cerning the Origin of Sciences." He wrote the " Essay on the
Life and writings and learning of Homer"' prefixed to Pope's
translations, and in the autumn of 1714 both were at Bath
together. In 1716 Parnell was presented to the vicarage of
Finglass, when he resigned his archdeaconry. In the sam.e year
he pubhshed Homer's Battle of the Frogs and Mice. With the
remarks of Zoiliis. To which is prefixed, the Life of the said
Zoilus. Parnell was in London again in 1718, and, on the way
back to Ireland, was taken ill and died at Chester, where he was
buried on the 24th of October.
Parnell's best known poem is " The Hermit," an admirably
executed moral conte written in the heroic couplet. It is based
on an old story to be found in the Gesta Romanorum and other
sources. He cannot in any sense be said to have been a disciple
of Pope, though his verse may owe something to his friend's
revision. But this and other of his pieces, " The Hymn to
Contentment," " The Night Piece on Death," " The Fairy Tale,"
were original in treatment, and exercised some influence on the
work of Goldsmith, Gray and ColHns. Pope's selection of his
poems was justified by the publication in 17 58 of Posthumous
Works of Dr Thomas Parnell, containing Poems Moral and
Divine, and on various other subjects, which in no way added to
his fame. They were contemptuously dismissed as unauthentic
by Thomas Gray and Samuel Johnson, but there seems no
reason to doubt the authorship.
In 1770 Poems on Several Occasions was printed with a life of
the author by Oliver Goldsmith. His Poetical Works were printed
in Anderson's and other collections of the British Poets. See The
Poetical Works (1894) edited by George A. .Aitkcn for the Aldine
Edition of the British Poets. An edition by the Rev. John Mitford
for the same series (1833) was reprinted in 1866. His corre-
spondence with Pope is published in Pope's Works (ed. Elwin and
Courthorpe, vii. 451-467).
PARNON (mod. Malevo), the mountain ridge on the east of
the Laconian plain. Height 6365 ft. It is visible from Athens
above the top of the .Argive mountains.
PARNY, ^VARISTE D^SIRfi DE FORGES, Vicomte de
(1753-1S14), was born in the Isle of Bourbon on the 6th of
February 1753. He was sent to France at nine years old, was
educated at Rennes, and in 1771 entered the army. He was,
however, shortly recalled to the Isle of Bourbon, where he fell
in love with a young lady whom he addresses as Eleonore. Her
father refused to consent to her marriage with Parny, and she
married some one else. Parny returned to France, and pubhshed
his Poesies erotiques in 1778. He also published about the same
time his Voyage de Bourgogne (1777), written in collaboration
with his friend Antoine de Bertin (1752-1790); Epitre aux
insurgents de Boston (1777), and Opuscules poetiques (1779).
In 1796 appeared the Guerre des dieux, a poem in the style of
Voltaire's Pucclle, directed against Christianity. Parny devoted
himself in his later years almost entirely to the religious and
political burlesque. He was elected to the Academy in 1803,
and in 1813 received a pension from Napoleon. In 1S05 he
produced an extraordinary allegoric poem attacking George III.,
' Pope acknowledged the essay with affectionate praise, but in
1720 he said it was written " upon such memoirs as I had collected,"
and later he complained of its defects, saying it had cost him more
pains to revise than it would have done to write it.
his family and his subjects, under the eccentric title of
"Goddam! Goddam! par un French-dog." Parny's early
love poems and elegies, however, show a remarkable grace and
ease, a good deal of tenderness, and considerable fancy and wit.
One famous piece, the Elegy on a Young Girl, is scarcely to be
excelled in its kind. Parny died in 1814.
His CEuvres choisies were published in 1827. There is a sketch
of Parny in Sainte-Beuve's Portraits contemporains.
PARODY (Gr. Trapwdla, literally a song sung beside, a comic
parallel), an imitation of the form or style of a serious writing
in matter of a meaner kind so as to produce a ludicrous effect.
Parody is almost as old in European literature as serious writing.
The Balrachomyomachia, or " Battle of the Frogs and Mice," a
travesty of the heroic epos, was ascribed at one time to Homer
himself; and it is probably at least as old as the sth century B.C.
The great tragic poetry of Greece very soon provoked the parodist.
Aristophanes parodied the style of Euripides in the Acharnians
with a comic power that has never been surpassed. The debased
grand style of medieval romance was parodied in Don Quixote.
Shakespeare parodied the extravagant heroics of an earlier
stage, and was himself parodied by Marston, incidentally in his
plays and elaborately in a roughly humorous burlesque of Venus
and Adonis. The most celebrated parody of the Restoration
was Buckingham's Rehearsal (1672), in which the tragedies of
Dryden were inimitably ridiculed. At the beginning of the i8th
century The Splendid Shilling of John Phihps (1676-1700),
which Addison said was " the finest burlesque poem in the
English language," brilliantly introduced a fashion for using
the solemn movement of Milton's blank verse to celebrate
ridiculous incidents. In 1736, Isaac Hawkins Browne (1705-
1760) published a volume, .4 Pipe of Tobacco, in which the
poetical styles of Colley Cibber, Ambrose Philips, James Thom-
son, Edward Young and Jonathan Swift were delightfully
reproduced. In the following century, Shelley and John
Hamilton Reynolds almost simultaneously produced cruel
imitations of the naivete and baldness of Wordsworth's Peter
Bell (1819). But in that generation the most celebrated
parodists were the brothers Smith, whose Rejected Addresses
may be regarded as classic in this kind of artificial production.
The Victorian age has produced a plentiful crop of parodists
in prose and in verse, in dramatic poetry and in lyric poetry.
By common consent, the most subtle and dexterous of these
was C. S. Calverley, who succeeded in reproducing not merely
tricks of phrase and metre, but even manneristic turns of thought.
In a later day, Mr Owen Seaman has repeated, and sometimes
surpassed, the agile feats of Calverley.
PAROLE (shortened from the Fr. parole d'honncur, word of
honour), a mihtary term signifying the engagement given by a
prisoner of war that if released he wiU not again take up arms
against his captors during the term of the engagement or the
war, unless previously reheved of the obligation by exchange.
" Parole " is also used in the same sense as " word " to imply a
watchword or password. The French word, formed from the
Late Lat. paraula, parabola, Gr. irapaPoKr], story, parable, was
also adopted into English as " parol," i.e. verbal, oral, by word
of mouth, now only used in the legal term " parol evidence,"
i.e. oral as opposed to documentary evidence.
PAROPAMISUS, the name given by the Greeks to the parts
of the Hindu Kush bordering Kohistan to the north-west of
Kabul. It is now apphed in a restricted sense to the water-
parting between Herat and the Russian frontier on the Kushk
river, which possesses no local name of its own. From Herat
city to the crest of the Paropamisus, which is crossed by several
easy passes, is a distance of about 36 m., involving a rise of
1000 ft.
PAROS, or Paro, an island in the Aegean Sea, one of the
largest of the group of the Cyclades, with a population of Sooo.
It lies to the west of Na.xos, from which it is separated by a
channel about 6 m. broad, and with which it is now grouped
together, in popular language, under the common name of
Paronaxia. It is in 37° N. lat. and 25° 10' E. long. Its greatest
length from N.E. to S.W. is 13 m., and its greatest breadth
PAROXYSM— PARR, CATHERINE
86i
lo m. It is formed of a single mountain about 2500 ft. high,
sloping evenly down on aU sides to a maritime plain, which is
broadest on the north-east and south-west sides. The island is
composed of marble, though gneiss and mica-schist are to be
found in a few places. The capital, Paroekia or Parikia (Italian,
Parcchia), situated on a bay on the north-west side of the island,
occupies the site of the ancient capital Paros. Its harbour
admits small vessels; the entrance is dangerous on account of
rocks. Houses built in the ItaUan style with terraced roofs,
shadowed by luxuriant vines, and surrounded by gardens of
oranges and pomegranates, give to the town a picturesque and
pleasing aspect Here on a rock beside the sea are the remains
of a medieval castle built almost entirely of ancient marble
remains. Similar traces of antiquity in the shape of bas-reliefs,
inscriptions, columns, &c., are numerous in the town, and on a
terrace to the south of it is a precinct of Asclepius. Outside
the town is the church of Katapoliani ('H 'EKarovraTuXtacij),
said to have been founded by the empress Helena; there are two
adjoining churches, one of very early form, and also a baptistery
with a cruciform font.
On the north side of the island is the bay of Naoussa (Naussa)
or Agoussa, forming a safe and roomy harbour. In ancient
times it was closed by a chain or boom. Another good harbour
is that of Drios on the south-east side, where the Turkish fleet
used to anchor on its annual voyage through the Aegean. The
three villages of Tragoulas, Marmora and Kepidi (KTjTrtSt,
pronounced Tschipidi), situated on an open plain on the eastern
side of the island, and rich in remains of antiquity, probably
occupy the site of an ancient town. They are known together
as the " villages of Kephalos," from the steep and lofty headland
of Kephalos. On this headland stands an abandoned monastery
of St Anthony, amidst the ruins of a medieval castle, which
belonged to the Venetian family of the Venieri, and was gallantly
though fruitlessly defended against the Turkish general Bar-
barossa in 1537.
Parian marble, which is white and semi-transparent, with a
coarse grain and a very beautiful texture, was the chief source
of wealth to the island. The celebrated marble quarries lie on
the northern side of the mountain anciently known as Marpessa
(afterwards Capresso), a httle below a former convent of St
Mina. The marble, which was exported from the 6th century
B.C., and used by Praxiteles and other great Greek sculptors,
was obtained by means of subterranean quarries driven horizon-
tally or at a descending angle into the rock, and the marble thus
quarried by lamplight got the name of Lychnites, Lychneus
(from lychnos, a lamp), or Lygdos (Plin. H. N. .xxxvi. 5, 14;
Plato, Eryxias, 400 D; Athen. v. 2050; Diod. Sic. 2, 52).
Several of these tunnels are still to be seen. At the entrance
to one of them is a bas-rehef dedicated to Pan and the Nymphs.
Several attempts to work the marble have been made in modern
times, but it has not been exported in any great quantities.
History. — The story that Paros was colonized by one Paros
of Parrhasia, who brought with him a colony of Arcadians to
the island (Heraclides, De ruhiis publicis, 8; Steph. Byz. s.v.
ndpos), is one of those etymologizing fictions in which Greek
legend abounds. Ancient names of the island are said to have
been Plateia (or Pactia), Demetrias, Zacynthus, Hyria, Hyleessa,
Minoa and Cabarnis (Steph. Byz.). From Athens the island
afterwards received a colony of lonians (Schol. Dionys. Per.
525; cf. Kerod. i. 171), under whom it attained a high
degree of prosperity. It sent out colonies to Thasos (Thuc.
iv. 104; Strabo, 487) and Parium on the Hellespont. In
the former colony, which was planted in the 15th or i8th
Olympiad, the poet Archilochus, native of Paros, is said to have
taken part. As late as 385 B.C. the Parians, in conjunction
with Dlonysius of Syracuse, founded a colony on the lUyrian
island of Pharos (Diod. Sic. xv. 13). So high was the reputation
of the Parians that they were chosen by the people of Miletus
to arbitrate in a party dispute (Herod, v. 28 seq.). Shortly
before the Persian War Paros seems to have been a dependency
of Naxos (Herod, v. 31). In the Persian War Paros sided with
the Persians and sent a trireme to Marathon to support them.
In retahation, the capital Paros was besieged by an Athenian
fleet under Miltiades, who demanded a fine of 100 talents. But
the town offered a vigorous resistance, and the Athenians were
obliged to sail away after a siege of twenty-six days, during
which they had laid the island waste. It was at a temple of
Demeter Thesmophorus in Paros that Miltiades received the
wound of which he afterwards died (Herod, vi. 133-136). By
means of an inscription Ross was enabled to identify the site
of the temple; it lies, in agreement with the description of
Herodotus, on a low hill beyond the boundaries of the town.
Paros also sided with Xerxes against Greece, but after the battle
of Artemisium the Parian contingent remained in Cythnos
watching the progress of events (Herod, viii. 67). For this
unpatriotic conduct the islanders were punished bj' Themistocles,
who exacted a heavy fine (Herod, viii. 112). Under the Athen-
ian naval confederacy, Paros paid the highest tribute of all the
islands subject to Athens — 30 talents annually, according to
the assessment of Olymp. 88, 4 (429 B.C.). Little is known of
the constitution of Paros, but inscriptions seem to show that it
was democratic, with a senate (Boule) at the head of affairs
{Corpus inscript. 2376-2383; Ross, hiscr. ined. ii. 147, 148). In
410 B.C. the Athenian general Theramenes found an oligarchy
at Paros; he deposed it and restored the democracy (Diod.
Sic. xiii. 47). Paros was included in the new Athenian confed-
eracy of 378 B.C., but afterwards, along with Chios, it renounced
its connexion with Athens, probably about 357 B.C. Thence-
forward the island lost its pohtical importance. From the
inscription of Adule we learn that the Cyclades, and consequently
Paros, were subject to the Ptolemies of Egypt. Afterwards
they passed under the rule of Rome. When the Latins made
themselves masters of Constantinople, Paros, like the rest,
became subject to V^enice. In 1537 it was conquered by the
Turks. The island now belongs to the kingdom of Greece.
Among the most interesting discoveries made in the island
is the Parian Chronicle {q.v.).
See Tournefort, Voyage du Levant, i. 232 seq. (Lyons, 1717);
Clarke, Travels, iii. (London, 1814); Leake, Travels in Northern
Greece, iii. 84 seq. (London, 1835); Prokcsch, Denkwiirdigkeilen,
ii. 19 seq. (Stuttgart, 1836); Ross. Reisen auj den griechischen Inseln,
i. 44 seq. (Stuttgart, and Tubingen, 1840); Fiedler, Reise diirch alle
Theile des Kbnigreiches Griechenland, ii. 179 seq. (Leipzig, 1841);
Bursian, Geographie von Griechenland, ii. 483 seq. (Leipzig, 1872).
For the Parian Chronicle, Inscriptiones graecae, xii. 100 sqq.
PAROXYSM (Med. Lai. paroxysmns, from the Gr. irapo^iveLV,
to make sharp, o^vs), a violent outbreak or display of
emotion or feeling. The term is used of a fit of laughter, pain,
anger or fear, and particularly an acute stage in a cUsease is
the earliest sense of the word.
PARQUETRY (Fr. parquetcrie, from parquet, flooring, originally
a smaU compartment), a term applied to a kind of mosaic of
wood used for ornamental flooring. Materials contrasting in
colour and grain, such as oak, walnut, cherry, hme, pine, &c.
are employed; and in the more e.xpensive kinds the richly
coloured tropical woods are also used. The patterns of parquet
flooring are entirely geometrical and angular (squares, triangles,
lozenges, &c.), curved and irregular forms being avoided on
account of the expense and difliculty of fitting. There are
two classes of parquetry in use — veneers and solid parquet.
The veneers are usually about a quarter of an inch in thickness,
and are laid over already existing floors. Sohd parquet of an
inch or more in thickness consists of single pieces of wood grooved
and tongued together, having consequently the pattern alike
on both sides.
PARR, CATHERINE (1512-1548), the sixth queen of Henry
Vni., was a daughter of Sir Thomas Parr (d. 1517), of Kendal,
an official of the royal household. When only a girl she w'as
married to Edward Borough, and after his death in or before
1529 to John Neville, Lord Latimer, who died in 1542 or 1543.
Latimer had only been dead a few months when, on the 12th
of July 1543, Catherine was married to Henry \TII. at Hampton
Court. The new queen, who was regent of England during the
king's absence in 1544, acted in a very kindly fashion towards
her stepchildren; but her patience with the king did not prevent
862
PARR, SAMUEL— PARRHASIUS
a charge of heresy from being brought against her. Henry,
however, would not permit her arrest, and she became a widow
for the third time on his death in January 1547. In the same
year she married a former lover. Sir Thomas Seymour, now
Lord Seymour of Sudeley. Soon after this event, on the ytli
of September 1548, she died at Sudeley castle. Catherine was
a pious and charitable woman and a friend of learning; she
wrote The Lamentation or Complaint of a Sinner, which was
published after her death.
See A. Strickland, Lives 0/ the Queens of England, vol. iii. (1877).
PARR, SAMUEL (i 747-1825), English schoolmaster, son of
Samuel Parr, surgeon at Harrow-on-the-Hill, was born there on
the 26th of January 1747. At Easter 1752 he was sent to
Harrow School as a free scholar, and when he left in 1761 he
began to help his father in his practice, but the old surgeon
reaUzed that his son's talents lay elsewhere, and Samuel was
sent (1765) to Emmanuel College, Cambridge. From February
1767 to the close of 1771 he served under Robert Sumner as
head assistant at Harrow, where he had Sheridan among his
pupils. When the head master died in September 1771 Parr,
after vainly applying for the position, started a school at Stan-
more, which he conducted for five years. Then he became
head master of Colchester Grammar School (1776-1778) and
subsequently of Norwich School (1778-1786). He had taken
priest's orders at Colchester, and in 1780 was presented to
the small rectory of Asterby in Lincolnshire, and three years
later to the vicarage of Hatton near Warwick. He exchanged
this latter benefice for Wadenhoe, Northamptonshire, in 1789,
stipulating to be allowed to reside, as assistant curate, in the
parsonage of Hatton, where he took a limited number of pupils.
Here he spent the rest of his days, enjoying his exceOent library,
described by H. G. Bohn in Bibliotheca Parriana (1827), and
here his friends, Porson and E. H. Barker, passed many months
in his company. The degree of LL.D. was conferred on him
by the university of Cambridge in 1781. Parr died at Hatton
vicarage on the 6th of March 1825.
Dr Parr's writings fill several volumes, but they are all
beneath the reputation which he acquired through the variety
of his knowledge and dogmatism of his conversation. The
chief of them are his Characters of Charles James Fox (iSoq);
and his unjustifiable reprint of the Tracts of Warburton and
a Warburtonian, not admitted into their works, a scathing
exposure of Warburton and Hurd. Even amid the terrors of
the French Revolution he adhered to Whiggism., and his
correspondence included every man of eminence, either literary
or political, who adopted the same creed. In private life his
model was Johnson. He succeeded in copying his uncouth-
ness and pompous manner, but had neither his humour nor
his real authority. He was famous as a writer of epitaphs
and wrote inscriptions for the tombs of Burke, Charles Burney,
Johnson, Fox and Gibbon.
There are two memoirs of his life, one by the Rev. William
Field (7828), the other, with his works and his letters, by John
Johnstone (1828); and E. H. Barker published in 1828-1829 two
volumes of Parriana, a confused mass of information on Parr and
his friends. An essay on his life is included in De Quincey's works,
vol. v., and a little volume of the Aphorisms, Opinions and
Reflections of the late Dr Parr appeared in 1826.
PARR, THOMAS (c. 1483-1635), English centenarian, known
as " Old Parr," is reputed to have been born in 1483, at Winning-
ton. Shropshire, the son of a farmer. In 1500 he is said to have
left his home and entered domestic service, and in 1518 to have
returned to Winnington to occupy the small holding he then
inherited on the death of his father. In 1563, at the age of
eighty, he married his first wife, by whom he had a son and a
daughter, both of whom died in infancy. At the age of 122,
his first wife having died, he married again. His vigour seems
to have been unimpaired, and when 130 years old he is said to
have threshed corn. In 1635 his fame reached the ears of
Thomas Howard, 2nd earl of Arundel, who resolved to exhibit
him at court, and had him conveyed to London in a specially
constructed litter. Here he was presented to King Charles I..
but the change of air and diet soon affected him, and the old
man died at Lord Arundel's house in London, on the 14th of
November 1635. He was buried in the south transept of
Westminster Abbey where the inscription over his grave
reads: " Tho: Parr of ye county of Salopp Born in Ao 1483.
He lived in ye reignes of Ten Princes viz. K. Edw. 4, K. Ed. V.
K. Rich. 3. K. Hen. 7. K. Hen. 8. K. Edw. 6. Q. Ma. Q. Eliz.
K. Ja. and K. Charles, aged 152 yeares and was buried here
Nov. 15. 1635." A post-mortem examination made by the
king's orders by Dr William Harvey, revealed the fact that
his internal organs were in an unusually perfect state, and his
cartilages unossified.
PARR, a name originally applied to the small Salmonoids
abundant in British rivers, which were for a long time considered
to constitute a distinct species of fish {Salmo sahmihis). They
possess the broad head, short snout and large eye characteristic
of young Salmonoids, and are ornamented on the sides of the
body and tail with about eleven or more broad dark cross-bars,
the so-called parr-marks. However, John Shaw proved, by
experiment, that these fishes represent merely the first stage
of growth of the salmon, before it assumes, at an age of one or
two years, and when about six inches long, the silvery smolt-dress
preparatory to its first migration to the sea. The parr-marks
are produced by a deposit of black pigment in the skin, and
appear very soon after the exclusion of the fish from the egg;
they are still visible for some time below the new coat of scales
of the smolt-stage, but have entirely disappeared on the first
return of the young salmon from the sea. Although the juvenile
condition of the parr is now universally admitted, it is a remark-
able fact that many male parr, from 7 to 8 inches long, have
their sexual organs fully developed, and that their milt has all
the fertilizing properties of the seminal fluid of a full-grown and
sexually matured salmon. On the other hand, no female pan-
has ever been obtained with mature ova. Not only the salmon,
but also the other species of Salmo, the grayling, and probably
also the Corcgoni, pass through a parr-stage of growth. The
young of all these fishes arc barred, the salmon having generally
eleven or more bars, and the parr of the migratory trout from
nine to ten, or two or three more than the river-trout. In
some of the small races or species of river-trout the parr-marks
are retained throughout life, but subject to changes in intensity
of colour.
PARRAMATTA, a town of Cumberland county. New South
Wales, Australia, 14 m. by rail N.W. of Sydney. Pop. (1901)
12,568. It is situated on the Parramatta River, an arm of Port
Jackson, and was one of the earliest inland settlements (1788),
the seat of many of the public establishments connected with
the working of the convict system. Many of these still remain
in another form (the district hospital, the lunatic asylum, the
gaol, two asylums for the infirm and destitute, the Protestant
and Catholic orphan schools), involving a government expendi-
ture which partly sustains the business of the town. Parramatta
was one of the earliest scats of the tweed manufacture, but its
principal industrial dependence has been on the fruit trade.
With the exception of Prospect and Pennant Hills, where there
is an outburst of trap rock, the surface soil is the disintegration
of the Wainamatta shale, which is well suited for orangeries
and orchards. The first grain grown in the colony was hai"vested
at Parramatta, then called Rosehill. The earlier governors
had their country residence near the town, but the domain
is now a public park in the hands of the municipality. An
early observatory, where in 1822 were made the observations
for the Parramatta Catalogue, numbering 7385 stars, has long
been abandoned. Parramatta was incorporated in 1861. It
has one of the finest race- courses in Australia, and in the King's
School, founded in 183^, the oldest grammar school in the
colony.
PARRHASIUS, of Ephesus, one of the greatest painters of
Greece. He settled in Athens, and may be ranked among the
-\ttic artists. The period of his activity is fixed by the anecdote
which Xenophon records of the conversation be' ween him and
Socrates on the subject of art; he was therefore distinguished
PARRICIDE— PARROT
863
as a painter before 399 B.C. Seneca relates a tale that Parrliasius
bought one of the Olynthians whom Philip sold into slavery,
346 B.C., and tortured him in order to have a model for his
picture of Prometheus; but the story, which is similar to one
told of Michelangelo, is chronologically impossible. Another
tale recorded of him describes his contest with Zeuxis. The
latter painted some grapes so perfectly that birds came to peck
at them. He then called on Parrhasius to draw aside the curtain
and show his picture, but, finding that his rival's picture was
the curtain itself, he acknowledged himself to be surpassed,
for Zeu.xis had deceived birds, but Parrhasius had deceived
Zeu.xis. He was universally placed in the very first rank among
painters. His skilful drawing of outlines is especially praised,
and many of his drawings on wood and parchment were preserved
and highly valued by later painters for purposes of study. He
first attained skill in making his figures appear to stand out
from the background. His picture of Theseus adorned the
Capitol in Rome. His other works, besides the obscene subjects
with which he is said to have amused his leisure, are chiefly
mythological groups. A picture of the Demos, the personified
People of Athens, is famous; according to the story, which is
probably based upon epigrams, the twelve prominent character-
istics of ;he people, though apparently quite inconsistent with
each other, were distinctly expressed in this figure.
PARRICIDE (probably for Lat. palricidia, from pater, father,
and cacdere, to slay), strictly the murder of a parent; the term
however has been extended to include the murder of any relative
or of an ascendant by a descendant. The first Roman law
against parricide was that of the Lex Cornelia de sicariis et
venejicis (c. 81 B.C.), which enacted that the murderer of a
parent should be sewed up in a sack and thrown into the sea,
and provided other punishments for the kiUing of near relatives.
The Lex Pompeia dc parrkidiis (52 B.C.) re-enacted the principal
provisions of the Lex Cornelia and defined parricide as the
deliberate and wrongful slaying of ascendants, husbands, wives,
cousins, brothers and sisters, uncles and aunts, stepfathers and
mothers, fathers and mothers-in-law, patrons and descendants.
For the murder of a father, mother, grandfather or grandmother,
the Lex Pompeia ordained that the guilty person should be
whipped tQl he bled, sewn up in a sack with a dog, a cock,
a viper and an ape, and thrown into the sea. Failing water,
he was either to be torn in pieces by wild beasts or burned.
English law has never made any legal distinction between
killing a parent or other relative and simple murder, and the
Netherlands and Germany follow in the same direction. French
law has been exceptionally severe in its treatment of parricide.
Before the Revolution, the parricide if a male, had to make a
recantation of his crime, and then suffered the loss of his right
hand; his body was afterwards burned and the ashes scattered to
the winds. If the parricide was a female she was burned or
hanged. After the Revolution the penalty became simply one
of death, but the compilers of the penal code adjudged this
insufficient and reintroduced some of the previous provisions:
the parricide was brought to the place of execution clad in
a shirt, bare-footed, and the head enveloped in a black veil.
While he was exposed on the scaffold, an cificer read aloud
the decree of condemnation; the culprit then had his right
hand cut off, and was immediately afterwards executed. On
the revision of the penal code in 1832 the cutting ofi of the
right hand was omitted, but the other details remained. Other
continental European countries, following the example of
France, treat the crime of parricide with exceptional severity.
PARROT (according to Skeat, from Fr. Perrot or Pierrot,
the diminutive of the proper name Pierre^), the name given
'"Parakeet" (in Shakespeare, I Hen. IV. ii. 3, 88, " Para-
quito ") is said by the same authority to be from the Spanish Peri-
quito or Perroqueto, a small Parrot, diminutive of Perico, a Parrot,
which again may be a diminutive from Pedro, the proper name.
Parakeet (spelt in various ways in English) is usually applied to the
smaller kinds of Parrots, especially those which have long tails, not
as Perroquet in French, which is used as a general term for all Parrots,
Perniche, or sometimes Perriche, being the ordinary name for what
we call Parakeet. The old English " Popinjay " and the old French
Papegaut have almost passed out of use, but the German Papagei and
generaUy to a large and very natural group of biids, which for
more than a score of centuries have attracted attention, not
only from their gaudy plumage, but, at first and chiefly, it
would seem, from the readiness with which many of them learn
to imitate the sounds they hear, repeating the words and even
phrases of human speech with a fidelity that is often astonishing.
It is said that no representation of any parrct appears in Egyptian
art, nor does any reference to a bird of the kind occur in the
Bible, whence it has been concluded that neither painters nor
writers had any knowledge of it. Aristotle is commonly supposed
to be the first author who mentions a parrot; but this is an
error, for nearly a century earlier Ctesias in his Indica (cap. 3),=
under the name of fi'iTraKos [Bittacus), so neatly described
a bird which could speak an " Indian " language — natuially,
as he seems to have thought — or Greek — if it had been taught
so to do — about as big as a sparrow-hawk (Hierax), with a [jurple
face and a black beard, otherwise blue-green (cyaiieus) and
vermilion in colour, so that there cannot be much risk in declaring
that he must have had before him a male example of what is
now commonly known as the Blossom-headed parakeet, and
to ornithologists as Palaeornis cyanocephalus, an inhabitant
of many parts of India. After Ctesias comes Aristotle's \pLTTaKri
{Psitlace), which Sundevall supposes him to have described
only from hearsay. There can be no doubt that the Indian
conquests of Alexander were the means of making the parrot
better known in Europe, and it is in reference to this fact that
another Eastern species of Palaeornis now bears the name of
P. alexandri, though from the localities it inhabits it could
hardly have had anything to do with the Macedonian hero. That
Africa had parrots does not seem to have been discovered by
the ancients tiU long after, as Pliny tells us (vi. 29) that they
were first met with beyond the limits of Upper Egypt by explorers
employed by Nero. These birds, highly prized from the first,
reprobated by the moralist, and celebrated by more than one
classical poet, in the course of time were brought in great numbers
to Rome, and ministered in various ways to the luxury of the
age. Not only were they lodged in cages of tortoise-shell and
ivory, with silver wires, but they were professedly esteemed
as delicacies for the table, and one emperor is said to have fed
his lions upon them! With the decline of the Roman EmjMre
the demand for parrots in Europe lessened, and so the supply
dwindled, yet all knowledge of them was not wholly lost, and
they are occasionally mentioned by one writer or another until
in the 15th century began that career of geographical discovery
which has since proceeded uninterruptedly. This immediately
brought with it the knowledge of many more forms of these
birds than had ever before been seen. Yet so numerous is the
group that even now new species of parrots are not uncommonly
recognized.
The home of the vast majority of parrot-forms is unquestion-
ably within the tropics, but the popular behef that parrots are
tropical birds only is a great mistake. In North America the
Carolina parakeet, Conurus carolinensis, at the beginning of
the 19th century used to range in summer as high as the shores
of lakes Erie and Ontario — a latitude equal to the south of
France; and even much later it reached, according to trust-
worthy information, the junction of the Ohio and the Mississippi,
though now its limits have been so much curtailed that its
occurrence in any but the Gulf States is doubtful. In South
America, at least four species are found in Chile or the La Plata
region, and one, Conurus patagonus, is pretty common on
the bleak coast of the Strait of Magellan. In Africa it is true
that no species is known to extend to within some ten degrees of
the tropic of Cancer; but Pionias rohusius inhabits territories
Italian Papagaio still continue in vogue. These names can be traced
to the Arabic Babagba; but the source of that word is unknown.
The Anglo-Saxon name of the Parret, a river in Somerset, is Pedreda
or Pedrida, which at first sight looks as if it had to do with the
proper name, Petrus; but Skeat believes there is no conne.^ion
between them — the latter portion of the word being nff, a stream.
- The passage seems to have escaped the notice of all naturalists
except W. J. Broderip, who mentioned it in his article " Psittacidae,"
in the Penny Cyclopaedia (xix. 83).
864
PARROT-FISHES
lying quite as far to the southward of the tropic of Capricorn.
In India the northern range of the group is only bounded by
the slopes of the Himalaya, and farther to the eastward parrots
are not only abundant over the whole of the Malay Archipelago,
as well as Australia and Tasmania, but two very well-defined
families are peculiar to New Zealand and its adjacent islands
(see Kakapo and Nestor). No parrot has recently inhabited
the Palaearctic Region,' and but one (the Conurus carolincnsis,
just mentioned) probably belongs to the Nearctic; nor are
parrots represented by many different forms in either the
Ethiopian or the Indian Regions. In continental Asia the
distribution of parrots is rather remarkable. None extend
farther to the westward than the valley of the Indus,- which,
considering the nature of the country in Baluchistan and Afghan-
istan, is perhaps intelligible enough; but it is not so easy to
understand why none are found either in Cochin China or China
proper; and they are also wanting in the PhiHppine Islands,
which is the more remarkable and instructive when we find how
abundant they are in the groups a httle farther to the southward.
Indeed, A. R. Wallace has weU remarked that the portion of
the earth's surface which contains the largest number of parrots,
in proportion to its area, is undoubtedly that covered by the
islands extending from Celebes to the Solomon group. " The
area of these islands is probably not one-fifteenth of that of the
four tropical regions, yet they contain from one-fifth to one-
fourth of all the known parrots" (Geogr. Distr. Animals, ii.
330). He goes on to observe also that in this area are found
many of the most remarkable forms — all the red Lories, the
great cockatoos, the pigmy Nasiternae and other singularities.
In South America the species of parrots, though numerically
nearly as abundant, are far less diversified in form, and all of
them seem capable of being referred to two, or, at most, three
sections. The species that has the widest range, and that by
far, is the common Ring-necked Parakeet, Palaeornis torquatus,
a well-known cage-bird which is found from the mouth of the
Gambia across Africa to the coast of the Red Sea, as well as
throughout the whole of India, Ceylon and Burmah to Tenas-
serim.^ On the other hand, there are plenty of cases of parrots
which are restricted to an exti'emely small area — often an island
of insignificant size, as Conurus xantholaemus, confined to the
island of St Thomas in the Antilles, and Palaeornis cxsul to
that of Rodriguez in the Indian Ocean — to say nothing of the
remarkable instance of Nestor product us (see Nestor).
The systematic treatment of this very natural group of birds
has long been a subject of much difficulty. A few systematists,
among whom C. L. Bonaparte was chief, placed them at the
top of the class, conceiving that they were the analogues of the
Primates among mammals. T. H. Huxley recognized the
Psittacomorphae as forming one of the principal groups of
Carinate birds, and they are now generally regarded as forming
a suborder Psittaci of the Cucuhform birds (see Bird). Owing
to the erroneous number of forms and the close similarities of
structure, the subdivision of the group has presented great
difiSculties. Buffon was unaware of the existence of some
of the most remarkable forms of the group, in particular of
' A few remains of a Parrot have been recognized from the Miocene
of the Allier in France, by A. Milne-Edwards {Ois. Foss. France,
vol. ii. p. 525, pi. CO.), and are said by him to show the greatest
resemblance to the common Grey Parrot of Africa, Psittacus erithacus,
through having also some affinity to the Ring-necked Parakeet of the
same country, Palaeornis torquatus. He refers them, however, to
the same genus as the former, under the name of Psittacus verreauxi.
- The statements that have been made, and even repeated by
writers of authority, as to the occurrence of " a green parrot " in
Syria (Chesney, Exped. Survey Euphrates and Tigris, ii. 443, 537)
and of a parrot in Turkestan (Jour. As. Soc. Bengal, viii. 1007)
originated with gentlemen who had no ornithological knowledge,
and are evidently erroneous.
' It is right to state, however, that the African examples of this
bird are said to be distinguishable from the ."Asiatic by their somewhat
shorter wings and weaker bill, and hence they are considered by
some authorities to form a distinct species or subspecies, P. dociiis;
but in thus regarding them the difterence of locality seems to have
influenced opinion, and without that difference they would scarcely
have been separated, for in many other groups of birds distinctions
so slight are regarded as barely evidence of local races.
Strigops and Nestor; but he began by making two great divisions
of those that he did know, separating the parrots of the Old
World from the parrots of the New, and subdividing each of
these divisions into various sections somewhat in accordance
with the names they had received in popular language — a
practice he followed on many other occasions, for it seems to
have been with him a belief that there is more truth in the
discrimination of the unlearned than the scientific are apt to
allow. In 1867- 1868 Dr O. Finsch published at Leiden an
elaborate monograph of the parrots,'' regarding them as a family,
in which he admitted 26 genera, forming 5 subfamihes: (i) that
composed of Strigops (Kakapo), only; (2) that containing the
crested forms or cockatoos; (3) one which he named Sitlacinae,
comprising all the long-tailed species — a somewhat heterogeneous
assemblage, made up of Macaws (q.v.) and what are commonly
known as parakeets; (4) the parrots proper with short tails;
and (5) the so-called " brush-tongued " parrots, consisting of
the Lories {q.v.) and Nestors {q.v.). In 1874 A. H. Garrod
communicated to the Zoological Society the results of his dissec-
tion of e-xamples of 82 species of parrots, which had hved in
its gardens, and these results were pubhshed in its Proceedings
for that year (pp. 586-598, pis. 70, 71). Summarily expressed,
Garrod's scheme was to divide the parrots into two famihes,
Palacornilhidae and Psittacidae, assigning to the former three
subfamilies, Palaeornithinae, Cacatuinae and Stringopinae, and
to the latter four, Arinae, Pyrrhurinae, Plalycercinae and
Cbrysotinae. That each of these sections, except the Cacatuinae,
is artificial any regard to osteology would show. In the Journal
fur Ornilhologie for 1881 A. Reichenow published a Conspectus
Psittacorum, founded, as several others * have been, on external
characters only. He makes 9 famihes of the group, and recog-
nizes 45 genera, and 442 species, besides subspecies. His grouping
is generally very different from Garrod's, but displays as much
artificiality: for instance, Nestor is referred to the family which
is otherwise composed of the cockatoos.
The system now generally accepted is based on a combination
of external and anatomical characters, and is due to Count
T. Salvadori {Cat. Birds, Brit. Mus. XX., 1891), and H. F.
Gadow (Bronn's Tkicr-Reich, Aves, 1893). About 80 genera
with more than 500 species are recognized, divided into the
family Psittacidae with the subfamilies Stringopinae, Psittacinae
and Cacatuinae, and the family Trichoglossidae with the sub-
famihes Cyclopsittacinae, Loriinae and Ncstorinae.
The headquarters of parrots are in the Australian Region and
the Malay countries; they are abundant in South America; in
Africa and India the number of forms is relatively smaU ; in Europe
and North Asia there are none now alive, in North America
only one. Parrots are gregarious and usually feed and roost
in companies, but are at least temporarily monogamous. Most
climb and walk well; the flight is powerful but low and undulating
in most. The food is varied but chiefly vegetable, whilst parrots
are alone amongst birds in holding the food in the claws. The
usual cry is harsh and discordant, but many softer notes are
employed. A large number of forms learn in captivity to talk
ancl whistle, the well-known red-tailed grey parrot {Psittacus
erithactis) of tropical Africa being pre-eminent. The eggs are
laid usually in holes in trees, rocks, or the ground, no Hning
being formed. The larger species produce one to three, the
smaller as many as twelve, the colour being dull white. The
young when hatched are naked and helpless. (A. N.)
PARROT-FISHES, more correctly called Parrot-Wrasses,
marine fishes of the family Scaridae closely alHed to the wrasses
or Labridae. The family contains eight genera of which the
principal are Scarus, Pseudoscarus, Odan and Sparisama. They
are easily recognized by their large scales, of which there are
from twenty-one to twenty-five in the lateral line, by having
invariably nine spines and ten rays in the dorsal fin and two
spines with eight rays in the anal, and especially by their singular
' Die Papageien, monegraphisch bearbeitet.
' Such, for instance, as Kuhl's treatise with the same title, which
appeared in 1820, and Wagler's Monographia Psittacorum, published
in 1832 — both good of their kind and time.
PARRY, SIR C. H. H.— PARRY, SIR W. E.
865
dentition, of jaws as well as pharynx. The teeth of the jaws
arc soldered together, and form a sharp-edged beak similar
to that of a parrot, but without a middle projecting point, and
the upper and lower beak are divided into two lateral halves
by a median suture. In a few species the single teeth can be
still distinguished, but in the majority (Pseudoscarus) they are
united into a homogeneous substance with polished surface.
By this sharp and hard beak parrot-fishes are enabled to bite
or scrape oil those parts of coral-stocks which contain the
polypes or to cut off branches of tough fucus, which in some
of the species forms the principal portion of their diet. The
process of triturating the food is performed by the pharyngeal
teeth, which likewise are united, and form plates with broad
masticatory surfaces, not unhke the grinding surface of the molars
of the elephant. Of these plates there is one pair above, opposed
to and fitting into the single one which is coalesced to the lower
pharyngeal bone. The contents of the alimentary canal, which
are always found to be finely divided and reduced to a pulp, prove
the efficiency of this triturating apparatus; in fact, ever since the
time of Aristotle it has been maintained that the Scarus rumi-
nates. Nearly one hundred species of parrot-fishes are known
from the tropical and sub-tropical parts of the Indo-Pacific and
Atlantic Oceans; like other coral-feeding fishes, they are absent
on the Pacific coasts of tropical America and on the coast of
tropical West Africa. The most celebrated is the Scarus of
the Mediterranean. Beautiful colours prevail in this group of
wrasses, but are subject to great changes and variations in the
same species; almost all are evanescent and cannot be pre-
served after death. The majority of parrot-fishes are eatable,
some even esteemed; but they (especially the carnivorous
kinds) not unfrequently acquire poisonous properties after
they have fed on corals or medusae containing an acrid poison.
Many attain to a considerable size, upwards of 3 ft. in length.
PARRY, SIR CHARLES HUBERT HASTINGS, Bart.,
English musical composer (1848- ), second son of Thomas
Gambler Parry, of Highnam Court, Gloucester, was born at
Bournemouth on the 27 th of February 1848. He was educated
at Malvern, Twyford, near Winchester, Eton (from 1861),
and Exeter College, Oxford. While still at Eton he wrote
music, two anthems being published in 1865; a service in D
was dedicated to Sir John Stainer. He took the degree of Mus.B.
at Oxford at the age of eighteen, and that of B.A. in 1870;
he then left Oxford for London, where in the following year he
entered Lloyd's, abandoning business for art soon afterwards.
He studied successively with H. H. Pierson (at Stuttgart),
Sterndale Bennett and Macfarren; but the most important
part of his artistic development was due to Edward Dannreuther.
Among the larger works of this early period must be mentioned
an overture, Guillem de Cabestanh (Crystal Palace, 1879), a
pianoforte concerto in F sharp minor, played by Dannreuther
at the Crystal Palace and Richter concerts in 1880, and his
first choral work, the Scenes from Prometheus Unbound, produced
at the Gloucester Festival, 1880. These, like a symphony in
G given at the Birmingham Festival of 1882, seemed strange
even to educated hearers, who were confused by the intricacy
of treatment. It was not until his setting of Shirley's ode,
The Glories of our Blood and State, was brought out at Gloucester,
1883, and the Partita for violin and pianoforte was published
about the same time, that Parry's importance came to be realized.
With his sublime eight-part setting of Milton's Blest Pair of
Sirens (Bach Choir, 1887) began a fine series of compositions
to sacred or semi-sacred words. In Judith (Birmingham, 1888),
the Ode on Si Cecilia's Day (Leeds, 1889), L' Allegro ed il penseroso
(Norwich, 1890), De Profundis (Hereford, 1891), The Lotus
Eaters (Cambridge, 1892), Job (Gloucester, 1892), King Saul
(Birmingham, 1894), Invocation to Music (Leeds, 1895), Mag-
nificat (Hereford, 1897), A Song of Darkness and Light (Gloucester,
1898), and Te Deum (Hereford, 1900), are revealed the highest
qualities of music. Skill in piling up climax after climax,
and command of every choral resource, are the technical qualities
most prominent in these works; but in his orchestral composi-
tions, such as the three later symphonies, in F, C and E minor,
in two suites, one for strings alone, and above all in his Symphonic
Variations (1897), he shows himself a master of the orchestra,
and his experiments in modification of the conventional classical
forms, such as appear in the work last named, or in the Nineteen
Variations for Pianoforte Solo, are always successful. His
music to Tfie Birds of Aristophanes (Cambridge, 1883) and
The Frogs (Oxford, 1892) are striking examples of humour
in music; and that to Agamemnon (Cambridge, 1900) is among the
most impressive compositions of the kind. His chamber music,
exquisite part-songs and solo songs maintain the high standard
of his greater works. At the opening of the Royal College of
Music in 1883 he was appointed professor of composition and of
musical history, and in 1894, on the retirement of Sir George
Grove, Parry succeeded him as principal. He was appointed
Choragus of Oxford University in 1883, succeeding Stainer in
the professorship of the university in 1900. He received the
honorary degree of Mus.D. at Cambridge 1883, Oxford 1884,
Dublin 1891; and was knighted in 1898. Outside the domain
of creative music. Parry's work for music was of the greatest
importance: as a contributor of many of the most important
articles on musical forms, &c., in Grove's dictionary, his literary
work first attracted attention; in his Studies of Great Composers
musical biography was treated, almost for the first time, in a
really enlightened and enlightening way; and his Art of Music
is a splendid monument of musical literature, in which the
theory of evolution is applied to musical history with wonderful
skill and success.
PARRY, SIR WILLIAM EDWARD (1790-1855), English
rear-admiral and Arctic explorer, was born in Bath on the 19th
of December 1790, the son of a doctor. At the age of thirteen
he joined the flag-ship of Admiral Cornwallis in the Channel
fleet as a first-class volunteer, in 1806 became a midshipman,
and in 1810 was promoted to the rank of lieutenant in the
" Alexander " frigate, which was employed for the next three
years in the protection of the Spitzbergen whale fishery. He
took advantage of this opportunity for the study and practice
of astronomical observations in northern latitudes, and after-
wards published the results of his studies in a small volume on
Nautical Astronomy by Night(i8i6). From 1813-1817 he served
on the North American station. In 1818 he was given the
command of the " Alexander " brig in the Arctic expedition
under Captain (afterwards Sir) John Ross. This expedition
returned to England without having made any new discoveries
but Parry, confident, as he expressed it, "that attempts at
Polar discovery had been hitherto relinquished just at a time
when there was the greatest chance of succeeding," in the
following year obtained the chief command of a new Arctic
expedition, consisting of the two ships " Griper " and " Hecla."
This expedition returned to England in November 1820 after
a voyage of almost unprecedented Arctic success (see Polar
Regions), having accomplished more than half the journey
from Greenland to Bering Strait, the completion of which solved
the ancient problem of a North-west Passage. A narrative
of the expedition, entitled Journal of a Voyage to discover
a North-west Passage, appeared in 1821. Upon his return
Lieutenant Parry was promoted to the rank of commander. In
May 1821 he set sail with the " Fury " and " Hecla " on a second
expedition to discover a North-west Passage, but was compelled
to return to England in October 1823 without achieving his
purpose. During his absence he had in November 1821 been
promoted to post rank, and shortly after his return he was
appointed acting hydrographer to the navy. His Journal of
a Second Voyage, &c., appeared in 1824. With the same ships
he undertook a third expedition on the same quest in 1824,
but was again unsuccessful, and the " Fury " being wrecked, he
returned home in October 1825 with a double ship's company.
Of this voyage he published an account in 1S26. In the following
year he obtained the sanction of the Admiralty for an attempt
on the North Pole from the northern shores of Spitzbergen, and
his extreme point of 82° 45' N. lat. remained for 49 years the
highest latitude attained. He published an account of this
journey under the title of Narrative of the Attempt to reach the
XX. 28
866
>^i.<- PARRY— PARSEESII^ //>i>iA'i
North Pole, kc. {iS2'j). In April 1829 he was knighted. He was
subsequently selected for the post of comptroller of the newly
created department of steam machinery of the Navy, and held
this office until his retirement from active service in 1846, when
he was appointed captain-superintendent of Haslar Hospital.
He attained the rank of rear-admiral in 1852, and in the following
year became a governor of Greenwich Hospital, and retained
this post till his death on the 8th of July 1855. The religious
side of Sir Edward Parry's character was strongly marked,
and besides the journals of his different voyages he was also
the author of a Lecture to Seamen, and Thoughts on the Parental
Character of God-
See Memoirs of Rear-Admiral Sir W. E. Parry, by his son. Rev.
Edward Parry (3rd ed., 1857).
PARRY (from Fr. parcr, to ward off), to turn aside a blow from
a weapon. The term is used especiaUy of a defensive movement
of the sword or foil in fencing, hence, by transference, to ward
off any attack, to turn aside an objectionable question. (See
Fencing, &c.)
PARSEES, or Parsis, the followers in India of Zoroaster
(Zarathustra), being the descendants of the ancient Persians who
emigrated to India on the conquest of their country by the Arabs
in the 8th century. They first landed at Sanjan on the coast of
Gujarat, where the Hindu rulers received them hospitably. To
this day their vernacular language is Gujarati, which they have
cultivated in literature and journalism. Their settlement in
Bombay dates only from the British occupation of that island.
In 1901 the total number of Parsees in aU India was 94,000, of
whom all but 7000 were found in the Bombay presidency and the
adjoining state of Baroda, the rest being widely scattered as
traders in the large towns.
Among Parsees the men are well formed, active, handsome
and intelligent. They have Hght oUve complexions, a fine
aquiline nose, bright black eyes, a well-turned chin, heavy arched
eyebrows, thick sensual Ups, and usually wear a hght curling
moustache. The women are delicate in frame, with small hands
and feet, fair complexions, beautiful black eyes, finely arched
eyebrows, and a profusion of long black hair, which they dress to
perfection, and ornament with pearls and gems. The Parsees
are much more Uberal in their treatment of women than any
other Asiatic race; they allow them to appear freely in pubHc,
and leave them the entire management of household affairs.
The characteristic costume of the Parsees (now frequently
abandoned) is loose and flowing, very picturesque in appearance,
and admirably adapted to the climate in which he lives. The
head is covered with a turban, or a cap of a fashion peculiar
to the Parsees; it is made of stiff material, something like the
European hat, without any rim, and has an angle from the
top of the forehead backwards. It would not be respectful to
uncover in presence of an equal, much less of a superior.
The colour is chocolate or maroon, except with the priests,
who wear a white turban.
A Parsee must be born upon the ground floor of the house, as
the teachings of their religion require life to be commenced in
humility, and by " good thoughts, words and actions "' alone can
an elevated position be attained either in this world or the next.
The mother is not seen by any member of the family for forty
days. Upon the seventh day after the birth an astrologer is
invited to cast the nativity of the child. He has first to enumer-
ate the names which the child may bear, so that the parents may
make choice of one of them. Then he draws on a wooden board
a set of hieroglyphs in chalk, and his dexterity in counting or
recounting the stars under whose region or influence the child is
declared to be born is marvelled at by the superstitious creatures
thronging around him. This document is preserved in the
family archives as a guidance and encouragement to the child
through life. At the age of seven or thereabouts, according
to the judgment of the priest, the first religious ceremony
is performed upon the young Parsee. He is first subjected
to the process of purification, which consists of an ablution
with nlrang (cow-urine). The ceremony consists in investing
him with the kusii, or girdle of his faith. This is a cord,
woven by women of the priestly class, composed of seventy-two
threads, representing the seventy-two chapters of the Yasna, a
portion of the Zend-Avesta, in the sacrednessof which the young
neophyte is figuratively bound. The priest ties the cord around
the waist as he pronounces the benediction upon the child, throw-
ing upon his head at each sentence shces of fruit, seeds, perfumes
and spices. He is thus received into the religion of Zoroaster,
and is henceforth considered morally accountable for his acts.
If a child die before the performance of this ceremony he is
considered to have gone back to Ahura-Mazda, who gave him,
as pure as he entered into this world, having not reached the age
of accountabihty.
The marriages of children engage the earliest attention of the
parents. The wedding day having been fixed by an astrologer,
who consults the stars for a happy season, a Parsee priest goes
from house to house with a list of the guests to be invited, and
deUvers the invitations with much ceremony. The father of the
bride waits upon near relatives and distinguished personages,
soHciting the honour of their attendance. A little before sunset
a procession is formed at the house of the bridegroom, and
proceeds with a band of music, amid great pomp and ceremony,
to the house of the bride's father. Here a number of relatives
and friends are collected at the door to receive the bridegroom
with due honour. Presents are sent before, according to the
time-honoured custom of the East. Upon the arrival of the pro-
cession at the house of the bride the gentlemen gallantly remain
outside, leaving room for the ladies to enter the house as the
escort of the bridegroom. As he passes the threshold his future
mother-in-law meets him with a tray filled with fruits and rice,
which she strews at his feet. The fathers of the young couple are
seated side by side, and between them stands the priest ready to
perform the ceremony. The young couple are seated in two
chairs opposite each other, their right hands tied together by a
silken cord, which is gradually wound around them as the
ceremony progresses, the bride in the meantime being concealed
with a veil of silk or musUn. The priest lights a lamp of incense,
and repeats the nuptial benediction first in Zend and then in
Sanskrit. At the conclusion of the ceremony they each throw
upon the other some grains of rice, and the most expeditious in
performing this feat is considered to have got the start of the
other in the future control of the household, and receives the
applause of the male or female part of the congregation as the
case may be. The priest now throws some grains of rice upon the
heads of the married pair in token of wishing them abundance;
bouquets of flowers are handed to the assembled guests, and rose-
water is showered upon them. The bride and bridegroom now
break some sweetmeats, and, after they have served each other,
the company are invited to partake of refreshments. At the
termination of this feast the procession re-forms, and with lanterns
and music escorts the bridegroom back to his own house, where
they feast until midnight. As midnight approaches they return
to the house of the bride, and escort her, with her dowry, to the
house of the bridegroom, and, having delivered her safely to her
future lord and master, disperse to their respective homes.
Eight days afterwards a wedding feast is given by the newly-
married couple, to which only near relatives and particular
friends are invited. This feast is composed entirely of vegetables,
but at each course the wine is served, and toasts are proposed, as
" happiness to the young couple," &c.
The funeral ceremonies of the Parsees are solemn and imposing.
When the medical attendant declares the case hopeless a priest
advances to the bed of the dying man, repeats sundry texts of the
Zend-Avesta, the substance of which tends to afford him con-
solation, and breathes a prayer for the forgiveness of his sins.
After life is extinct a funeral sermon is delivered by the priest, in
which the deceased is made the subject of an exhortation to his
relatives and friends to live pure, holy and righteous lives, so
that they may hope to meet again in paradise. The body is then
taken to the ground floor where it was born, and, after being
washed and perfumed, is dressed in clean white clothes, and laid
upon an iron bier. A dog is brought in to take a last look at his
inanimate master in order to drive away the evil spirits. This
r PARSIFAL BELL-INSTRUMENT \1
867
ceremony is called sagdad. A number of priests attend and
repeat prayers for the repose of the soul of the departed. All the
male friends of the deceased go to the door, bow down, and raise
their two hands from the floor to their heads to indicate their
respect for the departed. The body, when put upon the bier, is
covered over from head to foot. Two attendants bring it out of
the house, holding it low in their hands, and deliver it to four
pall-bearers, called nasasalar, clad in well-washed, white clothes.
A procession is formed by the male friends of the deceased,
headed by a number of priests in full dress, to foUow the body to
the dakhma, or " tower of silence." In Bombay these towers are
erected in a beautiful garden on the highest point of Malabar Hill,
amid trees swarming with vultures; they are constructed of stone,
and rise some 25 ft. high, with a small door at the side for the
entrance of the body. Upon arriving at the " tower of silence "
the bier is laid down, and prayers are said in the sagri, or house of
prayer, containing a fire-sanctuary, which is erected near the
entrance to the garden. The attendants then raise the body to
its final resting-place, lay it upon its stony bed, and retire. A
round pit about 6 ft. deep is surrounded by an annular stone
pavement about 7 ft. wide, on which the body is exposed to the
vultures, where it is soon denuded of flesh, and the bones fall
through an iron grating into a pit beneath, from which they are
afterwards removed into a subterranean entrance prepared for
their reception. On the third day after death an assemblage
of the relatives and friends of the deceased takes place at his
late residence, and thence proceed to the Atish-bahrdm, or " fire-
temple." The priests stand before the urns in which the celestial
fire is kept burning, and recite prayers for the soul of the departed.
The son or adopted son of the deceased kneels before the high-
priest, and promises due performance of all the religious duties
and obsequies to the dead. The relatives and friends then hand
the priest a list of the contributions and charities which have been
subscribed in memory of the deceased, which concludes the cere-
mony of " rising from mourning," or " the resurrection of the
dead." On each successive anniversary of the death of a Parsee
funeral ceremonies are performed in his memory. An iron frame-
work is erected in the house, in which shrubs are planted and
flowers cultivated to bloom in memory of the departed. Before
the frame, on iron stands, are placed copper or silver vases, filled
with water and covered with flowers. Prayers are said before
these iron frames two or three times a day. These ceremonies
are called viiiktad, or " ceremonies of departed souls."
The Parsees of India are divided into two sects, the Shenshahis
and the Kadmis. They do not differ on any point of faith; the
dispute is confined to a quarrel as to the correct chronological
date for the computation of the era of Yazdegerd, the last king
of the Sassanian dynasty, who was dethroned by the caliph
Omar about a.d. 640. The difference has been productive of no
other inconvenience than arises from the variation of a month in
the celebration of the festivals. The Parsees compute time from
the fall of Yazdegerd. Their calendar is divided into twelve
months of thirty days each; the other five days, being added for
holy days, are not counted. Each day is named after some
particular angel of bliss, under whose special protection it is
passed. On feast days a division of five watches is made under
the protection of five different divinities. In midwinter a feast
of six days is held in commemoration of the six periods of creation.
About the 21st of March, the vernal equinox, a festival is held in
honour of agriculture, when planting begins. In the middle of
April a feast is held to celebrate the creation of trees, shrubs and
flowers. On the fourth day of the sixth month a feast is held in
honour of Sahrevar, the deity presiding over mountains and mines.
On the sixteenth day of the seventh month a feast is held in
honour of Mithra, the deity presiding over and directing the
course of the sun, and also a festival to celebrate truth and friend-
ship. On the tenth day of the eighth month a festival is held in
honour of Farvardin, the deity who presides over the departed
souls of men. This day is especially set apart for the perform-
ance of ceremonies for the dead. The people attend on the hills
where the " towers of silence " are situated, and perform in the
sagrls prayers for the departed souls. The Parsee scriptures
require the last ten days of the year to be spent in doing deeds of
charity, and in prayers of thanksgiving to Ahura-Mazda. On
the day of Yazdegerd, or New Year's Day, the Parsees emulate
the western world in rejoicing and social intercourse. They rise
early, and after having performed their prayers and ablutions
dress themselves in a new suit of clothes, and sally forth to the
'' fire-temples," to worship the emblem of their divinity, the
sacred fire, which is perpetually burning on the altar. Unless
they duly perform this ceremony they believe their souls will
not be allowed to pass the bridge " Chinvad," leading to heaven.
After they have performed their religious services they visit
their relations and friends, when the ceremony of hamijur, or
joining hands, is performed. The ceremony is a kind of greeting
by which they wish each other " a happy new year." Their
relatives and friends are invited to dinner, and they spend the
rest of the day in feasting and rejoicing; alms are given to the
poor, and new suits of clothes are presented to servants and
dependants.
There are only two distinct classes among the Parsees — the
priests {daslilrs, or high priests; mobcds, or the middle order; and
herbads, or the lowest order) and the people (bchadin, behdin,
or " followers of the best religion "). The priestly office is
hereditary, and no one can become a priest who was not born
such; but the son of a priest may become a layman.
The secular affairs of the Parsees are managed by an elective
committee, or paiichayal, composed of six daslurs and twelve
mobcds, making a council of eighteen. Its functions resemble
the Venetian council of ten, and its objects are to preserve unity,
peace and justice amongst the followers of Zoroaster. One law
of the panchdyat is singular in its difference from the custom of
any other native community in Asia; nobody who has a wife
living shall marry another, except under pecuhar circumstances,
such as the barrenness of the living wife, or her immoral conduct.
Recently a serious difference arose among the Parsees of Bombay
on the question of proselytism. A Parsee had married a French
lady, who took the necessary steps to adopt the religion of her
husband. But it was decided by the High Court, after prolonged
argument, that, though the creed of Zoroaster theoretically
admitted proselytes, their admission was not consistent with the
practice of the Parsees in India.
Their religion teaches them benevolence as the first principle,
and no people practise it with more liberality. A beggar among
the Parsees is unknown, and would be a scandal to the society.
The sagacity, activity and commercial enterprise of the Parsees
are proverbial in the East, and their credit as merchants is almost
unlimited. In this connexion may be mentioned the well-known
names of Sir Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy and Sir Dinshaw Petit, both
baronets, and also of J. N. Tata, founder of the Institute of
Scientific Research at Bangalore.
The Parsees have shown themselves most desirous of receiving
the benefits of an Enghsh education; and their eagerness to
embrace the science and hterature of the West has been con-
spicuous in the wide spread of female education, and in the
activity shown in studying their sacred writings in critical texts.
In recent years many have taken to the professions of law and
medicine, and a Parsee barrister was appointed a judge of the
High Court at Bombay in iqo6. Two Parsees have also been
the only natives of India elected to the House of Commons.
See Menant, Les Parsis (Paris, 1898): Dosabhai Framji Karaka,
History of the Parsees (London, 1884); Seervai and Patel, Gujarat
Parsees from the Earliest Times (Bombay, 1898).
PARSIFAL BELL-INSTRUMENT (Ger. Parsifal Klavier
Instrument), a stringed instrument ingeniously constructed by
Schweisgut, of Carlsruhe, from Dr Mottl's design, as a substitute
for the church bells in Wagner's Parsifal. This instrument has
been constructed somewhat on the principle of the grand piano;
the massive frame is shaped like a billiard table. There are
five notes, each with six strings, three in unison giving the
fundamental note and three an octave higher. The strings are
struck by large hammers, covered with cotton-wool, which the
performer sets in motion by a strong elastic blow from his fist.
The hammers are attached to arms 22 in. long, screwed to a
868
PARSIMONY, LAW OF— PARSONS, T.
strong wooden span bridge placed horizontally above the strings
at about two-fifths of the length from the front. On the point
of the arm is the name of the note, and behind this the felt ledge
struck by the fist. Two belly bridges and two wrest-plank
bridges, one set for each octave, determine the vibrating length
of the strings, and the belly bridge, as in other stringed instru-
ments, is the medium through which the vibrations of the strings
are communicated to the soundboard. The arrangement of
pegs and wrest-pins is much the same as on the piano.
The realism demanded by modern dramatic music taxes the
resources of the orchestra to the utmost when the composer
aims at reproducing on the stage the effect of church bells, as,
for instance, in the Golden Legend, Cavalleria ruslicana, Pagliacci,
Rienzi and Parsifal. The most serious difficulty of all arose in
the last-mentioned drama, where the solemnity of the scene and
its deep religious significance demand a corresponding atmo-
sphere on the stage. Real church bells for the notes Wagner has
scored in the famihar chime would overpower the orchestra.
All substitutes for bells were tried in vain; no other instrument,
leaving aside the question of pitch, gave a tone in the least
similar to that of the bell. Independently of the rich harmonics
composing the clang, the bell has two distinct simultaneous
notes, first the tap tone, which gives the pitch, and the hum tone
or lower accompanying note. On the interval separating the
hum from the tap tone depend the dignity and beauty of the
bell tone and the emotional atmosphere produced. A stringed
instrument, similar to the one here described but with four notes
only, was used at Bayreuth for the first performance of Parsifal,
and with it tam-tams or gongs, but after many trials the
following combination was adopted as the best makeshift;
(i) the stringed instrument with four keys; (2) four tam-tams or
gongs tuned to the pitch of the four notes composing the chime;
(3) a bass-tuba, which plays the notes staccato in quavers to help
make them more distinct; (4) a fifth tam-tam, on which a roll is
executed with a drumstick.
The special peal of hemispherical bells constructed for Sir A.
Sullivan's Golden Legend is the only other successful substitute
known to the writer; the lowest of these bells is a minor tenth
higher than the lowest note required for Parsifal, and the
aggregate weight of the four bells is 11 cwt. The bells are
struck with mallets and have both tap and hum tone. (K. S.)
PARSIMONY, LAW OF (Lat. parsimonia, from parcere, to
save), the name given to William of Occam's principle " Entia
non sunt multiplicanda praeter necessitatem," i.e. that it is
scientifically unsound to set up more than one hypothesis at once
to explain a phenomenon. This principle is known as " Occam's
razor " (see Occam, William of).
PARSLEY, a hardy biennal herb known botanically as
Petroselinum sativum (natural order Umbelliferae), the leaves of
which are much used for garnishing and flavouring. It occurs
as a garden escape in waste places in Britain and it is doubtful
if it is known anywhere as a truly wild plant; A. de Candolle,
however {Origin of Cultivated Plants) considers it to be wild in
the Mediterranean region. It grows best in a partially shaded
position, in good soil of considerable depth and not too Ught; a
thick dressing of manure should be given before sowing. For a
continuous supply three sowings should be made, as early in
February as the weather permits, in April or early in May and
in July — the last for the winter supply in a sheltered position
with southern exposure. Sow thinly in drills from 12 to 15 in.
apart and about i in. deep; thin out to 3 in. and finally to
6 in. each. In winter the plants should be protected by frames
or hand-glasses. The curled and mossy-leaved varieties are
preferable. The Hamburg or turnip-rooted variety is grown for
the root, which is cut up and used for flavouring.
PARSNIP, botanically known as Pastinaca saliva (or Peuce-
danum sativum), a member of the natural order Umbelliferae,
found wild in roadsides and waste places in England and through-
out Europe and temperate Asia, and as an introduced plant in
North America. It has been cultivated since the time of the
Romans for the sake of its long fleshy whitish root, which has a
peculiar but agreeable flavour. It succeeds best on a free sandy
loam, which should be trenched and manured in the previous
autumn, the manure being well buried. The seed should be
sown thinly in March, in rows 15 to 18 in. apart, and finally
thinned out to i ft. apart. The leaves will decay in October
or November, when a portion of the roots may be taken up and
stored in dryish sand for immediate use, the rest being left in the
ground, to be taken up as required, but the whole should be
removed by February to a dry cool place, or they will begin to
grow. The best sorts are the Hollow-crowned, the Maltese and
the Student. Dusting the ground with soot when sowing the
seed and again when the leaves appear will keep the plants free
from pests.
PARSON, a technical term in English law for the clergyman of
the parish. It is a corruption of persona, the parson being, as it
were, the persona ecclesiae, or representative of the Church in the
parish. Parson imparsonee (persona impersonata) is he that as
rector is in possession of a church parochial, and of whom the
church is full, whether it be presentative or impropriate (Coke
upon Littleton, 300 b). The word parson is properly used only
of a rector. A parson must be in holy orders; hence a lay
rector could not be called a parson. There are four requisites
to the appointment of a parson, viz. holy orders, presentation,
institution and induction. The parson is tenant for life of the
parsonage house, the glebe, the tithes and other dues, so far
as they are not appropriated.
See also Rector; Vicar; Benefice; and Tithes.
PARSONS (or Persons), ROBERT (i 546-1610), English Jesuit
and political agitator, son of a blacksmith, was born at Nether
Stowey, Somerset, on the 24th of June 1546. The vicar of the
parish gave him instruction and procured his entrance in 1563
as an exhibitioner to Balhol College, Oxford. He graduated
B.A. in 1568, and M.A. in 1572. He was fellow, bursar and dean
of his college, but in 1574 he resigned or was dismissed his fellow-
ship and offices, for reasons which have been disputed, some
alleging improprieties of conduct, and others suspected disloyalty.
Soon after his resignation he went to London, and thence in
June to Louvain, where he entered the Roman Catholic Church
and spent some time in the company of Father William Good, a
Jesuit. In July 1575 he entered the Jesuit Society at Rome. In
1580 he was selected, along with Edmund Campion, a former
associate at Oxford, and others, to undertake a secret religious
and political mission to England. The two emissaries engaged
in political intrigue in England and on the Continent. In 1581
Campion was arrested, but Parsons made his escape to Rouen,
whence he returned to Rome, where he continued to direct the
English mission. In 1588 he went to Spain, where he remained
for nine years, founding seminaries for the training of English
priests at Valladolid, Lucar, Seville, Lisbon and St Omer.
On the death of Cardinal Allen in 1594 he made strenuous efforts
to be appointed his successor. He failed in this, but was made
rector of the English college at Rome in 1597, and died there on
the i8th of April 1610
Parsons was the author of over 30 polemical writings, mostly
tracts. Among the more important are Cerlayne Reasons why
Catholiques refuse to goe to Cliureh (Douai, 1580), A Christian Direc-
torie guiding Men to their Saluation (London, 1583-1591, 2 parts), A
Conference about the Next Succession to the Crowne of Ingland
(1594), Treatise of the Three Conversions of England (1603- 1604,
3 parts), an answer to Foxe's Acts and Monuments. For portrait,
see Gentleman s Magazine, Ixiv.
PARSONS, THEOPHILUS (1750-1813), American jurist, was
born in Byfield, Massachusetts, on the 24th of February 1750,
the son of a clergyman. He graduated from Harvard College in
1769, was a schoolmaster at Falmouth (now Portland), Maine,
in 1770-1773, studied law, and was admitted to the bar in 1774.
In 1800 he removed to Boston. He was chief justice of the
supreme court of Massachusetts from 1806 until his death in
Boston on the 30th of October 1813. In politics he took an
active part as one of the Federalist leaders in the state. He was
a member of the Essex County convention of 1778, called to
protest against the proposed state constitution, and as a member
of the " Essex Junto " was probably the author of The Essex
PARSONS— PARTHENON
869
Result, which helped to secure the rejection of the constitution at
the polls. He was a member of the state constitutional conven-
tion of 1779-1780, and one of the committee of twenty-six which
drafted the constitution; he was also a delegate to the state
convention of 1788 which ratified the Federal Constitution; and
according to tradition was the author of the famous " Conciliatory
Resolutions," or proposed amendments to the constitution,
which did much to win over Samuel Adams and John Hancock
to the side of ratification. His Commentaries on the Laws of the
United States (1836) contains some of his more important legal
opinions.
His son Theophilus Parsons (1707-1882), who was Dane
professor of law at Harvard from 1848 to 1870, is remembered
chiefly as the author of a series of useful legal treatises, and some
books in support of Swedenborgian doctrines; he wrote a life of
his father (Boston, 1859).
PARSONS, a city of Labette county, in south-eastern Kansas,
U.S.A., situated at the junction of the Big and Little Labette
creeks, about 138 m. S.'by W. of Kansas City. Pop. (1890),
6736; (1900), 7682, of whom 807 were negroes; (1905, state
census), 11,720. It is served by the Kansas City Fort Scott &
Memphis (St Louis & San Francisco system) and the Missouri
Kansas & Texas railways. The city has large machine shops of
the Missouri Kansas & Texas railway and various manufactures.
Natural gas is utilized for light and heat. The first settlement
on the site of the city was made in 1869 and was called Mendota
(" place of meeting " — i.e. of the creeks). In 1871 the city was
chartered, and in 1910 government by commission went into
effect. It was named in honour of Levi Parsons (1822-1887),
the first president of the Missouri Kansas and Texas railway.
PARTABGARH, or Pertabgarh, a native state of India, in
the Rajputana agency. Area, 886 sq. m.; pop. (igoi), 52,025,
showing a decrease of 40% in the decade, owing to the effects of
famine. The inhabitants are mostly Bhils and other aboriginal
tribes. Estimated revenue, £12,000. The town of Partabgarh
(pop., 9819) is connected by a metalled road (20 m.) with the
station of Mandasor on the Rajputana railway. It has a
reputation for a special kind of enamelled jewelry.
PARTABGARH, Pertabgarh, or Pratapgarh, a district of
British India in the Fyzabad division of the United Provinces.
The administrative headquarters are at Bela. Area, 1442 sq. m. ;
pop. (1901), 912,848. The Ganges forms the south-western
boundary line, while the Gumti marks the eastern boundary for a
few miles. The only mineral products are salt, saltpetre and
kankar or nodular limestone. The principal crops are rice,
barley, pulse, millets, sugar-cane and poppy. The district is
traversed by the branch of the Oudh & Rohilkhand railway
from Rae Bareilly to Benares, opened in 1898. There are
manufactures of sugar and a little silk; and grain, opium, oil-
seeds, hemp and hides are exported.
See Partabgarh District Gazetteer (Allahabad, 1904).
PARTERRE, a term, taken from the French phrase par terre,
i.e. on the surface of the ground, and used of an arrangement in
a garden of beds of flowers with gravel or other paths and plots
of grass; also of that part of the auditorium of a theatre which
is occupied by the orchestra stalls.
PARTHENAY, a town of western France, capital of an arron-
dissement in the department of Deux-Sevres, 27 m. N.N.E. of
Niort, on the railway between that town and Saumur. Pop.
(1906), 5615. The town retains considerable portions of its fine
13th-century ramparts, including the Porte St Jacques, a fortified
gateway guarding an old bridge over the Thouet. Amongst
ancient buildings of interest are the church of Ste Croix, of the 1 2th
century, restored in 1885, with a 15th-century belfry; the church
of St Laurent, also restored in modern times, portions of whose
walls date from the nth century; the ruined Romanesque portal
of Notre-Dame de la Couldre; and i m. south-west of the town
the ancient church (12th century) of Parthenay-le-Vieux. The
manufacture of woollen goods and wool-spinning are the principal
local industries.
PARTHENIUS, of Nicaea in Bithynia, Greek grammarian
and poet. He was taken prisoner in the Mithradatic War and
carried to Rome (72 B.C.); subsequently he visited Neapolis,
where he taught Virgil Greek. Parthenius was a writer of elegies,
especially dirges, and of short epic poems. The pseudo-Virgilian
Morctum and Ciris were imitated from his MuTToros and
M«rayLiop<^co(T«s. His 'Epcon/cd iraJdrijiaTa is still extant, containing
a collection of 36 love-stories which ended unhappily, taken from
difi'erent historians and poets. As Parthenius generally quotes
his authorities, these stories are valuable as affording information
on the Alexandrian poets and grammarians.
See E. Martini in Mythographi graeci, vol. ii. (1QO2, in Teubner
Scries); poetical fragments in A. Meineke, Analecla alexandrina
(i«53).
PARTHENON {WapBiviiiv) , the name generally given, since the
4lh century B.C., to the chief temple of Athena on the Acropolis
at Athens {e.g. Demosthenes, c. Androt. 13, 76). The name is
applied in the official inventories of the 5th and early 4th
centuries to one compartment of the temple, and this was
probably its original meaning. It is certainly to be associated
with the cult of Athena Parthenos, " the Virgin," though it is
not clear why the name was given to this particular chamber.
The most convenient position for a temple upon the natural
rock-platform of the Acropolis was occupied by the early temple
of Athena. When it was decided to supersede this by a larger
and more magnificent temple, it was necessary to provide a site
for this new temple by means of a great substructure, which is
on its south side about 40 ft. high. This substructure was not
built for the present temple, but for an earlier one, which was
longer and narrower in shape; there has been much discussion
as to the date of this earlier temple; F. C. Penrose maintained
that it was the work of Peisistratus. Some have thought that
it dated from the time immediately after the Persian wars; but
the fact that portions of its columns and entablature, damaged by
fire, were built into the north wall of the Acropolis by Themi-
stocles seems to prove that it dates from the 6th century, whether
it be the work of the tyrants or of the renewed democracy under
Cleisthenes.
The extant temple was the chief among the buildings with
which Pericles adorned the Acropolis. The supervision of the
whole work was in the hands of Pheidias, and the architects of the
temple were Ictinus and Callicrates. The actual building was
not begun until 447 B.C., though the decision to build was made
ten years earlier (Keil, Anonynus argentorensis). The temple
must have been structurally complete by the year 438 B.C., in
which the gold and ivory statue of Athena Parthenos was dedi-
cated; but the work of decoration and finish was still going on in
433 B.C. The temple as designed by Ictinus was about 15 ft.
shorter and about 6 ft. wider than the building for which the
foundations were intended; it thus obtained a proportion of
length to breadth of exactly 9:4. It is the most perfect example
of the Doric order (see Architecture: Greek). The plan of the
temple was peculiar. The cella, which was exactly 100 ft. long,
kept the name and traditional measurement of the old Hecatom-
pedon. It was surrounded on three sides by a Doric colonnade,
and in the middle of it was the great basis on which the statue
was erected. This cella was probably lighted only by the great
doorway and by the light that filtered through the marble tiles.
The common notion that there was a hypaethral opening is
870
PARTHIA
erroneous. At the back of the cella was a square chamber, not
communicating with it, but entered from the west end of the
temple; this was the Parthenon in the narrower sense. It seems
to have been used only as a store-house, though it may have been
originally intended for a more important purpose. The Prodo-
mus and the Opisthodomus were enclosed by bronze gratings
iixed between the columns, and were thus adapted to contain
valuable ofiferings and other treasures. We have inventories on
marble of the contents of these four compartments of the temple.
The opisthodomus, in particular, probably served as a treasury
for sacred and other money, though it has been disputed whether
the opisthodomus mentioned in the inscriptions is part of the
Parthenon or another building.
For the sculptures decorating the Parthenon and the statue
by Pheidias in the cella, see article Greek Art. The metopes
over the cuter colonnade were all sculptured, and represented on
the east the battle of gods and giants, on the west, probably, the
battleof Greeks and Amazons, on the south Greeks and Centaurs;
those on the north are almost lost. The east pediment repre-
sented the birth of Athena, the west pediment her contest with
Poseidon for the land of Attica. The frieze, which was placed
above the cella wall at the sides, represented the Panathenaic
procession, approaching on three sides the group of gods seated in
the middle of the east side. These sculptures are all of them
admirably adapted to their position on the building, and are, in
themselves, the most perfect works that sculpture has ever
produced.
The Parthenon probably remained intact until the 5th century
of our era, when the colossal statue was removed, and the temple
is said to have been transformed into a church dedicated to St
Sophia. In the 6th century it was dedicated to the Virgin
Mother of God (©toroxos). The adaptation of the building as a
church involved the removal of the inner columns and roof, the
construction of an apse at the east end, and the opening of a door
between the cella and the chamber behind it. These alterations
involved some damage to the sculptures. In 1456 Athens was
captured by the Turks, and the Parthenon was consequently
changed into a mosque, apparently without any serious structural
alterations except the addition of a minaret. In this state it was
described by Spon and Wheler in 1676 and the sculpture was
drawn by the French artist Carrey in 1674. In 1687 the Turks
used the building as a powder magazine during the bombard-
ment of the Acropolis by a Venetian army under Morosini, and
a shell caused the explosion which blew out the middle of the
temple and threw down the columns at the sides. Still further
damage to the sculptures was done by Morosini's unsuccessful
attempt to lower from the west pediment the chariot of Athena.
Later a small mosque was constructed in the midst of the ruins;
but nothing except gradual damage is to be recorded during the
succeeding century except the visits of various travellers, notably
of James Stuart (1713-1788) and Nicholas Revett (1720-1S04),
whose splendid drawings are the best record of the sculpture as it
existed in Athens. In 1801 Lord Elgin obtained a firman
authorizing him to make casts and drawings, and to pull down
extant buildings where necessary, and to remove sculpture from
them. He caused all the remains of the sculpture to be found on
the ground or in Turkish houses, and a certain amount — notably
the metopes — that was still on the temple, to be transported to
England. Some fault has been found with his methods or those
of his workmen; but there is no doubt that the result was the
preservation of much that would otherwise have been lost. The
Elgin marbles were bought by the British government in 1816,
and are now in the British Museum. Certain other sculptures
from the Parthenon are in the Louvre, Copenhagen or elsewhere,
and much is still in Athens, either still on the temple or in the
Acropolis museum.
The most accurate measurements of the temple, showing the
exactness of its construction and the subtlety of the curvature
of all its lines, was made by F. C. Penrose.
Authorities. — A. Michaelis, der Parthenon (Leipzig, 1871); T.
Stuart and N. Revett, Avtiquities of Athens (London, 1762-1815);
F. C. Penrose, Principles of Athenian Architecture (London, 1851 and
1888); A. S. Murray, The Sculptures of the Parthenon (London,
1903); British Museum, Catalogue of Sculpture, vol. i. See also
Greek Art. (E. Or.)
PARTHIA, the mountainous country S.E. of the Caspian Sea,
which extends from the Elburz chain eastwards towards Herat,
and is bounded on the N. by the fertile plain of Hyrcania
(about Astrabad) at the foot of the mountains in the corner of
the Caspian and by the Turanian desert ; on the S. by the great
salt desert of central Iran. It corresponds to the modern
Khorasan. It was inhabited by an Iranian tribe, the Parthava of
the inscriptions of Darius; the correct Greek form is Jlapdvatoi.
Parthia became a province of the Achaemenian and then of
the Macedonian Empire. Seleucus I. and Antiochus I. founded
Greek towns: Soteira, Charis, Achaea, Calliope (Appian, Syr.
57; Plin. vi. 15; cf. Strabo xi. 516); the capital of Parthia is
known only by its Greek name Hecatompylos (" The Hundred-
gated ") from the many roads which met there (Polyb. x. 28),
and was, according to Appian, founded by Seleucus I. (cf . Curtius
vii. 2). In 208 many Greek inhabitants are found in the towns of
Parthia and Hyrcania (Polyb. x. 31, 11).
When about 255 B.C. Diodotus had made himself king of
Bactria {q.v.) and tried to expand his dominions, the chieftain
of a tribe of Iranian nomads (Dahan Scyths) east of the Caspian,
the Parni or Aparni, who bore the Persian name Arsaces, fled
before him into Parthia.' Here the satrap Andragoras appears
to have shaken off the Seleucid supremacy, as he struck gold and
silver coins in his own name, on which he wears the diadem,
although not the royal title (Gardner, Numism. Chronicle, 1879-
1881). In Justin xii. 4, 12, Andragoras is wrongly made satrap
of Alexander, of Persian origin, and ancestor of Arsaces. He was
slain by Arsaces (Justin xli. 4), who occupied Parthia and became
the founder of the Parthian kingdom. The date 248 B.C. given
by the list of the Olympionicae in Euseb. Chron. i. 207, and in
his Canon, ii. 120 (cf. Appian, Syr. 65; Justin, xli. 4, gives
wrongly 256 B.C.), is confirmed by numerous Babylonian tablets
dated simultaneously from the Seleucid and Arsacid eras (cf.
Mahler, in Wiener Zcitschrijt fiir die Kunde des Morgenlaftds,
1901, XV. 57 sqq.; Lehmann Haupt in Beitrdge zur alien
Geschichte, 1905, v. 128 sqq.). The origin and early history of
the Parthian kingdom, of which we possess only very scanty
information, is surrounded by fabulous legends, narrated by
Arrian in his Parthica (preserved in Photius, cod. 58, and Syn-
cellus, p. 539 seq.). Here Arsaces and his brother Tiridates
are derived from the royal house of the Achaemenids, pro-
bably from Artaxerxes II.; the young Tiridates is insulted
by the prefect Agathocles or Pherecles; in revenge the brothers
with five companions (corresponding to the seven Persians
of Darius) slay him, and Arsaces becomes king. He is killed
after two years and succeeded by his brother Tiridates,
who reigns 37 years. There is scarcely anything historical
in this account, perhaps not even the name Tiridates, for,
according to the older tradition, Arsaces himself ruled for
many years. The troubles of the Seleucid empire, and the war
of Seleucus II. against Ptolemy III. and his own brother Antio-
chus Hierax, enabled him not only to maintain himself in Parthia,
but also to conquer Hyrcania; but he was constantly threatened
by Diodotus of Bactria (Justin xli. 4). When, about 238 B.C.,
Seleucus II. was able to march into the east, Arsaces fled to the
nomadic tribe of the Aspasiacae (Strabo xi. 513; cf. Polyb. x.
48). But Seleucus was soon recalled by a rebellion in Syria, and
Arsaces returned victorious to Parthia; " the day of this victory
is celebrated by the Parthians as the beginning of their inde-
pendence " (Justin xli. 4). Arsaces was proclaimed king at
Asaak in the district of Astauene, now Kuchan in the upper Atrek
(Attruck) valley (Isidor. Charac), and built his residence Dara on
a rock in a fertile valley in Apavarktikene (Justin xli. 5; Plin.
vi. 46), now Kelat still farther eastward; the centre of his power
evidently lay on the borders of eastern Khorasan and the Turan-
ian desert. The principal institutions of the Parthian kingdom
• Strabo xi. 515; cf. Justin xli. 4; the Parni are said by Strabo
[ibid.] to have immigrated from southern Russia, a tradition wrongly
transferred to the Parthians themselves by Justin xli. i, and Arrian
a/). Phot. cod. 58. __,. 11
PARTICK— PARTITION
871
were created by him (cf. Justin xli. 2). The Scythian nomads
became the ruling race; they were invested with large landed
property, and formed the council of the king, who appointed the
successor. They were archers fighting on horseback, and in their
cavalry consisted the strength of the Parthian army; the infantry
were mostly slaves, bought and trained for military service, like
the janissaries and mamelukes. But these Scythians soon
amalgamated with the Parthian peasants. They adopted the
Iranian religion of Zoroaster (in the royal town Asaak an eternal
fire was maintained), and " their language was a mixture of
Scythian and Median " (/.c, Iranian). Therefore their language
and writing are called by the later Persians " Pchlevi," i.e.
Parthian (Pehlevi is the modern form of Parthawa) and the
magnates themselves Pehlevans, i.e. " Parthians," a term
transferred by Firdousi to the heroes of the old Iranian legend.
But the Arsacid kingdom never was a truly national state; with
the Scythian and Parthian elements were united some elements
of Greek civilization. The successors of Arsaces I. even founded
some Greek towns, and when they had conquered Babylonia
and Mesopotamia they all adopted the epithet " Philhellen."
To Arsaces I. probably belong the earliest Parthian coins; the
oldest simply bear the name Arsaces; others, evidently struck
after the coronation in Asaak, have the royal title (jSaffiXfcos
'ApccLKcv). The reverse shows the seated archer, or occasionally
an elephant ; the head of the king is beardless and wears a helmet
and a diadem; only from the third or fourth king they begin to
wear a beard after the Iranian fashion. In honour of the founder
of the dynasty all his successors, when they came to the throne,
adopted his name and officially (e.g. on the coins) are almost
always called Arsaces, whereas the historians generally use their
individual names.
Of the successors of Arsaces I. we know very little. His son,
Arsaces II., was attacked by Antiochus III., the Great, in 20Q,
who conquered the Parthian and Hyrcanian towns but at last
granted a peace. The next king, whom Justin calls Priapatius,
ruled IS years (about 190-175); his successor, Phraates I.,
subjected the mountainous tribe of the Mardi (in the Elburz).
He died early, and was succeeded not by one of his sons but
by his brother, Mithradates I., who became the founder of the
Parthian empire. Mithradates I. (c. 170-138) had to fight hard
with the Greeks of Bactria, especially with Eucratides {q.v.);a.i
last he was able to conquer a great part of eastern Iran. Soon
after the death of Antiochus IV. Epiphanes (163) he conquered
Media, where he refounded the town of E.hagae (Rai near Teheran)
under the name of Arsacia; and about 141 he invaded Babylonia.
He and his son Phraates II. defeated the attempts of Demetrius
II. (139) and Antiochus VII. (1 29) to regain the eastern provinces,
and extended the Arsacid dominion to the Euphrates.
For the later history of the Parthian empire reference should
be made to Persia: Ancient History, and biographical articles on
the kings. The following is a list of the kings, as far as it is
possible to establish their succession.
The names of pretenders not generally acknowledged are put
in brackets.
Arsaces I. . . . 248-f. 211 Vonones 1 8-1 1
(perhaps Tiridates I.) Artabanus II. r. 10-40
Arsaces II. . r. 211-190 (Tiridates III 36)
Priapatius . . .c. 190-175 (Cinnamus 38)
Phraates I. . . c. 175-170 (Vardanes 1 40-45)
Mithradates I. .c. 170-138 Gotarzes 40-51
Phraates II. c. 138-127 Vonones II 51
Artabanus I. . .c. 127-124 Vologaeses I. ... 51-77
Mithradates II. the (Vardanes II 55)
Great
c. 124-
Vologaeses II. 77-79; 111-147
Sanatruces 1 76-70 Pacorus . 78-c. 105
Phraates III 70-57 (Artabanus III. . 80-81)
Orodes 1 57-37 Osroes . 106-129
(Mithradates III. . . 57-54) (Mithradates IV. and his son
Phraates IV 37-2 Sanatruces II., 115; Partha-
(Tiridates II. . 32-31 and 26) maspates, 116-1 17; and other
Phraates V. (Phraa- pretenders.)
taces) .2 B.c.-A.D. 5 Mithradates V. . . c. 129-147
Orodes II A.D. 5-7 Vologaeses III. . 147-191
• The names of the following kings are not known ; that one of
them was called Artabanus II. is quite conjectural.
Vologaeses IV. . 191-209 Artabanus IV. . . 209-229
(Vologaeses V. . 209-c. 222)
Authorities. — Persian tradition knows very little about the
Arsacids, who by it arc called Ashkanians (from Ashak, the modern
form of Arsaces.) Of modern works on the history of the Parthians
(besides the numismatic literature) the most important are: G.
Rawlinson, The .Sixth Oriental Monarchy (1873), and A. von
(iutschmid, Ceschichle Irans iind seine Nachbarldnder von Alexander
d. Gr. bis zum Vntergang der Arsaciden (1888).
The principal works on the Arsacid coinage are (after the earlier
publications of Longpericr, Prokesch-Ostan, &c.): Percy Gardner,
The Parthian Coinage (London, 1877), and especially W. Wroth, Cata-
logue of the Coins of Parthia in the British Museum (London, 1903),
who carefully revised the statements of his predecessors. Cf. also
Petrowicz, Arsacidenmiinzen (Vienna, 1904), and Allotte de la Fuye,
" Classement dcs monnaics arsacides," in Revue numismatique, 4
serie, vol. viii., 1904. (Ed. M.)
PARTICK (formerly Perdyc or Pcrthick), a municipal and police
burgh of the parish of Govan, Lanarkshire, Scotland. Pop.
(1891), 36,538; (1901), 54,2q8. It lies on the north bank of the
Clyde, and is continuous with Glasgow, from which it is separated
by the Kelvin, and of which it is a large and wealthy residential
suburb. Shipbuilding yards are situated in the burgh, which
has also industries of paper-staining, flour-milling, hydraulic-
machine making, weighing-machine making, brass-founding and
galvanizing. The tradition is that the flour-mills and granaries
— the Bunhouse Mills — as they are called locally, were given by
the Regent Moray to the bakers of Glasgow for their public
spirit in supplying his army with bread at the battle of Langside
in 1568. Victoria Park contains a grove of fossil trees which
were discovered in a quarry. The town forms the greater part
of the Partick division of Lanarkshire, which returns one member
to Parliament. Though it remained a village till the middle of
the 19th century, it is an ancient place. Morken, the Pictish
king who persecuted St Kentigern, is believed to have dwelt here
and, in 1136, David I. gave the lands of Partick to the see of
Glasgow. The bishop's palace stood by the side of the Kelvin,
and was occupied — or a mansion erected for him on its site — by
George Hutcheson (1580-1639), founder of the Hutcheson
Hospital in the city.
PARTISAN, or Partizan. (i) A thoroughgoing " party " man
or adherent, usually in a depreciatory sense of one who puts his
party before principles; (2) an irregular combatant or guerrilla
soldier; (3) a weapon with a long shaft and a broad bladed head,
of a type intermediate between the spear and the halberd (g.v.).
In senses (i) and (2) the word is derived through the Fr. from
Ital. partigiano, from parteggiare, to share, take part in, Lat.
pars, part. The name for the weapon has also been attributed to
the same origin, as being that used by " partisans," but there is
no historical evidence for this. The form which the word now
takes in French, ptrluisane, has given rise to a connexion with
pertuis, hole; Lat. perliisus, pertundere, to strike through. But
the most probable derivation is from the Teutonic porta, barta,
axe, which forms the last part of " halberd."
PARTITION, in law, the division between several persons of
land or goods belonging to them as co-proprietors. It was a
maxim of Roman law, followed in modern systems, that in
communione vet sociclatc nemo potest invitus detineri. Partition
was either voluntary or was obtained by the actio comniuni
dividendo. In English law the term partition applies only to the
division of lands, tenements and hereditaments, or of chattels
real between coparceners, joint tenants or tenants in common.
It is to be noticed that not all hereditaments are capable of
partition. There can be no partition of homage, fealty, or
common of turbary, or of an inheritance of dignity, such as a
peerage. Partition is either voluntary or compulsory. Volun-
tary partition is effected by mutual conve)'ances, and can only
be made where all parties are sui juris. Since the Real Property
Act 1845, § 3, it must be made by deed, except in the case of
copyholds. Compulsory partition is effected by private act of
parliament, by judicial process, or through the inclosure com-
missioners. At common law none but coparceners were entitled
to partition against the will of the rest of the proprietors, but
the Acts of 31 Henry VIII. c. i and 32 Henry VIII. c. 32 gave a
compulsory process to joint tenants and tenants in common of
PARTNERSHIP
freeholds, whether in possession or in reversion, by means of the
writ of partition. In the reign of Elizabeth the court of chancery
began to assume jurisdiction in partition, and the writ of partition,
after gradually becoming obsolete, was finally abolished by the
Real Property Limitation Act 1833. The court of chancery
could not decree partition of copyholds untU the passing of the
Copyholds Act 1 84 1 . This act was repealed by the Copyholds Act
1894, which empowers the alienation of ancient tenements with
the hcence of the lord. By the Judicature Act 1873, § 34,
partition is one of the matters specially assigned to the chancery
division. An order for partition is a matter of right, subject to
the discretion vested in the court by the Partition Act 1868
(amended by the Partition Act 1876). By § 3 of the act of 1868
the court may, on the request of a party interested, direct a sale
instead of a partition, if a sale would be more beneficial than a
partition. By § 12 a county court has jurisdiction in partition
where the property does not exceed £500 in value. Under the
powers of the Inclosure Act 1845, and the acts amending it, the
inclosure commissioners have power of enforcing compulsory
partition among the joint owners of any inclosed lands. An
order of the inclosure commissioners or a private act vests the
legal estate, as did also the old writ of partition. But an order of
the chancery division only declares the rights, and requires to be
perfected by mutual conveyances so as to pass the legal estate.
Where, however, all the parties are not sui juris, the court may
make a vesting order under the powers of the Trustee Act 1850,
§30-
Partition is not a technical term of Scots law. In Scotland
division of common property is effected either extra-judicially, or
by action of declarator and division or division and sale in the
court of session, or (to a limited extent) in the sheriff courts. Rights
of common are not divisible in English law without an act of parlia-
ment or a decree of the inclosure commissioners, but in Scotland
the act of 1695, c. 38, made all commonties, except those belonging
to the king or royal burghs, divisible, on the application of any
having interest, by action in the court of session. By the Sheriff
Courts (Scotland) Act 1877, § 8, the action for division of common
property or commonly is competent in the sheriff court, when the
subject in dispute does not exceed in value £50 by the year, or £1000
value. Runrig lands, except when belonging to corporations, were
made divisible by the act of 1695, c. 23. A decree of division of
commonty, common property, or runrig lands has the effect of a
conveyance by the joint proprietors to the several participants
(Conveyancing [Scotland] Act 1874, § 35). ^^
In the United States, " it is presumed," says Chancellor Kent,
(4 Comm., lect. Ixiv.), " that the English statutes of 31 & 32 Henry
VIII. have been generally re-enacted and adopted, and probably
with increased facilities for partition." In a large majority of the
states, partition may be made by a summar>' method of petition to
the courts of common law. In the other states the courts of equity
have exclusive jurisdiction. As between heirs and devisees the pro-
bate courts may in some states award partition. The various state
laws with regard to partition will be found in Washburn, Real
Property, bk. i. ch. xiii., § 7.
PARTNERSHIP (earlier forms, partener, parcener, from Late
Lat. parlionarius for partitionarius, from partitio, sharing,
pars, part), in general, the voluntary association of two or
more persons for the purpose of gain, or sharing in the work
and profits of any enterprise. This general definition, however,
requires to be further restricted, in law, according to the
account given below.
The partnership of modern legal systems is based upon the
societas of Roman law. Societas was either universorinn bonorttm,
a complete communion of property; negotiaiionis alicujus,
for the purpose of a single transaction; vectigalis, for the
collection of taxes; or rei unius, joint ownership of a particular
thing. The prevailing form was societas universorum quae ex
quaestu veniunt, or trade partnership, from which all that did
not come under the head of trade profit (quaesius) was excluded.
This kind of societas was presumed to be contemplated in the
absence of proof that any other kind was intended. Societas
was a consensual contract, and rested nominally on the consent
of the parties — really, no doubt (though this was not in terms
acknowledged by the Roman jurists), on the fact of valuable
consideration moving from each partner. No formalities
were necessary for the constitution of a societas. Either
property or labour must be contributed by the socius; if one
party contributed neither property nor labour, or if one
partner was to share in the loss but not in the profit (leonina
societas), there was no true societas. Societas was dissolved
on grounds substantially the same as those of English law
(see below). The only ground pecuHar to Roman law was
change of status {capitis dcminutio). Most of the Roman law
on the subject of societas is contained in Dig. xvii. tit. 2, Pro
socio.
Though the Enghsh law of partnership is based upon Roman
law, there are several matters in which the two systems differ,
(i) There was no limit to the number of partners in Roman law.
(2) In societas one partner could generally bind another only
by express mandatum; one partner was not regarded as the
implied agent of the others. (3) The debts of a societas were
apparently joint, and not joint and several. (4) The heres
of a deceased partner could not succeed to the rights of the
deceased, even by express stipulation. There is no such dis-
ability in England. (5) In actions between partners in Roman
law, the bencficiitm compctentiae applied — that is, the privilege
of being condemned only in such an amount as the partner
could pay without being reduced to destitution. (6) The
Roman partner was in some respects more strictly bound
by his fiduciary position than is the English partner. For
instance, a Roman partner could not retire in order to enjoy
alone a gain which he knew was awaiting him. (7) There was
no special tribunal to which matters arising out of societas
were referred.
Previous to the Partnership Act 1890 the English law of
partnership was to be found only in legal decisions and in
textbooks. It was mostly the result of judge-made law, and
as distinguished from the law of joint stock companies was
affected by comparatively few acts of parhament.
In 1890 the Partnership Act of that year was passed to declare
and amend the law of partnership; the act came into operation
on the ist of January 1891. With one important exception
(§ 23), it appUes to the whole United Kingdom. It is not a
complete code of partnership law; it contains no provisions
regulating the administration of partnership assets in the event
of death or bankruptcy, and is silent on the subject of goodwill.
The existing rules of equity and common law continue in force,
except so far as they are inconsistent with the express provisions
of the act. Indeed, the act of 1890 has to be read in the
light of the decisions which have built up these rules.
On all points specifically dealt with by the act it is now the
one binding authority. The act has made no important changes
in the law, except in respect of the mode of making a
partner's share of the partnership assets available for pay-
ment of his separate debts. This change does not affect
Scotland. The act is divided into the four main divisions
mentioned below.
I. Nature of Partnership. — Partnership is defined to be the
" relation which subsists between persons carrying on a business
in common with a view of profit." From this definition
corporations and companies, such as joint-stock companies
and cost-book mining companies, which differ from ordinary
partnerships in many important respects, are expressly excluded.
The act also contains several subsidiary rules for determining
the existence of a partnership. These rules are of a fragmentary
nature, and for the most part are expressed in a negative form;
they have not introduced any change in the law. Co-ownership
of property does not of itself create a partnership, nor does
the sharing of gross returns. The sharing of profits, though
not of itself sufficient to create a partnership, is prima facie
evidence of one. This means that if all that is known is that
two persons are sharing profits, the inference is that such persons
are partners; but if the participation in profits is only one
amongst other circumstances, aU the circumstances must be
considered, and the participation in profits must not be treated
as raising a presumption of partnership, which has to be rebutted.
To illustrate the rule that persons may share profits without
being partners, the act gives statutory expression to the decision
in Cox V. Hickman (i860, 8 H.L.C., 268), viz. that the receipt
PARTNERSHIP
«73
by a person of a debt or other fixed sum by instalments, or
otherwise, out of the accruing profits of a business does not of
itself make him a partner; and it re-enacts with some slight
modification the repealed provisions of Bovill's Act (28 & 29
Vict. c. 86), which was passed to remove certain difficulties
arising from the decision in Cox v. Hickman. Whenever the
question of partnership or no partnership arises, it must not
be forgotten (though this is not stated in the act) that partner-
ship is a relation arising out of a contract; regard must be paid
to the true contract and intention of the parties as appearing
from the whole facts of the case. If a partnership be the
legal consequence of the true agreement, the parties thereto
will be partners, though they may have intended to avoid
this consequence {Adam v. Ncwbigging, i888, L.R. 13 App.
Cas. 315). Partners are called collectively a "firm"; the
name under which they carry on business is called the firm
name. Under English law the firm is not a corporation, nor
is it recognized as distinct from the members composing it;
any change amongst them destroys the identity of the firm.
In Scotland a firm is a legal person distinct from its members,
but each partner can be compelled to pay its debts.
At common law there is no limit to the number of partners,
but by the Companies Act 1862 (25 & 26 Vict. c. 89, § 4), not
more than ten persons can carry on the business of bankers,
and not more than twenty any other business, unless (with
some exceptions) they conform to the provisions of the act.
(See Company, and also Limited Partnerships below.)
II. Relations of Partners to Persons dealing with litem. —
Every partner is an agent of the firm and of his co-partners
for the purpose of the partnership business; if a partner does
an act for carrying on the partnership business in the usual
way in which businesses of a like kind are carried on — in other
words, if he acts within his apparent authority — he thereby
prima facie binds his firm. The partners may by agreement
between themselves restrict the power of any of their number
to bind the firm. If there be such an agreement, no act done
in contravention of it is binding on the firm with respect to
persons who have notice of the agreement. Such an agreement
does not affect persons who have no notice of it, unless indeed
they do not know or believe the person with whom they are
dealing to be a partner; in that case he has neither real, nor,
so far as they are concerned, apparent authority to bind his
firm, and his firm will not be bound. If a partner does an
act, e.g. pledges the credit of the firm, for a purpose apparently
not connected with the firm's ordinary course of business, he
is not acting in pursuance of his apparent authority, and what-
ever liability he may personally incur, his partners will not be
bound unless he had in fact authority from them.
Apart from any general rule of law relating to the execution
of deeds or negotiable instruments, a firm and all the partners
will be bound by any act relating to the business of the firm, and
done in the firm name, or in any other manner showing an
intention to bind the firm, by any person thereto authorized.
An admission or representation by a partner, acting within
his apparent authority, is evidence against his firm. Notice
to an acting partner of any matter relating to the partnership
affairs is, apart from fraud, notice to his firm.
A firm is liable for loss or injury caused to any person not a
partner, or for any penalty incurred by any wrongful act or
omission of a partner acting in the ordinary course of the partner-
ship business, or with the authority of his co-partners; the
extent of the firm's liability is the same as that of the individual
partner. The firm is also liable to make good the loss (a) where
one partner, acting within his apparent authority, receives
money or property of a third person and misapplies it; and
(b) where a firm in the course of its business receives money
or property of a third person, and such money or
property while in the custody of the firm is misapplied by a
partner. It is not sufficient, in order to fix innocent partners
with liability for the misapplication of money belonging to a
third party, merely to show that such money was employed
in the business of the partnership, otherwise all the members
of a firm would in all cases be liable to those beneficially interested
therein for trust money improperly employed in this manner by
one partner. This is not the case. To fix the other partners
with liability, notice of the breach of trust must be brought
home to them individually.
The liability of partners for the debts and obligations of their
firm arising ex contractu, is joint, and in Scotland several also;
the estate of a deceased partner is also severally liable in a due
course of administration, but subject, in England or Ireland,
to the prior payment of his separate debt. The liability of
partners for the obligations of their firm arising ex delicto, is
joint and several. :2 ^
The authority of a partner to bind his co-partners commences
with the partnership. A person therefore who enters into a
partnership does not thereby become liable to the creditors of
his partners for anything done before he became a partner.
But a partner who retires from a firm does not thereby cease to
be liable for debts or obligations incurred before his retirement.
He may be discharged from existing liabilities by an agreement
to that effect between himself and the members of the firm as
newly constituted and the creditors. This agreement may be
either express or inferred as a fact from the course of dealing
between the creditors and the new firm. The other ways in
which a partner may be freed from partnership liabilities incurred
before his retirement are not peculiar to partnership liabilities,
and are not therefore dealt with by the Partnership Act.
A continuing guaranty given to a firm, or in respect of the
transactions of a firm, is, in the absence of agreement to the
contrary, revoked as to the future by a change in the firm.
The reason is that such a change destroys its identity.
Any person, not a partner in the firm, who represents himself
(or, as the phrase is, " holds himself out "), or knowingly
sulTers himself to be represented, as a partner, is liable as a
partner to any person who has given credit to the firm on
the faith of the representation. The representation may be
by words spoken or written, or by conduct. The liability will
attach, although the person who makes the representation does
not know that the person who has acted on it knew of it.
The continued use of a deceased partner's name does not impose
liability on his estate.
III. Relations of Partners to one another. — The mutual rights
and duties of partners depend upon the agreement between
them. Many of these rights and duties are stated in the Part-
nership Act; but, whether stated in the act or ascertained
by agreement, they may be varied by the consent of all the
partners; such consent may be express or inferred from conduct.
Subject to any agreement, partners share equally in the capital
and profits of their business, and must contribute equally to
losses, whether of capital or otherwise: they are entitled to
be indemnified by their firm against liabilities incurred in the
proper and ordinary conduct of the partnership business, and
for anything necessarily done for its preservation; they are
entitled to interest at 5% on their advances to the firm, but not
on their capital. Every partner may take part in the manage-
ment of the partnership business, but no partner is entitled to
remuneration for so doing. The majority can bind the minority
in ordinary matters connected with the partnership business,
but cannot change its nature nor expel a partner, unless expressly
authorized so to do. No partner may be introduced into the
firm without the consent of all the partners. The partnership
books must be kept at the principal place of business, and every
partner may inspect and copy them. Partners must render
to each other true accounts and full information of all things
afTecting the partnership. A partner may not make use of
anything belonging to his firm for his private purposes, nor may
he compete with it in business. If he does so he must
account to his firm for any profit he may make.
Partners may agree what shall and what shall not be part-
nership property, and can by agreement convert partnership
property into the separate property of the individual partners,
and vice versa. Subject to any such agreement, all property
originally brought into the partnership stock, or acquired on
XX. 28 a
74
PARTNERSHIP
account of the firm or for the purposes and in the course of its
business, is declared by the act to be partnership property.
Property bought with money of the firm is prima facie bought
on account of the firm. Partnership property must be applied
exclusively for partnership purposes and in accordance with
the partnership agreement. Co-owners of land may be partners
in the profits of the land without the land being partnership
property; if such co-owners purchase other lands out of the
profits, these lands will also belong to them (in the absence of
any agreement to the contrary) as co-owners and not as partners.
The legal estate in partnership land devolves according to the
general law, but in trust for the persons beneficially interested
therein. As between partners, and as between the heirs of a
deceased partner and his executors or administrators, such
land is treated as personal or movable estate, unless a contrary
intention appears.
When no fixed term has been agreed upon for the duration
of the partnership, it is at will, and may be determined by
notice at any time by any partner. If a partnership for a fixed
term is continued after the term has expired without any
express new agreement, the rights and duties of the partners
remain as before, so far as they are consistent with a partnership
at will.
A partner may assign his share in the partnership either abso-
lutely or by way of mortgage. The assignee does not become
a partner; during the continuance of the partnership he has
the right to receive the share of profits to which his assignor
would have been entitled, but he has no right to interfere in
the partnership business, or to require any accounts of the
partnership transactions, or to inspect the partnership books.
On a dissolution he is entitled to receive the share of the part-
nership assets to which his assignor is entitled as between
himself and his partners, and for this purpose to an account
as from the date of dissolution.
Since the act came into operation no writ of execution may
issue in England or Ireland against any partnership property,
except on a judgment against the firm. If in either of these
countries a judgment creditor of a partner wishes to enforce
his judgment against that partner's share in the partnership,
he must obtain an order of court charging such share with
payment of his debt and interest. The court may appoint a
receiver of the partner's share, and may order a sale of such share.
If a sale be ordered the other partners may buy the share; they
may also at any time redeem the charge. The mode of making
a partner's share Hable for his separate debts in Scotland has
not been altered by the act.
IV. Dissolution of Partnership. — A partnership for a fixed
term, or for a single adventure, is dissolved by the expiration
of the term or the termination of the adventure. A partnership
for an undefined time is dissolved by notice of dissolution,
which may be given at any time by any partner. The death or
bankruptcy of any partner dissolves the partnership as between
all its members. If a partner suffers his share in the partner-
ship to be charged under the act for his separate debts, his
partners may dissolve the partnership. The foregoing rules are
subject to any agreement there may be between the partners.
A partnership is in every case dissolved by any event which
makes the partnership or its business unlawful. The court
may order a dissolution in any of the following cases, viz.:
When a partner is found lunatic or is of permanently unsound
mind, or otherwise permanently incapable of performing his
duties as a partner; when a partner has been guilty of conduct
calculated to injure the partnership business, or wilfully or
persistently breaks the partnership agreement, or so conducts
himself in partnership matters that it is not reasonably practi-
cable for his partners to carry on business with him; when the
partnership can only be carried on at a loss; and lastly, whenever
a dissolution appears to the court to be just and equitable.
The act is silent as to the effect of the assignment by a partner
of his share in the partnership as a cause of dissolution; probably
it is now no more than a circumstance enabling the court, if it
thinks fit, to grant a dissolution on the ground that it is just
and equitable to do so. A dissolution usuaUy is not complete
as against persons who are not partners, until notice of it has
been given; until then such persons may treat all apparent
partners as still members of the firm. Consequently, if notice
is not given when it is necessary, a partner may be made
liable for partnership debts contracted after he ceased to be
a partner. Notice is not necessary to protect the estate of a
dead or bankrupt partner from partnership debts contracted
after his death or bankruptcy; nor is notice necessary when a
person not known to be a partner leaves a firm. If a person
not generally known to be a partner is known to be so to cer-
tain individuals, notice must be given to them. Notice in the
Gazette is sufficient as regards aD persons who were not previously
customers of the firm; notice in fact must be given to old
customers. On a dissolution, or the retirement of a partner,
any partner may notify the fact and require his co-partners to
concur in doing so.
After a dissolution, the authority of each partner (unless
he be a bankrupt) to bind the firm, and the other rights and
obligations of the partners, continue so far as may be necessary
to wind up the partnership affairs and to complete unfinished
transactions. The partners are entitled to have the partnership
property apphed in payment of the debts of the firm, and to
have any surplus divided between them. Before a partner can
receive any part of the surplus, he must make good whatever
may be due from him as a partner to the firm. To enforce
these rights, any partner or his representatives may apply to
the court to wind up the partnership business. It was well
established before the act, and is still law, that in the absence
of special agreement the right of each partner is to have the
partnership property — including the goodwill of its business, if
it be saleable — realized by a sale. The value of the goodwill
depends largely on the right of the seller to compete with the
purchaser after the sale. The act makes no mention of goodwill,
but the rights of a seller in this respect were fully discussed in
the House of Lords in Trego v. Hunt (L.R. 1896, App. Cas. 7).
In the absence of special agreement, the seller may set up
business in competition with, and in the immediate neigh-
bourhood of, the purchaser, and advertise his business and
deal with his former customers, but may not represent himself
as carrying on his former business, nor canvass his former
customers. The purchaser may advertise himself as carrying
on the former business, canvass its customers, and trade under
the old name, unless that name is or contains the name of the
vendor, and the purchaser by using it without quaUfication
would expose the vendor to the liabiUty of being sued as a
partner in the business. If, on a dissolution or change in the
constitution of a firm, the goodwill belongs under the partner-
ship agreement exclusively to one or more of the partners, the
partner who is entitled to the goodwill has the rights of a
seller, and those to whom the goodwill does not belong have
the rights of a purchaser.
When a partner has paid a premium on entering into a
partnership for a fixed term, and the partnership is determined
before the expiration of the term, the court may, except in
certain cases, order a return of the premium or of some part
of it. In the absence of fraud or misrepresentation, the court
cannot make such an order when the partnership was at will,
or, being for a fixed term, has been terminated by death or
by reason of the misconduct of the partner who paid the
premium; nor can it do so if terms of dissolution have been
agreed upon, and the agreement makes no provision for the
return of premium.
When a person is induced by the fraud or misrepresentation
of others to become a partner with them, the court will rescind
the contract at his instance {Adam v. Newbigging, 1888, R.
13 App. Cas. 308). Inasmuch as such a person is under the
same Habihty to third parties for liabilities of the firm incurred
before lescission as he would have been under had the contract
been valid, he is entitled on the rescission to be indemnified
by the person guilty of the fraud or making the representation
against these liabilities. He is also entitled, without prejudice
PARTNERSHIP
875
to any other rights, to receive out of the surplus assets of
the partnership, after satisfying the partnership liabilities,
any money he may have paid as a premium or contributed as
capital, and to stand in the place of the creditors of the firm
for any payments made by him in respect of the partnership
liabilities.
If a partner ceases to be a member of a firm, and his former
partners continue to carry on business with the partnership
assets without any final settlement of accounts, he, or, if he
be dead, his estate, is, in the absence of agreement, entitled to
such part of the subsequent profits as can be attributed to
the use of his share of the partnership assets, or, if he or his
representatives prefer it, to interest at 5% on the amount of
his share. If his former partners have by agreement an option
to purchase his share, and exercise the option and comply with
its terms, he is not entitled to any further or other share in
profits than that given him by the agreement. If, however,
his former partners, assuming to exercise such an option, do not
comply with its terms, they are liable to account for subsequent
profits or interest to the extent mentioned above. Subject to
any agreement between the partners, the amount due from the
surviving or continuing partners to an outgoing partner, or the
representatives of a deceased partner, in respect of his share in
the partnership, is a debt accruing at the date of the dissolution
or death.
In the absence of any special agreement on a final settlement
of accounts between partners, losses (including losses of capital)
are paid first out of profits, next out of capital, and lastly by
the partners in the proportions in which they share profits.
The assets of the firm, including all sums contributed to make
up losses of capital, are appUed in paying the debts and liabilities
of the firm to persons who are not partners; then in paying to
each partner rateably what is due from the firm to him, first
for advances and next in respect of capital; and the ultimate
residue (if any) is divisible among the partners in the proportion
in which profits are divisible.
Limited Partnerships. — In the law of partnership as set out
above, the Limited Partnership Act 1907 introduced a con-
siderable innovation. By that act power was given to form
limited partnerships, like the French societe en commandite —
that is, a partnership consisting not only of general partners,
but of others whose liability is hmited to the amount contributed
to the concern. Such a limited partnership must not consist,
in the case of a partnership carrying on the business of banking,
of more than ten persons, and in the case of any other partner-
ship of more than twenty persons. There must be one or more
persons called general partners who are liable for all the
debts and obligations of the firm, and limited partners, who on
entering into partnership contribute a certain sum or property
valued at a stated amount, beyond which they are not Hable.
Limited partners cannot withdraw or receive back any of their
contributions; any withdrawal brings hability for the debts
and obligations of the firm up to the amount withdrawn. A
body corporate may be a limited partner. No limited partner
can take part in the management of a partnership business;
if he does so he becomes liable in the same way as a general
partner, but he can at all times inspect the books of the firm
and examine into the state and prospects of the business.
Every limited partnership must be registered with the registrar
of joint stock companies, and the following particulars must
be given: (a) the firm name; (b) the general nature of the
business; (c) the principal place of business; (d) the full name
of each of the partners; (c) the term, if any, for which the part-
nership is entered into and the date of its commencement;
(/) a statement that the partnership is limited, and the descrip-
tion of every limited partner as such; (g) the sum contributed
by each hmited partner, and whether paid in cash or how
otherwise. If any change occurs in these particulars, a statement
signed by the firm and specifying the nature of the change,
must be sent within seven days to the registrar. An advertise-
ment must also be inserted in the gazette of any arrangement
by which a general partner becomes a limited partner or under
which the share of a limited partner is assigned. Any person
making a false return for the purpose of registration commits
a misdemeanour and is liable to imprisonment with hard labour
for a term not exceeding two years. The law of private part-
nership applies to limited partners except where it is inconsistent
with the express provisions of the Limited Partnership Act.
See Sir Nathaniel [Lord] Lindlcy, A Treatise on Ike Law of Partner-
ship (7th ed., London, 1905); Sir Frederick Pollock, A Digest of
the Law of Partnership, incorporatine the Partnership Act iSqo (8tn
cd., London, 1905); also article on ' Partnership " in the Encyclo-
paedia of the Laws oj England.
Scots Law. — The law of Scotland as to partnership agrees in
the main with the law of England. The principal difference
is that Scots law recognizes the firm as an entity distinct
from the individuals composing it. The firm of the company
is either proper or descriptive. A proper or personal firm is a
firm designated by the name of one or more of the partners.'
A descriptive firm does not introduce the name of any of the
partners. The former may sue and be sued under the company
name; the latter only with the addition of the names of three
at least (if there are so many) of the partners. A consequence
of this view of the company as a separate person is that an action
cannot be maintained against a partner personally without
application to the company in the first instance, the individual
partners being in the position of cautioners for the company
rather than of principal debtors. The provisions of the Mercantile
Law Amendment Act 1856 (19 & 20 Vict. c. 60, § 8), do not
affect the case of partners. But, though the company must
first be discussed, diligence must necessarily be directed against
the individual partners. Heritable property cannot be held in
the name of a firm; it can only stand in the name of individual
partners. Notice of the retirement of even a dormant partner
is necessary. The law of Scotland draws a distinction between
joint adventure and partnership. Joint adventure or joint
trade is a partnership confined to a particular adventure or
speculation, in which the partners, whether latent or unknown,
use no firm or social name, and incur no responsibility beyond
the limits of the adventure. In the rules apphcable to cases
of insolvency and bankruptcy of a company and partners,
Scots law differs in several respects from English. Thus a
company can be made bankrupt without the partners being
made so as individuals. And, when both company and partners
are bankrupt, the company creditors are entitled to rank on
the separate estates of the partners for the balance of their
debts equally with the separate creditors. But in sequestration,
by the Bankruptcy Scotland Act 1856, § 66, the creditor of a
company, in claiming upon the sequestrated estate of a partner,
must deduct from the amount of his claim the value of his
right to draw payment from the company's funds, and he is
ranked as creditor only for the balance. (See Erskine's hist.
bk. iii. tit. iii.; Bell's Comm. ii. 500-562; Bell's Principles,
§§ 350-403.)
United Slates. — In the United States the English common law
is the basis of the law. Most states have, however, their own
special legislation on the subject. The law in the United States
permits the existence of limited partnerships, corresponding
to the societes en commandite established in France by the
ordinance of 1673, and those legalized in England under the
act of 1907 (see above). The State of New York was the first
to introduce this kind of partnership by legislative enactment.
The provisions of the New York Act have been followed by
most of the other states. In many states there can be no hmited
partnerships in banking and insurance. In this form of part-
nership one or more persons responsible in solido are associated
with one or more dormant partners liable only to the extent
of the funds supplied by them. In Louisiana such partnerships
are called partnerships in commendam (Civil Code, art. 2S10).
' In France, it is to be noted, the style of a firm must contain no
names other than those of actual partners. In Germany it must,
upon the first constitution of the firm, contain the name of at least
one actual partner, and must not contain the name of any one who is
not a partner; when once established the style of the firm may be
continued notwithstanding changes.
PARTON— PARTRIDGE
In New York the responsible partners are called general partners,
the others special partners. Such partnerships must, by the
law of most states, be registered. In Louisiana universal
partnerships (the societates universorum bonorum of Roman law)
must be created in writing and registered (Civil Code, art. 2800).
In some states the English law as it stood before Cox v. Hickman
is followed, and participation in profits is still regarded as the
test of partnership, e.g. Leggett v. Hyde (58 New York Rep. 272).
In some states nominal partners are not aUowed. Thus in New
York, where the words " and Company " or " and Co." are used,
they must represent an actual partner or partners. A breach of
this rule subjects offenders to penalties. In most states claims
against the firm after the death of a partner must, in the first
instance, be made to the survivors. The creditors cannot, as in
England, proceed directly against the representatives of the
deceased. An ordinary partnership between miners for working
a mine is not dissolved by the death of one of the partners,
nor by the transfer by one of his interest in the concern. Contract
is not deemed the basis of the relation between the partners,
but rather a common property and co-operation in its exploita-
tion (Parsons, Principles of Partnership, § 15). A corporation
cannot become a partner in any mercantile adventure, unless
specially authorized by charter or general statute. If it could,
the management of its affairs would no longer be exclusively
in the hands of its directors, to whom the law has entrusted it.
Hence, corporations cannot associate for the formation of a
" trust " to be managed by the associated partners.
See 3 Kent's Comm., lect. xliii.; Story, On Partnership; Bates,
Law of Partnership (1888) ; Burdick, Law of Partnership (.1899).
PARTON, JAMES (1822-1891), American biographer, was
born in Canterbury, England, on the gth of February 1822.
He was taken to the United States when he was five years old,
studied in New York City and White Plains, New York, and
was a schoolmaster in Philadelphia and then in New York.
He removed (1875) to Newburyport, Massachusetts, where he
died on the 17th of October 1S91. Parton was the most popular
biographer of his day in America. His most important books
are Life of Horace Greeley (1855), Life and Times of Aaron Burr
(1857), Life of Andrew Jackson (1859-1860), Life and Times of
Benjamin Franklin (1864), Life of Thomas Jefferson (1874),
and Life of Voltaire (1881). Among his other publications
are General Butler in New Orleans (1863), Famous Americans
of Recent Times (1867), The People's Book of Biography (1868);
Noted Women of Europe and America (1883), and Captains of
Industry (two series, 1884 and 1891), for young people. His
first wife, Sara (1811-1872), sister of N. P. Willis, and widow of
Charles H. Eldredge (d. 1846), attained considerable popularity
as a writer under the pen-name " Fanny Fern." (See James
Parton's Fanny Fern : a Memorial Volume, 1873). They
were married in 1856. Her works include the novels, Ricth
Hall (1854), reminiscent of her own life, and Rose Clark (1857);
and several volumes of sketches and stories. In 1876 Parton
married Ethel Eldredge, his first wife's daughter by her first
husband.
PARTONOPEUS DE BLOIS, hero of romance. The French
romance of Partonopeus de Blois dates from the 13th century,
and has been assigned, on the strength of an ambiguous passage
in the prologue to his Vie seint Edmund le rei to Denis Piramus.
The tale is, in its essence a variation of the legend of Cupid
and Psyche. Partonopeus is represented as having lived in
the days of Clovis, king of France. He was seized while hunting
in the Ardennes, and carried off to a mysterious castle, the
inhabitants of which were invisible. !Melior, empress of Con-
stantinople, came to him at night, stipulating that he must
not attempt to see her for two years and a half. After successful
fighting against the " Saracens," led by Sornegur, king of
Denmark, he returned to the castle, armed with an enchanted
lantern which broke the speU. The consequent misfortunes
have a happy termination. The tale had a continuation giving
the adventures of Fursin or Anselet, the nephew of Sornegur.
The name of Partonopeus or Partonopex is generally assumed
to be a corruption of Parthenopaeus, one of the seven against
Thebes. It has been suggested that the word might be derived,
from Partenay, a supposition coloured by the points of similarity
between this story and the legend of Melusine (see Jean d'.\rras)
attached to the house of Lusignan, as the lords of these two
places were connected.
Bibliography. — The French romance was edited by G. A. Crape-
let, with an introduction by A. C. M. Robert, as Partonopeus de
Blois (2 vols., 1834) ; an English Parlonope of Blois, by W. E. Buckley
for the Roxburghe Club (London, 1862), and another fragment
for the same learned society in 1873; the German Partonopier und
Melior of Konrad von Wiirzburg by K. Bartsch (Vienna, 1871);
the Icelandic Partalopa saga by O. Klockhoff in Upsala Universitets
Arsskrift for 1887. See also H. L. Ward, Catalogue of Romances,
(i. 689, &c.); E. Kolbing, Die versckiedenen Gestaltungen der Parlono-
peus-Sage, in German. Stud. (vol. ii., Vienna, 1875), in which the
Icelandic version is compared with the Danish poem Persenober and
the Spanish prose Historia del conde Partinobles; E. Pfeiffer, " Ober
die HSS des Part, de Blois " in Stengel's Ausg. in Abh. vom phil.
(No. 25, Marburg, 1885).
PARTRIDGE, JOHN BERNARD (1861- ), British artist,
was born in London, son of Professor Richard Partridge, F.R.S.,
president of the Royal College of Surgeons, and nephew of John
Partridge (1790-1872), portrait-painter extraordinary to Queen
Victoria. He was educated at Stonyhurst College, and after
matriculating at London University entered the office of Dunn
& Hansom, architects. He then joined for a couple of years
a firm of stained-glass designers (Lavers, Barraud & Westlake),
learning drapery and ornament; and then studied and executed
church ornament under PhUip Westlake, 1880-1884. He
began illustration for the press and practised water-colour
painting, but his chief success was derived from book illustration.
In 1892 he joined the staff of Punch. He was elected a member
of the Royal Institute of Painters in Water-colours and of
the Pastel Society. For some years he was well known as an
actor under the name of " Bernard Gould."
PARTRIDGE, WILLIAM ORDWAY (1861- ), American
sculptor, was bom at Paris, France, on the nth of April 1861.
He received his training as a sculptor in Florence (under Galli),
in Rome (under Welonski), and in Paris. He became a lecturer
and writer, chiefly on art subjects, and from 1894 to 1897
was professor of fine arts in Columbian University (now the
George Washington University), Washington, D.C. Among
his publications are: Art for America (1894), The Song Life of
a Sculptor (1894), The Technique of Sculpture (1895), The Angel
of Clay (1900), a novel, and Nat/tan Hale, the Ideal Patriot (1902).
His sculptural works consist largely of portraiture.
PARTRIDGE (Du. Patrijs, Fr. perdrix, from Lat. perdix,
apparently onomatopoeic from the call of the bird), a game-bird,
whose English name properly denotes the only species indigenous
to Britain, often nowadays called the grey partridge, the Perdix
cinerea of ornithologists. The excellence of its flesh at table
has been esteemed from the time of Martial. For the sport
of partridge-shooting see Shooting.
The grey partridge has doubtless largely increased in numbers
in Great Britain since the beginning of the 19th century, when
so much down, heath, and moorland was first brought under
the plough, for its partiality to an arable country is very evident.
It has been observed that the birds which live on grass lands
or heather only are apt to be smaller and darker in colour than
the average; but in truth the species when adult is subject to
a much greater variation in plumage than is commonly supposed,
and the well-known chestnut horse-shoe mark, generally con-
sidered distinctive of the cock, is very often absent. In Asia
the grey partridge seems to be unknown, but in the temperate
parts of Eastern Siberia its place is taken by a very nearly
allied form, P. barbata, and in Tibet there is a bird, P. hodgsoniae,
which can hardly with justice be genetically separated from it.
The common red-legged partridge of Europe, generally called
the French partridge, Caccabis rufa, seems to be justifiably
considered the type of a separate group. This bird was intro-
duced into England in the last quarter of the i8th century, and
has established itself in various parts of the country, notwith-
standing a widely-spread, and in some respects unreasonable,
prejudice against it. It has certainly the habit of trusting
a8l PARTY WALL— PASADENA
877
nearly as much to its legs as to its wings, and thus incurred the
obloquy of old-fashioned sportsmen, whose dogs it vexatiously
kept at a running point; but, when it was also accused of
driving away the grey partridge, the charge only showed the
ignorance of those who brought it, for as a matter of fact the
French partridge rather prefers ground which the common
species avoids — such as the heaviest clay-soils or the most
infertile heaths. The French partridge has several congeners,
all with red legs and plumage of similar character. In .Mrica
north of the Atlas there is the Barbary partridge, C. pelrosa; in
southern Europe another, C. saxalilis, which extends eastward
till it is replaced by C. chukar, which reaches India, where it
is a well-known bird. Two very interesting desert-forms,
supposed to be allied to Caccabis, are the Ammoperdix heyi of
North Africa and Palestine and the A. bonhami of Persia; but
the absence of the metatarsal knob, or incipient spur, suggests
(in our ignorance of their other osteological characters) an
alliance rather to the genus Perdix. On the other hand the
groups of birds known as Francolins and Snow-Partridges are
generally furnished with strong but blunt spurs, and therefore
probably belong to the Caccabine group. Of the former,
containing many species, there is only room here to mention
the francolin, which used to be found in many parts of the
south of Europe, Francolinus vulgaris, which also extends to
India, where it is known as the black partridge. This seems
to have been the Altagas or Attagen of classical authors,' a bird
so celebrated for its exquisite flavour, the strange disappearance
of which from all or nearly all its European haunts still remains
inexplicable. It is possible that this bird has been gradually
vanishing for several centuries, and if so to this cause may
be attributed the great uncertainty attending the determination
of the Attagen — it being a common practice among men in all
countries to apply the name of a species that is growing rare
to some other that is still abundant. Of the snow-partridges,
Tetraogallus, it is only to be said here that they are the giants
of their kin, and that nearly every considerable range of
mountains in Asia seems to possess its specific form.
By English colonists the name Partridge has been very loosely
applied, and especially so in North America. Where a qualifying
word is prefixed no confusion is caused, but without it there
is sometimes a difficulty at first to know whether the Ruft'ed
Grouse {Bonasa umbellus) or the Virginia Quail {Ortyx virgini-
anits) is intended. In South America the name is given to
various Tinamous (q.v.). (A. N.)
PARTY WALL, a building term which, in England, apart
from special statutory definitions, may be used in four different
legal senses [Watson v. Gray, 1880, 14 Ch. D. 192). It may
mean (i) a wall of which the adjoining owners are tenants in
common; (2) a wall divided longitudinaDy into two strips, one
belonging to each of the neighbouring owners; (3) a wall which
belongs entirely to one of the adjoining owners, but is subject
to an easement or right in the other to have it maintained as
a dividing wall between the two tenements; (4) a wall divided
longitudinally into two moieties, each moiety being subject to
a cross easement, in favour of the owner of the other moiety.
Outside London the rights and liabilities of adjoining owners
of party walls are subject to the rules of common law. In
London they are governed by the London Building Act 1894.
A tenant in common of a party wall is entitled to have a partition
vertically and longitudinally, so as to hold separately (Mayfair
Property Co. v. Johnston, 1894, 1 Ch. 508); each owner can
then use only his own part of the wall. By the London Building
Act 1894, § 5 (16) the expression "party wall" means — (a) a
wall forming part of a building and used or constructed to be
used for separation of adjoining buildings belonging to different
owners, or occupied or constructed or adapted to be occupied
by different persons; or (b) a wall forming part of a building,
and standing to a greater extent than the projection of the foot-
ings on lands of diSerent owners. Section 87 regulates the rights
'■ Many naturalists have held a different opinion, some making
it a woodcock, a godwit, or even the hazel-hen or grouse; see the
discussion by Lord Lilford in Ibis (1862), pp. 352-356. ■< '
of owners of adjoining lands to erect party walls on the line of
junction. Sections 88-90 determine the rights of building owners
to deal with party walls by underpinning, repairing or rebuilding.
The act also contains provisions for settling disputes (§§ 91-92),
and for bearing and recovering expenses (§§ 95-102). Part VI.
of the act regulates the structure and thickness, height, &c.,
of party walls.
See A. R. Rudall, Parly Walls (1907).
PARUTA, PAOLO (1540-1598), Venetian historian. After
studying at Padua he served the Venetian republic in various
political capacities, including that of secretary to one of the
Venetian delegates at the Council of Trent. In 1579 he published
a work entitled Delta Perjezione delta vita politica, and the
same year he was appointed official historian to the repubhc,
in succession to Luigi Contarini. He took up the narrative
from where Cardinal Bembo had left it, in 1513, and brought
it down to 1 55 1. He was made provveditore to the Chamber
of Loans in 1580, savio del gran consiglio in 1590, and governor
of Brescia in the following year. In 1596 he was appointed
provveditore of St Mark, and in 1597 superintendent of fortifi-
cations. He died a year later. His history, which was at
first written in Latin and subsequently in Italian, was not
published until after his death — in 1599. Among his other works
may be mentioned a history of the War of Cyprus (1570-72),
and a number of political orations.
See Apostolo Zeno's edition of Paruta's history (in the series
Degli Istorici delle cose veneziane, Venice, 1718), and C. Monzani's
edition of Paruta's political works (Florence, 1852).
PARVIS, Parvise, or Parvyse, an open space surrounded
by an enceinte or stone parapet in front of buildings, particularly
cathedrals or large churches; probably first used to keep the
people from pressing on and confusing the marshalling of
processions. The word " parvis " is French and is a corruption
of Lat. paradisus, an enclosed garden or paradise {q.v.), which
is sometimes also used instead of " parvis." The Lat. paradisus
is defined by Du Cange [Glossarium, s.v.) as atrium porticibus
circuindatum ante aedes sacras. At St Paul's in London the
" parvis " was a place where lawyers met for consultation.
PARYSATIS, daughter of Artaxerxes I., married to her
brother Ochus (Ctesias, Pers. 44), who in 424 B.C. became king
of Persia under the name of Darius II. {q.v.). She had great
influence over her husband, whom she helped by perfidy in the
suppression of his brothers Secydianus, who was king before him,
and Arsites, who rebelled against him (Ctes. Pers. 4S-51). Her
favourite son was Cyrus the Younger, whom she assisted as
far as possible in his attempt to gain the throne. But when
he was slain at Cunaxa (401) she nevertheless gained absolute
dominion over the victorious Artaxerxes II. She was the evil
genius of his reign. By a series of intrigues she was able to
inflict the most atrocious punishment on all those who had
taken part in the death of Cyrus. (Ed. M.)
PASADENA, a city in the San Gabriel valley of Los Angeles
county, in southern California, U.S.A., about 9 m. N.E. of
Los Angeles and about 20 m. from the Pacific Ocean. Pop.
(1S80) 391; (1890) 4882; (1900) 9117, of whom 1278 were
foreign-born; (1910 census) 30,291. Area about 11 sq. m.
It is served by the Southern Pacific, the Santa Fe, and the San
Pedro, Los Angeles & Salt Lake railway systems, and by inter-
urban electric lines. The city lies at an altitude of 750-1000 ft.,
about 5 m. from the base of the Sierra Madre range. Some
half-dozen mountain peaks in the immediate environs rise to
heights of 3200 to more than 6000 ft., notably Mt Wilson
(6666 ft.), whose base is about 5 m. north-east of Pasadena,
Echo mountain (4016 ft.), and Mt Lowe (6100 ft). From
Rubio canyon, near Pasadena, to the summit of Echo
mountain, runs a steep cable railway, 1000 yds. long. On Echo
mountain is the Lowe Observatory (3500 ft.), with a i6-in.
equatorial telescope, and on Mt Wilson is the Solar Observatory
(58S6 ft.) of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, equipped
with a 60-in. reflecting telescope and other instruments for stellar
photography, a horizontal telescope for solar photography.
PASARGADAE— PASCAL, BLAISE
a 6o-ft. tower telescope (completed in 1907), and a second tower
telescope of 150 ft. focal length (under construction in 1910).
At this observatory important researches in solar and stellar
spectroscopy have been carried on under the direction of George
EUery Hale (b. 1868), the inventor of the spectroheliograph.
The physical laboratory, computers' offices and instrument
construction shops of the Solar Observatory are in Pasadena.
About 5 m. south-east of Pasadena, in the township of San
Gabriel (pop. 2501 in 1900), is the Mission (monastery) de San
Gabriel Arcangel, founded in 1771. Pasadena is one of the most
beautiful places in southern California. Fruits and flowers
and sub-tropical trees and small plants grow and bloom the
year round in its gardens. On the first of January of every
year a flower carnival, known as the " Tournament of Roses,"
is held. Among the principal public buildings are a handsome
Romanesque public library, which in 1909 contained about
28,500 volumes, an opera house of considerable architectural
merit, high school, and several fine churches. The surrounding
country was given over to sheep ranges until 1874, when a
fruit-growing colony, organized in 1873, was established, from
which the city was developed. The sale of town lots began
in 1882. Pasadena was first chartered as a city in i886; by a
clause in the present special free-holders' charter, adopted in
igoi, saloons are prohibited in the city.
PASARGADAE, a city of ancient Persia, situated in the
modern plain of Murghab, some 30 m. N.E. of the later Parse-
polis. The name originally belonged to one of the tribes of the
Persians, which included the clan of the Achaemenidae, from
which sprang the royal family of Cyrus and Darius (Herod, i.
125; a Pasargadian Badres is mentioned, Herod, iv. 167).
According to the account of Ctesias (preserved by Anaximenes
of Lampsacus in Stcph. Byz. s.v. Haaffapyadai; Strabo xv. 730,
cf. 729; Nicol. Damasc. fr. 66,68 sqq.; Polyaen. vii. 6, i. 9. 45, 2),
the last battle of Cyrus against Astyages, in which the Persians
were incited to a desperate struggle by their women, was fought
here. After the victory Cyrus built a town, with his palace
and tomb, which was named Pasargadae after the tribe (cf.
Curt. v. 6, 10; X. I, 22). Every Persian king was, at his accession,
invested here, in the sanctuary of a warlike goddess (Anaitis?),
with the garb of Cyrus, and received a meal of figs and terebinths
with a cup of sour milk (Plut. Artax. 3); and whenever he entered
his native country he gave a gold piece to every woman of
Pasargadae in remembrance of the heroic intervention of their
ancestors in the battle (Nic. Damasc. loc. cit.; Plut. Alex. 69).
According to a fragment of the same tradition, preserved by
Strabo (xv. 729), Pasargadae lay "in the hollow Persis {Code
Persis) on the bank of the river Cyrus, after which the king
changed his name, which was formerly Atradates " (in Nic.
Damasc. this is the name of his father). The river Cyrus is
the Kur of the Persians, now generally named Bandamir; the
historians of Alexander call it Araxes, and give to its tributary,
the modern Pulwar, which passes by the ruins of Murghab
and Pcrsepolis, the name Medos (Strabo xv. 729; Curt. v. 4, 7).
The capital of Cyrus was soon supplanted by Persepolis, founded
by Darius; but in Pasargadae remained a great treasury, which
was surrendered to Alexander in 336 after his conquest of
Persis (Arrian iii. 18, 10; Curt. v. 6, 10). After his return from
India he visited Pasargadae on the march from Carmania
to Persepolis, found the tomb of Cyrus plundered, punished
the malefactors, and ordered Aristobulus to restore it (Arrian
vi. 29; Strabo xv. 730). Aristobulus' description agrees
exactly with the ruins of Murghab on the Bandamir, about
30 m. upwards from Persepolis; and all the other references
in the historians of Cyrus and Alexander indicate the same
place. Nevertheless, some modern authors^ have doubted the
identity of the ruins of Murghab with Pasargadae, as Ptolemy
(vi. 4, 7), places Pasargada or Pasarracha south-eastwards of
Persepolis, and mentions a tribe Pasargadae in Carmania on
the sea (vi. 8, 12); and Pliny, Nat. hist. vi. 99, names a Persian
' E.g. Weissbach in Zeitschr. d. d. morgenl. Ges., 48, pp. 653 sqq.;
for the identification cf. Stolze, Persepolis, ii. 269 sqq. ; Curzon,
Persia, ii. y I sqq. ., ^.,; j ;o.,i-jj ;.•.....•.,
river Sitioganus " on which one navigates in seven days to
Pasargadae."^ But it is evident that these accounts are
erroneous. The conjecture of Oppert, that Pasargadae is
identical with Pishiyauvada, where (on a mountain Arakadri)
the usurper Gaumata (Smerdis) proclaimed himself king, and
where his successor, the second false Smerdis Vahyazdata,
gathered an army (inscrip. of Behistun, i. 11; iii. 41), is hardly
probable.
The principal ruins of the town of Pasargadae at Murghab
are a great terrace like that of Persepolis, and the remainders
of three buildings, on which the building inscription of Cyrus,
" I Cyrus the king the Achaemenid " (sc. " have built this "),
occurs five times in Persian, Susian and Babylonian. They
were built of bricks, with a foundation of stones and stone
door-cases, like the palaces at Persepolis; and on these fragments
of a procession of tribute-bearers and the figure of a winged
demon (wrongly considered as a portrait of Cyrus) are preserved.
Outside the town are two tombs in the form of towers and the
tomb of Cyrus himself, a stone house on a high substruction
which rises in seven great steps, surrounded by a court with
columns; at its side the remains of a guardhouse, in which the
officiating Magians lived, are discernible. The ruins of the
tomb absolutely correspond to the description of Aristobulus.
See Sir W. Gore-Ouseley, Travels in Persia (1811); Morier, Ker
Porter, Rich and others; Texier, Description de I'Armenie et la Perse;
Flandin and Coste, Voyage en Perse, vol. ii.; Stolze, Persepolis;
Dieulafoy, L'Art antique de la Perse; and E. Herzfeld, " Pasargadae,"
in Beitrdge ztir alten Gesckichte, vol. viii. (1908), who has in many
points corrected and enlarged the earlier descriptions and has proved
that the buildings as well as the sculptures are earlier than those of
Persepolis, and are, therefore, built by Cyrus the Great. New
photographs of the monuments are published by Fr. Sarre, Iranische
Felsreliejs (untcr Mitwirkung von E. Herzfeld, Berlin, 1908).
(Ed. M.) '"
PASCAL, BLAISE (1623-1662), French religious philosopher
and mathematician, was born at Clermont Ferrand on the
19th of June 1623. His father was fitienne Pascal, president
of the Court of Aids at Clermont; his mother's name was
Antoinette Begon. The Pascal family were Auvergnats by
extraction as well as residence, had for many generations held
posts in the civil service, and were ennobled by Louis XI.
in 1478, but did not assume the de. The earhest anecdote
of Pascal is one of his being bewitched and freed from the spell
by the witch with strange ceremonies. His mother died when
he was about four years old, and left him with two sisters —
Gilberte, who afterwards married M. Perier, and JacqueUne.
Both sisters are of importance in their brother's history, and
both are said to have been beautiful and accomplished. When
Pascal was about seven years old his father gave up his official
post at Clermont, and betook himself to Paris. It does not
appear that Blaise, who went to no school, but was taught by
his father, was at all forced, but rather the contrary. Neverthe-
less he has a distinguished place in the story of precocious
children, and in the much more limited chapter of children
whose precocity has been followed by great performance at
maturity, though he never became what is called a learned man,
perhaps did not know Greek, and was pretty certainly indebted
for most of his miscellaneous reading to Montaigne.
The Pascal family, some years after settling in Paris, had to
go through a period of adversity. Etienne Pascal, who had
bought some of the hotel-de-vUle rentes, protested against
Richelieu's reduction of the interest, and to escape the Bastille
had to go into hiding. He was, according to the [story (told
by Jacqueline herself), restored to favour owing to the good
acting and graceful appearance of his daughter Jacqueline
in a representation of Scudery's Amour iyrannique before
Richelieu. Mme d'Aiguillon's intervention in the matter
was perhaps as powerful as Jacqueline's acting, and Richelieu
gave Etienne Pascal (in 1641) the important and lucrative
^ In vi. 116, he places " the Castle of Frasargida, where is the tomb
of Cyrus, and which is occupied by the Magi " — i.e. the guard of
Magians mentioned by Aristobulus, which had to protect the tomb — -
eastwards of Persepolis, and by a curious confusion joins it to
Ecbatana. .,,- -■_/-, .<!<• ■-'.■■■. .sn 1 • •■ ■•
PASCAL, BLAISE
879
though somewhat troublesome intendancy of Rouen. The
family accordingly removed to the Norman capital, though
Gilberte Pascal shortly after, on her marriage, returned to
Clermont. At Rouen they became acquainted with Corncille,
and Blaise pursued his studies with such vehemence that he
already showed signs of an injured constitution. Nothing,
however, of importance happened till the year 1646. Then
Pascal the elder was confined to the house by the consequences
of an accident on the ice, and was visited by certain gentlemen
of the neighbourhood who had come under the influence of
Saint-Cyran and the Jansenists. It does not appear that up
to this time the Pascal family had been contemners of religion,
but they now eagerly embraced the creed, or at least the attitude
of Jansenism, and Pascal himself showed his zeal by informing
against the supposed unorthodoxy of a Capuchin, the Pere
Saint-Ange.
His bodily health was at this time very far from satisfactory,
and he appears to have suffered, not merely from acute dyspepsia,
but from a kind of paralysis. He was, however, indefatigable
in his mathematical work. In 1647 he published his Nouvelles
experiences sur le vide, and in the next year the famous experi-
ment with the barometer on the Puy de Dome was carried
out for him by his brother-in-law Perier, and repeated on a
smaller scale by himself at Paris, to which place by the end
of 1647 he and his sister Jacqueline had removed, to be followed
shortly by their father. In a letter of Jacqueline's, dated the
27th of September, an account of a visit paid by Descartes to
Pascal is given, which, like the other information on the relations
of the two, give strong suspicion of mutual jealousy. Descartes,
however, gave Pascal the very sensible advice to stay in bed
as long as he could (it may be remembered that the philosopher
himself never got up till eleven) and to take plenty of beef-tea.
As early as May 1648 Jacqueline Pascal was strongly drawn to
Port Royal, and her brother frequently accompanied her to
its church. She desired indeed to join the convent, but her
father, who returned to Paris with the dignity of counsellor
of state, disapproved of the plan, and took both brother and
sister to Clermont, where Pascal remained for the greater part
of two years. E. Flechier, in his account of the Grands Jours
at Clermont many years after, speaks of a " belle savante "
in whose company Pascal had frequently been — a trivial
mention on which, as on many other trivial points of scantily
known lives, the most childish structures of comment and
conjecture have been based. It is sufficient to say that at this
time, despite the Rouen " conversion," there is no evidence
to show that Pascal was in any way a recluse, an ascetic, or
in short anything but a young man of great intellectual promise
and performance, not indifferent to society, but of weak health.
He, his sister and their father returned to Paris in the late
autumn of 1650, and in September of the next year Etienne
Pascal died. Almost immediately afterwards Jacqueline fulfiUed
her purpose of joining Port Royal — a proceeding which led to
some soreness, finally healed, between herself and her brother
and sister as to the disposal of her property. It has sometimes
been supposed that Pascal, from 165 1 or earlier to the famous
accident of 1654, lived a dissipated, extravagant, worldly,
luxurious (though admittedly not vicious) life with his friend
the due de Roannez and others. His Discours sur les passions
de I'amour, a striking and characteristic piece, not very long
since discovered and printed, has also been assigned to this
period, and has been supposed to indicate a hopeless passion
for Charlotte de Roannez, the duke's sister. But this is sheer
romancing. The extant letters of Pascal to the lady show no
trace of any affection (stronger than friendship) between them.
It is, however, certain that in the autumn of 1654 Pascal's
second " conversion " took place, and that it was lasting.
He betook himself at first to Port Royal, and began to live a
recluse and austere life there. Mme Perier simply says that
Jacqueline persuaded him to abandon the world. Jacqueline
represents the retirement as the final result of a long course of
dissatisfaction with mundane life. But there are certain
anecdotic embellishments of the act which are too famous to
be passed over, though they are in part apocryphal. It seems
that Pascal in driving to Neuilly was run away with by the horses,
and would have been plunged in the river but that the traces
fortunately broke. To this, which seems authentic, is usually
added the tradition (due to the abbe Boileau) that afterwards
he used at times to see an imaginary precipice by his bedside,
or at the foot of the chair on which he was sitting. Further,
from the 23rd of November 1654 dates the singular document
usually known as " Pascal's amulet," a parchment slip which
he wore constantly about him, and which bears the date
followed by some lines of incoherent and strongly mystical
devotion.
It must be noted that, though he lived much at Port Royal,
and partly at least observed its rule, he never actually became
one of its famous solitaries. But for what it did for him (and
for a time his health as well as his peace of mind seems to have
been improved) he very soon paid an ample and remarkable
return. At the end of 1655 Arnauld, the chief light of Port
Royal, was condemned by the Sorbonne for heretical doctrine,
and it was thought important by the Jansenist and Port Royal
party that steps should be taken to disabuse the popular mind.
Arnauld would have undertaken the task himself, but his wiser
friends knew that his style was anything but popular, and
overruled him. It is said that he personally suggested to
Pascal to try his hand, and that the first of the famous Provin-
cialcs [Provincial Letters, properly Lettres ecrltes par Louis de
Montalte a un provincial de ses amis) was written in a few days,
or, less probably, in a day. It was printed without the real
author's name on the 23rd of January 1656, and, being
immensely popular, and successful, was followed by others to
the number of eighteen.
Shortly after the appearance of the Provinciales, on the
24th of May 1656, occurred the miracle of the Holy Thorn, a
fragment of the crown of Christ preserved at Port Royal, which
cured the little Marguerite Perier of a fistula lacrymalis. The
Jesuits were much mortified by this Jansenist miracle, which,
as it was officially recognized, they could not openly deny.
Pascal and his friends rejoiced in proportion. The details of
his later years after this incident are somewhat scanty. For
years before his death we hear only of acts of charity and of,
as it seems to modern ideas, extravagant asceticism. Thus
Mme Perier tells us that he disliked to see her caress her
children, and would not allow the beauty of any woman to be
talked of in his presence. What may be called his last illness
began as early as 1658, and as the disease progressed it was
attended with more and more pain, chiefly in the head. In
June 1662, having given up his own house to a poor family who
were suffering from small-pox, he went to his sister's house to
be nursed, and never afterwards left it. His state was, it seems,
mistaken by his physicians, so much so that the offices of the
Church were long put off. He was able, however, to receive
the Eucharist, and soon afterwards died in convulsions on the
igth of August. A post mortem examination was held, which
showed not only grave derangement in the stomach and other
organs, but a serious lesion of the brain.
Eight years after Pascal's death appeared what purported to
be his Pensees, and a preface by his nephew Perier gave the
world to understand that these were fragments of a great
projected apology for Christianity which the author had, in
conversation with his friends, planned out years before. The
editing of the book was peculiar. It was submitted to a com-
mittee of influential Jansenists, with the due de Roannez at
their head, and, in addition, it bore the imprimatur of numerous
unofficial approvers who testified to its orthodoxy. It does
not appear that there was much suspicion of the garbling which
had been practised — garbling not unusual at the time, and
excused in this case by the fact of a lull in the troubles of Port
Royal and a great desire on the part of its friends to do nothing
to disturb that lull. But as a matter of fact no more entirely
factitious book ever issued from the press. The fragments
which it professed to give were in themselves confused and
incoherent enough, nor is it easy to believe that they all formed
PASCAL, BLAISE
part of any such single and coherent design as that referred to
above. But the editors omitted, altered, added, separated,
combined and so forth entirely at their pleasure, actually
making some changes which seem to have been thought improve-
ments of style. This rifacimento remained the standard text
with a few unimportant additions for nearly two centuries,
except that, by a truly comic revolution of public taste,
Condorcet in 1776 published, after study of the original, which
remained accessible in manuscript, another garbling, con-
ducted this time in the interests of j<worthodoxy. It was
not till 1842 that Victor Cousin drew attention to the absolutely
untrustworthy condition of the text, nor till 1844 that
A. P. Faugere edited that text from the MS. in something like
a condition of purity, though, as subsequent editions have
shown, not with absolute fidelity. But even in its spurious
condition the book had been recognized as remarkable and
almost unique. Its contents, as was to be expected, are of
a very chaotic character — of a character so chaotic indeed that
the reader is almost at the mercy of the arrangement, perforce
an arbitrary arrangement, of the editors. But the subjects
dealt with concern more or less all the great problems of thought
on what may be called the theological side of metaphysics —
the sufficiency of reason, the trustworthiness of experience, the
admissibility of revelation, free will, foreknowledge, and the
rest. The peculiarly disjointed and fragmentary condition
of the sentiments expressed by Pascal aggravates the appear-
ance of universal doubt which is present in the Peiisees, just as
the completely unfinished condition of the work, from the literary
point of view, constantly causes slighter or graver doubts as
to the actual meaning which the author wished to express.
Accordingly the Pensecs have always been a favourite exploring
ground, not to say a favourite field of battle, to persons who
take an interest in their problems. Speaking generally, their
tendency is towards the combating of scepticism by a deeper
scepticism, or, as Pascal himself calls it, Pyrrhonism, which
occasionally goes the length of denying the possibility of any
natural theology. Pascal explains all the contradictions and
difficulties of human life and thought by the doctrine of the
Fall, and relies on faith and revelation alone to justify each
other.
Excluding here his scientific attainments (see below), Pascal
presents himself for comment in two different lights, the second
of which is, if the expression be permitted, a composite one.
The first exhibits him as a man of letters, the second as a
philosopher, a theologian, and simply a man, for in no one
is the colour of the theology and the philosophy more distinctly
personal. Yet his character as a man is not very distinct.
The accounts of his sister and niece have the defect of all
hagiology; they are obviously written rather with a view to
the ideas and the wishes of the writers than with a view to the
actual and absolute personahty of the subject. Except from
these interesting but somewhat tainted sources, we know little
or nothing about him. Hence conjecture, or at least inference,
must always enter largely into any estimate of Pascal, except
a purely literary one.
On that side, fortunately, there is no possibility of doubt or
difficulty to any competent inquirer. The Provincial Letters
are the first example of French prose which is at once consider-
able in bulk, varied and important in matter, perfectly finished
in form. They owe not a little to Descartes, for Pascal's
indebtedness to his predecessor is unquestionable from the
literary side, whatever may be the case with the scientific.
But Descartes had had neither the opportunity, nor the desire,
nor probably the power, to write anything of the literary im-
portance of the Provinciales. The first example of polite
controversial irony since Lucian, the Provinciales have continued
to be the best example of it during more than two centuries
in which the style has been sedulously practised, and in which
they have furnished a model to generation after generation.
The unfailing freshness and charm of the contrast between
the importance, the gravity, in some cases the dry and abstruse
nature, of their subjects, and the lightness, sometimes almost
approaching levity in its special sense, of the manner in which
these subjects are attacked is a triumph of literary art of which
no famiMarity dims the splendour, and which no lapse of time
can ever impair. Nor perhaps is this literary art really less
evident in the Pensees, though it is less clearly displayed, owing
to the fragmentary or rather chaotic condition of the work,
and partly also to the nature of the subject. The vividness
and distinction of Pascal's phrase, his singular faculty of inserting
without any loss of dignity in the gravest and most impassioned
meditation what may be almost called quips of thought and
diction, the intense earnestness of meaning weighting but not
confusing the style, all appear here.
No such positive statements as these are, however, possible
as to the substance of the Pensees and the attitude of their
author. Hitherto the widest differences have been manifested
in the estimate of Pascal's opinions on the main questions of
philosophy, theology and human conduct. He has been
represented as a determined apologist of intellectual orthodoxy
animated by an almost fanatical " hatred of reason," and
possessed with a purpose to overthrow the appeal to reason;
as a sceptic and pessimist of a far deeper dye than Montaigne,
anxious chiefly to show how any positive decision on matters
beyond the range of experience is impossible; as a nervous
believer clinging to conclusions which his clearer and better
sense showed to be indefensible; as an almost ferocious ascetic
and paradoxer affecting the credo quia impossibUe in intellectual
matters and the odi quia amabile in matters moral and sensuous;
as a wanderer in the regions of doubt and behef, alternately
bringing a vast though vague power of thought and an un-
equalled power of expression to the expression of ideas incom-
patible and irreconcilable. An unbiased study of the scanty
facts of his history, and of the tolerably abundant but scattered
and chaotic facts of his literary production, ought to enable
any one to steer clear of these exaggerations, while admitting
at the same time that it is impossible to give a complete and
final account of his attitude towards the riddles of this world
and others. He certainly was no mere advocate of ortho-
doxy; he as certainly was no mere victim of terror at
scepticism; least of all was he a freethinker in disguise. He
appears, as far as can be judged from the fragments of.his Pensees,
to have seized firmly and fully the central idea of the difference
between reason and religion. Where the difficulty rises respect-
ing him is that most thinkers since his day, who have seen this
difference with equal clearness, have advanced from it to the
negative side, whOe he advanced to the positive. In other
words, most men since his day who have not been contented
with a mere concordat, have let religion go and contented
themselves with reason. Pascal, equally discontented with
the concordat, held fast to religion and continued to fight out
the questions of difference with reason. Surveying these
positions, we shall not be astonished to find much that is sur-
prising and some things that are contradictory in Pascal's
utterances on " les grands sujets." The influence exercised
on him by Montaigne is the one fact regarding him which has
not been and can hardly be exaggerated, and his well-known
Entretion with Sacy on the subject (the restoration of which
to its proper form is one of the most valuable results of modern
criticism) leaves no doubt possible as to the source of his
" Pyrrhonian " method. But it is impossible for anyone who
takes Pascal's Pensees simply as he finds them in connexion
with the facts of Pascal's history to question his theological
orthodo.xy, understanding by theological orthodoxy the accep-
tance of revelation and dogma; it is equally impossible for any
one in the same condition to declare him absolutely content
with dogma and revelation. It is of the essence of an active
mind like Pascal's to explore and state all the arguments which
make for or make against the conclusion it is investigating.
To sum up, the Pensees are excursions into the great unknown
made with a full acknowledgment of the greatness of that
unknown. From the point of view that belief and knowledge,
based on experience or reasoning, are separate domains with
an unexplored sea between and round them, Pascal is perfectly
PASCAL, J.— PASCHAL (POPES)
88i
comprehensible, and he need not be taken as a deserter from
one region to the other. To those who hold that all intellectual
exercise outside the sphere of religion is impious or that all
intellectual exercise inside that sphere is futile, he must remain
an enigma.
There are tew writers who are more in need than Pascal of being
fully and competently edited. The chief nominally complete edition
at present in existence is that of Bossut (1779, 5 vols., and since
reprinted), which not only appeared before any attempt had been
made to restore the true text of the Pensees, but is in other respects
quite inadequate. The edition of Lahure, 1858, is not much better,
though the Pensees appear in their more genuine form. An edition
promised for the excellent collection of Les Grands ecrivains de la
France by A. P. Faugere has been executed as far as the Pensees
go by Leon Brunschvig (3 vols., 1904), who has also issued a one-
volume edition. The CEuvres completes appeared in three volumes
(Paris, 1889). Meanwhile, with the exception of the Provinciales
(of which there are numerous editions, no one much to be preferred
to any other, for the text is undisputed and the book itself contains
almost all the exegesis of its own contents necessary), Pascal can be
read only at a disadvantage. There are five chief editions of the
true Pensees earlier than Brunschvig's: that of Faugere (1844),
the editio princeps; that of Havet (1852, 1867 and 1 881), on the whole
the best; that of Victor Rochet (1873), good, but arranged and edited
with the deliberate intention of making Pascal first of all an orthodox
apologist; that of Molinier (1877-1879), a carefully edited and in-
teresting text, the important corrections of which have been intro-
duced into Havet 's last edition and that of G. Michelant (Freiburg,
1896). Unfortunately, none of these can be said to be exclusively
satisfactory. The minor works must chiefly be sought in Bossut or
reprints of him. Works on Pascal are innumerable: Sainte-Beuve's
Port Royal, Cousin's writings on Pascal and his Jacqueline Pascal,
and the essays of the editors of the Pensees just mentioned are the
most noteworthy. Principal TuUoch contributed a useful little
monograph to the series of Foreign Classics for English Readers
(Edinburgh and London, 1878). Recent handlings are, in French,
E. Boutroux's Pascal (Paris, 1903) and, in English, an article in the
Quarterly Review (No. 407) for April 1906. (G. Sa.)
Pascal as Natural Philosopher and Mathematician. — Great
as is Pascal's reputation as a philosopher and man of letters,
it may be fairly questioned whether his claim to be remembered
by posterity as a mathematician and physicist is not even
greater. In his two former capacities all will admire the form
of his work, while some will question the value of his results;
but in his two latter capacities no one will dispute either. He
was a great mathematician in an age which produced Descartes,
Fermat, Huygens, Wallis and Roberval. There are wonderful
stories on record of his precocity in mathematical learning,
which is sufficiently established by the well-attested fact that
he had completed before he was sixteen years of age a work on
the conic sections, in which he had laid down a series of pro-
positions, discovered by himself, of such importance that they
may be said to form the foundations of the modern treatment
of that subject. Owing partly to the youth of the author,
partly to the difficulty in publishing scientific works in those
days, and partly no doubt to the continual struggle on his
part to devote his mind to what appeared to his conscience
more important labour, this work (like many others by the
same master hand) was never published. We know something
of what it contained from a report by Leibnitz, who had seen
it in Paris, and from a resume of its results published in 1640
by Pascal himself, under the title Essai pour les coniques. The
method which he followed was that introduced by his contem-
porary Girard Desargues, viz. the transformation of geometrical
hgures by conical or optical projection. In this way he estab-
lished the famous theorem that the intersections of the three
pairs of opposite sides of a hexagon inscribed in a conic are
coUinear. This proposition, which he called the mystic hexa-
gram, he made the keystone of his theory; from it alone he
deduced more than 400 corollaries, embracing, according
to his own account, the conies of ApoUonius, and other results
innumerable.
Pascal also distinguished himself by his skill in the infinitesimal
calculus, then in the embryonic form of Cavalieri's method of
indivisibles. The cycloid was a famous curve in those days;
it had been discussed by Galileo, Descartes, Fermat, Roberval
and Torricelli, who had in turn exhausted their skill upon it.
Pascal solved the hitherto refractory problem of the general
quadrature of the cycloid, and proposed and solved a variety of
others relating to the centre of gravity of the curve and its
segments, and to the volume and centre of gravity of solids of
revolution generated in various ways by means of it. He
published a number of these theorems without demonstration as
a challenge to contemporary mathematicians. Solutions were
furnished by Wallis, Huygens, Wren and others; and Pascal
published his own in the form of letters from Amos Dettonville
(his assumed name as challenger) to Pierre de Carcavy. There
has been some discussion as to the fairness of the treatment
accorded by Pascal to his rivals, but no question of the fact
that his initiative led to a great extension of our knowledge of
the properties of the cycloid, and indirectly hastened the progress
of the differential calculus.
In yet another branch of pure mathematics Pascal ranks
as a founder. The mathematical theory of probability and
the allied theory of the combinatorial analysis were in effect
created by the correspondence between Pascal and Fermat,
concerning certain questions as to the division of slakes in
games of chance, which had been propounded to the former by
the gaming philosopher De Mere. A complete account of this
interesting correspondence would surpass our present hmils;
but the reader may be referred to Todhunter's History of the
Theory of Probability (Cambridge and London, 1865), pp. 7-21.
It appears that Pascal contemplated publishing a treatise
De aleae gcomctria; but all that actually appeared was a fragment
on the arithmetical triangle {Traite du triangle arithmetique,
" Properties of the Figurate Numbers"), printed in 1654, but
not published till 1665, after his death.
Pascal's work as a natural philosopher was not less remarkable
than his discoveries in pure mathematics. His experiments
and his treatise (written before 1651, published 1663) on the
equilibrium of fluids entitle him to rank with Galileo and
Stevinus as one of the founders of the science of hydrodynamics.
The idea of the pressure of the air and the invention of the
instrument for measuring it were both new when he made his
famous experiment, showing that the height of the mercury
column in a barometer decreases when it is carried upwards
through the atmosphere. This experiment was made by
himself in a tower at Paris, and was carried out on a grand
scale under his instructions by his brother-in-law Florin Perier
on the Puy de Dome in Auvergne. Its success greatly helped
to break down the old prejudices, and to bring home to the
minds of ordinary men the truth of the new ideas propounded
by Galileo and Torricelli.
Whether we look at his pure mathematical or at his physical
researches we receive the same impression of Pascal; we see
the strongest marks of a great original genius creating new
ideas, and seizing upon, mastering, and pursuing farther every-
thing that was fresh and unfamiliar in his time. We can still
point to much in exact science that is absolutely his; and we
can indicate infinitely more which is due to his inspiration.
(G. Ch.)
PASCAL, JACQUELINE (1625-1661), sister of Blaise Pascal,
was born at Clermont-Ferrand, France, on the 4th of October
1625. She was a genuine infant prodigy, composing verses
when only eight years, and a five-act comedy at eleven. In
1646 the influence of her brother converted her to Jansenism.
In 1652, she took the veil, despite the strong opposition of her
brother, and subsequently was largely instrumental in the
latter's own final conversion. She vehemently opposed the
attempt to compel the assent of the nuns to the Papal bulls
condemning Jansenism, but was at last compelled to yield her
own. This blow, however, hastened her death, which occurred
at Paris on the 4th of October 1661.
PASCHAL (Paschalis), the name of two popes, and one
anti-pope.
Paschal I., pope from 817 to 824, a native of Rome, was
raised to the pontificate by the acclamation of the clergy,
shortly after the death of Stephen IV., and before the sanction
of the emperor (Louis the Pious) had been obtained — a circum-
stance for which it was one of his first cares to apologize. His
882
PASCHAL CHRONICLE— PAS-DE-CALAIS
relations with the imperial house, however, never became
cordial; and he was also unsuccessful in winning the sympathy
of the Roman nobles. He died in Rome while the imperial
commissioners were investigating the circumstances under
which two important Roman personages had been seized at
the Lateran, blinded and afterwards beheaded; Paschal had
shielded the murderers but denied all personal complicity in
their crime. The Roman people refused him the honour of
burial within the church of St Peter, but he now holds a place
in the Roman calendar (May i6). The church of St Cecilia
in Trastevere was restored and St Maria in Dominica rebuilt
by him; he also built the church of St Prassede. The successor
of Paschal I. was Eugenius 11. (L. D.*)
Paschal II. (Ranieri), pope from the 13th of August 1099
to the 2ist of January 1118, was a native of Bieda, near Viterbo,
and a monk of the Cluniac order. He was created cardinal-
priest of S. Clemente by Gregory VII. about 1076, and was
consecrated pope in succession to Urban II. on the 14th of
August 1099. In the long struggle with the emperors over
investiture, he zealously carried on the HQdebrandine policy,
but with only partial success. In 1104 Paschal succeeded in
instigating the emperor's second son to rebel against his father,
but soon found Henry V. even more persistent in maintaining
the right of investiture than Henry IV. had been. The imperial
Diet at Mainz invited (Jan. 1106) Paschal to visit Germany
and settle the trouble, but the pope in the Council of GuastaUa
(Oct. 1 106) simply renewed the prohibition of investiture.
In the same year he brought to an end the investiture struggle
in England, in which .^nselm, archbishop of Canterbury, had
been engaged with King Henry I., by retaining himself exclusive
right to invest with the ring and crozier, but recognizing the
royal nomination to vacate benefices and oath of fealty for
temporal domains. He went to France at the close of 1106
to seek the mediation of King Philip and Prince Louis in the
imperial struggle, but, his negotiations remaining without
result, he returned to Italy in September 1107. When Henry V.
advanced with an army into Italy in order to be crowned, the
pope agreed to a compact (Feb. iiii), by the terms of which
the Church should surrender all the possessions and royalties
it had received of the empire and kingdom of Italy since the
days of Charlemagne, while Henry on his side should renounce
lay investiture. Preparations were made for the coronation
on the i2th of February iiii, but the Romans rose in revolt
against the compact, and Henry retired taking with him pope
and curia. After sixty-one days of harsh imprisonment, Paschal
yielded and guaranteed investiture to the emperor. Henry
was then crowned in St Peter's on the 13th of April, and after
exacting a promise that no revenge would be taken for what
had passed withdrew beyond the Alps. The Hildebrandine
party was aroused to action, however; a Lateran council of
March 11 12 declared nuO and void the concessions extorted by
violence; a council held at Vienna in October actually excom-
municated the emperor, and Paschal sanctioned the proceeding.
Towards the end of the pontificate trouble began anew in
England, Paschal complaining (1115) that councils were held
and bishops translated without his authorization, and
threatening Henry I. with excommunication. On the death
of the countess Matilda, who had bequeathed all her territories
to the Church (11 15), the emperor at once laid claim to them
as imperial fiefs and forced the pope to flee from Rome. Paschal
returned after the emperor's withdrawal at the beginning of
1118, but died within a few days on the 21st of January 1118.
His successor was Gelasius II.
The principal sources for the life of Paschal II. are his Letters in the
Monumenta Germaniae historica. Epistolae, vols. 3, 6, 7, 13, 17, 20-
23, 25, and the Vita by Petrus Pisanus in the Liber pontificalis, ed.
Duchesne (Paris, 1892). Important bulls are in J. A. G. von Pflugk-
Harttung, Die Bullen der Pdpste bis zv.m Ende des zivoiften Jahr-
hunderts (Gotha, 1901), and a valuable digest in Jaffe-Wattenbach,
Regesta pontif. roman. (i?,9,$-i?,?.S). _
See J. Langen, Geschtchte der romischen Kirche von Gregor VII. bis
Innocenz III. (Bonn, 1893); K. J. von Hefele, Conciliengesckichte,
vol. V. (2nd ed., 1873-1890); E. Franz, Papst Paschalis II. (Breslau,
1877); W. Schum, Die Politik Papst Paschals II. gegen Kaiser
Heinrich V. im Jahre 1112 (Erfurt, 1877); I. Roskens, Heinrich V.
nnd Paschalis II. (Essen, 1885); C. Gernandt, Die erste Romfahrl
Heinrich V. (Heidelberg, 1890) ; G. Peiser, Der deutsche Investitur-
slreit unter Kaiser Heinrich V. his zu dem pdpstlichen Privileg vom
3 April IIII (Berlin, 1883); and B. Monod, Essai sur les rapports
de Pascal II. avec Philippe I. (Paris, 1907). There is an exhaustive
bibliography with an excellent article by Carl Mirbt in Herzog-
Hauck, Realencyklopddie (3rd ed., 1904). (C. H. Ha.)
Paschal III., anti-pope from 1164 to 1168, was elected the
successor of Victor IV. on the 22nd of April 1164. He was an
aged aristocrat, Guido of Crema. Recognized at once by the
emperor Frederick I. he soon lost the support of Burgundy, but
the emperor crushed opposition in Germany, and gained the co-
operation of Henry II. of England. Supported by the victorious
imperial army, Paschal was enthroned at St Peter's on the
22nd of July 1167, and Pope Alexander III., became a fugitive.
Sudden imperial reverses, however, made Paschal glad in the
end to hold so much as the quarter on the right bank of the
Tiber, where he died on the 20th of September 1168. He was
succeeded by the anti-pope Callixtus III.
See A. Hauck, Kirchengeschichte Deutschlands, Bd. IV. (Leipzig,
1903, 259-276) ; H. Bohmer in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie,
Bd. XIV., 724 seq.; and Lobkowtiz, Statistik der Pdpste (Freiburg,
i. B. 1905). (W. W. R.*)
PASCHAL CHRONICLE (Chronicum Paschale, also Chronicum
Alexandrinum or Constantinopolitanum, or Fasti Sicuh), so
called from being based upon the Easter canon, an outline
of chronology from Adam down to a.d. 629, accompanied by
numerous historical and theological notes. The work, which
is imperfect at the beginning and end (breaking off in the year
627), is preceded by an introduction on the Christian methods
of reckoning time and the Easter cycle. It was written during
the reign of Herachus (610-641), and is generally attributed
to an unknown Byzantine cleric and friend of the patriarch
Sergius, who is specially alluded to as responsible for the intro-
duction of certain ritual innovations. The so-called Byzantine
or Roman era (which continued in use in the Greek Church
until its Uberation from Turkish rule) was adopted in the
Chronicum for the first time as the foundation of chronology,
in accordance with which the date of the creation is given as
the 2ist of March, 5507. The author is merely a compiler
from earlier works, except in the history of the last thirty
years, which has the value of a contemporary record.
The chief authorities used were: Julius Sextus Africanus (3rd
centur>'); the consular Fasti; the Chronicle and Church History of
Eusebius; John Malalas; the Acta martyrum; the treatise of
Epiphanius, bishop of Constantia (the old Salamis) in Cyprus
(fl. 4th centur>'), on Weights and Measures. Editions: L. Dindorf
(1832) in Corpus scriptorum hist, byzantinae, with Du Cange's
preface and commentary; J. P. Migne, Patrologia graeca, xcii.;
see also C. Wachsmuth, Einleitung in das Studium der alten Geschichte
(1895); H. Gelzer, Sextus Julius Africanus und die byzantinische
Chronograpliie, ii. I (1885); J. van der Hagen, Observationes in
Heraclii imperatoris methodum paschalem (1736, but still considered
indispensable) ; E. Schwarz in Pauly-VVissowa, Realencyclopddie,
iii., pt. 2 (1899); C. Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen
Liiteratur (1897).
PAS-DE-CALAIS, a maritime department of northern France,
formed in 1790 of nearly the whole of Artois and the northern
maritime portion of Picardy including Boulonnais, Calaisis,
Ardresis, and the districts of Langle and Bredenarde, and
bounded N. by the Straits of Dover (" Pas de Calais " ), E. by
the department of Nord, S. by that of Somme, and VV. by the
English Channel. Pop. (1906), 1,012,466; Area 2606 sq. m.
Except in the neighbourhood of Boulogne-sur-Mer with its
cotes de fer or " iron coasts," the seaboard of the department,
which measures 65 m., consists of dunes. From the mouth
of the Aa (the hmit towards Nord) it trends west-south-west
to Gris Nez, the point of France nearest to England; in this
section lie the port of Calais, Cape Blanc Nez, rising 440 ft.
above the sandy shores, and the port of Wissant (Wishant).
The seaside resorts include Boulogne, Berck-sur-Mer, Paris-
Plage, Wimereux, &c. Beyond Griz Nez the direction is due
south; in this section are the small port of Ambleteuse, Boulogne
at the mouth of the Liane, and the two bays formed by the
PASDELOUP— PASKEVICH
883
estuaries of the Canche and the Authie (the hmit towards
Somme). The highest point in the department (700 ft.) is
in the west, between Boulogne and StOmer. From the iiplands
in which it is situated the Lys and Scarpe fiow east to the
Scheldt, the Aa north to the German Ocean, and the Slacic,
Wimereux and Liane to the Channel. Farther south are the
valleys of the Canche and the Authie, running E.S.E. and
W.N.W., and thus parallel with the Somme. Vast plains,
open and monotonous, but extremely fertile and well cultivated,
occupy most of the department. To the north of the hills
running between St Omer and Boulogne, to the south of
Gravelines and the south-east of Calais, lies the district of the
Wattergands, fens now drained by means of canals and dikes, and
turned into highly productive land. The cHmate is free from
extremes of heat and cold, but damp and changeable. At
Arras the mean annual temperature is 47°; on the coast it is
higher. The rainfall varies from 24 to 32 in., though at Cape
Gris Nez the latter figure is much exceeded. Cereals are largely
grown and give good yields to the acre; the other principal
crops are potatoes, sugar-beet, forage, oil-plants and tobacco.
Market gardening flourishes in the Wattergands. The rearing
of livestock and poultry is actively carried on, and the horses
of the Boulonnais are specially esteemed.
The department is the chief in France for the production of
coal, its principal coal-basin, which is a continuation of that of
Valenciennes, centring round Bethune. The manufacture of
beetroot-sugar, oil and alcohol distilling, iron-working, dyeing,
brewing, paper-making, and various branches of the textile
manufacture, are foremost among the industries of the depart-
ment. Boulogne, Calais and fitaples fit out a considerable
number of vessels for the cod, herring and mackerel fisheries.
Calais and Boulogne are important ports of passenger-transit
for England; and Boulogne also carries on a large export trade
in the products of the department. The canal system com-
prises part of the Aa, the Lys, the Scarpe, the Deule (a tributary
of the Lys passing by Lille), the Lawe (a tributary of the
Lys passing by Bethune), and the Sensee (an affluent of the
Scheldt), as weU as the canals of Aire to Bauvin, Neuffosse,
Calais, Calais to Ardres, &c., and in this way a line of communi-
cation is formed from the Scheldt to the sea by Bethune, St
Omer and Calais, with branches to Gravelines and Dunkirk.
The department is served by the Northern railway.
Pas-de-Calais forms the diocese of Arras (archbishopric of
Cambrai), belongs to the district of the I. army corps, the
educational division (academie) of Lille and the circumscription
of the appeal court of Douai. There are six arrondissements
(Arras, Bethune, Boulogne, Montreuil-sur-Mer, St Omer and
St Pol-sur-Ternoise). The more noteworthy places are Arras,
the capital, Boulogne, Calais, St Omer, Bethune, Lens, Mon-
treuil-sur-Mer, Bruay, Berck, fitaples and Aire-sur-la-Lys,
which are noticed separately. Besides some of the towns
mentioned, Lievin (22,070), Henin-Lietard (13,384), in the neigh-
bourhood of Lens, are large centres of population. Other places
of some importance are: Lillers (pop. 5341), which carries on boot-
making and has a fine Romanesque church of the 12th century;
Hesdin, which owes its regular plan to Charles V., by whom it
was built; and St Pol, which has the remains of medieval
fortifications and castles and gave its name to the famous
counts of St Pol.
PASDELOUP. JULES fillENNE (1819-1887), French con-
ductor, was born in Paris, and educated in music at the co»-
servaloire. He founded in 1851 a " societe des jeunes artistes
du conservatoire," and, as conductor of its concerts, did much
to popularize the best new compositions of the time. His
" popular concerts " at the Cirque d'hiver, from 1861 till 1884,
had also a great effect in promoting French taste in music.
PASEWALK, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Pomerania, on the Ucker, 26 m. N.W. from Stettin by the
railway to Strassburg. Pop. (1905), io,5ip. Pasewalk became
a town during the 12th century and was soon a member of the
Hanseatic League. In 1359 it passed to the duke of Pomerania.
Frequently ravaged during the wars which devastated the
district, it was plundered several times by the imperialists
during the Thirty Years' War; in 1657 it was burnt by the
Poles and in 17 13 by the Russians. By the peace of Westphalia
in 1648 it was given to Sweden, but in 1676 it was conquered
by Brandenburg, and in 1720, by the peace of Stockholm, it
was definitely assigned to Brandenburg-Prussia.
See Hiickstadt, Geschichte der Sladl Pasewalk (Pasewalk, 1883).
PASHA, also written " pacha " and formerly " pashaw," &c.,
a Turkish title, superior to that of bey (q.v.), borne by persons
of high rank and placed after the name. It is in the gift of the
sultan of Turkey and, by delegation, of the khedive of P2gypt.
The title appears, originally, to have been bestowed exclusively
upon military commanders, but it is now given to any high
ofiicial, and also to unoflicial persons whom it is desired to
honour. It is conferred indifferently upom Moslems and Chris-
tians, and is frequently given to foreigners in the service of
the Turks or Egyptians. Pashas are of three grades, formerly
distinguished by the number of horse-tails (three, two and
one respectively) which they were entitled to display as symbols
of authority when on campaign. A pashalik is a province
governed by or under the jurisdiction of a pasha.
The word is variously derived from the Persian pddshah,
Turkish pddishah, equivalent to king or emperor, and from the
Turkish bash, in some dialects pash, a head, chief, &c. In old
Turkish there was no fi.xed distinction between b and p. As
first used in western Europe the title was written with the
initial b. The English forms bashaw, bassaw, bucha, &c.,
general in the i6th and 17th centuries, were derived through
the med. Lat. and Ital. bassa.
PASIG, a town and the capital of the province of Rizal,
Luzon, Philippine Islands, about 6 m. E.S.E. of Manila. Pop.
(1003), 11,287. The town, which covers a considerable area, is
traversed by the Pasig river and its tributary, the Mariquino
river, and for a short distance borders on Laguna de Bay.
In the south-western part is Fort McKinley. Although built on
low ground, Pasig is fairly healthy. It was formerly an impor-
tant commercial centre, the inhabitants being largely engaged in
a carrying and forwarding trade between Manila and the lake
ports; but this trade was lost after the establishment of direct
rail and steamboat service between these ports. The principal
industries are rice-farming, the manufacture of a cheap red
pottery, and fishing. The language is Tagalog.
PASITELES, the most important member of the Neo-Attic
school of sculpture in the time of Julius Caesar. At that period
there was at Rome a demand for copies of, or variations on,
noted works of Greek sculpture: the demand was met by the
workshops of Pasiteles and his pupils Stephanus and Menelaus
and others, several of whose statues are extant. In working
from early Dorian models they introduced refinements of their
own, with the result that they produced beautiful, but some-
what vapid and academic types. Pastiteles is said by Pliny
{Nat. Hist, xxxvi. 39) to have been a native of Magna Graecia,
and to have been granted the Roman citizenship.
PASKEVICH, IVAN FEDOROVICH (1782-1856), count of
Erivan, prince of Warsaw, Russian field marshal, descended
from an old and wealthy family, was born at Poltava on the
igth (8th) of May 1782. He was educated at the imperial
institution for pages, where his progress was rapid, and in
1800 received his commission in the Guards and was named
aide-de-camp to the tsar. His first active service was in 1805,
in the auxiliary army sent to the assistance of Austria against
France, when he took part in the battle of Austerlitz. From
1807 to 181 2 he was engaged in the campaigns against Turkey,
and distinguished himself by many brilliant and daring exploits,
being made a general officer in his thirtieth year. During the
French War of 181 2-14 he was present, in command of the 26th
division of infantry, at all the most important engagements; at
the battle of Leipzig he won promotion to the rank of lieutenant-
general. On the outbreak of war with Persia in 1826 he was
appointed second in command, and, succeeding in the fol-
lowing year to the chief command, gained rapid and brilliant
successes which compelled the shah to sue for peace in February
884
PASLEY— PASQUIER, DUKE
1828. In reward of his services he was named by the emperor
count of Erivan, and received a million of roubles and a diamond-
mounted sword. From Persia he was sent to Turkey in Asia,
and, having captured in rapid succession the principal fortresses,
he was at the end of the campaign made a field marshal at the
age of forty-seven. In 1830 he subdued the mountaineers of
Daghestan. In 1831 he was entrusted with the command of
the army sent to suppress the revolt of Poland, and after the
fall of Warsaw, which gave the death-blow to Polish indepen-
dence, he was raised to the dignity of prince of Warsaw, and
created viceroy of the kingdom of Poland. On the outbreak
of the insurrection of Hungary in 1S48 he was appointed to
the command of the Russian troops sent to the aid of Austria,
and finally compelled the surrender of the Hungarians at
Vilagos. In April 1854 he again took the field in command
of the army of the Danube, but on the Qth of June, at Silistria,
where he suffered defeat, he received a contusion which compelled
him to retire from active service. He died on the 13th (ist)
of February 1856 at Warsaw, where in i86o a memorial was
erected to him. He held the rank of field marshal in the Prussian
and Austrian armies as well as in his own service.
See Tolstoy, Essai hiographique et historique sur le feld-marechal
Prince de Varsovie (Paris, 1835); Notice hiographique sur le Marechal
Paskevitch (Leipzig, 1856); and Prince Stcherbatov's Life (St
Petersburg, 1 888-1 894).
PASLEY, SIR CHARLES WILLIAM (1780-1S61), British
soldier and military engineer, was born at Eskdale Muir, Dum-
friesshire, on the 8th of September 1780. In 1796 he entered
the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich; a year later he gained
his commission in the Royal Artillery, and in 1798 he was
transferred to the Royal Engineers. He was present in the
defence of Gaeta, the battle of Maida and the siege of Copen-
hagen. In 1807, being then a captain, he went to the Peninsula,
where his knowledge of Spanish led to his employment on the
staff of Sir David Baird and Sir John Moore. He took part in
the retreat to Corunna and the Walcheren E.xpedition, and
received a severe wound while gallantly leading a storming
party at Flushing. During his tedious recovery he employed
himself in learning German. He saw no further active service,
the rest of his life being devoted to the foundation of a complete
science of military engineering and to the thorough organization
and training of the corps of Royal Engineers. He was so success-
ful that, though only a captain, he was allowed to act for two
years as commanding royal engineer at Plymouth and given a
special grant. The events of the Peninsular War having empha-
sized the need of a fully trained engineer corps, Pasley's views
were adopted by the war ofKce, and he himself placed at the
head of the new school of military engineering at Woolwich.
This was in 181 2, and Pasley was at the same time gazetted
brevet major. He became brevet lieutenant-colonel in 1813 and
substantive Heutenant-colonel in 1814. The first volume of his
Military Instruction appeared in 1814, and contained a course
of practical geometry which he had framed for his company at
Plymouth. Two other volumes completing the work appeared
by 1817, and dealt with the science and practice of fortification,
the latter comprising rules for construction. He pubHshed a
work on Practical Architecture, and prepared an important
treatise on The Practical Operations of a Siege (1829-1832), which
was translated into French (1847). He became brevet colonel
in 1830 and substantive colonel in'1831. From 1831-1834 the
subject that engaged his leisure was that of standardization of
coins, weights and measures, and he pubhshed a book on this
in 1834. In 1838 he was presented with the freedom of the city
of London for his services in removing sunken vessels from the
bed of the Thames near Gravesend; and from 1839 to 1844 he
was occupied with clearing away the wrecks of H.M.S. " Royal
George " from Spithead and H.M.S. " Edgar " from St Helens.
All this work was subsidiary to his great work of creating a
comprehensive art of military engineering. In 1841 on promo-
tion to the rank of major-general he was made inspector-general
of railways. In 1846 on vacating this appointment he was made
a K.C.B., and thenceforward up to 1855 was chiefly concerned
with the East India Company's military academy at Addis-
combe. He was promoted heutenant-general in 1851, made
colonel commandant of the Royal Engineers in 1853, and general
in i860. He died in London on the 19th of April 1861. His
eldest son, Major-General Charles Pasley (1824-1890), was a
distinguished Royal Engineer officer.
Amongst Pasley's works, besides those mentioned, were separate
editions of his Practical Geometry Method (1822) and of his Course
of Elementary Fortification (1822), both of which formed part of
his AI Hilary Instruction; Rules for Escalading Fortifications not having
Palisaded Covered Ways (1822; new eds. 18115 and 1854); descriptions
of a semaphore invented by himself in 180A (1822 and 1823) ; A Simple
Practical Treatise on Field Fortification (,1823); and Exercise of tlie
Newdecked Pontoons invented by Lieutenant- Colonel Pasley (1823).
PASQUIER, 6TIENNE (1529-1615), French lawyer and man
of letters, was born at Paris, on the 7th of June 1529 by his own
account, according to others a year earlier. He was called to
the Paris bar in 1549. In 1558 he became very ill through eating
poisonous mushrooms, and did not recover fully for two years.
This compelled him to occupy himself by literary work, and
in 1 560 he published the first book of his Recherches de la France.
In 1565, when he was thirty-seven, his fame was established by
a great speech still extant, in which he pleaded the cause of the
university of Paris against the Jesuits, and won it. Meanwhile
he pursued the Recherches steadily, and published from time to
time much miscellaneous work. His literary and his legal
occupations coincided in a curious fashion at the Grands Jours of
Poitiers in 1579. These Grands Jours (an institution which fell
into desuetude at the end of the 17th century, with bad effects
on the social and political welfare of the French provinces) were
a kind of irregular assize in which a commission of the parlement
of Paris, selected and despatched at short notice by the king,
had full power to hear and determine all causes, especially those
in which seignorial rights had been abused. At the Grands Jours
of Poitiers of the date mentioned, and at those of Troyes in
1583, Pasquier officiated; and each occasion has left a curious
literary memorial of the jests with which he and his colleagues
relieved their graver duties. The Poitiers work was the cele-
brated collection of poems on a flea (see Southey's Doctor). In
1585 Pasquier was appointed by Henry III. advocate-general
at the Paris cours des comptes, an important body having
political as weU as financial and legal functions. Here he
distinguished himself particularly by opposing, sometimes
successfully, the mischievous system of selling hereditary places
and offices, which more perhaps than any single thing was the
curse of the older French monarchy. The civil wars compelled
Pasquier to leave Paris and for some years he lived at Tours,
working steadily at his great book, but he returned to Paris in
Henry IV. 's train in March 1594. He continued until 1604 at
his work in the chambre des comptes; then he retired. He
survived this retirement more than ten years, producing much
literary work, and died after a few hours' illness on the ist of
September 1615.
In so long and so laborious a life Pasquier's work was naturally
considerable, and it has never been fully collected or indeed printed.
The standard edition is that of Amsterdam (2 vols, fob, 1723). But
for ordinary readers the selections of Leon Feugere, published at
Paris (2 vols. 8vo, 1849), with an elaborate introduction, are most
accessible. As a poet Pasquier is chiefly interesting as a minor
member of the Pleiade movement. As a prose writer he is of much
more account. The three chief divisions of his prose work are his
Recherches, his letters and his professional speeches. The letters are
of much biographical interest and historical importance, and the
Recherches contain in a somewhat miscellaneous fashion invaluable
information on a vast variety of subjects, literary, political, anti-
quarian and other.
PASQUIER, tTIENNE DENIS, Duke (i 767-1862), French
statesman, was born on the 22nd of April 1767. Descended
from a family which had long been distinguished at the bar and
in connexion with the parlements of France, he was destined for
the legal profession and was educated at the college of Juilly.
He then became a counsellor of the parlement of Paris, and
witnessed many of the incidents that marked the growing
hostility between that body and Louis XVI. in the years preced-
ing the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789. His views
PASQUINADE— PASSAGLIA
885
were those of a moderate reformer, who desired to renovate but
not to end the institutions of the old monarchy; and his memoirs
set forth in a favourable light the actions of that parlement,
the existence of which was soon to be terminated amid the
political storms of the close of the year 1789. For some time,
and especially during the Reign of Terror (i 793-1 794), Pasquier
remained in obscurity; but this did not save him from arrest
in the year 1794. He was thrown into prison shortly before
the coup d'etat of Thermidor (July 1794) which overthrew
Robespierre. In the reaction in favour of ordinary govern-
ment which ensued Pasquier regained his liberty and his estates.
He did not re-enter the public service until the period of the
Empire, when the arch-chancellor Cambaceres used his influence
with Napoleon to procure for him the oflice of " maitre des
requetes " to the council of state. In 1809 he became baron
of the French Empire, and in February iSio counsellor of state.
Napoleon in 1810 made him prefect of police. The chief event
which rulBed the course of his hfe at that time was the strange
conspiracy of the republican general Malet (Oct. 181 2), who,
giving out that Napoleon had perished in Russia, managed to
surprise and capture some of the ministers and other authorities
at Paris, among them Pasquier. The collapse of this bold
attempt enabled him, however, speedily to regain his liberty.
When Napoleon abdicated in April 1814 Pasquier continued
to exercise his functions for a few days in order to preserve
order, and then resigned the prefecture of police, whereupon
Louis XVIII. allotted to him the control of roads and bridges.
He took no share in the imperial restoration at the time of the
Hundred Days (1815), and after the second entry of Louis XVIII.
into Paris he became minister of the interior, but finding it
impossible to work with the hot-headed royalists of the Chamber
of Deputies (La Chambre introuvahle), he resigned office. Under
the more moderate ministers of succeeding years he again held
various appointments, but refused to join the reactionary
cabinets of the close of the reign of Charles X. After the July
Revolution (1830) he became president of the Chamber of Peers
— a post which he held through the whole of the reign of Louis
PhiHppe (1830-1848). In 1842 he was elected a member of the
French Academy, and in the same year was created a duke.
After the overthrow of Louis Philippe in February 1848, Pasquier
retired from active life and set to work to compile the notes and
reminiscences of his long and active career. He died in 1862.
See Memoires du Chancelier Pasquier (6 vols., Paris, 1893-1895;
partly translated into English, 4 vols., London, 1893-1894). .'\lso
L. de Vieilcastel, Histoire de la Restauralion, vols, i.-iv.
a. Hl. R.)
PASQUINADE, a variety of libel or lampoon, of which it is not
easy to give an exact definition, separating it from other kinds.
It should, perhaps, more especially deal with public men and
public things. The distinction, however, has been rarely
observed in practice, and the chief interest in the word is its
curious and rather legendary origin. According to the earliest
version, given by Mazocchi in 1509, Pasquino was a schoolmaster
(others say a cobbler), who had a biting tongue, and lived in the
15th century at Rome. His name, at the end of that century
or the beginning of the next, was transferred to a statue which
had been dug up in 1301 in a mutilated condition (some say near
his shop) and was set up at the corner of the Piazza Navona,
opposite the palace of Cardinal Caraffa. To this statue it
became the custom to affix squibs on the papal government and
on prominent persons. At the beginning of the i6th century
Pasquin had a partner provided for him in the shape of another
statue found in the Campus Martins, said to represent a river
god, and dubbed Marforio, a foro Martis. The regulation form
of the pasquinade then became one of dialogue, or rather question
and answer, in which Marforio usually addressed leading inquiries
to his friend. The proceeding soon attained a certain European
notoriety, and a printed collection of the squibs due to it (they
were long written in Latin verse, with an occasional excursion
into Greek) appeared in 1509. In the first book of Pantagruel
(1S32 or thereabouts) Rabelais introduces books by Pasquillus
and Marphurius in the catalogue of the library of St Victor,
and later he quotes .some utterances of Pasquin's in his letters to
the bishop of Maillezais. These, by the way, show that Pasquin
was by no means always satirical, but dealt in grave advice and
comment. The original Latin pasquinades were collected in
1544, as Pasquillorum tomi duo, edited by Caelius Secundus
Curio. The vogue of these lampoons now became general, and
rose to its height during the pontificate of Sixtus V. (1585-1590).
These utterances were not only called pasquinades (pasquinate)
but simply pasquils (pasquillus, pasquillo, pasquilk), and this
form was sometimes used for the mythical personage himself. It
was used in English for purposes of satire by .Sir Thomas P^lyot,
in his Pasquin the Plain (1540) and by the anonymous author of
Pasquin in a Trance (1566); but it was first made popular in
England by Thomas Nash, who in 1589 began to sign his violent
controversial pamphlets with the pseudonym of Pasquil of
England. It continues to occur through the course of the
Marprelate controversy as the title of the enemy of the Puritans.
These English lampoons were in prose. The French pasquils
(examples of which may be found in Fournier's Varietes histor-
iques et litteraires) were more usually in verse. In Italy itself
Pasquin is said not to have condescended to the vernacular till
the 1 8th century. Contemporary comic periodicals, especially
in Italy, still occasionally use the Marforio-Pasquino dialogue
form. But this survival is purely artificial and literary, and
pasquinade has, as noted above, ceased to have any precise
meaning.
PASQUINI, BERNARDO (1637-1710), Italian musical com-
poser, was born at Massa in Val di Nievole (Tuscany) on the
8th of December 1637. He was a pupil of Marcantonio Cesti
and Loreto Vittori. He came to Rome while still young and
entered the service of Prince Borghese; later he became organist
of St Maria Maggiore. He enjoyed the protection of Queen
Christina of Sweden, in whose honour an opera of his, Dov' e
amore e piela, was produced in 1679. During Alessandro
Scarlatti's second sojourn in Rome (1703-1708), Pasquini and
Corelli were frequently associated with him in musical perform-
ances, especially in connexion with the Arcadian Academy, of
which aU three were members. Pasquini died at Rome on the
22nd of November 17 10, and was buried in the church of St
Lorenzo in Lucina. He deserves remembrance as a vigorous
composer for the harpsichord; and an interesting account of
his music for this instrument will be found in J. S. Shedlock's
The Pianoforte Sonata.
PASSACAGLIA, the name of an old Spanish dance, supposed
to be derived from pasar, to walk, and callc, street, the tune
being played by wandering musicians in the streets. It was a
slow and rather solemn dance of one or two dancers. The dance
tune resembled the " chaconne," and was, like it, constructed
on a ground-bass. Brahms's Symphony in E Minor, No. 4, ends
with an elaborate passacaglia.
PASSAGLIA, CARLO (1812-1887), Italian divine, was born
at Lucca on the 2nd of May 1812. Passaglia was soon destined
for the priesthood, and was placed under the care of the Jesuits
at the age of fifteen. He became successively doctor in mathe-
matics, philosophy and theology in the university of Rome. In
1844 he was made professor in the CoUegio Romano, the well-
known Jesuit college in Rome. In 1S45 he took the vows as a
member of the Jesuit order. In 1848, during the expulsion of
the Jesuits from Rome which followed on the revolutionary
troubles in the Italian peninsula, he paid a brief visit to England.
On his return to Italy he founded, with the assistance of Father
Curci and Luigi Taparelli d'Azeglio, the celebrated organ of
the Jesuit order entitled the Civiltd Cattolica. In 1854 came
the decision of the Roman Church on the long-debated question
of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin. Into the agitation
for the promulgation of this dogma Passaglia threw himself
with great eagerness, and by so doing recommended himself
strongly to Pope Pius IX. But his favour with the pope was
of short duration. In 1859, when the war between Austria and
France (the first step towards the unification of Italy) broke out,
Passaglia espoused the popular side. He took refuge at Turin,
and under the influence of Cavour he wrote an Epistola ad
886
■ PASSAIC— PASSION
Episcopos Catholicos pro causa Italica, in which, like Liverani
before him, he boldly attacked the temporal power of the pope.
For this he was expelled from the order of Jesuits, his book was
put on the Index, and his figure struck out. by the pope's order,
from a picture painted to commemorate the proclamation of the
dogma of the Immaculate Conception. A refuge from the anger
of the pope was afforded him in the Casa Cavour at Turin, the
house in which Cavour was born. There he laboured for Italian
unity with indomitable energy in the north of Italy, in conjunc-
tion with Cardinal d'Andrea in the south, and he collected the
signatures of 9000 priests to an address to the pope in opposition
to the temporal power, and in favour of abandoning all resistance
to the union of Italy under a king of the House of Savoj'. He
and the gooo priests were excommunicated on the 6th of October
1862. Passagilia disregarded his excommunication, and con-
tinued his work as professor of moral philosophy at Turin, to
which he had been appointed in 1861, and began a series of
Advent addresses in the church of San Carlo at Milan. But on
arriving in order to preach his second sermon he found himself
met by an inhibition on the part of Mgr Caccia, the administrator
of the archdiocese of Milan. Elected deputy in the Italian
parliament, he still advocated strongly the cause of Italian
independence, and at a later period wrote a defence of the rights
of the episcopate under the title of La Causa di sua cminenza il
cardinale d' Andrea. He also (1864) wrote against Renan's Vie
de Jesus. Eight days before his death he endeavoured to be
reconciled to the pope, and made a full retractation. He died
at Turin on the 12th of March 1887.
PASSAIC, a city of Passaic county. New Jersey, U.S.A., at
the head of navigation on the Passaic river, 5 m. S.S.E. of
Paterson. (Pop. (1890), 13,028; (1900), 27,777, of whom 12,900
were foreign-born; (1910 census), 54,773. Passaic is served
by the Erie and the Delaware, Lackawana & Western railways.
The east part of the city is a plain occupied chiefly by factories,
for which water-power is furnished by the river and a canal; the
west part, which is almost wholly residential, extends over hills
which command excellent views. Among the principal buildings
are the city, hall, and the Jane Watson Reid Memorial Library.
The city's factory products increased in value from $12,804,805
in 1900 to $22,782,725 in 1905, or 77-9%. About one-half of
the value in 1905 was in worsteds, cottons and woollens; other
important manufactures are rubber goods and electrical supplies.
There are large vineyards near the city. A settlement was
established here by the Dutch in 1679, and was called Acquacka-
nonk or Paterson Landing until the middle of the 19th century.
Passaic was incorporated as a village in 1S69, and in 1873 was
chartered as a city.
See W. J. Pape and W. W. Scott, The News History of Passaic
(Passaic, 1899).
PASSAU, a town and episcopal see of Germany, in the kingdom
of Bavaria, picturesquely situated at the confluence of the
Danube, the Inn and the Ilz, close to the Austrian frontier,
89 m. N.E. from Munich and 74 S.E. of Regensburg by rail.
Pop. (1900), 18,003, nearly all being Roman Catholics. Passau
consists of the town proper, lying on the rocky tongue of land
between the Danube and the Inn, and of four suburbs, Innstadt
on the right bank of the Inn, Ilzstadt on the left bank of the Ilz,
Anger in the angle between Ilz and the Danube, and St Nikola.
It is one of the most beautiful places on the Danube, a fine effect
being produced by the way in which the houses are piled up
one above another on the heights rising from the river. The
best general view is obtained from the Oberhaus, an old fortress,
now used as a prison, which crowns a hill 300 ft. high on the left
bank of the Danube. Of the eleven churches, the most inter-
esting is the cathedral of St Stephen, a florid, rococo edifice.
It was built after a fire in the 17th century on the site of a church
said to have been founded in the 5th century; it has two towers,
and contains some valuable relics. Other churches are the
Gothic church of the Holy Ghost; the churches of St Severin,
of St Paul and of St Gertrude; the double church of St Salvator;
the Romanesque church of the Holy Cross; the pilgrimage church
of Our Lady of Succour (Mariahilf) ; the church of the hospital
of St John; and the Romanesque Votiv Kirche. The post
office occupies the site of a building in which in 1552 the Treaty
of Passau was signed between the emperor Charles V. and
Maurice, elector of Saxony. The fine Dom Platz contains a
statue of the Bavarian king, MaximiHan I. The eld forts and
bastions of the city have been demolished, but the two linked
fortresses, the Oberhaus and the Niederhaus, are stiU extant.
The former was built early in the 13th century by the bishop
in consequence of a revolt on the part of the citizens; the
latter, mentioned as early as 737, is now private property.
The chief industries are the manufacture of tobacco, beer, leather,
porcelain, machinery and paper. Large quantities of timber are
floated down the Ilz. The well-known Passau crucibles are
made at the neighbouring viUage of Obernzell.
Passau is of ancient origin. The first settlement was probably
a Celtic one, Boiudurum; this was on the site of the present
Innstadt. Afterwards the Romans established a colony of
Batavian veterans, the castra balava here. It received civic
rights in 1225, and soon became a prosperous place, but much
of its history consists of broils between the bishops and the
citizens. The strong fortress of the Oberhaus was taken by the
Austrians in 1742, and again in 1805. The bishopric of Passau
was founded by St Boniface in 738. The diocese was a large
one, including until 1468 not only much of Bavaria, but practi-
cally the whole of the archduchy of Austria. About 1260 the
bishop became a prince of the empire. Amongst the earlier
bishops was Pilgrin or Piligrim (d. 991), and among the later
ones were the Austrian archdukes, Leopold and Leopold William,
the former a brother and the latter a son of the emperor
Ferdinand II. In 1803 the bishopric was secularized, and in
1805 its lands came into the possession of Bavaria. The area,
which was diminished in the 15th, and again in the i8th century,
was then about 350 sq. m., and the population about 50,000.
A new bishopric of Passau, with ecclesiastical jurisdiction only,
was established in 181 7.
See Erhart, Geschichte der Stadt Passau (Passau, 1 862-1 864) ; and
Morin, Passau (1878). For the history of the bishopric see SchoUer,
Die Bischofe von Passau (Passau, 1844) ; and Schrodl, Passavia sacra.
Geschichte des Bislums Passau (Passau, 1879).
PASSERAT, JEAN (i 534-1602), French poet, was born at
Troyes, on the i8th of October 1534. He studied at the uni-
versity of Paris, and is said to have had some curious adventures
— at one time working in a mine. He was, however, a scholar by
natural taste, and became eventually a teacher at the College
de Plessis, and on the death of Ramus was made professor of
Latin in 1572 in the College de France. In the meanwhile
Passerat had studied law, and had composed much agreeable
poetry in the Pleiade style, the best pieces being his short ode
Du Premier jour de mai, and the charming villanelle, J'ai perdu
ma tourterelle. His exact share in the Satyre menippee (Tours,
1594), the great manifesto of the politique or Moderate Royalist
party when it had declared itself for Henry of Navarre, is
differently stated; but it is agreed that he wrote most of the
verse, and the harangue of the guerrilla chief Rieux is sometimes
attributed to him. The famous lines Sur la journee de Senlis,
in which he commends the due d'Aumale's ability in running
away, is one of the most celebrated political songs in French.
Towards the end of his life he became blind. He died in Paris
on the 14th of September 1602.
See a notice by P. Blanchemain prefixed to his edition of Passerat's
Poesies fran^aises (1880). Among his Latin works should be noticed
Kalendae januariae et varia quaedam poemata (2 vols., 1606), ad-
dressed chiefly to his friend and patron Henri de Mesmes. For the
Satyre menippee see the edition of Charles Read (1876).
PASSION (post-classical Lat. passio, formed from pati, passus,
to suffer, endure), a term which is used in two main senses: (i)
the suffering of pain, and (2) feeling or emotion. The first is
chiefly used of the sufferings of Jesus Christ, extending from the
time of the agony in the garden until his death on the cross. In
this sense passio was used by the early Christian writers, and the
term is also applied to the sufferings and deeds of saints and
martyrs, synonymously with acta or gesla, a book containing
such being known as a " passional " (liber passionalis) or
PASSIONFLOWER— PASSION WEEK
887
"'passionary " (passionarius) . The order of Passionist Fathers, the
full title of which is the " Congregation of the Discalced Clerks
of the Most Holy Cross and Passion of our Lord Jesus Christ,"
was founded by St Paul of the Cross (Paolo della Croce, 1694-
177s; canonized 1867) in 1720, but full sanction was not obtained
for the order till 1737, when the first monastery was estabhshed
at Monte Argentario, Orbetello. The secondary sense of
" passion " is due to the late use of passio to translate the Greek
philosophical term 7rd0os, the classical Latin equivalent being
afectus. The modern use generally restricts the term to strong
and uncontrolled emotion.
PASSIONFLOWER (Passiflora), the typical genus of the order
to which it gives its name. The name passionflower— ^oi
Fig.
I. — Passiflora Coerulea, showing Leaf with Stipules, Tendril,
and detached Flower.
passionis — arose from the supposed resemblance of the corona
to the crown of thorns, and of the other parts of the flower to
the nails, or wounds, while the five sepals and five petals were
taken to symboHze the ten apostles — Peter, who denied, and
Judas, who betrayed, being left out of the reckoning. The
spiecies are mostly natives of western tropical South America;
others are found in various tropical and sub-tropical districts of
both hemispheres. The tacsonias, by some considered to form
part of this genus, inhabit the Andes at considerable elevations.
They are mostly climbing plants (fig. i) having a woody stock
and herbaceous or woody branches, from the sides of which
tendrils are produced which enable the branches to support
themselves at httle expenditure of tissue. Some few form trees
of considerable stature destitute of tendrils, and with broad
magnolia-like leaves in place of the more or less palmately-lobed
leaves which are most generally met with in the order. The leaf
is usually provided at the base of the leaf-stalk with stipules,
which are inconspicuous, or large and leafy; and the stalk is
also furnished with one or more glandular excrescences, as in
some cases are the leaf itself and the bracts. The inflorescence
is of a cymose character, the terminal branch being represented
by the tendril, the side branches by flower-stalks, or the
inflorescence may be reduced to a single stalk. The bracts
on the flower-stalk are either small and scattered or large
and leafy, and then placed near the flower, forming a sort of outer
calyx or cpicalyx. The flower itself (seen in section in fig. 2)
consists of a receptacle varying in form from that of a shallow
saucer to that of a long cylindrical or trumpet-shaped tube, thin
or fleshy in consistence, and giving ofl from its upper border the
five sepals, the five petals (rarely these latter are absent), and the
threads or membranous processes constituting the " corona."
This coronet forms the most conspicuous and beautiful part of
the flower of many species, and consists of outgrowths from the
tube formed subsequently to the other parts, and having little
morphological significance, but being physiologically useful in
favouring the cross-fertilization of the flower by means of insects.
Other outgrowths of similar character, but less conspicuous,
occur lower down the tube, and their variations afford useful
means of discriminating between the species. From the base
of the inner part of the tube of the flower, but quite free from it,
uprises a cylindrical stalk surrounded below by a small cup-like
outgrowth, and bearing above the middle a ring of five flat
filaments each attached by a thread-like point to an anther.
Above the ring of stamens is the ovary itself, upraised on a pro-
longation of the same stalk which bears the filaments, or sessile.
Fig. 2. — Flower of Passionflower cut through the centre to show
the arrangement of its constituent parts.
The stalk supporting the stamens and ovary is called the " gyno-
phore " or the " gynandrophore," and is a characteristic of the
order. The ovary of passionflowers is one-celled with three
parietal placentas, and bears at the top three styles, each
capped by a large button-like stigma. The ovary ripens into
a berry-like, very rarely capsular, fruit with the three groups
ofj seeds arranged in lines along the waUs, but imbedded
in a pulpy arillus derived from the stalk of the seed. This
succulent berry is in some cases highly perfumed, and affords a
delicate fruit for the dessert-table, as in the case of the " grana-
dUla " (P. quadrangidaris) , P. edulis, P. macrocarpa, and various
species of Tacsonia known as " curubas " in Spanish South
America; P. laurifolia is the water-lemon, and P. maliformis
.the sweet calabash of the West Indies. The fruits do not usually
exceed in size the dimensions of a hen's or of a swan's egg, but
that of P. macrocarpa is a gourd-like oblong fruit attaining a
weight of 7 to 8 Jb.
The tacsonias, which in cultivation are generally regarded
as distinct, differ from Passiflora in having a long cylindrical
calyx-tube, bearing two crowns, one at the throat, the other near
the base; they are stove or greenhouse plants; T. piiinalistipula,
with pale rose-coloured flowers, a native of Chile and Peru, has
long been in cultivation; T. V an-V olxemii, with handsome
scarlet flowers, is one of the finest species.
PASSION WEEK, the fifth week in Lent, beginning with
Passion Sunday {dominica passionis or de passione domini), so
called from very early times because with it begins the more
special commemoration of Christ's passion. Passion week is often
incorrectly identified with Holy week iq.v.). In the north of
England Passion Sunday was formerly known as Carle or Carling
Sunday, a name corrupted from " care," in allusion to the
sorrowful season which the day heralds. It was the universal
custom in medieval England to eat on this Sunday a grey pea
steeped and fried in butter, which came to be called from its
association " Carling Nut."
888
PASSOVER
PASSOVER, a Hebrew spring festival, celebrated by the Jews
in commemoration of the exodus from Egypt by a family feast
in the home on the first evening, and by abstaining from leaven
during the seven days of the feast. According to tradition, the
first Passover (" The Passover of Egypt" ), was preordained by
Moses at the command of God. The Israelites were commanded
to select on the tenth of Abib (Nisan) a he-lamb of the first year,
without blemish, to kill it on the eve of the fourteenth and to
sprinkle with its blood the lintel and sidepost of the doors of their
dwellings so that the Lord should " pass over " them when he
went forth to slay the first-born of the Egyptians. The lamb
thus drained of blood was to be roasted and entirely consumed by
the Israelites, who should be ready with loins girded, shoes on
feet and staff in hand so as to be prepared for the exodus. In
memory of this the Israelites were for all time to eat unleavened
bread (ma??oth) for seven days, as well as keep the sacrifice of
the Passover on the eve between the fourteenth and the fifteenth
of Nisan. This evening meal was not to be attended by any
stranger or uncircumcised person. " On the morrow of the
Sabbath " a wave offering of a sheaf of barley was to be made.
Those who were unable to perform the sacrifice of the Passover
owing to impurity at the appointed time, were permitted to do so
a month later.
Various theories have been from time to time proposed to
account for this complex of enactments. J. Spencer in his De
Icgihus Hchracorum saw in the Passover a practical protest
against the Egyptian worship of Apis. Vatke considered it a
celebration of the spring solstice, Baur a means of removing the
impurity of the old year. Lengerke recognized a double motive :
the lamb for atonement, the unleavened bread as a trace of the
haste of the early harvest. Ewald regarded the Passover as an
original pre-Mosaic spring festival made to serve the interest of
purity and atonement.
All these views have, however, been cast in the shade by more
recent investigations based on minute literary analysis of the
Pentateuch, begun by Graf, continued by Kuenen, and culminat-
ing in the work of WeUhausen and Robertson Smith. This view
claims to determine the respective ages and relative chrono-
logical position of the various passages in which the Passover is
referred to in the Pentateuch, and assumes that each successive
stratum represents the practice in ancient Israel at the time
of composition, laying great stress upon omissions as implying
non-existence. The main passages and their contents are
arranged chronologically in the following way: —
A. In the Elohist Book of the Covenant (Exod. xxiii.). The feast
of unleavened bread to be kept seven days at the tin.e appointed
in the month Abib.
B. In the Yahwist Source (Exod. x.x.xiv. 18-21, 25). The feast of
unleavened bread to be kept seven days, &c. All firstlings to be the
Lord's. First-born sons to be redeemed; none to appear before
the Lord empty; six days' work, seventh day rest, in the harvest;
the sacrifice of the Passover shall not remain until the morning.
C. In the Yahwistic History (E.xod. xii. 21-27, 29-36, 38-39, xiii. 3-
16). Moses summons the elders of Israel and orders them to kill the
Passover and besprinkle the lintel and sideposts with a bunch of
hyssop dipped in blood so that the Lord will pass over the door.
In later days when the children shall ask what this means it
shall be said that this is the sacrifice of the Lord's Passover. At
midnight all the first-born of the Eg>ptians are slain and Pharaoh
sends the Israelites out of Egypt in haste, and the people took the
dough before it was leavened upon kneading troughs upon their
shoulders.
D. The Deuteronomist (Deut. xvi. 1-8, 16-17). Observe the
month of Abib and keep the Passover because in that month God
brought out the Israelites from Egypt. The sacrifice of the Passover
of the flock and the herd shall be done in the place where God shall
cause His name to dwell. No leaven shall be eaten with it for seven
days, and bread of aflfiction shall be eaten because they came forth
from Egypt in haste. Flesh shall not remain until the morning;
the sacrifice must not be within their gates but in the place where
the Lord shall cause His name to dwell. It shall be sodden and
eaten, and in the morning they should go to their tents. Six days
eat unleavened bread, on the seventh a solemn assembly. Reckon
seven weeks from the time of putting the sickle to the standing
corn.
E. In the Holiness Code (Lev. xxiii. 4-8, 9-14). The 14th of
the first month at even is the Passover of the Lord; on the 15th
of the same month is the feast of unleavened bread for seven days.
First and seventh days shall be holy assembly, but a re-offering
for seven days. On the morrow after the sabbath a wave offering
and also a burnt offering of the he-Iamb (with the corresponding
meal and drink offering). Neither bread nor parched corn nor
fresh ears shall be eaten until the oblation is made.
F. In the Priestly History (Exod. xii. 1-20, 28-31, xiii. 1-2). On
the 10th day of the month every household shall take a firstling
male without blemish, of sheep or goat, and should kill it on the
14th at even, and sprinkle the two sideposts and lintel with the
blood, and eat the roasted flesh, not sodden, including head, legs
and inwards; all remaining over until the morning to be burnt by
fire. It should be eaten with loins girded, shoes on feet, and staff
in hand because in haste. It is the Lord's Passover; when He
sees the blood He will pass over you and there will be no plague
upon you. As a memorial of this you shall eat unleavened bread
seven days, on the 14th day at eve until the 21st day at eve; when
children shall 'ask what this service means, you shall say that it is the
Passover of the Lord.
G. In the Secondary Sources of the Priestly Code (Exod. xii. 40-41,
43-50, ix. 1-14, xiv. 16-25). No alien, sojourner or hired servant
shall eat thereof, but a bought servant, if circumcised. It shall
be eaten in haste; none of the flesh shall be carried forth, neither
shall a bone be broken. If a sojourner should wish to keep the
Passover, all his male shall be circumcised and he will be as one
born in the land. The Passover was kept in the first month on the
14th day of the month at even in the wilderness of Sinai; but
certain men, unclean by touching a dead body, asked what they
should do; they were to keep it on the second month on the
14th day, eating it with unleavened bread and bitter herbs,
leaving none of it until the morning, nor breaking a bone.
The finst month on the 14th day of the month is the Passover;
the 15th day of this month shall be a feast; seven days unleavened
bread to be eaten ; first day a holy assembly with fire offering,
two young bullocks and one lamb and seven firstling he-lambs
without blemish, with appropriate meal offering and one he-goat
for sin-offering; on the seventh day another holy assembly.
Many discrepancies have been observed among critics in the
different portions of this series of enactments. Thus in the
Elohist and in Deuteronomy the date of the festival is only
vaguely stated to be in the month of Abib, while in the Holiness
Code and in the Priestly History the exact date is given. In the
Yahwist and Deuteronomist a solemn assembly is to be held on
the seventh day, but in the Holiness Code and in the secondary
sources of the Priestly Code both the first and the seventh day of
the Feast of Unleavened Bread are to be solemn assemblies. In
the Deuteronomist the Passover sacrifice can be from either flock
or herd, whereas in the Holiness Code only lamb is mentioned,
and in the Priestly Code either kid or lamb. In the Deuterono-
mist the lamb is to be sodden or boiled, whereas in the Priestly
Code this is expressly forbidden. A still more vital contrast
occurs concerning the place of sacrificing the Passover ; as enjoined
in Deuteronomy this is to be by the males of the family at
Jerusalem, whereas both in the presumably earlier Yahwist and
in the later Priestly Code the whole household joins in the festival
which can be celebrated wherever the Israelites are settled.
These discrepancies however are chiefly of interest in their
bearing upon the problem of the Pentateuch, and really throw
little light upon the origin of the two feasts connected together
under the name of the Passover, to which the present remarks
must be mainly confined. It may be observed however that the
absence of a definite date in Deuteronomy must be accidental,
since a common pilgrimage feast must be on a fi.xed day, and the
reference to the seven weeks elapsing between Passover and
Pentecost also impbes the fixing of the date. So too even in the
Elohist the time is appointed.
Reverting to the origin and the meaning of the feast, modern
criticism draws attention to the different nature of the two
observances combined with the name Passover, the pastoral
sacrifice of the paschal lamb and the agricultural observance of a
seven days' abstention from unleavened bread. It is assumed
that the former arose during the pastoral period of Israelite
history before or during the stay in Egypt, while the latter was
adopted from the Canaanites after the settlement in Palestine.
Against this may be urged that, according to the latest inquiries
into the pastoral life, there is always connected with it some form
of agriculture and a use of cereals, while, historically speaking,
the Israelites while in Egypt were dependent on its corn. There
is, further, the objection that no distinctive crisis in the agricul-
tural era can be associated with the date of the Passover. The
PASSOVER
889
beginning of barley harvest is however generally associated with
it, while the wheat harvest is connected with Pentecost. The
" sheaf of the tirst-fruits of your harvest," mentioned in Lev.
xxiii. 10, is associated in Jewish tradition with the barley harvest
(Mishna, Menachoth x.). This, however, is not immediately
connected with the Passover, and is of more significance as
determining the exact date of Pentecost.
Considering however the two sections of the Passover separ-
ately, it is remarkable how many of the ceremonies associated
either historically or ceremonially with the Passover have
connexion with the idea of a covenant. The folk-etymology of
the word Passover given in Exod. xii. 23 seems to connect the
original of the feast with a threshold covenant (see Trumbull,
Threshold Covenant, Philadelphia, 1902); the daubing of the side-
posts and lintel with blood at the original Passover, which finds
its counterpart in Babylonian custom (Zimmern, Beit. z. Bab.
Rel. ii. 126-7) and in Arabic usage (Wakidi, ed. Kremer, p.
28), implies a blood covenant. The communion meal would,
according to the views of Robertson Smith, also involve the idea
of a covenant; while the fact that no person joining in the meal
should be uncircumcised connects the feast with the covenant of
Abraham. Finally, the association of the first-born with the
festival specially referred to in the texts, and carried out both in
Samaritan tradition, which marks the forehead of the first-born
with the blood of the lamb, and in Jewish custom, which obliged
the first-born to fast on the day preceding Passover, also connects
the idea of the feast with the sacro-sanctity of the first-born.
The Hebrew tradition further connects the revelation of the
sacred name of the God of the Hebrews with this festival, which
thus combines, in itself, all the associations connecting the
Hebrews with their God. It is not surprising therefore that
Hebrew tradition connects it with the Exodus, the beginning of
the theocratic life of the nation. It seems easiest to assume
that the festival, so far as the Passover itself is concerned, was
actually connected historically with the Exodus.
With regard to the abstention from leavened bread, the
inquiry is somewhat more complicated. As before remarked,
there seems no direct connexion between the paschal sacrifice
and what appears to be essentially an agricultural festival; the
Hebrew tradition, to some extent, dissociates them by making
the sacrifice on the 14th of Nisan and beginning the Feast of
Unleavened Bread on the 15th. This seeming casual connexion,
to some extent, confirms the historic connexion suggested by
the text, that the Jews at the Exodus had to use bread prepared
in haste; but not even Hebrew tradition attempts to explain
why the abstention should last for seven days. The attempt of
modern critics to account for the period as that in which the
barley harvest was gathered in, during which the workers in
the field could not prepare leavened bread, is not satisfactory.
The first-fruits of the barley harvest are to be gathered on
the " morrow of the sabbath" (Lev. xxiii. 11). This expression
has formed the subject of dispute between Samaritans and other
sectaries and the Jews, the former of whom regard it as referring
to the first Sunday during the festival, the latter as a special
expression for the second day of the festival itself (see Hoffmann,
Lev. ii. 159-215). But whichever interpretation is taken, the
connexion of the festival with the harvest is only secondary.
The suggestion has been made by Wellhausen and Robertson
Smith that the Passover was, in its original form, connected
with the sacrifice of the firstlings, and the latter points to the
Arabic annual sacrifices called 'Atair, which some of the lexico-
graphers interpret as firstlings. These were presented in the
month Rajab, corresponding to Nisan (Smith, Religion of Semites,
p. 210). But the real Arabic sacrifice of firsthngs was called
Fara' ; it might be sacrificed at any time, as was also the case with
the Hebrews (Exod. xxii. 30). The paschal lamb was not
necessarily a firstling, but only in the first year of its life
(Exod. xii. 5). The suggestion of Wellhausen and Robertson
Smith confuses the offering of firstlings (Arabic Fara') and that of
the first yeanUngs of the year in the spring (.iXrabic 'Atair). It is
possible that the Passover was originally connected with the latter
(cf. Wellhausen, Reste arab. Heidentums, pp. 94 seq.). As regards
the Feast of Unleavened Bread, now indissolubly connected with
the paschal sacrifice, no satisfactory explanation has been given
either of its original intention or of its connexion with the
Passover. It has been suggested that it was originally a hag or
pilgrimage feast to Jerusalem, of which there were three in the
year connected with the agricultural festivals (Exod. xxxiv. 17,
18). But the real agricultural occasion was not the eating of
unleavened bread but the offering of the first sheaf of the barley
harvest on the " morrow of the sabbath" in the Passover week
(Lev. xxiii. 10, n), and this occasion determined the second
agricultural festival, the Feast of Weeks, fifty days later (Deut.
xvi. 9; Lev. xxiii. 16; see Pentecost). The suggestion that
the eating of cakes of unleavened bread, similar to the Australian
" damper," was due to the exigencies of the harvest does not
meet the case, since it does not explain the seven days and is
incongruous with the fact that the first sheaf of the harvest was
put to the sickle not earlier than the third day of the feast. It
still remains possible therefore that the seven days' eating of
unleavened bread (and bitter herbs) is an historical reminis-
cence of the incidents of the Exodus, where the normal commis-
sariat did not begin until a week after the first exit. On the
other hand, the absence of leaven may recall primitive practice
before its introduction as a domestic luxury; sacral rites generally
keep alive primitive custom. There was also associated in the
Hebrew mind a connexion of impurity and corruption with the
notion of leaven which was tabu in all sacrifice (Exod. xxiii.
18; Lev. ii. 11).
According to Robertson Smith, the development of the various
institutions connected with the Passover was as follows. In
Egypt the Israelites, as a pastoral people, sacrificed the firstlings
of their flocks in the spring, and, according to tradition, it was
a refusal to permit a general gathering for this purpose that
caused the Exodus. When the Israelites settled in Canaan they
found there an agricultural festival connected with the begin-
nings of the barley harvest, which coincided in point of date with
the Passover and was accordingly associated with it. At the time
of the reformation under Josiah, represented by Deuteronomy,
the attempt was made to turn the family thank-offering of
firstlings into a sacrificial rite performed by the priests in the
Temple with the aid of the males of each household, who had to
come up to Jerusalem but left the next morning to celebrate the
Feast of Unleavened Bread in their homes. During the exile
this was found impossible, and the old home ceremonial was
revived and was kept up even after the return of the exile. This
is a highly ingenious hypothesis to explain the discrepancies of
the text, but is, after all, nothing but hypothesis.
There appears to have been originally considerable variety in
the mode of keeping the Passover, but the earliest mention in
the historical narratives (Josh. v. 11) connects the paschal
sacrifice with the eating of unleavened bread. But it is unsafe
to assume, from 2 Kings xxiii. 22, that the festival was not
kept in the time of the early kings, since Solomon appears to have
kept up the three great pilgrimage festivals, 2 Kings ix. 25,
and it is possibly referred to in Isa. i. q. The complex of
observances connected with the Passover and the very want of
systemization observed in the literary sources would seem to
vindicate the primitive character of the feast, which indeed is
recognized by all inquirers.
At any rate the Samaritans have, throughout their history,
observed the Passover with all its Pentateuchal ceremonial and
still observe it down to the present day. They sacrifice the
paschal lamb, which is probably the oldest rehgious rite that has
been continuously kept up. In two important points they differ
from later Jewish interpretation. The term " between the
evenings " (Lev. xxiii. 5) they take as the time between sunset
and dark, and the " morrow of the sabbath" (v. 11) they take
literally as the first Sunday in the Passover week; wherein they
agree with the Sadducees, Boethusians, Karaites and other
Jewish sectaries. This would seem to point to a time when the
fixing of the sabbath was determined by the age of the moon,
so that the first day of the Passover, which is on the 15th of
Nisan, would always occur on a sabbath.
890
PASSOW— PASTEL
During the existence of the Temple there was a double
celebration of the Passover, a series of stipulated sacrifices being
offered during the seven days in the Temple, details of which are
given in Num. xxviii., but the family ceremonial was still kept up
and gradually developed a special ritual, which has been retained
among orthodox Jews up to the present day. The paschal lamb
is no longer eaten but represented by the shank bone of a lamb
roasted in the ashes; unleavened bread and bitter herbs (haroseth)
are eaten; four cups of wine are drunk before and after the
repast, and a certain number of Psalms are recited. The family-
service, termed Hagada shel Pesacb, includes a description of the
Exodus with a running commentary, and is begun by the youngest
son of the house asking the father the reason for the difference in
Passover customs.
It is stated in the gospels that the Last Supper was the Pass-
over meal, though certain discrepancies between the accounts
given in the Synoptics and in John render this doubtful. It is,
at any rate, certain that Jesus came up to Jerusalem in order to
join in the celebration of the Passover. When the Passover fell
upon the sabbath, as occurred during his visit, a difficulty arose
about the paschal sacrifice, which might involve work on the
sabbath. There appears to have been a difference of practice
between the Sadducees and the Pharisees on such occasions, the
former keeping to the strict rules of the Law and sacrificing on
the Friday, whereas the Pharisees did so on the Thursday. It
has been suggested that Jesus followed the pharisaic practice,
and ate the Passover meal (the Last Supper) on Thursday
evening, which would account for the discrepancies in the gospel
narratives (see Chwolson, Das letzte Passahmal Jesu, 2nd ed.,
St Petersburg, 1904). It seems probable in any case that the
ritual of the Mass has grown out of that of the Passover service
(see Bickell, Messe und Pascha, tr. W. F. Skene, Edinburgh, 1891).
Up to the Nicene Council the Church kept Easter (q.v.) coincident
with the Jewish Passover, but after that period took elaborate
precautions to dissociate the two.
See the commentaries on Exodus and Leviticus; that of Kalisch
on the latter book (vol. ii., London, 187 1) anticipates much of the
critical position. The article in Winer's Bibl. Realwtjrlerbuch gives
a succinct account of the older views. A not altogether unsuc-
cessful attempt to defend the Jewish orthodox position is made
by Hoffmann in his Commentary on Leviticus (Berlin, 1906, ii.
116-224). Wellhausen's views are given in his Prolegomena, ch. iii.
A critical yet conservative view of the whole question is given
by R. Schaefer, Das Passah-Mazzoih-Fest (Gutersloh, 1900) which
has been partly followed above. For the general attitude towards
the comparative claims of institutional archaeology and literary
criticism adopted above see J.Jacobs, Studies in Biblical Archaeology
(London, 1895). (J.Ja.)
PASSOW, FRANZ LUDWIG CARL FRIEDRICH (1786-1833),
German classical scholar and lexicographer, was born at Lud-
wigslust in Mecklenburg-Schwerin on the 20th of September
1786. In 1807 he was appointed to the professorship of Greek
literature at the Weimar gymnasium by Goethe, whose acquain-
tance he had made during a holiday tour. In 181 5 he became
professor of ancient literature in the university of Breslau, where
he continued to reside until his death on the nth of March 1833.
His advocacy of gymnastic exercises, in which he himself took
part, met with violent opposition and caused a quarrel known
as the " Breslauer Turnfehde." Passow's great work was his
Handwiirterbuch dcr griecliischen Sprache (1819-1824), originally
a revision of J. G. Schneider's lexicon, which appeared in the
fourth edition (1831) as an independent work, without
Schneider's name (new ed. by Cronert, 1901). It formed the basis
of Liddell and Scott's lexicon. Other works by him are Grundziige
der griech. und rom. Literatur- und Kunstgeschichte (2nd. ed., 1829)
and editions of Persius, Longus, Tacitus Germania, Dionysius
Periegetes, and Musaeus. His miscellaneous writings have
been collected in his Opuscula academica (1835) and Vermischte
Schriften (1843).
See Franz Passow's Lehen und Briefe (1839), by L. and A. Wachler,
which contains a full bibliography.
PASSPORT, or safe-conduct in time of war, a document
granted by a beUigerent power to protect persons and property
from the operation of hostilities. In the case of the ship of a
neutral power, the passport is a requisition by the government
of the neutral state to suffer the vessel tc pass freely with the
crew, cargo, passengers, &c., without molestation by the
belligerents. The requisition, when issued by the civil authori-
ties of the port from which the vessel is fitted out, is called a
sea-letter. But the terms passport and sea-letter are often used
indiscriminately. A form of sea-letter (lilerae sahn condiictus)
is appended to the Treaty of the Pyrenees, 1659; The passport
is frequently mentioned in treaties, e.g. the Treaty of Copenhagen,
1670, between Great Britain and Denmark. The violation
of a passport, or safe conduct, is a grave breach of international
law. The oft'ence in the United States is punishable by fine and
imprisonment where the passport or safe conduct is granted
under the authority of the United States (Act of Congress,
April 30, 1790). In its more familiar sense a passport is a
document authorizing a person to pass out of or into a country,
or a licence or safe-conduct to the person specified therein and
authenticating his right to aid and protection. Although most
foreign countries may now be entered without passports, the
English foreign office recommends travellers to furnish them-
selves with them, as affording a ready means of identification
in case of need. They are usually granted by the foreign office
of a state, or by its diplomatic agents abroad. The Enghsh
Foreign Office charges two shillings for a passport, whatever
number of persons may be named in it. Passports granted in
England are subject to a stamp duty of sixpence. They
may be granted to naturalized as well as natural-born British
subjects.
Sec " The Passport System," by N. W. Sibley, in Jour. Comp.
Leg. new series, vol. vii. The regulations respecting passports issued
by the English Foreign Office as well as the passport requirements
of foreign countries will be found in the annual Foreign Office List.
PASTE (O. Fr. paste, modern pale. Late Lat. pasta, whence
also in Span., Port, and Ital., from Gr. wacrTri onraaTo., barley
porridge, or salted pottage, iraaaeiv, to sprinkle with salt), a
mixture or composition of a soft plastic consistency. The term
is applied to substances used for various purposes, as e.g. in
cookery, a mixture of flour and water with lard, butter or suet,
for making pies and pastry, or of flour and water boiled, to
which starch or other ingredients to prevent souring are added,
forming an adhesive for the affixing of wall-paper, bill-posting
and other purposes. In technical language, the term is also
applied to the prepared clay which forms the body in the manu-
facture of pottery and porcelain (see Ceramics) and to the
specially prepared glass, known also as " strass," from which
imitation gems are manufactured. This latter must be the
purest, most transparent and most highly refractive glass that
can be prepared. These qualities are comprised in the highest
degree in a flint glass of unusual density from the large percentage
of lead it contains. Among various mixtures regarded as
suitable for strass the following is an example: powdered
quartz 300 parts, red lead 470, potash (purified by alcohol) 163,
borax 22, and white arsenic i part by weight. Special precau-
tions are taken in the melting. The finished colourless glass is
used for imitation diamonds; and when employed to imitate
coloured precious stones the strass is melted up with various
metallic oxides. Imitation gems are easily distinguished from
real stones by their inferior hardness and by chemical tests;
they may generally be detected by the comparatively warm
sensation they communicate to the tongue.
PASTEL, the name of a particular method of painting with
dry pigments, so called from the " paste " into which they are
first compounded. The invention of pastel, which used to be
generally called " crayon," has frequently been accredited to
Johann Alexander Thiele (1685-1752), landscape-painter and
etcher of distinction, as well as to Mme Vernerin and IMlle
Heid (1688-1753), both of Danzig. But the claim cannot
be substantiated, as drawing in coloured chalks had been
practised long before, e.g. by Guido Reni (1575-1642), by whom
a head and bust in this manner exists in the Dresden Gallery.
Thiele was perhaps the first to carry the art to perfection, at
least in Germany, where it was extensively exploited in the
PASTEL
891
17th century; but his contemporary, Rosalba Carriera of Venice
(1675-1757), is more completely identified with it, and in her
practice of it made a European reputation which to this day is
in some measure maintained. The Dresden Museum contains
157 examples of her work in this medium, portraits, subjects
and the like. Thielc was followed by Anton Raphael Mengs
(i 728-1770) and his sister Theresia Mengs (afterwards Maron,
1 72 5-1806), and by JohannHeinrich Schmidt (1749-1820).
When in 1720 Rosalba Carriera accepted an invitation to
visit Paris, where she was received with general enthusiasm,
she found the art of pastel-painting well established; that is to
say, it was used to reproduce local colour with truth. She made
it fashionable and combined truth with nature. Nearly a hundred
years before Claude Lorrain had used coloured chalks as Dutch
and Italian painters had used them, often with high finish,
employing mainly red, blue and black, for the sake of prettiness
of effect and not with the intention of reproducing with accuracy
the actual colours of the head, the figure, or the landscape before
them. This method of making drawings — rehausses, as they
were called — has remained in common use almost to the present
day, especially for studies. It is necessary only to cite among
many examples the series of heads by Holbein, the highly
esteemed studies by Watteau, Boucher and Greuze, and of John
Raphael Smith and Sir Thomas Lawrence, to indicate how
general has been the employment of the coloured chalk. In
1747 Nattier (1685-1766) showed a pastel portrait of M. Logerot
in the Paris Salon, and his son-in-law, Louis Tocque (i6q6-
1772), soon followed with similar work. Hubert. Drouais
(1699-1 767) had preceded his rival Nattier in the Salon by a single
year with five pastel portraits, and Chardin (1699-1779) followed
in 1771. This great master set himself to work in emulation of
Quentin de la Tour ( 1 704-1 788) , who in spite of the ability of his
rivals may be regarded as the most eminent pastellist France
has produced. His portraits of Mme Boucher and himself
appeared in the Salon in 1737; his full strength as a portrait-
pastellist is to be gauged in the collection of eighty-five of his
principal works now in the museum of St Quentin. Then
followed Simon Mathurin Lantara (i 729-1 778), who was one of
the first to paint pastel-pictures of landscapes, including sunsets
and moonlights, as well as marines, into which the figures were
drawn by Joseph Vernet, Casanova and others, and Jean
Baptiste Perronneau (i 731-1796), the best of whose heads
have been often attributed to de la Tour and whose " Jeune
fille au chat" in the Louvre, though not the finest, is perhaps
the best known of his works, was the last pre-eminent French
pastellist of the i8th century. Since then they have been
legion; of these it is needful to mention only Girodet and the
flower-painters, Jean Saint-Simon and Sprendonck.
Two Swiss painters had considerable influence in spreading
the use of pastel — the experimentalist Dietrich Meyer (1572-
1658), one of the first to make designs in coloured chalks (and
reputed inventor of soft -ground etching), and Jean Etienne
Liotard (1702 or 1704-178S), one of the most brilliant pastellists
who ever lived. Two of his works are world-famous, " La Belle
Chocolatiere de Vienne," executed in 1745, now in the Dresden
Museum, and " La Belle Liseuse" of the following year at the
museum at Amsterdam. The latter is a portrait of his niece.
Mile Lavergne. In 1753, and again in 1772, Liotard visited
England, where his brilliant work, portraits and landscapes,
produced a great effect, almost equal to that of de la Tour
twenty years before. To the Royal Academy between 1773
and 1775 Liotard contributed the portraits of Dr Thomson,
himself, Lord Duncannon and General Cholmondely.
Crayon-painting was practised in England at an early date,
and John Riley (1646-1691), many of whose finest works are
attributed to Sir Peter Lely, produced [numerous portraits in
that medium. Francis Knapton (1698-1778), court painter,
was a more prolific master, and he, with William Hoare of Bath
(? 1707-1702) who had studied pastel in Italy and made many
classic designs in that medium, exhibiting at the Royal Academy
his " Boy as Cupid," " Prudence instructing her Pupil,"
" Diana," " A Zingara," and others, prepared the way for the
triumph of Francis Cotes (? 1725-1770). Then for the first time
pastel-painting was fully developed by an English hand. Before
he became a painter in oil Coles had worked under Rosalba
Carriera, and, although he was rather cold and chalky in his
tones, he produced portraits, such as his " Mr and Mrs Joah
Bates" and " Lord Hawke," which testify to his high ability.
He was, however, far surpassed by his pupil, John Russell, R.A.
(1745-1806), who brought the art to perfection, displaying grace ,
and good expression in all his pastel work, whether portrait,
fancy picture, historical subject, group, or " conversation-piece."
He had brought from Rosalba her four fine pictures represent-
ing " The Seasons," and in a great measure founded his style
on them. He was strong and brilliant in colour, and when he
was at his best his high, smooth finish in no way robbed his
work of vigour. Romney (1734-1802) in his single pastel
portrait, a likeness of William Cowper the poet, showed that he
might have excelled in this medium, which, indeed, was par-
ticularly suited to his tender manner. Hugh D. Hamilton
(c. 1734-1806) of the Royal Hibernian Academy, produced note-
worthy portraits, mainly in grey, red and black, until on the sug-
gestion of Flaxman he abandoned pastel for oil. Ozias Humphry,
A. R.A. (1742-1810), painter and miniaturist, is an important
figure among the pastellists, commonly believed to be the first
in England who made a point of letting his colour strokes be
seen (as by Emile Wauters and others in our own day), contrary
to the practice of Russell and his predecessors, whose prime
effort was to blend all into imperceptible gradations. Richard
Cosway, R.A. (1742-1821) was mainly experimental in his
pastels, but his portraits, such as that of George prince of Wales,
are forcible and brilliant; those of his wife Maria Cosway (1759-
1838) are more delicate. Daniel Gardner (? 1750-1805), whose
pictures in oil have often been mitsaken for Reynolds's and
Gainsborough's, gave rein to his exuberant fancy and his rather
exaggerated taste in compositions which, in his arrangement
of children, remind us of Sir Thomas Lawrence in his more
fantastic mood. Gardner marked the deterioration of the art,
which thereafter declined , Henry Bright (1814-1873) being almost
the only pastellist of real power who followed him. Bright's
landscapes have probably in their own line never been surpassed.
Since 1870 there has been a revival of the art of pastel, the
result of a better understanding and appreciation on the part
of the public. Grimm's denunciation of it to Diderot — " every
one is agreed that pastel is unworthy the notice of a great
painter " — which for many years had found general acceptance,
is now seen to have been based on forgetfulness or ignorance
of the virtues inherent in the method. It was thought that
" coloured chalks," as it used to be called in English-speaking
countries, promised nothing but sketches of an ephemeral kind,
so fragile that they were at the mercy of every chance blow or
every touch of dampness. The fact is, that with care no greater
than is accorded to every work of art, pastel properly used is
not more perishable than the oil-painting or the water-colour.
Damp will affect it seriously, but so also will it ruin the water-
colour; and rough usage is to be feared for the oil-picture not
less than for the pastel. Moreover, pastel possesses advantages
that can be claimed by neither oil-painting nor water-colour.
That is to say, if pictures in these three mediums be hung
side by side for a hundred years in a fair light and in a dry place,
the oil-painting will have darkened and very probably have
cracked; the water-colour will have faded; but the pastel will
remain as bright, fresh, and pure as the day it was painted.
If Time and Varnish, which Hogarth and Millais both declared
the two greatest of the old masters, will do nothing to " improve "
a pastel, neither will they ruin it — time passes it by and varnish
must on no account be allowed to approach it. The pastel-
painter, therefore, having no adventitious assistance to hope
for, or to fear, must secure at once the utmost of which his
method is capable.
The advantages of pastel are threefold: those of working,
those of results, and those of permanence. The artist has at
his command, without necessity of mixing his colours, every
hue to be found in nature, so that freshness and luminosity can
892
PASTEUR
always be secured without fear of that loss of brilliancy commonly
attendant on the mixing of colour on the palette. Moreover,
the fact of pastel being dry permits the artist to leave his work
and take it up again as he may choose; and he is free from many
of the technical troubles and anxieties natural to oil and water-
colour painting. Apphed with knowledge, pastel, which has
been likened for delicacy of beauty to " the coloured dust upon
the velvet of butterflies' wings," will not fall off. It can, if
desired — though this is hardly necessary or desirable — be
" fixed," most commonly by a. fixatif. If intending so to treat
his work, the artist must paint in a somewhat lighter key, as
the effect of the fixing medium is shghtly to lower the general
tone. The fixatif Lacaze is considered the best, but the general
consensus of opinion among artists is against the use of any
such device. This preparation has the advantage of leaving the
colour unchanged, even though it duUs it; shellac fixatif has
the effect of darkening the work.
The inherent qualities of pastel are those of charm, of subtlety,
softness, exquisite depths of tone, unsurpassable harmonies
and unique freshness of colour, sweetness, delicacy, mystery —
all the virtues sought for by the artist of daintiness and refine-
ment. Pastel-painting is essentially, therefore, the art of the
colourist. Now, these very quahties suggest its hmitations.
Although it is unfair to relegate it — as fashion has foolishly
done for so long — to the bunch of pretty triflings which Carlyle
called " Pompadourisms," we must recognize that a medium
which suggests the bloom upon the peach is not proper to be
employed for rendering " grand," or even genre subjects, or for
the covering of large surfaces of canvas. It is inappropriate
to the painting of classic compositions, although in point of
fact it has been so used, not without success. It is best adapted
to the rendering of still Life, of landscape and of portraiture.
But in these cases it is not advisable to aim at that solidity
which is the virtue of oil-painting, if only because oil can bring
about a better result. The real reason is that, in securing
solidity, pastel tends to forfeit that lightness and grace which
constitute its special charm and merit. Strength belongs to
oil, tenderness and subtlety to pastel, together with freshness
and elegance.
The pre-eminent technical advantage, in addition to those
already mentioned, is the permanence of the tones. In water-
colours there is an admixture of gum and glycerine which may
attract moisture from the air; and, besides, the pigment is used
in very thin washes. In oil-painting not only does the oil
darken with age but sometimes draws oxygen from a pigment
and changes its hue. In pastel the colour is put on without any
moist admixture, and can be laid on thick. Moreover, the
permanence may arise from the method of manufacture. In
a very rare work. The Excellency of the Pen and Pencil (1668),
a chapter on " how to make pastils" [sic] " of several colours,
for drawing figure, landskip, architecture, &c., on blew paper,"
describes the manner of grinding up the pigments with grease.
This used to be the secret of pastel — that every grain of colour
was separately and securely locked up in grease, and so was
secured from any chemical change that might have come about
through contact of the colours with one another or with the
atmosphere. With pastel nothing of the kind could occur;
and the works of Rosalba Carriera in Italy, of Quentin Latour,
Peronneau, Watteau, St Jean, Paul Hoin and Chardin in
France, and of Russell and Cotes in England — to name no others
— testify to the permanency of the colours. Some manufac-
turers nowadays employ gum as the binding medium; others
beeswax (which at one time was more frequently used than it
is at present); others, again, a very small proportion of tallow,
and sometimes a little soap. But this introduction of binding
media is now adopted only in the case of certain colours.
Whether the point or edge of the stick be used (as in pastel
drawing), or the side of it, helped with the tips of the fingers
(as in pastel painting), the result is equally permanent; and if,
when the work is done, it be struck two or three times, and then
touched up by hand-crayons, no dropping of colour from the
paper need ever occur. The drawing is made on a grained
paper that will hold the chalk, or on a specially manufactured
toothed cloth. The French paper known as gras gris bleuti is
employed by certain of the leading pasteUists. The crisp touches
of the pastel can be placed side by side, or the " vibrations"
which the artist seeks may be obtained by glazes and super-
posed tones. It should here be mentioned that about the year
1900 M. Jean-Frangois RaffaeUi produced in Paris sticks of oil
colours which he claimed would in a great measure replace
painting with the brush. Although the system was widely
tried and many good pictures painted in this method, it was
found that the colours became duU, and such vogue as these
" sohd paints " enjoyed for a time has to a very great extent
disappeared.
The art of pastel, as M. Roger Ballu expressed it, " was slumbering
a little," until in 1870 the Societe des Pastellistes was founded in
France and met with ready appreciation. With many artists it was
a matter of " coloured chalks," as, for example, with Millet, Lher-
mitte and Degas in France, and with Whistler in England. With
the majority the full possibilities were seized, and a great number of
artists abroad then practised the art for the sake of colour, among
whom may be mentioned Adrien Moreau, A. Besnard, £mile L6vy,
Machard, Pointelin, Georges Picard, de Nittis, Iwill, Ren6 Billotte,
Jozan, Nozel, Raffaclli, Brochard (majnly upon vellum) and
Levy-Dhurmer in France; in Belgium, Emile Wauters (who has
produced a great series of life-sized portraits of both men and women
of amazing strength, vitality and completeness) and Fernand
Khnopff ; in Italy, C.Laurenti.P.Fragiacomoand Giovanni Segantini;
in Holland, Josselin de Jong; in Germany, F. von Lenbach, Max
Liebermann and Franz Stuck; and in Norway, Fritz Thaulow.
In England the revival of pastel dates from 1880, when the first
exhibition of the Pastel Society was held in the Grosvenor Gallery.
The exhibition was a sticces d'estime, but after a while the society
languished until, in 1899, it was reconstituted, and obtained the
adhesion of many of the most distinguished artists practising in
the country, as well as of a score of eminent foreign painters. In
that year, and since, it has held exhibitions of a high order; and
intelligent public appreciation has been directed to the work of
the most noteworthy contributors. Among these are E. A. .^bbey,
R.A. ; M'Lure Hamilton, J. M. Swan, R.A. ; J. Lorimer, R.S.A.;
\. Peppercorn, R. Anning Bell, J. J. Shannon, R.A. ; Sir James
Guthrie, P.R.S.A.; H. Brabazon, Walter Crane, Melton Fisher,
Edward Stott, A.R.A. ; S. J. Solomon, R.A. ; and W. Rothenstein.
See Karl Robert [Georges Meusnier], Le Pastel (Laurens, Paris,
1890); J. L. Sprinck, A Guide to Pastel Painting (Rowney, London);
Henry Murray, The Art of Painting and Drawing in Coloured Crayons
(Winsor & Newton, London). Among early works are: John
Russell, R.A., Elements of Painting with Crayons (1776); M.P.R.
de C.C., Traite de la peinture aii pastel avec les moyens de prhenir
I'alteration des coiileurs (Paris, 1788); Rosalba Carriera, Diario
degli anni 1720 e lyai scritto di propria mano in Parigia, &c.
(Giovanni Vianelli, Venice, 1793, 4to) ; Girolamo Zanetti, Elogio di
Rosalba Carriera, pittrice (Venice, 1818, 8vo). See also Henri
Lapauze, Les Pastels de M. Quentin de La Tour a St Quentin, preface
by Gustave Larroumet (Paris) ; George C. Williamson, John Russell,
R.A. (London, 1894). (M. H. S.)
PASTEUR, LOUIS (1822-1895), French chemist, was born,
on the 27th of December 1822, at Dole, Franche-Comte, where
his father carried on the business of a tanner. Shortly after-
wards the Pasteur family removed to Arbois, where Louis
attended the Ecole primaire, and later the college of that
place. Here he apparently did not especially distinguish him-
self, belonging to the class of tons ordinaires. Fortunately
at Arbois he came under the influence of an excellent teacher
in the person of the director of the college, who must have
discerned in the quiet boy the germs of greatness, as he con-
stantly spoke to him of his future career at the ficole normale
in Paris. In October 1838 Louis was sent with a friend to the
metropolis, to a school in the Quartier Latin, preparatory to the
ficole normale. But he did not remain long in Paris, for,
being a nervous and excitable boy, his health broke down, and
he yearned for his home in Franche-Comte. " If only I could
smell the tannery once more," said he to his companion, " I
should feel well." So home he went, though not for long, as
his ambition was still to become a normalien, and to this
end he entered the Royal College of Besangon, " en attendant
I'heureux jour oil je serais admis a I'ecole normale." Step
by step he attained his end; in 1840 he won his " bacheUer es
lettres," and shortly afterwards he received an appointment
as assistant mathematical master in the college. Two years
later he passed the examination for the " baccalaureat es sciences"
PASTEUR
I
893
enabling him to become candidate for the ficole normale. But
here something (probably the examiner) was at fault, for a note
was attached to Pasteur's diploma stating that he was only
" mediocre " in chemistry. In those early days and early
trials the dominant note of Pasteur's life was sounded. To
his sisters he writes: " Ces trois choses, la volonte, le travail,
le succes, se partagent toute I'existence humaine. La volonte
ouvre la porte aux carrieres brillantes et heureuses; le travail
les franchit, et une fois arrive au terme du voyage, le succes
vient couronner I'oeuvre." Throughout his life, and to the very
end, " work " was his constant inspiration. On his deathbed
he turned to the devoted pupils who watched over their master's
last hours. " Ou en etes-vous?" he exclaimed. " Que faites-
vous?" and ended by repeating his favourite words, " II faut
travailler."
The first incentive to his serious study of chemistry was
given by hearing J. B. A. Dumas lecture at the Sorbonne;
and ere long he broke new ground for himself, A. J. Balard
having given him an opportunity for chemical work by appoint-
ing him to the post of laboratory assistant. A few words of
explanation concerning Pasteur's first research are necessary to
give the key to all his future work. What was the secret power
which enabled him to bring under the domain of scientific
laws phenomena of disease which had so far bafHed human
endeavour? It simply consisted in the application, to the
elucidation of these complex problems, of the exact methods of
chemical and physical research. Perhaps the most remarkable
discovery of modern chemistry is the existence of compounds,
which, whilst possessing an identical composition, are absolutely
different bodies, judged of by their properties. The first of the
numerous cases of isomerism now known was noted, but un-
explained, by J. J. Berzelius. It was that of two tartaric acids,
deposited from wine-lees. The different behaviour of these two
acids to a ray of polarized light was subsequently observed
by J. B. Biot. One possessed the power of turning the plane of
the polarized ray to the right; the other possessed no rotary
power. Still no explanation of this singular fact was forth-
coming, and it was reserved for the young chemist from Franche-
Comte to solve a problem which had baffled the greatest chemists
and physicists of the time. Pasteur proved that the inactivity
of the one acid depended upon the fact that it was composed of
two isomeric constituents: one the ordinary or dextrorotary
acid, and the other a new acid, which possessed an equally
powerful left-handed action. The veteran Biot whose acquaint-
ance Pasteur had made, was incredulous. He insisted on the
repetition of the experiment in his presence; and when convinced
of the truth of the explanation he exclaimed to the discoverer:
" Mon cher enfant, j'ai tant aime les sciences dans ma vie que
cela me fait battre le cceur." Thus at one step Pasteur gained
a place of honour among the chemists of the day, and was
immediately appointed professor of chemistry at the Faculte of
Science at Strasburg, where he soon afterwards married Mile
Laurent, who proved herself to be a true and noble helpmeet.
Next he sought to prepare the inactive form of the acid by
artificial means; and after great and long-continued labour he
succeeded, and was led to the commencement of his classical
researches on fermentation, by the observation that when the
inactive acid was placed in contact with a special form of mould
{Penicilliicm glaucum) the right-handed acid alone was destroyed,
the left-handed variety remained unchanged. So well was his
position as a leading man of science now established that in 1854
he was appointed professor of chemistry and dean of the Faculte
des Sciences at LiUe. In his inaugural address he used significant
words, the truth of which was soon manifested in his case:
" In the field of observation chance only favours those who are
prepared." The diseases or sicknesses of beer and wine had
from time immemorial baffled all attempts at cure. Pasteur one
day visited a brewery containing both sound and unsound beer.
He examined the yeasts under the microscope, and at once saw
that the globules from the sound beer were nearly spherical, whilst
those from the sour beer were elongated; and this led him to a dis-
covery, the consequences of which have revolutionized chemical
as well as biological science, inasmuch as it was the beginning
of that wonderful series of experimental researches in which he
proved conclusively that the notion of spontaneous generation
is a chimera. Up to this time the phenomenon of fermentation
was considered strange and obscure. Explanations had indeed
been put forward by men as eminent as Berzelius and Liebig,
but they lacked experimental foundation. This was given in
the most complete degree by Pasteur. For he proved that the
various changes occurring in the several processes of fermentation
— as, for example, in the vinous, where alcohol is the chief pro-
duct; in the acetous, where vinegar appears; and in the lactic,
where milk turns sour — are invariably due to the presence and
growth of minute organisms called ferments. Exclude every
trace of these organisms, and no change occurs. Brewers' wort
remains unchanged for years, milk keeps permanently sweet,
and these and other complex liquids remain unaltered when
freely exposed to air from which all these minute organisms
are removed. " The chemical act of fermentation," writes
Pasteur, " is essentially a correlative phenomenon of a vital
act beginning and ending with it."
But we may ask, as Pasteur did. Why does beer or milk become
sour on exposure to ordinary air? Are these invisible germs
which cause fermentation always present in the atmosphere?
or are they not generated from the organic, but the non-organized
constituents of the fermentable liquid? In other words, are
these organisms not spontaneously generated? The controversy
on this question was waged with spirit on both sides; but in the
end Pasteur came off victorious, and in a series of the most
delicate and most intricate experimental researches he proved
that when the atmospheric germs are absolutely excluded no
changes take place. In the interior of the grape, in the healthy
blood, no such germs exist; crush the grape, wound the flesh,
and e.xpose them to the ordinary air, then changes, either fermen-
tative or putrefactive, run their course. But place the crushed
fruit or the wounded animal under conditions which preclude
the presence or destroy the hfe of the germ, and again no change
takes place; the grape juice remains sweet and the wound clean.
The application of these facts to surgical operations, in the able
hands of Lord Lister, was productive of the most beneficent
results, and has indeed revolutionized surgical practice.
Pasteur was now the acknowledged head of the greatest
chemical movement of the time, the recipient of honours both
from his own country and abroad, and installed at the ficole
normale in Paris in a dignified and important post. Not, how-
ever, was it without grave opposition from powerful friends in
the .\cademy that Pasteur carried on his work. Biot — who
loved and admired him as a son — publicly announced that his
enterprise was chimerical and the problem insoluble; Dumas
evidently thought so too, for he advised Pasteur not to spend
more of his time on such a subject. Yet he persevered: " Tra-
vailler, travailler toujours " was his motto, and his patience
was rewarded by results which have not merely rendered his
name immortal, but have benefited humanity in a way and to a
degree for which no one could have ventured to hope. To begin
with a comparatively small, though not unimportant, matter,
Pasteur's discoveries on fermentation inaugurated a new era
in the brewing and wine-making industries. Empiricism,
hitherto the only guide, if indeed a guide at all, was replaced by
exact scientific knowledge; the connexion of each phenomenon
with a controllable cause was established, and rule-of-thumb and
quackery banished for ever by the free gift to the world of the
results of his researches.
But his powers of patient research and of quick and exact
observation were about to be put to a severe test. An epidemic
of a fatal character had ruined the French silk producers.
Dumas, a native of the Alais district, where the disease was
rampant, urged Pasteur to undertake its investigation. Up to
that time he had never seen a silkworm, and hesitated to attempt
so difficult a task; but at the reiterated request of his friend he
consented, and in June 1865 went to the south of France for the
purpose of studying the disease on the spot. In September of
the same year he was able to announce results which pointed to
894
PASTICCIO— PASTON LETTERS
the means of securing immunity from the dreaded plague. The
history of this research, of the gradual elimination of the unim-
portant conditions, of the recognition of those which controlled
the disease, is one of the most fascinating chapters of scientific
discovery. Suffice it here to say that careful experiment and
accurate observation succeeded in ascertaining the cause of the
disease and in preventing its recurrence, thus bringing back to
prosperity the silk trade of France, with all that this entails.
" There is no greater charm," says Pasteur, " for the investigator
than to make new discoveries; but his pleasure is heightened
when he sees that they have a direct application to practical
life." Pasteur had the good fortune, and just reward, of seeing
the results of his work apphed to the benefit both of the human
race and of the animal world. It is to him that the world is
indebted for the introduction of methods which have already
worked wonders, and bid fair to render possible the preven-
tive treatment of all infectious diseases. Just as each kind of
fermentation possesses a definite organized ferment, so many
diseases are dependent on the presence of a distinct microbe;
and just as the gardener can pick out and grow a given plant or
vegetable, so the bacteriologist can (in most cases) ehminate
the adventitious and grow the special organism — in other words,
can obtain a pure cultivation which has the power of bringing
about the special disease. But by a process of successive and
continued artificial cultures under different conditions, the virus
of the organism is found to become attenuated; and when this
weakened virus is administered, the animal is rendered immune
against further attacks. The first disease investigated by
Pasteur was that of chicken cholera, an epidemic which destroyed
io% of the French fowls; after the appUcation of the preventive
method the death-rate was reduced to below i %. Next came
the successful attempt to deal with the fatal cattle scourge known
as anthrax. This is also caused by the presence of a microbe,
of which the virus can also be attenuated, and by inoculation
of this weakened virus the animal rendered immune. Many
mUlions of sheep and oxen all over the world have thus been
treated, and the rate of mortality reduced from lo to less than
I %. As to the money value of these discoveries, T. H. Huxley
gave it as his opinion that it was sufficient to cover the
whole cost of the war indemnity paid by France to Germany
in 1870.
The most interesting of Pasteur's investigations in preventive
and curative medicine remains to be told. It is no less than a
cure for the dread disease of hydrophobia in man and of rabies
in animals; and the interest of the achievement is not only that
he successfully combated one of the most mysterious and most
fell diseases to which man is subject, but also that this was
accomplished in spite of the fact that the special microbe causing
the disease had not been isolated. To begin with, Pasteur, in
studying the malady in dogs, came to the conclusion that the
virus had its seat in the nerve centres, and he proved that the
injection of a portion of the matter of the spinal column of a
rabid dog into the body of a healthy one produces in the latter
with certainty the symptoms of rabies. The next step was to
endeavour so to modify and weaken the virus as to enable it to
be used as a preventive or as an antitoxin. This, after long and
serious labour, he effected; the dog thus inoculated proved to
be immune when bitten by a rabid animal. But this was not
enough. Would the inoculation of the attenuated virus have
a remedial effect on an animal already bitten ? If so, it might
be possible to save the lives of persons bitten by mad dogs.
Here again experiment was successful. A number of dogs were
inoculated, the same number were untreated, and both sets
were bitten by rabid animals. AH the treated dogs lived; all
the untreated died from rabies. It was, however, one thing to
experiment on dogs, and quite another to do so on human beings.
Nevertheless Pasteur was bold enough to try. The trial was
successful, and by doing so he earned the gratitude of the
human race. Then, on the 14th of November 1888, the Institut
Pasteur was founded. Thousands of people suffering from bites
from rabid animals, from all lands, have been treated in this
institute, and the death-rate from this most horrible of all
diseases has been reduced to less than i %. Not only in Paris,
but in many cities throughout the world, institutes on the model
of the original one have been set up and are doing beneficent
work, all arising from the genius and labour of one man. At the
Inauguration of the institute Pasteur closed his oration with the
following words: —
" Two opposing laws seem to me now in contest. The one,
a law of blood and death, opening out each day new modes of
destruction, forces nations to be always ready for the battle.
The other, a law of peace, work and health, whose only aim is
to deliver man from the calamities which beset him. The one
seeks violent conquests, the other the relief of mankind. The one
places a single life above all victories, the other sacrifices hun-
dreds of thousands of hves to the ambition of a single individual.
The law of which we are the instruments strives even through
the carnage to cure the wounds due to the law of war. Treat-
ment by our antiseptic methods may preserve the lives of
thousands of soldiers. Which of these two laws will prevail,
God only knows. But of this we may be sure, that science, in
obeying the law of humanity, will always labour to enlarge the
frontiers of life."
Rich in years and in honours, but simple-minded and affec-
tionate as a child, this great benefactor to his species passed
quietly away near St Cloud on the 28th of September 1895.
Mention need only be made of Pasteur's chief works, as
follows: Etudes siir le vin (1866), Etudes sur le vinaigre (1868),
Etudes sur la maladie des vers a sole (1870), Etudes sur la Mere
(1876). He began the practice of inoculation for hydrophobia
in 1885.
See Vie de Pasteur, by Rene Vallerey-Radot (Paris, 1900).
(H. E. R.).
PASTICCIO, an Italian word, now often Englished as " pas-
tiche," formed from pasta, paste, for a composition in music,
painting or other arts, made up of selections from frag-
ments or imitations of the work of other artists, a medley or
pot-pourri. The term has also been applied to a form of musical
composition in which selections from various operas, &c., are
pieced together to form a consecutive whole, special librettos
being sometimes written for them.
PASTO, a city of Colombia and capital of the department of
Narino, about 36 m. from the boundary line with Ecuador, on
one of the inland trade routes with that repubhc, and on a
principal line of communication with the great forested regions
of the Caqueta (Japura), Putumayo and Napo. Pop. (1906
estimate), 6000. It stands on an elevated plain, 8347 ft. above
the sea, at the eastern foot of the Pasto volcano, which rises
above the city to a height of 13,990 ft. Wool is produced to some
extent and is woven for the local market in the woollen factories
of Pasto.
PASTON LETTERS, an invaluable collection of letters and
papers, consisting of the correspondence of members of the
Paston family, and others connected with them, between the
years 1422 and 1509, and also including some state papers and
other important documents. The bulk of the letters and
papers were sold by William Paston, 2nd earl of Yarmouth,
the last representative of the family, to the antiquary Peter
Le Neve early in the i8th century. On Le Neve's death in
1729 they came into the possession of Thomas Martin of Palgrave,
who married his widow; and upon Martin's death in 1771 they
were purchased by John Worth, a chemist at Diss, whose
executors sold them three years later to John Fenn of East
Dereham. In 1787 Fenn published a selection of the letters in
two volumes, and general interest was aroused by this publica-
tion. In 1780 Fenn pubHshed two other volumes of letters,
and when he died in 1794 he had prepared for the press a fifth
volume, which was published in 1823 by his nephew, Serjeant
Frere. In 1787 Fenn had received a knighthood, and on this
occasion, the 23rd of May, he had presented the originals of
his first two volumes to King George III. These manuscripts
soon disappeared, and the same fate attended the originals of
the three other volumes. In these circumstances it is not
surprising that some doubt should have been cast upon the
PASTON LETTERS
895
authenticity of the letters. In 1865 their genuineness was
impugned by Herman Merivale in the Fortnightly Review; but
it was vindicated on grounds of internal evidence by James
Gairdner in the same periodical; and within a year Gairdner's
contention was established by the discovery of the originals of
Fenn's fifth volume, together with other letters and papers, by
Serjeant Frere's son, Philip Frere, in his house at Dungate,
Cambridgeshire. Ten years later the originals of Fenn's third
and fourth volumes, with ninety-five unpublished letters, were
found at Roydon Hall, Norfolk, the seat of George Frere, the
head of the Frere family; and finally in 1889 the originals of the
two remaining volumes were discovered at Orwell Park, Ipswich,
the residence of Captain E. G. Pretyman. This latter batch of
papers are the letters which were presented to George III., and
which possibly reached Orwell through Sir George Pretyman
Tomline (1750-1827), the tutor and friend of WilUam Pitt.
The papers which had been in the hands of Sir John Fenn
did not, however, comprise the whole of the Paston letters
which were extant. When the 2nd earl of Yarmouth died in
1732 other letters and documents relating to the Pastons were
found at his seat, Oxnead Hall, and some of these came into the
hands of the Rev. Francis Blomefield, who failed to carry out
a plan to unite his collection with that of Martin. This section
of the letters was scattered in various directions, part being
acquired by the antiquary John Ives. The bulk of the Paston
letters and documents are now in the British Museum; but others
are at Orwell Park; in the Bodleian Library, Oxford; at Magdalen
College, Oxford; and a few at Pembroke College, Cambridge.
Fenn's edition of the Paston Letters held the field until 1872,
when James Gairdner published the first volume of a new
edition. Taking Fenn's work as a basis, the aim of the new
editor was to include all the letters which had come to light
since this publication, and in his careful and accurate work in
three volumes (London, 1872-1875) he printed over four hundred
letters for the first time. Gairdner's edition, with notes and
index, also contained a valuable introduction to each volume,
including a survey of the reign of Henry VI.; and he was just
completing his task when the discovery of 1875 was made at
Roydon. An appendix gave particulars of this discovery, and the
unpublished letters were printed as a supplement to subsequent
editions. In 1904 a new and complete edition of the Paston
Letters was edited by Gairdner, and these six volumes, containing
1088 letters and papers, possess a very valuable introduction,
which is the chief authority on the subject.
The family of Paston takes its name from a Norfolk village
about twenty miles north of Norwich, and the first member of
the family about whom anything is known was living in this
village early in the 15th century. This was one Clement Paston
(d. 1419), a peasant, holding and cultivating about one hundred
acres of land, who gave an excellent education to his son Wilham,
and enabled him to study law. Making good use of his oppor-
tunities, WilUam Paston (1378-1444), who is described as " a
right cunning man in the law," attained an influential position
in his profession, and in 1429 became a justice of the common
pleas. He bought a good deal of land in Norfolk, including
some in Paston, and improved his position by his marriage with
Agnes (d. 1479), daughter and heiress of Sir Edmund Berry of
Harlingbury, Hertfordshire. Consequently when he died he
left a large and valuable inheritance to John Paston (1421-1466),
the eldest of his five sons, who was already married to Margaret
(d. 1484), daughter of John Mauteby of Mauteby. At this time
England was in a very distracted condition. A weak king
surrounded by turbulent nobles was incapable of discharging
the duties of government, and only the strong man armed could
hope to keep his goods in peace. A lawyer like his father,
Paston spent much time in London, leaving his wife to look after
his business in Norfolk; and many of the Letters were written by
Margaret to her husband, detailing the progress of affairs in the
county. It is during the lifetimes of John Paston and his eldest
son that the Letters are most numerous and valuable, not only for
family matters, but also for the history of England. In 1448
Paston's manor of Gresham was seized by Robert Hungerford,
Lord Molcyns (1431-1464), and although it was afterwards
recovered, the owner could obtain no redress for the loss and
injury he had sustained. More serious troubles, however,
were at hand. Paston had become very intimate with the
wealthy knight. Sir John Fastolf, who was probably related
to his wife, and who had employed him on several matters of
business. In 1459 Sir John died without children, leaving his
affairs in rather a tangled condition. In accordance with the
custom of the time, he had conveyed many of his estates in
Norfolk and Suffolk to trustees, among whom were John Paston
and his brother William, retaining the revenues for himself,
and probably intending his trustees after his death to devote
the property to the foundation of a college. However, it was
found that a few days before his decease Fastolf had executed a
fresh will in which he had named ten executors, of whom two
only, John Paston and another, were to act; and, moreover,
that he had bequeathed all his lands in Norfolk and Suffolk
to Paston, subject only to the duty of founding the college at
Caister, and paying 4000 marks to the other executors. At once
taking possession of the lands, Paston soon found his rights
challenged. Various estates were claimed by different noble-
men; the excluded executors were angry and aggressive; and
Paston soon found himself in a whirlwind of litigation, and
exposed also to more violent methods of attack. Something
like a regular warfare was waged around Drayton and Hellesdon
between John de la Pole, duke of Suffolk, and the Pastons under
Margaret and her eldest son, John; Caister Castle was seized by
John Mowbray, 3rd duke of Norfolk (d. 1461); and similar
occurrences took place elsewhere. Some compensation, doubt-
less, was found in the fact that in 1460, and again in 1461, Paston
had been returned to parliament as a knight of the shire for
Norfolk, and enjoying the favour of Edward IV. had regained
his castle at Caister. But the royal favour was only temporary,
and, having been imprisoned on three occasions, Paston died in
May 1466, leaving the suit concerning Fastolf's will still proceed-
ing in the church courts. John Paston left at least five sons,
the two eldest of whom were, curiously enough, both named John,
and the eldest of whom had been knighted during his father's
lifetime. Sir John Paston (1442-1479) was frequently at the
court of King Edward I\^, but afterwards he favoured the
Lancastrian party, and, with his brother John, fought for
Henry VI. at the battle of Barnet. Meanwhile the struggle
over Fastolf's estates continued, although in 1461 the king and
council had decided that Paston's ancestors were not bondmen,
and consequently that his title to his father's lands was good.
Caister Castle was taken after a regular siege by John Mowbray,
4th duke of Norfolk (1444-1476), and then recovered by the
Pastons, and retaken by the duke. But in 1474 an arrangement
was made with William Waynflete, bishop of Winchester, the
representative of the excluded executors, by which some of the
estates were surrendered to the bishop for charitable purposes,
while Paston was secured in the possession of others. Two
years later the opportune death of the duke of Norfolk paved
the way for the restoration of Caister Castle; but in 1478 a fresh
quarrel broke out with the duke of Suffolk. Sir John, who was
a cultured man, had shown great anxiety to recover Caister;
but in general he had left the conduct of the struggle to his
mother and to the younger John. Owing to his carelessness and
extravagance the family lands were also diminished by sales; but
nevertheless when he died unmarried in November 1479 he left a
goodly inheritance to his brother John. About this time the
Letters begin to be scanty and less interesting, but the family
continued to flourish. The younger John Paston (d. 1503), after
quarrelling with his uncle William over the manors of Oxnead
and Marlingford, was knighted at the battle of Stoke in 1487. He
married Margery, daughter of Sir Thomas Brews, and left a son,
William Paston (c. 1479-1554), who was also knighted, and who
was a prominent figure at the court of Henry VIII. Sir William's
second son, Clement (c. 1515-1507), served his country with
distinction on the sea, and was wounded at the battle of Pinkie.
The family was continued by Sir William's eldest son, Erasmus
(d. 1540), whose son WiUiam succeeded to his grandfather's
896
PASTORAL
estates in 1554, and to those of his uncle Clement in 1597.
This William (1528-1610) was knighted in 1578. He was the
founder of the Paston grammar-school at North VValsham, and
made Oxnead Hall, near Norwich, his principal residence.
Christopher Paston was Sir William's son and heir, and Christo-
pher's grandson, Wilham (d. 1663), was created a baronet in
1642; being succeeded in the title by his son Robert (1631-1683),
who was a member of parliament from 1661 to 1673, and was
created earl of Yarmouth in 1679. Robert's son William
(1652-1732), who married a natural daughter of Charles II.,
was the second earl, and, hke his father, was in high favour with
the Stuarts. When he died in 1732 he left no son, and his titles
became extinct, his estates being sold to discharge his debts.
The perturbed state of affairs revealed by the Paston Letters
reflects the general condition of England during the period.
It was a time of trouble. The weakness of the government had
disorganized every branch of the administration; the succession
to the crown itself was contested; the great nobles lived in a
state of civil war; and the prevailing discontent found expression
in the rising of Jack Cade and in the Wars of the Roses. The
correspondence reveals the Pastons in a great variety of relations
to their neighbours, friendly or hostile; and abounds with
illustrations of the course of public events, as well as of the
manners and morals of the time. Nothing is more remarkable
than the habitual acquaintance of educated persons, both men
and women, with the law, which was evidently indispensable
to persons of substance.
In addition to the editions of the Paston Letters already mentioned,
see F. Blomefield and C. Parkin, History of Norfolk (London, 1805-
1810), and the article in Diet. Nat. Biog. (A. W. H.*)
PASTORAL (from Lat. pastor, a shepherd), the name given to
a certain class of modern literature in which the " idyll " of the
Greeks and the " eclogue " of the Latins are imitated. It was
a growth of humanism at the Renaissance, and its first home was
Italy. Virgil had been imitated, even in the middle ages, but
it was the example of Theocritus {q.v.) that was originally
followed in pastoral. Pastoral, as it appeared in Tuscany in
the 1 6th century, was reaUy a developed eclogue, an idyll which
had been expanded from a single scene into a drama. The first
dramatic pastoral which is known to exist is the Favola di Orfeo
of Politian, which was represented at Mantua in 1472. This
poem, which has been elegantly translated by J. A. Symonds,
was a tragedy, with choral passages, on an idyllic theme, and is
perhaps too grave in tone to be considered as a pure piece of
pastoral. It led the way more directly to tragedy than to
pastoral, and it is the // Sagrijizio of Agostino Beccari, which
was played at the court of Ferrara in 1554. that is always quoted
as the first complete and actual dramatic pastoral in European
literature.
In the west of Europe there were various efforts made in the
direction of non-dramatic pastoral, which it is hard to classify.
Early in the i6th century Alexander Barclay, in England, trans-
lated the Latin eclogues of Mantuanus, a scholastic writer of
the preceding age. Barnabe Googe, a generation later, in 1563,
published his Eglogs, Epytaphes and Sonnettes, a deliberate
but not very successful attempt to introduce pastoral into
English literature. In France it is difficult to deny the title of
pastoral to various productions of the poets of the Pleiade, but
especially to Remy Belleau's pretty miscellany of prose and verse
in praise of a country life, caUed La Bergerie (1565). But the
•final impulse was given to non-dramatic pastoral by the publica-
tion, in 1504, of the famous Arcadia of J. Sannazaro, a work
which passed through sixty editions before the close of the i6th
century, and which was abundantly copied. Torquato Tasso
followed Beccari after an interval of twenty years, and by the
success of his Aminta, which was performed before the court of
Ferrara in 1573, secured the popularity of dramatic pastoral.
Most of the existing works in this class may be traced back to
the influence either of the Arcadia or of the Aminta. Tasso was
immediately succeeded by Alvisio Pasqualigo, who gave a comic
turn to pastoral drama, and by Cristoforo Castelletti, in whose
hands it grew heroic and romantic, while, finally, Guarini
produced in 1590 his famous Pastor Fido. and Ongaro his fisher-
men's pastoral of Alceo in 1591. During the last quarter of the
i6th century pastoral drama was really a power in Italy. Some
of the best poetry of the age was written in this form, to be acted
privately on the stages of the little court theatres, that were
everywhere springing up. In a short time music was introduced,
and rapidly predominated, until the little forms of tragedy, and
pastoral altogether, were merged in opera.
With the reign of Elizabeth a certain tendency to pastoral
was introduced in England. In Gascoigne and in Whetstone
traces have been observed of a tendency towards the form and
spirit of eclogue. It has been conjectured that this tendency,
combined with the study of the few extant eclogues of Clemont
Marot, led Spenser to the composition of what is the finest
example of pastoral in the English language, the Shepherd's
Calendar, printed in 1579. This famous work is divided into
twelve eclogues, and it is remarkable because of the constancy
with which Spenser turns in it from the artificial Latin style of
pastoral then popular in Italy, and takes his inspiration direct
from Theocritus. It is important to note that this is the first
effort made in European hterature to bring upon a pastoral stage
the actual rustics of a modern country, using their own peasant
dialect. That Spenser's attempt was very imperfectly carried
out does not miUtate against the genuineness of the effort,
which the very adoption of such names as Willie and Cuddle,
instead of the customary Damon and Daphnis, is enough to
prove. Having led up to this work, the influence of which was
to be confined to England, we return to Sannazaro's Arcadia,
which left its mark upon every literature in Europe. This
remarkable romance, which was the type and the original of
so many succeeding pastorals, is written in rich but not laborious
periods of musical prose, into which are inserted at frequent
intervals passages of verse, contests between shepherds on the
" humile fistula di Coridone," or laments for the death of some
beautiful virgin. The characters move in a world of supernatural
and brilliant beings; they commune without surprise with
" i gloriosi spiriti degli boschi," and reflect with singular com-
pleteness their author's longing for an innocent voluptuous
existence, with no hell or heaven in the background.
It was in Spain that the influence of the Arcadia made itself
most rapidly felt outside Italy. The earhest Spanish eclogues
had been those of Juan de Encina, acted in 1492. Gil Vicente,
who was also a Portuguese writer, had written Spanish religious
pastorals early in the i6th century. But Garcilaso de la Vega
is the founder of Spanish pastoral. His first eclogue. El Duke
lamentar de los pastores, is considered one of the finest poems of
its kind in ancient or in modern literature. He wrote Mttle, and
died early, in 1536. Two Portuguese poets followed him, and
composed pastorals in Spanish, Francisco de Sa de Miranda, who
imitated Theocritus, and the famous Jorge de Montemayor,
whose Diana (1524) was founded on Sannazaro's Arcadia.
Caspar Gil Polo, after the death of Montemayor in 1561, com-
pleted his romance, and pubhshed in 1564 a Diana enamorada.
It wiU be recollected that both these works are mentioned with
respect, in their kind, by Cervantes. The author of Don
Quixote himself published an admirable pastoral romance,
Galatea, in 1584.
In France there has always been so strong a tendency towards
a gracefid sort of bucolic hterature that it is hard to decide what
should and what should not be mentioned here. The charming
pasloiirelles of the 13th century, with their knight on horseback
and shepherdess by the roadside, need not detain us further than
to hint that when the influence of Italian pastoral began to be
felt in France these earlier lyrics gave it a national inclination.
We have mentioned the Bergerie of Remy Belleau, in which the
art of Sannazaro seems to join hands with the simple sweetness
of the medieval pastourelle. But there was nothing in France
that could compare with the school of Spanish pastoral writers
which we have just noticed. Even the typical French pastoral,
the Astrie of Honore d'Urfe (1610), has almost more connexion
with the knightly romances which Cervantes laughed at than
with the pastorals which he praised. The famous Astree was
PASTORAL
897
the result of the study of Tasso's Aminta on the one hand and
Montcmayor's Diana on the other, with a strong flavouring of
the romantic spirit of the Amadis. To remedy the pagan ten-
dency of the Aslree a priest, Camus de Pontcarre, wrote a series
of Christian pastorals. Racon produced in 1625 a pastoral
drama, Lcs Bergeries, founded on the Astrceoi D'Urfe.
In England the movement in favour of Theocritean simpHcity
which had been introduced by Spenser in the Shepherd's Calendar,
was immediately defeated by the success of Sir Philip Sidney's
Arcadia, a romance closely modelled on the masterpiece of
Sannazaro. So far from attempting to sink to colloquial idiom,
and adopt a realism in rustic dialect, the tenor of Sidney's
narrative is even more grave and stately than it is conceivable
that the conversation of the most serious nobles can have ever
been. Henceforward, in England, pastoral took one or other
of these forms. It very shortly appeared, however, that the
Sannazarian form was more suited to the temper of the age,
even in England, than the Theocritean. In 1583 a great impetus
was given to the former by Robert Greene, who was composing
his Morando, and still more in 1584 by the publication of two
pastoral dramas, the Gallathea of Lyly and the Arraignment of
Paris of Peele. It is doubtful whether either of these writers
knew anything about the Arcadia ot Sidney, which was posthu-
mously published, but Greene, at all events, became more and
more imbued with the Itahan spirit of pastoral. His Menaphon
and his Never loo Late are pure bucolic romances. While in the
general form of his stories, however, he follows Sidney, the verse
which he introduces is often, especially in the Menaphon, ex-
tremely rustic and colloquial. In 1589 Lodge appended some
eclogues to his Scilla's Metamorphosis, but in his Rosalynde
(1590) he made a much more important contribution to Enghsh
Hterature in general, and to Arcadian poetry in particular.
This beautiful and fantastic book is modelled more exactly upon
the masterpiece of Sannazaro than any other in our language.
The Sixe Idillia of 1588, paraphrases of Theocritus, are anony-
mous, but conjecture has attributed them to Sir Edward Dyer.
In 1598 Bartholomew Young published an Enghsh version of the
Diana of Montemayor.
In 1585 Watson published his collection of Latin elegiacal
eclogues, entitled Amynlas, which was translated into English
by Abraham Fraunce in 1587. Watson is also the author of
two frigid pastorals, Meliboens (1590) and Amynlae gaiidia
(1592). John Dickenson printed at a date unstated, but
probably not later than 1592, a " passionate eclogue " called
The Shepherd's Complaint, which begins with a harsh burst of
hexameters, but which soon settles down into a harmonious
prose story, with lyrical interludes. In 1594 the same writer
pubhshed the romance of Arisbas. Drayton is the next pastoral
poet in date of publication. His Idea: Shepherd's Garland bears
the date 1593, but was probably written much earlier. In 1595
the same poet produced an Eiidimion and Phoebe, which was the
least happy of his works. He then turned his fluent pen to the
other branches of poetic Hterature; but after more than thirty
years, at the very close of his Kfe, he returned to this early love,
and published in 1627 two pastorals. The Quest of Cynthia
and The Shepherd's Sirena. The general character of aU these
pieces is rich, but vague and unimpassioned. The Queen's
Arcadia of Daniel must be allowed to lie open to the same
charge, and to have been written rather in accordance with a
fashion than in following of the author's predominant impulse.
The singular eclogue by Barnfield, The AJfectionale Shepherd,
printed in 1594, is an exercise on the theme " O crudehs Alexi,
nihil mea carmina curas," and, in spite of its juveniUty and
indiscretion, takes rank as the first really poetical following of
Spenser and Virgil, in distinction to Sidney and Sannazaro.
Marlowe's pastoral lyric Come live with Me, although not printed
until 1599, has been attributed to 1589. In 1600 was printed
the anonymous pastoral comedy in rhyme. The Maid's Meta-
morphosis, long attributed to Lyly.
W'ith the close of the i6th century pastoral literature was not
extinguished in England as suddenly or as completely as it was
in Italy and Spain. Throughout the romantic Jacobean age
the English love of country life asserted itself under the guise
of pastoral sentiment, and the influence of Tasso and Guarini
was felt in England just when it had ceased to be active in Italy.
In England it became the fashion to publish lyrical eclogues,
usually in short measure, a class of poetry peculiar to the nation
and to that age. The lighter staves of The Shepherd's Calendar
were the model after which aU these graceful productions were
drawn. We must confine ourselves to a brief enumeration of
the principal among these Jacobean eclogues. Nicholas Breton
came first with his Passionate Shepherd in 1604. W'ither
followed with The Shepherd's Hunting in 16 15, and Braithwaite.
an inferior writer, published The Poet's Willow in 1613 and
Shepherd's Talcs in 1621. The name of Wither must recall to
our minds that of his friend William Browne, who published in
1613-1616 his beautiful collection of Devonshire idylls called
Britannia's Pastorals. These were in heroic verse, and less
distinctly Spenserian in character than those eclogues recently
mentioned. In 1614 Browne, Wither, Christopher Brook and
Davies of Hereford united in the composition of a little volume
of pastorals entitled The Shepherd's Pipe. Meanwhile the com-
position of pastoral dramas was not entirely discontinued. In
1606 Day dramatized part of Sidney's Arcadia in his Isle of
Gulls, and about 1625 the Rev. Thomas Goffe composed his
Careless Shepherdess, which Ben Jonson deigned to imitate in the
opening fines of his Sad Shepherd. In 1610 Fletcher produced
his Faithful Shepherdess in emulation of the Aminta of Tasso.
This is the principal pastoral play in the language, and, in spite
of its faults in moral taste, it preserves a fascination which has
evaporated from most of its fellows. The Arcades of Milton
is scarcely dramatic; but it is a bucolic ode of great stateHness
and beauty. In the Sad Shepherd, which was perhaps written
about 1635, and in his pastoral masques, we see Ben Jonson
not disdaining to follow along the track that Fletcher had pointed
out in the Faithful Shepherdess. With the Piscatory Eclogues
of Phineas Fletcher, in 1633, we may take leave of the more
studied forms of pastoral in England early in the 17th century.
When pastoral had declined in all the other nations of Europe,
it erjoyed a curious recrudescence in Holland. More than a
century after date, the Arcadia of Sannazaro began to exercise
an influence on Dutch Hterature. Johan van Heemskirk led
the way with his popular Batavische Arcadia in 1637. In this
curious romance the shepherds and shepherdesses move to and
fro between Katwijk and the Hague, in a landscape unaffectedly
Dutch. Heemskirk had a troop of imitators. Hendrik Zoete-
boom published his Zaanlandsche Arcadia in 1658, and Lambertus
Bos his Dordtsche Arcadia in 1662. These local imitations of
the suave Italian pastoral were followed by still more crude
romances, the Rotterdamsche Arcadia of Willem den Elger, the
Walchersche Arcadia of Gargon, and the Noordwijker Arcadia
of Jacobus van der Valk. Germany has nothing to offer us of
this class, for the Diana of Werder (1644) and Die adriaiische
Rosamund of Zesen (1645) are scarcely pastorals even in form.
In England the writing of eclogues of the sub-Spenserian
class of Breton and Wither led in another generation to a rich
growth of lyrics which may be roughly called pastoral, but are
not strictly bucolic. Carew, Lovelace, Suckling, Stanley and
Cartwright are lyrists who all contributed to this harvest of
country song, but by far the most copious and the most charac-
teristic of the pastoral lyrists is Herrick. He has, perhaps, no
rival in modern literature in this particular direction. His
command of his resources, his deep originafity and observation,
his power of concentrating his genius on the details of rural
beauty, his interest in recording homely facts of country life,
combined with his extraordinary gift of song to place him in the
very first rank among pastoral writers; and it is noticeable that
in Herrick's hands, for the first time, the pastoral became a real
and modern, instead of being an ideal and humanistic thing.
From him we date the recognition in poetry of the humble
beauty that lies about our doors. His genius and influence were
almost instantly obscured by the Restoration. During the final
decHne of the Jacobean drama a certain number of pastorals
were still produced. Of these the only ones which deserve
XX. 29
898
PASTORAL EPISTLES— PASTORAL STAFF
mention are three dramatic adaptations, Shirley's Arcadia
(1640), Fanshawe's Pastor Fido (1646), and Leonard Willan's
Astraea (1651). The last pastoral drama in the 17th century
was Settle's Pastor Fido {i6t!). The Restoration was extremely
unfavourable to this species of Uterature. Sir Charles Sedley,
Aphra Behn and Congreve published eclogues, and the Pastoral
Dialogue between Thirsis and Strep/ion of the first-mentioned was
much admired. All of these, however, are in the highest degree
insipid and unreal, and partook of the extreme artificiality
of the age.
Pastoral came into fashion again ekrly in the i8th century.
The controversy in the Guardian, the famous critique on Ambrose
Philips's Pastorals, the anger and rivalry of Pope, and the doubt
which must always exist as to Steele's share in the mystification,
give 1708 a considerable importance in the annals of bucolic
writing. Pope had written his idylls first, and it was a source
of infinite annoyance to him that PhiHps contrived to precede
him in publication. He succeeded in throwing ridicule on
Philips, however, and his own pastorals were greatly admired.
Yet there was some nature in Phihps, and, though Pope is more
elegant and faultless, he is not one whit more genuinely bucolic
than his rival. A far better writer of pastoral than either is
Gay, whose Shepherd's Week was a serious attempt to throw
to the winds the ridicidous Arcadian tradition of nymphs and
swains, and to copy Theocritus in his simphcity. Gay was far
more successful in executing this pleasing and natural cycle
of poems than in writing his pastoral tragedy of Dione or his
" tragi-comico pastoral farce " of The What d'ye call it? (17 15).
He deserves a very high place in the history of English pastoral
on the score of his Shepherd's Week. Swift proposed to Gay
that he should write a Newgate pastoral in which the swains
and nymphs should talk and warble in slang. This Gay never
did attempt; but a northern admirer of his and Pope's achieved
a veritable and lasting success in Lowland Scotch, a dialect
then considered no less beneath the dignity of verse. Allan
Ramsay's Gentle Shepherd, published in 1725, was the last, and
remains the most vertebrate and interesting, bucolic drama pro-
duced in Great Britain. It remained a favourite, a hundred
and fifty years after, among Lowland reapers and milkmaids.
With the Gentle Shepherd the chronicle of pastoral in England
practically closes. This is at least the last performance which
can be described as a developed eclogue of the school of Tasso
and Guarini. It is in Switzerland that we find the next impor-
tant revival of pastoral properly so-called. The taste of the
iSth century was very agreeably tickled by the rehgious idylls of
Salomon Gessner, who died in 1787. His Daphnis and Phillis
and Der Tod Abels were read and imitated throughout Europe.
In German literature they left but Httle mark, but in France
they were cleverly copied by Arnaud Berquin. A much more
important pastoral writer is Jean Pierre Clovis de Florian, who
began by imitating the Galatea of Cervantes, and continued with
an original bucohc romance entitled Estcllc. It has always been
noticeable that pastoral is a form of hterature which disappears
before a breath of ridicule. Neither Gessner nor his follower
Abbt were able to survive the laughter of Herder. Since
Florian and Gessner there has been no reappearance of bucolic
Uterature properly so-called. The whole spirit of romanticism
was fatal to pastoral. Voss in his Luise and Goethe in Hermann
und Dorothea replaced it by poetic scenes from homely and simple
life.
Half a century later something like pastoral reappeared in a
totally new form, in the fashion for Dorfgeschichten. About
1830 the Danish poet S. S. Bhcher, whose work connects the
grim studies of George Crabbe with the milder modern strain
of pastoral, began to pubhsh his studies of out-door romance
among the poor in Jutland. Immermann followed in Germany
with his novel Der Oberhof in 1839. Auerbach, who has given
to the 19th-century idyll itspecuUar character, began to publish
his Schwarzwdlder Dorfgeschichten in 1843. Meanwhile George
Sand was writing Jeanne in 1844, which was followed by La
Mare au Diable and Francois le Champi, and in England Clough
produced in 1848 his remarkable long- vacation pastoral The
Bothie of Tober-na-Vuolich. It seems almost certain that these
writers followed a simultaneous but independent impulse in this
curious return to bucolic life, in which, however, in every case,
the old tiresome conventionahty and affectation of lady-hke
airs and graces were entirely dropped. This school of writers
was presently enriched in Norway by Bjornson, whose Synnove
Solbakken was the first of an exquisite series of pastoral romances.
But perhaps the best of aU modern pastoral romances is Fritz
Renter's Ut mine Stromtid, written in the Mecklenburg dialect
of German. In England the Dorsetshire poems of William
Barnes and the Dorsetshire novels of Thomas Hardy belong to
the same class. It will be noticed, of course, that all these recent
productions have so much in common with the Uterature which
is produced around them that they almost evade separate
classification. It is conceivable that some poet, in following
the antiquarian tendency of the age, may enshrine his fancy once
more in the five acts of a pure pastoral drama of the school of
Tasso and Fletcher, but any great vitality in pastoral is hardly to
be looked for in the future. (E. G.)
PASTORAL EPISTLES, the name given to St Paul's letters
to Timothy and Titus. The term seems to have originated
with J. A. L. Wegscheider (1771-1849), professor at HaOe.
The three epistles mentioned are written to men rather than
churches, and to men appointed to certain pastoral work. In
this respect they differ from the personal and intimate note
which Paul wrote to Philemon. They are closely related in
origin, style, diction and thought, and occupy so distinct a
place in these respects that the Pauline authorship of them has
been much questioned. (See Timothy, Epistles to; Titus,
Epistle to.)
PASTORAL LETTER, an open letter addressed by a bishop
to the clergy or laity of his diocese, or to both, containing either
general admonition, instruction or consolation, or directions for
behaviour in particular circumstances. In the Catholic Church
such letters are also sent out regularly at particular ecclesiastical
seasons, particularly at the beginning of fasts. In the non-
episcopal Protestant churches the name " pastoral letter " is
given to any open letter addressed by a pastor to his congrega-
tion, but more especially to that customarily issued at certain
seasons, e.g. by the moderator of a Presbyterian assembly or the
chairman of a Congregational or Baptist union.
PASTORAL STAFF, in the Christian Church, an ensign of office
or dignity. It is some five feet long, ending at the top in a
crook (volute) bent inwards, and made of metal, ivory or wood.
If of metal, it is hollow; if of wood, it is usuaUy covered with
metal. The crook is usually richly ornamented, and is divided
from the shaft by a boss; the shaft is commonly separated into
sections by rings, so that it can be taken to pieces.
The pastoral staff is the ensign proper of cardinals (except
cardinal-deacons) and bishops; but the former are entitled to
use it only in the churches from which they derive their titles,
the latter only in their dioceses. The pope so early as the time
of Innocent III. did not carry the pastoral staff, and it would
seem never to have been his custom. The ferula that the Ordo
of Cencius SabelUus (ch. 48) speaks of was not a pastoral staff,
but the symbol of authority over the papal palace, with which
by its transference he was invested. This ferula, mentioned
by Luitprand of Cremona in his account of the deposition of
Benedict V., and the baculiis aureus of the Historia dedicationis
ecclesiae cavensis (Acta Sanctorum, 4 March, i. 354) are sceptres.
Abbots carry the pastoral staff only when specially empowered
by the pope to do so, and then only in the territory under
the jurisdiction of their monastery and in the churches sub-
ordinated to it. With certain restrictions the pastoral staff is
also sometimes conceded to dignitaries of cathedral and
collegiate churches, but never to abbesses (Sacra Congreg. Rit.
29 Jan. 1656).
The pastoral staff, as its name implies, symboUzes the pastoral
office and authority, a symbolism already known to Isidore of
Seville (De ecclesiast. o_ff. ii. 5). This symbolism is expressed
in the words used, at least since the loth century, by the conse-
crator in delivering the pastoral staff at the consecration of a
PATAGONIA
899
bishop and the benediction of an abbot. The pastoral staff is
carried in the left hand, in order that the right may remain free
to give the blessing. The bishop is directed so to hold it {Ccrcm.
episc. ii. 8, 25) that the crook is turned towards the people.
It is used not only at pontifical High Mass but at all solemn
pontifical functions, e.g. vespers, consecrations, processions.
It is uncertain at what period the use of the pastoral staff was
introduced; but the evidence tends to show that it was about
the sth century, in Gaul or Spain. The pastoral staff was
certainly in use in Gaul in the 6th century ( Vila S. Caesar. Arelat.
ii. 18), in Spain at least as early as the 7th, and in Ireland also
in the 7th; in Italy, so far as the available evidence shows, its
introduction was comparatively late. It had originally nothing
of its present liturgical character; this was given to it in the
post-Carolingian period.
As regards the development of the form of the pastoral staff,
there are four principal types: (i) staves with a simple crook,
<^^
9 ^
the oldest form, which survived in Ireland until the 12th century;
(2) staves with a ball or knob at the top, a rare form which did
not long survive as a pastoral staff; (3) staves with a horizontal
crook, so-called Tau-staves, used especially by abbots and
surviving until the 13th century; (4) staves with crook bent
inwards. These last already appear in miniatures of the gth
century; from the nth onwards they predominated; and in the
13th century they ousted all other forms. Originally plain,
the crook was from the nth century onwards often made in the
form of a snake (5), which in richer staves encircled the Lamb
of God or the representation of a figure. Since the 13th century
the snake, under Gothic influence, developed into a boldly
designed tendril set with leaves, which usually encircled a figure
or group of figures, and the knob dividing shaft and crook into
an elegant chapel (6 and 7). Finally, at the close of the middle
ages, the lower part of the crook was bent outwards so that the
actual volute came over the middle of the knob, the type that
remained dominant from that time onwards (8). As a decoration,
rather than for practical reasons, a fine folded cloth {pannisellns,
sudaritim, velum, Eng. veil), was from the 14th century onward
often suspended from the knob of the pastoral stafl. This was
done both in the case of bishops' and of abbots' staves, but is
now confined to the latter {Cerem. episc. i. 11, 5; Deer. Alex. VII.
27 Sept. 1659; Sacr. Congr. Rit. 27 Sept. 1847).
From the pastoral staff must be distinguished the staff of the
chorepiscapus (director of the choir) and cantors, which is still
in use here and there. This, which is also known as bordonus,
v/as developed out of the choir-staves, originally no more than
sticks to lean on during the long services.
The Reformation abolished the pastoral staff almost every-
where.' In the Church of England, however, it was retained
among the episcopal ornaments prescribed by the first Prayer-
book of Edward VI., and, though omitted in the second Prayer-
book, its use seemed once more to be enjoined under the Orna-
ments Rubric of Elizabeth's Prayer-book. Whatever the
theoretical value of this injunction may have been, however,
in practice the use of the pastoral staff was discontinued until
its gradual revival in the last decades of the 19th century.
In the Churches of the East, a pastoral staff (Gr. pa/?5os,
Russ. possoch, paterissa, Syr. and Nest, chiitra, Arm. gavazan
hayrapelatz, Copt, shot) is borne among the Syrians only by the
patriarch, in all the other rites by all bishops, in the Greek
' Among curious exceptions is the pastoral staff still carried
by the Lutheran abbot of Lokkum.
Church also by archimandrites and abbots, and in the Armenian
Church sdso by ihc vartapcds (teachers). The staff of Armenian
bishops is reminiscent of that of the West, from which it is
apparently derived; that of the vartapeds is encircled at the
upper end by one or two snakes. The Coptic patriarch uses
an iron cross-staff. For the rest, the pastoral staff in the
Oriental rites is T-shaped. It is of wood inlaid with ivory and
mother-of-pearl. A veil is attached to the staff among the
Greeks, Armenians and Copts. The bishops of the Coptic,
Syrian and Nestorian Uniate Churches have adopted the Roman
pastoral staff.
See Ch. Cahicr et A. Martin, Melanges d'archeologie (Paris, 1856),
iv. 145 seq.; Rohault et Fleury, La Messe (Paris, 1889), vii. 75 sc-q.
For the Anglican usage see the Report of the Sub-committee
of Convocation on the Ornaments of the Church, &c. (London,
1908). (J. Bra.)
PATAGONIA, the name given to that portion of South America
which, to the east of the Andes, lies mainly south of the Rio
Negro (41° S.), and, to the west of the Andes, south of the ChOean
province of Llanquihue (42° S.). The Chilean portion embraces
the two provinces of Chiloe and Magallanes. East of the Andes
the Argentine portion of Patagonia is divided into four territories:
(i) Neuquen, 42,000 sq. m. approximately, including the triangle
between the rivers Limay and Neuquen, and extending south-
ward to the northern shore of Lake Nahuel-Huapi (41° S.)
and northward to the Rio Colorado; (2) Rio Negro, 76,000 sq. m.
appro.ximately, extending from the Atlantic to the Cordillera
of the Andes, to the north of 42° S.; (3) Chubut, 95,000 sq. m.
approximately, embracing the region between 42° and 46° S.;
and (4) that portion of the province of Santa Cruz which stretches
from the last-named parallel as far south as the dividing fine
with Chile, and between Point Dungeness and the watershed
of the Cordillera, an area approximately of 106,000 sq. m.
Physiography. — The general character of the Argentine portion
of Patagonia is for the most part a region of vast stcppe-like plains,
rising in a succession of abrupt terraces about 300 ft. at a time, and
covered with an enormous bed of shingle almost bare of vegetation.
In the hollows of the plains are ponds or lakes of brackish and fresh
water. Towards the Andes the shingle gives place to porphyry,
granite and basalt lavas, animal life becomes more abundant and
vegetation more luxuriant, acquiring the characteristics of the flora of
the western coast, and consisting principally of the beech and conifers.
Among the depressions by which the plateau is intersected trans-
versely, the principal are the Gualichu, south of the Rio Negro,
the Maquinchau and Balcheta (through which previously flowed the
waters of lake Nahuel-Huapi, which now feed the river Limay) ;
the Senguerr, the Deseado. Besides these transverse depressions
(some of them marking lines of ancient inter-oceanic communication),
there are others which were occupied by more or less extensive lakes,
such as the Yagagtoo, Musters and Colhuapi, and others situated
to the south of Puerto Deseado, in the centre of the country. In
the central region volcanic eruptions, which have taken part in the
formation of the plateau from the Tertiary period down to the pre-
sent era, cover a large part with basaltic lava-caps ; and in the western
third more recent glacial deposits appear above the lava. There,
in contact with folded Cretaceous rocks, uplifted by the Tertiary
granite, erosion, caused principally by the sudden melting and re-
treat of the ice, aided by tectonic changes, has scooped out a deep
longitudinal depression, which generally separates the plateau from
the first lofty hills, the ridges generally called the pre-Cordillera,
while on the west of these there is a similar longitudinal depression
all along the foot of the snowy Andean Cordillera. This latter depres-
sion contains the richest and most fertile land of Patagonia.
The geological constitution is in accordance with the orographic
physiognomy. The Tertiary plateau, flat on the east, gradually
rising on the west, shows Upper Cretaceous caps at its base. First
come Lower Cretaceous hills, raised by granite and dioritic rocks,
undoubtedly of Tertiary origin, as in some cases these rocks have
broken across the Tertiary beds, so rich in mammal remains; then
follow, on the west, metamorphic schists of uncertain age; then
quartzites appear, resting directly on the primitive granite and
gneiss which form the axis of the Cordillera. Porphyritic rocks
occur between the schists and the quartzites. The Tertiar^• deposits
are greatly varied in character, and there is considerable^ difference
of opinion concerning the succession and correlation of the beds.
They are divided by Wilckens^ into the following series (in ascending
order) : —
I. Pyrotherium-Notostylops beds. Of terrestrial origin, con-
taining remains of mammalia. Eocene and Oligoccne.
- O. Wilckens, "Die Meeresablagerungen der Krei<(e- und Ter-
tiar-formation in Patagonien,"- in Neiies Jahrb. f. Min., Beilage-
Band XXI. (1906), 98-195.
QOO
PATAGONIA
2. Patagonian Molasse. Partly marine, partly terrestrial. Lower
Miocene. Wilckens includes in this series the coal of Punta Arenas,
and the marine beds below it.
3. Santa Cruz series. Containing remains of mammals. Middle
and Upper Miocene.
4. Parana series. Sandstones and conglomerates with marine
fossils. Pliocene. Confined to the eastern part of the region.
The Upper Cretaceous and Tertiary deposits have revealed a
most interesting vertebrate fauna. This, together with the dis-
covery of the perfect cranium of a chelonian of the genus Alyolania,
which may be said to be almost identical with Myolania oweni of the
Pleistocene age in Queensland, forms an evident proof of the con-
nexion between the Australian and South American continents.
The Patagonian Myolania belongs to the Upper Chalk, having been
found associated with remains of Dinosauria. Other specimens
of the interesting fauna of Patagonia, belonging to the Middle
Tertiary, are the gigantic wingless birds, exceeding in size any
hitherto known, and the singular mammal Pyrotherium, also of
very large dimensions. In the Tertiary marine formation a con-
siderable number of cetaceans has been discovered. In deposits
of much later date, formed when the physiognomy of the country
did not differ materially from that of the present time, there have
been discovered remains of pampean mammals, such as Glyptodon
and Macrauchenia, and in a cave near Last Hope Inlet, a gigantic
ground sloth {Grypotherium listai), an animal which lived contem-
poraneously with man, and whose skin, well preserved, showed that
its extermination was undoubtedly very recent. With the remains
of Grypotherium have been found those of the horse {Onoshippidium) ,
which are known only from the lower pampas mud, and of the
Arctotheriiim, which is found, although not in abundance, in even
the most modern Pleistocene deposits in the pampas of Buenos
Aires. It would not be surprising if this latter animal were still in
existence, for footprints, which may be attributed to it, have been
observed on the borders of the rivers Tamango and Pista, affluents
of the Las Heras, which run through the eastern foot-hills of the
Cordillera in 47° S.
Glaciers occupy the valleys of the main chain and some of the
lateral ridges of the Cordillera, and descend to lakes San Martin,
Viedma, Argentino and others in the same locality, strewing them
with icebergs. In Patagonia an immense ice-sheet extended to the
east of the present Atlantic coast during the first ice age, at the close
of the Tertiary epoch, while, during the second glacial age in modern
times, the terminal moraines have generally stopped, 30 miles in the
north and 50 miles in the south, east of the summit of the Cordillera.
These ice-sheets, which scooped out the greater part of the longitu-
dinal depressions, and appear to have rapidly retreated to the point
where the glaciers now e.\ist, did not, however, in their retirement
fill up with their detritus the fjords of the Cordillera, for these are
now occupied by deep lakes on the east, and on the west by the
Pacific channels, some of which are as much as 250 fathoms in depth,
and soundings taken in them show that the fjords are as usual
deeper in the vicinity of the mountains than to the west of the islands.
Several of the high peaks are still active volcanoes.
In so far as its main characteristics are concerned, Patagonia
seems to be a portion of the Antarctic continent, the permanence of
which dates from very recent times, as is evidenced by the apparent
recent emergence of the islets around Chiloe, and by the general
character of the pampean formation. Some of the promontories
of Chiloe are still called hiiapi, the Araucanian equivalent for
"islands"; and this may perhaps be accepted as perpetuating
the recollection of the time when they actually were islands. They
are composed of caps of shingle, with great, more or less rounded
boulders, sand and volcanic ashes, precisely of the same form as
occurs on the Patagonian plateau. From an examination of the
pampean formation it is evident that in recent times the land of the
province of Buenos Aires extended farther to the east, and that the
advance of the sea, and the salt-water deposits left by it when it
retired, forming some of the lowlands which occur on the littoral and
in the interior of the pampas, are much more recent phenomena;
and certain caps of shingle, derived from rocks of a different class
from those of the neighbouring hills, which are observed on the
Atlantic coasts of the same province, and increase in quantity and
size towards the south, seem to indicate that the caps of shingle which
now cover such a great part of the Patagonian territory recently
extended farther to the east, over land which has now disappeared
beneath the sea, while other marine deposits along the same coasts
became converted into bays during the subsequent advance of the
sea. There are besides, in the neighbourhood of the present coast,
deposits of volcanic ashes, and the ocean throws up on its shores
blocks of basaltic lava, which in all probability proceed from erup-
tions of submerged volcanoes now extinct. One fact, however,
which apparently demonstrates with greater certainty the existence
in recent times of land that is now lost, is the presence of remains
of pampean mammals in Pleistocene deposits in the bay of San
Julian and jn Santa Cruz. The animals undoubtedly reached these
localities fr<^n the east ; it is not at all probable that they advanced
from the north southwards across the plateau intersected at that
time by great rivers and covered by the ice-sheet. With the
exception of the discoveries at the inlet of Ultima Esperanza, which is
in close communication with the Atlantic valley of Gallegos, none of
these remains have been discovered in the Andean regions.
On the upper plains of Neuquen territory thousands of cattle
can be fed, and the forests around Lakes Traful and Nahuel-Huapi
yield large quantities of valuable timber. The Neuquen river is
not navigable, but as its waters are capable of being easily dammed
in places, large stretches of land in its valley are utilized; but the
lands on each side of its lower part are of little commercial value.
As the Cordillera is approached the soil becomes more fertile, and
suitable districts for the rearing of cattle and other agricultural
purposes exist between the regions which surround the Tromen
volcano and the first ridges of the Andes. Chos Malal, the capital
of the territory, is situated in one of these valleys. More to the
west is the mining region, in great part unexplored, but containing
deposits of gold, silver, copper and lignite. In the centre of the
territory, also in the neighbourhood of the mining districts, are the
valleys of Norquin and Las Lajas, the general camp of the Argentine
army in Patagonia, with excellent timber in the forest on the Andean
slope. The wide valleys occur near Rio Malleco, Lake Huechulaf-
quen, the river Chimehuin, and Vega de Chapelco, near Lake Lacar,
where are situated villages of some importance, such as Junin de
los Andes and San Martin de los Andes. Close to these are the
famous apple orchards supposed to have been planted by the Jesuits
in the 17th and l8th centuries. These regions are drained by the
river Collon-Cura, the principal affluent of the river Limay. Lake
Lacar is now a contributary of the Pacific, its outlet having been
changed to the west, owing to a passage having been opened through
the Cordillera.
The Rio Negro runs along a wide transverse depression, the middle
part of which is followed by the railway which runs to the settlement
of Neuquen at the confluence of the rivers Limay and Neuquen.
In this depression are several settlements, among them Viedma,
the capital of the Rio Negro territory, Pringles, Conesa, Choele-
Choel and Roca. To the south of the Rio Negro the Patagonian
plateau is intersected by the depressions of the Gualicho and
Maquinchau, which in former times directed the waters of two great
rivers (now disappeared) to the gulf of San Matias, the first-named
depression draining the network of the Collon-Cura and the second
the Nahuel-Huapi lake system. In 42° S. there is a third broad trans-
verse depression, apparently the bed of another great river, now
perished, which carried to the Atlantic the waters of a portion of the
eastern slope of the Andes, between 41° and 42° 30' S.
Chubut territory presents the same characteristics as the Rio
Negro territory. Rawson, the capital, is situated at the mouth
of the river Chubut on the Atlantic (42° 30' S.). The town was
founded in 1865 by a group of colonists from Wales, assisted by the
Argentine government; and its prosperity has led to the foundation
of other important centres in the valley, such as Treleu and Gaiman,
which is connected by railway with Porto Madrjm on Bahia Nueva.
Here is the seat of the governor of the territory, and by 1895 the
inhabitants of this part of the territory, composed principally of
Argentines, Welsh and Italians, numbered 2585. The valley has
been irrigated and cultivated, and produces the best wheat of the
Argentine Republic. Between the Chubut and the Senguerr there
are vast stretches of fertile land, spreading over the Andean region
to the foot of the Cordillera and the lateral ridges of the Pre-Cordil-
lera, and filling the basins of some desiccated lakes, which have been
occupied since 1885, and farms and colonies founded upon them. The
chief of these colonies is that of the i6th of October (16 de Octobre),
formed in 1886, mainly by the inhabitants of Chubut colony, in the
longitudinal valley which extends to the eastern foot of the Cordil-
lera. Other rivers in this territory flow into the Pacific through
breaches in the Cordillera, e.g. the upper affluents of the Fetaleufu,
Palena and Rio Cisnes. The principal affluent of the Palena, the
Carrenleufu, carries off the waters of Lake General Paz, situated on
the eastern slope of the Cordillera. Rio Pico, an affluent of the same
river, receives nearly the whole of the waters of the extensive undu-
lating plain which lies between the Rio Teka and the Rio Senguerr
to the east of the Cordillera, while the remainder are carried aw'ay by
the affluents of Rio Jehua, viz., the Cherque, Omkel and Appeleg.
This region contains auriferous drifts, but these, Hke the auriferous
deposits, veins of galena and lignite in the mountains farther west
which flank the Cordillera, have not been properly investigated.
At Lake Fontana there are auriferous drifts and lignite deposits
which abound in fossil plants of the Cretaceous age. The streams
which form the rivers Mayo and Chalia join the tributaries of the
Rio Aisen, which flows into the Pacific, watering in its course exten-
sive and valuable districts where colonization has been initiated
by Argentine settlers. Colonies have also been formed in the basin
of Lakes Musters and Colhue; and on the coasts near the Atlantic,
along Bahia Camarones and the Gulf of San Jorge, there are exten-
sive farms.
The territory of Santa Cruz is arid along the Atlantic coast and
in the central portion between 46° and 50° S. With the e.xception
of certain valleys at Puerto Deseado (Port Desire) and in the trans-
verse basins which occur as far south as Puerto San Julian, and which
contain several cattle farms, few spots are capable of cultivation,
the pastures being poor, water insufficient and salt lagunas fairly
numerous. Puerto Deseado is the outlet for the produce of the
Andean region situated between Lakes Buenos Aires and Pueyrredon.
PATAGONIA
901
Into this inlet there flowed at the time of the conquest a voluminous
river, which subsequently disappeared, but returned again to its
ancient bed, owing to the river Fenix, one of its affluents, which had
deviated to the west, regaining its original direction. Lake Buenos
Aires, the largest lake in Patagonia, measuring 75 m. in length,
poured its waters into the Atlantic even in post-Glacial times by
means of the river Deseado; and it is so depicted on the maps of the
17th and i8th centuries; and so too did Lake Pueyrredon, which,
through the action of erosion, now empties itself westward, through
the river Las Heras, into the Calen inlet of the Pacific, in 48° S. San
Julian on Puerto San Julian, where Ferdinand Magellan wintered,
is the centre of a cattle farming colony, and colonists have pushed
into the interior up the valley of a now extinct river which in com-
paratively recent times carried down to Puerto San Julian the waters
of Lakes Volcan, Bclgrano, Azara, Nansen, and some other lakes
which now drain into the river Mayer and so into Lake San
Martin. The valleys of the Rio Chico throughout their whole extent,
as well as those of Lake Shehuen, afford excellent grazing, and around
Lakes Belgrano, Burmeister and Rio Mayer and San Martin there
are spots suitable for cultivation. In the Cretaceous hills which
flank the Cordillera important lignite beds and deposits of mineral
oils have been discovered. The Rio Santa Cruz, originally explored
by Captain Fitzroy and Charles Darwin, is an important artery of
communication between the regions bordering upon the Cordillera
and the Atlantic. In Santa Cruz bay an important trade centre
has been established. But the present cattle region par excellence
of Patagonia is the department of Rio Gallegos, the farms extending
from the Atlantic to the Cordillera. Puerto Gallegos itself is an
important business centre, which bids fair to rival the Chilean
colony of Punta Arenas, on the Straits of Magellan. Owing to the
produce of the cattle farms established there, the working of coal
in the neighbourhood, and the export of timber from the surrounding
forests, the town of Punta Arenas is in a flourishing condition.
Its population numbers about 4000. But the colonization of the
western (Chilean) coast has generally failed, principally owing to the
adverse climatic conditions of the Cordillera in those latitudes.
Climate. — The climate is less severe than was supposed by early
travellers. The east slope is warmer than the west, especially
in summer, as a branch of the southern equatorial current reaches
its shores, whereas the west coast is washed by a cold current. At
Puerto Montt, on the inlet behind Chiloe Island, the mean annual
temperature is52°F. and the average extremes 78° and 29-5°, whereas
at Bahia Blanca near the Atlantic coast and just outside the northern
confines of Patagonia the annual temperature is 59° and the range
much greater. At Punta Arenas, in the extreme south, the mean
temperature is 43° and the average extremes 76° and 28°. The
prevailing winds are westerly, and the westward slope has a much
heavier precipitation than the eastern; thus at Puerto Montt the
mean annual precipitation is 97 in., but at Bahia Blanca it is 19 in.
At Punta Arenas it is 22 in.
Fauna. — The guanaco, the puma, the zorro or Brazilian fox (Canis
azarae), the zorrino or Mephitis patagonica (a kind of skunk), and
the tuco-tuco or Ctenomys magellanicus (a rodent) are the most
characteristic mammals of the Patagonian plains. The guanaco
roam in herds over the country and form with the ostrich {Rhea
americana, and more rarely Rhea darwinii) the chief means of sub-
sistence for the natives, who hunt them on horseback with dogs and
bolas. Bird-life is often wonderfully abundant. The carrancha
or carrion-hawk (Polyborus tharus) is one of the characteristic
objects of a Patagonian landscape; the presence of long-tailed green
parakeets {Conurus cyanolysius) as far south as the shores of the
strait attracted the attention of the earlier navigators; and humming-
birds may be seen flying amidst the falling snow. Of the many kinds
of water-fowl it is enough to mention the flamingo, the upland goose,
and in the strait the remarkable steamer duck.
Popiilaiion. — The natives of Patagonia are nearly extinct.
Here and there one may find a Tehuelchian or Gennaken encamp-
ment, but natives of pure race are now very scarce, and the two
races all told probably do not number more than 100 male
individuals. The Tehuelches were the dominant race in Pata-
gonia. These people, from whom the name of Tierra de Pata-
gones was given by Magellan on observing their large footprints,
are remarkable for their great stature, having an average height
of 6 ft. to 6 ft. 4 in. They are not known to have applied any
collective name to their various tribes; Tehuelche is the Arau-
canian name for them. They have been described as kindly
in disposition, though sometimes quarrelsome; skilled in the
chase, addicted to gambling and to drinking, though also capable
of long endurance of privation. Their religion recognized a
Great Spirit, and designated the new moon as an object of
worship. The Gennakens differ in type and language from the
Tehuelches. The remaining population is composed of Arau-
canians, a mixture of the Tehuelches and Gennaken. But these
are not the only type of people who have dwelt in Patagonia.
The ancient burial-places have yielded the bones of other races
quite distinct from the present inhabitants, some of them having
greatly resembled the primitive types which are met with more
to the north, in the Argentine Chaco and in Brazil; while others,
again, strongly resembled certain of the Pacific races, in that
they possessed ethnic characteristics which have not been
observed elsewhere in South America. Among these remains
every type of artificial deformity of the skuU hitherto known
has been found, while at the present time the natives only
practise the occipital deformation which is so common among
the western tribes of America.
History. — Patagonia was discovered in 1520 by Ferdinand
Magellan, who on his passage along the coast named many of the
more striking features — Gulf of San Matias, Cape of 11,000
Virgins (now simply Cape Virgenes), &c. By 161 1 the Pata-
gonian god Setebos (Settaboth in Pigafetta) was familiar to the
hearers of the Tempest. Rodrigo de Isla, despatched inland in
1535 from San Matias by Alcazava Sotomayor (on whom western
Patagonia had been conferred by the king of Spain), was the first
to traverse the great Patagonian plain, and, but for the mutiny
of his men, he would have struck across the Andes to the Chilean
side. Pedro de Mendoza, on whom the country was next
bestowed, lived to found Buenos Aires, but not to carry his
explorations to the south. Alonzo de Camargo (1539), Juan
Ladrilleros (1557) and Hurtado de Mendoza (1558) helped to
make known the western coasts, and Sir Francis Drake's voyage
in 1577 down the eastern coast through the strait and northward
by Chile and Peru was memorable for several reasons; but the
geography of Patagonia owes more to Pedro Sarmiento de
Gamboa (1579-1580), who, devoting himself especially to the
south-west region, made careful and accurate surveys. The
settlement which he founded at Nombre de Dios and San Felipe
were neglected by the Spanish government, and the latter was
in such a miserable state when Thomas Cavendish visited it in
1587 that he called it Port Famine. The district in the neigh-
bourhood of Puerto Deseado, explored by John Davis about the
same period, was taken possession of by Sir John Narborough in
the name of King Charles II. in 1669. In the second half of the
i8th century knowledge of Patagonia was augmented by Byron
(1764-1765), S. WaUis (1766) and L. A. de Bougainville (1766);
Thomas Falkner, a Jesuit who " resided near forty years in
those parts," published his Description of Patagonia (Hereford,
1774); Francesco Viedma founded El Carmen, and Antonio
advanced inland to the Andes (1782); and Basilio Villarino
ascended the Rio Negro (1782). The "Adventure" and
" Beagle " expeditions under Philip King (1826-1830) and Robert
Fitzroy (1832-1836) were of first-rate importance, the latter
especially from the participation of Charles Darwin; but of the
interior of the country nothing was observed except 200 miles
of the course of the Santa Cruz. Captain G. C. Musters in 1869
wandered in company with a band of Tehuelches through the
whole length of the country from the strait to the Manzaneros
in the north-west, and collected a great deal of information
about the people and their mode of life. Since that date ex-
plorations have been carried on by F. P. Moreno, Ramon Lista,
Carlos M. Moyano, A. Bcrtrand, H. Steffen, P. Kriiger, R.
Hauthal, C. Burckhardt, O. Nordenskiold, J. B. Hatcher, the
surveyors of the Argentine and Chilean Boundary Commissions
and others.
Bibliographical lists for Patagonia are given in J. Wappaus,
Handbuch der Geogr. u. Stat, des ehemal. span. Mittel- nnd Siid-
Amerika (Leipzig, 1863-1870); in V. G. (Juesada, La Patagonia y las
tierras australes del continente americana (Buenos Aires, 1875); and
in T. Coan, Adventures in Patagonia (New York, 1880). See also
C. Darwin, Journal of Researches (London, 1845). and Geological
Observations on South America (London, 1846); W. Parker Snow,
A Two Years' Cruise off . . . Patagonia (London, 1857) ;G. C. Musters,
At Home with the Patagonians (London, 1871); R. O. Cunningham,
Nat. Hist, of the Strait of Magellan (Edinburgh, 1871 ) ; F. P. Moreno,
Viaje a la Patagonia austral (Buenos Aires, 1879) ; Rapport prilimin-
aire Neuqnen, Chubut, et Rio Negro (La Plata, 1897); .Apuntes pre-
liminares (Buenos Aires, 1897); "Explorations in Patagonia" in
Geographical Journal, xiv. (London, 1899); ^nd "Patagonia" in
the National Geographical Magazine (Washington, 1897); Lady
Florence Dixie, Across Patagonia (London, 1880); R. Lista, Mis
esploraciones . . . en la Patagonia (Buenos Aires, 1880) ^ Informe
go2
PATAN— PATEL
official . . . de la exp. al Rio Negro (under General Roca, 1879,
Buenos Aires, 1882J; Giacomo Bove, Patagonia, Terra del Fuoco
(Genoa, 1883); La Region central de las tierras magallanicas
(Santiago, 1886); H. Steffen in Petermanns Mitteilungen, xl. (1894);
Espedicion exploradora del Rio Pa/fwa (Santiago, 1895); "The
Patagonian Cordillera " in Geographical Journal (1900); R. Hauthal,
in Globus (1897-1898); and Roth, VVherti and Burckhardt in Revisla
rtiuseo de la Plata, ix. (1898} ; O. Nordenskiold, " A Journey in South-
western Patagonia" in Geog. Journal, x. (London, 1897); H.
Hesketh Prichard, Through the Heart of Patagonia (London, 1902) ;
Sir T. H. Holdich, " The Patagonian Andes," in Geog. Journ. xxiii.
(1904) ; F. P. Outes, La Edad de la Piedra en Patagonia (Buenos Aires,
1905) ; Reports (1903 seq.) of Princeton University expedition to
Patagonia.
PATAN ( = " city "), the name of two historic cities in India.
One of these, known as Anhilwada Patan, was the capital of the
last Hindu dynasty of Gujarat, sacked by Mahmud of Ghazni
and finally destroyed by the Mahommedans in 1298. Near
its ruins, which are not considerable, has sprung up a modern
town, in the state of Baroda (pop. 31,402), which contains many
Jain temples (with palm-leaf MSS.) and has manufactures of
fine cotton and silk textiles. The other Patan, known as Lalita
Patan, was the capital of one of the three Newar kingdoms in the
valley of Nepal, conquered by the Gurkhas at the end of the iSth
century. It is situated close to Katmandu, on the opposite
bank of the river Baghmati. The population is estimated at
about 30,000, mostly Newars, who are Buddhists; and the build-
ings consist mainly of old Buddhist shrines and monasteries.
PATARA, an ancient town of Asia Minor, on the Lycian coast,
3 m. E. of the mouth of the Xanthus river (mod. Eshen Chai).
It was noted from early times for its temple and oracle of Apollo,
and, as the port of Xanthus and other towns of the same valley,
had a large trade, and was regarded as the metropolis of Lycia.
Enlarged by Ptolemy Philadelphus I. and renamed for a time
Arsinoe, it was adorned by Vespasian with baths. St Paul
changed there into a " ship of Phoenicia " on his way to Jerusalem
in A.D. 60. Patara was the reputed birth-place of St Nicholas.
The principal extant monuments are a triple triumphal arch, with
inscription, through which ran the road to Xanthus, and the
walls, discernible on either hand of it; the theatre, 265 ft. in
diameter, built in a.d. 145 (as attested by an inscription) and
wonderfully well preserved, though largely filled with drift sand;
and the thermae built by Vespasian north of the harbour.
PATARENES, or Patarelli, a name apparently first used in
Milan about 1058 to denote the extreme opponents of clerical
marriages. The party was so called because, under the leader-
ship of Arialdus, a deacon of Milan, its members used to assemble
in the Pataria or ragmen's quarter of that city (pates being a
provincial word for a rag). In the 13th century the name was
appropriated by the Cathari, who said it came from pati (to
suffer), because they endured hardship for their faith. See
BOGOMILS.
PATAS MONKEY, a West African species of the guenon
monkeys (see Guenox), characterized by its large size, the
foxy-red colour of the upper parts, blue face and white belly.
Scientifically it is known as Cercopilhecus {Erythrocebiis) patas,
and typifies a section of its genus of which the other represent-
ative is the East African nisnas (C. [E.] pyrrhonotus). See
Primates.
PATAVIUM (mod. Padova, Eng. Padua, q.v.), an ancient city
of Venetia, Italy, 55 m. E. of Verona by road. Its central
position gave it great importance. One road led from it south-
west to Ateste, Hostiha (where the Po was crossed) and Bononia;
another east-north-east to Altinum and Concordia. It was
accessible by canals from the sea, a distance of about 30 m. The
old town (40 ft. above sea-level) lay and lies on a peninsula
surrounded by the Bacchighone except on the south, where it
was protected by a canal. Of the bridges which cross the canals
by which Padua is now intersected, four go back to Roman times.
Remains of a public building, possibly belonging to the forum,
were found in the centre of the modern city in making the found-
ations of the Caffe Pedrocchi at the south-west angle of Piazza
Cavour — possibly a colonnade of fine Corinthian architecture
(see P. Selvatico, Rclazionc dcllo Scaro . . . sit la Piazzctta
Pedrocchi. A large mosaic with geometric designs was also
recently discovered in the centre of the city. In imperial times
the town spread even farther, as is shown by the position outside
the town of the amphitheatre, built of blocks of local stone with
brick courses, which was excavated in 1881 (G. Ghirardini in
Nolizie degli Scavi, 1881, 225). It measures 325 by 205 ft., and
is the only Roman building of which visible remains exist. A so-
called " paletta " (a bronze plate with a handle — possibly a bell
or a votive axe or a simple pendant) with a figure of a horse on
one side and a votive inscription on the other, belonging to the
5th or 4th century B.C., was found in 1899 at a great depth close
to the church of S. Antonio (G. Ghirardini in Notizie degli Scavi,
1901, 314). The name of the town is probably connected with
Padus (Po). According to the legend it was founded by the
Trojan Antenor. The memory of the defeat of the Spartan king
Cleonymus by the fleet of Patavium in 302 B.C. was perpetuated
by Spartan spoils in the temple of Juno and a yearly sea-fight
which took place on the river. On land Patavium was equally
powerful (it had been able, we are told, to put 120,000 men into
the field), and perpetually made war against its Celtic neighbours.
Patavium acquired Roman citizenship with the rest of Gallia
Transpadana in 49 B.C. Under Augustus, Strabo tells us,
Patavium surpassed all the cities of the north in wealth, and in
the number of Roman knights among its citizens in the census of
Augustus was only equalled by Gades, which had also 500.
Its commercial importance was also great, being especially
due to its trade in wool. The numerous inscriptions, however,
as Th. Mommsen remarks (Corp. inscr. latin, v. 268), show
remarkable dignity and simphcity and avoidance of pomposity;
to this Phny the younger and Martial testify. The importance
of Patavium as a literary centre was also considerable. Livy,
Q. Asconius Pedianus and Thrasea Paetus were natives of the
town; and Quintihan speaks of the directness and simphcity of
their diction as Patavinilas, comparing it with the artificial
obscurity of the writers of Rome itself.
After the 2nd century a.d. it is hardly mentioned, and seems to
have been outstripped by other cities, such as ]\Iilan and Aquileia.
It was destroyed by the Lombards with fire and sword, and it
was then that it lost practically aU its monuments of the Roman
period. (T. As.)
PATEL, FRAMJEE NASARWANJEE (1804- 1894), Parsee
merchant and philanthropist, was born in 1804, and had a sound
vernacular education, with a smattering of Enghsh received
in Bombay. At the age of fifteen he entered upon a business
career, and its pursuit proved so congenial that by 1827 he had
worked his way to a partnership in the firm of Frith, Bomanjee &
Co. Banking facihties being then exceedingly scanty, such
Parsees as had any capital at command acted as bankers and
brokers to the rising English firms. Patel's experience enabled
him in a few years to raise the status of his compatriots to the
higher level of independent merchants, and he fotmded in 1844 a
business house under the name of Wallace & Co., in which he was
himself a partner with the English members of the firm. When
he retired in 1858 he had amassed a large competence, and in the
following year he established a firm on the same lines under the
style of Framjee, Sands & Co., of which the members were some
of his sons, together with English partners. It was, however,
not so much for his success as a merchant, as for his spirit and
liberality as an educationist, reformer and philanthropist, that
his name is notable in the annals of western India. He entered
on his civic labours in 1837, and in all pubhc movements figured
prominently as an accredited representative of his community.
As a pioneer of education, both for boys and girls, his example
inspired the younger men of his time, like Dadabhai Naoroji,
at one time M.P. for East Finsbury, and Naoroji Fardoonjee and
Sorabjee Shapurjee Bengallee. When Mountstuart Elphinstone,
during his governorship, conceived the idea of concentrating
the literarj' and educational activity which had arisen from
isolated efforts on the part of men who had themselves been
brought into contact with Western culture, among his chief
collaborators were Framjee Cowasjee Banajee and Framjee Patel.
To their initiative was due the estabhshment of the Elphinstone
Institution, which comprised a high school and, after some years,
PATEN— PATENTS
903
a college, which continue to hold foremost rank among the similar
academies since established in western India. But Mr Patel's
most remarkable public service was performed in connexion with
the Parsee Law Association, of which he was president. Since
their exodus from Persia the domestic affairs of the Parsees had
been in a very unsettled state. Matrimonial obhgations and
the rights of succession in cases of intestacy had fallen into
hopeless confusion, and the adjudication of disputes in relation
thereto was effected by certain elders of the community, who had
neither the knowledge and help of fixed principles to guide their
judgments, nor any authority to enforce their decisions. The
case of Ardcsir Curseljce v. Pecroxebai , which came up on appeal
before the privy council in England, brought to hght the strange
fact that even the supreme court of Bomb.ny had no jurisdiction
over matrimonial and ecclesiastical disputes among Parsees.
This state of lawlessness was recognized by that community as
intolerable, and the agitation which ensued thereupon led to the
appointment of a commission, of which the distinguished jurist,
Sir Joseph Arnould, was the president and Framjee Patel the chief
Parsee member. The Parsee Law Association, under the
guidance of Patel and Sorabjee Bengallee, rendered invaluable
help to the commission, and their joint efforts resulted in the
passing by the government of India of the Parsee Marriage and
Divorce Act and the Parsee Intestate Succession Act (15 and 21
of 1865). These acts form the charter of matrimonial and ecclesi-
astical status for the Parsees. At the time of his death in 1894,
at the ripe age of nearly ninety years, Framjee Patel was the
most revered and best beloved of the distinguished natives of
India, having during an eventful public Ufe extending over sixty
years worked in co-operation with three generations of the most
prominent of his compatriots to better the condition of their
country. His family surname refers to the title of patel, that is,
" mayor," of Bombay, conferred on its founder for services
rendered to the English in 1692. (M. M. Bh.)
PATEN (through the Fr. from Lat. patina or patena, Gr.
■Karavq, a flat dish), the name of the shallow plate or dish used in
the celebration of the Eucharist for the consecrated bread or
wafer. The paten has from the first been almost always of a
circular shape. There is a rare example of a rectangular one,
dating from the 7th century, in the Cabinet des Medailles in
Paris. The central portion of the paten is sometimes decorated
with the engraved head of the Saviour, or commonly with a group
of lobes.
PATENOTRE DES NOYERS, JULES (1845- ), French
diplomatist, was born at Baye (Marne) on the 20th of April
1845. Educated at the Ecole Normale Superieure, he taught for
some years in the lyCee at Algiers before he joined the diplo-
matic service in 1871. His most important mission was in 1884,
when he was sent as French minister to China to regularize the
French dominion in Annam. After arranging at Hue with the
king of Annam the condition of the French protectorate, he
proceeded to Shanghai to settle with China the difiiculties
which had arisen over the evacuation of Tongking by the Chinese
troops. The negotiation failed, and the French admiral resumed
hostilities against China in August. Next year Patenotre signed
with Li Hung Chang a treaty of peace at Tien-tsin, by which the
French protectorate in Annam and Tongking was recognized, and
both parties agreed to remain within their own borders in the
future. After serving as minister plenipotentiary in Morocco
(1888-1891), M. Pateiiotre was sent to Washington, where he was
raised to the rank of ambassador in 1893. He was ambassador
at Madrid from 1897 to 1902.
Pierre Loti in Au Maroc has described his diplomacy in Morocco.
M. Patenotre himself published some reminiscences in the Revue
des deux mondes.
PATENTS, properly documents conferring some privilege,
right, &c., short for " letters patent " {q.v.). Patents for
inventions, instruments which formerly bore the great seal of the
United Kingdom, are now issued at the Patent Office in London
under the seal of that office. By their means inventors obtain
a monopoly in their inventions for fourteen years, a term which,
if insufficient to remunerate the inventor, can be extended.
This monopoly is founded on exactly the same principle as the
copyright enjoyed by authors and artists. There are persons
who argue that no such privilege should be permitted; there are
others who think that the most trifling exertions of the inventive
faculties should be protected. The right course clearly lies
between these extremes. To grant a very long term of exclusive
possession might be detrimental to the public, since it would tend
to stop the progress of improvement. A limited property must
therefore be aUowed— large enough to give the inventor an
opportunity of reaping a fair reward, but not barring the way for
an unreasonable period. And, when this compromise has been
decided on, it will be seen how difficult it may be to determine
beforehand what is the real merit of an invention, and apportion
the time to that merit. Hence it has been found necessary to
allot one fixed period for all kinds of inventions falling within
the purview of the patent laws.
United Kingdom.- — I'ormerly the reigning prince considered
himself entitled, as part of his prerogative, to grant privileges
of the nature of monopolies to any one who had gained his favour.
These grants became so numerous that they were oppressive and
unjust to various classes of the commonwealth; and hence, in
the reign of James I., a statute was wrung from that king which
declared all monopolies that were grievous and inconvenient to
the subjects of the realm to be void. (See Letters Patent;
Monopoly.) There was, however, a special exception from this
enactment of all letters patent and grants of privilege of the
" sole working or making of any manner of new manufacture
within the realm to the true and first inventor of such manufacture,
which others at the time of making such letters patent and grants
should not use, so they be not contrary to law, nor mischievous
to the state by raising of the prices of commodities at home or
hurt of trade or generally inconvenient." Upon these words
hangs the whole law of letters patent for inventions. Many
statutes were afterwards passed, but these were aU repealed by
the Patent Act of 1883 (46 & 47 Vict. c. 57), which, besides
introducing a new procedure, modified the law in several par-
ticulars. Subsequently acts amending the law were passed in
1885, 1886, 1888, 1901, 1902 and 1907. These acts, with the
exception of certain sections of the act of 1883, were repealed by a
consohdating act, the Patents and Designs Act 1907, which also
introduced new provisions into English patent law. Where
the law is not expressly laid down by act of parliament, it has to
be gathered from the numerous decisions of the courts, for patent
law is to no inconsiderable extent " judge-made law."
The inventions for which patents are obtained are chiefly
either vendible articles formed by chemical or mechanical
operations, such as cloth, alloys, vulcanized india-rubber, &c.,
or machinery and apparatus, or processes. It may be remarked
here that a scientific principle cannot form the subject of a valid
patent unless its application to a practical and useful end and
object is shown. An abstract notion, a philosophical idea, may
be extremely valuable in the realm of science, but before it is
allowed to form a sound basis for a patent the world must be
shown how to apply it so as to gain therefrom some immediate
material advantage. With regard to processes, the language of
the statute of James has been strained to bring them within the
words " any manner of new manufacture," and judges on the
bench have admitted that the exposition of the act has gone much
beyond the letter. However, it is undoubted law that a process
is patentable; and patents are accordingly obtained for processes
every day.
The principal classes of patentable inventions seem to be
these: (i) new contrivances applied to new ends, (2) new con-
trivances applied to old ends, (3) new combinations of old parts,
whether relating to material objects or processes, (4) new methods
of applying a well-known object.
With regard to a patent for the new application of a well-
known object it may be remarked that there must be some display
of ingenuity, some amount of invention, in making the appli-
cation, otherwise the patent will be invalid on the ground that
the subject-matter is destitute of novelty. For example, a
fishplate, used before the introduction of railways to connect
904
PATENTS
wooden beams could not be patented to connect the rails of a
railway {Harwood v. Great Northern Railway Co., 1860-1865, 11
H. L. C. 654) ; nor can a spring long used in the rear of a carriage
be patented for use in the front [Morgan v. Windover, 1890,
7 R. P. C. 131). But a small amount of invention will suffice, so
long as the improvement is manifest, either as saving time or
labour (Rickmann v. Thierry, 1896, 14 R.P.C. 105: Patent
Exploitation, Ltd. v. Siemens & Co., 1904, 21 R.P.C. 549).
Whatever be the nature of the invention, it must possess the
incidents of utihty and novelty, else any patent obtained in
respect of it will be invahd. The degree of utility need not,
however, be great. As to novelty, this is the rock upon which
most patents split ; for, if it can be shown that other persons have
used or published the invention before the date of the patent, it
will fall to the ground, although the patentee was an independent
inventor deriving his ideas from no one else. The difficulty of
steering clear of this rock will be apparent at once. Suppose A
in London patents an invention the result of his own ingenuity
and patient study, and it afterwards appears that B, in some
distant part of the kingdom, had been previously openly using
the same thing in his workshop, A's patent is good for nothing.
Thus, where the patent sued on was a lock, it was proved that a
similar lock had been in use on a gate adjoining a public road for
sixteen years prior to the patent, which was accordingly invali-
dated (Carpenter v. Smith, 1842, i Web. P.C. 540). It is therefore a
very frequent subject of inquiry, whether an invention has been
previously used to such an extent as to have been pubUcly used
in the sense attached by the courts to this phrase. But whereas
" user " in public is sufficient prior pubhcation to invalidate a
subsequent patent for the invention so used, pubhcation in books,
&c., will not be a bar to novelty unless its effect is to make the
invention actually a part of pubhc knowledge; and in dealing
with alleged anticipations by patents that have never come into
general use the courts will not invahdate a subsequent patent
unless a person of ordinary knowledge of the subject, on having
the alleged anticipation brought under his notice, would at once
perceive, understand, and be able practically to apply the in-
vention without making experiments or seeking for further
information. The inventor himself is not allowed to use his
invention, either in public or secretly, with a view to profit,
before the date of the patent. Thus, if he manufactures an
article by some new process, keeping the process an entire secret,
but selling the produce, he cannot afterwards obtain a patent
in respect of it. If he were allowed to do this he might in many
cases easily obtain a monopoly in his invention for a much longer
period than that allowed by law {Morgan v. Seaward, 1837,
I Web. P.C. 192). The rule that an inventor's use of the
invention invalidates a subsequent patent does not, however,
apply to cases where the use was only by way of experiment with
a view to improve or test the invention {Elias v. Grovcsend
Tinplale Co., 1890, 7 P.O.R. 466). And it has been repeatedly
decided that the previous experiments of other persons, if in-
complete or abandoned before the realization of the discovery,
will not have the effect of vitiating a patent. Even the prior
discovery of an invention will not prevent another independent
discoverer from obtaining a valid patent if the earUer inventor
kept the secret to himself, the law holding that he is the " true
and first inventor " who first obtains a patent.
The Patents .i^ct 1883 provided that the exhibition of an in-
vention at an industrial or international exhibition certified as
such by the Board of Trade, or the pubhcation of any description
of the invention during the period of the holding of the exhibition,
or its use for the purpose of the exhibition in the place where it is
held, or during the period of the exhibition by any person else-
where, without the privity or consent of the inventor, should not
prejudice the right of the inventor or of his legal personal
representative to apply for and obtain a patent, or the validity
of any patent granted on the application, provided that two
conditions are complied with, viz. {a) the exhibitor must, before
exhibiting the invention, give the Comptroller-General a pre-
scribed notice of his intention to do so; and (ft) the application
for the patent must be made before or within six months from the
date of the opening of the exhibition. The Patents Act 1886,
enabled the Sovereign, by order in council, to extend the pro-
vision above mentioned to industrial and international exhibi-
tions held out of the United Kingdom. The act of 1907 re-enacted
these provisions (§§ 45, 59). When an invention is the joint
production of more persons than one, they must all apply for and
obtain a joint patent, for a patent is rendered invalid on showing
that a material part of the invention was due to some one not
named therein. The mere suggestion of a workman employed
by an inventor to carry out his ideas will not, however, require
that he should be joined, provided that the former adds nothing
substantial to the invention, but merely works out in detail the
principle discovered by his employer.
Procedure. — The attributes of novelty and utility being possessed
in due degree by an invention, it remains to put in motion the
machinery for its protection. The Patents Act 1907, re-enacting
former provisions, requires an application to be made in a prescribed
form (the forms and stamps are on sale at all postal money order
offices in the United Kingdom), and left at or sent by post to the
patent office in the prescribed manner. The application must
contain a declaration that the applicant is the true and first in-
ventor, and it must be accompanied by either a provisional or
complete specification. A provisional specification describes the
nature of an invention, and a complete specification particularly
describes and ascertains the nature of the invention and the manner
in which it is to be performed. Since the introduction of the
patent specification, it has been necessary that an invention pro-
tected by patent should be accurately described by the inventor.
Formerly, when the condition on which letters patent issued was
that the patentee should file a specification completely describing the
nature of his invention within a certain time after the grant,
the function of giving the necessary preliminary information on the
subject was to some extent discharged by the title; at any rate,
the validity of the grant was liable to be objected to on the ground
of the title being too general. Under the present law the task of
preliminary disclosure falls to the provisional specification, intro-
duced by the Patent Law Amendment Act 1852, and continued
by the Patents Acts of 1883 and 1907, although a patentee may,
under the latter statutes, dispense with a provisional specification
if he thinks proper to file a complete one in the first instance. Where
however, these two specifications are filed, it becomes of vital
moment to an inventor that the true relation between them should
be maintained as defined above. The object of the provisional
specification is to secure immediate protection, and to enable a
patentee to work at and improve his invention without the risk of
his patent being invalidated by premature publication. He is
therefore entitled to embody in his complete specification any im-
proved method of working his invention which he may discover in
the interval; and he is indeed bound to do so, since, as we have
said, the price that a man who desires a patent has to pay to the
public for the privilege is that he should make a full disclosure of
his invention in his complete specification. But there is a limit
to what the patentee may do in this respect. He must not describe
in his complete specification an invention different from that
declared in the provisional. If he falls into this error there is said
to be a " variance " or " disconformity " between the two specifica-.
tions. The Patents Act 1883, § 9, made it the duty of the ex-
aminers of the Patent Office to consider the question of discon-
formity between specifications on applications for patents, but
the only power the comptroller had, on discovery of disconformity,
was to refuse to accept the specification until the disconforming
parts had been eliminated. By the act of 1907, § 6, he may now
refuse to accept the complete specification until it has been amended
to his satisfaction, or (with the consent of the applicant) cancel
the provisional specification and treat the application as having
been made on the date at which the complete specification was
left. Moreover, if the complete specification includes an invention
not included in the provisional specification, the application may
proceed as a whole, or may be divided, and the claim for the ad-
ditional invention included in the complete specification be re-
garded as an application for that invention made on the date at
which the complete specification was left. An act of 1902 (which,
with the exception of a portion dealing with compulsory licences,
came into operation on the 1st of Januar>' 1905) provided for an
examination or search as to novelty, such investigation dealing
with British complete specifications published and dated within
fifty years prior to the date of the application. This search was
re-enacted by the act of 1907 (§ 7) and power given to the comp-
troller to refuse the grant of a patent in cases in which the invention
had been wholly and specifically claimed in specifications to which
his search had extended.
The term for which a patent is originally granted is fourteen
years, but a patentee may, after advertisement according to the
rules of the Supreme Court, petition for a further term. The court,
in considering its decision, takes regard of the nature and merit
of the invention in relation to the public, of the profits made by
PATENTS
905
the patentee as such, and of all the circumstances of the case. If
it appears to the court that the patentee has been inadequately
remunerated by his patent, it may extend the term of the patent
to a further term not exceeding seven or, in exceptional cases,
fourteen years, or may order the grant of a new patent for a certain
term, with any restrictions or provisions it may think fit (Act of
1907, § 18).
Patent privileges, like most other rights, can be made the subject
of sale. Partial interests can also be carved out of them by means
of licences, instruments which empower other persons to exercise
the invention, cither universally and for the full time of the patent
(when they are tantamount to an assignment of the patentee's
entire rights), or for a limited time, or within a limited district.
By an exclusive licence is meant one that restrains the patentee
from granting other licences to any one else. By means of a licence
a patentee may derive benefit from his patent without entering
into trade and without running the risks of a partnership.
One of the regulations of the act of 1883 was that a patentee
could be compelled by the Board of Trade to grant licences to persons
who were able to show that the patent was not being worked in
the United Kingdom, or that the reasonable requirements of the
public with respect to the invention could not be supplied, or that
any person was prevented from working or using to the best ad-
vantage an invention of which he was possessed. This regulation,
however, remained practically a dead letter, for only three applica-
tions were made between the years 1883 and 1897, and these never
proceeded to a hearing. After 1897 a few petitions were heard,
but even so late as in 1908 there was only one petition and that
was withdrawn by agreement between the parties. By § 3 of the
act of 1902, the hearing of petitions for a grant of compulsory
licences was transferred to the judicial committee of the privy
council, but the act of 1907 substituted the High Court as the
tribunal in the place of the judicial committee. It also laid down
that the reasonable requirements of the public should not be deemed
to be satisfied: (a) if by reason of the default of the patentee to
manufacture to an adequate extent and supply on reasonable
terms, the patented article or any parts thereof necessary for its
efficient working or to carry on the patented process to an ade-
quate extent or to grant licences on reasonable terms, any existing
trade or industry or the establishment of any new trade or in-
dustry in the United Kingdom is unfairly prejudiced, or the demand
for the patented article is not reasonably met; or (6) if any trade
or industry in the United Kingdom is unfairly prejudiced by the
conditions attached by the patentee before or after the passing of
the act to the purchase, hire or use of the patented article or to
the using or working of the patented process. Clause b is an en-
deavour to remedy an abuse by which patentees bound down pur-
chasers and licences by all kinds of conditions. Section 38 of the act
of 1907 contains also a further remedy, making it unlawful in any
contract in relation to the sale or lease of, or licence to use or work,
any patented article or process to insert conditions prohibiting or
restricting the use of the patent or process from using articles
supplied by a third person or requiring him to use other articles
not protected by the patent. Such conditions are declared " null
and void as being in restraint of trade and contrary to public
policy."
Another new and very important provision of the act of 1907
is that dealing with the revocation of patents worked outside the
United Kingdom. It may be stated here that in the year 1908
out of a total number of 16,284 patentees, 2819 were resident in
the United^ States, 2516 in Germany, 822 in France, 334 in Austria-
Hungary, 200 in Switzerland, 166 in the Australian Commonwealth,
159 in Belgium, 155 in Canada, 139 in Sweden and 134 in Italy.
It had been a common practice to take out licences in the United
Kingdom (especially in the dyeing industry) in order to close the
British market to all except the patentees and their licensees,
the patented articles or processes being worked entirely abroad.
Section 27 of the act of 1907 enacted that at any time not less
than four years after the date of a patent and not less than
one year after the passing of the act, any person might apply
to the comptroller for the revocation of a patent on the ground
that the patented article or process is manufactured or carried on
exclusively or mainly outside the United Kingdom. The comp-
troller is given power to make an order revoking the patent forth-
with or after a reasonable interval, unless the patentee can show
satisfactory reasons. The insertion of this provision resulted in
the establishment of many factories in the United Kingdom.
Legal Remedies. — A patentee's remedy for an infringement of
his rights is by civil suit, there being no criminal proceedings in
such a case. In prosecuting such suit he subjects those rights to
a searching examination, for the alleged infringer is at liberty to
show that the invention is not new, that the patentee is not the
true and first inventor, &c., as well as to prove that the alleged
infringement is not really an infringement. But it may here be
remarked that a patentee is not bound down (unless he chooses so
to be) to the precise mode of carrying the invention into effect
described in the specification. If the principle is new, it is not
to be expected that he can describe every mode of working it; he
will sufficiently secure the principle by giving some illustrations of
it ; and no person will be permitted to adopt some mode of carrying
the same principle into effect on the ground that such mode has
not been described by the patentee. ()n the other hand, when the
principle is not new, a patentee can only secure the particular
method which he has invented, and other persons may safely use
other methods of effecting the same object. Instances of this
occur every day; and it is well known that scores of patents have
been taken out for screw-propellers, steam-hammers, water-meters,
&c., each of which is limited to the particular construction described,
and cannot be extended further. Again, where the invention
patented consists of a combination of parts, some old and some
new, the whole constituting a new machine or a new process, it is
not open to the world to copy the new part and reject the rest.
A man is not permitted to allege that the patent is for a combination,
and that, the identical combination not having been used, there
has been no infringement. If he has borrowed the substance of the
invention, it will be held that he has infringed the patent. At
common law a person who, alleging that he has a patent, threatens
his rivals in trade, is liable to an action for damages, but the plaintiff
cannot succeed without showing that the threats were made
maliciously. The Patents Act 1883 provided another remedy —
what is known as " the threats action." This has been incorporated
in the act of 1907, § 36. The statute makes the good faith of the
patentee threatening legal proceedings no answer to an action
brought against him by any person aggrieved by his threats if
the acts complained of are not in fact an infringement of the
patent, and if the patentee fails with due diligence to commence
and prosecute an action for infringement.
Extent and Construction. — The patent when sealed is to have effect
in the United Kingdom and the Isle of Man. The act of 1907,
unlike the Patent Law Amendment Act of 1852, does not extend
the monopoly to the Channel Islands.
The patent business of the United Kingdom is transacted at the
Patent Office in London under the superintendence of the comp-
troller, an officer appointed by the Board of Trade, under whose
direction he performs his duties. At this office is kept a register
of all patents issued, of assignments of patents, licences granted
under them, &c. An illustrated journal of patent inventions is
published at the same office, where printed copies of all specifica-
tions can also be obtained. The fees payable to government on
patents were considerably reduced by an order of the Board of
Trade which came into operation on the 1st of October 1892, and
may now be paid by convenient annual instalments. The follow-
ing are the present fees: before the expiration of the 4th year from
the date of the patent, £5 instead of £10; of the 5th year, £6 instead
of £10; of the 6th year, £j instead of £10; of the 7th year, £8 instead
of £10; of the 8th year, £9 instead of £15; of the loth year, £11
instead of £20; of the nth year, £12 instead of £20; of the 12th
year, £13 instead of £20; and of the 13th year, £14 instead of £20.
The preliminary fees amounting to £4 were left untouched by the
order but under the Patent Rates of 1905 an additional fee of £1
is payable on the sealing of the patent. The entire cost of a patent
is now reduced from £154 to £100.
A new Patent Office was constructed on the site of the old
buildings, the frontage extending from Southampton Buildings
into Staple Inn. The number of applications for patents, which
sprang from 5993 in 1883 to 17,110 in 1884, culminated in a total
of 30,952 for the year 1892, since which date a steady decline set
in down to 1900, when the number was 23,924. But the numbers
went up again, reaching 30,030 in 1906, but only 28,598 in 1908.
The number of patents sealed on application for a given year
shows less variation, the minimum being 8775 for 1885 against
16,060 in 1907. The proportion of seals to applications varies
from about 46 to 50%. The receipts from patent fees in 1908
were £262,890, against a total expenditure of £179,531.
The official publications of the Patent Office deser\'e some notice,
as, in the absence of official investigation into novelty, the onus
of search rests with the applicant or his agent. The procedure
has been greatly simplified by the publication, on a uniform system
and at a low rate (is. per volume), of illustrated abridgments of
specifications. From 1877 practically to date the searcher obtains
a chronological digest of all specifications falling within a given
class. To these classes there is a reference index, known as the
" abridgment class and index key," which at once directs the searcher
to his proper class and index heading.
Patent A geiits.— Patents are frequently obtained through the
intervention of persons termed patent agents, who devote them-
selves to this branch of business. Their position is now regulated
by statute. By the Patents Act 1888, it was provided that no
person should, after July i, 1889, be entitled to describe himself
(and whoever does so knowingly incurs liability to a maximum
penalty of £20) as a patent agent whether by advertisement, de-
scription of his place of business or otherwise, without being
registered as such in pursuance of the act. But the act preserves
the right to registration of every person who, to the satisfaction
of the Board of Trade, shows that he had been bona fide practising
as a patent agent before it passed. The Board of Trade is em-
powered by this statute to make from time to time general rules
for the purpose of carrying out its provisions, and by rules issued
in 1889, and reissued in 1891, the Board of Trade delegated to the
Institute of Patent Agents (which obtained a royal charter in
XX. 29 a
9o6
PATENTS
1 891) the care of the register of patent agents and the duty of hold-
ing the necessary examinations for entrance into the profession.
British Dominions. — The following notes on colonial law give
the salient facts. Prior to 1852 British letters patent e.xtended
to all the colonies, but the act of 1852 restricted the rights
granted to the United Kingdom, Channel Islands and Isle of
Man.
Australia. — The Commonwealth Acts are No. 21 of 1903, and
No. 19 of 1906. They are founded on the English act of 1883 and
amending acts. They provide for a department of patents con-
trolled by a commissioner " under the minister " (§ 10 of 1903).
Any person, whether a British subject or not, may apply for a
patent (§ 32 of 1903). The term of a patent is 14 years (§64
of 1903). The Commonwealth or a state may acquire patents
compulsorily (§§ 93, 94 of 1903). The act creates a new class of
" patent attorneys " (§ loi, 1903). There is an examination as to
novelty (§ 41 of 1903). The renewal fees amount to a sum of £5
before the end of the 4th year, and £5 before the end of the 7th
year from the date of the patent.
Bahama Islands. — The law is regulated by the following acts of
the colony: 52 Vict. c. 23; 53 Vict. c. 2; 54 Vict. c. 12; and
63 Vict. c. 3. Duration of patent 7 years, with power in governor
to renew for another 7 years, and thereafter for a third period of
7 years. The fees are £10 on filing specification, £10 for second
renewal and £20 for third. Apparently there is no preliminary
examination as to novelty.
Barbadoes. — Acts of 1903 (No. 31) and of 1908 (No. 10). Duration
of patent 14 years. The governor in council has power to grant
compulsory licences. Fees are £2, ids. on filing specification, £50
before the end of the 4th year and £100 before the end of the
7th year. No preliminary examination as to novelty.
Bermuda. — Act of 1902 (No. 51), on the lines of that of Trinidad.
British Guiana. — The law is regulated by ordinance No. 31 of
1902 and is practically the same as the English act of 1883. The
fees are $15 on filing specification and $100 before the end of
7 years.
British Honduras. — The law of the loth of September 1862 has
been re-enacted with slight modifications (see supplement to
Patent Laws of the World, No. 4, 1900). There is no examination
as to novelty.
British India. — The law is now governed by Act 5 of 1888, which
applies to the whole of British India. Duration of patent is 14
years. A preliminary examination into novelty might apparently
be ordered. The following taxes are payable: annual sums of
Rs. 50 from the 4th to the 8th year, and of Rs. 100 from the 8th to
the 13th year of the term.
British New Guinea. — The Queensland Patents Acts, No 13 of
1884 and No. 5 of 1886, have been adopted. See British New
Guinea ordinance No. 6 of 1889, schedule A.
British North Borneo. — Straits Settlements law (No. 12 of 1871),
adopted by Patents Proclamation 1887 (No. i of 1887).
Canada. — Patent legislation belongs exclusively to the Dominion
Parliament [B.N. A. Act 1867, § 91 (22)]. The existing acts are
c. 61 of 1886; 55 & 56 Vict. c. 24; 56 Vict. c. 34; and act of 1903.
The duration of the patent is 18 years. At the time of application
the applicant may pay the full fee required for that term (viz.
$60) or the partial fee required for the term of 6 years ($20)
or for the term of 12 years ($40). If a partial fee only is paid,
the amount is stated in the patent, and the patent ceases at
the end of the term covered by such partial payment, unless
before the expiration of such term the patentee pays the fee
required for the further term of 6 or 12 years, viz. $20 in the
former case and S40 in the latter. There is a preliminary examina-
tion into novelty by examiners, with an appeal from the decision
of the commissioner of patents to the governor in council. The
patent is void unless it is worked in Canada within 2 years, or if
after the expiration of 12 months, or any authorized extension of
either of these periods, the patentee imports the invention into
Canada, but conditions may be substituted for condition as to
manufacture in Canada, as, for example, a licence to another to
manufacture, &c.
Cape of Good Hope. — The law is regulated by act No. 17 of i860.
No. 24 of igo2 and No. 28 of 1904. There is no preliminary ex-
amination into novelty, and the act contains no provisions for
compulsory working, or as to the importation of patented articles
from abroad.
Ceylon. — The law is now regulated by act 15 of 1906. The
duration of the patent is 14 years, with power vested in the governor
in council to grant extensions of 7 and 14 years. There is a pre-
liminary examination as to novelty, but there are no provisions as
to compulsory working or the importation of patented articles
from abroad. The renewal fees are Rs. 50 annually from before
the expiration of the 4th to before the expiration of the 8th year
from the filing of the specification, Rs. 100 after the expiration of
the 8th and before the expiration of the 9th year, Rs. 150 after the
expiration of the 9th and before the expiration of the loth year,
and Rs. 200 annually after the expiration of the loth year to before
the expiration of the 13th year.
Channel Islands. — These are not now included in grant of letters
patent. See form of grant, schedule I., form D., Patents Act 1883.
Falkland Islands. — By ordinance No. 2 of 1903 letters patent for
any invention may be granted to any person holding in the United
Kingdom a valid patent for any invention or to any person to
whom all interest in the patent has been assigned. The fee on
application is £5.
Fiji Islands. — The law depends on ordinances No. 3 of 1879 and
7 of 1882, and order of December 29, 1890. The duration of the
patent is 14 years. There is no preliminary e.xamination.and there
are no provisions as to compulsory working or importation from
abroad. The patent is not subject to any payment after issue. A
fee of 5 guineas is payable on deposit of petition and specification.
The fee for provisional protection is 5 guineas; on obtaining letters
patent the applicant pays 10 guineas.
Gambia. — An ordinance (No. 5 of 1900) is practically identical
with the English act of 1883. No. 5 of 1904 made international
arrangements for protection of patents.
Gibraltar. — There is no patent law in Gibraltar, but special
ordinances are sometimes passed extending the privileges of British
patentees to the dependency for the unexpired residues of the
original terms. See as examples No. 5 of 1890, No. i of 1896,
and No. i of 1898.
Gold Coast. — The law is now regulated by the Patents Ordinances
1900 to 1906, which closely resemble the Imperial Act.
Hong-Kong. — The law is regulated by ordinance No. 2 of 1892.
The inventor or assignee of any invention patented in England
may obtain protection in the colony for the unexpired residue of
the original term. If the English patent is extended by the advice
of the Judicial Committee, an extension of the colonial patent
may be obtained, or a new patent granted for the extended period.
A fee of $25 is payable on grant of patent, and another fee of the
same amount on grant of extension or original letters in lieu of
extension. There is no preliminary examination, and there are no
provisions as to compulsory working or importation from abroad.
Jamaica. — The law is still in substance governed by c. 30 of
1857. But under ordinance No. 15 of 1891 the stamp duty on
letters patent is now £2 instead ot £6, los., and there is no longer
any fee payable on the reference to the attorney -general. There
is no preliminary examination as to novelty, and there are no
provisions as to importation from abroad.
Lagos. — Ordinances of 1900 (No. 17) and 1902 (No. 2) introduce
substantially the English law.
Leeward Islands. — Act No. 3 of 1906 has adopted the English
act of 1883. The fees are on filing specification £2, los. ; at end of
4th year £20; at end of 7th year £40.
Malta. — The law is governed by ordinance No. 11 of 1899 and
No. 7. of 1907, the duration of the patent is 14 years. There is
no express provision for a preliminary examination into novelty.
Provision is made for compulsory assignation or licence, where
the invention has not been put into use within 3 years subsequent
to the grant or its working has been suspended for 3 years con*
tinuously. The annual fees are £5 before the expiration of the
4th year from the date of the patent; £6 before the expiration of
the 5th; £7 and £8 respectively before the expiration of the 6th
and 7th years; £9 and £10 before the expiration of the 8th and
9th; and from £11 to £14 before the expiration of the loth, nth,
1 2th and 13th years.
Mauritius. — The law is still regulated by ordinance No. 16 of
1875. There is no preliminary examination as to novelty, and
there are no provisions for compulsory working or importation from
abroad.
Natal. — The law is still regulated by No. 4 of 1870. But certain
details of practice are amended by No. 2 of 1895. There is no
preliminary examination as to novelty, and there are no provisions
as to compulsory working or importation from abroad.
Neu'foundland. — The law is contained in the Consolidated Statutes,
t. xii. c. 109. There is no preliminary examination into novelty.
In addition to the office fees, the patentee is required to deposit
with the colonial secretary the sum of $25, to be paid by him to the
receiver-general lor the use of the colony.
New Zealand. — The law now depends on No. 12 of 1889, amended
in details by No. 8 of 1897. The duration of a patent is 14 years.
There is no preliminary examination as to novelty, and there are
no provisions as to compulsory working or importation from abroad.
The following fees are payable: £2 on obtaining letters patent,
£5 before the expiration of the 4th year and £10 before the expiration
of the 7th.
Nigeria, Northern. — No. 12 of 1902 introduces practically the
English law of 1883.
Orange River Colony. — Up to the outbreak of war in 1899 the
law was regulated by ordinance No. 10 of 1888 and no change has
yet been made. The term of a patent was 14 years. No prelimi-
nary examination as to novelty. Compulsor>' licences might be
obtained. No prohibition of the importation of patented articles.
The fee for signing and sealing the patent was not less than £10
nor more than £50. Taxes of £5 and £10 were payable before or
at the expiration of the 3rd and 7th years of the term respectively.
Rhodesia, Southern. — Ordinance No. 7 of 1904 adopts practically
the English law.
PATENTS
907
St Helena. — The law is regulated by ordinance No. 3 of 1872.
The grantee of an English patent, or his representatives, can have
the grant extended to the colony. All cases of doubt and difficulty
not provided for by the laws of the colony are governed by the
law in force in England. A fee of one guinea is payable on filing
copy of letters patent and specification with the registrar of the
Supreme Court.
Sierra Leone. — No special regulations exist, but an ordinance
practically identical with that of the Gold Coast is being adopted.
Straits Settlements. — The law is prescribed by ordinance No. 12
of 1 87 1. The duration of a patent is 14 years. There is no pre-
liminary examination as to novelty, and there are no provisions
as to compulsory working or importation from abroad. There is
a stamp duty of S50 on the petition. No renewal fees are payable.
Transvaal Colony. — Proclamations Nos. 22 and 29 of 1902 intro-
duce substantially the English law.
Trinidad and Tobago. — The law is regulated by ordinance No.
ID of 1900 and No. 13 of 1905. The duration of the patent is 14
years. There is no preliminary examination into novelty, and
there are no provisions as to compulsory working or importation
from abroad. A fee of £10 is payable on application for a patent.
Turks and Caicos Islands. — The law of Jamaica has been ex-
tended to these islands by No. 7 of 1897. See supplement to
Patent Laws of the World, No. 3 of 1900.
Windward Islands. — In the Windward Islands other than
Barbadoes, viz. Grenada, St Lucia and St Vincent, patents for
invention were granted until recently only by special ordinances.
See, e.g. St Lucia, ordinance No. 41 of 1875 (Tooth's patent). A
stamp duty of £10 was payable in this island on letters patent for
inventions (No. 6 of 1881, schedule). But ordinances basedonthe
Imperial Act have now been passed, St Vincent (No. 5 of 1898).
Grenada (No. 4 of 1898) and St Lucia (No. 14 of 1899).
Foreign Patent Laws. — For the text of these see Patent Laws
of the World, ed. 1899 and supplemental volumes. But the
following are the essential facts.
Algeria. — French law applied by decree of June 5, 1850.
Argentine Republic. — The law of October II, 1864, is still in force.
There is no provision as to importation from abroad.
Atistria. — A law of January 11, 1897, came into force on
January i, 1899. The principal changes introduced by this
measure were these. A strict preliminary examination was made
into novelty. The term of the patent was fixed at 15 years, and
besides an application fee of 10 florins, annual fees were imposed rising
from 20 florins for the 1st year to 340 florins for the 15th. The period
for compulsory working was raised from i year to 3 years from the
date of the publication of the grant of the patent in the patent
journal. Provision was made for the conversion of patents under
the old law of August 15, 1852 (extended to Hungary by law of
June 27, 1878, and to Bosnia and Herzegovina by law of December
20, 1879) into patents under the present law.
Belgium. — The law is still governed by the law of May 24,
1854. Patents are granted, as in France, without guarantee of
novelty.
Bolivia. — The patent law depends on a law of May 8, 1858.
The duration of the grant is in the case of a patent of invention
not less than 10 nor more than 15 years; in the case of an im-
ported invention, 3 years if its establishment requires an outlay
of $25,000, if it reaches $50,000, 6 years, and if Sioo,ooo or more,
10 years. The novelty neither of patents for invention nor of
patents for imported inventions is guaranteed. The patent lapses
unless the invention is put into complete practice within a year
and a day from the date of the privilege, unless the omission is
excused by justifiable causes according to law.
Brazil. — Patents are granted under the law of October 14, 1882.
The patent lapses unless the invention is brought into effective
use within 3 years from the date of the grant, or if such use is
suspended for more than a year, except by reason of force majeure
admitted by government to be a sufficient excuse. Besides expenses
and fees, patents of invention are subject to an annual and progressive
tax, commencing at S20 and increasing at the rate of $10 a year.
The patents issued are without guarantee of novelty or utility.
Chile. — The law is regulated by the law of September 9, 1840,
decree of August i, 1851, and laws of July 25, 1872, January 20,
1883, and January 20, 1888. There is a preliminary examination
as to novelty and utility. Though the duration of a patent does
not ordinarily exceed 10 years, the term may be extended to 20
years by the president of the republic, if the report of the experts
on the nature and importance of the invention seem to justify it.
There are no provisions as to importation from abroad.
Colombia. — Patents are granted under law No. 35 of 1869 and
decree No. 218 of 1900. The term varies from 5 to 20 years at the
option of the applicant. There is no preliminary examination
as to novelty, and there is no provision as to importation from
abroad. A patent for a new industry is void when such industry
is idle for a whole year, unless inevitable circumstances have
intervened. An applicant pays a sum of 20 pesos, which is forfeited
if the patent is refused, and taken in part payment of the
patent fee if it is granted. The patent tax is from 5 to 20 pesos
a year for every year of the privilege.
Congo. — Patents arc issued under a law of October 29, 1886,
and a decree of October 30, 1886. They are of three kinds,
patents of invention, of importation and of improvement. There
is no preliminary examination as to novelty, and the patent ex-
pressly mentions that the grant is made without guarantee. The
term of a patent of invention is 20 years. A patent of importation
or of improvement expires in the former case with the foreign,
in the latter with the principal patent. Patents of improvement
are not liable to any tax; on other patents a payment of 100 francs
is required. There are no provisions as to compulsory working
or prohibiting the importation of patented articles.
Costa Rica. — Prior to June 26, 1896, applications for jiatcnts
had to be made to the Constitutional Congress. The matter is
now dealt with by a law of the above-mentioned date. The dura-
tion of the term is 20 years. There is apparently no preliminary
examination into novelty. The period for compulsory working
is 2 years, and a patent which ceases to be worked (luring any
3 consecutive years becomes public property.
Denmark. — Patents are now granted under a law of March 28,
1894. The duration of the patent is 15 years, and no extension
can be granted. There is a preliminary examination into novelty.
The patent may, on terms, be appropriated by the state if the
public interest demands it. The period for compulsory working
is 3 years, and the patent will also lapse if the exercise of the in-
vention is discontinued for more than a year. The patent com-
mission may release the patentee from the obligation of manu-
facturing the patented article in Denmark, if satisfied that the cost
of such manufacture would be unreasonable, on condition that the
patented article is always kept on sale in Denmark. The tax is
an annual fee of 25 kroner for the first 3 years, 50 kroner for the
next 3, 100 for the following 3; then for 3 years 200 kroner yearly,
and for the last 3, 300 kroner yearly.
Ecuador. — Patents are granted under a law of October 18,
1880. The provisions are identical with those given for Bolivia.
Finland. — The law is regulated by ordinances of January 21,
1898. The term of the patent is 15 years. There is a preliminary
examination into novelty. The period for compulsory working is
3 years, the penalty for non-compliance being an obligation on
the part of the patentee to grant compulsory licences. The tax
consists of annual fees, commencing with the second year of the
patent, and of the following amounts: 20 marks yearly for the 2nd
and 3rd years; 40 marks from the 4th to and including the 6th
year; 50 marks from the 7th to and including the 9th; 60 marks
from the loth to and including the 12th year; and 70 marks from
the 13th to and including the 15th.
France. — The law is still regulated by the law of July 5, 1844.
The following additional points should be noted : The term of a
patent of invention is 5, or 10, or 15 years, at the option of the
patentee. Every such patent is subject to the following taxes,
payable by annual instalments of 100 francs: 500 francs for a
patent of 5 years, 1000 francs for a patent of 10 years, and 1500
francs for a patent of 15 years. A tax of 20 francs is payable on
application for a patent of addition. Patents of addition are not
subject to annual taxes. There is no preliminary examination
as to novelty. A patentee is not obliged to mark patented articles
as such, but, if he does, the words Sans Garantie duGouvernement,
or the initial letters of these words — S. G. D. G. — must be added,
under liability to a penalty for omission of from 50 francs to 1000
francs. The provisions as to compulsory working (exploitation)
are in the main so interpreted as to strike only at voluntary and
calculated inactivity. The law of July 5, 1844 is applied to
the French colonies by a decree of October 21, 1848, to Madagascar
by decree of 1902, and as to French Indo-China, see decree of
June 24, 1893.
Germany. — Patents (the law as to which is not affected by the
civil code of 1900) are granted under a law of April 7, 1891. The
duration of the patent is 15 years. There is a strict preliminary
examination into novelty. The period for compulsory working is
3 years, but it is sufficient if the patentee has done ever\'thing
that is necessary to ensure the carrying out of the invention. A
tax of 30 marks has to be paid before the grant. In addition to
this there has to be paid at the commencement of the second and
every following year of the term a tax amounting to 50 marks for the
first year and increasing by 50 marks every subsequent year. An act
of 1900 regulates the profession of patent agents.
Greece. — No special patent law apparently exists. A private
act is required, which can be introduced by a deputy and is treated
like any other bill.
Guatemala. — Patents are granted under the law of May 21,
1 885 and a decree of December 17, 1897. The term of the patent
ranges from 5 to 15 years. An annual tax of 30 pesos is payable.
The period of compulsory working is i year, and abandonment of
working for a year forfeits the patent. There is apparently a
preliminary examination as to novelty (see Art. 16 of the decree
of Dec. 17, 1897), but there is no prohibition of the importation of
patented articles.
Hawaiian Islands. — Patents were issued till 1900 under the
civil code (§§ 255, 256) and a law of August 29, 1884, which were
not at first affected by the annexation of the islands by the United
States. There was a preliminary examination as to novelty.
9o8
PATENTS
The maximum duration of the patent was lO years. On application
a fee of $5 was payable, the commissioner of patents received $20
for his examination, and a fee of $5 was payable when the patent was
issued. No further payments. Now the United States law applies.
Honduras. — No. 177 of March 10, 1898. Term not to exceed
20 years. Annual tax 5 to 10 silver pesos; in the case of foreigners
10 to 50 gold pesos.
Hungary. — The law in force is that of July 7, 1895. The
duration of the patent is 15 years. The period for compulsory
working is ordinarily 3 years. The annual taxes range from 40
kroner for the 1st year to 500 for the 15th.
Italy. — The law is still governed by that of January 31, 1864,
extending the Sardinian law of October 30, 1859 to the whole
kingdom. There is no preliminary examination into novelty, and
there is no provision prohibiting the importation of patented
articles. Patents are subject (i.) to a proportional tax of as many
times 10 lire as the years for which the patent is applied for, and
(ii.) to an annual tax of 40 lire for the first 3 years; 65 lire for the
following 3; 90 lire for the 7th, 8th and 9th; 115 lire for the loth
and nth; and 140 lire for the remaining 3 years.
Japan. — Patents are issued under an act which came into opera-
tion on July 16, 1899. The law as to subject matter resembles
that of England and the United States. The term of a patent is
15 years from the date of registration. The patent may be annulled
if the patentee has not worked his invention within 3 years from the
date of the certificate of grant, or if, having discontinued such use
for 3 years, he has refused a reasonable request by a third party
for an assignment or a licence. An applicant not domiciled in the
empire must appoint within 6 months a duly qualified agent by
power of attorney. There is apparently a preliminary examination
into novelty. The patent owner must affix his mark to the patent.
The fees are calculated on a gradually ascending scale.
Liberia. — Patents are issued under a law of December 23, 1864.
The maximum term is 20 years. There is a preliminary examina-
tion as to novelty. A sum of $25 or $50 is payable on appli-
cation, according as the applicant is a citizen or an alien. An
invention patented by an alien must be put in practical operation
within 3 years. There is no prohibition of the importation of
patented articles.
Luxemburg (law of June 30, 1880). — The term of the patent
is 15 years. There is no preliminary examination as to novelty,
and the importation of patented articles is not prohibited. An
annual and progressive tax, commencing at 10 francs and increasing
by 10 francs annually, is payable in advance. The period for
compulsory working is 3 years, and after the expiration of that
period compulsory licences may be ordered.
Mexico (law of Oct. i, 1903). — The duration of a patent is
20 years, with possible extension for another 5 years. The act
defines what is patentable and what is not patentable. There is
on request of the interested party, an examination without guarantee
as to novelty. There are no provisions as to compulsory working
(but compulsory licences may be ordered) or prohibiting the im-
portation of patented articles. The ta.x ranges from $50 to
$150. The patentee must also at the end of each 5 years of the
grant, in order to keep the patent in force for another 5 years,
pay 50 pesos at the end of the first 5 years, 75 pesos at the end of
10 years, and at the end of 15 years, 100 pesos. The Patent Office
publishes a special gazette — La Gacela Oficial de Patenies y Marcas.
Nicaragua. — Patents were, as a general rule, until 1899, granted
only by special Act of Congress. But see now supplement 720,
No. 15, Patent Laws of the World.
Norway (law of June 10, 1885). — The term of the patent is
15 years. There is a preliminary examination into novelty. The
invention must be worked within 3 years, and the working must
not be discontinued for a year on pain of forfeiture. For each
patent an annual tax is payable amounting to 10 crowns for the
2nd year and increasing by 5 crowns each year.
Panama. — Law 88 of 1904 adopts the rules prescribed by the
laws of Colombia. The fee is an annual one of $20.
Peru (law of Jan. 28, 1869 and law of Jan. 3, 1896).— The
maximum term of the patent is 10 years, and the tax is an
annual sum of 100 dollars. There is no preliminary examination
into novelty. The period for compulsory working is 2 years, and
the importation of patented articles from abroad (except models
of machinery whose introduction is authorized by the government)
is prohibited.
Portugal (law of Dec. 15, 1894). — The maximum term is
15 years. The patent tax is 3000 reis, payable in advance, for each
year of the term for which the privilege is granted or renewed.
There is no preliminary examination into novelty. The period
for compulsory working is 2 years, and discontinuance of working
for any 2 years at a stretch forfeits the patent unless the inaction
can be justified. The importation of patented articles from abroad
is not prohibited.
Russia (law of May 20, 1896). — The maximum term is 15 years;
the tax ranges from 15 roubles for the first year to 400 roubles for
the fifteenth. There is apparently (see Arts. 3 and 13) a preliminary
examination into novelty, but none into utility. The period for
compulsory working is 5 years. There is no prohibition of importa-
tion of patented articles.
Spain. — Patents are issued under the law of June 7, 1902.
There is no preliminary examination as to novelty, and the importa-
tion of patented articles is not prohibited. The duration of a patent
is 20 years, and it is subject to an annual and progressive tax, as
follows: 10 pesetas for the 1st year, 20 for the 2nd, 30 for the 3rd,
and so on successively to the 5th or 20th year, for which the
tax is respectively 50 and 200 pesetas.
Sweden (law of May 16, 1884). — The term is 15 years. The
annual tax is 25 crowns for the 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th years; 50
crowns for each of the following 5 years; and 75 crowns for each
of the remaining 5 years. There is a preliminary examination as
to novelty, the period for compulsory working is 3 years, and dis-
continuance during any entire year entails forfeiture. There is no
prohibition of the importation of patented articles.
Switzerland. — Federal law of June 21, 1907. The term of
the patent is 15 years. There is an annual and progressive tax,
rising from 20 francs for the 1st year by an annual increase of 10
francs up to 160 francs for the 15th. There is no preliminary
examination as to novelty. The patent is forfeited if the invention
has not been carried into practice by the end of the 3rd year, or if
patented articles are imported from abroad, while at the same time
the proprietor has refused applications on equitable terms for Swiss
licences.
Tunis (law of 22nd Rabia-et-Tani, 1306; Dec. 26, 1888). — The
term is either 5 years (fee 500 piastres) or 10 years (fee 1000 piastres)
or 15 years (fee 1500 piastres). There is no preliminary examination
as to novelty. The period for compulsory working is 2 years,
and two consecutive years' discontinuance of such working, unless
justified, forfeits the patent. So also does the importation of
patented articles, but the introduction may be authorized (i.) of
models of machines, and (ii.) of articles, made abroad, intended for
public e.xhibitions or for trials.
Turkey. — Patents are still granted under the law of the 2nd of
March 1880. There is no preliminary examination as to novelty,
and a patentee who mentions his title as such without adding
the words " without guarantee of government," is liable to a
maximum penalty of 45 Turkish pounds.
United States. — The American law may be considered at greater
length. The Federal Constitution empowered Congress " to pro-
mote the progress of science and useful arts by securing for limited
times to . . . inventors the exclusive right to their . . . dis-
coveries." The existing American patent law is based on a series
of Acts of Congress passed in virtue of this provision in the con-
stitution, and on the judicial interpretation of these statutes.
Between American and English patent law there is, as will appear
in the course of this sketch, a considerable degree of similarity.
The fact is not surprising when it is remembered that the Statute
of Monopolies (21 Jac. I. c. 3) was, except in limiting the maximum
duration of letters patent for inventions at fourteen years, only
declaratory of the common law, and therefore formed part of the
original common law of America. The English and American
patent systems further agree in this, that they contain no provision
as to compulsory working, and no prohibition of the importation
of patented articles. But there are important differences between
the two systems, not merely in points of detail, but in matters
affecting the theory and practical working of the law. In England
the consideration for the grant of a patent has all along been mainly
the benefit which the public derives from the introduction of a
new manufacture. In America greater emphasis is placed on the
right of an inventor to have his merits rewarded. Again, under
the Statute of Monopolies an inventor's exclusive privilege arises
only in regard to inventions not known or used at the date of the
grant, although it should be observed that under the modern
Patents Acts the date of a patent, once granted, relates back to
the date of the application. In the United States, on the other
hand, the right is conferred on inventors to an exclusive privilege
in such inventions as were not known or used before their dis-
covery by the patentees. The practical bearing of this difference
is explained in an admirable note on " The Statute of Monopolies "
in Ruling Cases, sub tit." Patent" (xx. 5): " It shifts the point
of view in the important question of novelty. Many good American
inventions have been given away in England by the premature
publication in America of the inventor's proceedings. He is
interviewed, and an article in the New York Stcn, or some other
paper, in due time finds its way to England. This does no harm
in America; on the contrary, it is good evidence of the date of the
actual invention. But it is fatal to a subsequent application in
England."
The definition of patentability in American law is contained in
sect. 4886 of the Revised Statutes of the United States as amended
by an act of the 3rd of March 1897. In the following passage the
amendments are indicated by italics: —
" Any person who has invented or discovered any new and
useful art, machine, manufacture or composition of matter, or
any new and useful improvement thereof, not known or used by
others in this country before his invention or discovery thereof, and
not patented or described in any printed publication in this or any
foreign country before his invention or discovery thereof or more
than two years prior to his application, and not in public use or on
PATENTS
909
sale for more than two years prior to his application, unless the
same is proved to have been abandoned, may, upon payment of
the fees required by law and other due proceedings had, obtain
a patent therefor."
The effect of the two amendments made by the act of 1897
should first be noted: (i.) The old law failed to state at what time
the invention should be known or used by others in America so as
to bar a patent; whether before the application or before the
invention. This ambiguity is removed by the use of the words
" before his invention or discovery thereof." (ii.) Under the old
law a foreign patentee could take out a patent in America for the
same invention at any time during the life of the foreign patent,
provided it had not been in use in America more than two years
prior to his application, unless anticipated by a prior invention or
publication. The words " or more than two years prior to his
application," merely give the same force to a foreign patent or
publication that had previously been given to prior use. An
invention to be patentable must, according to American law, be
both novel and useful. Utility may be evidence of novelty and
vice versa, and commercial success is relevant evidence of utility.
As in England, a bare principle is not patentable. A " process "
is included under the words " useful art " in the above definition
of patentability, and is good subject matter for a patent when the
term is used to represent a practical method of producing a beneficial
result or effect. The word " machine " in the definition includes
every mechanical device or combination of devices for producing
certain results. Such a device or combination is patentable when
it possesses utility and novelty, and produces either a new result
or an old result in a better form.
Under the law of 1790, which was exclusively American in spirit,
the duty of granting letters patent for inventions was discharged
by the secretary of state, the secretary of war and the attorney-
general, or any two of them. The law from 1793 to 1836 was
exclusively English in spirit, and during that period the duty fell to
the secretary of state, subject to the attorney-general's approval.
It was in 1837 that the marked divergence between the English
and American patent system began. In that year the patent
business of the United States had attained to such dimensions that
the powers and duties of the secretary of state in regard to patents
were transferred to a sub-department of the state department
known as the Patent Office. The American Patent Office consists
of a commissioner of patents, one assistant commissioner, and three
examiners-in-chief, who are appointed by the President of the
United States with the advice and consent of the Senate; and also
of other examiners, and a staff of officers, clerks and employes,
appointed by the secretary of the interior on the nomination of
the commissioner of patents. The commissioner of patents, under
the direction of the secretary of the interior, is charged with the
superintendence or performance of all duties respecting the grant
and issue of patents, and has the control and custody of all books,
records, papers, &c., belonging to the Patent Office. He is author-
ized to make, from time to time, regulations not inconsistent with
law, for the conduct of proceedings in the Patent Office, and pre-
pares an annual report which is laid before Congress, and which
is framed on the same lines as that of the comptroller-general in
England. " He is the final judge, so far as the Patent Office is
concerned, of all controverted questions arising in the office, and
in granting or withholding patents he is not b)ound by the decisions
of his inferiors "_ (Robinson on Patents, i. 84). The examiners-
in-chief are required to l>e persons of competent legal knowledge
and ability. Their duties are: On the written petition of inventors
to revise and determine upon the validity of the adverse decisions
of subordinate examiners, upon applications for patents, and for
reissues of patents, and in interference cases, and when required
by the commissioner of patents to hear and report upon claims
for extension, and to do such other similar work as he may assign
to them. The Patent Office publishes an Official Gazette corre-
sponding to the English Patent Office Illustrated Journal, and
discharges similar functions to those of the English Patent Office
in regard to the public dissemination of information as to patented
inventions. The number of original applications for patents in the
period covered by the report of the commissioner of patents for
1906-1907 was 58,762; the number of patents granted was 36,620;
the receipts amounted to $1,910,618, the expenditure to $1,631,458,
leaving a surplus of $279,160.
The first step in the procedure to obtain a patent is the lodging
by the inventor at the Patent Office of a written application, to-
gether with a specification of particular written description of his
mvention, and a claim distinctly pointing out and claiming what
he alleges to be his invention or discovery. The specification and
claim are signed by the inventor and attested by two witnesses.
Drawings, specimens of ingredients, and models may be required
to be furnished. On the filing of each original application for a
patent, a fee of $15 is payable. The applicant is required to
verify his claim to the invention on oath, taken, if he resides
within the United States, before any person authorized by American
law to administer oaths; if he resides in a foreign country, before
any diplomatic or commercial agent of the United States, or any
notary public of the foreign country in which the applicant may
be. The commissioner of patents then causes an examination
to be made into the novelty of the invention, and if the result is
satisfactory the patent issues. On the issuing of each original
patent, a fee of $20 is payable. A patent is issued in the name
of the United States of America and under the seal of the Patent
Office. It consists of a short title or description of the in-
vention or discovery, correctly indicating its nature and design,
and a grant to the patentee, his heirs and assigns. Patents, it
may be observed in passing, may be granted and issued or re-
issued to the assignee of the inventor or discoverer, and every
patent or any interest in it is assignable, the assignment being
recorded in the Patent Office, for the term of seventeen years, of the
exclusive right to make use of and vend the invention or discoverv
throughout the United States and the territories thereof. The
rights of property in patents granted in Cuba, Porto Rico, the
Philippines and other ceded territory under Spanish law are to
be respected in those territories as if that law were still in force
there. A patent is dated as of a day not later than three
months from the time at which it was passed, and if the fee
is not paid within six months the patent is withheld. In case,
however, the issue of a patent has been prevented by a failure
to pay the fee within the prescribed period, the application may
be renewed within 2 years after the allowance of the original
application. But the applicant has no right to damages for any
use of the invention in the interval, and on the hearing of the
renewed application abandonment may be considered as a question
of fact. So far we have followed the procedure to obtain a patent
where its course is uninterrupted. A double form of interruption
is, however, possible. A claim for a patent may be rejected on the
ground of want of novelty in the alleged invention. In this case,
the fact of the rejection, together with the reasons for it, is com-
municated to the applicant by the commissioner; and if he persists
in his claim a re-examination is ordered. Or, again, an application
may appear to the commissioner to interfere with a pending ap-
plication,' or with any expired patent. In these circumstances, he
gives notice to the applicant, and directs the primary examiner
to proceed to determine the question of priority of invention. This
interruption of the course of the proceedings to obtain a patent is
called an " interference." In either of the cases above mentioned
an appeal lies, on payment of a fee of $10, from the primary
examiner to the board of examiners-in-chief, and, on payment
of a fee of $20, from the examiners-in-chief to the commissioner
in person. An applicant for a patent, but not a party to an inter-
ference, may appeal from the decision of the commissioner to the
supreme court of the District of Columbia sitting in banc. In
interference cases the appeal lies to the District of Columbia qourt
of appeals. There is an ultimate right of appeal, in cases involving
the validity of a patent, to the Supreme Court of the United States.
Patents are obtainable by bill in equity, although the commissioner
of patents (or, on appeal, the supreme court of the District of
Columbia) may have refused them. The circuit courts of the United
States have_ original jurisdiction in all patent suits. Appellate
jurisdiction is vested in the circuit court of appeals; and on the
certificate of that court, or by certiorari, an appeal may be brought
to the Supreme Court of the United States.
Section 4887 of the revised statutes provides that: —
"No person otherwise^ entitled thereto shall be debarred from
receiving a patent for his invention or discovery, nor shall any patent
be declared invalid by reason of its having been first patented or
caused to be patented by the inventor or his legal representatives or
assigns in a foreign country, unless the application for the said foreign
patent was filed more than seven months prior to the filing of the applica-
tion in this country, in which case no patent shall be granted m this
country."
The words italicized in the above section were added by an Amend-
ing Act of the 3rd of March 1897. In its original form the section
provided that no person should be debarred from receiving a patent
because the invention was first patented in a foreign country, whether
he was otherwise entitled to the patent or not. The words " other-
wise entitled to " merely postulate that no other bar to the issue of
the patent shall exist. The words " by the inventor or his legal
representatives or assigns " safeguard the inventor to some extent
against fraud by third parties; while the provision requiring the
application in the United States to be filed within seven months
of the filing of the foreign patent is intended to carry out the pro-
visions of the International Convention. It should be noted that
the duration of an American patent for an invention already patented
abroad is no longer limited by that of the prior foreign patent, but
is granted for 17 years from the date of issue.
Patented articles are required to be marked as such, either
by the word " patented," together with the day and the year the
patent was granted, being affixed to them, or, when from the charac-
ter of the article this cannot be done, by fixing to it, on the package
containing one or more of such articles, a label containing the like
' A citizen of the United States, or an alien who has within the
preceding twelve months given notice of his intention to become
one, may, by filing in the Patent Office a " caveat," the fee for
which is $10, secure for himself notice of possibly conflicting
applications.
9IO
PATENTS OF PRECEDENCE— PATER
notice; and in any suit for infringement by a party failing so to
mark, no damages shall be recovered by the plaintiff, except on
proof that the defendant was duly notified of the infringement,
and continued after such notice to make, use or vend the article so
patented. A penalty of not less than lOO dollars is attached to
falsely marking or labelling articles as patented.
When through inadvertence, accident or mistake, and without
fraudulent or deceptive intention, a patentee has claimed more
than he is entitled to, his patent is valid for all that part which is
truly and justly his own; provided this is a material or substantial
part of the thing patented and the patentee, or his heirs or assigns,
on payment of the prescribed fee (Sio) disclaim the surplusage.
The disclaimer must be in writing, and attested by one or more
witnesses; it is recorded in the Patent Office, and is thereafter con-
sidered a part of the original specification. But no disclaimer
affects any action pending at the time of its being filed, except so
far as may relate to the question of unreasonable neglect or delay in
filing it.
In the same circumstance, or where a patent is inoperative or
invalid by reason of a defective or insufficient specification, the
patentee may surrender his patent, and the commissioner of patents
may, on the application of the patentee and on payment of a fee
of S30, issue a new patent in accordance with the amended
specification.
Uruguay (law of 12th November 1885). — The term is 3, 6 or 9
years, at the option of the applicant. There is an annual tax of
I25 for every year of the privilege. The invention must be
worked within a time fixed by the executive, and the working
must not be discontinued for a year, on pain of forfeiture. There is
no preliminary examination as to novelty.
Venezuela. — A new law was promulgated by a decree of the 19th
of March 1900, but revoked in January 1901 and the old law of
1882 substituted. The term is 5, 10 or 15 years. The tax is 80
francs (bolivars) a year if the patent is for an invention or discover^',
and 60 francs (bolivars) a year if it relates to an improved process.
There is no preliminary examination as to novelty, nor is there any
compulsory working.
International Patents. — The International Convention for the
protection of industrial property was signed at Paris on the 20th
of March 1883; the necessary ratifications were exchanged on the
6th of June 1884, and the Convention came into force a month
later. Provision was made by sections 103 and 104 of the
Patents Act 1883 for carrying out the Convention in Great
Britain by orders in council, applying it from time to time to
(a) British possessions whose legislatures had made satisfactory
arrangements for the protection of inventions patented in Great
Britain; (b) foreign states with which the sovereign had made
arrangements for the mutual protection of inventions. The
following governments have signed the international convention:
Australia, Austria-Hungary, Belgium, Brazil, Ceylon, Cuba,
Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Netherlands,
New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, San Domingo, Servia, Spain,
Sweden, Switzerland, Trinidad and Tobago, Tunis and the
United States. Under the powers of the Foreign Jurisdiction
Act 1890 penalties have been imposed on British subjects
committing offences against the Patents, &c., Acts 1883-1888,
and the orders in council issued thereunder, in Africa, East
Africa, Morocco, Persia, Persian coast and Zanzibar.
An international bureau in connexion with the Convention
has been estabhshed at Bern, where an official monthly periodical.
La Propriete industrielle, is pubUshed. Conferences were held
under the Convention at Rome in April and May 18S6, and at
Madrid in April 1890. At the latter conference an important
article was adopted, under which it is left to each country to
define and apply " compulsory working " {exploitation) for the
purposes of the convention in the sense that it chooses.
Authorities. — In addition to the works noted incidentally
above, see Edmunds, Patents (London) ; Wallace and Williamson
Patents (London); Frost, Patent Law and Practice (London, 1898)
Terrell, Letters Patent (London) ; Cunynghame, Patents (London)
Lawson, Tlie Patents, &fc., Acts (London). For the old law, Webster
Patent Cases (London, 1844); Hindmarsh, Patents (London, 1846)
and the very valuable Parliamentary Reports of 1829, 1851, 1865,
1872. Gordon, Monopolies by Patents (London, 1897); Gould and
Tucker, Notes on Rev Stat, of the U.S., vol. ii. (1887-1897) ; Robinson,
Patents (3 vols., Boston, 1890); Whitman, Patent Laws (Washing-
ton, 187 1); Law, Copyright and Patent Laws of the United States,
iypo-1866 (New York, 1866); Curtis, Law of Patents (4th cd.,
Boston and London, 1873); Campbell, U. S. Patent Svstetn: a
History (Washington, 1891). (A. W. R. ; T. A. I.)
PATENTS OF PRECEDENCE. A patent of precedence is a
grant to an individual by letters patent iq,v.) of a higher social
or professional position than the precedence to which his ordinary
rank entitles him. The principal instance in modern times of
patents of grants of this description has been the grant of pre-
cedence to members of the English bar. In the days when
acceptance of the rank of king's counsel not only precluded a
barrister from appearing against the Crown, but, if he was a
member of parliament, vacated his seat, a patent of precedence
was resorted to as a means of conferring similar marks of honour
on distinguished counsel without any such disabiUty attached to
it. The patents obtained by Mansfield, Erskine, Scott and
Brougham were granted on this ground. After the order of the
coif lost its exclusive right of audience in the court of common
pleas, it became customary to grant patents of precedence to a
number of the serjeants-at-law, giving them rank immediately
after counsel of the Crown already created and before those of
subsequent creation. Mr Justice PhiUimore was, on his appoint-
ment as a judge of the queen's bench division (in 1897) the only
holder of a patent of precedence at the bar, except Serjeant
Simon, who died in that year, and who was the last of the
Serjeants who held such a patent. See also Precedence.
In Canada patents of precedence are granted both by the
governor-general and by the lieutenant-governor of the provinces
under provincial legislation which has been declared intra vires.
{Att. Ccn. for Canada v. Att. Gen. for Ontario, 1898, A.C. p. 247;
Todd, Parliatnentary Govt, in Canada, 2nd ed. p. 333).
See Pulling's Order of tlie Coif.
PATER, WALTER HORATIO (1839-1894), EngHsh man of
letters, was born at ShadweU on the 4th of August 1839. He was
the second son of Richard Glode Pater, a medical man, of Dutch
extraction, born in New York. Jean-Baptiste Pater, the painter,
was probably of the same family. Richard Pater moved from
Olney to ShadweU early in the century, and continued to practise
there among the poorer classes. He died while his son Walter
was yet an infant, and the family then moved to Enfield, where
the children were brought up. In 1853 Walter Pater was sent to
King's School, Canterbury, where he was early impressed by the
aesthetic beauties of the cathedral. These associations remained
with him through life. As a schoolboy he read Modern Painters,
and was attracted to the study of art, but he did not make any
conspicuous mark in school studies, and showed no signs of the
literary taste which he was afterwards to develop. His progress
was always gradual. He gained a school exhibition, however,
with which he proceeded iniS58 to Queen's CoUege, Oxford. His
undergraduate Hfe was unusually uneventful; he was a shy,
" reading man," making few friends. Jowett, however, was
struck by his promise, and volunteered to give him private
tuition. But Pater's class was a disappointment, and he only
took a second in hterae humaniores in 1862. After taking his
degree he settled in Oxford and read with private pupils. As a
boy he had cherished the idea of entering the Anglican Church,
but, under the influence of his O.xford reading, his faith in Christi-
anity became shaken, and by the time he took his degree he had
thoughts of graduating as a Unitarian minister. This project,
too, he resigned; and when, in 1864, he was elected to a fellowship
at Brasenose, he had settled down easily into a university career.
But it was no part of his ambition to sink into academic torpor.
With the assumption of his duties as fellow the sphere of his
interests widened rapidly; he became acutely interested in Utera-
ture, and even began to write articles and criticisms himself. The
first of these to be printed was a brief essay upon Coleridge,
which he contributed in 1S66 to the Westminster Review. A few
months later (January, 1867) appeared in the same review his now
well-known essay on Winckelmann, the first expression of his
idealism. In the following year his study of " Aesthetic Poetry "
appeared in the Fortnightly Review, to be succeeded by essays on
Leonardo da Vinci, Sandro Botticelli, Pico della Mirandola and
Michelangelo. These, with other studies of the same kind, were
in 1878 collected in his Studies in the History of the Renaissance.
Pater was now the centre of a small but very interesting circle in
Oxford. Such men as cherished aesthetic tastes were naturally
drawn to him; and, though always retiring and, in a sense, remote
in manner, he was continually spreading his influence, not only
PATERA— PATERSON, W.
91
in the university, but among men of letters in London and
elsewhere. The httlc body of Pre-RaphaeUtes were among his
friends, and by the time that Marius Ike Epicurean appeared
he had quite a following of disciples to hail it as a gospel. This
fine and polished work, the chief of all his contributions to lite'ra-
ture, was published early in 1885. In it Pater displays, with
perfected fullness and loving elaboration, his ideal of the aesthetic
life, his cult of beauty as opposed to bare asceticism, and his
theory of the stimulating effect of the pursuit of beauty as an
ideal of its own. In 1887 he published Imaginary Portraits, a
series of essays in philosophic fiction; in 1889, Appreciations,
with an Essay on Style; in 1893, Plato and Plalonism; and in 1894,
The Child in the House. His Greek Studies and his Miscellaneous
Studies were collected posthumously in 1895; his posthumous
romance of Gaston de Latour in i8y6; and his Essays from the
" Guardian " were privately printed in 1897. A collected
edition of Pater's works was issued in 1901. Pater changed his
residence from time to time, living sometimes at Kensington
and in different parts of O.xford; but the centre of his work and
influence was always his rooms at Brasenose. Here he laboured,
with a wonderful particularity of care and choice, upon perfecting
the expression of his theory of hfe and art. He wrote with
difficulty, correcting and recorrecting with imperturbable
assiduity. His mind, moreover, returned to the religious
fervour of his youth, and those who knew him best believed that
had he lived longer he would have resumed his boyish intention
of taking holy orders. He was cut ofif, however, in the prime of
his powers. Seized with rheumatic fever, he raUied, and sank
again, dying on the staircase of his house, in his sister's arms, on
the morning of Monday the 30th of July 1894. Pater's nature
was so contemplative, and in a way so centred upon reflection,
that he never perhaps gave full utterance to his individuality. His
peculiar literary style, too, burnished like the surface of hard
metal, was too austerely magnificent to be always persuasive.
At the time of his death Pater exercised a remarkable and a
growing influence among that necessarily restricted class of
persons who have themselves something of his own love for
beauty and the beautiful phrase. But the cumulative rich-
ness and sonorous depth of his language harmonized intimately
with his deep and earnest philosophy of life; and those who
can sympathize with a nervous ideahsm wiU always find
inspiration in his sincere and sustained desire to " burn
with a hard, gem-hke flame," and to Live in harmony with
the highest. (A. Wa).
Mr Ferris Greenslet's Walter Paler (in the " Contemporary Men of
Letters " series, 1904) is an interesting piece of criticism. Mr Arthur
Benson's study in the " English Men of Letters " series is admir-
able. See too a sketch in Edmund Gosse's Critical Kit-Kats; and
an estimate from a Roman Catholic standpoint in Dr William Barr>''s
Heralds of Reiiolt, where Pater is compared with J. Addington
Symonds. T. Wright's Life of Walter Pater (1907) is an elaborate
but unsatisfactory piece of work.
PATERA, the Latin name for a shaUow circular vessel used for
drinking or for pouring libations. The Greek name for such a
vessel was 4)ia\r]. It has no foot or stem underneath, but
occasionally a boss rising in the centre inside. The term is
sometimes given incorrectly in architecture to a circular disk
carved with a conventional rose, which is found in many early
styles, the proper term being rosette.
PATERNO, a town of Sicily, in the province of Catania, 1 1 m.
W.N.W. of Catania by rail, at the southern foot of Mt Etna.
Pop. (1881), 15,230; (1901), 20,098 (town), 22,857 (commune).
The castle, originally erected in 1073, upon the acropolis of the
ancient Hybla Minor or Galeatis, has a square tower and a
chapel with frescoes belonging to the 14th century. Some
mosaic pavements still exist under the houses in the Strada
deir Ospedale, and remains of baths and of an ancient bridge
over the Simeto on the road to Centuripa are to be seen in the
neighbourhood. The place was unsuccessfully besieged by the
Athenian forces in the summer of 415 B.C.
PATERSON, ROBERT (17 15-1801), Scottish stone-mason, who
suggested to Sir Walter Scott the character of " Old Mortality,"
was born near Hawick in 17 15. Through the patronage
of Sir Thomas Kirkpatrick, whose cook he had married, he
obtained the lease of a quarry at Gatelawbrig, but in 1745 his
house was plundered by the retreating Jacobites, and Paterson
himself, a pronounced Cameronian, was carried off a prisoner.
He subsequently devoted his hfe to cutting and erecting stones
for the graves of the Covenanters, for 40 years wandering from
place to place in the lowlands. He died in poverty in i8or, and
a stone to his memory was erected by Scott's publishers in 1869 in
Caerlavcrock churchyard.
PATERSON, WILLIAM (1658-1719), British writer on finance,
founder of the Bank of England and projector of the Darien
scheme, was born in April 1658 at the farmhouse of Skipmyre,
parish of Tinwald, Dumfriesshire. His parents occupied the
farm there, and with them he resided till he was about seventeen.
A desire to escape the religious persecution then raging in Scot-
land, and the immemorial ambition of his race, led him south-
ward. He went through England with a pedlar's pack (" whereof
the print may be seen, if he be alive," says a pamphleteer in
1700), settled for some time in Bristol, and then proceeded to
America. There he lived chiefly in the Bahamas, and is said by
some to have been a predicant or preacher, and by others a
buccaneer. In truth his intellectual and moral superiority to
his fellow-settlers caused his selection as their spiritual guide,
whilst his thirst for knowledge led to intercourse with the
buccaneers. It was here he formed that vast design which is
known in history as the Darien scheme. On his return to
England he was unable to induce the government of James II.
to engage in his plan. He went to the continent and pressed
it to no purpose in Hamburg, Amsterdam and Berhn, and on his
return to London he engaged in trade and rapidly amassed a
considerable fortune. About 1690 he was occupied in the
formation in the Hampstead Water Company, and in 1694 he
founded the Bank of England. The government required money,
and the country, rapidly increasing in wealth, required a bank.
The subscribers lent their money to the nation, and this debt
became the bank stock. The credit of having formulated the
scheme and persuaded its adoption is due to Paterson. He was
one of the original directors, but in less than a year he fell out
with his colleagues, and withdrew from the management. He
had already propounded a new plan for an orphan bank (so called
because the debt due to the city orphans by the corporation of
London was to form the stock). They feared a dangerous rival
to their own undertaking, and they felt some distrust for this
eager Scotsman whose brain teemed with new plans in endless
succession.
At that time the people of the northern kingdom were con-
sidering how best to share in that trade which was so rapidly
enriching their southern neighbours. Paterson saw his oppor-
tunity. He removed to Edinburgh, unfolded his Darien (q.v.)
scheme, and soon had the whole nation with him. He is the
supposed author of the act of 1695 which formed the " Company
of Scotland trading to Africa and the Indies." This company, he
arranged, should establish a settlement on the Isthmus of Darien,
and " thus hold the key of the commerce of the world." There
was to be free trade, the ships of aU nations were to find shelter
in this harbour not yet erected, differences of race or religion were
neglected; but a smaU tribute was to be paid to the company,
and this and other advantages would so act that, at one supreme
stroke, Scotland was to be changed from the poorest to the richest
of nations.
On the 26th of July 1698 the first ships of the expedition set
sail " amidst the tears and prayers and praises of relatives and
friends and countrymen." Some financial transactions in which
Paterson was concerned, and in which, though he had acted with
perfect honesty, the company had lost, prevented his nomina-
tion to a post of importance. He accompanied the expedition
as a private individual, and was obliged to look idly on whilst
what his enemies cafled his " golden dream " faded away indeed
like the " baseless fabric of a vision " before his eyes. His wife
and child died, and he was seized with a dangerous illness, " of
which, as I afterwards found," he says, " trouble of mind was
not the least cause." It was noted that " he hath been so
mightily concerned in this sad disaster, so that he looks now more
912
PATERSON
like a skeleton than a man." Still weak and helpless, and yet
protesting to the last against the abandonment of Darien, he
was carried on board ship, and, after a stormy and terrible
voyage, he and the remnant of the ill-fated band reached home
in December 1690-
In his native air Paterson soon recovered his strength, and
immediately his fertile and eager mind was at work on new
schemes. He prepared an elaborate plan for developing Scottish
resources by means of a council of trade, and then tried to induce
King William, with whom he had frequent interviews, to enter on
a new Darien expedition. In 1701 he removed to London, and
here by conferences with statesmen, by writing, and by personal
persuasion helped on the union. He was much employed in
settling the financial relations of the two countries. One of the
last acts of the Scots parliament was to recommend him to the
consideration of Queen Anne for all he had done and suffered.
The United Parliament , to which he was returned as a member for
the Dumfries burghs, though he never took his seat, decided that
his claim should be settled, but it was not till 171 5 that an
indemnity of £18,241 wasordered to be paid him. Even then he
found considerable difficulty in obtaining his due. His last
years were spent in Queen Square, Westminster, but he removed
from there shortly before his death on the 22nd of January
1719.
As many as twenty-two works, all of them anonymous, are
attributed to Paterson. These are classified by Bannister under
six heads, as dealing with (i) finance, (2) legislative union,
(3) colonial enterprise, (4) trade, (5) administration, (6) various
social and political questions. Of these the following deserve
special notice: (i) Proposals and Reasons for constituting a
Council of Trade (Edinburgh, 1701).' This was a plan to develop
the resources of his country. A council, consisting of a president
and twelve members, was to be appointed. It was to have a
revenue collected from a duty on sales, lawsuits, successions, &c.
With these funds the council was to revive the Darien scheme, to
build workhouses, to employ, relieve and maintain the poor, and
to encourage manufactures and fisheries. It was to give loans
without interest to companies and shippers, to remove monopo-
lies, to construct all sorts of vast public works. Encouragement
was to be given to foreign Protestants and Jews to settle in the
kingdom, gold and silver were to be coined free of charge, and
money kept up to its nominal standard. All export duties were
to be abolished and import regulated on a new plan. Paterson
believed that thus the late disasters would be more than retrieved.
(2) A Proposal to plant a Colony in Darien to protect the Indians
against Spain, and to open the Trade of South America to all Nations
( 1 701 ) . This was the Darien scheme on a new and broader basis.
It points out in detail the advantages to be gained: free trade
would be advanced over all the world, and Great Britain would
largely profit. (3) Wednesday Club Dialogues upon the Union
(London, 1706). These were imaginary conversations in a club
in the city of London about the union with Scotland. Paterson's
real opinions were put into the mouth of a speaker called May.
Till the Darien business all Scots were for the union, and they
were so still if reasonable terms were offered. Such terms ought
to include an incorporating union with equal taxes, freedom of
trade, and a proportionate representation in parliament. A union
with Ireland, " as likewise with other dominions the queen either
hath or shall have," is proposed. (4) Along with this another
discussion of the same imaginary body, An Inquiry into the State
of the Union of Great Britain and the Trade thereof (1717), may
be taken. This was a consideration of the union, which, now
" that its honeymoon was past," was not giving satisfaction in
some quarters, and also a discussion as to the best means
of paying off the national debt — a subject which occupied
a great deal of Paterson's attention during the later years of
his life.
Paterson's plans were vast and magnificent, but he was no
' This work was attributed to John Law, who borrowed some of
his ideas from it. To Law's, " system " Paterson was strongly
opposed, and it was chiefly due to his influence that it made no way
in Scotland.
mere dreamer. Each design was worked out in minute
detail," each was possible and practical. The Bank of England was
a stupendous success. The Darien expedition failed from hostile
attacks and bad arrangements. But the original design was that
the English and Dutch should be partakers in it, and, if this
had occurred, and the arrangements, against many of which
Paterson in letter after letter in vain protested, had been
different, Darien might have been to Britain another India.
Paterson was a zealous almost a fanatic free-trader long before
Adam Smith, and his remarks on finance and his argument
against an inconvertible paper-currency, though then novel,
now hold a place of economic orthodo.xy. Paterson's works are
excellent in form and matter; they are quite impersonal, for few
men who have written so much have said so little about them-
selves. There is'no reference to the scurrilous attacks made on
him. They are the true products of a noble and disinterested
as well as vigorous mind. There is singular fitness in the motto
" Sic vos non vobis " inscribed under the only portrait of him
we possess.
See Life of W. Paterson, by S. Bannister (Edinburgh, 1858);
Paterson's Works, by S. Bannister (3 vols., London, 1859); The
Birthplace and Parentage of W. Paterson, by W. Pagan (Edinburgh,
1865); Eng. Hist. Review, xi. 260. The brilliant account of the
Darien scheme in the fifth volume of Macaulay's History is incorrect
and misleading; that in Burton's Hist, of Scotland (vol. viii. ch. 84)
is much truer. Consult also the memoir in Paul Coq, La Monnaie
de batigue (Paris, 1863), and J. S. Barbour, A History of William
Paterson and the Darien Company (1907). For a li§t of fugitive
writings on Paterson see Poole's Index of Periodicals. (F. Wa.)
PATERSON, a city and the county-seat of Passaic county,
New Jersey, U.S.A., in the north-eastern part of the state, on the
west bank of the Passaic. river, and 16 m. N.W. of New York city.
Pop. (1880), 51,031; (1890), 78,347; (1900), 105,171; (1906,
estimate), 112,801; (1910), 125,600. Of the total in 1900, 38,791
were foreign-born. Paterson is served by the main lines of the
Delaware, Lackawanna & Western, the Erie, and the New York,
Susquehanna & Western railways, and by a number of inter-
urban electric lines. The Morris Canal was formerly important
for shipping freight between Paterson and Jersey City, but has
fallen into disuse. The city lies along a bend of the Passaic
river, the southern portion being in a plain and the extreme
northern part lying among the hills that rise from the stream near
the Great Falls. The river has a descent here of about 70 ft. (of
which 50 ft. are in a perpendicular fall), and furnishes water-
power for manufactories. The principal public buildings are
the city-hall, the post office, the county court-house and the
Danforth Memorial (public library) building. Paterson is pre-
eminently a manufacturing centre. There were, in 1905, 513
factories employing a capital of $53,595,585, and furnishing work
for 28,509 employes; and the total factory product was valued
at $54,673,083. The city is the centre of silk manufacturing
in the United States. In 1905 it contained 190 silk-mills, and
the products were valued at $25,433,245. There were also, in
1905, 27 dyeing and finishing establishments, with products
valued at $5,699,295; 39 foundries and machine shops, with
products valued at $2,317,185 ; 3 wholesale slaughtering and
packing houses, with products valued at $2,206,698; and 3 jute
and jute-goods factories, with an output valued at $929,319.
Among the machine works are two locomotive shops, with an
average capacity of three locomotives per day, and a large steel
mill.
Paterson had its origin in an act of the legislature of New-
Jersey on the 22nd of November 1791, incorporating the Society
for Establishing Useful Manufactures, the plan for this society
being drawn up by Alexander Hamilton. As the most suitable
location for its enterprise the society in the following year
selected the Great Falls of the Passaic river, and named the place
Paterson, in honour of William Paterson (i 745-1806), a member
of the state Constitutional Convention in 1776, attorney-general
of New Jersey in 1776-1783, a delegate to the Continental
Congress in 1 780-1 781, and to the Constitutional Convention of
2 The books of the Darien Company were kept after a new and
very much improved plan, believed to be an invention of Paterson's
(Burton's Hist. Scot. viii. 36, note).
PATEY— PATHOLOGY
913
1787 (where he proposed the famous "New Jersey Plan"), a
United States Senator in 1789-1790, governor of the state in
1790-1793, and an associate justice of the United States Supreme
Court from 1793 until his death. Paterson was incorporated as a
township in 183 1, chartered as a city in 185 1 and rechartered
in 1861. Three great industries — the manufacture of cotton,
machinery and silk — were established in Paterson almost con-
temporaneously with their introduction into the United States.
In 1793 the first cotton yarn was spun at Paterson in a mill run
by ox-power, and in the next year, when the dams and reservoir
were completed, Paterson's first cotton factory began its opera-
tions. After 1840 the manufacture of machinery and of silk
gradually supplanted that of cotton goods. Although an attempt
was made to manufacture machinery in Paterson as early as 1800,
there was little progress until after 1825. The building of the
" Sandusky," Paterson's first locomotive, in 1837, marked the
beginning of a new industry, and before i860 the city was
supplying locomotives to all parts of the United States and
to Mexico and South America. By 1840 the silk industry had
obtained a footing, and after this date there was a steady
advance in the quantity and quahty of the product. From
1872 to 1881 inclusive Paterson consumed two-thirds of the
raw silk imported into the country.
See L. R. Trumbull, History of Industrial Paterson (Paterson,
1882).
PATEY, JANET MONACH (1842-1894), English vocalist, was
born in London on the ist of May 1842, her maiden name being
Whytock. She had a fine alto voice, which developed into a
contralto, and she studied singing under J. Wass, Pinsuti and
Mrs Sims Reeves. Miss Whytock's first appearance, as a child,
was made at Birmingham, and her first regular engagement was
in 1865, in the provinces. From 1S66, in which year she sang
at the Worcester festival, and married John Patey, a bass singer,
she was recognized as one of the leading contraltos; and on the
retirement of Mme Sainton-Dolby in 1870 Mme Patey was
without a rival whether in oratorio or in ballad music. She
toured in America in 1871, sang in Paris in 1875, and in
Australia in 1890. She died at Sheffield on the 28th of
February 1894.
PATHAN, the name apphed throughout India to the Afghans,
especially to those permanently settled in the country and to
those dwelling on the borderland. It is apparently derived from
the Afghan name for their own language, Pushtu or Pukhtu,
and may be traced back to the Paktiies of Herodotus. In 1901
the total number of Pathans in aU India was nearly 35 millions,
but the speakers of Pushtu numbered less than i\ milHons. The
name is frequently, but incorrectly, applied to the Mahommedan
dynasties that preceded the Moguls at Delhi, and also to the
style of architecture employed by them; but of these dynasties
only the Lodis were Afghans.
The Pathans of the Indian borderland inhabit the mountainous
country on the Punjab frontier, stretching northwards from a
line drawn roughly across the southern border of the Dera Ismail
Khan district. South of this fine are the Baluchis. The Pathans
include all the strongest and most warlike tribes of the North-
West frontier of India, such as the Afridis, Orakzais, Waziris,
Mohmands, Swatis and many other clans. Those in the settled
districts of the North-West Frontier Province (in 1901) numbered
883,779, or more than two-fifths of the population. Each of the
principal divisions is dealt with separately in this work under its
tribal name. The Pathans are split up into different tribes, each
tribe into clans, and each clan into sections, so that the nomen-
clature is often very puzzling. The tribe, clan and section are
alike distinguished by patronymics formed from the name of the
common ancestor by the addition of the word zai or khcl; zai
being a corruption of the Pushtu word zoe, meaning son, while
khel is an Arabic word meaning an association or company.
Both terms are used indifferently for both the larger and smaller
divisions. Pathans enlist largely in the native army of India;
and since the frontier risings of 1807 they have been formed
with increasing frequency into class-regiments and regiments of
native militia. They make excellent soldiers. The greater part
of the Pathan country was placed under British political control
by the Durand agreement made with the Amir of Afghanistan in
1893.
PATHOLOGY (from Gr. ■Kkdos, suffering), the science dealing
with the theory or causation of chsease. The term by itself is
usually apphed to animal or human pathology, rather than to
vegetable pathology or Phytopathology (see Planis: Palliology).
The outstanding feature in the history of pathology during the
19th century, and more particularly of the latter half of it, was
the completion of its rescue from the thraldom of abstract
phOosophy, and its elevation to the dignity of one of the natural
sciences. Our forefathers, if one may venture to criticize them,
were too impatient. Inlluenced by the prevailing philosophy
of the day, they interpreted the phenomena of disease through
its lights, and endeavoured from time to time to reduce the study
of pathology to philosophical order when the very elements
of philosophical order were wanting. The pathology of the
present day is more modest; it is content to labour and to wait.
Whatever its faults may be — and it is for our successors to judge
of these — there is this to be said in its favour: that it is in nowise
dogmatic. The eloquence of facts appeals to the scientific mind
nowadays much more than the assertion of crude and unproven
principles. The complexity and mystery of action inherent
in living matter have probably been accountable for much of the
vague philosophy of disease in the past, and have furnished
one reason at least why pathology has been so long in asserting
its independence as a science. This, indeed, holds good of the
study of biology in general. There are other factors, however,
which have kept pathology in the background. Its existence
as a science could never have been recognized so long as the
subjects of physics, chemistry and biology, in the widest accepta-
tion of the term, remained unevolved. Pathology, in fact, is
the child of this ancestry; it begins where they end.
Progress in the study of pathology has been greatly facilitated
by the introduction of improved methods of technique. The
certainty with which tissues can now be fixed in the
state they were in when living, and the delicacy
Recent
Progress.
with which they can be stained differentiaDy, have
been the means of opening up a new world of exploration.
Experimental pathology has benefited by the use of antiseptic
surgery in operations upon animals, and by the adoption of
exact methods of recording; while the employment of solid
culture media in bacteriology — the product of Koch's fertile
genius — is responsible for a great part of the extraordinary
development which has taken place in this department of patho-
logical research. The discoveries made in pathological bacteri-
ology, indeed, must be held to be among the most brilliant of
the age. Inaugurated by Pasteur's early work, progress in this
subject was first marked by the discovery of the parasite of
anthrax and of those organisms productive of fowl-cholera and
septic disease. Then followed Koch's great revelation in 1882 of
the bacillus of tubercle (fig. 22, PI. II.), succeeded by the isolation
of the organisms of typhoid, cholera, diphtheria, actinomycosis,
tetanus, &c. The knowledge we now possess of the causes of
immunity from contagious disease has resulted from this study
of pathological bacteriology: momentous practical issues have
also followed upon this study. Amongst these may be mentioned
the neutralizing of the toxins in cases of diphtheria, tetanus
and poisonous snake-bite; " serum therapeutics "; and treatment
by " vaccines." By means of " vaccination " we are enabled to
induce an active immunity against infection by certain patho-
genic bacteria. The value of such protective inoculations is
demonstrated in the treatment against small-pox (Jenner),
cholera, plague (Haffkine) and typhoid (Wright and Semple).
Pasteur's inoculation against hydrophobia is on the same
principle. " Vaccines " are also used as a method of treatment
during the progress of the disease. Sir A. Wright and others, in
recent work on opsonins, have shown that, by injecting dead
cultures of the causal agent into subjects infected with the
organism, there is produced in the body fluids a substance
(opsonin) which apparently in favourable conditions unites with
the Hving causal bacteria and so sensitizes them that they are
914
PATHOLOGY
readily taken up and destroyed by the phagocytic cells of tissues.
Before the discovery of the bacillus of tubercle, scrofula and tuber-
culosis were regarded as two distinct diseases, and it was supposed
that the scrofulous constitution could be distinguished from the
tubercular. It was always felt, however, that there was a close
bond of relationship between them. The fact that the tubercle
bacillus is to be found in the lesions of both has set at rest any
misgiving on the subject, and put beyond dispute the fact that
so-called scrofulous affections are simply local manifestations of
tuberculosis. A knowledge of the bacteriology of scrofulous
affections of bone and joints, such as caries and gelatinous
degeneration, has shown that they also are tubercular diseases —
that is to say, diseases due to the presence locally of the tubercle
bacillus. At a very early period it was held by Virchow that the
large cheesy masses found in tuberculosis of the lung are to be
regarded as pneumonic infiltrations of the air-vesicles. Their
pneumonic nature has been amply substantiated in later
times; they are now regarded simply as evidence of pneumonic
reaction to the stimulus of the tubercle bacillus. The caseous
necrosis of the implicated mass of lung tissue, and indeed of
tubercles generally, is held to be, in great measure, the result
of the necrotic influence of the secretions from the bacillus.
Tubercular pneumonia may thus be looked upon as comparable
to pneumonia excited by any other specific agent.
In the " seventies " of the igth century feeling ran somewhat
high over the rival doctrines concerning the origin of pus-
corpuscles, Cohnheim and his school maintaining that they were
derived exclusively from the blood, that they were leucocytes
which had emigrated through the walls of the vessels and escaped
into the surrounding tissue-spaces, while Strieker and his followers,
although not denying their origin in part from the blood, traced
them, in considerable proportion, to the fixed elements, such as
fibrous tissues and endothelia. Our present-day knowledge
prompts the adoption of a middle course between the two theories.
The cells found in an inflamed part are undoubtedly drawn from
both sources, but whOe the blood leucocytes have a great
tendency to become fatty and to die, those cells derived from the
fixed tissues incline more to organization; the latter are, in fact,
the source of the cicatrix which follows upon the cessation of
suppuration (fig. 23, PI. II. and figs. 31 and $2, PI. III.). Organ-
ization and healing have been keenly inquired into, with results
which seem to point the lesson that all methods of healing are
to be regarded as extensions of the natural phenomena of growth.
Normal cytology, of late, has become a science of itself, and has
had a direct bearing upon that which is pathological.
At no time has so much been done to advance our knowledge
of diseases of the nervous system as during the last thirty years
of the iQth century. The localization of function in the cerebral
and in the cerebellar cortex has doubtless been the main cause
of this progress, and has proceeded pari passu with an extended
insight into the structure and connexions of the parts concerned.
The pathology of aphasia, as worked out by a combination of the
experimental, the pathological and the anatomical lines of inquiry
is a favourable example of what has been accomplished. The
origin, nature, and propagation of neoplasms of all kinds,
especially of those which are malignant, are engaging much
attention. Much light has been thrown upon the functions and
diseases of the blood-forming tissues. The origin of the corpus-
cles, previously a matter of so much difference of opinion, is now
^pretty fairly set at rest, and has proved the key to the interpre-
tation of the pathology of many diseases of the blood, such as the
different forms of anaemia, of leucocythaemia, &c.
It is largely to researches on the bone marrow that we owe our
present knowledge of the origin and the classification of the different
cellular elements of the blood, both erythrocytes or red corpuscles,
and the series of granular leucocytes or white corpuscles. Whatever
be the ancestral cell from which these cells spring, it is in the bone
marrow that we find a differentiation into the various marrow cells
from which are developed the mature corpuscles that pass from the
marrow into the blood circulation. The healthy bone marrow
reacts with remarkable rapidity to the demand for more blood
cells which may be required by the organism ; its reactions and
variations in disease are very striking. If the demand be for the
red cells owing to loss from haemorrhage or any of the anaemias,
the fatty marrow is rapidly replaced by cellular elements; this is
mainly an active proliferation of the nucleated red cells, and gives
rise to the erythroblastic type of marrow. If the white cells be
required, as in local suppurating abscess, general septicaemia,
acute pneumonia, &c., there is an active proliferation of the
myelocytes to form the polymorpho-nuclear leucocytes, so that
we have in this condition a leucoblastic transformation of the fatty
marrow.
The cytology of bone marrow, with the technique of blood
examination, is of great assistance in the diagnosis of different
pathological conditions. The deleterious influence of high blood-
pressure has engaged the attention of physicians and pathologists in
later years, and the conclusion arrived at is, that although it may
arise from accidental causes, such as malcomposition of the blood,
yet that in many instances it is a hereditary or family defect, and
is bound up with the tendency to gout and cirrhotic degeneration
of the kidney. The pathology of intra-cardiac and vascular
murmurs has also been inquired into experimentally, the general
impression being that these abnormal sounds result, in most cases
at least, from the pnoduction of a sonorous liquid vein. Pneumonia
of the croupous type has been proved to be, as a rule, a germ disease,
the nature of the germ varying according to circumstances. The
structural changes occurring in the bronchi in catarrhal bronchitis
have also been ascertained, and, as in the case of pneumonia, have
been shown to be frequently excited by the presence of a microphyte.
The ve.xed question of the diagnosis of diphtheria is now a thing
of the past. Quite irrespective of the nature of the anatomical
lesion, the finding of the diphtheria bacillus on the part affected
and the inoculability of this upon a suitable fresh soil are the sole
means by which the diagnosis can be made certain.
The part played by the thyroid body in the internal economy
of the organism has also received much attention. The gland
evidently e.xcretes, or at any rate gets rid of, a certaiii waste product
of a proteid nature, which otherwise tends to accumulate in the
tissues and to e.xcite certain nervous and tissue phenomena. It
wastes in the disease known as " my.xoedema," and the above
product gathers in the tissues, in that disease, to such an extent
as to give rise to what has been termed a " solid oedema." It is
questionable if the substance in question is mucoid. The pituitary
body probably subserves a like purpose. When the pancreas is
excised in an animal, or when it is destroyed in man by disease,
grape-sugar appears in the urine. The gland is supposed to secrete
a ferment, which, being absorbed into the portal circulation, breaks
up a certain portion at least of the grape-sugar contained in the
portal blood, and so prevents this overflowing into the circulation
in general. The transplantation of a piece of living pancreas into
the tissues of an animal, thus rendered artificially diabetic, is said
to restore it to health.
Pathological chemistry has been remarkable chiefly for the
knowledge we have obtained of the nature of bacterial poisons.
Certain of these are alkaloids, others appear to be albumoses. The
publication of Ehrlich's chemical, or rather physical, theory of
immunity has thrown much light upon this very intricate and
obscure subject.
Pathology is the science of disease in all its manifestations,
whether structural or functional, progressive or regressive. In
times past it has been the habit to look upon its sphere coaaexioa
as lying really within that of practical medicine, and with
human medicine more particularly; as something Biology.
tagged on to the treatment of human disease, but unworthy of
being studied for its own sake as a branch of knowledge. Such a
view can recommend itself to only the narrowest of minds. A bear-
ing, and of course an essential bearing on the study of medicine, it
must always have. A system of medicine reared upon anything
but a pathological basis would be unworthy of consideration.
Yet it may well be asked whether this is the final goal to be aimed
at. Our starting-point in this, as in all departments of biological
study, must be the biological unit, and it is to the alterations to
which this is subject, under varying conditions of nutrition and
stimulation, that the science of pathology must apply itself.
Man can never be the only object of appeal in this inquiry. The
human organism is far too complex to enable us to understand
the true significance of diseased processes. Our range must
embrace a much wider area — must comprise, in fact, all living
matter — if we are ever to arrive at a scientific conception of what
disease really means. Hence not only must the study of our sub-
ject include the diseases peculiar to man and the higher animals,
but those of the lowest forms of animal life, and of plant life, must
be held equally worthy of attention. Modern research seems to
show that living protoplasm, wherever it exists, is subject to
certain laws and manifests itself by certain phenomena, and that
there is no hard and fast line between what prevails in the two
PATHOLOGY
915
kingdoms. So it is with the diseased conditions to which it is a
prey: there is a wonderful community of design, if the term may
be used in such a sense, between the diseases of animals and
plants, which becomes singularly striking and instructive the
more they are inquired into. Utihtarian, or perhaps rather
practical, considerations have very little to do with the subject
from a scientific point of view — no more so than the science of
chemistry has to do with the art of the manufacturing chemist.
The practical bearings of a science, it will be granted, are simply,
as it were, the summation of its facts, with the legitimate con-
clusions from them, the natural application of the data ascer-
tained, and have not necessarily any direct relationship to its
pursuit. It is when studied on these hues that pathology finds
its proper place as a department of biology. Disease as an entity
— as something to which all living matter is subject — is what the
pathologist has to recognize and to investigate, and the practical
appUcation of the knowledge thus acquired follows as a natural
consequence.
Since pathology is the science of disease, we are met at the
very threshold by the question: What is disease? This may
Health best be answered by defining what we understand by
aad health. What do we mean when we talk of a healthy
Disease. organism? Our ideas upon the subject are purely
arbitrary, and depend upon our everyday experience. Health is
simply that condition of stniclure and function which, on examina-
tion of a sufficient number of examples, we find to be commonest.
The term, in fact, has the same significance as " the normal."
Disease we may define, accordingly, as any departure from the
normal standard of structure or function of a tissue or organ. If,
for instance, we find that instead of the natural number of Mal-
pighian bodies in the kidney there are only half that number,
then we are entitled to say that this defect represents disease of
structure; and if we find that the organ is excreting a new
substance, such as albumen, we can affirm logically that its
function is abnormal. Once grant the above definition of
disease, and even the most trivial aberrations from the normal
must be regarded as diseased conditions, quite irrespective of
whether, when structural, they interfere with the function of the
part or not. Thus an abortive supernumerary finger may not
cause much, if any, inconvenience to the possessor, but neverthe-
less it must be regarded as a type of disease, which, trivial as it
may appear, has a profound meaning in phylogeny and ontogeny.
Classification. — From the foregoing it will be gathered that
the problems in pathology are many-sided and require to be
attacked from all points of vantage; and the subject falls
naturally into certain great divisions, the chief of which are the
following: —
I. Morbid anatomy.
{a) Naked-eye or macroscopic.
(J) Morbid histology or microscopic.
II. Pathological physiology.
III. Pathogenesis.
IV. Aetiology.
V. Pathological chemistry.
The term " pathogenesis " has reference to the generation and
development of disease, and that of " aetiology," in its present
bearing, has to do with its causes. The use of the term " patho-
logical physiology " may at first appear strange, for if we define
physiology as the sum of the normal functions of the body or
organism, it may be hard to see how there can be a physiology
which is pathological. The difficulty, however, is more apparent
than real, and in this sense, that if we start with a diseased organ
as our subject of inquiry, we can quite properly, and without
committing a solecism, treat of the functions of that organ in terms
of its diseased state.
Influences Working for Evil upon the Organism
(i) Malnutrition. — When the blood supply is entirely cvX off
from a tissue the tissue dies, and in the act of dying, or after-
wards, it suffers certain alterations dependent upon its sur-
roundings. Thus, when the circulation to an external part is
obstructed completely, as in the case of a limb where the main
artery has been occluded and where the anastomatic communi-
cations have not sufficed to continue the supply of blood, the part
becomes gangrenous (fig. 24, PI. II.) ; that is to say, it dies and falls
a prey to the organisms which excite putrefaction, just as would
happen to any other dead animal tissue were it unconnected
with the body. Fermentative changes are set up in it, character-
ized by the evolution of gas and the formation of products of
suboxidation, some of which, being volatile, account for the
characteristic odour. In the formation of these the tissues
break down, and in course of time lose their characteristic
histological features. The blood suffers first; its j/igment is
dissolved out and soaks into the surroundings, imparting
to them the pink hue so diagnostic of commencing gangrene.
Muscle and white fibrous tissue follow next in order, while
elastic tissue and bone are the last to show signs of dis-
integration. The oil separates from the fat-cells and is found
lying free, while the sulphuretted hydrogen evolved as one of the
products of putrefaction reacts upon the iron of the blood and
throws down a precipitate of sulphide of iron, which in course
of time imparts to the hmb a range of colour commencing in
green and terminating in black.
The temperature at which the hmb is kept, no doubt, favours
and hastens the natural process of destruction, so that putre-
faction shows itself sooner than would be the case with a dead
tissue removed from the body and kept at a lower temperature.
Nevertheless, gangrene is nothing more or less than the putre-
factive fermentation of an animal tissue still attached to the body.
If the amount of Uquid contained in the tissue be small in quantity
the part mummifies, giving rise to what is known as " dry
gangrene." If the dead part be protected from the ingress of
putrefactive organisms, however, it separates from that which is
hving without the ordinary evidences of gangrene, and is then
known as an " aseptic slough." Should the portion of tissue
deprived of its circulation be contained in an internal organ, as is
so often the case where the obstruction in the artery is due to
embolism, it becomes converted into what is known as an
" infarction." These infarcts are most common in organs
provided with a terminal circulation, such as prevails in the
kidney and spleen. The terminal branches of the arteries
supplying these organs are usually described as not anastomosing
but many, if not all, of Cohnheim's end-arteries have minute
collateral channels; which, however, are usually insufficient to
completely compensate for the blocking that may occur in these
arteries, therefore, when one of them is obstructed, the area
irrigated by it dies from malnutrition. Being protected from
the ravages of the organisms which induce putrefaction, however,
it does not become gangrenous; it is only where the obstructing
agent contains these organisms that a gangrenous slough follows,
or, in the case of the contaminating organisms being of a suppur-
ative variety, ends in the formation of a so-called " pyaemic
abscess," followed by rapid dissolution of the dead tissue (fig.
24, PI. II.). In ordinary circumstances, where the artery is ob-
structed by an agent free from such organismal contamination,
the part becomes first red. This is due to intense engorgement
of the vessels brought about through these minute existing
collateral channels and results in a peripheral congested zone
round the infarct. There may be haemorrhage from these
vessels into the tissues. This collateral supply not being suffi-
cient to keep up the proper flow of blood through the part the
veins tend to become thrombosed, thus increasing the engorge-
ment. The central part of the obstructed area very soon under-
goes degenerative changes, and rapidly becomes decolourized.
This necrosed area forms the pale infarct. Absorption of this
infarcted zone is carried on by means of leucocytes and other
phagocytic cells, and by new blood-vessels. If absorption be not
complete the mass undergoes caseation and becomes surrounded
by a capsule of fibrous tissue — being sharply cut oft" from the
healthy tissue.
Where the malnutrition is the effect of poorness in the quahty
of the blood, the results are of course more widespread. The
muscles suffer at an early period: they fall oft' in bulk, and later
suft'er from fatty degeneration, the heart being probably the first
muscle to give way. Indeed, all tissues when under-nourished.
9i6
PATHOLOGY
either locally as the result of an ischaemia, or generally as from
some impairment of the blood, such as that prevailing in perni-
cious anaemia, tend to suffer from fatty degeneration; and at first
sight it seems somewhat remarkable that under-nourished tissues
should develop fat in their substance (figs. 26 and 27, PL II.).
The fatty matter, however, it must be borne in mind, is the
expression of dissimilation of the actual substance of the proteids
of the tissues, not of the splitting up of proteids or other carbona-
ceous nourishment supplied to them.
A part deprived of its natural nerve-supply sooner or later
suffers from the effects of malnutrition. When the trigeminus
nerve is divided (Majendie), or when its root is compressed injuri-
ously, say by a tubercular tumour, the cornea begins to show
points of ulceration, which, increasing in area, may bring about
total disintegration of the eyeball. The earliest interpretation put
upon this experiment was that the trophic influence of the nerve
having been withdrawn, the tissue failed to nourish itself, and that
degeneration ensued as a consequence. The subsequent experiments
of Snellen, Senftleben, and, more lately, of Turner, seem to show
that if the eyeball be protected from the impingement of foreign
particles, an accident to which it is liable owing to its state of
anaesthesia, the ulceration may be warded off indefinitely. If
the eyeball be kept perfectly clean and no organism be admitted
from the outside then ulceration will not follow. If, on the other
hand, any pathogenic organisms be present the results are disastrous
because the tissue, deprived of its nervous trophic supply, has
greatly lessened resistance. The bed-sores which follow paralysis
of the limbs are often quoted as proof of the direct trophic action
of the nerve-supply upon the tissues, yet even here the evidence is
somewhat contradictory. Still, there are facts which, for want of
a better explanation, we are almost bound to conclude are to be
accounted for on the direct nerve-control theory. The common
variety of bed-sore is the result of continuous pressure on and
irritation of the skin, the vitality and resisting power of which are
lowered by a lesion of the cord cutting off the trophic supply to
the skin affected. The acute bed-sore is, in some cases, a true
trophic lesion occurring, as it may, on parts not subjected to con-
tinuous pressure or irritation. Trophic disturbance in the nutrition
of the skin may be so great that a slight degree of external pressure
or irritation is sufficient to excite even a gangrenous inflammation.
Again, a fractured bone in a paralysed limb often fails to unite,
while another in the opposite sound limb unites readily, and an
ulcerated surface on a paralysed limb shows little healing reaction.
A salivary gland degenerates when its nerve-supply is cut off; and
the nerves leading up to the symmetrical sloughs in Raynaud's
disease have been found in an advanced state of degeneration
(Affleck and Wiglesworth). It is just a question, however, whether,
even in instances such as these, the nutritional failure may not be
explained upon the assumption of withdrawal of the local vasomotor
control. There seems to be little doubt, notwithstanding, that
one of the chief functions of the nerve cell is that of the propagation
of a trophic] influence along its axon. When a nerve-trunk is
separated from its central connexion, the distal portion falls into
a state of fatty degeneration (Wallerian or secondary degeneration).
That special trophic nerves, however, exist throughout the h>ody,
seems to be a myth. It is much more likely, as Verworn alleges,
that the nerves which influence the characteristic function of any
tissue regulate thereby the metabolism of the cells in question — in
other words, that every nerve serves as a trophic nerve for the
tissues it supplies. It is a significant fact that neoplasms contain
very few nerve-fibres, even although growing luxuriantly, and
there is a doubt whether the few twigs contained in them may not
merely have been dragged into their midst as the tumour mass
expanded (Young).
Overwork. — The effect of overwork upon an organ or tissue
varies in accordance with (a) the particular organ or tissue
concerned, (6) the amount of nourishment conveyed to it, and
(c) the power of assimilation possessed by its cells. In the case
of muscle, if the avaOable nourishment be sufficient, and if the
power of assimilation of the muscle cells remain unimpaired, its
bulk increases, that is to say, it becomes hypertrophied.
It may be advisable to define exactly what is meant by
" hypertrophy," as the term is often used in a loose and insignifi-
cant sense. Mere enlargement of an organ does not imply that
it is in a state of hypertrophy, for some of the largest organs met
with in morbid anatomy are in a condition of extreme atrophy.
Some organs are subject to enlargement from deposition within
them of a foreign substance (amyloid, fat, &c.). This, it need
hardly be said, has nothing to do with hypertrophy. The term
hypertrophy is used when the individual tissue elements become
bigger to meet the demands of greater functional activity; hyper-
plasia, if there is an increase in the number of these elements;
and pseudo-hypertrophy, when the specific tissue element is
largely replaced by another tissue.
There are conditions in which we have an abnormal increase
in the tissue elements but which strictly should not be defined
as hypertrophies, such as new-growths, abnormal enlargements
of bones and organs due to syphilis, tuberculosis, osteitis
deformans, acromegaly, myxoedema, &c. The enormously long
teeth sometimes found in rodents also are not due to hypertrophy,
as they are normally endowed with rapid growth to compensate
for the constant and rapid attrition which takes place from the
opposed teeth. Should one of these teeth be destroyed the
opposed one loses its natural means of attrition and becomes
a remarkable, curved tusk-like elongation. The naUs of the
fingers, or the hair of the scalp may grow to an enormous length
if not trimmed.
True hypertrophy is commonly found in the hollow muscular
organs such as the heart, bladder and ahmentary canal. As any
obstruction to the outflow of the contents throws an increased
amount of work on the walls, in order to overcome the resistance,
the intermittent strain, acting on the muscle cells, stimulates
them to enlarge and prohferate, fig. 28, PI. II., and gives rise to
adaptive hypertrophy. Should there be much loss of tissue of an
organ, the cells of the remaining part will enlarge and undergo
an active proliferation (hyperplasia) so that it may be made up to
the original amount. Or again, in the case of paired organs, if
one be removed by operation, or destroyed by disease, the other
at once undertakes to carry on the functions of both. To do so a
general enlargement takes place until it may reach the size and
weight equal to the original pair. This is known as compensatory
hypertrophy. : ;
Examples of physiological hypertrophy are found in the ovaries,
uterus and mammary glands, where there is an increased functional
activity required at the period of gestation. Local hypertrophy
may also be due to stimulation resulting from friction or intermittent
pressure, as one may see in the thickenings on the skin of the artisan's
hands. The extreme development of the muscles in the weight-
lifting athlete and in the arm of the blacksmith is the result of
increased functional activity with a corresponding increase in the
vascular supply; this exercise may produce an over-development
so excessive as to be classed as abnormal.
In atrophy we have a series of retrograde processes in organs
and tissues, which are usually characterized by a progressive
diminution in size which may even end in their complete dis-
appearance (fig. 29, PI. II.). This wasting may be general or
local — continuously from the embryonic period there is this
natural process of displacement and decay of tissues going on in
the growing organism. The functions of the thymus gland begin
to cease after the second year from birth. The gland then
slowly shrinks and undergoes absorption. From atrophy of
their roots, caused by the pressure of the growing permanent
teeth, the " milk teeth " in children become loose and are cast off.
The ovaries show atrophic changes after the menopause. In old
age there is a natural wearing out of the elements of the various
tissues. Their physiological activities gradually fail owing to the
constructive processes having become so exhausted from long
use that the destructive ones are able to overtake them. As the
cell fails and shrinks, so does it become more and more unable to
make good the waste due to metabolism. This physiological
wasting is termed senile atrophy.
General atrophy or emaciation is brought about by the tissues
being entirely or partially deprived of nutriment, as in starvation,
or in malignant, tubercular, and other diseases of the alimentary
system which interfere with the proper ingestion, digestion or
absorption of food material. The toxic actions produced in
continued fevers, in certain chronic diseases, and by intestinal
parasites largely aid in producing degeneration, emaciation and
atrophy.
Atrophy may follow primary arrest of function — disuse
atrophy. The loss of an eye will be followed by atrophy of the
optic nerve; the tissues in a stump of an amputated hmb show
atrophic changes; a paralysed Hmb from long disuse shows much
wasting; and one finds at great depths of the sea fishes and
marine animals, which have almost completely lost the organs
PATHOLOGY
917
of sight, having been cut off for long ages from the stimuli
(light) essential for these organs, and so brought into an atrophic
condition from disuse.
Atrophy may also follow from overwork. Increased work
thrown on to a tissue may produce hypertrophy, but, if this
excessive function be kept up, atrophy will follow; even the
blacksmith's arm breaks down owing to the hypertrophic muscle
fibres becoming markedly atrophied.
From these causes a certain shrinkage is liable to occur, more
evident in some parts of the body than in others. Thus the brain
falls off in bulk, and the muscles become attenuated, and in no
muscle is this more notable than in the case of the heart. A
tendency to pigmentation also develops in certain tissues of the
body, such as the nerve and muscle cells. As a result of these
various degenerations the functions of the body deteriorate, the
faculties become blunted, and the muscular energy of the body is
below what it was in earlier life, while the secreting glands in certain
instances become functionally obsolescent.
Continuous Over-pressure. — The tissues of an animal or plant
are all under a certain pressure, caused, in the one case, by the
expulsive action of the heart and the restraint of the skin and
other elastic tissues, and, in the other case, by the force of the
rising sap and the restraint of the periderm or bark. Under this
normal amount of pressure they can live and grow. But when-
ever, from any cause, the degree of pressure which they are
naturally intended to withstand is surpassed, they fail to nourish
themselves, become granular, die, and, falling to pieces, are
absorbed.
Deleterious Surroundings. — There can be little doubt that all
unnatural and artificial modes of life tend to deterioration of the
powers of resistance of the organism to disease. We see it
exemplified in plant life in circumstances which are unnatural
to the life of the plant, and the prevalence of certain constitu-
tional tendencies among the inhabitants of crowded cities bears
evidence to the same law.
Man, like other animals, was naturally intended to lead an out-
door life. He was originally a hunter and a tiller of the ground,
breathing a pure atmosphere, living on a frugal diet, and e.xer-
cising his muscles. Whenever these conditions are infringed his
powers of resistance to disease are lessened, and certain tendencies
begin to show themselves, which are generally termed constitutional.
Thus the liability to tubercular infection is far commoner in the
midst of a depraved population than in one fulfilling the primary
laws of nature; rickets is a disease of great cities rather than of
rural districts; and syphilis is more disastrous and protracted in
its course in the depraved in health than in the robust. Cattle
kept within-doors are in a large proportion of cases tubercular, while
those leading an outdoor life are much less liable to infection.
The improvement which has taken place in the general health of
the inhabitants of cities during recent years, concurrent with
hygienic legislation, is ample proof of the above assertions. The
diminution in the number of deaths from tuberculosis during the
last forty to fifty years of the 19th century of itself points in this
direction. Every living organism, animal and vegetable, tends
to maintain a normal state of health; it is when the natural laws
of health are violated that the liability to disease begins to assert
itself. If, in these circumstances, the food supply be also insuffi-
cient, the combination of influences is sure, in course of time, to
bring about a physical deterioration of the race. Certain avocations
have a direct and immediate influence in causing diseased states
of body. Thus workers in lead suffer from the effects of this sub-
stance as a poison, those who work in phosphorus are liable to
necrosis of bone and fatty degeneration of the blood vessels and
organs, and the many occupations in which dust is inhaled (coal-
mining, stone-dressing, steel-polishing, &c. ; fig. 30, PI. III.) are
fraught with the greatest danger, owing to the destructive influence
exerted upon the lungs by the inhaled particles. Among the most
dangerous of the last class (the pneumokonioses) is perhaps that
in which the dust particles take the form of finely divided freestone,
as in stone-dressing and the dry-polishing on the grindstone of steel.
The particles in this case set up a form of fibrosis of the lung, which,
either of itself or by rendering the organ liable to tubercular infection,
is extremely fatal. The abuse of alcohol may also be mentioned
here as a factor in the poduction of disease.
Parasitism. — Of all external agents acting for evil, however,
probably vegetable and animal micro-organisms with a patho-
genic bent are most to be feared. When we consider that
tuberculosis, diphtheria, cholera, tetanus, typhoid fever, anthrax,
malaria and a host of other contagious diseases have each been
proved to be of parasitical origin, an idea may be conveyed of the
range of the subject. The living organism may be regarded as
constantly engaged in a warfare with these silent and apparently
insignificant messengers of destruction and death, with the
result that too often the battle ends in favour of the attacking
enemy.
Heredity. — The tendencies to disease are in great part heredi-
tary. They probably express a variation which may have
occurred in a far-back ancestor, or in one more recent, and
render the individual vulnerable to the attacks of parasitic fungi,
or, it may be, become manifest as errors of metabolism. The
psychopathic, the tubercular, the rickety, and the gouty consti-
tution may all be transmitted through a line of ascendants, and
only require the necessary exciting agents to render them
apparent. A distinction must be drawn between the above
and diseases, like syphilis and small-pox, in which the contagion
of, not the tendency to, the disease is transmitted directly to the
foetus in ulero. (See Heredity.)
The Cellular Doctrine in Pathology
The cellular pathology is the pathology of to-day; indeed,
protoplasm — its vital characteristics under abnormal influences
and its decay — will be regarded most likely as the basis of patho-
logy in all time. According to our present knowledge of physio-
logical and pathological processes, we must regard the cell as
the ultimate biological unit — a unit of structure and a unit of
function; this was first put forward by Schleidenin 1838, and by
Schwann in 1839, but we owe to Virchow the full recognition
of the fundamental importance of the living cell in all the
processes of life, whether in health or disease. When Virchow
wrote, in 1850, " every animal presents itself as a sum of vital
unities, every one of which manifests all the characteristics of
life," he expressed a doctrine whose sway since then has prac-
tically been uninterrupted. The somatic cells represent com-
munities or republics, as it were, which we name organs and
tissues, but each cell possesses a certain autonomy and inde-
pendence of action, and exhibits phenomena which are indicative
of vitality.
Still, it must be borne in mind that this alleged autonomy of
action is said to be founded upon an erroneous supposition, on
the supposition that each cell is structurally, and it may be
said functionally, separated from those in its neighbourhood.
It is well known that in the vegetable kingdom the protoplasm
of one cell frequently overflows into that of cells adjacent — that
there is, as it were, a continuous network of protoplasm (idio-
plasm of Nageli) prevailing throughout vegetable tissues, rather
than an aggregation of isolated units. The same inter-communi-
cation prevails between adjacent cells in some animal tissues,
and more particularly in those which are pathological, as in the
case of the epithelial cells of cancer. Assuming, with Sedgwick
and others, this amassed and bound condition of the tissues to be
true, it would be necessary to reject the cell-doctrine in pathology
altogether, and to regard the living basis of the organism as a
continuous substance whose parts are incapable of living inde-
pendently of the whole. Until, however, further evidence is
forthcoming in support of this syncytial theory of structure, it
would be unwise to regard it as established sufficiently to consti-
tute a serviceable working hypothesis; hence, for the time being,
we must accept the assertion that the cell represents the ultimate
tissue-unit. Our present day definition of a cell is a minute
portion of living organized substance or protoplasm.
The cells met with in morbid parts which are in a state of active
vitality are built up of the same components as those
found in normal tissues (PI. I.).i Thus thev are pro- „ ™'^"™ ,
vided with a nucleus which is the centre of cell activity ; 'y'f'o'ogia"
both of the reproductive and chemical (metabolic) pro- CeWs.
cesses which occur in the cell protoplasm. The executive centre
•DESCRIPTION OF PLATE I.
Series of Figures illustrative of I rregularDivision of Cells.
Figs. I to 6 are from the epithelial cells of a cancer of the mamma,
{After Galeotti.)
,, y to 21 are from a sarcoma. {After Trambusti.)
Fig. i. — Resting epithelial cell.
9i8
PATHOLOGY
varies in shape, but is usually round or oval, and is sharply defined
by a nuclear membrane from the cytoplasm in which it lies. The
nucleus in its vegetative stage shows a fine network throughout
containing in the meshes the so-called nuclear-sap; attached to the
network are the chromosomes, in the form of small irregular masses,
which have a strong affinity for the " basic dyes." Embedded
in the nucleus are one or more nucleoli (plasmosomes) having an
affinity for the "acid dyes." The nucleolus shows an unstainable
point at the centre known as the endonucleolus or nucleoluolus
(Auerbach).
The cell body, or cytoplasm, is apparently composed of a fine
reticulum or network, containing within the meshes a soft viscid,
transparent substance, the cell-sap, or hyaloplasm, which is probably
a nutrient material to the living cell. Within the cytoplasm are
found manifestations of functional activity, in the form of diges-
tive vacuoles, granules, fat, glycogen, pigment, and foreign bodies.
Usually the cytoplasm shows a marked affinity for the acid stains,
but the different bodies found in the cell may show great variation
in their staining reactions.
The centrosomes which play so important a part in cell division
may be found either lying within or at one side of the nucleus in the
vegetative condition of the cell. Centrosomes may be single, but
usually two are lying close together in the attraction-sphere. When
mitosis is about to take place, they separate from one another and
pass to the poles of the nucleus, forming the achromatic spindle.
After the division and cleavage of the chromosomes of the original
nucleus have taken place they pass from the equator to the poles
of the spindle, rearranging themselves close to the separated centro-
somes to form daughter nuclei.
The cytoplasm of the cell now undergoes division in a line between
the two daughter nuclei. When complete separation has taken place,
we have two daughter cells formed from the original, each being a
perfect cell-unit. Some pathological cells, such as the giant-cells
of tumours, of bone, and those of tubercle, are polynuclcated ; in
some instances they may contain as many as thirty or more nuclei.
The only evidence we have in pathology of living structures in which
apparently a differentiation into cell-body and nucleus does not
exist, is in the case of bacteria, but then there comes the question
whether they may not possess chromatin distributed through their
substance, in the form of metachromatic points, as is the case in
some infusoria (Trachelocerca, Gruber).
Although the methods of cell-division prevailing in normal
structures are maintained generally in those which are pathological,
yet certain modifications of these methods are more noticeable
in the latter than in the former. Thus in the neoplasmata direct
cell-division is more the rule than in healthy parts. In actively
growing neoplasmata, certainly, the indirect method prevails
largely, but seems to go on side by side with the direct.
A curious and interesting modification of the indirect method,
known as " asymmetrical division," occurs frequently in epithelio-
mata, sarcomata, &c. (Hansemann). It consists in an unequal
number of chromosomes passing over to each of the daughter nuclei,
so that one may become hypochromatic, the other hyperchromatic.
When this happens the resulting cleavage of the cytoplasm and
nucleus is also unequal. Several explanations have been given of
-Asymmetrical diaster.
-Tripolar division in which the splitting of the loops has
commenced.
-Tetrapolar karyokinesis.
-Another form of tetrapolar division.
-Cell in a state of degeneration and chromatolysis; the large
rounded body in the cell is a cancer parasite.
-Polynuclcated cell with nuclei of normal size arising from
multiple karyokinetic division.
-Pigmented cell with resting nucleus. The attraction-sphere
and centrosome lie in the cytoplasma in the neighbour-
hood of the nucleus.
-Hypertrophic nucleolus.
-Large cell with a single nucleus; nucleoli in a state of
degeneration.
-Multinucleated giant-cell, the nuclei small and produced
amitotically.
-Karyokinetic figure, the one centrosome much larger than
the other.
-Cell in process of karyokinetic division with retention of the
nucleolus during the division.
-Division of the nucleolus and formation of nuclear plate.
The nucleolus is elongated, and its longest measurement
lies in the direction of the equatorial plane of the nucleus.
—Division of the nucleolus by elongation, construction, and
equilateral division of the nucleus.
-Division of the nucleolus without any evidence of division of
the nucleus.
-Nucleus with many nucleoli.
-Direct division of nucleus.
—Multiple direct division of the nucleus.
—Nail-like nucleolus.
-Fragmentation of the nucleus.
Fig
2.-
3--
?l
4-
5-
6."
l. »l
7--
»»
8.-
••
9-
10.
..
II.
M
12.
..
13-
II
14.
15-
,,
16.
"
17-
18.
"
19-
20.
,,
21.
the meaning of these irregularly chromatic cells, but that which
most lends itself to the facts of the case seems to be that they
represent a condition of abnormal karyorhexis.
In many pathological cells undergoing indirect segmentation,
centrosomes appear to be absent, or at any rate do not manifest
themselves at the poles of the achromatic spindle. When they are
present, that at one end of the spindle may be unusually large, the
other of natural size, and they may vary in shape. In pathological
cell-division it happens occasionally that the segmentation of the
cytoplasm is delayed beyond that of the mitotic network. The
daughter nuclei may have arrived at the anaphase stage, and have
even gone the length of forming a nuclear membrane, without an
equatorial depression having shown itself in the cell-body. Some-
times the equatorial depression fails entirely, and the separation, as
in some vegetable cells, takes place through the construction of a
cell-plate. Intranuclear plexuses are not usually found in giant-
cells, but have been described in the giant-cells of sarcomata by
Klebs and Hansemann, and in those of tubercle by Baumgarten.
Some of the nuclei within multinucleated cells may occasionally
be engaged in mitotic division, the others being in the resting
state.
In the earlier accepted notion of direct segmentation, usually
known as the schema of Remak, division was described as com-
mencing in the nucleolus, as thereafter spreading to the nucleus,
and as ultimately implicating the cell-substance. Trambusti,
curiously, finds confirmatory evidence of this in the division of
cells in sarcoma. Contrary, however, to the experience of others,
he has never found that the attraction-spheres play an important
part in direct cell-division, or, indeed, that they exert any influence
whatever upon the mechanism of the process. Where pigment was
present within the cells (sarcoma), the attraction-spheres were
represented by quite clear unpigmented areas, sometimes with a
centrosome in their midst.
Repair of Injuries
In the process of inflammation we have a series of reactions
on the part of the tissues, and fluids of the body, to counteract
the ill elTects of irritation or injury, to get rid of the cause, and
to repair its results. Injury and loss of tissue are usually
followed by repair, and both the destructive and reparative
changes are, as a rule, classified under the term inflammation.
The irritants may be bacteria and their toxins, or they may be
mechanical, chemical or thermic.
We do not now concur with the old view that inflammation
was essentially an injurious process; rather do we look upon it
as beneficial to the organism. In the various reactions of the
tissues against the exciting cause of the injury we see a striking
example of a beautifully organized plan of attack and defence on
the part of the organism.
In some of the infective conditions the conflict fortifies the
organism against future attacks of the same nature, as for example
in the immunity following many of the acute infective diseases.
This acquired immunity is brought about by the development
of a protective body as a result of the struggle of the cells and
fluids of the body with the invading bacteria and their toxins.
This resistance may be more or less permanent. If the inva-
sion is due to a pus-producing micro-organism which settles in
some local part of the body, the result is an abscess (fig. 25,
PI. II.).
A bscesses. — One can easily demonstrate all the actions and reactions
which take place in this form of acute inflammation. In such a
conflict one can see the presence of these minute but dangerous
foes in the tissues. At once they proceed to make good their hold
on the position they have secured by secreting and throwing out
toxins which cause more or less injury to the tissues in their
immediate neighbourhood. These micro-organisms having found
in the tissues everything favourable for their needs, rapidly multiply
and very soon produce serious results. At this point one's attention
is focused on the wonderful reactions possessed by the healthy
tissues to combat these evil influences.
In a very short period — within three or four hours after infection —
there appears to have been a message conveyed to the defenders of the
body both as to the point of attack and the nature of the invasion.
There is thus brought into play a series of processes on the part
of the tissues — the vascular inflammatory' changes — which is really
the first move to neutralize the malign effects. We find at this early
stage oedema of the part. This is an increased exudation of fluid
from the engorged blood vessels which not only dilutes the to.\ins,
but is supposed to contain substances which in some way act on these
living micro-organisms and render them a more easy prey to the
polymorpho-nuclear leucocytes (fig. 23, PI. II.) — cells that are motile
and extremely phagocytic to these bacteria. At this stage the
PATHOLOGY
Fig. I.
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Kic. 3.
Fig
Fig. 7.
Fig.
Fig. 9.
Fig. 13.
Fig. 14.
Fig. 18
Fig. 17.
Fig. II.
Fig. 20
Fig. 19.
Fig. 12
Fig.
f>y,iv'n by Rd. Muir.
Xut^ata I.itho, Co.. Buffalo. \ )
PATHOLOGY
919
rapidity of the blood circulation has become greatly diminished.
The polymorpho-nuclear leucocytes are seen in great numbers in
the blood vessels.
In health these cells, belonging to our first army of defenders, are
found continually circulating in the blood stream in fairly large
numbers; they are ever ready to rush to the point of attack, where
they at once leave the blood stream by passing through the vessel
walls — emigration — into the tissues of the danger zone. There
they show marked phagocytosis, attacking and taking up into their
interior and destroying the micro-organisms in large numbers.
At the same time large numbers of these cells perish in the struggle,
but even the death of these cells is of value to the body, as in the
process of breaking down there are set free ferments which not
only act detrimentally to the bacteria, but also may stimulate the
bringing forward of another form of cell defenders — the mononuclear
leucocyte.
To replace this cellular destruction there has been a demand
for reinforcements on the home centres of the polymorpho-nuclear
leucocytes — the bone marrow. This call is immediately answered
by an active proliferation and steady maturing of the myelocytes
in the marrow to form the polymorpho-nuclear leucocytes. These
then pass into the blood stream in very large numbers, and appear
to be specially attracted to the point of injury by a positive
chemiotactic action. This phenomenon, called chemiolaxis, has been
studied by several investigators. Leber experimented with several
chemical compounds to find what reaction they had on these cells;
by using fine glass tubes sealed at the outer end and containing
a chemical substance, and by introducing the open end into the
blood vessels he found that the leucocytes were attracted — positive
chemiotaxis — by the various compounds of mercury, copper,
turpentin, and other substances. That quinine, chloroform,
glycerin, alcohol, with others, had no attractive influence on them —
negative chemiotaxis. It was also found that a weak solution
may have a marked positive attraction whilst a strong solution
of the same substance will have the opposite effect. It has been
proved that the pyo-genic bacterial toxins, if not too concentrated,
will attract the polymorpho-nuclear leucocytes, but if concentrated,
may have a repelling influence.
Then we have the property of adaptation, in which the negative
reaction may be changed into a positive ; a given toxin may at first
repel the cell, but by a gradual process the cell becomes accustomed
to such a toxin and will move towards it.
On reaching the vicinity they leave the blood stream and join
in the warfare — many performing their function of phagocytosis (g.».),
others falling victims to the to.xins. The tissues of the part become
disorganized or destroyed, and their place is taken by the mass
of warring cellular elements now recognized as pus.
As soon as the fluids and the polymorpho-nuclear leucocytes have
succeeded in diminishing the virulence of the micro-organism, the
second line of defenders — the large mononuclear leucocytes (fig. 23,
PI. 11.) make their appearance at the field of battle in ever increasing
numbers. These are amoeboid cells and are extremely phagocytic,
their power of digestion being greatly developed. Their principal
function is to bring about the removal of foreign, dead or degener-
ating material. This they take up into their protoplasm, where it
is rapidly digested by being acted on by some intracellular digestive
ferment (fig. 31, PI. III.). Where the material is too large to be
taken up by an individual cell, the dissolution is brought about by
the cells surrounding the material, to which they closely apply them-
selves, and by the secreting of the ferment, a gradual process of
erosion is brought about with ultimate absorption.
If the abscess be deeply situated in some tissue and not able to open
on to a free surface so allowing the contents to be drained off, the
phagocytic cells play a very prominent part in the resolution of
the abscess. They are seen pushing their way right into the field of
conflict and greedily ingesting both friends and foes. The first
defenders, the polymorpho-nuclear leucocytes, having performed
their functions, are of no more use to the organism and are therefore
removed by the mono-nuclear phagocytes as useless material (fig. 31,
PI. III.).
The tissues having now mobilized an army that completely
surrounds the fighting zone, there is a gradual and general advance
made from all sides. The vanguard of this advancing army is
composed of a more or less compact layer of the mono-nuclear
phagocytes (polyblasts) accompanied by numerous new vessels.
These phagocytic cells carry out the complete removal of all the
injured warring elements and the damaged tissues of the part. The
vessels are only temporary channels by which is brought forward
the food supply that is needed by the advancing army if it is suc-
cessfully to carry on its function; they probably also drain off the
deleterious fluid substances formed by the cellular disintegration
that has taken place in the part. Closely on the advance of this
army of phagocytes or scavenger cells follows the third line of
defenders, the connective tissue cells or fibroblasts.
All these cells are probably of local origin and are now stimulated
to make good the damage. The connective tissue cells or fibroblasts
(fig. 32, PI. III.) are seen inactive proliferation around the phagocytic
zone. First they are round or oval in shape; later they become
spindle shaped, arranging themselves in layers. Then they develop
definite fibrils which differentiate into fibrous laminae forming a
zone which shuts off the abscess from the healthy tissue and so
prevents the further invasion and injurious effects of the micro-
organism. By the aid of the new fibroblasts this fibrous tissue
zone gradually encroaches on the pus area and replaces the
phagocytic layer of cells as they proceed with the absorption of
the pus mass (fig. 33, PI. III.;. When complete removal of the
pus mass has been accomplished by the process of absorption, the
damaged area is replaced by the new fibrous tissue, which later
becomes condensed and forms the cicatricial or scar tissue (fig. 35,
PI. III.) — a healed abscess.
Wounds. — The healing of wounds is brought about by similar
processes to that seen in the evolution of an abscess.
If the injury be a small incised wound through the skin and sub-
cutaneous tissues without any septic contamination, there usually
follows a minimum of reaction on the part of the tissues. As the
edges of the wound are brought into accurate apposition there is
little or no blood lodged between them, so that an extremely narrow
strip of fibrin glues the cut edges together. This strip is rapidly
replaced, mainly by the connective tissue cells of the adjoining
tissue growing across the temporary filled breach and firmly uniting
the two cut surfaces. The vascular changes are practically absent
in healing by first intention.
Healing by second intention, or granulation, is usually seen
where there has been loss of tissue, or extensive damage. The
reactions of the tissues vary in degrees according to the nature
and severity of the injury. In resenting such insults, a remarkable
uniformity and regularity in the processes is brought about by the
different cells and fluids of the healthy tissues of the body. Although
we have not reached a stage of certainty regarding their origin,
function and destiny, recent investigations have brought forward
evidence to elucidate the importance of the part played by the
different cells in the various types of the inflammatory process.
If there be a loss of tissue brought about by severe injury to the
skin and the deeper tissues, there is usually an extravasation of
blood from the severed vessels. Along with the exuded serum this
fills up the breach in the tissues and the whole is rapidly formed
into a fibrinous mass due to the disintegration of the polymorpho-
nuclear leucocytes setting free their ferment. The ferment thus
set free brings about the coagulation of the serum, which acts
as a protective and temporary scaffolding to the injured tissues.
Lying between the fibrin mass and the healthy tissues is a zone
of injured and degenerated tissue elements, the result of the
trauma.
As early as six hours after the injury the polymorpho-nuclear
leucocytes are seen passing in large numbers from the dilated and
congested blood vessels of the tissues at the margin of the wound into
the injured zone, where they carry on an active phagocytosis. It is
believed also that they secrete bactericidal substances and ferments
which bring about the liquefaction of the fibrin and the damaged
tissues — histolysis — and thus assist the process of absorption.
They appear to prepare the injured zone for the coming of the ne.xt
series of cells. Their function being at an end they give way to
these cells which carry on the process of absorption.
In a period varying from twenty-four to thirty hours there is
marked evidence of the removal of the degenerated cellular
elements in the damaged zone by the mono-nuclear phagocytes.
Numerous fibroblasts, together with polyblasts, are visible in the
fibrin mass, and the vessels at the peripfiery of the damaged zone
are now seen to be sending out offshoots which assist in the process
of absorption. These vascular buds grow out in various directions
as little solid projections of cells; they then become channelled and
form the new but temporary mcshwork.
After two to four days these processes are more clearly emphasized.
By these processes we reach the stage where the fibrin mass and
damaged tissues have been completely removed, and replaced by
a temporary vascular and cellular tissue, known as granulation
tissue (fig. 34, PI. III.), which in turn has to give way to the more
firm and diflferentiated fibrous tissue. By this time the skin
epithelium may have grown over the wound.
After five to seven days we find the connective tissue cells taking
the principal part in the building up of the new permanent tissue,
for at this stage there is an active proliferation of the fibroblasts.
These cells of various shapes are seen in large numbers, mainly
lying in a direction parallel to the new vessels and capillaries, which
all run at right angles to the wound surface. The branching pro-
cesses of these cells apparently anastomose with one another and
form a delicate supporting network. It is from these cells that
the fine fibrillar substance is formed, and from this stage onwards —
eight to fifteen days — there is a steady increase in the new fibrils,
giving m.ore density to the new tissue. At the same time there is
brought about an alteration in the arrangement of the position of
the fibroblasts. These become spindle shaped with their long axis
more and more assuming a position at right angles to the vessels
(fig. 34, PI. III.); the two edges of the wound are thus more firmly
bound together. As their fibrils become more developed they grad-
ually form fibrous laminae which are laid down first in the deeper
part of the wound. When this process has reached a certain stage
and all the absorption necessary has occurred the new blood vessels,
from the increasing pressure of the successive fibrous layers, gradually
dwindle and become obliterated, i.e. at a period corresponding to
920
PATHOLOGY
the condensation of the fibrous laminae and the disappearance
of the cellular character of the granulation tissue. Thus is formed
in the damaged area a permanent tissue known as scar tissue
(fig- 35. PI- III-).
Fibrosis. — Where a chronic inflammatory process has taken
possession of an organ, or, let us say, has been located in periosteum
or other fibrous part, there is a great tendency to the production
of cicatricial fibrous tissue in mass. Thus it is laid down in large
quantity in cirrhosis of the liver, kidney or lung, and reacts upon
these organs by contracting and inducing atrophy. The term
" cirrhosis " or " fibrosis " is usually applied to such a condition of
organs (figs. 36 and 37, PI. IV.), that of " sclerosis " is used when such
a deposition of fibrous tissue occurs within the central nervous system.
Gull and Sutton asserted that in particular states of body, and more
especially in the condition associated with cirrhotic kidney, such a
fibrosis becomes general, running, as they alleged it does, along
the adventitia of arteries and spreading to their capillaries. They
supposed that it was accompanied by a peculiar hyaline thickening
of the arterial wall, usually of the tunica intima, and hence they
termed the supposed diseased state " arterio-capillary fibrosis,"
and gave the fibrous substance the name " hyaline-fibroid." They
held that the cirrhotic kidney is simply a local manifestation of a
general fibrous disease. Their theory, however, has fallen into
disfavour of late years.
Tumours or New Growths
The various definitions of the term " new growth " leave
us with a definite conception of it as a new formation of tissue
which appears to originate and to grow independently. We
have already compared the body to a social community, each
constituent element of which — the cell — lives its own life but
subordinates its individuality to the good of the whole organism.
The essential characteristic of a new growth is that this sub-
ordination is lost and the tissue elements, freed from the normal
mutual restraint of their interdependence, give way to an
abnormal growth. All the hypotheses about the causation of
new growths seek to explain the secret of this individuality or
" autonomy," as they recognize that the mystery of the origin
of the great majority of tumours would be solved if we could
trace how or why the tissue elements in which they develop first
took on this abnormal growth.
Tumours are divided into two main groups — innocent and
malignant. These differ only in degree and there is no hard and
fast line between them. Innocent tumours are usually sharply
defined from the surrounding tissues, and show no tendency to
spread into them or to pass by means of lymphatics and blood-
vessels to neighbouring parts (fig. 38, PL IV.). Malignant
tumours, on the other hand, invade the adjacent tissues and pass
by lymphatics and blood vessels to distant parts, where they set
up secondary growths (fig. 39, PI. IV.).
Tumours appear to arise spontaneously, i.e. without evident
cause; they may develop in association with prolonged irritation
or injury (later referred to in more detail). To heredity, as an
indirect or predisposing cause, has probably been assigned too
great importance, and the many facts brought forward of the
relative frequency of cancer in members of one family only
justify the conclusion that the tissue-resistance of certain families
is lowered.
At the present time we have still before us the question, what is
the essential cause of tumours iq.v.) ? This, one of the most difficult
problems of pathology, is being attacked by many able workers,
who are all striving from different standpoints to elucidate the nature
of these new formations, which spring from the normal tissues in
which they develop and which they destroy. In spite of all the
valuable research work that has been done within the last few years,
the essential cause of new growths still remains unknown.
To the work carried on by the Imperial Cancer Research Fund in
England, and to investigators in other countries, are due the present
day scientific efforts made to systematize investigation and clear
away many of the hypothetical speculations that have gathered
round this most difficult subject. Their investigations on cancers
found in the lower animals, and the successful transplantation of
such growths into a new host of the same species (mice and
rats), have greatly advanced our knowledge of the etiology of this
disease.
Many of the hypotheses of the past put forward to explain cancer
must be discarded, in view of the facts brought to light by the
comparative and experimental research of recent times. According
to the hypothesis of Waldcyer and Thiersch there is perfect equi-
librium between the normal epithelium and its supporting structure,
the connective tissue, but with advancing age this balance is upset
owing to the connective tissue gradually losing its restraining
power. The epithehal cells are then able to pass from their normal
position, in consequence of which they proliferate and at the same
time revert to a more primitive type of cell. In this way they give
rise to a malignant new growth.
Cohnheim's hypothesis of " embryonic residues " provides
that early in the development of the embryo some of the cells, or
groups of cells, are separated from their organic continuity during
the various foldings that take place in the actively growing embryo.
The separated cells become intermingled with other tissue elements
amongst which they lie dormant with their inherent power of
proliferation in abeyance. At a later date in the life of the individual,
by some unknown stimuli, they resume their active power of
proliferation and so give rise to new growths.
The " tissue-tension " hypothesis of Ribbert is a combination
of the two foregoing. He holds that new growths arise, both before
birth or at any subsequent period of life, by the separation of cells
or clumps of cells from their normal position, and that in health
there is a balance between the various tissues and tissue elements
regulated by what he calls the " tissue-tension " of the part, i.e. that
cells or groups of cells have a restraining power on one another
which prevents any physiological over-activity. '
From whatever cause the resisting power of the tissue elements
is thus weakened, the invasion of other tissue elements is then
allowed to take place. These being freed from the normal inhibiting
power of the neighbouring elements, multiply and go on to the
formation of a new growth. According to Ribbert it is the isolation,
together with the latent capacity of isolated cells for unlimited
poliferation, that gives rise to new growths.
Hansemann's " anaplasia " hypothesis seeks to find an explana-
tion of the formation of new growths in the absence of the histo-
logical differentiation of the cell associated with a corresponding
increase in its proliferative power and a suspension, or loss, of its
functional activity.
The greater the degree of anaplasia the more the tumour cells con-
form in character and appearance to the embryonic type of cell and
the more malignant is the new growth. A simple fibroma is a growth
composed of fully formed fibrous tissue (fig. 40, PI. IV.). The small
round celled sarcoma is a malignant growth, and is composed of
the primitive type of cell that goes to form fibrous tissue (fig. 41,
PI. IV.).
Then we have Beard's " germ-cell " hypothesis, in which he
holds that many of the germ-cells in the growing embryo fail to
reach their proper position — the generative areas — and settle down
and become quiescent in some somatic tissue of the embryo. They
may at some later date become active in some way, and so give
rise to a cellular proliferation that may imitate the structure in
which they grow, so giving rise to new growths.
Some workers regard certain appearances in dividing cells found
in cancer as evidence of a reversion of the somatic cell to the germ-
cell type (heterotypical), otherwise found only in the process which
results in the formation of an embryo. These appearances are
probably due to a pathological mitosis, commonly found in cancer,
in which there is an irregular diminution in the number of chromo-
somes; some are cast out and become degenerated or some pass
over to one of the daughter cells, leaving a reduced number in the
other, and thus give rise to asymmetrical mitosis.
From the histological examination of tumour cells there is
no evidence to show that they resemble the protozoal unicellular
organisms in occasionally passing through a sexual process of re-
production, i.e. that nuclear conjugation between cells ever takes
place.
In recent years the successful experimental transplantation of
new growths, occurring sporadically in white mice and rats, into
animals of the same species, has thrown a fresh light on all the
features of malignant growths. From these experiments it is
shown that cells taken from these growths and introduced into
animals of the same species give rise to a cancerous growth, whose
cells have acquired unlimited powers of proliferation. They are
direct lineal descendants of the cells introduced, and are in no
way formed from the tissue cells of the host in which they are placed
and grow.
Not only is this true of epithelial cells, but'the connective tissue-
cells of the supporting structure of cancerous growth, after repeated
transplantation, may become so altered that a gradual evolution
of apparently normal connective tissue into sarcomatous elements
takes place, these giving rise to " mi.xed tumours." The
sarcomatous development may even completely outgrow the
epithelial elements and so form and contmue to grow as a pure
sarcoma.
The fact that it is possible to propagate these cells of one animal
for years in other animals of the same species, without any loss of
their vegetative vitality, suggests that this continued growth is
kept up by a growth-stimulating substance present in the proper
species of animal; this substance, however, has not the power of
transforming the normal tissue into a cancerous one.
Henser, Bencke, Adami, Marchand and others have also put
forward hypotheses to account for the origin of new growths.
These observers maintain that the cells from some cause lose, or
may never have had developed, their functional activity, and thus
PATHOLOGY
Plate II.
• ^
-^
■k
^
U
t
— i
-^
-^
Fig. 22. — Tubercle bacilli in tissues from
human lung in a case of acute
phthisis. The bacilli are seen lying
as short rods, singly and in clumps,
in the caseous and degenerated
tissues of the lung. ( X looo diam.)
vOj? ■ M^»■^'■
Fig. 28. — Muscle fibre greatly
increased in size, from
hypertrophicd heart. ( :■;
400 diam
Fig. 25. — Acute abscess in the kidney. A small
cellular area formed by emigrated polymorpho-
nuclear leucocytes surrounding a central mass
of bacteria. (X 75 diam.)
f*
^ *
tt
'* I
Fig. 23. — Inflammatory cells from acute
exudate. Numerous polymorpho-
nuclear leucocytes and a few mono-
nuclear cells, one of which has taken
up a leucocyte into its interior
(phagocytosis). ( x 600 diam.)
Fig. 24. — Symmetrical gangrene of toes (3 months' dura-
tion), showing the sharp " line Tof demarcation "
between the mummified toes and the more healthy
tissue.
Fig. 29. — Muscle fibres from atro-
phied heart. (Contrast Fig. 28.)
( X 400 diam.)
XX. 920.
Fig. 26. — Fatty degeneration of heart from case of perni-
cious anaemia. Many of the muscle fibres show
numerous droplets of oil seen as dark round granules.
( X 200 diam.)
Fig. 27. — Fatty degeneration of kidney from case of
star\-ation. Black droplets of oil are seen in the
epithelial cells lining the secreting tubules. ( x 250
diam.)
Plate III.
PATHOLOGY
Fig. 30. — Anthracosis — coal-miner's lung — showing
excessive accumulation of carbon pigment in the
lymphatic spaces around the vessels of the lung.
(X 50 diam.)
Fig. 36. — Polylobular cirrhosis, or " Gin-drinker's Liver," show-
ing well-formed fibrous overgrowth which has divided up the
liver tissue into irregular masses and caused atrophic and
degenerative changes in the liver cells. ( X 24 diam.)
Fig. 32.-Fibroblastsin young temporary
granulaiion tissue. These are spindle
shaped and have long processes. It
is from these cells the permanent
fibrous tissue is formed. (X 400
diam.)
Fig. 3 1 .—Cells from inflammatory exudate show-
ing active phagocytosis. The muno-nuclcar
cells are ingesting and digesting many of the
polymorpho-nuclear leucocytes. Note that
those phagocytic cells are pushing out pro-
toplasmic processes (pseudopodia) by which
j, they grasp their victims. (X 1000 diam.)
Fig. 33. — Healing abscess showing a wall of
young cellular and vascular granulation
tissue, which separates the pus area (top of
Fig.) from the muscle fibres seen at lower
part of Fig. (X 60 diam.)
Fig. 37.— Chronic interstitial myocarditis,
showing the muscle fibres in the heart
wall being separated and becoming
atrophied by a slow fibrous overgrowth
of the connective tissue. (X 300 diam.)
Fig. 35. — Scar tissue in a healed wound.
Note the disappearance of blood-
\-essels and that the cellular char-
acter has diminished — the fibroblasts
having now developed into well-
formed fibrous tissue. ( X 200 diam.)
Fig. 34. — Granulation tissue showing the
character and relation of the cellular
elements to the new blood-vessels
in the young temporary tissue. (X
200 diam.)
PATHOLOGY
921
acquire the activity of growth. The descendants of such cells
will become more and more undifferentiated, thereby developing an
increased vegetative activity.
Oertel finds an explanation of this want of complete cell-
differentiation, loss of function, and acquired vegetative activity
in the non-homogeneous character of the nuclear chromatin elements
of the cell, and maintains that the different properties of the cell
are carried and handed down by the different orders of chromatin
loops. We have analogies to this in the two nuclei of some of the
protozoa, the one being solely for the purpose of propagation,
the other being associated with the functional activities of the cell.
Oertel thinks that in man we have these two different functions
carried on by the one nucleus containing both chromatin orders.
If, from whatever cause, any of the chromatin loops belonging to
the functional order be lost the descendants of such a cell, being
unable to restore these loops, will be minus the functional attributes
associated with the lost elements. These, having the full equip-
ment of the vegetative order, will now develop the inherent power
of proliferation to a greater or lesser extent.
The foregoing hypotheses have all sought the origin of new growths
in some intrinsic cause which has altered the characters of the
cell or cells which gave rise to them, but none of them explain the
direct exciting cause. The parasitic hypothesis postulates the
invasion of a parasite from without, thus making a new growth
an infective process. Many cancer-parasites have been described
in cancerous growths, including bacteria, yeasts and protozoa,
but the innumerable attempts made to demonstrate the causal
infective organism have all completely failed.
It is well known that cancer may develop in places where there
has been chronic irritation; an example may be found in cancer of
the tongue following on prolonged irritation from a jagged tooth.
Clay-pipes may also give rise to cancer of lips in males in England,
while cancer of the mouth of both sexes is common in India where
chewing a mixture of betel leaves, areca-nut, tobacco and slaked
lime is the usual practice. In the case of the squamous epithelial
cancer of the anterior abdominal wall found so frequently in the
natives of Kashmir, the position of the cancer is peculiar to this
people, and is due to the chronic irritation following on repeated
burns from using the " kangri " — a small earthenware vessel
containing a charcoal fire enclosed in basket-work, and suspended
round the waist, to assist in maintaining warmth in the extreme
cold of the hills of Kashmir.
The irritant may be chemical, as is seen in the skin cancers that
develop in workers in paraffin, petroleum, arsenic and aniline.
However close the relationship is between chronic irritation and
the starting of cancer, we are not in a position to say that irritation,
physical or chemical, by itself can give rise to new growths. It
may merely act locally in some way, and so render that part
susceptible to unknown tissue stimuli which impart to the cells
that extraordinary power of proliferation characteristic of new
growth.
At the present time we are quite uncertain what is the ultimate
cause of new growths; in all probability there may be one or more
aetiological factors at play disturbing that perfect condition of
equilibrium of normal tissues. A defect in co-ordination allows
the stimulated active vegetative cellular elements, or the more
fully differentiated tissue, to over-develop and so form tumours,
simple or malignant.
Other Tissue Products
Mucoid. — In many pathological conditions we have degenera-
tive products of various kinds formed in the tissues. These
substances may be formed in the cells and given out as a secre-
tion, or they may be formed by an intercellular transformation.
In the mucinoid conditions, usually termed " mucoid " and
" colloid " degenerations, we have closely allied substances
which, like the normal mucins of the body, belong to the gluco-
proteids, and have in common similar physical characters.
There is neither any absolute difference nor a constancy in their
chemical reactions, and there can be brought about a transition
of the " colloid " material into the " mucoid," or conversely. By
mucoid is understood a soft gelatinous substance containing
mucin, or pseudomucin, which is normally secreted by the epi-
thelial cells of both the mucous membranes and glands. In
certain pathological conditions an excessive formation and
discharge of such material is usually associated with catarrhal
changes in the epithelium. The desquamated cells containing
this jelly-like substance become disorganized and blend with the
secretion. Should this take place into a closed gland space it
will give rise to cysts, which may attain a great size, as is seen
in the ovarian adenomata. In some of the adenoid cancers
of the alimentary tract this mucoid material is formed by the
epithelial cells from which it flows out and infiltrates the
surrounding tissues; both the cells and tissues appear to be
transformed into this gelatinous substance, forming the so-called
" colloid cancer " (fig. 42, PL IV.).
The connective tissue is supplied normally with a certain amount
of these mucinoid substances, no doubt acting as a lubricant. In
many pathological conditions this tissue is commonly found to
undergo mucoid or myxomatous degeneration, which is regarded
as a reversion to a closely similar type — that of foetal connective
tissue (fig. 43, PI. IV). These changes are found in senile wasting,
in metaplasia of cartilage, in many tumours, especially mixed
growths of the parotid gland and testicle, and in various inflam-
matory granulation ulcers. In the wasting of the thyroid gland
in myxoedema, or when the gland is completely removed by opera-
tion, my.xomatous areas are found in the subcutaneous tissue of the
skin, nerve-sheaths, &c.
Colloid. — This term is usually applied to a semi-solid substance
of homogeneous and gelatinous consistence, which results partly
from excretion and partly from degeneration of cellular struc-
tures, more particularly of the epithelial type. These cells
become swollen by this translucent substance and are thrown
off into the space where they become fused together, forming
colloid masses. This substance differs from the mucins by being
precipitated by tannic acid but not by acetic acid, and being
endowed with a higher proportion of sulphur.
In the normal thyroid there is formed and stored up in the
spaces this colloid material. The enlarged cystic goitres show,
in the distended vesicles, an abnormal formation and retention
of this substance (fig. 44, PL V.). Its character is readily
changed by the abnormal activities which take place in these
glands during some of the acute fevers; the semi-solid consistence
may become mucoid or even fluid.
Serous degeneration is met with in epithelial cells in inflammatory
conditions and following on burns. The vitality of these cells
being altered there is imbibition and accumulation of watery fluid
in their cytoplasm, causing swelling and vacuolation of the cells.
The bursting of several of these altered cells is the method by
which the skin vesicles are formed in certain conditions.
Glycogen is formed by the action of a ferment on the carbo-
hydrates — the starches being converted into sugars. The
sugars are taken up from the circulation and stored in a less
soluble form — known as " animal starch " — in the liver and
muscle cells; they play an important part in the normal meta-
bolism of the body. The significance of glycogen in large
amounts, or of its absence from the tissues in pathological con-
ditions, is not clearly understood. It is said to be increased in
saccharine diabetes and to be greatly diminished in starvation
and wasting diseases.
Fat. — Fatty accumulations in the tissues of the body are
found in health and in pathological conditions; these are usually
recognized and described as fatty infiltrations and fatty degenera-
tions, but there are intermediate conditions which make it
difficult to separate sharply these processes.
The fatty accumulations known as infiltrations (figs. 45 and
46, PL V.) are undoubtedly the result of excessive ingestion of
food material containing more neutral fats than the normal
tissues can oxidize, or these, as a result of defective removal
owing to enfeebled oxidative capacities on the part of the tissues,
become stored up in the tissues.
In acute and chronic alcoholism, in phthisis, and in other
diseases this fatty condition may be very extreme, and is com-
monly found in association with other tissue changes, so that
probably we should look on these changes as a degeneration.
Adiposity or obesity occurs when we have an excessive amount
of fat stored in the normal connective-tissue areas of adipose
tissue. It may be caused by various conditions, e.g. over-
nutrition with lack of muscular energy, beer-drinking, castration,
lactation, disturbed metabolism, some forms of insanity, and
may follow on some fevers.
Fatty degeneration is a retrogressive change associated with
the deposit of fatty granules or globules in the cytoplasm, and
is caused by disorganized cellular activity (figs. 26 and 2 7, PL II. ) .
It is frequently found associated with, or as a sequel to, cloudy
swelling in intense or prolonged toxic conditions. Over and
above the bacterial intoxications we have a very extreme degree
of fatty degeneration, widely distributed throughout the tissues,
922
PATHOLOGY
which is produced by certain organic and inorganic poisons; it
is seen especially in phosphorus and chloroform poisoning.
The changes are also common in pernicious anaemia, advanced
chlorosis, cachexias, and in the later stages of starvation. In
diabetes meUitus, in which there is marked derangement in
metabolism, extreme fatty changes are occasionally found in the
organs, and the blood may be loaded with fat globules. This
lipoemic condition may cause embolism, the plugging especially
occurring in the lung capillaries.
Fatty degeneration is common to all dead or decaying tissues
in the body, and may be followed by calcification.
Autolysis is a disintegration of dead tissues brought about by
the action of their own ferments, while degeneration takes place
in the still living cell. The study of autolytic phenomena which
closely simulates the changes seen in the degenerating cell has
thrown much light on these degenerative processes.
These conditions may be purely physiological, e.g. in the
mammary gland during lactation or in sebaceous glands, caused
by increased functional activity. It may follow a diminished
functional activity, as in the atrophying thymus gland and in
the muscle cells of the uterus after parturition.
Any of the abnormal conditions that bring about general
or local defective nutrition is an important factor in producing
fatty degeneration.
The part played by fats and closely allied compounds in normal
and abnormal metabolism need not here be discussed, as the
subject is too complex and the views on it are conflicting. It will
be sufficient to state briefly what appears to be the result of recent
investigation.
The neutral fats are composed of fatty acids and glycerin. In
the physiological process of intestinal digestion, the precursors of
such fats are split up into these two radicles. The free fatty acid
radicle then unites with an alkali, and becomes transformed into
a soluble soap which is then readily absorbed in this fluid condition
by the epithelial cells of the mucous membrane. There it is acted
on by ferments (lipases) and converted into neutral fat, which may
remain in the cell as such. By the reverse action on the part of
the same ferments in the cell, these neutral fats may be redissolved
and pass into the lacteals.
Many cells throughout the body contain this ferment. The
soluble soaps which are probably conveyed by the blood will be
quickly taken up by such cells, synthetizcd into neutral fats, and
stored in a non-diffusible form till required. The fat in this con-
dition is readily recognized by the usual microchemical and stain-
ing reactions. As fat is a food element essential to the carrying
out of the vital energies of the cell, a certain amount of fatty matter
must be present, in a form, however, unrecognizable by our present
microchemical and staining methods.
Some investigators hold that the soaps may become combined
with albumin, and that on becoming incorporated with the cyto-
plasm they can no longer be distinguished as fat. If from some
cause the cell be damaged in such a way as to produce disintegra-
tion of the cytoplasm, there will be a breaking down of that com-
bination, so that the fat will be set free from the complex protein
molecule in which it was combined as a soap-albumin, and will
become demonstrable by the usual methods as small droplets of
oil. This splitting up of the fats previously combined with albumin
in the cell by the action of natural ferments — lipases — and the setting
free of the fats under the influence of toxins represent the normal
and the pathological process in the production of so-called fatty
degeneration.
Calcification. — Calcification and calcareous deposits are
extremely common in many pathological conditions.
There are few of the connective tissues of the body which
may not become affected with deposits of calcareous salts
(fig. 47, PI. v.). This condition is not so frequently seen in
the more highly differentiated cells, but may follow necrosis of
secreting ceOs, as is found in the kidney, in corrosive sublimate
poisoning and in chronic nephritis. These conditions are quite
distinct from the normal process of ossification as is seen in
bone.
Many theories have been advanced to explain these processes,
and recently the subject has received considerable attention. The
old idea of the circulating blood being supersaturated with lime
salts which in some way had first become liberated from atrophying
bones, and then deposited, to form calcified areas in different
tissues will have to be given up, as there is no evidence that this
" metastatic " calcification ever takes place. In all probability
no excess of soluble lime salts in the blood or lymph can ever be
deposited in healthy living tissues.
At the present day both experimental and histological investi-
gations seem to indicate that in the process of calcification there
is a combination of the organic substances present in degenerated
tissues, or in tissues of low vitality, with the lime salts of the body.
From whatever cause the tissues become disorganized and undergo
fatty degeneration, the fatty acids may become liberated and com-
bine with the alkalies to form potash and soda soaps.
The potash and soda is then gradually replaced by calcium to
form an insoluble calcium soap. The interaction between the soaps,
the phosphates and the carbonates which are brought by the blood
and lymph to the part results in the weaker fatty acids being re-
placed by phosphoric and carbonic acid, and thus in the formation
of highly insoluble calcium phosphate and carbonate deposits in
the disorganized tissues.
Pathological Pigmentations. — These pigmentary changes found
in abnormal conditions are usually classified under (i) Albumi-
noid, (2) Haematogenous, (3) Extraneous.
1. The normal animal pigments and closely allied pigments
are usually found in the skin, hair, eye, supra-renal glands, and
in certain nerve cells. These represent the albuminoid series,
and are probably elaborated by the cells from albuminous
substances through the influence of specific ferments. This
pigment is usually intracellular, but may be found lying free in
the intercellular substance, and is generally in the form of fine
granules of a yeUowish-brown or brown-black colour. In the
condition known as albinism there is a congenital deficiency or
entire absence of pigment. Trophic and nervous conditions
sometimes cause localized deficiency of pigment which produces
white areas in the skin.
Excessive pigmentation of tissue cells (fig. 48, PI. V.) is seen
in old age, and usually in an accompaniment of certain atrophic
processes and functional disorders. Certain degenerative changes
in the supra-renal glands may lead to Addison's disease, which is
characterized by an excessive pigmentary condition of the skin
and mucous membranes. This melanin pigment is found in
certain tumour growths, pigmented moles of the skin, and espe-
cially in melanatic sarcomata (fig. 49, PI. V.) and cancer. The
action of the sun"s rays stimulates the cells of theskin to increase
the pigment as a protection to the underlying tissues, e.g. summer
bronzing, " freckles," and the skin of the negro.
The coloured fats, or lipochromes, are found normally in some of
the cells of the internal organs, and under certain pathological
conditions. This pigment is of a light yellow colour, and contains
a fatty substance that reacts to the fat-staining reagents. Little
is known regarding this class of pigment.
2. Haematogenous pigments are derived from the haemo-
globm of the red blood corpuscles. These corpuscles may break
down in the blood vessels, and their colouring material (haemo-
globin) is set free in the serum. But their disintegration is more
commonly brought about by " phagocytosis " on the part of the
phagocytic cells in the different organs concerned with the
function of haemolysis, i.e. the fiver, spleen, haemolymph glands
and other tissues.
The haemoglobin may be transformed into haematoidin, a
pigment that does not contain iron, or into a pigment which does
contain iron, haemosiderin.
The haematoidin pigment may vary in colour from yellowish
or orange-red to a ruby-red, and forms granular masses, rhombic
prisms or acicular crystals. It can be formed independently of
cell activity, nor does it require oxygen. These crystals are
extremely resistant to absorption, are found in old blood clots,
and have been known to persist in old cerebral haemorrhages
after many years. Haematoidin in normal metabolism is largely
excreted by the liver in the form of bilirubin.
Haemosiderin, an iron-containing pigment (probably an hydrated
ferrous oxide), is found in more or less loose combination with
protein substances in an amorphous form as brownish or black
granules. Cellular activity and oxygen appear to be essential for
its development ; it is found usually in the cells of certain organs,
or it may be deposited in the intercellular tissues. Haemosiderin
in the normal process of haemolysis is stored up in the cells_ of
certain organs until required by the organism for the formation
of fresh haemoglobin. In diseases where haemolysis is extreme,
particularly in pernicious anaemia, there are relatively large quanti-
ties occasionally as much as ten times the normal amount of
haemosiderin deposited in the liver.
In hepatogenous pigmentation (icterus or jaundice) we have
the iron-free pigment modified and transformed by the action of
the liver cells into bile pigment (bihrubin). If thedischargeof this
PATHOLOGY
Plate IV.
Fig. 38. — Myoma uteri. A simple fibro-myomatous
tumour growing in the wall of the uterus. Note
the sharp line of demarcation between the
growth and the tissue in which it is growing.
( 24 diam.)
I
Fig. 40. — Fibroma. A simple tumour composed of
well-differentiated fibrous tissue. The fibres are
arranged in irregular bundles forming a dense
firm tissue, (x 100 diam.)
Fig. 42. — " Colloid cancer of stomach "showing the
cancer cells in the spaces being transformed into
the " colloid material." ( < 75 diam.)
Fig. 39. — Secondary cancerous growth in heart wall.
Note that the malignant cells are invading and
destroying the muscle fibres of the heart,
(x 75 diam.)
Fig. 41. — Small round-celled sarcoma. _ A malignant
tumour composed of undifferentiated masses
of cells. These cells are readily carried to
distant parts and give rise to secondary growths,
(x 100 diam.)
XX. g22.
Fig. 43. — Myxoma showing the stellate and branch-
ing cells with their processes interlacing and
forming a network. The mucinoid substance is
contained in the fine meshes, (x 100 diam.)
Plate V.
PATHOLOGY
V >=F^rr-«
M, -^
Fig. 44. — Thyroid gland — cystic goitre. The gland
spaces vary in size and many may show marked
cystic formation. These vesicles are filled with
the colloid material ( x 90 diam.)
Fig. 45. —Liver. Fatty Infiltration. The liver cells
are seen to contain a large globule of fat which
pushes the cell nucleus to one side— giving the
signet-ring appearance. ( x 250 diam.)
Fig. 50. — Phagocytic i
which have taken
plasm particles of
( X 500 diam.)
ellb (in sputum)
into their proto-
carbon pigment.
Fig. 47. — Pudic artery showing calcified areas Fig. 46. — Heart. Fatty Infiltration. The fat
in the muscular coat of the vessel. These cells are increased and infiltrate the con-
degenerated parts are darkly stained owing nective tissue between the bundles of
to the calcareous particles having a strong muscle fibres. These are pressed upon and
affinity for the haemotoxylin stain. ( x 35 become atrophied, and may ultimately be
diam.) replaced by adipose tissue. ( x 40 diam.)
Fig. 49. — Melanotic sarcoma. Maiiyol ilnse
malignant cells develop and accumulate
in their protoplasm granules of melanin
pigment. ( x 300 diam.)
Fig. 48. — Brown atrophy of heart. The
muscle fibres show the pigment
granules, which are of a light yellow
colour, situated specially at the poles
of the fibre nucleus and extending
short distance in the long axis of the
fibre. ( ,-, 400 diam.)
Fig. 51. Liver, waxy. The swollen waxy
capillaries are pressing on the columns of
liver cells and are causing marked atrophy.
(.-- 75 diam.)
PATHOLOGY
923
pigment from the liver by the normal channels be prevented, as
by obstruction of the main bile ducts, the bile will accumulate
until it regurgitates or is absorbed into the lymph and blood
vessels, and is carried in a soluble state throughout the tissues,
thus producing a general staining — an essential characteristic of
jaundice.
3. In extraneous pigmentation we have coloured substances
either in a solid or fluid state, gaining entrance into the organism
and accumulating in certain tissues. The channels of entrance
are usually by the respiratory or the alimentary tract, also by the
skin. Pneumonokoniosis is due to the inhalation of minute
particles of various substances — such as coal, stone, iron, steel,
&c. These foreign particles settle on the lining membranes,
and, by the activity of certain cells (fig. 50, PI. V. and fig. 30,
PI. III.), are carried into the tissues, where they set up chronic
irritation of a more or less serious nature according to the nature
of the inhaled particles.
Certain metallic poisons give rise to pigmentation of the tissues,
e.g. in the blue line on the gums around the roots of the teeth due
to the formation of lead sulphide, or in chronic lead poisoning,
where absorption may have taken place through the digestive
tract, or, in the case of workers in lead and lead paints, through
the skin. Prolonged ingestion of arsenic may cause pigmentary
changes in the skin. If silver nitrate salts be administered for a
long period as a medication, the skin that is exposed to light becomes
of a bluish-grey colour, which is extremely persistent. These
soluble salts combine with the albumins in the body, and are
deposited as minute granules of silver albuminate in the connective
tissue of the skin papillae, serous membranes, the intima of arteries
and the kidney. This condition is known as argyria.
Various coloured pigments may be deposited in the tissues
through damaged skin surface — note, for example, the well-known
practice of " tattooing." Many workers following certain occu-
pations show pigmented scars due to the penetration of carbon and
other pigments from superficial wounds caused by gunpowder,
explosions, &c.
Hyaline. — This term has been applied to several of the trans-
parent homogeneous appearances found in pathological condi-
tions. It is now commonly used to indicate the transparent
homogeneous structureless swellings which are found affecting
the smaller arteries and the capillaries. The delicate connective-
tissue iibrillae of the inner coat of the arterioles are usually
first and most affected. The fibrils of the outer coat also
show the change to a less extent, while the degeneration
very rarely spreads to the middle coat. This swelling of the
walls may partly or completely occlude the lumen of the
vessels.
Hyaline degeneration is found in certain acute infective condi-
tions ; the toxins specially act on these connective-tissue cell elements.
It also seems to be brought about by chronic to.xaeraias, e.g. in
subacute and chronic Bright's disease, lead poisoning and other
obscure conditions. The hyaline material, unlike the amyloid,
does net give the metachromatic staining reactions with methylene-
violet or iodine. The chemical constitution is not certain. The
substance is very resistant to the action of chemical reagents, to
digestion, and possibly belongs to the glyco-proteids.
Amyloid. — The wax-like or amyloid substance has a certain
resemblance to the colloid, mucoid and hyaline. It has a firm
gelatinous consistence and wax-like lustre, and, microscopically,
is found to be homogeneous and structureless, with a trans-
lucency like that of ground-glass. Watery solution of iodine
imparts to it a deep mahogany-brown colour; iodine and sulphuric
acid occasionally, but not always, an azure-blue, methyl-
violet, a brilliant rose-pink and methyl-green gives a reaction
very much like that of methyl-violet, but not so vivid. The
reaction with iodine is seen best by direct light; the reactions
with the other substances are visible only by transmitted
light. The name " amyloid " was apphed to it by Virchow
on account of the blue reaction which it gives occasionally
with iodine and sulphuric acid, resembling that given with
vegetable cellulose. It is now known to have nothing in common
with vegetable cellulose, but is regarded as one of the many
albuminoid substances existing in the body under pathological
conditions. Virchow's conjecture as to the starchy nature of the
substance was disproved by Friedrich and Kekule, who confirmed
Professor Miller's previous finding as to its albuminous or protein
nature. Oddi in 1894 isolated from the amyloid liver a substance
which Schmiedeberg had previously obtained from cartilage and
named " chondroitinic-sulphuric acid " (Clwndrmtinschwefel-
saurc). It also occurs in bones and elastic tissue, but is not
present in the normal human liver. Oddi does not regard it as
the essential constituent of amyloid, chiefly because the colour
reactions are forthcoming in the residuum after the substance
has been removed, while the substance itself does not give
these reactions. Quite likely the amyloid may be a combination
of the substance with a proteid. The soda combination of
the acid as obtained from the nasal cartilage of pigs had the
composition CisHjiiNaoNSOiv.
Krawkow in 1897 clearly demonstrated it to be a proteid in
firm combination with chrondroitin-sulphuric acid. As probably
the protein constituent varies in the different organs, one
infers that this will account for the varying results got from
the analysis of the substance obtained from different organs in
such cases.
This amyloid substance is slowly and imperfectly digested
by pepsin — digestion being more complete with trypsin and by
autolytic enzymes.
There is no evidence that this material is brought by the
circulating blood and infiltrates the tissues. It is believed
rather that the condition is due to deleterious toxic substances
which act for prolonged periods on the tissue elements and
so alter their histon proteins that they combine in situ with
other protein substances which are brought by the blood or
lymph.
Amyloid develops in various organs and tissues and is commonly
associated with chronic phthisis, tubercular disease of bone and
jomts, and syphilis (congenital and acquired). It is known to occur
in rheumatism, and has been described in connexion with a few
other diseases. A number of interesting experiments, designed
to test the relationship between the condition of suppuration and
the production of amyloid, have been made of late years. The
animal most suitable for experimenting upon is the fowl, but other
animals have been found to react. Thus Krawkow and Nowak,
employing the frequent subcutaneous injection of the usual organ-
isms of suppuration, have induced in the fowl the deposition within
the tissues of a homogeneous substance giving the colour reactiorts
of true amyloid. When hardened in spirit, however, the greater
part of tTiis experimental amyloid in the fowl vanishes, and the
reactions are not forthcoming. They were unable to verify any
direct connexion between its production and the organism of
tubercle. These observations have been verified in the rabbit,
mouse, fowl, guinea-pig and cat by Davidsohn, occasionally in the
dog by Lubarsch ; and confirmatory observations have also been
made by Czerny and Maximoff. Lubarsch succeeded in inducing
it merely by the subcutaneous injection of turpentine, which
produces its result, it is said, by exciting an abscess. Nowak,
however, found later that he could generate it where the turpentine
failed to induce suppuration; he believes that it may arise quite
apart from the influence of the organisms of suppuration, that it
is not a biological product of the micro-organisms of disease, and
also that it has nothing to do with emaciation. It is a retrogressive
process producing characteristic changes in the fine connective-
tissue fibrils. The change appears to begin in the fibrils which lie
between the circular muscle fibres of the middle coat of the smaller
arterioles and extends both backwards and forwards along the
vessels. It spreads forwards, affecting the supporting fibres out-
side the epithelium of the capillaries, and then passes to the
connective-tissue fibrils of the veins. The secreting cells never
show this change, although they may become atrophied or
destroyed by the pressure and the disturbance of nutrition
brought about by the swollen condition of the capillary walls.
The circulation is litde interfered with, although the walls of
the vessels are much thickened by the amyloid material (fig. 51,
PI. v.).
Amyloid Bodies. — These are peculiar bodies which are found in
the prostate, in the central nervous system, in the lung, and in
other localities, and which get their name from being ver\' like
starch-corpuscles, and from giving certain colour reactions closely
resembling those of vegetable cellulose or even starch itself. They
are minute structures having a round or oval shape, concentrically
striated, and frequently showing a small nucleus-like body or cavity
in their centre. Iodine gives usually a dark brown reaction, some-
times a deep blue; iodine and sulphuric acid almost always call
forth an intense deep blue reaction; and methyl-violet usually a
brilliant pink, quite resembling that of true amyloid. They are
probably a degeneration-product of cells.
Spurious Amyloid. — If a healthy spinal cord be hung up in
spirit for a matter of six months or more, a glassy substance develops
within it quite like true amyloid. It further resembles true amyloid
924
PATHOLOGY
in giving all its colour reactions. The reaction with methyl-
violet, however, differs from that with true amyloid in being
evanescent.
Response of Tissues to Stimulation
A stimulus may be defined as every change of the external
agencies acting upon an organism; and if a stimulus come in
contact with a body possessing the property of irritability, i.e.
the capability of reacting to stimuli, the result is stimulation
(Verworn). Stimuli comprise chemical, mechanical, thermal,
photic and electrical changes in the environment of the organism.
A stimulus may act on all sides and induce a general effect with-
out direction of movement, but in the production of movement
in a definite direction the stimulus must be applied unilaterally.
Stimuli applied generally, not unilaterally, in most cases induce
increased divisibility of the cells of the part.
Thus the poison of various insects induces in plants the cellular
new formation known as a gall-nut; a foreign body implanted in
a limb may become encysted in a capsule of fibrous tissue; septic
matter introduced into the abdomen will cause proliferation of
the lining endo(epi)thelium; and placing an animal (salamander,
Galeotti) in an ambient medium at a higher temperature than that
to which it is accustomed naturally, increases the rapidity of cell-
division of its epithelium with augmentation of the number of
karyokinetic figures. Hair and some other like structures grow
luxuriantly on a part to which there is an excessive flux of blood.
Bone {e.g. drill-bones) may develop in a soft tissue with no natural
bone-forming tendencies, as a result of interrupted pressure, or a
fatty tumour may arise in the midst of the natural subcutaneous
fat in the same circumstances.
Among stimuli acting unilaterally, perhaps none has proved
more interesting, in late times, than what is known as Chemio-
taxis. By it is meant the property an organism endowed with
the power of movement has to move towards or away from a
chemical stimulus applied unilaterally, or, at any rate, where it is
applied in a more concentrated state on the one side than on the
others, and more particularly where the concentration increases
graduaUy in one direction away from the living organism acted
upon. Observed originally by Engelmann in bacteria, by Stahl
in myxomycetes, and by Pfeffer in ferns, mosses, &c., it has
now become recognized as a widespread phenomenon. The
influence of the chemical substance is either that of attraction
or repulsion, the one being known as positive, the other as
negative chemiotaxis.
The female organs of certain cryptogams, for instance, exert a
positive chemiotactic action upon the spermatozoids, and probably,
as Pfeffer suggests, the chemical agent which exerts the influence
is malic acid. No other substance, at least, with which he experi-
mented had a like effect, and it is possible that in the archegonium
which contains the ovum malic acid is present. Massart and
Border, Leber, Metchnikoff and others have studied the pheno-
menon in leucocytes, with the result that while there is evidence of
their being positively chemiotactic to the toxins of many pathogenic
microbes, it is also apparent that they are negatively influenced by
such substances as lactic acid.
From a pathological point of view the subject of chemiotaxis
must be considered along with that of phagocytosis. Certain
free mobile cells within the body, such as blood-leucocytes, as
weU as others which are fixed, as for instance the endothelium of
the hepatic capillaries, have the property of seizing upon some
kinds of particulate matter brought within their reach. Within
a quarter of an hour after a quantity of cinnabar has been injected
into the blood of the frog nearly every particle will be found
engulfed by the protoplasm of the leucocytes of the circulating
blood. Some bacteria, such as those of anthrax, are seized upon
in the same manner, indeed; very much as small algae and other
particles are incorporated and devoured by amoeba. Melanine
particles formed in the spleen in malaria, which pass along with
the blood through the liver, are appropriated by the endothelial
cells of the hepatic capillaries, and are found embedded within
their substance. If the particle enveloped by the protoplasm
be of an organic nature, such as a bacterium, it undergoes
digestion, and ultimately becomes destroyed, and accordingly
the term " phagocyte " is now in common use to indicate cells
having the above properties. This phagocytal action of certain
cells of the body is held by Metchnikoff and his followers to
have an important bearing on the pathology of immunity.
Phagocytes act as scavengers in ridding the body of noxious
particles, and more especially of harmful bacteria.
A further application of the facts of chemiotaxis and phago-
cytosis has been made by Metchnikoff to the case of Inflammation.
It is well known that many attempts to define the process of
inflammation have been made from time to time, all of them more
or less unsatisfactory. Among the latest is that of Metchnikoff:
" Inflammation generally," he says, " must be regarded as a
phagocytic reaction on the part of the organism against irritants.
This reaction is carried out by the mobile phagocytes sometimes
alone, sometimes with the aid of the vascular phagocytes, or of
the nervous system." Given a noxious agent in a tissue, such,
let us say, as a localized deposit of certain bacteria, the phago-
cytes swarm towards the locality where the bacteria have taken
up their residence. They surround individual bacteria, absorb
them into their substance, and ultimately destroy them by diges-
tion. The phagocytes are attracted from the blood vessels and
elsewhere towards the noxious focus by the chemiotaxis exerted
upon them by the toxins secreted by the bacteria contained
within it. The chemiotaxis in this instance is positive, but the
toxins from certain other bacteria may act negatively; and such
bacteria are fraught with particular danger from the fact that
they can spread through the body unopposed by the phagocytes,
which may be looked upon as their natural enemies.
Natural Protection against Parasitism
The living organism is a rich storehouse of the very materials
from which parasites, both animal and vegetable, can best derive
their nourishment. Some means is necessary, therefore, to
protect the one from the encroachments of the other. A plant
or animal in perfect health is more resistant to parasitical invasion
than one which is iU-nourished and weakly. Of a number of
plants growing side by side, those which become infected with
moulds are the most weakly, and an animal in low health is
more subject to contagious disease than one which is robust.
Each organism possesses within itself the means of protection
against its parasitical enemies, and these properties are more in
evidence when the organism is in perfect health than when it is
debUitated.
One chief means employed by nature in accomplishing this
object is the investment of those parts of the organism liable to be
attacked with an armour-like covering of epidermis, periderm,
bark, &c. The grape is proof against the inroads of the yeast-
plant so long as the husk is intact, but on the husk being injured
the yeast-plant finds its way into the interior and sets up vinous
fermentation of its sugar. The root of the French vine is attacked
by the Phylloxera, but that of the American vine, whose epidermis
is thicker, is protected from it. The larch remains free from
parasitism so long as its covering is intact, but as soon as this is
punctured by insects, or its continuity interfered with by cracks or
fissures, the Peziza penetrates, and before long brings about the
destruction of the branch. So long as the epidermis of animals
remains sound, disease germs may come in contact with it almost
with impunity, but immediately on its being fissured, or a larger
wound made through it, the underlying parts, the blood and soft
tissues, are attacked by them. A very remarkable instance of an
acquired means of protecting a wound against parasitical invasion
is to be found in granulations. Should these remain unbroken
they constitute a natural barrier to the penetration of most patho-
genic and other forms of germ-life into the parts beneath. Bacteria
of various kinds which alight upon their surfaces begin to fructify
in abundance, but are rapidly destroyed as they burrow deeply.
This is accomplished by a twofold agency, for while numbers of
them are seized upon by the granulation phagocytes, others are
broken up and dissolved by the liquid filling the granulation inter-
spaces (Afanassieff). This latter, or histolytic, property is not con-
fined to the liquid of granulations; normal blood-serum possesses
it to a certain extent, and under bacterial influence it may become
very much exalted. Jiirgeliinas makes out that when an animal
is rendered immune to a particular micro-organism this histolytic
property becomes exalted.
Dropsy
During conditions of health a certain quantity of lymphy liquid
is constantly being effused into the tissues and serous cavities
of the body, but in the case of the tissues it never accumulates
to excess, and in that of the serous cavities it is never more than
PATHOLOGY
925
sufficient to keep them moist. When any excessive accumula-
tion takes place the condition is known as " hydrops " or
" dropsy." A " transudate " is a liquid having a composition
resembling that of blood-serum, while the term " exudate " is
applied to an effused liquid whose composition approaches that
of the blood-plasma in the relationship of its solid and liquid
parts, besides in most cases containing numbers of colourless
blood-corpuscles. Exudates are poured out under inflammatory
conditions, while none of the truly dropsical effusions are of
inflammatory origin; and hence the class of exudates, as above
defined, may be rejected from the category of liquids we are at
present considering. Where the dropsical condition is more or
less general the term " anasarca " is apphed to it; if the tissues
are infiltrated locally the term "oedema" is employed; and
various names are applied, with a local significance, to dropsies
of individual parts or cavities, such as " hydrothorax," " hydro-
peritoneum " or " ascites," " hydrocephalus," and so on. In
" anasarca " the tissues which suffer most are those which are
peculiarly lax, such as the lower eyelids, the scrotum, and the
backs of the hands and feet. It is invariably the result of some
cause acting generally, such as renal disease, valvular defect of
the heart, or an impoverished state of the blood; while a mere
oedema is usually dependent upon some local obstruction to the
return of blood or lymph, or of both, the presence of parasites
within the tissue, such as the filaria sanguinis hominis or trichina
spiralis, or the poisonous bites of insects. Dropsy of the serous
cavities is very commonly merely part of a general anasarca,
although occasionally it may be, as in the case of ascites, the
sequel to an obstruction in the venous return. Dropsical liquids
are usually pale yellow or greenish, limpid, with a saltish taste and
alkaline reaction, and a specific gravity ranging from 1005 to 1024.
They all contain albumen and throw down a precipitate with heat
and nitric acid. None of them, in man, coagulates spontaneously,
although they contain fibrinogen. The addition of some of the
liquid squeezed out from a blood-clot, of the squeezed blood-clot
itself, or of a little blocd-serum, is sufficient to throw down a
fibrinous coagulum (Buchanan), evidently by these substances
supplying the fibrin-ferment. The proteid constituents are
very much like those of blood-serum, although they never
come up to them in amount (Runeberg). The quantity of
proteid matter in a purely dropsical effusion never amounts
to that of an inflammatory exudation (Lassar). Certain pecu-
liar substances, probably degenerative products, some of them
reducing copper, are occasionally met with. The liquid of
ascites sometimes contains chyle in abundance (hydrops lacteus),
the escape having taken place from a ruptured receptaculum
chyli.
In a given case of anasarca due to a cause acting generally, it
will be found that the liquid of the pleural cavity always contains
the highest percentage of proteid, that of the peritoneal cavity
comes next, that of the cerebral ventricles follows this, and the
liquid of the subcutaneous areolar tissue contains the lowest. The
reason of this is apparently that the negative pressure of the pleural,
and partly of the peritoneal, cavity tends to aspirate a liquid
relatively thicker, so to speak, than that effused where no such
extraneous mechanism is at work (James).
The subject of the conditions under which dropsical liquids are
poured out opens up a very wide question, and one about which
there is the greatest diversity of opinion. It turns in part, but in
part only, upon the laws regulating the effusion of lymph, and
physiologists are by no means at one in their conclusions on this
subject. Thus Ludwig was of opinion that the lymph-flow is
dependent upon two factors, first, difference in pressure of the
blood in the capillaries and the liquid in the plasma spaces outside;
and, secondly, chemical interchanges setting up osmotic currents
through the vessel-walls. His results, so far, have been confirmed
by Starling, who finds that the amount of lymph-flow from the
thoracic duct is dependent upon difference in pressure. It varies
with the increase of the intracapillary or decrease of the extra-
capillary pressure, and is also in part regulated by the greater or
lesser permeability of the vessel-walls. Heidenhain, on the other
hand, rejected entirely the filtration view of lymph-formation,
believing that the passage of lymph across the capillary wall is a
true secretion brought about by the secretory function of the
endothelial plates. Starling does not accept this view, and cannot
regard as an article of faith Heidenhain's dictum that normally
filtration plays no part in the formation of lymph. Lazarus-
Barlow, again, looks upon the pouring out of lymph as evidence of
the demands of the tissue-elements for nutrition. An impulse is
communicated to the blood vessels in accordance with this demand,
and a greater or smaller outflow is the rusult. He traces various
local dropsies to the starvation from which the tissues are suffering,
the liquid accumulating in excess in accordance with the demand
for more nourishment. It may be asked, however, whether a
dropsical tissue is being held in a high state of nutrition, and whether,
on the contrary, the presence of lymph in excess in its interstices
does not tend to impair its vitality rather than to lend it support.
According to Rogowicz and Heidenhain, certain substances in-
crease the quantity of lymph given off from a part by acting upon
the cells of the capillary wall; they hold, in fact, that these sub-
stances are true lymphagogues. Heidenhain recognizes two
classes, first, such substances as peptone, leech extract and cray-
fish extract; and, secondly, crystalloids such as sugar, salt, &c.
Starling sees no reason to believe that members of either class act
otherwise than by increasing the pressure in the capillaries or by
injuring the endothelial wall. The members of the first class
influence the endothelial plates of the capillaries injuriously, in-
ducing thereby increased permeability; those of the second class
(sugar, &c.), on injection into the blood, attract water from the
tissues and cause a condition of hydraemic plethora with increased
capillary pressure. The increased flow of lymph is due to the
increased pressure in the abdominal capillaries.
It is now coming to be recognized that increase of blood pressure
alone is not sufficient to account for all dropsical effusions. Much
more important is the effect of the alterationin the amount of crystal-
loids in the tissues and blood and therefore of the alteration in the
osmotic pressure between these. Loeb found experimentally that
increase of metabolic products in muscle greatly raised its osmotic
pressure, and so it would absorb water from a relatively concentrated
sodium chloride solution. Welch produced oedema of the lungs
experimentally by increasing the pressure in the pulmonary vessels
by ligature of the aorta and its branches, but this raised the blood
pressure only about one-tenth of an atmosphere, while in some of
Loeb's experiments the osmotic pressure, due to retained metabolic
products, was equal to over thirty atmospheres. Thus differences
in osmotic pressure may be much more powerful in producing
oedema than mere differences in blood pressure.
Now differences in the amount of crystalloids cause alteration
in osmotic pressure while the proteid content affects it but little;
and of the crystalloids the chlorides appear to be those most liable
to variation.
Widal, Lemierre and other French observers have noted a
diminution in the excretion of chlorides in nephritis associated
with oedema; Widal and Javal found that a chloride-free diet
caused diminution in the oedema and a chloride containing diet
an increase of oedema. Oliver and Audibert published some cases
of cirrhosis of the liver with ascites in which they got results com-
parable to those of Widal. Some other observers, however, have
not got such good results with a chloride-free diet, and Marishler,
Scheel, Limbecx, Dreser and others, dispute Widal's hypothesis of
a retention of chlorides as being the cause of oedema, in the case
of renal dropsy at all events; they assert that the chlorides are
held back in order to keep the osmotic pressure of the fluid, which
they assume to have been effused, equal to that of the blood and
tissues. Certainly not all cases of renal dropsy show diminution
in the excretion of chlorides. Bainbridge suggests that a retention
of metabolic products may cause the oedema in renal disease,
Bradford having previously shown that loss of a certain amount of
renal tissue caused retention of metabolic products in the tissues.
As sodium chloride is one of the most permeable of crystalloids it
seems strange that damage to the renal tissue should impede its
e.xcretion. Cushny has shown experimentally that slowing of the
blood-flow through renal tissue causes less sodium chloride to
appear in the urine while the excretion of urea and sulphates
remains unaffected; apparently the chloride, being more per-
meable, is reabsorbed and so only appears to be excreted in less
quantity.
In the dropsy of cardiac disease, owing to the deficient oxidation
from stagnation of blood, metabolic products must accumulate
in the tissues; also lymph return must be impeded by the increased
pressure in the veins and so dropsy results (Wells).
The local oedema seen in some ner\'Ous affections might be e.\-
plained on the hypothesis of increased metabolic activity in these
areas due to some local nervous stimulation.
Thus, while increased pressure in the blood or lymph vessels
may be one factor, and increased permeability of the capillary
endothelium another, increased osmotic pressure in the tissues
and lymph is probably the most important in the production of
dropsy. This increased osmotic pressure is again due to accumula-
tion of crystalloids in the tissues, either products of metabolism
due to deficient oxidation from alteration in the blood or other
cause, or, it may be, as in some cases of nephritis, owing to a
retention or reabsorption of chlorides in the tissues.
Practical Applications
Medicine and surgery have never been slow to appropriate
and apply the biological facts of pathology, and at no period have
926
PATHOLOGY
they followed more closely in its wake than during the last quarter
of the 19th century. When, for instance, the cause of septic
infection had been revealed, the prophylaxis of the disease became
a possibility. Seldom has it happened, since the discovery of the
law of gravity, that so profound an impression has been made
upon the scientific world at large as by the revelation of the part
played by germ-life in nature; seldom has any discovery been
fraught with such momentous issues in so many spheres of science
and industry.
The names of Pasteur and Lister will descend to posterity as
those of two of the greatest figures in the annals of medical
science, and indeed of science in general, during the 19th century.
The whole system of treatment of tubercular disease has been
altered by the discovery of the tubercle microphyte. Previously
consumptive individuals were carefuUy excluded from contact
with fresh air, and were advised to live in rooms almost her-
metically sealed and kept at a high temperature. The treatment
of the disease has now gone off in the opposite direction. Sana-
toria have started up all over Europe and elsewhere for its treat-
ment on the open-air principle. Individuals suffering from
pulmonary phthisis are encouraged to live night and day in the
open, and with the best results. The rapid diagnosis of diph-
theria, by recognizing its bacillus, has enabled the practitioner
of medicine to commence the treatment early, and it has also
enabled the medical officer of health to step in and insist on the
isolation of affected persons before the disease has had time to
spread. The discovery of the parasite of malaria by Laveran,
and of the method by which it gains entrance to the human
body, through the bite of a particular variety of mosquito, by
Manson and Ross, promises much in the way of eradication of the
disease in the future. One of the most remarkable practical out-
comes of germ-pathology, however, has been the production of
the immunized sera now employed so extensively in the treatment
of diphtheria and other contagious diseases. By the continuous
injections under the skin, in increasing doses, of the toxins of
certain pathogenic micro-organisms, such as that of diphtheria,
an animal — usually the horse — may be rendered completely
refractory to the disease. Its serum in course of time is found
to contain something (antitoxin) which has the power of neutra-
lizing thetoxin secreted by the organism when parasitical upon
the body. This immunity can be transferred to a fresh host (e.g.
man) by injecting such serum subcutaneously. The modern
system of hygiene is in great part founded upon recent pathology.
The recognition of the dangers accompanying the drinking of
polluted water or milk, or of those attached to the breathing of a
germ-polluted atmosphere, has been the natural sequence of an
improved knowledge of pathology in its bacteriological relation-
ships. Skin-grafting and regeneration of bone are among not the
least remarkable applications of pathological principles to the
combat with disease in recent times; and in this connexion may
also be mentioned the daring acts of surgery for the relief of
tumours of the brain, rendered practicable by improved methods
of localization, as well as operations upon the serous cavities for
diseased conditions within them or in their vicinity.
For the special pathological details of various diseases, see the
separate articles on Parasitic Diseases; Neuro-Pathology;
Digestive Organs; Respiratory System; Blood: Circulation;
Metabolic Diseases; Fever; Bladder; Kidneys; Skin Dis-
eases; Eye Diseases; Heart Disease; Ear, &c.; and the articles
on different diseases and ailments under the headings of their
common names.
AuTHORiTiES.^Adami, " Inflammation," AUbull's System of
Med. (London, 1896), vol. i.; Afanassieff, " Granulation Tissue and
Infection," Ccntralbl. /. allg. Path. u. path. Anat. (1896), vii. 456;
Arnold, " Finer Structure of the Cell," Arch. f. path. Anat. (1879),
Ixxvii. 181; Beyerinck, Beobachtungen fib. d. erslen Entwickliings-
phasen einiger Cynipidengallen (Amsterdam, 1882) ; Bordet, " Phago-
cytosis," Ann. de I'inst. Pasteur (1895), x. 104; Buchner, " Chemio-
taxis of Leucocytes," Berl. klin. Wochenschr. (1890), xxvii. io8a;
Cancer: synopsis of recent literature. See The Practitioner (1899),
vol. ix. ; Chatin, " Direct Cellular Division," Compt. rend. acad. d.
sc. (1898), cxxvi. X163; Coats, Manual of Pathology (London, 1895);
Cohnheim, Vorlesungen iib. allg. Path. Berlin (1877-1880); Cornil,
" Organization of Clot within Vessels," J. de I'anat. et physiol.
(1897), xxxiii. 201; Davidsohn, "Experimental Amyloid," Arch.
f. path. Anat. (1897), cl. 16; Delage, " Studies in Merogony,"
Arch, de zool. exper. et gen. (1899), vii. 383; Ehrlich, " Mastzellen,"
Arch. f. mik. Anat. (1877), xiii. 263; Engelmann, " Chemiotaxis of
Oxygen for Bacteria," Arch. f. d. ges. Physiol. (1881), xxv. 285;
Farmer, " Present Position of some Cell Problems," Nature (1898),
Iviii. 63; Flemming, "Studies in Regeneration of the Tissues,"
Arch. f. mik. Anat. (1885), xxiv. 371; Frank, Die Krankheiten der
Pflanzen (Breslau, 1895); Galeotti, "Experimental Production of
Irregular Karyokinetic Processes," Beitr. z. path. Anat. u. z. allg.
Path. (1893), xiv. 288; Grawitz, "Slumber Cells," Arch. f. path.
.Anat. (1892), cxxvii. 96; Hahn, " Increase of Natural Resistance by
Production of Hyperleucocytosis," Berl. klin. Wochenschr. (1896),
xxxiii. 864; Hamilton, " Process of Healing," Journ. Anat. Physiol,
and Path. (1879), xiii. 518, also " Organization of Sponge," Edin.
Med. /o«r«.(i882),xxvii. 385; Text-Book of Pathology (London, 1894);
Hansemann, " Pathological Mitosis," Arch. f. path. Anat. (1891),
cxxiii. 356; Hartig, Text-Book of ihe Diseases of Trees (Eng. trans.,
London, 1894); Heidenhain, "Action of Poisons on Nerves of
Submaxillary Gland," Arch. f. d. ges. Physiol. (1872) v. 309, also,
" Question of Lymph Production," ibid. (1891), xlix. 209, also,
"Central-Body of Giant-cells," Morph. Arb. (1897), vii. 225;
O. Hertwig, Die Zelle u. d. Gewebe (1898, also Eng. trans., 1895);
Heukelom, " Sarcoma and Plastic Inflammation," Arch. f. path.
Anat. (1887), cvii. 393; Justi, " Unna's Plasma-Cells in Granula-
tions," Arch. f. path. Anal. (1897), cl. 197; Jiirgeliinas, " Pro-
tective Action of Granulations," Beitrdge z. path. Anat. u. z. allg.
Path., Ziegler (1901), xxix. 92; Kickhefel, " Histology of Mucoid,"
Arch. f. path. Anat. (1892), cxxix. 450; Krawkow, " Chemistry of
Amyloid," Arch. f. exper. Path. u. Pharmakol. (1897) xl. 195, also
" Experimental Amyloid," Arch. f. path. Anat. (1898), clii. 162;
Krompecher, " Plasma-Cells," Beitr. z. path. Anat. u. z. allg. Path.
(1898), xxiv. 163; Labbe, La Cytologic experimentale (Paris, 1898);
Lazarus-Barlow, " Lymph Formation," Journ. Physiol. Camb.
(1895-1896), xix. 418, also. Manual of General Pathology (London,
1898); Loeb, " Certain Activities of the Epithelial Tissue of Skin
of Guinea-pig, &c.," Johns Hopkins Hosp. Bull., Bait. (1898), ix. I,
also " Artificial Production of Normal Larvae," Amer. Joztrn.
Physiol. (1899), iii. 135; Lowit, " Relationship of Leucocytes to
Bacterial Action," Beitr. z. path. Anat. u. z. allg. Path. (1897), xxii.
172; Lubarsch, "Experimental Amyloid," Arch. f. path. Anat.
(1897), cl. 471; Lubarsch and Ostertag, Ergebnisse der spec. path.
Morphologic u. Physiologic des Menschen (Wiesbaden, 1896) ; Ludwig,
Lehrbuch der Physiol, vol. ii.; Marshall Ward, Timber and some of
its Diseases (London, 1889); Massart and Bordet, " Irritability of
Leucocytes," Journ. publ. par la soc. des sci. med. et nat. de Bruxclles
(1890), vol. v.; Metchnikoft, Lectures on Com p. Path, of Inflammation
(Eng. trans., London, 1893) ; Notkin, " Nature of Colloid in Thyroid
Gland," Arch.f. path. Anat. (1896), cxliv. 224 (Suppl. Hft.); Nowak,
" Experimental Researches on Amyloidosis," Arch. f. path. Anat.
(1898), clii. 162; Oddi, " Nature of Amyloid," Arch.f. cxp. Path. u.
Pharmakol. (1894), xxxiii. 376; Paget, " Address on Healing," Brit.
Med. Journ. (1880), ii. 611 ; Pelagatti, " Blastomycetes and Hyaline
degeneration," Arch. f. path. Anat. (1897), cl. 247; Penzo, " Influ-
ence of Temperature on Cellular Regeneration," Archivios per le
scienze mediche (1892); Pfeffer, " Chemiotaxis," Unters. aus d. bot.
Inst., zu Tubingen (1884), i. 363; ibid. (1888) ; Pickardt, " Chemistry
of Pathological Exudates," Berl. klin. Wochenschr . (1897), xxxiv. 84<i;
Plimmer, " Aetiology and Histology of Cancer," Practitioner (1899),
ix. 430; Ruffer and Plimmer, " Cancer Bodies," Journ. Path, and
Bacteriol. (1892-1893), i. 395; Runeberg, "Filtration of Albuminous
Liquids," Arch.f. d. ges. Physiol. (1885), xxxv. 54, also " Diagnostic
Value of Proteid in Dropsical Liquids," Deutsch. Arch. f. klin.
Med. (1883), xxxiv. i ; Russell, " Fuchsin Bodies," Brit. Med. Journ.
(1890), ii. 1356; Salvioli, " Production of Oedema," Virchow and
Hirsch's Jahresbericht (1885), i. 252; Schottlander, "Nuclear and
Cell Division in Epithelium of Inflamed Skin," Arch.f. mik. Anat.
(1888), xxxi. 426; Sczawinska, " Reticular Structure of Ner\'e-
Cells," Compt. rend. acad. d. sc. (1896), cxxiii. 379; Senator, " On
Transudation," Arch.f. path. Anat. (1888), cxi.219; Shattock, " Heal-
ing of Incisions in Vegetable Tissues," Journ. Path, and Bacteriol.
(1898), V. 39; v. Sicherer, " Chemiotaxis of Leucocytes of Warm-
blooded Animals outside the Body," Munch, med. Wochenschr. (1896),
xliii. 976; Siegert, " Corpora Amylacea," Arch.f. path. Anat. (1892),
cxxix. 513; Starling, " Mechanical Factors in Lymph Production,"
Journ. of Physiol. (1894), xvi. 224, also a number of other papers
bearing upon lymph-production, in same; Thorne, " Endothelia
as Phagocytes," Arch.f. mik. Anat. (1898), Iii. 820; Thoma, Lehrbuch
d. allg. Path. (1894), also vol. i. (Eng. trans., London, 1896);
Trambusti, " On Structure and Division of Sarcoma Cells," Beitr.
z. path. Anat. u. z. allg. Path. (1897), xxii. 88; Verworn, General
Physiology (Eng. trans., London, 1899); Weismann, Essays upon
Heredity (Eng. trans., 0-xford, 1891) ; also. The Germ Plasm (London,
1893); Welch, " Oedema of Lung," Arch.f. path. Anat. (1878), Ixxii.
375 ; Wilson, The Cell in Development and Inheritance (London,
1896); Ziegler, " Entziindung," in Eulenburg's Real Eticyclopddie,
also Text-Book of Special Pathological Anatomy (Eng. trans.. New
York, 1897). (D.J.H.;R. Mr.*)
PATIALA— PATKUL
927
PATIALA, or Puttiala, a native state of India, within the
Punjab. It is the premier state of the Punjab, and chief of the
three Sikh Phulkian states — Patiala, Natha and Jind. It consists
of three detached blocks of territory, mostly in the plains, though
one portion extends into the hills near Simla. Area 5412 sq. m.;
pop. (igoi), 1,596,692; estimated revenue, £440,000; military
force (including Imperial Service troops) , 3429 men. The state was
founded by a Sikh chieftain about 1763, and came under British
protection, with the other cis-Sutlej states, in 1809. Patiala
remained conspicuously loyal to the British during the Mutiny
of 1857, Narindar Singh, its ruler, setting an example to the other
Sikh states which was of the utmost value. The maharaja,
Rajendra Singh, who died in 1900, was devoted to riding and
sport. He took part personally in the Tirah campaign of 1897-
98, with a battalion of his own Imperial Service infantry and
a field troop of Imperial Service lancers. In recognition of his
services on this occasion he received the G. C.S.I. He was
succeeded by his son, Bhupindar Singh, who was born in 1891.
The town of Patiala has a station on the branch of the North-
western railway from Rajpura to Bhatinda. Pop. (1901),
53,545. It contains several fine modern buildings, including
palaces, hospitals and schools.
See Phulkian States Gazetteer (Lahore, 1909).
PATIENCE, the name given to certain card-games played by a
single person. Although known for centuries, they have
seldom been mentioned by writers on playing-cards, and the
rules have for the most part been handed down oraUy. There are
two main varieties; in one luck alone prevails, since the player
has no choice of play but must follow strict rules; in the other an
opportunity is given for the display of skill and judgment, as the
player has the choice of several plays at different stages of the
game. The usual object is to bring the cards into regular
ascending or descending sequences. The starting card is called
the " foundation," and the " family " (sequence) is " built "
upon it. In other varieties of Patience the object is to make
pairs, which are then discarded, the game being brought to a
successful conclusion when all the cards have been paired; or
to pair cards which will together make certain numbers, and then
discard as before. There are hundreds of Patience games,
ranging from the simplest to the most complicated.
See Jarbart's Games of Patience in De la Rue's series of handbooks
(1905); Patience Games, by "Cavendish" (London, 1890); Cyclo-
paedia of Card and Table Games, by Professor Hoffmann (London,
1891); Patience Games, by Professor Hoffmann (London, 1892);
Games of Patience, by A. Howard Cady (Spalding's Home Library,
New York, 1896); Dick's Games of Patience, edited by W. B. and
H. B. Dick (New York, 1898) ; Games of Patience (4 series), by Mary
E. W. Jones (London, 1898); Le Livre illustre des patiences, by
" Comtesse de Blanccoiur " (Paris, 1898).
PATINA (probably from the Latin word for a flat dish, from
paterc, to lie open; cf. "paten"), a thin coating or incrustation
which forms on the surface of bronze after exposure to the air or
burial in the ground. It is looked on as a great addition to the
beauty of the bronze, especially when it is of the green colour
found on antique bronzes (see Bronze). By extension, the word
is applied to the discoloured or incrusted surface of marble,
flint, &c., acquired after long burial in the ground or exposure to
the air, and also to the special colour given to wood surfaces by
time.
PATlSO, J0S6 or Josef (1666-1736), Spanish statesman,
was born at Milan, on the nth of April 1666. His father, Don
Lucas Patino de Ibarra, Senor de Castelar, who was by origin
a Galician, was a member of the privy council and inspector
of the troops in the duchy of Milan for the king of Spain, to
whom it then belonged. His mother's maiden name was Beatrice
de Rosales y Facirii. The Patino family were strong supporters
of the Bourbon dynasty in the War of the Spanish Succession.
The elder brother Baltasar, afterwards marquis of Castelar,
had a distinguished career as a diplomatist, and his son Lucas
was a general of some note. Jose Patifio, who had been intended
for the priesthood but adopted a secular career, was granted
the reversion of a seat in the senate of Milan on the acces-
sion of Phillip V. in 1700, but on the loss of the duchy he was
transferred to Spain, and put on the governing body of the mih-
tary orders in 1707. During the War of Succession he served
as intendent of Estremadura, and then of Catalonia from 171 1
to 1718. In 1717 he was named intendent of the navy, which
had just been reorganized on the French model. His capacity
and his faculty for hard work secured him the approval of
Alberoni, with whom, however, he was never on very friendly
terms in private life. Patiiio's Italian education, which affected
his Spanish style, and caused him to fall into Italianisms all
through his life, may have served to recommend him still further.
Patiiio profoundly distrusted the reckless foreign policy under-
taken by Alberoni under the instigation of the king and his
obstinate queen, EUzabeth Farnese. He foretold that it would
lead to disaster, but as a public servant he could only obey orders,
and he had the chief merit of organizing the various expeditions
sent out to Sardinia, Sicily and Ceuta between 1 7 1 8 and 1 7 20. He
became known to the king and queen in the latter year, while
he was acting as a species of commissary -general during the
disastrous operations against the French troops on the frontier
of Navarre. It was not, however, until 1726 that he was fully
trusted by the king. He and his brother, the marquis of Castelar,
were the chief opponents of the adventurer Ripperda, who
captivated the king and queen for a time. On the fall of this
remarkable person, Patiiio was named secretary for the navy,
the Indies — that is to say the colonies — and for foreign affairs.
The war office was added to the other departments at a later
date. From the 13th of May 1726 until his death on the 3rd
of November 1736 Patiiio was in fact prime minister. During
the later part of his administration he was much engaged in
the laborious negotiations with England in relation to the
disputes between the two countries over their commercial and
colonial rivalries in America, which after his death led to the
outbreak of war in 1739.
In his Patino y Campillo (Madrid, 1882), Don Antonio Rodriquez
Villa has collected the dates of the statesman's life, and has pub-
lished some valuable papers. But the best account of Patiiio's
administration is to be found in Coxe's Memoirs of tlie Kings of
Spain of the House of Bourbon (London, 1815), which is founded
on the correspondence of the Enghsh ministers at Madrid.
PATIO, the Spanish name for an inner court or enclosed
space in a house, which is open to the sky. The " patio " is a
common feature in houses in Spain and Spanish America. The
word is generally referred to the Lat. pater e, to lie open; cf.
" patent," or to spatium, space.
PATKUL, JOHANN REINHOLD (1660-1707), Livonian
politician and agitator, was born in prison at Stockholm,
where his father lay under suspicion of treason. He entered
the Swedish army at an early age and was already a captain
when, in 1689, at the head of a deputation of Livonian gentry,
he went to Stockholm to protest against the rigour with which
the land-recovery project of Charles XI. was being carried out
in his native province. His eloquence favourably impressed
Charles XI., but his representations were disregarded, and the
offensive language with which, in another petition addressed to
the king three years later, he renewed his complaints, involved
him in a government prosecution. To save himself from the
penalties of high treason, Patkul fled from Stockholm to Switzer-
land, and was condemned in contumaciam to lose his right hand
and his head. His estates were at the same time confiscated.
For the next four years he led a vagabond hfe, but in 1698,
after vainly petitioning the new king, Charles XII., for pardon,
he entered the service of Augustus the Strong of Saxony and
Poland, with the deliberate intention of wresting from Sweden
Livonia, to which he had now no hope of returning so long as
that province belonged to the Swedish Crown. The aristocratic
republic of Poland was obviously the most convenient suzerain
for a Livonian nobleman; so, in 1698, Patkul proceeded to the
court of the king-elector at Dresden and bombarded Augustus
with proposals for the partition of Sweden. His first plan was
a combination against her of Saxony, Denmark and Branden-
burg; but, Brandenburg failing him, he was obliged very un-
willingly to admit Russia into the partnership. The tsar was
to be content with Ingria and Esthonia, while Augustus was
928
PATMORE, COVENTRY— PATMOS
to take Livonia, nominally as a fief of Poland, but really as an
hereditary possession of the Saxon house. Military operations
against Sweden's Baltic provinces were to be begun simultane-
ously by the Saxons and Russians. After thus forging the
first link of the partition treaty, Patkul proceeded to Moscow,
and, at a secret conference held at Preobrazhenskoye, easily
persuaded Peter the Great to accede to the nefarious league (Nov.
II, 1699). Thoughout the earlier, unluckier days of the Great
Northern War, Patkul was the mainstay of the confederates.
At Vienna, in 1702, he picked up the Scottish general George
Benedict Ogilvie, and enlisted him in Peter's service. The
same year, recognizing the unprofitableness of serving such a
master as Augustus, he exchanged the Saxon for the Russian
service. Peter was glad enough to get a man so famous for his
talents and energy, but Patkul speedily belied his reputation.
His knowledge was too local and limited. On the 19th of August
1704 he succeeded, at last, in bringing about a treaty of alhance
between Russia and the Pohsh republic to strengthen the hands
of Augustus, but he failed to bring Prussia also into the anti-
Swedish league because of Frederick I.'s fear of Charles and
jealousy of Peter. From Berlin Patkul went on to Dresden to
conclude an agreement with the imperial commissioners for
the transfer of the Russian contingent from the Saxon to the
Austrian service. The Saxon ministers, after protesting against
the new arrangement, arrested Patkul and shut him up in the
fortress of Sonnenstein (Dec. 19, 1705), altogether disregarding
the remonstrances of Peter against such a gross violation of
international law. After the peace of Altranstadt (Sept. 24,
1707) he was dehvered up to Charles, and at Kazimierz in Poland
(Oct. 10, 1707) was broken alive on the wheel, Charles rejecting
an appeal for mercy from his sister, the princess Ulrica, on the
ground that Patkul, as a traitor, could not be pardoned for
example's sake.
See O. Sjogren, Johan Reinhold Patkul (Swed.) (Stockholm, 1882);
Anton Buchholtz, Beitrdge zur Lebensgeschichte J. R. Patkuls (Leip-
zig, 1893)- (R.N.B.)
PATMORE, COVENTRY KERSEY DIGHTON (1823-1896),
English poet and critic, the eldest son of Peter George Patmore,
himself an author, was born at Woodford in Essex, on the 23rd
of July 1823. He was privately educated, being his father's
intimate and constant companion, and derived from him his
early hterary enthusiasm. It was his first ambition to become
an artist, and he showed much promise, being awarded the
silver palette of the Society of Arts in 1838. In the following
year he was sent to school in France, where he studied for six
months, and began to write poetry. On his return his father
contemplated the publication of some of these youthful poems;
but in the meanwhile Coventry had evinced a passion for science
and the poetry was set aside. He soon, however, returned to
literary interests, moved towards them by the sudden success of
Tennyson; and in 1844 he pubhshed a small volume of Poems,
which was not without individuality, but marred by inequalities
of workmanship. It was widely criticized, both in praise and
blame; and Patmore, distressed at its reception, bought up the
remainder of the edition and caused it to be destroyed What
chiefly wounded him was a cruel review in Blackwood, written
in the worst style of unreasoning abuse; but the enthusiasm
of private friends, together with their wiser criticism, did much
to help him and to foster his talent. Indeed, the publication
of this little volume bore immediate fruit in introducing its
author to various men of letters, among whom was Dante
Gabriel Rossetti, through whose offices Patmore became known
to Holman Hunt, and was thus drawn into the eddies of the
pre-Raphaelite movement, contributing his poem " The Seasons "
to the Germ. At this time Patmore's father became involved
in financial embarrassments; and in 1846 Monckton MUnes secured
for the son an assistant -librarianship in the British Museum,
a post which he occupied industriously for nineteen years,
devoting his spare time to poetry. In 1847 he married Emily,
daughter of Dr Andrews of Camberwell. At the Museum he was
austere and remote among his companions, but was nevertheless
instrumental in 1852 in starting the Volunteer movement. He
wrote an important letter to The Times upon the subject, and
stirred up much martial enthusiasm among his colleagues. In the
next year he republished, in Tamerton Church Tower, the move
successful pieces from the Poems of 1844, adding several nev/
poems which showed distinct advance, both in conception and
treatment; and in the following year (1854) appeared the first
part of his best known poem, "The Angel in the House," which
was continued in " The Espousals " (1856), " Faithful for Ever "
(i860), and " The Victories of Love " (1862). In 1862 he lost
his wife, after a long and Ungering illness, and shortly afterwards
joined the Roman Cathohc Church. In 1865 he married again,
his second wife being Miss Marianne Byles, second daughter
of James Byles of Bowden HaU, Gloucester; and a year
later purchased an estate in East Grinstead, the history of
which may be read in How I managed my Estate, published in
1886. In 1877 appeared The Unknown Eros, which unquestion-
ably contains his finest work in poetry, and in the following
year Amelia, his own favourite among his poems, together with an
interesting, though by no means undisputable, essay on English
Metrical Law. This departure into criticism he continued
further in 1879 with a volume of papers, entitled Principle
in Art, and again in 1893 with Religio poetac. Meanwhile his
second wife died in 1880, and in the next year he married
Miss Harriet Robson. In later years he lived at Lymington,
where he died on the 26th of November 1896.
A collected edition of his poems appeared in two volumes in
1886, with a characteristic preface which might serve as the
author's epitaph. "I have written little," it runs; "but it
is aU my best; I have never spoken when I had nothing to say,
nor spared time or labour to make my words true. I have
respected posterity; and should there be a posterity which cares
for letters, I dare to hope that it will respect me." The obvious
sincerity which underhes this statement, combined with a
certain lack of humour which peers through its naivete, points
to two of the principal characteristics of Patmore's earlier
poetry; characteristics which came to be almost unconsciously
merged and harmonized as his style and his intention drew
together into unity. In the higher flights, to which he arose
as his practice in the art grew perfected, he is always noble
and often subHme. His best work is found in the volume of
odes caOed The Unknown Eros, which is fuU not only of passages
but of entire poems in which exalted thought is expressed in
poetry of the richest and most dignified melody. The animating
spirit of love, moreover, has here deepened and intensified
into a crystaOine harmony of earthly passion with the love that
is divine and transcending; the outward manifestation is
regarded as a symbol of a sentiment at once eternal and quint-
essential. Spirituality informs his inspiration; the poetry is of
the finest elements, glowing and alive. The magnificent piece
in praise of winter, the solemn and beautiful cadences of " De-
parture," and the homely but elevated pathos of " The Toys,"
are in their various manners unsurpassed in English poetry
for subhmity of thought and perfection of expression. Pat-
more is one of the few Victorian poets of whom it may confidently
be predicted that the memory of his greater achievements will
outlive aU consideration of occasional lapses from taste and
dignity. He wrote, at his best, in the grand manner, melody
and thought according with perfection of expression, and his
finest poems have that indefinable air of the inevitable which
is after all the touchstone of the poetic quality. His son,
Henry John Patmore (1860-1883), left a number of poems
posthumously printed at Mr Daniell's Oxford Press, which '
show an unmistakable lyrical quality. (A. Wa.)
The standard life of Patmore is the Memoirs and Correspond-
ence (1901), edited by Basil Champneys. See also E. W. Gosse,
Coventry Patmore (1905, "Literary Lives" series), and an essay
by Mrs Meynell prefixed to the selection (1905) in the " Muses'
Library."
PATMOS, an island in the east of the Aegean Sea, one of the
group of the Sporades, about 28 m. S.S.W. of Samos, in 37° 20'
N. lat. and 26° 35' E. long. Its greatest length from N. to S.
is about 10 m., its greatest breadth 6 m., its circumference, owing
to the winding nature of the coast, about 37 m. The island,
PATNA
929
which is volcanic, is bare and rocky throughout; the hills, of
which the highest rises to about 800 ft., command magnificent
views of the neighbouring sea and islands. The skill of the
natives as seamen is proverbial in the archipelago. The deeply
indented coast, here falling in huge cliffs sheer into the sea,
there retiring to form a beach and a harbour, is favourable
to commerce, as in former times it was to piracy. Of the
numerous bays and harbours the chief is that of Scala, which,
running far into the land on the eastern side, divides the island
into two nearly equal portions — a northern and a southern. A
narrow isthmus separates Scala from the bay of Merika on the
west coast. On the bell of land between the two bays, at
the junction between the northern and southern half of the
island, stood the ancient town. On the hill above are still to
be seen the massive remains of the citadel, built partly in poly-
gonal style. The modern town stands on a hill top in the
southern half of the island. A steep paved road leads to it
in about twenty minutes from the port of Scala. The town
clusters at the foot of the monastery of St John, which, crowning
the hill with its towers and battlements, resembles a fortress
rather than a monastery. Of the 600 MSS. once possessed by
the library of the monastery only 240 are left. The houses of
the town are better built than those of the neighbouring islands,
but the streets are narrow and winding. The population is
about 4000. The port of Scala contains about 140 houses,
besides some old well-built magazines and some potteries.
Scattered over the island are about 300 chapels.
Patmos is mentioned first by Thucydides (iii. 33) and after-
wards by Strabo and Pliny. From an inscription it has been
inferred that the name was originally Patnos. Another ancient
inscription seems to show that the lonians settled there at an
early date. The chief, indeed the only, title of the island to
fame is that it was the place of banishment of St John the
Evangelist, who according to Jerome (De scr. ill. c. 9) and
others, was exiled thither under Domitian in a.d. 95, and released
about eighteen months afterwards under Nerva. Here he is
said to have written the Apocalypse; to the left of the road
from Scala to the town, about half-way up the hill, a grotto is
still shown (roo-Tri7Xatoj'Tijs'A7roKaXw/'«os) in which the apostle is
said to have received the heavenly vision. It is reached through
a small chapel dedicated to St Anne. The Acts of St John,
attributed to Prochorus, narrates the miracles wrought by the
apostle during his stay on the island, but, strangely enough,
while describing how the Gospel was revealed to him in Patmos,
it does not so much as mention the Apocalypse. During the
dark ages Patmos seems to have been entirely deserted, probably
on account of the pirates. In 1088 the emperor Alexis Com-
nenus, by a golden bull, which is still preserved, granted the
island to St Christodulus for the purpose of founding a monastery.
This was the origin of the monastery of St John, which now
owns the greater part of the southern half of Patmos, as well
as farms in Crete, Samos and other neighbouring islands.
The embalmed body of the saintly founder is to be seen to
this day in a side chapel of the church. The number of the
monks, which amounted to over a hundred at the beginning
of the 1 8th century, is now much reduced. The abbot (riyovnevos)
has the rank of a bishop, and is subject only to the patriarch
of Constantinople. There is a school in connexion with the
monastery which formerly enjoyed a high reputation in the
Levant. The modern town was recruited by refugees from
Constantinople in 1453, and from Crete in 1669, when these
places fell into the hands of the Turks. The island is subject
to Turkey; the governor is the pasha of Rhodes. The popula-
tion is Greek. The women are chiefly engaged in knitting
cotton stockings, which, along with some pottery, form the
chief exports of the island.
See Tournefort, Relation d'lin voyage du Levant (Lyons, 1717);
Walpole, Memoirs (relating to Turkey) (London, 1820); Ross,
Reisen auf den griechischen Inseln (Stuttgart and Halle, 1840-1852);
Guerin, Description de Vile de Patmos (Paris, 1856); H. F. Tozer,
Islands of the Aegean, pp. 178-195.
PATNA, a city, district, and division of British India, in
the Behar province of Bengal. The city, which is the most
important commercial centre in Bengal after Calcutta, lies on
the right bank of the Ganges, alittledistance below theconfluence
of the Sone and the Gogra, and opposite the confluence of the
Gandak, with a station on the East Indian railway 332 m. N.W.
of Calcutta. Municipal area, 6184 acres. Pop. (1901), 134,785.
Including the civil station of Bankipur to the west, the city
stretches along the river bank for nearly 9 miles. Still farther
west is the mihtary cantonment of Dinapur. A government
college was founded in 1862. Other educational institutions
include the Behar school of engineering organized in 1897.
Patna city has been identified with Pataliputra (the Palibothra
of Megasthenes, who came as ambassador from Seleucus Nicator
to Chandragupta about 300 B.C.). Megasthenes describes
Palibothra as being the capital of India. He adds that its
length was 80 stadia, and breadth 15; that it was surrounded by
a ditch 30 cubits deep, and that the walls were adorned with
570 towers and 64 gates. According to this account the cir-
cumference of the city would be 190 stadia or 25J miles. Asoka
built an outer masonry wall and beautified the city with innumer-
able stone buildings. The greater part of the ancient city still
lies buried in the silt of the rivers under Patna and Bankipur
at a depth of from 10 to 20 ft. The two events in the modern
history of the district are the massacre of Patna (1763) and the
Sepoy Mutiny in 1857. The former occurrence, which may be
said to have settled the fate of Mahommedan rule in Bengal,
was the result of a quarrel between the nawab, Mir Kasim,and
the English authorities regarding transit duties, which ultimately
led to open hostilities. The company's sepoys, who had occupied
Patna city by the orders of the company's factor, were driven
out by the nawab's troops and nearly all killed. The remainder
afterwards surrendered, and were put into confinement, together
with the European otificers and the entire staff of the Cossimbazar
factory, who had also been arrested on the first outbreak of
hostilities. Mir Kasim was defeated in two pitched battles at
Gheria and Udhanala (Oodeynullah) in August and September
1763, and in revenge ordered the massacre of all his prisoners,
which was carried out v/ith the help of a renegade in his employ-
ment named Walter Reinhardt, (afterwards the husband of
the famous Begum Samru). About sixty Englishmen were
murdered on this occasion, the bodies being thrown into a well
belonging to the house in which they were confined. At the
outbreak of the mutiny in May 1857 the three sepoy regiments
stationed at Dinapur (the military cantonment of Patna,
adjoining the city) were allowed to retain their arms till July,
when, on an attempt being made to disarm them, they broke
into open revolt. Although many who attempted to cross the
Ganges in boats were fired into and run down by a pursuing
steamer, the majority crossed by the Sone river into Shahabad,
where they joined the rebels under Kuar Singh who were then
besieging a smaU European community at Arrah.
The District of Patna has an area of 2075 sq. m.; pop.
(1901), 1,624,985. Throughout the greater part of its extent
the district is a level plain; but towards the south the
ground rises into hills. The soil is for the most part allu-
vial, and the country along the bank of the Ganges is
peculiarly fertile. The general line of drainage is from west
to east; and high ground along the south of the Ganges
forces back the rivers flowing from Gaya district. The result
is that during the rains nearly the whole interior of the
district south of a line drawn parallel to the Ganges, and 4
or 5 m. from its bank, is flooded. In the south-east are the
Rajgir Hills, consisting of two parallel ridges running south-
west, with a narrow valley between, intersected by ravines
and passes. These hills, which seldom exceed 1000 ft. in
height, are rocky and clothed with thick low jungle, and contain
some of the earliest memorials of Indian Buddhism. The
chief rivers are the Ganges and the Sone. The only other river
of any consequence is the Punpun, which is chiefly remarkable
for the number of petty irrigation canals which it supplies. So
much of the river is thus diverted that only a small portion of
its water ever reaches the Ganges at Fatwa. The chief crops
are rice, wheat, barley, maize and pulse; poppy and potatoes
XX. 30
930
PATNA— PATRAS
are also of importance. Apart from the Sone canal, irrigation
is largely practised from private channels and also from weUs.
The district is traversed by the main line of the East Indian
railway, with two branches south to Gaya and Bihar.
The Division of Patna extended across both sides of the
Ganges. It comprised the seven districts of Patna, Gaya,
Shahabad, Saran, Champaran, Muzaffarpur and Darbhanga.
Total area, 23,748 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 15,514,987. In 1908
the four last districts north of the Ganges were formed into
the new division of Tirhut; and the name of Patna division
was confined to the three first districts south of the Ganges.
See L. A. Waddell, Discovery of the Exact Site of Asoka's Classic
Capital of Pataliputra (1892); Vincent Smith, Asoka (" Rulers of
India " series, 1901) ; Patna District Gazetteer (Calcutta, 1907).
PATNA, one of the Orissa tributary states in Bengal, with
an area of 2399 sq. m. It lies in the basin of the Mahanadi
river, and is divided by a forest-clad hilly tract into a northern
and a southern portion, both of which are undulating and well
cultivated. Pop. (1901), 277,748, showing a decrease of 16%
in the decade, mainly due to the effects of famine in 1900.
Nearly the whole population consists of Oriyas. The capital
is Bolangir: pop. (1901), 3706. The principal crop is rice.
The maharajas of Patna were formerly heads of a group of
states known as the athara garhjal or " eighteen forts." They
are Chauhban Rajputs, and claim to have been established in
Patna for six centuries. Patna was the scene of a rebellion of
the Khonds, followed by atrocities on the part of their rulers,
in 1869, and, in consequence, came under British management
in 187 1. The maharaja Ramchandra Singh, installed in 1894,
was insane and put an end to his own Ufe in the following year,
whereupon his uncle, Lai Dalganjan Singh, became chief,
undertaking to administer with the assistance of a diwan or
minister appointed by the British government. The powers
of this official were extended in 1900 after a serious outbreak
of dacoity. Till 1905 the state was included in the Central
Provinces.
PATOIS, a French term strictly confined to the dialect of
a district or locality in a country which has a common literary
language, often used of the form of a common language as
spoken by illiterate or uneducated persons, marked by vulgar-
isms in pronunciation, grammar, &c. The origin of the word
is not certain. It has been taken to be a corruption of patrols,
from Low Lat. partriensis, of or belonging to one's palria, or
native country, fatherland.
PATON, JOHN BROWN (1830- ), British Nonconformist
divine, was born on the 17th of December 1830. He was
educated at London, Poole and Spring HiU College, Birming-
ham; he graduated B.A. at London University in 1849, and was
Hebrew and New Testament prizeman in 1850 and gold medallist
in philosophy in 1854. He received the honorary degree of
doctor of divinity from Glasgow University in 1881. When
the Nottingham Congregational Institute was founded in
1863 he became the first principal, a post which he held
till 1898, when he was succeeded by James Alexander Mitchell
(1849-1905), who from 1903 till his death was general secretary
of the Congregational Union. Paton became vice-president of
the British and Foreign Bible Society in 1907. He took an
active part in the foundation and direction of a number of
societies for religious and social work, notably the National
Home Reading Union Society and English Land Colonization
Society, and was a constant contributor to literary reviews.
His publications include The Two-fold Alternative (3rd ed., 1900),
The Inner Mission of the Church (new ed., 1900), and two
volumes of collected essays. His son, John Lewis Paton
(b. 1863), who headed the Cambridge classical tripos in 1886,
became head master of Manchester grammar school in 1903.
PATON, SIR JOSEPH NOEL (1821-1901), British painter,
was born, on the 13th of December 182 1, in Woolers AUey,
Dunfermline, where his father, a fellow of the Scottish Society
of Antiquaries, carried on the trade of a damask manufacturer.
He showed strong artistic inclinations in early childhood,
but had no regular art training, except a brief period of
study in the Royal Academy School in 1843. He gained
a prize of £200 in the first Westminster Hall competition,
in 1845, for his cartoon " The Spirit of ReUgion," and in
the foUowing year he exhibited at the Royal Scottish Academy
his " Quarrel of Oberon and Titania." A companion fairy
picture, " The Reconciliation of Oberon and Titania " went
to Westminster Hall in 1847, and for it and his picture of
" Christ bearing the Cross " he was awarded a prize of £300
by the Fine Arts Commissioners. The two Oberon pictures
are in the National Gallery of Scotland, where they have
long been a centre of attraction. His first exhibited picture,
" Ruth Gleaning," appeared at the Royal Scottish Academy
in 1844. He began to contribute to the Royal Academy
of London in 1856. Throughout his career his preference was
for allegorical, fairy and religious subjects. Among his most
famous pictures are " The Pursuit of Pleasure " (1855), " Mors
Janua Vitae " (1866), " Oskold and the Elle-maids " (1874),
and " In Die Malo " (1882). Sir Noel Paton also produced
a certain amount of sculpture, more notable for design than
for searching execution. He was elected an associate of the
Royal Scottish Academy in 1847, and a fuU member in 1850;
he was appointed Queen's Limner for Scotland in 1866, and
received knighthood in 1867. In 1878 the University of Edin-
burgh conferred upon him the degree of LL.D. He was a poet
of distinct merit, as his Poems by a Painter (1861) and Spindrift
(1867) pleasantly exemphfied. He was also well known as
an antiquary, his hobby, indeed, being the collection of arms
and armour. Sir Noel died in Edinburgh on the 26th of Decem-
ber igoi. His eldest son, Diarmid Noel Paton (b. 1859),
became regius professor of physiology in Glasgow in 1906;
and another son, Frederick Noel Paton (b. 1861), became in
1905 director of commercial intelligence to the government of
India.
PATRAS (Gr. Patrai), the chief fortified seaport town on the
west coast of Greece, and chief town of the province of Achaea
and Elis, on a gulf of the same name, 70 m. W.N.W. of Corinth.
There are two railway stations, one in the north-east on the line
to Athens (via Corinth), the other on the line to Pyrgos. Pop.
(1889), 33,529; (1907), 37,401. It has been rebuilt since 1821
(the War of Independence), and is the seat of a Greek arch-
bishop and' an appeal court. It is the chief port of Greece,
from which the great bulk of its currants are despatched. The
port, formed by a mole and a breakwater, begun in 1880, offers
a fair harbour for vessels drawing up to 22 ft. The exports
consist of currants, sultanas, valonea, tobacco, olive oil, olives
in brine, figs, citrons, wine, brandy, cocoons, and lamb, goat,
and kid skins. The imports consist chiefly of colonial produce,
manufactured goods and sulphate of copper. The two most
interesting buildings are the castle, a medieval structure on the
site of the ancient acropoUs, and the cathedral of St Andrew,
which is highly popular as the reputed burial-place of the saint.
The foundation of Patras goes back to prehistoric times,
the legendary account being that Eumelus, having been taught
by Triptolemus how to grow grain in the rich soU of the Glaucus
valley, established three townships, Aroe {i.e. ploughland),
Antheia (the flowery), and Mesatis (the middle settlement),
which were united by the common worship of Artemis Triclaria
at her shrine on the river Meilichus. The Achaeans having
strengthened and enlarged Aroe, called it Patrae, as the exclusive
residence of the ruling famUies, and it was recognized as one of
the twelve Achaean cities. In 419 B.C. the town was, by the
advice of Alcibiades, connected with its harbour by long walls
in imitation of those at Athens. The whole armed force was
destroyed by MeteUus after the defeat of the Achaeans at
Scarpheia, and many of the remaining inhabitants forsook the
city; but after the battle of Actium Augustus restored the ancient
name Aroe, introduced a military colony of veterans from the
loth and 12th legions (not, as is usually said, the 22nd), and
bestowed the rights of coloni on the inhabitants of Rhypae and
Dyme, and all the Locri Ozolae except those of Amphissa.
Colonia Augusta Aroe Patrensis became one of the most
populous of all the towns of Greece; its colonial coinage extends
PATRIARCH— PATRICIANS
931
from Augustus to Gordian III. That the town was the scene
of the martyrdom of St Andrew is purely apocryphal, but,
Hke Corinth, it was an early and effective centre of Christianity;
its archbishop is mentioned in the hsts of the Council of Sardica
in 347. In SSI it was laid in ruins by an earthquake. In 807
it was able without external assistance to defeat the Slavonians
(Avars), though most of the credit of the victory was assigned
to St Andrew, whose church was enriched by the imperial
share of the spoils, and whose archbishop was made superior
of the bishops of Methone, Lacedaemon and Corone. Captured
in 1205 by William of Champhtte and Villehardouin, the city
became the capital and its archbishop the primate of the princi-
pality of Achaea. In 1387 De Heredia, grand master of the
order of the Hospital at Rhodes, endeavoured to make himself
master of Achaea and took Patras by storm. At the close of
the isth century the city was governed by the archbishop in the
name of the pope; but in 1428 Constantine, son of John VI.,
managed to get possession of it for a time. Patras was at length,
in 1687, surrendered by the Turks to the Venetians, who made
it the seat of one of the seven fiscal boards into which they
divided the Morea. In 1714 it again fell, with the rest of the
Morea, into Turkish hands. It was at Patras that the Greek
revolution began in 1821; but the Turks, confined to the citadel,
held out till 1828.
PATRIARCH (M.E. and O. Fr. patriarche, Lat. pairiarcha, Gr.
■jrarpiapxijs, from iraTpia, clan, and <ipxi7, rule), originally the
father or chief of a tribe, in this sense now used more especially
of the " patriarchs " of the Old Testament, i.e. Abraham, Isaac
and Jacob, with their forefathers, and the twelve sons of Jacob.
In late Jewish history the title " patriarch " (Heb. nasi, prince,
chief) was given to the head of the sanhedrim in Palestine, and
is sometimes, though wrongly, applied to the " exilarch," a
head of the Jewish college at Babylon.
In the early centuries of the Christian Church the designation
" patriarch " was applied, like " archbishop," to bishops of
the more important sees as a merely honorary style. It
developed into a title implying jurisdiction over metropolitans,
partly as a result of the organization of the empire into
" dioceses," partly owing to the ambition of the greater metro-
politan bishops, which had early led them to claim and exercise
authority in neighbouring metropolitanates. At the Council
of Chalcedon (451) the patriarchs still bore the title of " exarch " ;
it was not tiE the 7th century that that of " patriarch " was
fixed as proper to the bishops of Constantinople, Alexandria,
Antioch and Jerusalem, " exarch " being reserved for those of
Ephesus and Caesarea, who had fallen to a lower rank. In
the West the only patriarch in the fully developed sense of the
Eastern Church has been the bishop of Rome, who is patriarch
as well as pope.
PATRICIANS (Lat. patricius, an adjectival form from pater,
father; not, as some say, from pater and ciere, to call), a term
originally applied to the members of the old citizen families of
ancient Rome (see I. below). Under the laterRoman Empire the
name was revived by the Byzantine emperors as the title of a new
order of nobility. Subsequently it was used as a personal title
of honour for distinguished servants of Constantine I. and his
successors, and was conferred on barbarian chiefs (II. below).
It was afterwards conferred by the popes on the Prankish
kings. In the medieval Italian republics, e.g. Genoa and
Venice, the term was applied to the hereditary aristocracy
ipatrizio), and in the free cities of the German Empire it was
borne by distinguished citizens (patrizier). In Italy it is still
used for the hereditary nobility. From these specific uses the
word has come into general use as a synonym of " aristocrat "
or " noble," and implies the possession of such qualities as are
generally associated with long descent, hereditary good breeding
and the like. In Church history a sect founded by Patricius
(c. 387), teacher of Symmachus the Marcionite, are known as
the Patricians; they believed that all flesh was made by the
devil. The name is also, though rarely, applied to the Roman
Catholic body in Ireland regarded as the followers of St Patrick.
I. From the earliest period known to us the free population
of Rome contains two elements, patricians and plebeians, the
former class enjoying all political privileges, the latter un-
privileged. The derivation and significance of the two names
have been established with certainty. The patricians (palricii)
are those who can point to fathers, i.e. those who are members
of the clans (gentes) whose members originally comprised the
whole citizen body. The plebeians (plebs, plebes) are the com-
plement (from root pleo, fill, see Plebs) of the noble families
possessing a genealogy, and include all the free population
other than the patricians. It has been held by T. Mommsen
that the plebeian order had its sole origin in the clients who
attached themselves in a position of semi-freedom to the heads
of patrician houses, and gradually evolved a freedom and
citizenship of their own (see Patron and Client). The logical
consequence of this view is that the plebs as an order in the state
is of considerably later growth than the beginning of the city,
the patricians being originally the only freemen and the only
citizens. But this view is untenable on two grounds. First,
in the struggle between the two orders for political privilege
we find the clients struggling on the side of the patricians against
the main body of the plebeians (Livy ii. 56). Again, a method
of taking up Roman citizenship which is well attested for a very
early period reveals the possibility of a plebeian who does not
stand in any relation to a patron. When an immigrant moved
to Rome from one of the cities of the Latin league, or any city
which enjoyed the jus commercii with Rome, and by the exercise
of the right of voluntary exile from his own state {jus exulaiidi),
claimed Roman citizenship, it is impossible to suppose that it
was necessary for him to make appUcation to a Roman patron
to represent him in his legal transactions; for the jus commercii
gave its holder the right of suing and being sued in his own
person before Roman courts. Such an immigrant, therefore,
must have become at once a free plebeian citizen of Rome. It
may therefore be assumed that long before the clients obtained
the right to hold land in their own names and appear in the
courts in their own persons there was a free plebs existing
alongside of the patricians enjoying limited rights of citizenship.
But it is equally certain that before the time of Servius Tullius
the rights and duties of citizenship were practically exercised
only by the members of the patrician clans. This is perhaps
the explanation of the strange fact that the clients, who through
their patrons were attached to these clans, obtained political
recognition as early as the plebeians who had no such semi-
servile taint. At the time of the Servian reforms both branches
of the plebs had a plausible claim to recognition as members
of the state, the clients as already partial members of the curia
and the gens, the unattached plebeians as equally free with the
patricians and possessing clans of their own as solid and united
as the recognized gentes.
But not only can it be shown that patricians and plebeians
coexisted as distinct orders in the Roman state at an earlier
date than the evolution of citizenship by the clients. It has
further been established on strong archaeological and Unguistic
evidence that the long struggle between patricians and plebeians
in early Rome was the result of a racial difference between
them. There is reason to believe that the patricians were a
Sabine race which conquered a Ligurian people of whom the
plebeians were the survivors (see Rome: History). Apart from
the definite evidence, the theory of a racial distinction gains
probability from the fact that it explains the survival of the
distinction between the patricii, men with a family and genealogy,
and the rest of the citizens, for some time after the latter had
acquired the legal status of patres and were organized in gentes
of their own; for on this theory privilege would belong not to all
who cotild trace free descent but only to those who could trace
descent to an ancestor of the conquering race. The famOy
organization of the conquering race was probably higher than
that of the conquered, and was only gradually attained by the
latter. Thus descent from a father would be distinctive enough
of the dominant race to form the title of that race (patricii),
and when that term had been definitely adopted as the title
of a class its persistence in the same sense after the organization
932
PATRICIANS TTAQ
of the family and the clan by the unprivileged class would be
perfectly natural.
The absurdity of excluding the plebeians from all but a
merely theoretical citizenship, based on the negative fact of
freedom, seems to have become apparent before the close of the
monarchical period. The aim of the reforms associated with the
name of Servius Tullius appears to have been the imposition of
the duties of citizenship upon the plebeians. Incidentally this
involved an extension of plebeian privilege in two directions.
First, it was necessary to unify the plebeian order by putting
the legal status of the clients on a level with that of the un-
attached plebeians; and again enrolment in the army involved
registration in the tribes and centuries; and as the army soon
developed into a legislative assembly meeting in centuries
(comitia centuriata), the whole citizen body, including plebeians,
now acquired a share of political power, which had hitherto
belonged solely to the patricians. At the close of the monarchy,
the plebeian possessed the private rights of citizenship in entirety,
except for his inability to contract a legal marriage with a
patrician, and one of the public rights, that of giving his vote
in the assembly.' But in the matter of liability to the duties
of citizenship, military service and taxation, he was entirely
on a level with the patrician. This position was probably
tolerable during the monarchy, when the king served to hold
the power of the patrician families in check. But when these
families had expelled the Tarquins, and formed themselves
into an exclusive aristocracy of privilege, the inconsistency
between partial privilege and full burdens came to be strongly
felt by the plebeians.
The result was the long struggle for entire political equality
of the two orders which occupies the first few centuries of
the republic (see Rome: History, § II. " The Republic ")• The
struggle was inaugurated by the plebeians, who in 494 B.C. formed
themselves into an exclusive order with annually elected officers
{Iribiini plebis) and an assembly of their own, and by means
of this machinery forced themselves by degrees into all the
magistracies, and obtained the coveted right of intermarriage
with the patricians. Admission to the higher magistracies
carried with it admission to the senate, and by the close of the
struggle (about 300 B.C.) the political privilege of the two orders
was equalized, with the exception of certain disabilities which,
originally devised to break the pohtical monopoly of the order,
continued to be attached to the patricians after the victory
of the plebs. They were excluded from the tribunate and the
council of the plebs, which had become important instruments
of government, and were only eligible for one place in the
consulship and censorship, while both were open to plebeians.
It is possible, though far from certain (see Senate), that the
powers of the interregnum and the senatorial confirmation
[patrum aiutorilas) necessary to give validity to decisions of
the people, remained the exclusive privileges of the patrician
members of the senate. But while the patrician disabilities
were of a kind that had gained in importance with the lapse
of centuries, these privileges, even if still retained, had become
merely formal in the second half of the republican period. Since
the plebeian element in the state had an immense numerical
preponderance over the patrician these disabilities were not
widely spread, and seem generally to have been cheerfully borne
as the price of belonging to the families still recognized as the
oldest and noblest in Rome. But the adoption of P. Clodius
Pulcher into a plebeian family in 59 B.C. with a view to election
to the tribunate shows that a rejection of patrician rights
{Iransiiio ad plebem) was not difficult to effect by any patrician
who preferred actual power to the dignity of ancient descent.
It was not so easy to recruit the ranks of the patricians. The
traditions of early Rome indeed represent the patricians as
receiving the Claudii by a collective act into their body; but the
first authenticated instance of the admission of new members
to the patriciate is that of the lex Cassia, which authorized
Caesar as dictator to create fresh patricians. The same procedure
' Cf. the privileges of the Athenians under the Solonian system
see Solon; Ecclesia; Archon).
was followed by Augustus. Later on, the right of creating
patricians came to be regarded as inherent in theprincipate, and
was exercised by Claudius and Vespasian without any legal
enactment, apparently in their capacity as censor (Tac. Ann.
xi. 25; Vita M. Antonini, i.). Patrician rank seems to have
been regarded as a necessary attribute of the princeps; and in
two cases we are told that it was conferred upon a plebeian
princeps by the senate ( Vita Juliani, 3 ; Macrini, 7) . A comparison
of this procedure with the original conception of the patriciate
as revealed by the derivation of the word, is significant of
the history of the conception of nobility at Rome, and illustra-
tive of the tenacity with which the Romans clung to the name
and form of an institution which had long lost its significance.
After the political equalization of the two orders, noble birth
was no longer recognized as constituting a claim to political
privilege. Instead of the old hereditary nobility, consisting of
the members of the patrician clans, there arose a nobility of
office, consisting of all those families, whether patrician or
plebeian, which had held curule office. It was now the tenure
of office that conferred distinction. In the early days of Rome,
office was only open to the member of a patrician gens. In the
principate, patrician rank, a sort of abstract conception based
upon the earlier state of affairs, was held to be a dignity suitable
to be conferred on an individual holder of office. But the confer-
ment of the rank upon an individual as distinct from a whole
family {gens) is enough to show how widely the modern con-
ception of patrician rank differed from the ancient. The
explanation of this is that the plebeians had long been or-
ganized, like the patricians, in gentes, and nothing remained
distinctive of the old nobility except a vague sense of dignity
and worth. (A.M.Cl.)
II. Under Constantine an entirely new meaning was given
to the word Patrician. It was used as a personal title of honour
conferred for distinguished services. It was a title merely of
rank, not of office; its holder ranked next after the emperor and
the consul. It naturally happened, however, that the title
was generally bestowed upon officials, especially on the chief
provincial governors, and even among barbarian chieftains
whose friendship was valuable enough to call forth the imperial
benediction. Among the former it appears to have become a
sort of ex officio title of the Byzantine vicegerents of Italy, the
exarchs of Ravenna; among the barbarian chiefs who were
thus dignified were Odoacer, Theodoric, Sigismund of Burgundy,
Clovis, and even in later days princes of Bulgaria, the Sara-
cens, and the West Saxons. The word thus acquired an official
connotation. The dignity was not hereditary and belonged
only to individuals; thus a patrician famOy was merely one
whose head enjoyed the rank of patricius. Gradually the root
sense of " father " came to the front again, and the patricius
was regarded as the " father of the emperor " (Ammian Marc,
xxix. 2). With the word were associated such further titles as
cminentia, magnitudo, magnificentia. Those patricians who were
purely honorary were called honorarii or codicillarii; those who
were still in harness were praesentalcs. They were all distin-
guished by a special dress or uniform and in public always drove
in a carriage. The emperor Zeno enacted that no one could
become patricius who had not been praejectus militum, consul
or magister militum, but less careful emperors gave the title to
their favourites, however young and undistinguished. The writ
in which the title was conferred was called a diploma.
A further change in the meaning of the name is marked by
its conferment on Pippin the Frank ^ by Pope Stephen. The
idea of this extension originated no doubt in the fact that the
Italian patricius of the 6th and 7th centuries had come to be
regarded as the defensor, protector, patronus of the Church.^ At
all events, the conferring of the title by a pope was entirely
unprecedented; previously its validity had depended on the
emperor solely. As a matter of fact it is clear that the patriciate
of Pippin was a new office, especially as the title is henceforward
generally patricius Romanorum, not patricius alone. It was
2 The name is used of Charles Martel, but it was not apparently
formally conferred upon him.
PATRICK, ST
933
subsequently conferred on Charlemagne at his coronation, and
borne, as we gather from medieval documents, indiscriminate!}',
not only by subsequent emperors, but also by a long line
of Burgundian rulers and minor princes of the middle ages
generally.' On the fall of the Carohngian house the title passed
to Alberic II. Subsequently it was held by John Crescentius,
and many leading men who received it from Otto III. (f.g.
Boleslaw Chabri of Poland). In 1046 it returned to the German
Henry III. The emperor Frederick. Barbarossa was the last
to wear the insignia (in 1167).
Bibliography. — (i) The Ancient Patricians: Th. Mommsen,
Staatsrecht III. passim (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1887); Romische Forsch-
ungen I. (Berlin, 1864) ; P. Willems, Le Droit public romain, pt. i
(Louvain, 1888). (2) The Medieval Patricians: J. B. Bury's Later
Roman Empire (1889); Bryce, Holy Roman Empire (1904), pp. 40
seq.; Du Cange, Glossarium med. el inHrn. latinitatis, s.v. "Patricius" ;
and histories of Charlemagne (q.v.y and his successors. For the Ger-
man Patriziertum see Roth von Schreckenstein, Das Patriziat in den
deutschen Stddten, besonders Reichstddten (2nd ed. Freiburg, 1886);
Foltz, Beitrdge zur Gesch. des Patriziats in den deutschen Stddten
(Marburg, 1899). (J. M. M.)
PATRICK, ST, the patron saint of Ireland,^ was probably born
about the year 389. He was the son of a deacon, Calpurnius, and
the grandson of a presbyter named Potitus. His father was a
middle-class landed proprietor and a decurion, who is represented
as living at a place called Bannauenta. The only place of this
name we know is Daventry, but it seems more probable that
Patrick's home is to be sought near the Severn, and Rhys con-
jectures that one of the three places called Banwen in Glamorgan-
shire may be intended. The British name of the future apostle
was Sucat, to which Mod. Welsh hygad, " warlike," corresponds.
His Roman name has also survived in a hibernicized form,
Cothrige, with the common substitution of Irish c for Brythonic
p (cf. Irish ca.sc, Lat. pascha). Patrick was doubtless educated
as a Christian and was imbued with reverence for the Roman
Empire. When about sixteen years of age he was carried ofif by a
band of Irish marauders. The latter were possibly taking part
in the raid of the Irish king Niall Noigiallach, who met with his
end in Britain in 405. Irish tradition represents the future
apostle as tending the herds of a chieftain of the name of Miliucc
(Milchu), near the mountain called Slemish in county Antrim,
but Bury tries to show that the scene of his captivity was
Connaught, perhaps in the neighbourhood of Croagh Patrick.
His bondage lasted for six years. During this time he became
subject to religious emotion and beheld visions which encouraged
him to effect his escape. He fled, in all probability to the coast
of Wicklow, and encountered a vessel which was engaged in the
export of Irish wolf-dogs. After three days at sea the traders
landed, possibly on the west coast of Gaul, and journeyed for
twenty-eight days through a desert. At the end of two months
Patrick parted from his companions and betook himself to the
monastery of Lerins, where he probably spent a few years. On
leaving the Mediterranean he seems to have returned home. It
was doubtless during this stay in Britain that the idea of mission-
ary enterprise in Ireland came to him. In a dream he saw a
man named Victorious bearing innumerable epistles, one of
which he received and read; the beginning of it contained the
words " The Voice of the Irish "; whilst repeating these words
he says, " I imagined that I heard in my mind the voice of those
who were near the wood of Foclut (Fochlad), which is near the
western sea, and thus they cried: ' We pray thee, holy youth,
to come and walk again amongst us as before.' " The forest
of Fochlad was in the neighbourhood of Killala Bay, but it is
possible that it extended considerably to the south. Despite
1 We even find a feminine form, patricissa, (or the wKe o{ a. patricius.
The golden circlet worn on the head by the patricius as a symbol of
his dignity was called a patricialis circulus.
' His career is involved in considerable obscurity. Widely varying
views have been held by modern scholars with regard to his activity,
some going so far as to treat all the accounts of his labours as the
fictitious creation of a later age. In the present article Bury's
reconstruction of the saint's life has been chiefly followed. Apart
from its importance in other respects, Bury's treatment of the sub-
ject has at any rate the merit of defending the traditional view of
St Patrick's career.
his natural diffidence, and opposition on the part of his relatives,
Patrick resolved to return to Gaul in order to prepare himself
for his mission. He proceeded to Auxerre — a place which seems
to have had a close connexion with Britain and Ireland — and
was ordained deacon by Bishop Amator, along with two others
who were afterwards associated with him in spreading the faith
in Ireland. The one was an Irishman called Fith, better known
as Iserninus, the other Auxilius. Patrick must have spent at
least fourteen years at Auxerre.
It seems not unlikely that Pelagianism had taken root among
the Christian communities of Ireland, and it was found necessary
to send a bishop to combat the heresy. Pope Celestine's choice
fell on the deacon Palladius, who had taken a prominent part in
stamping out the doctrine in Britain. The mission of Palladius
(431-432), whom Zimmer has endeavoured to identify with
Patrick, is obscure. Tradition associates his name with the
mountains of Wicklow, and we are told that he retired to the
j land of the Picts in North Britain, where he died. Patrick
probably felt great disappointment when Palladius was sent as
the chosen envoy of Rome, but now Gcrmanus seems to have
decided that Patrick was the man for the task, and he was
consecrated in 432. For the peculiar social conditions with
which the Christian missionary would be confronted in Ireland
see Brehon Laws and Ireland: Early History. Sufiice it to
say here that the land belonged to the tribes, and that the success
of Patrick's undertaking depended entirely on his ability to gain
the goodwill of the tribal kings and chiefs of clans. We are
totally ignorant as to the extent and number of the pre-Patrician
Christian communities in Ireland. It seems probable that they
were, largely, if not wholly confined to the south-east of the island.
Patrick landed at Inverdea, the mouth of the river Vartry in
Wicklow, but we are not informed as to any of his doings in
Leinster at this period. According to the story, he immediately
proceeded northward to the kingdom of Ulidia (east Ulster),
though a certain tradition represents him as going to Meath.
Landing on the shores of Strangford Lough, he commenced his
labours in the plain on the south-west side of that inlet. A
convert chief named Dichu granted him a site for an establish-
ment, and a wooden barn is stated to have been utilized for the
purpose of worship, whence the modern Saul (Ir. saball, " barn ").
Patrick's activity was bound to bring him sooner or later into
conflict with the High-king Loigaire (reigned 428-467), son of
Niall NoigiaUach. Fedilmid, a brother of the monarch, is
represented as having made over his estate at Trim to the saint
'to found a church, and thus the faith was established within
Loigaire's territory. The story in picturesque fashion makes
Patrick challenge the royal authority by lighting the Paschal
fire on the hill of Slane on the night of Easter Eve. It chanced
to be the occasion of a pagan festival at Tara, during which no
fire might be kindled until the royal fire had been lit. A number
of trials of skill between the Christian missionary and Loigaire's
Druids ensue, and the final result seems to have been that the
monarch, though unwilling to embrace the foreign creed, under-
took to protect the Christian bishop. At a later date the saint
was probably invited by Loigaire to take part in the codification
of the Senchus Mor in order to represent the interests of the
Christian communities. On another occasion Patrick is reported
to have overthrown a famous idol known as Cenn Cruaich or
Cromrn Cruaich in the plain of Mag Slecht (county Cavan).
Several churches seem to have been founded in the kingdom
of Meath by the saint, but they cannot now be identified.
Patrick is stated to have visited Connaught on three different
occasions and to have founded churches, one of the most impor-
tant being that at Elphin. As regards Ulster our information
is very scanty, though we find him establishing churches in the
three kingdoms of the province (Ailech, Oriel and Ulidia).
Patrick's work is more closely identified with the north of Ireland
than with the south. Traces of his mission, however, are to be
found in Ossory and Muskerry. But his task in the south was
doubtless rather that of an organizer, and a kind of circular letter
has come down to us which was addressed by Patrick, Auxilius
and Iserninus, to all the clergy of the island. There is some
934
PATRICK, S.— PATRIZZI
evidence that he made a journey to Rome (441-443) and brought
back with him valuable relics. On his return he founded the
church and monastery of Armagh, the site of which was granted
him by Daire, king of Oriel, and it is probable that the see was
intended by him to be specially connected with the supreme
ecclesiastical authority. Some years before his death, which
took place in 461, Patrick resigned his position as bishop of
Armagh to his disciple Benignus, and possibly retired to Saul
in Dalaradia, where he spent the remainder of his life. The
place of his burial was a matter of dispute in early Ireland,
but it seems most hkely that he was interred at Saul.
Two highly important documents purporting to have been
written by Patrick have come down to us. Although the
genuineness of these writings has been impugned on various
occasions by different scholars, there seems to be no reason for
assuming that they did not emanate from the saint's pen. The
one is the Confession, which is contained in an imperfect state
in the Book of Armagh (c. 807), but complete copies are found in
later MSS. The Confession, written towards the end of his life,
gives a general account of his career. Various charges had been
brought against him by his enemies, among them that of illiter-
acy, the truth of which is borne out by the crudeness of his style,
and is fully admitted by the writer himself. Before being
admitted to deacon's orders he had communicated to a friend
some fault which he had committed when about fifteen years
of age. This friend had not considered it an obstacle to ordina-
tion. Later the secret was betrayed and came to the ears of
persons who, as he says, " urged my sins against my laborious
episcopate." It is impossible to ascertain who these detractors
were — possibly British fellow-workers in Ireland. The other
document is the so-called Letter to Coroticus. The soldiers of
Coroticus (Ceretic), a British king of Strathclyde, had in the
course of a raid in Ireland killed a number of Christian neophytes
on the very day of their baptism while still clad in white garments.
Others had been carried oflf into slavery, and a deputation of
clergy which Patrick had sent to ask for their release had been
subjected to ridicule. In his Letter the saint in very strong
language urges the Christian subjects of the British king not to
have any dealings with their ruler and his bloodthirsty followers
until full satisfaction should have been made. The text of this
letter occurs in a number of MSS. but is not contained in the
Book of Armagh. It is however certain that it was known in
the 7th century. A strange barbaric chant commonly known as
the Lorica or Hymn of St Patrick is preserved in the Liber
hymnorum. This piece, called in Irish the Faed Fiada or " Cry
of the Deer," contains a number of remarkable grammatical
forms, and the latest editors are of opinion that it may very well
be genuine. From such slender material it is not easy to form
a clear conception of the saint's personality. His was evidently
an intensely spiritual nature, and in addition to the qualities
which go to form a strong man of action he must have possessed
an enthusiasm which enabled him to surmount all difficulties.
His importance in the history of Ireland and the Irish Church
consists in the fact that he brought Ireland into touch with
western Europe and more particularly with Rome, and that he
introduced Latin into Ireland as the language of the Church.
His work consisted largely in organizing the Christian societies
which he found in existence on his arrival, and in planting the
faith in regions such as the extreme west of Connaught which
had not yet come under the sway of the gospel.
Authorities. — Apart from the Letter and Epistle mentioned
above our chief sources of information with regard to the life
of St Patrick are contained in the Book of Armagh. The one is
the memoir by Tirechan, a bishop who had been the disciple of
Bishop Ultan of Ardbraccan in Meath (d. 657). The first part of
this memoir, which was probably compiled about 670, deals with
the saint's work in Meath, the second with his activity in Connaught.
Various additions are appended to this compilation, and there are
still further additional notes. The other biography was written
towards the end of the 7th century by Muirchu Maccu Machtheni,
who dedicated his work to Bishop Aed of Slebte (d. 700). The first
portion deals with Patrick's career down to his arrival in Ireland and
contains an unvarnished statement of fact. But when the story
passes to Ireland Muirchu's narrative becomes full of the mythical
element. The influence of Muirchu's work can be traced in all later
biographies. Bury has shown that both Tirechan and Muirchu
drew from written material which existed in part at any rate in Irish.
Among later lives we may mention the hymn Genair Patraicc, com-
monly attributed to Fiacc, which is considered by the latest editors
to have been originally composed about 800. Three anonymous
Latin lives were published by Colgan in his Trias Thaumaturga
(Louvain, 1645), and there exists an 11th-century Irish life in three
parts published by Whitley Stokes for the Rolls series (1887). A
Latin translation of a different copy of this work, now lost, was pub-
lished by Colgan. Lastly a life by an otherwise unknown Irish
writer named Probus occurs in the Basel edition of Bede's works
(1563) and was reprinted by Colgan.
See J. B. Bury, The Life of St Patrick and his Place in History
(London, 1905) ; J. H. Todd, St Patrick tlie Apostle of Ireland (Dublin,
1861); H. Zimmer, article " Keltische Kirche " in Realencyklopddie
fiir protestantische Theologie und Kirche (1901 ; trans, by Miss Meyer,
"The Celtic Church in Britain and Ireland," London, 1902);
J. Gwynn, Liber Ardmachanus ; Whitley Stokes, The Tripartite
Life of St Patrick (London, 1887) ;_N. J. D. White, " The Writings
of St Patrick" (critical edition) in Proceedings of the Royal Irish
Academy (1904). ,. (E. C. Q.)
PATRICK, SIMON (1626-1707), English divine, was born at
Gainsborough, Lincolnshire, on the 8th of September 1626. He
entered Queen's College, Cambridge, in 1644, and after taking
orders in 1651 became successively chaplain to Sir Walter
St John and vicar of Battersea, Surrey. He was afterwards
(1662) preferred to the rectory of;St Paul's, Covent Garden,
London, where he continued to labour during the plague. He
was appointed dean of Peterborough in 1679, and bishop of
Chichester in i68g, in which year he was employed, along with
others of the new bishops, to settle the affairs of the Church in
Ireland. In 1691 he was translated to the see of Ely, which he
held until his death on the 31st of May 1707. His sermons and
devotional writings, which are very numerous, were long held
in high estimation, and his Commentary on the Historical and
Poetical Books of the Old Testament, in 10 vols., brought down as
far as the Song of Solomon, was reprinted as recently as 1853.
His Friendly Debate between a Conformist and a Nonconformist
was a controversial tract which excited considerable feeling
at the time of its publication in 1668, but he lived long enough
to soothe by his moderation and candour the exasperation it
had caused. He also contributed to a volume of Poems upon
Divine and Moral Subjects (17 19).
The first collected edition of his works appeared at Oxford in 1859
(9 vols., 8vo);.a small Autobiography was published also at Oxford
in 1839.
PATRIZZI, FRANCESCO (Franciscus Patritius) (1529-
1597), Italian philosopher and scientist, was born at CUssa, in
Dalmatia, and died in Rome. He gained the patronage of the
bishop of Cyprus, who brought him to Venice, where his abiUties
were immediately recognized by his appointment to the chair
of philosophy at Ferrara. He was subsequently invited to
Rome by Clement VIII. In spite of his almost incessant contro-
versies with the Aristotelians, he found time to make a com-
prehensive study of contemporary science. He published in
15 books a treatise on the New Geometry (1587), and works on
history, rhetoric and the art of war. He studied ancient theories
of music, and is said to have invented the thirteen-syllable verse
known subsequently as versi martelliani. In his philosophy he
was mainly concerned to defend Plato against the followers of
Aristotle.
His two great works, Discussionum peripateticorum libri XV.
(Basel, 1571), and Nova de universis philosophia (Basel, 1591),
developed the view that, whereas Aristotle's teaching was in direct
opposition to Christianity, Plato, on the contrary, foreshadowed
the Christian revelation and prepared the way for its acceptance.
In the earlier treatise he attacks the life and character of Aristotle,
impugns the authenticity of almost all his works, and attempts to
refute his doctrines from a theological standpoint. In the second and
greater work he goes back to the theories and methods of the lonians
and the pre-Socratics generally. His theory of the universe is that,
from God there emanated Light which extends throughout space
and is the explanation of all development. This Light is not cor-
poreal and yet is the fundamental reality of things. From Light
came Heat and Fluidity; these three together with Space make up
the elements out of which all things are constructed. This cosmic
theory is a curious combination of materialistic and abstract ideas;
the influence of his master Telesio (q.v.), generally predominant.
PATROCLES— PATRON AND CLIENT
935
is not strong enough to overcome his inherent disbelief in the
adequacy of purely scientific explanation.
PATROCLES (c. 312-261 B.C.), a Macedonian general and
writer on geographical subjects, who lived during the reigns of
Seleucus I. and Antiochus I. When in command of the fleet
of Seleucus (285) he undertook a voyage of exploration on the
Caspian Sea to discover possible trade routes, especially for
communication with the peoples of northern India. He came
to the conclusion that the Caspian was a gulf or inlet, and that it
was possible to enter it by sea from the Indian Ocean. The only
information as to his work (even the title is unknown) is derived
from Strabo. After the death of Seleucus, Patrocles was sent
by his successor Antiochus to put down a revolt in Asia Minor,
and lost his life in an engagement with the Bithynians.
See Strabo ii. 68, 74, xi. 508, xv. 689; Died. Sic. xix. 100; Plutarch,
Demetrius, 47 ; Pliny, Nat. Hist. vi. 21; Photius, cod. 224 (on Mem-
non); C. W. Miiller, Fragntenta historicorum graecorum, ii. 442;
E. H. Bunbury, Hist, of Ancient Geography, vol. i. (1879); W. W.
Tarn, " Patrocles and the Oxo-Caspian Trade Route " in Journal
of Hellenic Studies, vol. xxi. (1901).
PATROL (Fr. patrouiller, connected with palte, foot), a verb
meaning to move up and down or traverse a specified" round "
or " beat " in a district in a town, camp or other place, or on a
stretch of water on a river or sea, for the purpose of watching
and protecting the same, or for reconnoitring the numbers or
positions of an enemy. As a substantive the term is used of the
detachment of troops or police employed.
PATRON, a word of which the various meanings in European
languages are derived and transferred from that of the Lat.
/la/rowMi, whose position in Roman law and antiquities is treated
below (Patron and Client). The most general application
of the word in these transferred senses is that of an influential
supporter or protector. The earliest use of the word in English
appears to have been in the special ecclesiastical sense of the
holder of an advowson, the right of presentation to a benefice.
From this meaning is deduced that of the person in whom lies
the right of presenting to public offices, privileges, &c., still
surviving in the title of the Patronage Secretary of the Treasury
in Great Britain. From the earliest Christian times the saints
took the place of the pagan tutelary deities {Di tutclares) and
were in this capacity called tutelarcs or patroni, patron-saints.
To them churches and other sacred buildings are dedicated, and
they are regarded as the protectors and guardians of countries,
towns, professions, trades and the like. Further, a person may
have a patron-saint, usually the one on or near whose festival
he has been born, or whose name has been taken in baptism.
A full list of saints, with the objects of the peculiar patronage of
each, is given in M. E. C. Walcott's Sacred Archaeology (1868).
PATRON AND CLIENT (Lat. patronus, from pater, father;
clientes or clucntcs, from clucrc, to obey), in Roman law. Clien-
tage appears to have been an institution of most of the Graeco-
Italian peoples in early stages of their history; but it is in Rome
that we can most easUy trace its origin, progress and decay.
Until the reforms of Servius Tullius, the only citizens proper
were the members of the patrician and gentile houses; they alone
could participate in the solemnities of the national religion, take
part in the government and defence of the state, contract
quiritarian marriage, hold property, and enjoy the protection
of the laws. But alongside of them was a gradually increasing
non-citizen population composed partly of slaves, partly of free-
men, who were nevertheless not admitted to burgess rights.
To the latter class belonged the clients, individuals who had
attached themselves in a position of dependence to the heads
of patrician houses as their patrons, in order thereby to secure
attachment to a gens, which would involve a dc facto freedom.
Mommsen held that the plcbs consisted originally of clients only;
but the earliest records of Rome reveal the possibility of a man
becoming a plebeian member of the Roman state without
assuming the dependent position of clientship (see Patricians);
and long before the time of Servius Tullius the clients must
be regarded as a section only of the plebeian order, which also
contained members unattached to any patronus. The relation-
ship of patron and client was ordinarily created by what, from the
client's point of view, was called adplicatio ad palronum, from
that of the patron, susccptio clientis — the client being either a
person who had come to Rome as an exile, who had passed
through the asylum, or who had belonged to a state which Rome
had overthrown. According to Dionysius and Plutarch, it was
one of the early cares of Romulus to regulate the relationship,
which, by their account of it, was esteemed a very intimate
one, imposing upon the patron duties only less sacred than those
he owed to his children and his ward, more urgent than any he
could be called upon to perform towards his kinsmen, and whose
neglect entailed the penalty of death {Tcllumoni sacer eslo).
He was bound to provide his client with the necessaries of life;
and it was a common practice to make him a grant during
pleasure of a small plot of land to cultivate on his own account.
Further, he had to advise him in all his affairs; to represent him
in any transactions with third parties in which, as a non-citizen,
he could not act with effect; and, above all things, to stand by
him, or rather be his substitute, in any litigation in which he
might become involved. The client in return had not only
generally to render his patron the respect and obedience due by
a dependant, but, when he was in a position to do so and the
circumstances of the patron required it, to render him pecuniary
assistance. As time advanced and clients amassed wealth, we
find this duty insisted upon in a great variety of forms, as in
contributions towards the dowries of a patron's daughters,
towards the ransom of a patron or any of his family who had
been taken captive, towards the payment of penalties or fines
imposed upon a patron, even towards his maintenance when he
had become reduced to poverty. Neither might give evidence
against the other — a rule we find still in observance well on in
the ist century B.C., when C. Herennius declined to be a witness
against C. Marius on the ground that the family of the latter had
for generations been clients of the Hcrennii (Plut. Mar. 5). The
client was regarded as a minor member {gentilicius) of his patron's
gens; he was entitled to assist in its religious services, and bound
to contribute to the cost of them; he had to follow his patron to
battle on the order of the gens; he was subject to its jurisdiction
and discipline, and was entitled to burial in its common sepulchre.
And this was the condition, not only of the client who personally
had attached himself to a patron, but that also of his descen-
dants; the patronage and the chentage were alike hereditary.
The same relationship was held to exist between a freedman and
his former owner; for originally a slave did not on enfranchise-
ment become a citizen; it was a dc facto freedom merely that he
enjoyed; his old owner was always called his patron, while he and
his descendants were substantially in the position of clients,
and often so designated.
In the two hundred years that elapsed before the Servian
constitutional reforms, the numerical strength of the clients,
whether in that condition by adplicatio, enfranchisement or
descent, must have become considerable; and it was from time
to time augmented by the retainers of distinguished immigrants
admitted into the ranks of the patriciate. There seems also to
have been during this period a gradual growth of virtual indepen-
dence on the part of the clients, and it is probable that their
precarious tenure of the soil had in many cases come to be
practically regarded as ownership, when a patron had not
asserted his right for generations. The exact nature of thevprivi-
leges conferred on the clients by Servius Tullius is not known.
Probably this king guaranteed to the whole plebeian order,
including the clients, the legal right of private ownership of
Roman land. At the same time he imposed upon the whole
order the duty of serving in the army, which was now organized
on a basis of wealth. The client had previously been liable to
military service at the command of the gens. Now he was
called upon to take his part in it as a member of the state. As
a natural corollary to this, all the plebeians seem to have been
enrolled in the tribes, and after the institution of the plebeian
assembly {concilium plchis) the clients, who formed a large part
of the order, secured a political influence which steadily increased.
It is not certain how soon they acquired the right to litigate in
person on their own behalf, but their possession of this right
936
PATTEN— PATTESON
seems to be implied in the XII. Tables, and may have been
granted them at an earlier date. At any rate after 449 B.C.
there were no disabiUties in private law involved in their status.
The relation of patron and client, it is true, stiU remained; the
patron could stiU e.\act from his chent respect, obedience and
service, and he and his gens had stUl an eventual right of succes-
sion to a deceased client's estate. But the fiduciary duties of
the patron were greatly relaxed, and practically httle more
was expected of him than that he should continue to give his
chent his advice, and prevent him falling into a condition of indi-
gence; saccr esto ceased to be the penalty of protection denied
or withheld, its application being limited to fraus facia, which
in the language of the Tables meant positive injury inflicted or
damage done.
So matters remained during the 4th, 3rd and 2nd centuries.
In the 2nd and ist a variety of events contributed still further
to modify the relationship. The rapacity of patrons was
checked by the lex Cincia (passed by M. Cincius Alimentus,
tribune in 204 B.C.), which prohibited their taking gifts of money
from their clients; marriages between patron and client gradually
ceased to be regarded as unlawful, or as ineffectual to secure to
the issue the status of the patron father. At the same time the
remaining pohtical disabilities of the clients were removed by
their enrolment in all the tribes instead of only the four city
tribes, and their admission to the magistracy and the senate.
Hereditary clientage ceased when a client attained to a curule
dignity; and in the case of the descendants of freedmen enfran-
chised in solemn forms it came to be limited to the first genera-
tion. Gradually but steadily one feature after another of the
old institution disappeared, till by the end of the ist century it
had resolved itself into the limited relationship between patron
and freedman on the one hand, and the unlimited honorary
relationship between the patron who gave gratuitous advice on
questions of law and those who came to consult him on the other.
To have a large following of clients of this class was a matter of
ambition to every man of mark in the end of the republic; it
increased his importance, and ensured him a band of zealous
agents in his political schemes. But amid the rivalries of parties
and with the venality of the lower orders, baser methods had
to be resorted to in order to maintain a patron's influence; the
favour and support of his clients had to be purchased with some-
thing more substantial than mere advice. And so arose that
wretched and degrading clientage of the early empire, of which
Martial, who was not ashamed to confess himself a first-rate
specimen of the breed, has given us such graphic descriptions;
gatherings of idlers, sycophants and spendthrifts, at the levees
and pubhc appearances of those whom, in their fawning servility,
they addressed as lords and masters, but whom they abused
behind their backs as close-fisted upstarts — and all for the sake
of the sportida. the daily dole of a dinner, or of a few pence
wherewith to procure one. With the middle empire this disap-
peared; and when a reference to patron and client occurs in
later times it is in the sense of counsel and client, the words
patron and advocate being used almost synonymously. It was
not so in the days of the great forensic orators. The word
advocate, it is said, occurs only once in the singular in the pages
of Cicero. But at a later period, when the bar had become a
profession, and the qualifications, admission, numbers and fees
of counsel had become a matter of state regulation, advocali
was the word usually employed to designate the pleaders as
a class of professional men, each individual advocate, however,
being still spoken of as patron in reference to the litigant with
whose interest he was entrusted. It is in this limited connexion
that patron and client come under our notice in the latest
monuments of Roman law.
Literature. — On the clientage of early Rome see T. Mommsen,
" Die romische Clientcl," Rom. Forschungen, i. 355 (Berlin, 1864);
M. Voigt, " Ueber die Clientel und Libertinitat," in Ber. d. phil.
histor. Classe d. konigl. sacks. Gesellsch. d. Wissenschaften (1878,
pp. 147-219); J. Marquardt, Privatleben d. Romer, pp. 196-200
(Leipzig, 1879); M. Voigt, Die XII. Tafehi., ii. 667-679 (Leipzig,
1883). Earlier literature is noted in P. Willems, Le Droit public
romain, 4th ed., p. 26 (Louvain, 1880). On the clientage of the early
empire see W. A. Becker, Callus, vol. ii.. Excursus 4 (London,
1849); L. Friedlander, Sitlengeschichte Roms, i. 200-212 (Leipzig,
1901); Marquardt, op. cit. pp. 200-208. On the latest clientage,
see T. Grellet-Dumazeau, Le Barreau romain (Paris, 1858).
G.M.*;A. M.Cl.)
PATTEN (adapted from Fr. palin, in modern usage meaning
a " skate "; Med. Lat. patinns, Ital. pattino, of unknown origin;
cf. patte, paw), a kind of shoe which, varying in form at different
times and places, raised the wearer from the ground in order
to keep the feet out of mud or wet. Pattens were necessaries
to women of aU classes in the uncleaned and unpaved streets of
the i6th, 17th and i8th centuries. They may still be found in
use in rural parts of England. A wooden shoe or clog, a hght
strapped shoe with a very thick sole of wood or cork, and, more
particularly, an iron ring supporting at a httle distance from the
ground a wooden sole with a strap through which the foot slips,
have all been types which the patten has taken. An extraor-
dinary kind of " patten " was fashionable in Italy and Spain in
the 1 6th or 17th centuries. This was the chopine,^ a loose slipper
resting on a very thick sole of cork or wood. During the 17th
century at Venice ladies wore " chopines " of exaggerated size.
Coryat, in his Crudities, 161 1 (vol. i. p. 400, ed. 1905), gives a
description of these Venetian " chapineys." They were of
wood covered with red, white and yellow leather, some gilt or
painted, and reached a height sometimes of half a yard. Ladies
wearing these exaggerated chopines had to be accompanied by
attendants to prevent them falling. There is a i6th century
Venetian " chopine " in the British Museum. The " Patten-
makers " Company is one of the minor Livery companies of
London. The patten-makers were originally joined with the
" Pouch and Galoche INIakers," and are mentioned as early as
1400. They became a separate fraternity in 1469, but did not
obtain a charter till 1670.
PATTER, properly a slang word for the secret or " cant "
language used by beggars, thieves, gipsies, &c., hence the fluent
plausible talk that a cheap-jack employs to pass off his goods,
or a conjuror to cover up his tricks. It is thus used of any rapid
manner of talking, and of a " patter-song," in which a very large
number of words have to be sung at high speed to fit them to the
music. The word, though in some of its senses affected by
" patter," to make a series of rapid strokes or pats, as of rain-
drops, is derived from the quick, mechanical repetition of the
Paternoster, or Lord's Prayer.
PATTERN, a model, that which serves as an original from
which similar objects may be made, or as an example or specimen;
in particular an artistic design serving as a sample or model,
hence the arrangement or grouping of Knes, figures, &c., which
make up such a design. The word was taken from Fr. patron,
Lat. patroniis, a defender or protector. In medieval Latin
palroniis had the specific meaning of example, and in modern
French both meanings of patron and pattern attach to patron.
" Patron " in the sense of copy, example, began to be pro-
nounced and speUed in England as " pattern " in the i6th
century.
PATTESON, JOHN COLERIDGE (1827-1871), Enghsh mis-
sionary, bishop of Melanesia, was born in London on the ist
of April 1827, the eldest son of Sir John Patteson, justice of the
King's Bench, and Frances Duke Coleridge, a near relative of
Samuel Taylor Coleridge. He was educated at Ottery St Mary
and at Eton, where he distinguished himself on the cricket-field.
He entered Balliol College, Oxford, in 1S45, graduated B.A. in
1848, and in 1852 became a fellow of Merton College. In 1853
he became curate of Alfington, Devon, and in the foOowing year
he was ordained priest. He then joined George Augustus
Selwyn, bishop of New Zealand, in a mission to the IMelanesian
islands. There he laboured with great success, visiting the
different islands of the group in the mission ship the " Southern
Cross," and by his good sense and devotion winning the esteem
and affection of the natives. His hnguistic powers were
' The word is taken from an obsolete French chapine or Spanish
chapin, and is of doubtful origin. The Spanish f/ia/)a,flat plate,_has
been suggested. The word does not occur in Italian, though it is
often Italianized in English in such forms as cioppino.
PATTI, ADELINA— PATTON
937
exceptional, and he spoke 23 languages with ease. In
1 86 1 he was consecrated bishop of Melanesia, and fixed his
headquarters at Mota. He was killed by natives at Nukapu,
in the Santa Cruz group, on the 20th of September 1871, the
victim of a tragic error. The traders engaged in the nefarious
traffic in Kanaka labour for Fiji and Queensland had taken to
personating missionaries in order to facilitate their kidnapping;
Patteson was mistaken for one of these and killed. His murderers
evidently found out their mistake and repented of it, for the
bishop's body was found at sea floating in a canoe, covered with
a palm fibre matting, and a palm-branch in his hand. He is
thus represented in the bas-relief erected in Merton College to his
memory.
. See Life by Charlotte M. Yonge (1873).
PATTI, ADELINA JUANA MARIA [Baroness Cederstrom]
(1843- ), the famous vocalist, daughter of an Italian singer,
Salvatore Patti, was born at Madrid on the 19th of February
1843. Her mother, also a singer, was Spanish, being known
before her marriage as Signora Barili. Both the parents of
Adelina went to America, where their daughter was taught
singing by Maurice Strakosch, who married Amelia Patti, an
elder sister. Gifted with a brilliant soprano voice, Adelina
Patti began her public career at the age of seven in the concert
haUs of New York, where in 1859 she also made her first appear-
ance as Lucia in Donizetti's opera, Lucia di Lammermoor. On
the 14th of May 1861 she sang as Amina in Bellini's opera La
Sonnambida at Covent Garden, and from this time she became
the leading operatic prima donna, her appearances in London,
Paris and the other principal musical centres being a long
succession of triumphs, and her roles covering all the great parts
in Italian opera. In 1868 she married Henri, marquis de Caux,
a member of Napoleon Ill.'s household, from whom she was
divorced in 1885; she then married Nicolini, the tenor, who died
in 1898; and in 1899 she became the wife of Baron Cederstrom,
a Swede, who was naturalized as an Englishman. Madame
Patti ceased to appear on the operatic stage in public after the
'eighties, but at Craig-y-Nos, her castle in Wales, she built a
private theatre, and her occasional appearances at concerts at
the Albert Hall continued to attract enthusiastic audiences,
her singing of "Home, Sweet Home" becoming peculiarly
associated with those events. Partly owing to her fine original
training, partly to her splendid method and partly to her
avoidance of Wagnerian roles, Madame Patti wonderfully
preserved the freshness of her voice, and she will be remembered
as, after Jenny Lind, the greatest soprano of the 19th century.
PATTI, a town and episcopal see of Sicily, in the province of
Messina, 42 m. W. by S. of Messina by rail. Pop. (1901), 5473
(town), 10,995 (commune). The cathedral, founded about
1300, has been modernized; it contains the tomb (restored in the
17th century) of Adelasia, widow of Count Roger of Sicily. The
abandoned church of San Marco is built into the remains of a
Greek temple.
PATTISON, MARK (1813-1884), English author and rector of
Lincoln College, O.xford, was born on the loth of October 1813.
He was the son of the rector of Hauxwell, Yorkshire, and was
privately educated by his father. In 1832 he matriculated at
Oriel College, where he took his B.A. degree in 1836 with second-
class honours. After other attempts to obtain a fellowship,
he was elected in 1839 to a Yorkshire fellowship at Lincoln, an
anti-Puseyite College. Pattison was at this time a Puseyite,
and greatly under the influence of J. H. Newman, for whom he
worked, helping in the translation of Thomas Aquinas's Catena
Aurea, and writing in the British Critic and Christian Remem-
brancer. He was ordained priest in 1843, and in the same year
became tutor of Lincoln College, where he rapidly made a reputa-
tion as a clear and stimulating teacher and as a sympathetic
friend of youth. The management of the college was practically
in his hands, and his reputation as a scholar became high in the
university. In 1851 the rectorship of Lincoln became vacant,
and it seemed certain that Pattison would be elected, but he lost
it by a disagreeable intrigue. The disappointment was acute
and his health suffered. In 1855 he resigned the tutorship,
travelled in Germany to investigate Continental systems of
education, and began his researches into the lives of Casaubon
and Scaliger, which occupied the remainder of his life. In 1861
he was elected rector of Lincoln, marrying in the same year
Emilia Francis Strong (afterwards Lady Dilke). The rector
contributed largely to various reviews on Uterary subjects, and
took a considerable interest in social science, even presiding over
a section at a congress in 1876. The routine of university
business he avoided with contempt, and refused the vice-chan-
cellorship. But while living the life of a student, he was fond
of society, and especially of the society of women. He died at
Harrogate on the 30th of July 18S4. His biography of Isaac
Casaubon appeared in 1875; Milton, in Macmillan's English
Men of Letters scries in 1879. The i8th century, alike in its
literature and its theology, was a favourite study, as is illustrated
by his contribution {Tendencies of Religious Thought in England,
1 688- 1 7 50) to the once famous Essays and Reviews (i860), and by
his edition of Pope's Essay on Man (1869), &c. His Sermons and
Collected Essays, edited by Henry Nettleship, were published
posthumously (1889), as well as the Memoirs (1885), an auto-
biography deeply tinged with melancholy and bitterness. His
projected Life of Scaliger was never finished. Mark Pattison
possessed an extraordinary distinction of mind. He was a true
scholar, who hved entirely in the things of the intellect. He
writes of himself, excusing the composition of his memoirs, that
he has known little or nothing of contemporary celebrities, and
that his memory is inaccurate: " All my energy was directed
upon one end — to improve myself, to form my own mind, to
sound things thoroughly, to free myself from the bondage of
unreason. . . If there is anything of interest in my story, it is as
a story of mental development " (Memoirs, pp. i, 2). The
Memoirs is a rather morbid book, and Mark Pattison is merciless
to himself throughout. It is evident that he carried rationalism
in religion to an extent that seems hardly consistent with his
position as a priest of the English Church.
Mark Pattison's tenth and youngest sister was Dorothy
Wyndlow Pattison (1832-1878), better known as Sister Dora,
the name she took in 1864 on becoming a member of the Anglican
sisterhood of the Good Samaritan at Coatham, Yorkshire. In
1865 she was sent as nurse to their cottage hospital in Walsall,
and from 1867 to 1877 she was in charge of a new hospital there.
She left the sisterhood in 1874, and their hospital in 1877, to
take charge of the municipal epidemic hospital, where the cases
were largely small-pox. She had meanwhile qualified herself
thoroughly as a nurse and had acquired no mean skill as a sur-
geon. Her efforts greatly endeared her to those among whom
she worked, and after her death a memorial window was erected
in the parish church, and a marble portrait statue by F. J.
Williamson in the principal square of Walsall.
See Margaret Lonsdale's Sister Dora (1887 ed.).
PATTON, FRANCIS LANDEY (1843- ), American educa-
tionahst and theologian, was born in Warwick parish, Bermuda,
on the 22nd of January 1843. He studied at Knox College
and at the university of Toronto; graduated at Princeton
Theological Seminary in 1865; was ordained to the Presbyterian
ministry in June 1865; was pastor of the S4th Street Presby-
terian Church, New York City, in 1865-1867, of the Presby-
terian Church of Nyack, New York, in 1867-1870, of the South
Church, Brooklyn, in i87i,andof the Jefferson Park Presbyterian
Church, Chicago, in 1874-1881; and in 1872-1881 was professor
in McCormick Seminary, Chicago. He was moderator of the
General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in 1878. In 1881-
1888 he was Stuart professor " of the relation of philosophy
and science to the Christian religion " (a chair founded for him)
in Princeton Theological Seminary; in 1888-1902 he was
president of the College of New Jersey, which in 1896 became
Princeton University; in 1902 he became president of Princeton
Theological Seminary. He brought charges of heresy in 1874
against David Swing, and was prosecuting attorney at Swing's
trial. In 1891 and 1892 he was one of the opponents of
Dr Charles A. Briggs at the time of the Briggs heresy case.
Dr Patton was an opponent of the revision of the Confession
XX. 30 a
938
PAU— PAUL, THE APOSTLE
of Faith. He was editor, with Dr Briggs, of the Presbyterian
Review, in 1880-1888. He wrote The Iitspiration of the Scrip-
tures (1869), and Summary of Christian Doctrine (1874).
PAU, a city of south-western France, chief town of the
department of Basses-Pyrenees, 66 m. E.S.E. of Bayonne on
the southern railway to Toulouse. Pop. (1906), 30,315. It is
situated on the border of a plateau 130 ft. above the right bank
of the Gave de Pau (a left-hand affluent of the Adour), at a height
of about 620 ft. above the sea. A small stream, the Hedas,
flowing in a deep ravine and crossed by several bridges, divides
the city into two parts. The modern importance of Pau is due
to its climate, which makes it a great w'nter health-resort. The
most striking characteristic is the stillness of the air, resulting
from the pecuharly sheltered situation. The average rainfall
is about a in., and the mean winter temperature is 43°, the mean
for the year being 56°.
The town is built on a sandy soU, with the streets running east
and west. The Place Royale (in the centre of which stands
Nicolas Bernard Raggi's statue of Henry IV., with bas-reUefs
by Antoine Etex) is admired for the view over the valley of the
Gave and the Pyrenees; it is connected by the magnificent
Boulevard des Pyrenees with the castle gardens. Beyond the
castle a park of thirty acres planted with beech trees stretches
along the high bank of the Gave. Access to the castle is obtained
by a stone bridge built under Louis XV.; this leads to the
entrance, which gives into a courtyard. On the left of the
entrance is the donjon or tour de Gaston Phoebus. On the right
are the tour netive, a modern erection, and the Tour de Montauzet
(Monte-Oiseau), the higher storeys of which were reached by
ladders; the Tour de Bilheres faces north-west, the Tours de
Mazeres south-west. Another tower between the castle and
the Gave, the Tour de la Monnaie, is in ruins.
In the gardens to the west of the castle stand a statue of Gaston
Phoebus, count of Foix, and two porphyry vases presented by
Bernadotte king of Sweden, who was born at Pau. On the
ground-floor is the old hall of the estates of Beam, 85 ft. long and
36 ft. wide, adorned with a white marble statue of Henry IV.,
and magnificent Flemish tapestries ordered by Francis I.
Several of the upper chambers are adorned with Flemish,
Brussels or GobeUns tapestry, but the most interesting room is
that in which Henry IV. is said to have been born, containing
his cradle made of a tortoise-shell, and a magnificent carved bed
of the time of Louis XII. The churches of St Jacques and St
Martin in the Gothic style are both modern. The lycee occupies
a portion of the buildings of a Jesuit college founded in 1622.
The prefecture, the law-court and the hotel de ville present no
remarkable features. Pau is the seat of a court of appeal and a
court of assizes and has a tribunal of first instance, a tribunal of
commerce and a chamber of arts and manufactures. There
are training colleges for both sexes, a library, an art museum
and several learned societies. Pau owes most of its prosperity
to its visitors. The golf club, estabhshed 1856, has a course
of 18 holes, on the Plaine de Billere, about a mile from the
town. Among the industrial establishments are flour-mills,
cloth factories and tanneries, and there is trade in wine, hams,
horses and cloth.
Pau derives its name from the word pal, in allusion to the
stakes which were set up on the site chosen for the town. It was
founded probably at the beginning of the nth century by the
viscounts of Beam. By the erection of the present castle in the
latter half of the 14th century, Gaston PhcEbus made the town
a place of importance and after his death the viscounts of Beam
visited it frequently. Gaston IV. granted a charter to the town
in 1464. Franfois Phoebus, grandson and successor of Gaston,
became king of Navarre in 1479, and it was not until 151 2 that
the loss of Spanish Navarre caused the rulers of Beam to transfer
their residence from Pampeluna to Pau, which till 1589 was their
seat of government. Margaret of Valois, who married Henri
d'Albret, made her court one of the most brilliant of the time.
In 1553 her daughter Jeanne d'Albret gave birth to Henry IV.
at Pau. It was the residence of Catherine, sister of Henry IV.,
who governed Beam in the name of her brother. In 1620
when French Navarre and Beam were reduced to the rank of
province, the intendants took up their quarters there. In the
19th century Abd-el-Kader, during part of his captivity, resided
in the castle.
PAUL; ■' the Apostle of the Gentiles," the first great Christian
missionary and theologian. He holds a place in the history
of Christianity second only to that of the Founder himself. It
was no accident that one who has been styled " the second founder
of Christianity " was born and bred a Pharisee. Rather it was
through personal proof of the limitations of legal Judaism that
he came to distinguish so clearly between it and the Gospel of
Christ, and thereby to present Christianity as the universal
religion for man as man, not merely a sect of Judaism with
proselytes of its own. For this, and nothing less, was the issue
involved in the problem of the relation of Christianity to the
Jewish Law; and it was Paul who settled it once and for all.
A modern Jew has said, " Jesus seems to expand and spiritu-
alize Judaism; Paul in some senses turns it upside down."
The reason of this contrast is their respective attitudes to the
Law as the heart of Judaism. Jesus seems never to have
breathed the atmosphere of Rabbinic religion.' Hence his was a
purely positive reinterprstation of the spirit of Old Testament
religion as a whole. His attitude to the Law was one of habitual
dutifulness to its ordinances, combined with sovereign freedom
towards its letter when the interests of its spirit so required
(cf. F. J. A. Hort, Judaistic Christianity, chap. ii.). To this the
primitive apostles and their converts in the main adhered,
without seeing far into their Master's principle in the matter;
nor did they feel any great straitening of the spirit by the letter
of the Mosaic, rather than the Rabbinic Law. But with Paul
it was otherwise. As Saul the Pharisee he had taken the Mosaic
Thorah as divine Law in the strictest sense, demanding perfect
inner and outer obedience; and he had relied on it utterly for the
righteousness it was held able to confer. Hence when it gave
way beneath him as means of salvation — nay, plunged him ever
more deeply into the Slough of Despond by bringing home his
inability to be righteous by doing righteousness — he was driven
to a revolutionary attitude to the Law as method of justification.
" Through (the) Law " he " died unto (the) Law," that he
" might Uve unto God " (Gal. ii. 19). By this experience not
only Pharisaic Judaism, but the legal principle in rehgion alto-
gether, was turned " upside down " within his own soul; and
of this fact his teaching and career as an apostle were the
outcome.
But Paul had in him other elements besides the Jewish, though
these lay latent till after his conversion. As a native and citizen
of Tarsus, he had points of contact with Greek culture and senti-
ment which help to explain the sympathy and tact with which he
adapted his message to the Greek. As a Roman citizen likewise,
conscious of membership in a world-wide system of law and
order which overrode local and racial diflierences, he could reahze
the idea of a universal religious franchise, with a law and order
of its own. Both these factors in his training contributed to the
moulding of Paul the missionary statesman. In his mind the
conception of the Church as something catholic as the Roman
Empire first took shape; and through his wonderful labours
the foundations of its actual realization were firmly laid. In
giving some account of this man and of his teaching, we shall
expound the latter mainly as it emerges in the course of his
personal career.
Method. — Paul's own letters are our critical basis, as F. C. Baur
and the Tubingen school made clear once for all. The book of Acts
and other sources of information are to be used only so far as they
' This, since the full success of the Maccabaean reaction more than
a century before, was determined by the Pharisaic notion of the Law,
as a rigorous and technical method of attaining " righteousness "
before God by correctness of religious conduct. But this ideal
represented only one stream of the religion of the original Chasidim,
or " pious ones " of the Psalms (see Assideans). The simpler form
in which their piety lived on in less official circles, was that amidst
which John the Baptist and Jesus himself were reared. It breathes
in the more popular literature of edification represented by the
Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, as well as in Luke i., ii.
PAUL, THE APOSTLE
939
are compatible with the letters,' as our only strictly contemporary
documents. If our results to-day are far more positive than those
of the Tubingen critics, this is due partly to the larger number of
letters now generally acknowledged as Paul's (some eight or ten),
and partly to a fuller knowledge both of Judaism and the Graeco-
Roman world. These are seen to have embraced more varieties
of religious thought and feeling than used to be assumed. The
" particularist " tendency in Judaism was more limited than Baur
supposed; while there was even a pre-Christian gnosticism, both
Jewish and non-Jewish. Albrecht Ritschl in his Allkath. Kirche
(2nd ed., 1857) did much to break through the_ hard-and-fast cate-
gories of the school in which he was trained, and in particular showed
that Gentile Christians generally were far from Pauline in their
modes of conceiving either Law or Gospel.
Chronology. — This has been discussed by Sir W. M. Ramsay
in Pauline and Other Studies (1907), and by C. H. Turner in Hastings's
Diet, oj the Bible (article " Chronology of New Test."). Their results
agree in the main for the period when precision first becomes possible,
viz. between Paul's first missionary journey and his arrival in Rome.
Here Turner antedates Ramsay by a year throughout. C. Clernen,
in his Paulus i. 349-410, reaches rather different results. The pivot
of the whole is Festus's succession to Felix as procurator, which
Turner places in 58 and Ramsay in 59, while they agree in excluding
56 (Blassand Harnack), 57 (Bacon), 60 (Lightfoot, Zahn), as well as
yet earlier and later extremes (Clemen argues for 61). On the
chronology from Paul's conversion down to the Relief visit (Acts
xi. 30), c. 45-47, hardly two scholars agree; but on the whole the
tendency is to put his conversion rather earlier than was formerly
usual.
r I. Paul's Life. — "Saul, who is also Paul," was "a Hebrew,
of Hebrews " born, i.e. of strict Jewish origin, and of the
tribe of Benjamin (Phil. iii. 5; cf. 2 Cor. xi. 22). Yet, as his
double name suggests, he was not reared on Jewish soil but
amid the Dispersion, at Tarsus in Cilicia, the son of a Roman
citizen (Acts xxii. 28; cf. xvi. 37, xxiii. 27). " Saul," his Jewish
name, was a natural one for a Benjamite to bear, in memory
of Israel's first king. " PatU " was his name for the non-Jewish
world, according to a usage seen also in John Mark, Simeon
Niger, &c. Paulus was not an uncommon name in Syria and
eastern Asia Minor (see the Index nominum in Boeckh's Corp.
inscr. graec), and was a natural one for the son of a Roman
citizen. Ramsey develops this point suggestively (Pauline
and Other Studies, p. 65). "It is as certain that he had a Roman
name and spoke the Latin language as it is that he was a Roman
citizen. If, for example's sake, we could think of him some-
times as Gains Julius Paulus — to give him a possible and even
not improbable name — how completely would our view of him
be transformed. Much of what has been written about him
[as a narrow, one-sided Jew] would never have been written
if Luke had mentioned his full name." Nor would
much of the same sort have been written, if the
influences due to his Tarsian citizenship- (xxi. 39), viewed in
the Ught of the habits of Jewish hfe in Asian cities, had been
kept in mind. Tarsus, it seems, was peculiarly successful " in
producing an amalgamated society in which the Oriental and
Occidental spirit in unison attained in some degree to a higher
plane of thought and action " (id.. The Cities of St. Paul, 89).
Accordingly it is natural that Paul's letters should bear traces
of Hellenic culture up to the level of a man of liberal education.
Whether he went beyond this to a first-hand study of philosophy,
particularly of the Stoic type for which Tarsus as a university
was famous, is open to question.^ In any case Paul had learnt,
when he wrote his epistles, to value Greek " wisdom " at its
true worth — the suggestiveness and sanity of its best thoughts,
' The method which reverses this relation, using the " we "
passages of Acts to discredit the epistles of Paul (as well as the rest
of Acts), is a mere tour de force, which has received artificial vogue
by incorporation in the Encyclopaedia Biblica, and to a less degree
in the- external and partial article " Saul of Tarsus " in the Jewish
Encyclopaedia. The essential harmony of the epistles and Acts
has been shown afresh by A. Harnack, Die A postelgeschichte (1908).
^ Probably as member of the Jewish " tribe " dating from the
Seleucid colony planted there in 171 B.C. (Ramsay).
' The main difficulty in deciding on this, as on other points of
contact between Paul and Hellenism, is the fact that he certainly
got many of his Greek ideas through the medium of Judaeo-Greek
or Hellenistic literature, like the Wisdom of Solomon (cf. I^omans i.
i8-ii. fin.). It is clear from the way in which he uses the Greek
Bible, even where it diverges wrongly from the original, that he was
reared on it rather than on the Hebrew text.
la Tarsus.
but at the same time its inadequacy to meet the deeper longings
of the human spirit. Above ail he felt the mental and moral
shallowness of the verbal " show of wisdom " which marked
current philosophical rhetoric.
Thanks to his letters, we can form some idea of the character
and strength of the element in Paul's early life due to Judaism.
Looking back, he says (Phil. iii. 4-7), " If any other
man thinketh to have confidence in the flesh, I yet
Jewish
Tralalog.
more. Circumcised the eighth day, ... a Hebrew
of Hebrews; as touching the Law, a Pharisee; as touching
the righteousness which is in the Law, found blameless. Howbeit
what things were gain to me, these have I counted loss for
Christ." He came indeed to regard such inherited advantages
as in themselves things of " the flesh," natural rather than
spiritual {vv. 4, 9). Yet as advantages, tending to awaken the
spirit's thirst for God, he did esteem them, seeing in them part
of the preparation vouchsafed by divine providence to himself
(Gal. I. 15). Upon the " advantage of the Jew," as " entrusted
with the oracles of God " (Rom. iii. 1 seq.), he dwells in Rom.ii. 17
in a way suggestive of his own youthful attitude to " the name
of a Jew." Thus we may imagine the eager boy in Tarsus,
as developing, under the instructions of a father strictly loyal
to the Law, and under the teaching of the synagogue, a typical
Jewish consciousness of the more serious and sensitive order.
A good deal depends on the age at which the young Saul
passed from Tarsus to Jerusalem and the school of Gamaliel.
If he felt his vocation as teacher of the Law at
the earliest possible age, this great change may have jgrusalem.
come soon after his fifteenth year, when Rabbinic
studies might begin. This would well accord with the likelihood
that he never married. But in any case we must not exaggerate
the contrast involved, since he came from a Pharisaic home and
passed to sit at the feet cf the leader of the more liberal Palestinian
Rabbinism. The transition would simply accentuate the legal
element in his religious life and outlook. Nor was it mere
personal acceptance with God that floated before his soul as
the prize of such earnestness. The end of ends was a righteous
nation, worthy the fulfilment of the divine promises. But
this too could come only by obedience to the Law. Thus all
that the young Pharisee cared for most hung upon the Law
of his fathers.
Outwardly he obtained the goal of legal blamelessness as
few attained it; and for a time he may have felt a measure of
self-satisfaction. But if so, a day came when the inner meaning
of the Law, as extending to the sphere of desire and motive,
came home to him in stern power, and his peace fled (Rom. vii.
9). For sin in his inner, real life was unsubdued; nay, it
seemed to grow ever stronger, standing out more clearly
and defiantly as insight into the moral life grew by means of
the Law. To the Law he had been taught to look for righteous-
ness. In his experience it proved but the means to " knowledge
of sin," without a corresponding imptdse towards obedience.
Not only did it make him reahze the latent possibihties of evil
desire (" the evil heart," Yelzer hara), it also made him aware
of a subtler evil, the reaction of self-wiU against the demands
of the Law. While one element was in abiding harmony with
the will of God, the other was in equal sympathy with " the
law of sin." Cotdd the Law achieve the separation, making
the moral person " die" to " the flesh " and so escape its sway?
No, answered Saul's experience: the Law rather adds power
to sin as self-wiU (i Cor. xv. 56; Rom. vii. 11, 13). Whence
then is deliverance to come ? It can only come with the
Messianic age and through Messiah. The Law would reign
inwardly as outwardly, being " written on the heart " as
promised in prophecy.
So may we conceive the position reached by Saul, though
not with full consciousness, Isefore he came into contact with
Christianity. But as yet he did not reahze that
"through the Law he had died to the Law" (Gal. '''^'^^^^^
ii. 19), much less the logical bearing of this fact upon to Jesus.
the nature and function of the Law. How then
would the message, " Jesus is the Messiah," strike such .^
940
PAUL, THE APOSTLE
man? It would seem a blasphemous caricature of things
most sacred. It is doubtful whether he had heard Jesus Him-
self (2 Cor. V. 16 has perhaps another meaning). He may-
even have been absent from Jerusalem in the first days of
apostolic preaching, possibly as a rabbi in Tarsus. But if so,
his ardent nature soon brought him on the scene, in time at
least to hear Stephen and take part against him (Acts vii. 58, 60).
If the simple message of the first witnesses, that one whose life
and preaching were largely out of harmony with the Law as
Saul understood it, had in fact been raised from the dead
by Israel's God and so vindicated — to the condemnation of
that generation of God's people — if this seemed to Saul mere
madness, what was he to say to Stephen's views as to the Law
and the people of the Law, both past and present? (seeSxEPHEN).
Stephen could not be right in the views which still divided
them. Perish the thought! Perish too all those who upheld
the crucified Nazarene, the accursed of the Law ! For His
death could mean but one of two things. Either He was
accursed of God also, or — awful alternative, yet inevitable to
Saul's logical mind — the Law relative to which He was accursed
was itself set aside. Saul turned from the suggestion as too
shocking to his pride alike in his people and in its divine Law,
for him seriously to consider its alleged credentials — the Resur-
rection, and the supernatural power and goodness of Him whose
claims it was held to confirm. Why stay to weigh the evidence
of Galilean common folk (Am-ha-aretz), themselves la.x in their
observance of Thorah, when over against it stood the whole
weight of immemorial prescription, and the deliberate judgment
of the custodians of the Law as to this man as " a deceiver "?
No doubt they were self-deceived fanatics. But the logic of
the movement had at length declared itself through the mouth
of Stephen, and weak toleration must be abandoned.
So Saul was driven to persecute, driven by his acute sense
of the radical issue involved, and perhaps hoping to find relief
from his own bitter experience in such zeal for the
Persecutor Law. Yet the goading of unsatisfied intuitions
did not cease. We may even suspect that Stephen's
philosophy of Israel's history had made an impression on him,
and was undermining his confidence in the infallibility of his
nation's religious authorities. If mistaken before, why not
again ? This granted possible, all turned on the evidence as
to the Resurrection of the crucified Prophet of Nazareth. Yet
though the joyous mien of His followers, even when confronted
with death, seemed to betoken a good conscience before God
which could hardly fail to impress him, Saul felt the status of
the Law to be too grave an issue to depend on the probabilities
of human testimony. So he plunged on, in devotion to what
still seemed the cause of God against impugners of His Thorah,
but not without his own doubts. He was, in fact, finding it
" hard to kick against the goad " (Acts x,xvi. 14) plied in his
deeper consciousness, as he followed his inherited and less
personal beliefs. He was, in language which he later applied
to his compatriots, loth to " submit himself to the righteousness
of God " (Rom. x. 3), when it came in a manner humbling to
his feelings. Still he was in the main honest (i Tim. i. 13),
and the hindrances to his belief were exceptional. Direct
personal experience on the point on which all hinged, the alleged
divine vindication of Jesus as Messiah following on the legal
condemnation by the national authorities, was needful to open
up a clear exit from his religious impasse.
It was at this critical point in his inner history that, as he
neared Damascus on a mission of persecution, there was granted
The Vision him — as he believed ever after in the face of all
atDamas- challenge — a vision of Jesus, in risen and glorified
'^"*' humanity, as objective as those to the original
witnesses with which in i Cor. xv. he classes it.
As to the sense in which this vision, so momentous in its
issues, may be regarded as " objective," the following points deserve
notice. On the one hand it is generally agreed (i) that Paul dis-
tinguished this appearance of the risen Jesus from his other " visions
and revelations of the Lord," such as he refers to in 2 Cor. xii. i sqq.,
and classed it with those to the Twelve and others which first created
the belief that Jesus had been " raised from the dead "; (2) that
this belief included for Paul a transformed or spiritualized body (cf.
the note of time, " on the third day," and the argument in i Cor.
XV. 12 sqq., 35 sqq.), his own vision of which seems to colour his con-
ception of the Resurrection body generally (Phil. iii. 21, though he had
certain traditional notions on the subject to start with ; cf. 2 Cor.
V. I sqq. with Apoc. Baruch, xlix.-li., representing Jewish belief about
A.D. 70-100, and see Or R. H. Charles's ed.). On the other hand,
analogies furnished by religious psychology, including a sudden
vision amid light and the hearing of a voice as accompaniments
of religious crisis in certain cases, affect our ability to take Saul's
consciousness in the matter as a simple transcript of objective
facts. There is indeed reason to believe that the dazzling light was
such a fact, if it blinded Saul temporarily (Acts ix. 8-19; and affected
his companions (x.xii. 9, xxvi. 14). But beyond this physical
prelude to his vision we cannot go critically. Thus the nature of
the conne-xion between the light as an objective antecedent, and
the vision subjective to Saul himself, remains doubtful on the plane
of history. It is possible to penetrate further only by the aid of
faith, with or without speculations based on certain psychical facts
more and more establishing themselves to scientific minds. Religious
faith, dwelling on the unique issues of the vision in the history of
Christianity and arguing from effects to a cause as real as themselves,
tends to postulate the objectivity which Saul himself asserts. Some
do so in an absolute sense, in spite of the differences between Saul's
experience and that of his companions (Acts ix. 7, xxii. 9). Others
confine the objectivity to a divine act, producing by special action
on Saul's brain a vision not due simply to the antecedents in himself.
Thus it was not merely subjective, a mere vision in the sense of
hallucination, but an objective vision or genuine revelation of the
real, as Paul claimed. Such an objective-subjective revelation,
being in this but a special form of what is involved in any real divine
revelation, accords in general with modern research as to telepathy
and phantasms of distant or deceased persons. But, after all, the
main point for Paul's religious history — as well as the basis of all
theories of the vision — is the question as to the degree of discontinuity
between his thought before and after the event. On this Paul is
clear and emphatic; nor can we here go behind the evidence of one
whose writings prove him a master in introspective reflection.
" There was no possibility that he should by any process of mere
thinking come to realize the truth " as to Jesus, so rooted were the
prejudices touching things divine which barred the way (see Ramsay,
Pauline and Other Studies, p. 18).
Important as is the question as to the nature of the vision
which changed Saul's career, it is its spiritual content
which bears most upon the story of his life. Jesus
was,] in spite of all, God's Messiah, His Righteous r:* /" , "
One, His Son, the type and ideal of righteousness
in man, through spiritual union with whom like righteous-
ness was to be attained, if at all. In a flash Saul's personal
problem as to acceptance with God and victory over sin was
changed. It became simply a question how spiritual union
with the Messiah was to come about. He had vanquished
and " condemned sin in the flesh " by His perfect obedience
(Rom. viii. 3, v. 19), of which the Cross was now seen to be the
crowning act. As for the Law as means of justification, it
was superseded by the very fact that Messiah had realized His
righteousness on another principle altogether than that of
" works of the Law," and had in consequence been crucified
by its action, as one already dead to it as a dispcnsational
principle. This meant that those united to Him by faith were
themselves sharers in His death to the Law as dispcnsational
master and judge, and so were quit of its claims in that new
moral world into which they were raised as sharers also in His
Resurrection (Rom. vi. i-vii. 6). Henceforth they " lived unto
God " in and through Messiah, by the self-same Spirit by which
He had lived the sinless life (viii. 9).
Here we have at once Paul's mysticism and his distinc-
tive gospel in germ, though the full working out in various
directions came only gradually under the stimulus .
r • . ■d\ 1 J ^u ij - • "AIITblags
of circumstances. But already the old regime ^g^...
had dissolved. His first act was to make explicit,
through confession and baptism, his submission and adhesion
to Jesus as Messiah implicit in his cry from the ground, " What
shall I do. Lord ? " Thereby he formally " washed away his
sins " (Acts xxii. 16; cf. Rom. x. 9). Then with new-born
enthusiasm he began boldly to proclaim in the synagogues
of Damascus that Jesus, whose followers he had come to root
out, was verily the Messianic Son of God (ix. 2o;cf. Matt. xvi. 16).
Yet ere long he himself felt the need for quiet in which to think
PAUL, THE APOSTLE
94.1
out the theory of his new position. He withdrew to some
secluded spot in the region south of Damascus, then vaguely
called Arabia (Gal. i. 17). Chief among the problems pressing
for reinterpretation in the light of his recent experi-
The Sew ^^^^ ^^^ ^j^g place of the Law in God's counsels.
the Law. While the Law could condemn, warn and in some
degrees restrain the sinner from overt sins, it could
not redeem or save him from the love of sin. In a word, it
coul'd not " give hfe " (Gal. iii. 21). Hence its direct remedial
action was quite secondary. Its primary effect, and therefore
divine purpose, was to drive men humbly to seek God's grace.
It " shut up all unto (realized) disobedience, that God might
have mercy upon all " (Rom. xi. 32; Gal. iii. 22). Thus the
place of the Law in God's counsels was episodic. The radical
egoism of the natural man could be transcended, and self-
glorying excluded, not by the law, with its " law (principle)
of works," but by the "law of faith " (Rom. iii. 27). In fine,
the function of the Law was secondary, prefiaratory, temporary.
The reign of the Law closed when its work in shutting up men
to faith in Christ — the perfect form of faith, that of conscious
sonship — was accomplished. It had a high place of honour
as a dispensation for a limited end and time; but its day was
over when Jesus accepted crucifixion at its hands, and so passed
on as the inaugurator of a new dispensation marked by a final
relation between man and God, the filial, the Spirit of which
was already in the hearts of all Christian believers (Gal. iii.
23-iv. 7). Thus the Cross of Jesus was the satisfaction of the
claims of Law as a dispensation or divinely sanctioned method,
which had to be honoured even in the act of being transcended,
" that God might be just (i.e. dispensationally consistent),
while justifying the believer in Jesus " on a fresh basis (Rom.
iii. 26). Such a view did but " establish the Law " {v. 31)
wi'hin its own proper sphere, while pointing beyond it to one
in which its final aim found fulfilment.
Here lay the revolutionary element in Paul's thought in
relation to Judaism, turning the latter " upside down " and
marking his gospel off from the form in which Judaeo-
versa/V'a/ue. Christians had hitherto apprehended the salvation
in Jesus the Christ. It was the result of profound
insight, and, historically, it saved Christianity from being a
mere Jewish sect. But as it was conditioned by recoil from
an overdriven use of the Law in the circles in which Saul was
trained, so there was something one-sided in its emphasis on
the pathological workings of the Law upon human nature in
virtue of sinful egoism. Saul was the pioneer who secured
mankind for ever against bondage to religious legalism. He
it was who first detected that specific virus generated by Law
in the " natural man," and also discovered the sovereign
antidote provided in Christ. Nor is it as though Paul, even
in those apologetic writings which present his antitheses to
Law in the sharpest form, had the Jewish Thorah exclusively
in view. He deals with it rather as the classic .type of law in
religion: it is really law qua law, even the unwritten law in
conscience, as determining man's relations to God, that he has
in mind in his psychological criticism of its tendencies in the
human soul (see Sanday and Headlam, on Rom. ii. 12 seq.):
" Nitimur in vetitum cupimusque negata." This is too often
overlooked by his Jewish critics. Paul felt nothing but reverence
for the Thorah in what he took to be its proper place, as secondary
to faith and subordinate to Christ. In short, Paul first per-
ceived and set forth the principle of inspiration to God-likeness
by a personal ideal in place of obedience to an impersonal Law,
as condition of salvation. The former includes the latter,
while safeguarding the filial quality of religious obedience.
The above seems to meet part of the criticism directed by modern
Jews against Paul's thcor>' of the Law. Other criticisms (cf. C. G.
Montefiore, Jewish Quarterly Review, vi. 428-474, xiii. 161-217) may
just be noted. If Paul supports his theory by bad Scripture exegesis,
that is a common Rabbinic failing. If it be said that it is mon-
strous to hold that God gave the Law mainly for another end than
the ostensible one, viz. to lead to life by obedience, this holds so far;
but one cannot exclude from the divine purpose the negative effect,
viz. promotion of self-knowledge in sinful man and the breaking
down of his self-confidence, conditions essential to a mature
filial relation between man and (jod. Nor did Paul deny the positive
or directly beneficent, though limited, function of the Law, so far
as it was viewed in the light of the grace of (lod, as by prophets,
psalmists, and others who " walked humbly with God," not as
meriting His approval as of right by " works of law." But, objects
the modern Jew, the notion of Rabbinic Judaism as generally
tainted by " legalism " in any such sense, is a mere figment of Paul's.
Nevertheless it is unprovcn and improljalile that Paul unfairly
represents the prevailing tendency in the Pharisaic Judaism of his own
day as " legalistic " in the bad sense. He is really the one extant
witness upon the point, as just defined, if we except certain apoca-
lyptic writings (whose evidence modern Jews are anxious to
discount), like the Apocalypse of Baruch and 4 Ezra, the latter of
which suggests that already the humbling effect of the capture of
Jerusalem was being felt. Finally the same liberal Jew who com-
plains that Paul turns Judaism " upside down " by his doctrine
of the Law, cites with approval his worrls, " There is no distinction
between Jew and Greek." and adds, " Not till St Paul had written
did the prophetic universalism attain its goal." Surely there is a
vital connexion between these two things. " Universalism " was
the true issue of the higher tendency in Hebraism, as seen in
certain of Israel's prophets. But it was attained only through
Jesus of Nazareth; and historically the main link between His
supra-legal universalism and its actual outcome in the Christian
church was the ex-Pharisee Saul, with his anti-legal gospel,
Saul's conversion left Jesus the Christ as central to his new
world as the Law had been to his old. All; was summed up
in Christ, and Him crucified. This was to him the
essence of Christianity as distinct from Judaism, o/pau/*
As, to the Jew, life was lived under the Law or in it
as native element, so the Christian life was " in Christ " as
element and law of being. Christ simply replaced the Law as
form and medium of relations between God and man. In this
Paul went far beyond the older apostles, whose simpler attitude
to the Law had never suggested the problem of its dispensational
relation to Messiah, though in fact they relied on Messiah
alone for justification before God. The logic of this, as Paul
later urged it on Peter of Antioch (Gal. ii. 15 sqq.), they did not
yet perceive. To him it was clear from the first. But the
contrast goes farther. The very form in which Jesus was
known to Saul by direct experience, namely, as a spiritual being,
in a body already glorified in virtue of a regnant " spirit of
holiness " — revealed by the Resurrection as the essence of His
personality (Rom. i. 4) — determined all his thought about Him.
To this even Jesus' earthly life, real as it was, was subordinate.
Paul was not indifferent to Jesus' words and deeds, as helping
to bring home in detail the spirit of Him who by resurrection
was revealed as the Son of God; but apart from insight into
His redemptive work, knowledge of these things was of little
religious moment. The extent of Paul's knowledge of the
historical Jesus has been much debated. Few think that [he
had seen Jesus in the flesh; some even deny that he knew or cared
for more than the bare facts to which he alludes in his epistles —
the Davidic birth, the institution of the Supper, the Death and
Resurrection. But beyond his express appeals to precepts of
" the Lord " in i Cor. vii. 10, ix. 14 (cf. Rom. xii. 14), he " shows
a marked insight into the character of Jesus as it is described
in the Gospels " (see 2 Cor. x. i; cf. Phil. ii. 5-8). The sources
of such knowledge were no doubt oral, e.g. Peter (Gal. i. 18),
Barnabas, Mark, as well as collections of Jesus' words, along
with connected incidents in His life, used in catechcsis. Thus
Saul's attitude to Jesus was fixed by his own experience. The
varied theoretic expressions found in his writings
as to Christ's relations to God, to mankind, and "'* Theology
, . 1 ■ 1 ,1 . Rooted ia
even to the universe, were to him but corollaries Bxperleace.
of this. The most persistent element in his concep-
tion of Christ's person, viz. as a heavenly being, who, though
God's Son, voluntarily humbled Himself and suffered in fulfil-
ment of God's will, and had in consequence been exalted to
fresh glory, took its start from his own personal experience,
although it included the speculative postulate of pre-existence
in terms of some current Messianic form of thought. Paul's
theory expressed the deeper sense of the all-inclusive significance
of Christ, in keeping with his own experience. Hence, too,
all his distinctive thoughts on religion, sometimes called
942
PAUL, THE APOSTLE
" Paulinism " (see below), were both experimental in origin
and capable of statement in terms of his Christ. To him the
Death and Resurrection of Christ were not isolated facts, nor
yet abstractions. To this man of faith the crucial fact of
Christ's Resurrection, in full spiritual humanity, had been
brought within his own experience; so that here, and not in
any second-hand facts touching Christ's earthly career, lay
the real and verilied basis of the whole Christian life. This
makes his gospel so individual, and at the same time so universal
— for those at least who at aU share his religious experience.
It is unlikely that Saul began straightway to preach all his
ideas or even those most prominent in his epistles, which belong
only to some ten years at the end of a ministry
^'o^'/a'te. °^ some thirty. In particular his special mission
' to the Gentiles dawned on him only gradually.
No doubt as he looked back in writing Gal. i. 15 seq., he felt
that the final purpose of God in " reveahng His Son in him "
had been that he " might preach Him among the Gentiles."
But this does not prove that he saw it aU at once as involved
in " the heavenly vision." For one thing the contracted
horizon afforded by the hope of a speedy second Advent
(ParoHsia) would limit his outlook materially. Then too he
was intensely Jewish in feeling; and the probability is that
he would begin to declare salvation through Christ alone, apart
from " works of the Law," to his compatriots. Only bitter
experience convinced him (Rom. ix. i sqq., x. 1 sqq.) that the
Jews as a people did not share his experience as to the Law,
and spurned their proffered birthright in Messiah.
Saul began his preaching in the synagogues of Damascus,
and made a deep impression, especially, we may suppose, after
his return from Arabia (Acts ix. 22; Gal. i. 17). But finally
his Jewish opponents planned to do away with him, by the
connivance of the ethnarch of King Aretas (cf. 2 Cor. xi. 32 seq.).
Then came his first visit to Jerusalem since his conversion,
in the third year from that event, for the purpose of making
the personal acquaintance of Peter (Gal. i. 18), presumably
to hear first-hand about Jesus' earthly ministry and teach-
ing, as well as to make the leading apostle directly acquainted
with his own remarkable conversion and mission.' It was
natural that Barnabas should help to break through the suspicion
with which the arch-persecutor was at first regarded; also that
such preaching as Saul did in Jerusalem should be directed to
the Hellenists, e.g. his Cilician compatriots (ix. 29; cf. vi. 9).
This led to his having to leave suddenly, apparently after a
vision in the Temple which brought him fresh light as to the
scope of his future ministry. During the ten or eleven years
at least " in the regions of Syria and Cilicia " which ensued,
it was still primarily to the Jews that he preached; for the news
of him which reached " the churches of Judaea " from time to
time (,aKovovTi% fidav) was such that they " kept glorifying God "
in him (Gal. i. 21-23), as they certainly would not have done had
he all along addressed himself largely to Gentiles. His preach-
ing, that is, was for the most part confined to the synagogue
and its adherents of non-Jewish origin, whether circumcised
or not. Of Saul's actual history, however, during these obscure
years we gain only rare glimpses,^ the first and most important
being in connexion with the foundation at Antioch of a mixed
Church of Jews and Gentiles. Whatever may have been the
first beginnings of this new departure (a question which depends
on the alternative readings' "Hellenists" and "Greeks" in
' Here Galatians (i. 18 sqq.) emphasizes its own special points of
interest, in that Saul stayed only a fortnight and saw of the apostolic
leaders none save Peter and James the Lord's brother; whereas
Acts, in its popular account of the more public side of his visit,
conveys a rather different effect, yet one not incompatible with what
he himself relates.
2 It is likely that some at least of the five scourgings in synagogues
referred to in 2 Cor. xi.24, befell him during this period. Many Jews
would resent not only the preaching of a crucified Messiah, but also
the filching from them of their proselytes.
' The present writer now believes that " Hellenists," the better
supported reading (see Acts), is yet secondary, being due to assimila-
tion to preceding usage in vi. i, ix. 29, and possibly also to mis-
interpretation of the turning to the Gentiles in xiii. 46.
Acts xi. 20), a situation soon arose which Barnabas, who had
been sent from Jerusalem to supervise the work begun by certain
Hellenist preachers, felt to call for Saul's co-operation. He
sought him out in Tarsus; and " for a whole year " the two
enjoyed the hospitality of the Antiochene Church and instructed
numerous converts — including not a few uncircumcised Gentiles.
It is not clear how far Saul continued to reside in Antioch after
his first " whole year " of continuous work as colleague of
Barnabas. It no doubt remained his headquarters.
But we may imagine him evangelizing also in the . * , . ,
region between Antioch and Tarsus (Gal. i. 21; cf. Expands.
Acts XV. 23, 41). Whilst so engaged, whether at
Antioch or elsewhere, he seems to have attained quite a fresh
sense of the degree to which Gentiles were destined to form an
integral part of that " Israel of God " which was being gathered
through faith in Jesus as the Christ (cf. the name " Christians,"
Acts xi. 26). Writing about summer a.d. 56, he speaks of
having had an ovft'powering revelation some thirteen years
previously (2 Cor. xii. 2-4), that is, about 42-43, the very period
now in question. He says nothing, it is true, as to its theme;
but it can hardly have been unconnected with his central
preoccupation, the scope of the Church, as set forth later in
Eph. ii. II, iii. 13.
Saul's relations with the Jerusalem community between his coming
to Antioch and his final relinquishing of it as his headquarters about
A.D. 50 (a period of some ten years), form a crucial point in his mis-
sionary life. The extreme Tubingen theory that Saul was now, and
even later, in sharp conflict with the leaders in Judaea, is a thing of
the past. But many problems remain, and what follows is offered
only on its own merits, as seeming best to unify the relevant data
in the light of all we know of Paul as a man and a missionary. Points
of divergence from current views will be indicated as far as possible.
Such a new revelation would naturally lead to more definite
efforts to win Gentiles as such, and this again to his second
visit to Jerusalem, some eleven years after his
former visit (or rather more than thirteen, if the y/sw"©
interval in Gal. ii. i be reckoned from that visit Jerusalem.
and not from his conversion). He would come to
feel the need of a clear understanding with Jerusalem touching
his gospel, " lest perchance he should run in vain or have
already so run " (ii. 2). Saul was not the man to wait for a
foreseen evil to develop. " In accordance with a revelation "
he induced Barnabas to accompany him to a private conference
with the leaders in Jerusalem, to lay before them his gospel
(ii. 2). The date of this was c. 43-45. His aim was to confer
solely with leaders (contrast Acts xv. 4, 12) like James and
Cephas and John, the " pillars " of the Jerusalem community.
But certain persons who showed such a spirit as to make him
describe them as " pseudo-brethren," managed to be present
and demanded the circumcision of Titus, a Greek whom Saul
had taken with him. In this demand he saw a blow at the
heart of his gospel for Gentiles, and would not give way. The
" pillars " themselves, too, felt that his distinctive mission
was bound up with Gentile freedom from obligation to the
Mosaic Law as such. They recognized Saul and Barnabas
as entrusted with a specific Gentile mission, parallel with their
own to Jews. Only, as pledge that the two should not diverge
but remain sister branches of Messiah's Ecclesia, until He
should return and remove all anomahes, they asked that the
Gentile mission should prove the genuineness ^ of its piety by
making it a habit to " remember the poor." Here was a proviso
which Saul was as eager as they could be to get carried out;
and this he was able to prove ere long in the special form of
* How essential a mark of true piety such conduct was in the eyes
of Jews at this time is well known. A synonym for almsgiving
was " righteousness " (cf. Matt. vi. i seq.); it is specially praised,
in the Pirke Aboth, along with Thorah and divine worship, as the
"three things on which the world rests"; while in Baha Bathra
10 b. we read, " As sin-offering makes atonement for Israel, so
alms for the Gentiles." In the light of this, confirmed by Acts x.
2, 4, in the case of Cornelius, it seems that the reference in Gal. ii. 10
is to deeds of charity |;enerally, as a token of genuine piety in
Messianic proselytes, just as in ordinary Jewish ones; for the
primitive Judaeo-Christian community was most earnest on the
point: cf. Ac;ts ii. 44 seq., Iv. 32-37. ..,'|„'.;i.)'i" ,'1-,-
PAUL, THE APOSTLE
943
relief to the poor in Judaea, which he and Barnabas fitly adminis-
tered in person (Acts xi. 30, xii. 25). This reUef visit took place
about 45-46.' Having now reached an understanding with the
leaders in Jerusalem as to his mission to the Gentiles Saul felt
anxious to break fresh ground, and probably broached
Broadens. ^^^ subject to the local leaders. As they waited on
God for guidance, the Spirit through one of the
" prophets " directed that Barnabas and Saul be set apart for
such an enterprise; and this was done in solemn form (xiii. 1-3).
Naturally Barnabas thought of his native Cyprus; and thither
they sailed, about spring a.d. 47, with Mark (q.v.) as their
assistant. That they had at least one other companion is
probable not only from the phrase " Paul and his company "
(xiii. 13), but also from the traces of eyewitness in the narrative
of Acts (see Luke). Their work lay at first in synagogues.
But at Paphos an unparalleled event occurred, to which due
prominence is given. The Roman proconsul, Sergius Paulus,
a man whose wide rehgious interest showed itself in having
about his person a Jewish " prophet " with magical pretensions,
sent for the new preachers. Barjesus, the magus or wizard
(as his surname, Elymas, probably denotes), opposed the rivals
to his patron's attention; and this brought Saul decisively to
the front. His fitness for his part, as no mere Jew but in a
sense Roman facing Roman, is indicated by the pointed descrip-
tion, " Saul, who is also Paulus." His intervention procured
the confusion of the magus and the conversion of the proconsul.
This incident — so significant of the future in many ways —
marked the beginning of a new prominence of Paul in the conduct
of the mission (cf. " Paul and his company ")• Further, on
leaving Cyprus the mission entered the region where Paul, not
Barnabas, was most at home. At Perga in Pamphylia a fresh
decision was reached as to the route now to be taken, and this
led to Mark's withdrawing altogether (see Mark).
It does not seem that the personal factor weighed most with
Mark; rather it was the nature of "the work" itself (xv. 38).
Perhaps it had been tacitly assumed that the mission would not
cross the Taurus range to the different world beyond, but keep
to the coast-lands south of that great natural barrier, which were
in close relation with Antioch and Syria generally. Accordingly,
when Paul at last outlined the larger scheme, which had perhaps
lain in principle in his own mind all along, Mark recoiled from
its boldness. The natural thing indeed was to evangelize in Pam-
phylia, a country in close relations with Cilicia and Syria. Why then
did Paul insist on pushing inland straight for the Taurus range and
the high table-land some 3600 ft. above sea-level ? Not to evangelize
Pisidian Antioch, and the other cities in the south of Roman Galatia
lying to the east of it; for Paul himself says that his preaching there
was due to sickness (Gal. iv. 13), seemingly when on his way to other
fields. These would be in the first instance certain cities in the
south-east of the Roman province of " Asia," where Jews abounded
and had a large Gentile following. Had the great cities of western
Asia, and particularly Ephesus (cf. xvi. 6), been his primary aim,
he would have taken the easier and more direct route running west-
north-west through Laodicea. Sir W. M. Ramsay thinks that Paul
sought the Galatian highlands on purpose to get rid of malarial
fever, contracted in the lowlands of Pamphylia. But Mark would
hardly have left under these conditions. It seems better to suppose
that it was only on the arduous journey to Antioch, amid " perils
of rivers, perils of robbers," or even after his arrival there, that
the malaria (if such it was) so developed as to reduce Paul to the
pitiable state, as of one smitten by the wrath of some deity, in which
he preached to the Galatians in the first instance (Gal. iv. 13 seq.).
It was in the late summer or autumn of a.d. 46 or 47 that
Paul arrived in the Pisidian Antioch, a considerable Roman
«oi<h colony. Its population was typical of the Graeco-
^^^al ' Oriental part of the empire. It included the native
Anatolian, the Greek, and the Jewish elements,^ so
frequently found together in Asia Minor since the days of the
Seleucid kings of the Hellenistic period, who used Jews as
colonists attached to their cause. The Anatolian ground-stock
had marked afl&nity with the Semitic peoples, though it was
' Sir W. M. Ramsay would identify the visit of Gal. ii. l-io with
the relief visit itself (a view diiTering but little in effect from that
given above); but most scholars identify it with Acts xv., in spite
of Gal. i. 22 seq. compared with Acts xi. 30, xii. 25.
^ For these, their history and significance in connexion with each
of the cities studied, see Sir W. M. Ramsay, The Cities of St Paul
(1907).
Hellenized in speech and education. It is in this light that
we must view the enthusiasm with which Paul's gospel was
received (xiii. 44 sqq.; Gal. iv. 14 seq.), and which marked an
epoch in his ministry to the Gentiles. It was here and now
that he uttered the memorable exclamation: " It was necessary
that the word of God should first be spoken to you: seeing ye
thrust it from you, and judge yourselves unworthy of eternal
life, lo, we turn to the Gentiles " (xiii. 46). Yet even so he did
not here and now give up all hope that the Jews of the Dispersion
with their more liberal conception of Judaism, might be won
over to a spiritual rather than a national fulfilment of " the
promise made to the fathers " by " the voices of the prophets "
(xiii. 26-28, 32 seq., 38 seq.). Primarily this " turning to the
Gentiles " had for Paul only a local meaning, as he continued
to begin in each city with the synagogue.' But the emphasis
laid on the incident in Acts shows that to one looking back it
had a more far-reaching meaning, since henceforth Paul's work
was in fact to lie mainly among Gentiles.
Paul's experiences were much the same at Iconium, whither
he and Barnabas betook themselves when expelled from
Antiochene territory (probably after being scourged by the
lictors, 2 Cor. xi. 25). There, too, Jews were at the bottom of
the tumult raised against the missionaries (" apostles," xiv. 4,
14), which forced them to flee into the Lycaonian regio of the
province. In this district, marked by the native pre-Greek
village system, they made Lystra and Derbe successively their
headquarters. In the former occurred the healing of the lame
man at the word of Paul (cf. Rom. xv. g; 2 Cor. xii. 12; Gal.
iii. 5), with its sequel in the naive worship offered to the strangers
as gods manifest in human form. The story, told in a few
graphic touches, sets before us Paul as the tactful missionary,
meeting the needs of the simple Lycaonians with an elementary
natural theology. Again his work was disturbed by Jews,
this time his old foes from Antioch and Iconium, and he barely
escaped death — one of those " deaths oft " to which he refers
in 2 Cor. xi. 23, a passage which shows how far Acts is from
exhausting the tale of Paul's hardships and dangers, either in
Galatia or elsewhere (with xiv. i cf. 2 Tim. iii. 11). At Derbe,
the frontier city of Galatia to the south-east, Paul was within
easy reach of Tarsus, his old home. But the needs of his young
converts drew him back to face fresh dangers in Lystra, Iconium
and Antioch (where, however, new magistrates were now in
office), in order to encourage " the disciples." To give them the
support of responsible oversight, the apostles procured the
election of " elders " in each church, probably on the model
of the synagogue: for Paul had a due sense of the corporate
hfe of each local brotherhood (Rom. xii. 4 seq.), and of the value
of recognized leaders and pastors (i Thess. v. 12 seq.; i Cor. xvi.
IS seq.; cf. Acts xx. 17, 28). Then, passing through Pamphylia
they returned to Antioch, and reported to a church meeting
" all that God had done with them, and how he had opened a
door of faith unto the Gentiles."
So ended Paul's first missionary journey known to us in
detail, the very first wherein his vocation as apostle of the
Gentiles took marked effect. So far Gentile believers The New
had been a mere minority, not essentially affecting Issue
the Jewish character and atmosphere of the Messianic '^^'se*
Ecclesia, any more than the presence of proselytes was thought
to affect Judaism even outside Palestine. But all this was
menaced by the work accomplished, apparently under divine
auspices, in Galatia. There uncircumcised Gentiles formed
the majority of the heirs to Messianic salvation; and if expansion
continued on these lines, the like would be true of the new Israel
as a whole. Nay, a definite check to Jewish conversions would
result from the prejudice created by a large influx of men not
committed to the Law by their baptism into Christ. Now that
the logic of facts was unfolding so as to jeopardize the Law
' Naturally Paul would have a regular address which he used with
minor variations in beginning his mission in any local synagogue;
and this Luke has in substance preserved for us here. For its
authenticity, see Sir W. M. Ramsay, op. cit. 303 sqq.; compare
A. Sabatier, L'Apotre Paul (3rd ed., 1896), p. 89, for disproof of
dependence on Stephen's speech.
94+
PAUL, THE APOSTLE
in toto, it could not but appear to many Jewish Christians time
to reconsider the situation, and boldly deny the reality of any
Gentile's portion in Messianic salvation apart from circumcision
(as binding to observance of the Law). So argued the stricter
section, those with Pharisaic antecedents, who boldly invaded
the headquarters of the liberal mission at Antioch, and began
to teach the Gentile converts that circumcision and the Law
were matters of life and death to them. Paul and Barnabas
took up the gage; and as the judaizers no doubt claimed that
they had the Judaean Church at their back, the local church
felt that the issue would have to be decided in Jerusalem itself.
So they sent up Paul and Barnabas " and certain others of their
number " (Acts xv. 2; contrast Gal. ii. i seq.) to confer with " the
apostles and elders " there. The fact that Paul consented to go
at all, to the seeming prejudice of his direct divine commission,
is best explained by his prior understanding with " the Pillars "
of the Judaean Church itself (Gal. ii. i-io). His object was
twofold: to secure in the centre of Judaeo-Christianity that
public vindication of Gentile freedom from " the yoke of the
Law " on which he felt he could count, and at the same time to
save the Church of Christ from outward schism.
On the main issue there could be no compromise. It was
conceded, largely through the influence of Peter and James,
that the good pleasure of the Holy Spirit (xv. 28"), in possessing
Gentile hearts, settled the question. But as to the need of
considering age-long Jewish sentiment on points where divergent
practice would tend to prevent Jewish Christians from recog-
nizing Gentile believers as brethren, as well as place a needless
stumbling-block between Jews and a Messianic society in which
unlimited " uncleanness " was tolerated — on this compromise was
possible. The compromise was proposed by James (xv. 20 seq.)
and accepted by Paul. Indeed he had less to sacrifice than
the other side in the concordat. For his Gentile converts had
only to Umit their freedom a little, in the cause of considerate
love; but their Jewish brethren had to surrender a long-standing
superiority conferred by divinely instituted national law. For
while the law of Moses was still observed by Jewish Christians,
in the case of Gentile proselytes to Messianic Judaism it was
to be waived, and a minimum of proselyte rules, indispensable
(xv. 28) to a type of piety' essentially common to all "in Christ,"
taken as sufficient. Of the "abstinences" in question only that
touching blood (in its two forms) was really a ritual matter,
and it was one on which there was a good deal of scruple outside
Judaism. The other two were obvious deductions from funda-
mental Christian ideas, as well as elements of proselyte piety.
On the other hand, security against Gentile liberty undermining
Jewish-Christian observance of the Law was felt to exist in
the firmly rooted tradition of the synagogues of the Diaspora
(xv. 21).
The above is only one reading of the case, though the simplest.
Not a few scholars dispute that Paul could have been a party to
such a concordat at all, and suppose that the letter embodying it
is a fiction, probably composed by the author of Acts. Others hold
that, if any such letter were ever sent, it was by James and the
Jerusalem Church at a later date, without consulting Paul. In fact
it was their solution of the deadlock to which interference with
Peter's table-fellowship with Gentiles led in Antioch after the Jerusa-
lem conference; but the author of Acts unhistorically fused it with
the decision of that conference. Finally Harnack {Die Apostel-
geschichte, 1908, pp. 188 sqq.) maintains that the reference to " things
strangled " is an interpolation, not shared by early Western authori-
ties for the text, and that " blood " meant originally homicide.
Hence the rules had no reference to food apart from constructive
idolatry'. This theory — which does not remove the contradiction
with Gal. ii. 10, on the assumption that Acts. xv. =Gal. ii. i-io —
seems at once textually improbable (feeling in the East being
too anti-Jewish in the sub-apostolic age to allow of such an
interpolation) and historically needless.
At no point in his career does Paul's greatness appear more
strikingly than now in his relations with Judaeo-Christianity.
Equally above the doctrinaire temper which cannot see its
' For this as the spirit of these rules, whatever their exact origin,
see Hort, Judaistic Christianity, pp. 68 sqq. They thus correspond
to the " remembrance of the poor " in the earlier agreement between
" the Pillars " and Paul in Gal. ii. 10.
favourite principle practically limited by others, and a mere
opportunism which snatches at any compromise as the Line of
least resistance, he acted as a true missionary states- pao/'s Con-
man, with his eye both on the larger future and dilatory
on the limiting present. As he himself obeyed the Spirit.
principle of loving concern for others' good by conforming to
certain Jewish forms of piety (i Cor. ix. 19 seq., 22), as being a
Jew by training; so he was ready to enjoin on Gentiles, short
of the point of compulsion, abstinence from blood simply as
a thing abhorrent to Jewish sentiment. His was the spirit of
a strong man, who can afford and loves to be generous for the
greater good of all. This is the key to his conduct all along,
leading him to interrupt his work on two later occasions
simply to keep in touch with Jerusalem by conciliatory visits,
as prejudice against him recurred owing to rumours of his
free conduct on his Gentile missions.
On the other hand, it was the opposite side of his character,
viz. inflexible courage in defence of vital principle, that was
called into action soon after, owing to Peter's visit Peter's
to Antioch (the abrupt reference to which in Gal. visit to
ii. II probably means that the judaizers were Antiocb.
making capital of it in Galatia). There for a time Peter fell in
readily with the local custom whereby Jewish and Gentile
Christians ate together. But this was more than was understood
even by James to be involved in alliance of the two missions.
It was one thing not to force Judaism on Gentile Christians;
it was another to sanction table-fellowship between Gentile and
Jewish Christians, in consideration for the former as brethren.
Let Peter, said James through his friends, remember Judaean
feelings as well. Such a step was in advance of their convictions;
and in any case it seemed wrong to break with the sentiment
of the Mother Church in Judaea for the comfort of Gentile
brethren on the spot, whom they had but recently regarded as
by nature " unclean."
One man, however, saw further into both the logic and the
expediency of the case. Paul saw that by their very reliance
on Christ rather than the Law for justification,
Jewish Christians had in principle set aside the Law protest.
as the divinely appointed means of righteousness:
that thereby they had virtually come down from their preroga-
tive standing on the Law and classed themselves with " sinners
of the GentUes "; and finally that they had been led into this
by Jesus the Messiah Himself. If that attitude were sinful
" then was Christ the minister of sin." If righteousness depend
after all on the Law, then why did Christ die? This penetrating
analysis (Gal. ii. 14-21) of the implications of Christian faith
was unanswerable as regards any legal observance as condition
of justification. But was it not possible that the degree of
sanctification to be hoped for depended, for Jews at least, upon
adhering as closely as possible to the old law of hohness? This
was probably the position of Peter and Barnabas and the rest,
as it was certainly the theory with which the judaizers " be-
witched " the Galatian converts for whose benefit Paul recounts
the story (iii. 1-3). But for it too he had an answer, in his
doctrine of an evangelical sanctification, homogeneous in nature
and motives with the justification out of which it grows, as fruit
from root (iii. 5, v. 16-26). But at Antioch he confined his
protest to the vital matter of principle, the true relation of
Christ and the Law, and the deadly danger of confusing their
values and functions if both were to be treated as essential to
Christian faith. Thus a higher expediency, for Jews in particu-
lar, told against the e.xpediency afleged on the other side; while
as for expediency in relation to the Gentiles, it was a matter not
only of Antioch and the Jews and Gentiles there involved, but
also of the Roman world and the relative numbers of potential
converts from either class in it. This point is not made explicit
in Gal. ii. 14 sqq.; but it was probably present to Paul's mind
and added to the intensity of his feeling touching the gravity of
the issue.
The standpoint of the Epistle to the Galatians is of great moment
in judging of its historical retrospect. What Paul had to establish
in the first instance was his independence up to the date of his
PAUL, THE APOSTLE
945
evangelization of the Galatians, which God had obviously blessed
(iii. 2, 5). It is therofore natural to regard all related in chapters
i.-ii., including his rebuke of Peter, as prior to that cardinal fact.
Next the logic of the case, as well as his exijlicit words in i. 22 sqq.,
rules out any visit to Jerusalem, including the relief visit to Judaea
of Acts xi. 30, xii. 25, between his first visit and that of Gal. ii. 1 sqq.
(this tells against the common view that Gal. ii. I sqq. = Acts xv.).
Finally the reason why no explicit reference is made to the visit
of Acts XV. is that it was already familiar to his readers from his
own account of it on his second and recent visit to them (Acts
xvi. 4-6), and was in fact the starting-point of the judaizers' case.
As regards the " Galatians " addressed in this epistle, we assume
with the majority of scholars, since Sir W. M. Ramsay's writings
on the subject, that they were those evangelized in Acts xiii., xiv.,
not in xvi. 6. According to the above reading of this epistle it was
written in the winter of Paul's first journey to Europe, c. 51-52, say
in Corinth (so Rendall, Zahn, Bacon), which would explain not only
the " so quickly " of i. 6., but also his inability to hasten to their
side (iv. 20). This last condition seems to exclude as place of writing
both Antioch on the eve of the second (McGiffert) or third (Ramsay)
missionary journey, and Ephesus during Paul's long sojourn there.
The one seeming alternative, viz. Antioch on the eve of the conference
in Acts XV. (so V. Weber), is preferable only on the assumption that
the epistle excludes all knowledge of this event (as the present
writer formerly held).
Not long after this episode Paul proposed to Barnabas a
visitation of the churches they had jointly founded. But
Paul's Barnabas, perhaps feeling more than before the
Second difference in their attitudes to the Law, made the
Great Mis- reinstatement of John Mark as their helper a
s oa our. (.Qj^jjjf Jqjj q£ co-operation. To this Paul demurred
on the ground that he could not be relied upon in all emer-
gencies; and the feeling caused by this difference as to Mark's
fitness was sufficient to cause Paul and Barnabas to take separate
lines. Each went to his own sphere of work, Barnabas to Cyprus
and Paul towards Asia Minor, and we never again read of them
as together, though Paul continued to refer to his old colleague
in kindly terms (i Cor. ix. 6 and Col. iv. 10). Paul found a
colleague in Silas (Silvanus), a " leading " man in the Jerusalem
church and a " prophet," but like himself a Roman citizen
(Acts xvi. 37, 39); and started, with the goodwill of the
Antiochene Church, probably in summer a.d. 50. His way
lay through churches of his own foundation, in one of which he
found a helper to replace Mark, Timothy of Lystra, who was to
be as a son to him up to the very end. Confident in the conciHa-
tory spirit of both sides in the Concordat, and anxious to show
how ready he was to consider Jewish feeling where Gentile
freedom was not involved, he circumcised this young semi-Jew
before taking him as his associate into regions where work would
still lie largely among Jews. In a similar spirit he also com-
mended " the resolutions " of the Concordat to the observance
of his churches in Galatia, though the circular letter of the
conference did not make it apply to more than those of the
Syro-Cilician region.
But while the immediate result of this visit was good, the
secondary issues were among the bitterest in Paul's life,
Judaizers owing to the unscrupulous action of judaizers
la South who, taking advantage of his absence, soon began
Galatia. ^ vigorous, but subtle, propaganda amongst his
converts in this region. They represented Patil as having
changed his policy in deference to the Jerusalem authorities,
to the extent of allowing that the Law had some claim upon
Gentile believers in the Jewish Messiah. Otherwise why were
the " abstinences " enjoined? Nay, more: these had been
put forward as a bare minimum of what was expedient,
to judge from the practice of those same Judaean authori-
ties. But if so, surely it must at least be necessary to
full Christian piety (Gal. iii. 3; cf. Peter's conduct at Antioch),
though not perhaps to a bare place in the coming kingdom.
Had not Paul himself confessed the value of circumcision
(v. 11) in the case of Timothy, the son of a Gentile father?
As for his earlier policy, it must have been due simply to a
wish to humour his converts' prejudices (i. 10), to begin with.
At any rate the gospel they now brought was the authentic
Apostolic Gospel, and if Paul's did differ from it, so much
the worse for his gospel, since it could in no' case claim to be
other than derived from theirs (i. 1-9, 11 seq.). How plausible
must such a plea have seemed to inexperienced Gentile converts,
" bewitching " their minds away from the central facts, Christ
crucified and the free gift of the spirit through faith in Him.
But how disingenuous as regards Paul's real position! Can
we wonder at his indignation as he wrote in reply, and that he
was goaded on to pass, in his final peroration, a counter-judgment
upon their motives too sweepingly severe (vi. 12 seq.)? In any
case the gross abuse by the judaizers of Paul's promulgation
of the " abstinences " in Galatia fully explains his contrary
practice elsewhere.
Paul left his Galatian converts about autumn a.d. 50, bound
for the adjacent Asia. But not even yet was he to preach
there, being diverted by something in which he saw
the divine hand. Such as when, on his way north- £u"op"'*"
wards through the Phrygian region of Galatia,' he
tried to enter Bithynia (where also were cities with a large
Jewish element), he was again turned aside by " the Spirit of
Jesus " (? a vision in the form of Jesus, xvi. 7, cf. xviii. g, xxii.
17). Thus his course seemed open only westwards through
Mysia (northern " Asia ") to the coast, which was reached at
Troas, the chief port in the north-west Aegean for intercourse
between Asia and Macedonia. These were but sister provinces,
united by the easy pathway of the sea. Yet in sentiment and
in conditions of work it was a new departure to which Paul found
himself summoned, when in a night-vision " a certain Macedo-
nian " stood as if entreating him: " Come over into Macedonia
and help us." Here was the positive guidance to which two
negative divine interventions had been leading up. Paul
hesitated not a moment, though the idea was bolder than that
of his own frustrated plan. " Straightway," in the' words of
Luke, " we sought to go forth into Macedonia, concluding
that God had called us for to preach the Gospel unto them "
(xvi. 10). So, at this crucial point in Paul's mission to the
Gentiles, Luke seems to preserve the thrill of emotion which
passed from the leader to his companions, by breaking out into
the first person plural (see Acts, for the psychological rather
than literary reason of this " we," here and later).
The new mission began at Phihppi, a Roman colonia. Here
the Jewish settlement, in which as usual Paul sought first to
gain a footing, was a small one, consisting in the
main of women — who enjoyed much freedom in '"'' '
Macedonian society. But the normal extension of his work
was cut short by an incident characteristic both of the age and
of the way in which the fortunes of the Gospel were affected by
the vested interests around it. The storj' of Paul's imprison-
ment, with the light it casts on his qitiet mastery of any situation,
is familiar in its vivid detail.
After being thus " shamefuDy treated " in Philippi (i Thess.
ii. 2), Paul passed on rapidly to Thessalonica, the real capital
of the province and an admirable centre of influence
(cf. I Thess. i. 8). In this great seaport there was loa^'
at least one synagogue; and for three weeks he
there discussed from the scriptures the cardinal points in
his message (cf. i Cor. xv. 3 seq.), " that it behoved the
Christ to suffer and to rise again from the dead," and
that accordingly " this Jesus ... is the Christ " (xvii. 2
seq.). Some Jews believed, " and of the Godfearing Greeks "
(semi-proselytes) a large number, including not a few of
the leading women. There was also successful work among
those who turned directly " from idols, to serve a God hving
and real" (i Thess. i. 9). This, must have occupied several
weeks beyond those specified above (cf. i Thess. i.-ii.; and
the material help received more than once from Philippi,
Phil. iv. 16).
But Jewish jealousy was aroused particularly by the loss of
their converts; and at length in alliance with the rabble of the
market place, it v/as able once more to cut short the preachers'
work among the Gentiles. The charge made against them had
a serious ring, since it involved not only danger to public order
' The region to which some think the Epistle to the Galatians
(see s.v.) was addressed — so modifying the older " North Galatian "
theory of Bishop Lightfoot and others.
946
PAUL, THE APOSTLE
Athens,
but treason against the emperor {laesa majcslas). Thus at
Thessalonica Paul had experience of the imperial system as
Coatroatlag rival to his gospel of the sovereignty of God and of
the Imperial Wis Christ, the true king of humanity. Yet it is
Cult. doubtful if he was thinking of this ' when he wrote
to his converts touching " the mystery of lawlessness,"
working towards its final conflict with the divine principle
also at work in the world. He seems in the whole passage
(2 Thess. ii. 3-12) to view the empire in its positive aspect
as a system of law and order rather than in its idolatry of its
official head, the incarnation of worldly success and power; and
he alludes to both emperor and empire (6 seq.) as the force at
present restraining " themystery of lawlessness " (avofila.). This
phrase itself suggests something more abnormal than the world-
principle latent in paganism, such as " the apostasy " of God's
own people, the Jewish nation, as once before under Antiochus
Epiphanes the prototype of " the man of lawlessness " seated
in " the temple of God " (v. 4), of whom the late emperor
Caligula might well seem a forerunner. Even so monstrous an
issue of Jewish refusal of God's truth, in His Messiah, would be
but the climax of so unhallowed an alliance as that which existed
at Thessalonica between Jewish unbelief and paganism, seeing
that the former was using the very Messianic idea itself to stir
up the latter against the followers of Jesus (Acts xvii. 7; cf.
I Thess. ii. 15 seq.). Paul and Silas withdrew by night, and
began work in Beroea, a small city of Thessaly, in the hope of
returning when excitement had subsided. But Jewish intriguers
from Thessalonica stirred up the populace with the old
charges, and Paul, as the prime actor, was forced to retire,
first to the coast (whence he may have thought of a secret
visit to Thessalonica, i Thess. ii. 18; cf. iii. 5), and then by sea
to Athens.
At Athens he was consumed with anxiety, and sent word
to Silas and Timothy to join him with fresh news about his
" orphans " in the faith. While waiting, however, he
felt compelled by the signs of idolatry on every hand
to preach his gospel. He began discussing in the synagogue
with the Jews and their circle, and also in the Agora, after the
manner of the place, in informal debate with casual listeners.
The scope of his doctrine, the secret of right living, was such as
to attract the notice of the Epicureans and Stoics. But its
actual contents seamed to them a strange farrago of familiar
Greek phrases and outlandish talk about a certain "Jesus" and
some power associated with him styled " the Resurrection."
To clear up this, the latest intellectual novelty of the Athenian
quidnuncs, they carry him off to " the Areopagus," probably
the council,^ so called after its original place of meeting on Mars'
Hill. This body seems still to have had in some sense charge
of religion and morals in Athens; and before it this itinerant
" sophist " seemed most hkely to make his exact position plain.
A mark of authenticity is the very fruitlessness of his attempt
to adapt the gospel of Jesus to Greek " wisdom." One only of
his audience, a member of the Areopagus, seems to have been
seriously impressed. The real effect of the episode was upon
Paul himself and his future ministry among typical Greeks.
Before Timothy's return Paul had moved on to Corinth,
where he was to win success and to find material for such experi-
ences, both when present and absent, as developed
the whole range of his powers of heart and mind,
(see Corinthians, Epistles to the). Corinth was more typical
of the Graeco-Roman world,than any other city, certainly of
those visited by Paul. In addition to its large Jewish colony,
it had Oriental elements of other kinds, especially mystic and
ecstatic cults; and its worship of Venus under semi-oriental
attributes added to the general sensuahty of the moral atmo-
sphere. Over all was a veneer of Greek intellect and polish;
^ As Sir W. M. Ramsay argues in his Cities of St Paul, pp. 425-
429-
2 This is the view favoured by archaeologists like Ernst Curtius
[Expositor, vii. 4. 436 sqq.) and Sir W. M. Ramsay. On the whole
it suits the narrative better than the view which regards the Hill
of Ares simply as a good spot for one of those rhetorical " displays "
in which Athenians delighted.
Coriatb.
for in its way Corinth prided itself on its culture no less than did
Athens. No wonder that Paul's first feeling in this microcosm
was one of utter impotence. It was " in weakness, and in fear,
and in much trembling," though in dauntless faith, that he
began a most fruitful ministry of a year and a half. His guiding
principle was to trust solely to the moral majesty of the gospel
of the Cross, declared in all simphcity as to its form (1 Cor. ii. i
sqq.), not heeding its first impression upon the Jew of intolerable
humiliation, and on the Greek of utter folly (i. 18 sqq.). Most
gladly then would he preach in such a way that " faith should
not stand in the wisdom of men, but in the power of God"
(ii. 5); " that no flesh should glory before God " (i. 29). How
central this was to his gospel, especially as it defined itself over
against Greek self-sufficiency of intellect, may be seen from
his whole conception of the " spiritual " man in his letters to
Corinth (esp. i Cor. ii. i-iv. 7). Before his great work there
began, Paul gained two fresh fellow-workers, whose share in
parts at least of his later ministry was very great, Aquila, a
Jew of Pontus, and his talented wife PrisciUa. Probably they
were already Christians, and as they too were tent-makers Paul
shared their home and their work. That he was often in
straitened circumstances is proved by his having to accept aid
from Macedonia (2 Cor. xi. 9; cf. Phil. iv. 15). On the arrival
of Silas and Timothy from that quarter, he began to preach
with yet more intensity, especially to the Jews (xviii. 5). A
breach with the synagogue soon followed. The definite turning
to the Gentiles met with much success, and Paul was encouraged
by a night vision to continue in Corinth for more than a year
longer. An attempt of the Jews (cf . i Thess. ii. 1 5 seq ; 2 Thess.
iii. I seq.) to use Gallio, the new proconsul of Achaia, as a tool
against him, not only failed but recoiled upon themselves.
It was during his first winter at Corinth, a.d. 51-52,^ that he
wrote his earliest extant missionary letters (see above for Gala-
tians). Paul wrote not as a theologian but as the pirst
prince of missionaries. His gospel was always in Missionary
essence the same; but the form and perspective Letters.
of its presentation varied with the training, mental and
moral, of his hearers or converts. It was no abstract, rigid
system, presented uniformly to all. This warns us against
hasty inferences from silence, in judging of Paul's own thought
at the time represented by any epistle, and so limits our attempt
to trace progress in his theology. But it bears also on our
estimate of him as a man and an apostle, full of sympathy for
others and asking from them only such faith as could be real
to them at the time.
His Thessalonian converts had met with much social persecu-
tion. The bulk belonged to the working class (iv. 11, 2 Thess.
iii. 10-12); and Paul must have endeared himself to them by
sharing their lot and plying his own manual industry (Acts
xviii. 3). However hard his double toil of teacher and tent-
maker might be, no sordid suspicions, such as his Jewish foes
were ready to suggest (i Thess. ii. 9; 2 Thess. iii. 8), should
gain any colour from his conduct. He would be to his converts
as a father, and an embodiment of the new Christian ethics
which he pressed upon his spiritual children as the essential
" fruit of the Spirit," and also as a demonstration of the Gospel
to " them that were without " (i. 7-12; cf. i. 6, iv. i seq.).
The special perspective of his first two epistles is affected by
the brevity of his stay at Thessalonica and the severity of
persecution there. Owing to the latter fact the Parousia, as
a vindication of their cause, so near as reasonably to influence
conduct (v. 11), had naturally been prominent in his teaching
among them. So in these epistles he deals with it more fully
than elsewhere (iv. 13 sqq.); and the moral fruits of the new
life in the Spirit are here enjoined in a very direct manner
(iv. 1-8).
We need not suppose that Paul himself or his assistants used a
set of rules as elaborate as the " Two Ways " (of Life and Death)
' This date (and so Ramsay's chronology from this point) is con-
firmed by a fresh inscription showing that Gallio was proconsul from
52-53 (spring), rather than 51-52; see Expositor for May 1909,
pp. 467-469.
PAUL, THE APOSTLE
947
embodied, e.g. in the Teaching of the Apostles.'- But to judge from
these epistles (l Thess. iv. i seq., 6; 2 Thess. ii. 15; iii. 6), and his refer-
ence to the " type of teaching " (bearing on " sin, unto death," and
" obedience, unto righteousness ") unto which the Roman Christians
had been " committed " (Rom. vi. 16 seq.), Paul gave to his converts
a fairly full outline of moral instruction, similar at least to that of
Judaeo-Christian missionaries (note too the rather uniform lists of
vices in Rom. i. 24 seq. ; i Cor. v. 10 seq. ; Gal. v. 19 ; Col. iii. 5 ; cf . E.
von Dobschiltz, Christian Life in the Primitive Church, app. 6).
What was distinctive of Paul's ethical teaching was not any
lack of positive precepts, but the intimate way in which he,
Paulas like his Master, infused them with the spirit in
Ethical which and by which they were to be realized, as
Teacher, aspects of the ideal of love to God and man. He
was supremely concerned with the dynamic of conduct, as to
which his own experience made him the most inspiring of
teachers and the greatest interpreter of the mind of Christ.
The master motive on which he relied for all, was the imitation
of Christ in a peculiarly inward sense. To the believer Christ
was no mere external example, but was already within him as
the principle of his own new moral being, in virtue of the Holy
Spirit indwelling as the Spirit of Christ. Here lay the secret
of the new " power " so characteristic of the Gospel (Rom. i. 16),
a power adequate to reahze even the enhanced moral ideal
revealed in Christ. The wonder of it was that this power
annulled the moral past, giving the once vicious an equal freedom
with the " virtuous." To this sovereign, emancipating influence
of God's Holy Spirit, antagonizing "the flesh" and all its works,
Paul confidently entrusted his converts for " sanctification "
or progressive transformation (Gal. iii. 3, v. 16 sqq.) into " the
image of Christ," the full actuality of the type already latent
in Christian faith. Such teaching is implicit in the Thessalonian
letters; but it is explicit in the Epistle to the Galatians. Here
he announces in the clearest accents the secret of Christian
conduct. " Walk by (the) Spirit, and desire of the flesh ye
shall not fulfil." " If we live by the Spirit, by the Spirit let us
also walk." " On the basis of freedom (from law as external
to the conscience) were ye called; only turn not freedom into
an opportunity for the flesh, but through love serve one another.
Pauline For the whole Law stands fulfilled in this, Thou
Antl- shalt love thy neighbour as thyself" (v. 13 sqq., 25).
aomlaalsm. -pijgsg ^^e the watchwords of Paul's antinomianism,
which had grown out of the soil of his own strict moral
discipline, where the ethical ideal had become an instinct
and a passion. But how would they be taken by raw Gentiles,
say in Corinth, untutored to self-denial whether in the things
of sense or spirit? That their egoism often perverted Paul's
libertarianism into an apology for libertinism, in keeping with
current habits, as well as for selfish individualism in the use of
intellect or even " gifts of the Spirit," may be gathered from his
letters to Corinth (see Corinthians, Epistles to the). What
here concerns us, however, is the splendidly positive way in
which Paul met such abuses, not by falling back upon legalism
as a " safeguard " against hcence, but by reapplying the laws
of spirituality, both in relation to God as source of spiritual
gifts, and to God's people as the appointed sphere of their
e-xercise. He does not recede from his way of teaching; he
insists that they shall understand it and abide by its real obliga-
tions. But while thinking of Paul's work in Corinth, we must
note certain special religious conditions affecting both the
reception of his gospel and the way in which it was afterwards
conceived. Side by side with the religion of the city and of the
family, both of them polytheistic and utilitarian in the main,
stood the " mysteries " or esoteric cults, which were sought out
and participated in by the individual for the satisfaction of
essentially personal religious needs. Clearly those trained by
such Mysteries would be more drawn than ordinary polytheists
to his gospel, with its doctrine of mystical yet real union with
the divine in Christ, and would less than others find the Cross,
with its message of Hfe through death, to be folly. This being
' Yet compare " the Way " (Acts xix. 9, 23), or " the Way of the
Lord " (xviii. 25) as a name for Christianity on its practical side.
So Sergius Paulus was " astonished at the Teaching (didache) of the
Lord," xiii. 12; cf. Tit. i. 8 seq.
so, we shall not be surprised to find, especially at Corinth,
traces of the reaction of conceptions proper to the Mysteries
upon the ideas and practices of Paul's converts (cf. i Cor. xv. 29),
and even upon the language in which he set forth his meaning
to them (see ii. 6 sqq.). Whether Paul himself was influenced
by such ideas, e.g. in relation to the Sacraments, is a further
question as to which opinions are divided.-
After some eighteen months in Corinth, Paul felt the time had
come to break fresh ground now at last perhaps at Ephesus,
the key to the province of Asia. With this in view
he took with him his fellow-workers Priscilla and jgrusilea,
Aquila, and left them at Ephesus while he himself " *""'
visited Syria for ends of his own. That these ends were of high
import we may be sure, else he would not have spent on them
a period of months when the door seemed already opening in
Asia (Acts xviii. 19-21). Acts gives no hint as to their nature,
save the statement that " he went up " from Caesarea to Jeru-
salem, " and saluted the church," before he " went down to
Antioch." But Paul's letters enable us to infer that he relied
largely on this visit for counteracting rumours which represented
him as an apostate from Judaism.^ After some stay in Antioch
Paul started before autumn a.d. 53 for his third great campaign,
the centre of which he had already chosen in Ephesus, where
Priscilla and Aquila were helping to prepare the ground.
Passing through south Galatia, where he further fortified his con-
verts (xviii. 23), he would reach Ephesus before winter closed in.
Already his circle of helpers had gained a fresh
member of great gifts, the Alexandrine Jew ApoUos ^''''""*-
iq.v.), who had been brought into fuller sympathy with the
Pauline gospel by Priscilla and Aquila, and who, learning from
them the situation in Corinth, volunteered to try to overcome
the prejudices of the Jews there (xviii. 24-28). At first Paul
taught in the synagogue, until growing hostility drove him to
" separate the disciples " and transfer his headquarters to " the
school of Tyrannus." This was a lecture-room such as " so-
phists " or rhetors were wont to hire for their " displays." The
change was not only one of place, but also of style of discourse,
his appeal now being directly to the Gentiles, who would at
first regard Paul as a new lecturer on morals and religion. The
influence which went forth from this centre radiated throughout
the whole province of Asia, partly through visitors to Ephesus
on business or for worship at its great temple, and partly through
Paul's lieutenants, such as Timothy and Epaphras (Col. i. 7;
iv. 13). Witness to this extensive influence is afforded both
by the friendly conduct of certain " Asiarchs " at the time of
the riot (xix. 31), and by the fact that Paul later wrote a circular
letter to this region, the so-called Epistle to the Ephesians.
This result was due not only to Paul's persuasive speech but
also to deeds of power,'' connected with the superhuman gifts
with which he felt himself to be endowed by the Spirit of God
(Acts xix. 11; cf. Rom. xv. 18 seq.; 2 Cor. xii. 12). Nor can we
feel Paul's full greatness unless we remember that he was tried
by the searching test of supernormal psychical and physical
powers operating through him, and that he came through all
with an enhanced sense of the superiority of rational and moral
gifts, and of love as the crown and touchstone of all, as well as
with a deepened humility. That he suffered much
before the final tumult, due to his success affecting ^i^^ss.
trades dependent on the cult of the Ephesian
Artemis is imphed in his own words, " humanly speaking, I,
- The affirmative is maintained by the so-called Religions-
geschichtliche Schule in particular. ■■ The more general verdict is
" not proven."
' In this light his polling of his head before embarking at Cenchreae
in token of a vow of special self-consecration (to be redeemed at
the end of a month in Jerusalem itself; cf. Josephus, Jewish War,
II. XV. i), is significant of his feelings as to the critical nature of
the visit, including danger from Jewish fanaticism during a voyage
probably on the eve of a feast (say Pentecost), for which he went up
on his later visit (Acts. x-x. 16).
■* We may doubt whether Paul himself countenanced the practices
by which some believed that they drew magical virtue from his
person (xviii. 12). But he did perform what he, in common with
his age, believed to be the exorcism of evil spirits, as the story of
Sceva's sons itself implies (xix. 13 sqq.).
948
PAUL, THE APOSTLE
fought the beasts at Ephesus " (i Cor. xv. 32), which may mean
that he was almost torn in pieces by mob fury. It was perhaps
on this occasion that Aquila and his wife risked their lives for him
(Rom. xvi. 3 seq.). Indeed he lived much of his time in Ephesus
as one under daily sentence of death, so constant was his danger
(i Cor. XV. 30 seq.; cf. iv. 9; 2 Cor. i. 9; iv. 9-11). But this almost
unbearable strain on his human frailty simply deepened his sense
of dependent union with Jesus, both in His death and victorious
life, and softened his strong nature into a wonderful gentleness
and sympathy with suffering in others (2 Cor. i. 4 sqq.). It
is no accident that it was from the midst of his Ephesian experi-
ences that his Hymn of Love (i Cor. xiii. esp. 6-8a, 13) sounded
forth. His own spiritual life seems to have grown in Ephesus
more than at any other period since the era of his conversion.
This brings us to the most tragic episode in Paul's career,
judged by his own feelings, a psychological crucifixion of which
The we have the vivid record in his correspondence
Coiiathlaa with the Corinthian church. Reduced to its simplest
Troubles, terms the situation was as follows. The Corinthian
church was suffering from the fermentation of ideas and
ideals too heterogeneous for their powers of Christian assimi-
lation. Paul had laid the foundation, and others had built on
it with materials of varied kind and value (see Corinthians).
Specially dangerous was the intellectual and moral reaction
of the typically Greek mind, starting from a deep-seated
dualism between mind and matter, upon the facts and doc-
trines of the Gospel. Its issue was an exaggeration of Paul's
own religious antithesis between "the flesh" and "the mind "
into a metaphysical dualism, so that the conduct of the body,
crudely identified with " the flesh," became a thing indifferent for
the inner and higher life of the spirit illumined by the Spirit of
God. There was not only divergent practice in morals and in
religious usage; there was also a spirit of faction threatening
to destroy the unity of church life, to which Paul attached the
greatest importance. To lead them to realize their unity in
Christ and in His spirit of love was the central aim of Paul's first
extant letter to this church. He rises sheer above every mani-
festation of the sectional element in man — whether Jewish,
Greek, intellectual, ritual, or ascetic — into the sphere of pure
religion, the devotion of the whole personality to God and His
ends, as realized once for all in Christ, the second Adam, the
archetype of divine sonship. It is his enforcement of this idea,
along with firm yet flexible application to the various disorders
and errors at Corinth of certain other of his fundamental prin-
ciples, such as the indwelling of the Holy Spirit in the individual
and the community, that makes this epistle so significant for
Paul's biography. Thus, while it gives a more complete picture
of a Pauline church than all other sources of knowledge put
together, it at the same time illustrates the rare balance of Paul's
mind. But neither this letter nor the influence of Timothy
(iv. 17), already on his way to Corinth with Erastus via
Macedonia, on collection business (Acts xix. 22; i Cor. xvi. i seq.,
10 seq.) — nor even, as some think, of Paul himself in person
(2 Cor. ii. i; xii. 14, 21; xiii. i seq.) — brought about an under-
standing on certain points involving Paul's authority. In this
connexion the presence of interloping Jewish " apostles " with
their claims for themselves and their insinuations as to Paul's
motives (2 Cor. xii. 14-16), greatly complicated and embittered
the situation on both sides.
When next the curtain rises, we gather that Paul had been
forced to write a letter of protest in a tone of severity fitted
Paul /eaves to arouse his converts' better selves. It was in
for Mace- fact an ultimatum' that Titus carried to Corinth
doala. before Paul left Ephesus, his departure hastened
by the great tumult. On leaving for Macedonia he " exhorted "
the assembled disciples, and perhaps left Timothy to
check the tendencies to error which he perceived at work
(xx. I, I Tim. i. 3). Then starting from Miletus, the chief port
in the vicinity (cf. xx. 15), — where he had to leave Trophimus
' On the question whether this letter has been lost (as here
assumed), or on the other hand has been partially preserved in 2 Cor.
x.-xiiL, see Corinthians.
owing to sickness (2 Tim. iv. 20, probably a fragment from a
brief note to Timothy written soon after) — he reached Troas.
Here he intended to evangehze pending the return of Titus
(i Cor. ii. 12 seq.). But though " a door " of opportunity at
once opened to him, growing anxiety as to the reception of his
severe letter drove him forward to meet Titus half-way in Mace-
donia. There " fightings without " were added to " fears
within " (vii. 5), until at last his meeting with Titus brought
unspeakable relief. The bulk of the Corinthian church, in deep
remorse for the way in which they had wounded him who after
all was their " father " in Christ (i Cor. iv. 15), had come out
clearly as loyal to him, not only in word but also in disciphne
on the arch offender, whose contumacious conduct (now repu-
diated by the church) had so grieved him, but for whom Paul is
now the first to bespeak loving treatment, " lest haply he be
swallowed up of excessive grief " (ii. 5 sqq.; vii. 12). Accord-
ingly in his next letter his heart overflows with gladness and
affection, yet not so as to blind his clear eye to the roots of
danger still remaining in the situation.
The interloping judaizing missionaries (xi. 4, seq., 13, 22; cf. x. 7)
are still on the spot, glorifying themselves and glorying in their
welcome on the field prepared by another's toils (x. 12-18); while
in the church itself there are moral abuses yet unredressed, even
unacknowledged (xii. 20 seq.), on which Paul felt bound still to press
for confession and penitence (xiii. I sqq.), in spite of what some might
brazenly insinuate, in reliance on his not having acted summarily
on his former visit, when the church as a whole was not heartily with
him. Hence Paul felt himself bound to act boldly (x. 1-6), if and
when on his arrival he found the obedience of the majority full and
complete (xii. 6). It is to prepare the way for this (xiii. 10) that
Paul, while recognizing in the main the church's loyal affection,
writes the second part of his letter (x.-xiii. 10) in so different a key,
striving to complete the reaction against his foes, with their taunt
as to his not daring openly to take an apostle's support from his
converts at Corinth (xi. 12 sqq., xii. 11-18).
The Second Epistle to the Corinthians was written from Phi-
lippi or Thessalonica (ix. 2) ; and Timothy joins in its opening
salutation. He had, it seems, been summoned to Paul's side
from Ephesus by a hurried note, written after Titus's return
from Corinth, in which he is informed that Erastus had remained
in Corinth (? as now city-treasurer, Rom. xvi. 13), while Paul
had been deprived also of the help of Trophimus, so that Timothy
was unexpectedly needed at his side (this is embedded in an
alien context in 2 Tim. iv. 20, 21", see below). One reason at
least for Paul's need of Timothy is suggested by the reference
to Erastus (cf. Acts -xix. 22), viz. the business of the great
collection from his churches in Galatia, Asia, Macedonia and
Achaia. This had been some time in progress and was to be
carried by delegates to Jerusalem on Paul's approaching visit,
from which much was hoped in connexion with the unity of
Jewish and Gentile Christianity. Another may have been the
labour of inspecting the churches in those parts, which now
reached at least as far as, if not into, Illyricum (Rom. xv. 19).
In any case it was midwinter (56) before Paul became the guest
of the hospitable Gains in Corinth (Rom. xvi. 23).
Touching the resettlement of local church affairs during
Paul's three months in Corinth, we know nothing. For us the
great event of this visit is the writing of that epistle The Epistle
which shows that his mind was now bent on the to the
extension of his mission westwards to the metropolis '?<""•""*•
of the empire itself. To Rome his thoughts had been turned
for many a year, but he had time and again checked the
impulse to visit it (Rom. xv. 22 seq.), For the city had long
been occupied by the Gospel in one form or another; and it was
a point of honour with him to preach " where Christ was not
named," not to build on others' foundations (xv. 20). But his
eye was now fixed on Spain, if not also on south Gaul. It was,
then, largely as basis for his mission to the western Mediterranean
that Paul viewed Rome. Yet after all Rome was not like other
places: it was the focus of the world. Hence Paul could not
simply pass by it (i. 11 seq.). Very tactfully does he now offer
his preliminary contributions to them — " by way of reminder,"
at least — emboldened thereto by the consciousness of a divine
commission to the Gentiles, proved by what he had been enabled
already to accomplish (xv. 15 sqq.).
PAUL, THE APOSTLE
94-9
But how could Paul write at length to a community he had
never visited ? Not to dwell on what he might have gathered
from " Prisca and Aquila," the wonderful list of salutations by
name, often with brief characterizations, proves how constant
was the flow of Christian hfe between the capital and provincial
centres Uke Ephesus and Corinth. But, beyond all this, there
is the nature of the epistle itself as a great " tract for the times,"
applicable to the general situation at Rome, but typical also of
the hour as reflected in Paul's consciousness. It has therefore
a profound biographical significance for Paul himself, summing
up all his thought so far, on the basis of his conversion as un-
folded by his experiences as an apostle. It is his philosophy
of rehgion and of history, the first worthy of the name, because
the first deep-based upon the conception of the unity of humanity,
as related to God, its source and the determining factor in its
destiny. As such it also includes in broadest outhne (viii. i8
sqq.) a philosophy of nature, as related to humanity, its crown
and key. Thus it is in effect a universal philosophy in terms
of the moral order, which Paul, like every Hebrew, regarded
as the most real and significant element in the universe. At the
centre of this grand survey stands the Jewish race, the chosen
vessel for bearing God's treasure for mankind during the pro-
visional period of human history; and at its spiritual heart,
in turn, Jesus, Messiah of Israel, Saviour of mankind, in whom
the distinction between the special and general spheres of
revelation is transcended, while the law, " the middle wall of
partition " between them, is broken down by the Cross.
Into the sweep of this high argument, as it is unfolded step
by step, with an organic completeness or exposition peculiar
to Romans among his writings (cf. Ephesians), there is wrought
not only the problem of the Jew and Gentile (still the burning
question of the time), but also the stubborn paradox of the
actual rejection of Israel's Messiah by the nation as a whole.
This forms a great appendi.x (i.x.-xi.) to the more theoretic
part of the epistle, and lays bare Paul's inmost heart, showing
how truly a Jewish patriot he was. Even the categories in
which he grapples, without formal success, with the problem of
divine election and human responsibihty, betray the Jew, to
whom the final axioms are God's sovereignty and God's righteous-
ness. Further into the contents of this most characteristic
writing it is not ours to go (see Romans). Suffice it to say, he
who apprehends it, as the issue of a real religious e.xperience,
already knows Paul as he knew himself and cared to be known.
He who masters its thought knows the PauHne theology. Some
indeed assume that Paul ceased really to progress beyond the
point represented by Romans, and that certain of his later
writings, if they be his at all, show a certain enfeeblement of
grasp upon principle. But that is to confuse once more Paul's
personal theology with the forms of instruction which experience
showed him were expedient for the strengthening and develop-
ment of feeble or undeveloped moral types.
Yet while the horizon of the Roman epistle was so universal
in one sense, it was restricted in another. Owing to the fore-
shortening influence of the parousia hope, even Paul's programme
of a world-mission meant simply seizing certain centres of
influence, to serve as earnest of Messiah's possession of all man-
kind on His return to take His great power and reign. Evangel-
ization on the farther side of the parousia was the greater part
of the whole. So we gather from this very epistle, as well as
from 1 Cor. xv. 23-25 (and yet more clearly from Col. i. 23).
In other ways, too, the Christianity of Paul and his age was re-
lative to the parousia, both in theory and in practice {e.g.
in its " ascetic " or " other worldly " attitude to life). This dif-
ference of perspective, and the ancient view of the world of
spirits operating upon human life, are the chief things to be
allowed for in reading his epistles.
Thus viewing things, how eagerly Paul must have looked
westwards at this time. Yet his heart turned also to Judaea,
„ « „ where he felt his line of march still threatened by
tor Unity. '^^ danger of disunion in the very Body of Christ.
At all cost this must be averted. The best hope
lay in a practical exhibition of Gentile sympathy with the Mother
Church in Jerusalem, such as would be to it a token of the Holy
Spirit as indwelling Paul's churches. The means for such a
thankoffering for benefits received ultimately from Jerusalem
(Rom. XV. 27) had been collected with much patient labour,
and the delegates to accompany Paul with it had already
assembled at Corinth (xx. 4). Paul had intended to cross the
Aegean from Corinth with his party, by the direct route to
Syria. But a Jewish plot, probably to take effect
on the voyage, caused him to start earlier by the j^rlsIVm"
longer land-route, as far as Philippi, whence, after
waiting to observe the Days of the Unleavened Bread,'
he sailed to join his fellow-almoners at Troas. There is no
need to follow all the stages of what follows (see Ramsay, .S7
Paul the Traveller). But every personal touch is meant to tell,
even Paul's walk from Troas to Assos, perhaps for solitary
meditation, away from the crowded ship; and all serves to
heighten the feehng that it was the path to death that Paul was
already treading (xx. 23). This lies too at the heart of his
impressive farewell to the Ephesian elders, a discourse which
gives a vivid picture of his past ministry in Ephesus. Its burden,
as Luke is at pains to emphasize by his comment upon the
actual parting, is that " they should behold his face no more."
The scene was repeated at Tyre; while at Caesarea, the last stage
of all, the climax was reached, in Agabus's prophetic action
and the ensuing dissuasion of all those about him. But Paul,
though moved in his feelings, was not to be moved from his
purpose. The party went forward, taking the precaution to
secure Paul a trusty host on the road to Jerusalem in the person
of Mnason, a Hellenist of Cyprus. He entered the holy city in
good time to show his loyalty to the Jewish Feast of Pentecost.
He was well received by James and the elders of the church.
So far scholars are agreed, since the " we " form of narrative
which began again at Philippi (xx. 5), reaches to Jerusalem
this point. But as to the historical value of what
follows, before " we " reappears with the start for Rome from
Caesarea there is large diversity of opinion. The present
writer, holding that " we " is no exclusive mark of the eye-
witness, sees no reason to doubt the substantial accuracy of the
narrative in Acts xxi. 19-xxvi.^ touching the Jewish outbreak
against Paul and its sequel. Its significance for Paul's life is
fairly clear, though we are not told what acceptance the Gentile
offering of loyal love met with in the Jerusalem church as a
whole. But that its general effect upon the comity of the two
branches of the Messianic Ecclesia was good seems implied by
the serene tone of Paul's later references to the unity of the
Body (Eph. ii. 19-22; iii. 5 seq.). What does stand out clearly in
Acts is all that bears on Paul's position as between the Jewish
and the Roman authorities. Here we observe a gradual shifting
of the charge against him, corresponding in part to the changes
of venue. The more local elements recede, and those of interest
to a Roman court emerge.
To the Jewish mob he is " the man that teacheth all men everj'-
where against the People, and the Law, and this place; and moreover
he brought Greeks also into the Temple " (xxi. 28). Before Felix,
TertuUus describes him as " a pestilent fellow, and a mover of
tumults among all the Jews throughout the world, and a ringleader
of the sect of the Nazarenes, who also tried to profane the Temple"
(xxiv. 5 seq.). Similarly among " the many and grievous " offences
alleged before Festus (xxv. 7 seq.) we gather that one or more were
' This is a valuable datum not only for Paul's own loyalty to the
usages of Jewish piety, but also for the chronology of his life, as show-
ing in the light of what follows the day of the week on which Passover
fell that year, and so tending to fix the year as 56 or 57 (see above,
Chronology).
^ These chapters contain passages as vivid and circumstantial as
any in the " we " sections. As to the speeches, their fidelity
naturally varies with the circumstances of delivery'; but in all there
is that which could not be Luke's free composition. The verisimili-
tude of the demonstration of Paul's personal loyalty to forms of
Jewish piety in connexion with the four men under vows (xxi. 23-27)
IS complete, especially in view of Paul's own vow at Cenchreae and
his regard for Jewish feasts; and even Paul's non-recognition of
the high priest in what was not a regular session of the Sanhedrin
(xxiii. 2-5), is quite probable. Other points hardly merit notice
here; see Knowhng's Testimony of St Paxil, lect. xx.
950
PAUL, THE APOSTLE
Rome,
" against Caesar," i.e. treason of one sort or another. Though the
others weighed with a procurator like Felix (anxious to humour the
Jews cheaply) sufficiently to keep Paul (in the absence of bribes)
in prison for two years, it was the last class of charge that was most
dangerous, especially when once the case was transferred from the
provincial court to the appeal court at Rome. The last words of
Agrippa, " This man could have been set at_ liberty had he not
appealed to Caesar," are probably recorded with a touch of tragic
irony.
But what of Paul himself during the two years at Caesarea ?
Though he must have been in correspondence with his churches,
at least through messengers, nothing from his pen
Pauiat jj^g reached us. We can only infer from epistles
written later how much this period contributed to
his reflective Ufe. The outlook was indeed stimulating to
thought. Near at hand Judaea was sliding rapidly down the
incline of lawlessness and fanatical resentment of Roman rule,
towards a catastrophe which to Paul's eye, trained by Jewish
Apocalyptic to regard certain things as signs of the days of
Antichrist, would seem to betoken the prelude of the Parousia
itself. Then, farther afield, the growing confederacy of Messiah's
churches was stepping into the place vacated by " Israel after
the flesh," as the people ready for God's Messiah.
The journey to Rome calls for no detailed notice (see Ramsay,
St Paul the Traveller). Its main interest for us is the impression
of nobility, courage and power which Paul conveyed to the
centurion Jidius and his fellow-passengers generally; while the
enthusiasm of the eyewitness' himself visibly reaches its chmax
as dangers thicken and Paul rises above them all. At last Italy
is reached, and Paul is met by detachments of " brethren "
from Rome, who came as far as thirty and forty miles to welcome
him; " whom when Paul saw, he thanked God and took courage."
From Paul's letters, however, we gather that if he
looked for sympathy from the Roman Christians,
he looked largely in vain. Whilst some welcomed and most
regarded him as indeed a champion of the Gospel whose fearless
testimony even in bonds emboldened many, including the
judaizing section who wished him no good, to preach Jesus more
openly than before; few, if any, really showed him brotherly
love or cared for the interests of Christ outside Rome that were
still on his heart (Phil. i. 12-17, ii. 21). Such absorption in
their own local affairs struck Paul as strangely un-Christian in
spirit, and added disappointment to his irksome confinement,
chained as he was by one wrist to a praetorian soldier night and
day. Yet he rose above it aU. Only let " Christ be magnified "
in his body, whether by hfe or death. Then should he not be
ashamed, come what might.
The letter which makes us aware how things lay is Philippians,
the most devotional of aU his writings and the most Christlike.
The Epistle i^ is the perfect expression of personal " Pauhnism "
to Philip- in his maturer and more positive manner. It flows
plans. fjQijj jjis heart as joyful thanks for tokens of
continued mindfulness of him recently received from his old
Philippian friends through Epaphroditus, one of their number.
Touched and filled with spiritual joy the more that, save for his
own personal circle, love was so scant around him, he turns to
comfort his friends in their sorrow for him, out of the stores
of Divine consolation received through his own fresh sense of
need (cf. 2 Cor. i. 3 sqq.). " Rejoice in the Lord " is its recurring
note. Here we get the word of the hour, both for Paul and for
his converts. The date of Philippians is an open question,
English scholars tending to place it early, whUe most foreign
scholars put it late in the " two years " of Acts. The present
writer would place it last of those written during the first year,
i.e. last of all save 2 Timothy.
Of the remaining imprisonment epistles, the beautiful little
note to Philemon touching his slave Onesimus casts fresh light
on Paul " the Christian gentleman," by its humour and perfect
' That he regarded Paul as endowed with superhuman powers,
both of premonition and of healing (as in Malta), is evident, even if
in his mind, like that of most ancients, " the line between the
miraculous and the providential quite vanishes away " — as B. W.
Bacon says (Story oj St Paul, p. 214) relative to xxviii. 3-5, comparing
also the case of Eutychus' " insensibility." But if so, why not
apply this to the earthquake at Philippi also?
considerateness of tone. The two larger ones do not seem at
first sight to reflect his personality so much as his Letters to
life as the father of churches, and the way in Asian
which he extended the lines of his gospel so as to (^^urcbes.
bear on problems raised by ever fresh reactions upon it of the
old traditions amid which his Asian converts stiU Mved. Both
aspects really blend; for the epistles are addressed to churches
which were feehng certain effects of the seeming calamity that
had overtaken him whom they in some sense regarded as
their founder, and aim at raising them to the writer's own
higher standpoint (Eph. iii. 13, vi. 19-22; Col. ii. i seq.,iv. 8 seq.).
It was just here that many of his Asian converts hesitated.
They did not realize the aU-sulEciency of Christ in the moral
sphere; and they viewed their relations with the invisible world
of ultimate or heavenly realities in keeping with this fact. They
traced the hand of beings belonging to the supernal spheres
in their earthly experiences of weal and woe. Hence they
dreamed of supplementing what they derived from Christ by
help from other spiritual beings. To judge from Colossians
(see s.v.) it was largely along the lines of Jewish thought (cf. the
Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs), modified by Greek and
other Pagan ideas, that this tendency operated. For at Colossae
at least it issued in observance of ritual rules connected with the
protection of good angels against evil ones, as taught by a sort
of theosophy, probably basing itself on a legendary handhng
of pre-Mosaic Bible history in particular (cf. the Pastorals).
Paul does not discuss how far " guardian angels " have any
function left them in view of the all-sufficiency of Christ and
His Spirit for beUevers. He obviously (Eph. vi. 11 sqq.) believed
in the reality of angelic foes, because this hypothesis explained
for him certain moral phenomena; but he had really stripped
angelic helpers of all functions necessary to the Christian.
Perhaps he was not sufficiently Interested in the matter to think
it out fully.
How does Paul deal with this situation of depressed faith and
hope as to the power of Christ to confer aU needful to the perfect-
ing of the Christian's life on earth, in spite of the hostile forces,
visible and invisible? All they need, he says, is to hold fast
the Gospel which has already done so much for them — annulling
the special privileges of the Jew, and quickening them as Gentiles
" dead in sins " and under the full sway of the powers of Ul, into
a life of filial access to God as Father. Of Christ's abihty to
achieve God's purpose in all things, the wonderful progress of
His Church " in all the world " is already witness (Col. i. 8, 23).
Looking then to these things, visible to Christian gnosis based
on spiritual experience, there is no cause for depression at the
sufferings endured for Christ's sake by Christians, and least of
all at his own. Both in Colossians and " Ephesians " (really a
circular epistle to churches in Asia, including those of the
Lycus valley and perhaps most of the Seven Churches of the
Apocalypse (see Ephesians), he lays stress on " love, which
is the bond of perfectness," and on " unity of the Spirit," as
the atmosphere of Ufe worthy the vocation he describes in
inspiring terms.
In this respect, as in nearly every other, these epistles exhibit
marked affinity with the next group claiming to come from
Paul's pen, the so-called Pastoral Epistles, the The Ethical
supposed " moralism " of which is often urged Emphasis in
against their authenticity. In both cases the Paul' slater
development is quite natural in Paul the missionary, ^P'*""-
as it answers to growing defects among his churches in
the sphere of conduct. Such errors, while twofold in effect,
alike sprang from a defective sense for ethics as the essential
form of piety (i Tim. vi. 3-11; 2 Tim. iii. 5; cf. Jas. i. 27)
flowing from Christian faith. A merely intellectual faith, instead
of the genuinely Pauhne type, involving enthusiastic moral
devotion to Christ, tended in practice either to a negative and
ritual piety, as at Colossae, or to moral laxity. The latter was
sometimes defended on a dualistic theory of " flesh "and" spirit,"
as two realms radically opposed and moraOy independent.^
' Of this we have a hint in the " empty words " alluded to in
Eph. v. 6 (perhaps also iv. 14), probably of the same sort as in
PAUL, THE APOSTLE
951
The Pastoral
Epistles,
Paul meets both errors by his doctrine of the " new man,"
the new moral personality, God's workmanship, " created in
Christ Jesus for good works " (Eph. ii. 10), whose nature it is
to be fruitful unto hoUness and love (cf. Gal. v. 6, vi. 15).
In the so-called Pastoral Epistles the same subject is handled
similarly, yet more summarily, as befits one writing instruc-
tions to friends familiar with the spirit behind the
concrete precepts. Allowing for this, and for the
special circumstances presupposed, there is no
more " moralism " about the " wholesome instruction " in the
Christian walk given in these epistles (i Tim. i. 10; cf. vi. 3;
2 Tim. iv. 3) than in the other group. " MoraUsm " is ethical
precept divorced from the Christian motive of grateful love,
or connected with the notion of salvation as " of works " rather
than prevenient grace. But of this there is no real trace in the
Pastorals, which are a type of letter by themselves, as regards
their recipients and certain of the aspects of church life with
which they deal. As dealing with methods of instruction and
organization, which must have occupied increasingly the atten-
tion of those responsible for the daily course of church life,
they contain nothing inappropriate to the last two years of
Paul's Hfe, when he was considering how his churches might
best be safeguarded from errors in thought and practice in his
absence or after his decease.
The main difficulties as to their substance have been imported by
anachronistic reading of them, and are falling to the ground with the
progress of exegesis and knowledge of the conditions of early church
life. Our real difficulties in conceiving the Pastorals as what they
purport to be, relate to their form, and " lie in the field of language
and of ideas as embodied in language " (Hort, Jud. Christ, p. 131).
But these, even as regards style and syntax, are reduced to narrow
limits, when once due weight is given to the fresh analogies furnished
by the now admitted Imprisonment Epistles (see also Ramsay,
Expositor, 1909). This is specially the case with the use of new
words of religious import, like " Saviour " or " Deliverer " (Soter, of
God and Christ: see Eph. v. 23; Phil. iii. 20) — the idea of which
springs naturally from Paul's own outward state, as well as from the
trials of his readers; the " washing " or " laver " of baptism (Eph. v.
26; Tit. iii. 5); the Gospel as a revealed " mystery " (Eph. passim,
esp. " the mystery " as " great," Eph. v. ;J2; i Tim. iii. 16); and the
future " appearing " of Christ (so already m 2 Thess. ii. 8; cf. Col. iii.
4). As to the use of the last term for the incarnation in 2 Tim. I. 10,
it ha-s a parallel in the " was manifested " of i Tim. iii. 16, itself a
fragment of a Christian hymn of praise to Christ, such as is implied
in Eph. v. 19, and especially Col. iii. 16. Not only is the fragment in
question one in type with that in Eph. v. 14, but may even be part
of the same hymn. Nothing could be more natural than for Paul
to weave into his epistle to Timothy the religious phraseology actu-
ally current among Pauline Christians in Asia, as we see him doing
in his repeated citations of the hortatory parts of their hymnology,
with the formula " Faithful is the (familiar) saying" (i. 15, iii. i,
16, iv. 10; cf. 2 Tim. ii. 11 seq.). All this borrowed language, and
much more that is virtually the parlance of the Asian churches,
helps to explain a comparative lack of the distinctively Pauline
element even in letters which contain highly characteristic passages.
Hence there seem no insuperable difficulties to the authenticity of all
three epistles — which most scholars recognize as at least partly
from Paul's pen, though they disagree as to the exact limits of the
genuine fragments — if only a natural historic setting can be found
for them in Paul's life. But there is a general assumption that this
cannot be found within the limits allowed by Acts. Accordingly
some reject the situations implied in them as on the whole un-
historical, while others postulate a period in Paul's life of which
Acts gives no hint, if it does not exclude it. This theory of a release
after the " two whole years " with which Acts closes, and of a second
imprisonment before the end really came, bases itself partly on the
personal notices in the Pastorals themselves (for a suggested itinerary
see e.g. Lightfoot, Biblical Essays), often full of verisimilitude, and
partly on tradition. As regards the latter, the only evidence of
real weight is the reference in a highly rhetorical passage of the
Epistle of Clement (c. a.d. 96) to Paul as having come in his universal
ministry, in East and West alike, " to the bound of the West."
But, granting that Spain be meant, there is no sign that Clement
thought of this visit as following on an imprisonment' in Rome,
I Cor. yi. 12-14, just as the denial by Hymenaeus and Philetus in
2_ Tim. ii. 17 seq. of any resurrection, save that of the spirit in conver-
sion (cf . Eph. v. 14), finds its earlier parallel in I Cor. xv. 12, 32-34.
' Add the fact that Clement (ch. vi.) conceives Paul as being
joined in the place of reward by the Neronian martyrs, and therefore
as martyred not later than summer 64. No theory of the Pastorals,
therefore, based on Clement's witness, can place Paul's death after
this date.
rather than as falling somewhere in his career, simply on the warrant
of Rom. XV. 28: while nowhere do the Pastorals themselves point
to any journey west of Rome. Further no early tradition is clear
enough to override the almost certain implication of Acts (xx. 25 and
38, read in the light of the closing chapters, and especially of xxvi. 32,
which suggests that the appeal to Caesar was a fatal step) that Paul
never visited Asia after his farewell at Miletus. Accordingly room
for the epistles must be found, if at all, before the spring of 62 in
keeping with Acts.- The following is an attempt to show how this
may be done.
The pastoral epistles reveal certain special aspects of Paul's
life and work in Rome during the " two years " of Acts xxviii. jiw.
Addressed to intimate associates, they show him in
the act of caring for his churches by deputy. In Tnus'"'
the case of Titus, indeed, the churches in question
were apparently not of Paul's own foundation, but those in
whose welfare he had become interested while sheltering on his
voyage to Rome at Fair Havens in Crete (Acts xxvii. 8 seq.).
This spot was nigh to a city named Lasea; and as they were
detained " a considerable time," for men eager to be gone, we
may well imagine Paul coming into touch with the local Chris-
tians and leaving Titus (whose presence is never alluded to in
Acts, even when proved by Paul's letters) to set in order the
defective conditions prevailing among them (Tit. i. 5). Now,
about early summer 60, we seem to see him writing further
instructions, on the basis of reports received from Titus. There
is no talk of a journey to Spain, and to judge from Paul's plan
to winter at Nicopolis (iii. 12) he expects his case to come
on too late in autumn to admit of the visit to Asia which he
had in mind only shortly before, as it seems, when referring
more indefinitely to his hopes in i Tim. iii. 14, iv. 13. Possibly
his further reference in iii. 13 to ApoUos and Zenas " the lawyer "
(bearers of the letter), as on a journey of urgency, may mean
that a date for his trial was fixed in the interval, and that he
was sending to the East to collect counter-evidence to that of
the Jews of Asia (Acts xxi. 27; cf. the later plaint in 2 Tim. i. 15,
that " aU in Asia " had " turned their backs on him ").
Paul's appeal case was not a safe topic for correspondence
(cf. Col. iv. 7 seq.), and we gather little directly on the point from
his epistles. The long delay in its hearing would be due in
part to the accusers' desire to collect evidence sufficient to
ensure success even before a tribunal thought to be less amenable
to Jewish influence than a procurator's; and, once the first
summer was past, the wintry sea (mare clausum) would postpone
things for another six months. The delay seems to have been
unexpected by Paul, and to have led him to mistaken forecasts
during his first half year in Rome, in i Tim., Titus and Philemon.
Somewhat later he expressed himself more guardedly (Phil,
ii. 2T, seq.; cf. i. 25). As to the charges on which all came to
turn, we are left to intrinsic probabilities. They were no doubt
those serious from the Roman rather than Jewish standpoint,
viz. endangering public law and order by exciting the Jews
throughout the world on religious matters, and fostering treason
against the imperial cult generally (cf. the charge at Thessa-
lonica). In defence Paul would urge the privileged position
of a Jewish monotheist, and the Jews would be at pains to
differentiate Christianity from Judaism, and so deprive it of
the status of a legally recognized religion {religio licita). If
they succeeded here, Paul's condemnation was only a matter
of time. This is the most probable issue of the case (pace
Sir W. M. Ramsay and others), both a priori and in the light
of later phenomena, e.g. i Pet. (which in 62-63 seems to imply
a recent impulse to persecution for the Name).
The rather earlier but vaguer situation implied in i Tim.
is as follows. At the moment of Paul's appeal from Caesarea
to Rome Timothy was perhaps on duty in Ephesus. , Timothy
There he would receive a message from Paul, possibly
through Aristarchus (Acts xxvii. 2, 5 seq.), in terms of good
hope as to his appeal. Timothy would in turn send word as
to the situation in Ephesus, and at the same time express his
desire to hasten to Paul's side. This would lead Paul, in
2 Also with I Pet., if Dr H. B. Swete {Comm. on St Mark, i8g8,
p. xvii.) is right in saying that it implies Paul's death; for i Pet.
probably dates from 62-63 (see Dr Hort's Comm.).
952
PAUL, THE APOSTLE
sending him a letter of encouragement and specific instructions,
to open with a sentence (characteristically wanting a gram-
matical conclusion) in which he recalls a parallel case, where
he had exhorted Timothy to "stay on" in Ephesus' {i.e. in
A.D. 56). Nor was the need less urgent now, owing to Judaic
" fables " touching the primitive period of biblical history
("genealogies"), meant to bear on certain parts of the Law
(i. 4-7) as of universal religious validity. At Ephesus (as also
in Crete) much the same type of Judaism as was re-emerging
at Colossae was reacting on local Christianity; while here and
there were traces of dualistic antinomian theory (see i. 19 seq.;
cf. 2 Tim. ii. 17 seq.). The general need of the hour was whole-
some Christian ethics applied all round, supported by firmer
organization in church life, especially with a view to check
irresponsible teaching (i Tim. v. 17, vi. 3; Tit. i. 9-11; 2 Tim.
ii. 2, iv. 3). To the special local problems Paul addresses
himself in this letter, but above all to the bracing of Timothy's
somewhat sensitive nature to face the opposition which he
must encounter as a Christian leader at such a time (note the
similes of the soldier and athlete, both of whom face hardship
readily, as part of their profession, i. 18, v. 8 sqq., vi. 12 seq., 20;
2 Tim. ii. 3 sqq., iv. 5). In this connexion occur also certain
autobiographic passages, as well as solemn affirmations of his
own divine commission {e.g. i. i, 11 sqq., ii. 7), the aim of which
is to reassure his disciple that his gospel will bear all the strain
that is being put upon it, or can be in the future (cf. Eph. vi.
19 seq. for all this). Here Paul is answering challenges which
he knows are being made in Timothy's hearing on every side,
especially now that the apostle seemed less likely to return to
Asia. He himself does not flinch, because he knows he had
not run save "at the command of God" (i. i), after being
wondrously changed from his former self (i. 12 sqq.). Thus
as to the authority of the Gospel " committed to his charge,"
however much it may be called in question (i. 10 seq., ii. 7),
he has no shadow of doubt.
When the curtain rises for the last time, it is on the morrow
of the long-expected hearing of Paul's appeal. The case stands
2 Timoth adjourned, but he is no longer under any illusion
as to its final issue. His one comfort is that by
the Lord's support he had been delivered from the greatest
danger, " the mouth of the lion " ready to " swallow up "
(cf. I Pet. v. 8) his soul through craven fear, as he stood
solitary before Caesar. From that the Lord had rescued him,
and would yet rescue him from every " work of ill " (2 Tim.
iv. 16-18). Yet his earthly work is done (iv. 6 seq.). So he
writes to Timothy, his " beloved child," whom now he longs
to see once more. But lest this should not be granted him, he
prefixes to the summons a last will and testament, which may
help Timothy to rise above the dismay which his death at the
hands of Roman law is bound to cause. Let Timothy take
up the Gospel torch as it falls from his own dying hand, and " do
the work of an Evangelist," heeding not the hardship. Then
after providing for the Gospel, he turns to more personal interests.
" Hasten to me with all speed," he says in effect, " for I am all
alone, save for Luke. My other trusty friends are away on
various missions, and Demas has deserted the sinking ship.
Tychicus I had already sent to Ephesus; he will replace you.
Pick up Mark and bring him with you — he is so helpful. Bring
my cloak, papers and books [copies of the Scriptures], lying
in Carpus's hands at Troas "^ — perhaps since Acts xx. 6 sqq.
" Alexander the bronze-worker [an old Jewish foe at Ephesus,
Acts xix. 33] did me many a bad turn in my case {his case is in
the Lord's hands); be on thy guard against him." Then follow
allusions to Paul's " first defence," unsupported by such as might
' It is quite likely that Timothy left Ephesus for Rome before
receiving i Tim., since he was with Paul when Colossians and
Philippians were written, the former at least in the summer of 60
(see Philem. 22).
^ It seems best to take iv. 13-15 as all part of this letter, rather
than as part of the note from which iv. 20, 2i» probably comes
(see above). The homely details follow naturally enough on the
reference to Mark ; while the reference to Alexander is so far borne
out by Heb. xiii. 23, which suggests that Timothy was accused
on his arrival in Rome.
have appeared on his behalf (especially from Asia; cf. i. 15);
and next salutations to Prisca and Aquila, and to the house of
Onesiphorus — an Ephesian who had sought Paul out in Rome
(i. i6-i8).
So the curtain falls for the last time. But Paul's fate is
hardly obscure. He himself saw that the charge against him,
unrebutted by independent evidence, must bring him to the
executioner's sword, the last penalty for a Roman citizen.
With this late 2nd-century tradition agrees (TertuUian, De
praescr. haer. 36), naming the very spot on the Ostian Way,
marked by a martyr-memorial {tropaion, Caius ap. Euseb. ii. 25),
probably at the modern Tre Fontane, some three miles from
Rome. But the traditional date (June 29) reaches us only on
far later authority. Acts simply suggests the first half of A.D.
62; and we may imagine Timothy reaching Rome in time to
share Paul's last days (cf. Heb. xiii. 23).
Early Tradition has little to say about Paul. Possibly the earliest
reference outside the New Testament is a Christian addition to
the Testament of Benjamin, xi., which describes a Benjamite as
" enlightening with new knowledge the Gentiles." The notice in
Clement's epistle (ch. v.) to Paul's having borne bonds " seven
times " may be mere rhetoric (perhaps based on 2 Cor. xi. 23).
Ignatius refers with reference (cf. Rom. iv. 3) to Paul as his example
in martyrdom {Ad Eph. xii. 2); similarly Polycarp {Ad Phil. iii. 2)
deprecates the notion that he, or any other like him, could rival
" the wisdom of the blessed and glorious Paul," and refers to his
letter(s) to the Philippians. The Acts of Paul, composed not long
after A.D. 150 by an Asian presbyter, in order to glorify Paul by
supplementing Luke's story, is striking evidence of the regard felt
for him in certain circles; but it contains (so far as extant in the
Coptic, which also enables us to identify other documents as once
parts of these Acts) no fresh data, unless the episode dealing with
Paul and Thekla echoes an original tradition belonging to Iconium
and Pisidian Antioch. Its description of Paul as " a man small in
size, bald, bow-legged, sturdy, with eyebrows meeting and a slightly
prominent nose, full of grace " in expression, may or may not be
based on local memories (see 2 Cor. x. 10; cf. Diet. Christ. Antiq. ii.,
162 1, for early representations of him). The hostile conception of
him lying behind the Simon of our Clementine literature {q.v.)
has no historic value; and the same may be said of all traditions not
to be traced earlier than the 3rd century (cf. R. A. Lipsius, Die
apokr. Apostelgesch. u.s.w., and C. Clemen, Paulus, i. 331 sqq.).
Paul's personality is one of the most striking in history. No
character of the distant past is known to us more fully, both from
within and from without, thanks largely to the self-revealing quality
of his letters. His was a deep, complex, many-sided nature, varying
widely in mood, yet all so concentrated by moral unity of purpose
that the variety of gift and sensibility is apt to escape notice.
During his career every faculty comes into play, and we realize how
largely human he was. " Even though Paul was an apostle," says
Chrysostom, " still he was a man." A true picture of him must
preserve the vital unity in which these two aspects appear in our
sources. To judge him save through that vocation which he himself
felt to determine all his being, is to fall into unreality. To view him
as a mere individual is vain. He cannot be judged entirely by com-
mon standards, whether religious or ethical ; for owing to his vocation
his personality had an universal import which must needs put him
out of ordinary human perspective at certain points. Further, we
must allow for his limited temporal horizon, shut in for practical
purposes by a near Parousia, conceived as bringing ordinary history
to an abrupt close, and the hope of which foreshortened all issues.
Bearing this in mind, we shall wonder, not so much at any other-
worldly spirit or peremptoriness of tone, which were positive duties
under such conditions, but rather at the sanity of temper and moral
judgment which mark the apostle amid his consuming zeal " by
all means to save some " from " the wrath " soon to be revealed
against sin and unrighteousness (l Thess. i. 10; Rom. i. 18). We
must remember too that he lived in an atmosphere of intense " en-
thusiasm," in the most Hteral sense, among those who felt that " the
powers of the coming age " (Heb. vi. A seq.) were already at work
in " the saints," men possessed by the divine afflatus and made as it
were but organs of the Spirit of God. Viewed in such an environ-
ment, Paul is seen to have been a great steadying influence, insisting
on character as the normal fruit of the Spirit and the real ground of
human worth (i Cor. xiii. 1-3); insisting also that possession by the
Spirit did not supersede responsibility for self-control (xiy. 32 seq.),
and that the element of conscious reason was superior to blind ecstasy
(xiv. I sqq.). He spoke from full personal experience; for he exercised
every gift on the list in i Cor. xii. 8. Yet with clear and ever-growing
emphasis he defined spirituality in moral terms, those of the will
informed by love like that of Christ. How great this service was,
none can say. It was his balanced attitude to the operations of the
Spirit — outwardly the most di.stinctive thing in Christianity, as
compared with Judaism — an attitude at once reverent and reason-
able, that saved the Church from fanaticism on the one hand or
PAUL, THE APOSTLE
moralism on the other. It was his own experience as a passionate
seeker after righteousness which gave him the key to that reinter-
pretation of Jesus the Christ as at once moral ideal, master motive
and immanent principle of life at work in the soul by the Spirit
which was peculiarly his own and may be styled his ethical mysti-
cism. This was his main contribution to Christianity ; and as depend-
ing on his personal experience, it was bound up closely with his
personality — a fact which makes his direct influence, while intense,
yet rather limited in its area of appeal.
At the root of Paul's nature lay the Hebrew capacity for personal
devotion to the Divine as moral perfection, to an unf)ounded degree.
It found its object in a concrete form, stirring both imagination and
affections, in Jesus the Christ, " the image of the invisible God "
whose spiritual glory man was created to reflect. This instinct for
ideal devotion seems never to have been diverted, even for a season,
into a single human channel, in the love of woman, p'rom his early
youth his soul was preoccupied by a passion for God and His will in
His people. This he came to regard as a special divine gift or voca-
tion (i Cor. vii. 7), imposing on its possessor, in the face of the world's
needs (cf. 29-31), a higher duty than could be fulfilled within the
conditions of the closest of human relations (32-35). But the tender-
ness and chivalrous self-sacrifice which found no vent in the ordinary
channel came to pour itself forth in an absorbing love for his churches,
which were to him as his own spouse, though his aim was rather to
" present them as a pure virgin to Christ " (2 Cor. xi. 2). This
educated his human affections, and softened the outlines of a nature
inflexibly loyal to principle and absorbed with the divine aspect of
life. Thus it was through " the love of Christ " constraining him to
look at all, as it were, through Christ's eyes, that Paul came to love
men even to the point of a self-forgctfulness that seemed to some
hardly sane (2 Cor. v. 13-16"; cf. Mark iii. 21, " He is beside him-
self "). So too his proud, strong-willed spirit gradually put on
" the meekness and conciliatoriness of Christ " to such a degree that
during the Corinthian troubles his critics contrasted the vigour of
his letters with the seeming feebleness of his outward bearing
(2 Cor. X. I, 10).
There is no good evidence that his presence was physically weak
or unimpressive, even if his stature was small, as tradition has it
(see above; cf. Acts xiv. 12). Nor is there any sign that he bore
habitual traces of those periodic attacks of some nervous affection —
allied to epilepsy,' but apparently not involving loss of consciousness
— to which, as dating from a certain overpowering trance about
42-43, he refers in 2 Cor. xii. 7 sqq. These were most humiliating
while they lasted (cf. Gal. iv. 14). But they seem not to have drained
his vigour even for great and constant labours of body and mind.
His energy indeed was portentous, as he himself felt, when he traced
it to the divine power " energizing mightily " in him (i Cor. xv. 10,
Col. i. 29), and that most effectively when he felt weakest in himself
(2 Cor. xii. 9 seq.).
Not only had Paul a supernormal spiritual force, marked by a rare
combination of religious inspiration and reasoning power, which
made him impressive both as speaker and writer, he had also a genius
for adaptation to varied mental conditions, due partly to his
Hellenistic training, but also to the fact [that his message was one
not of the letter but of spirit and power (cf. 2 Cor. iii. 4 sqq.). This
showed itself as tact in relation to individuals and special audiences,
and as statesmanlike breadth of view in handling large problems of
principle, such as were constantly emerging in relation to the Jewish
and Gentile types of Christianity, and again as to the Christian
attitude to the pagan state (Rom. xiii. i sqq.). He combined grasp
with vital flexibility in a degree which made him the prince of
missionaries. He was the prophet in the originality of his message ;
he was the theologian in the reflective interpretation which he gave
to it, in terms derived mainly from a profound knowledge of Jewish
thought, liberalized by contact with another world, the Graeco-
Roman; but above all he was the missionary in the attitude in which
he stood to his gospel and to men as its subjects. There was in him
nothing doctrinaire: to that, along with the legal attitude, he had
been crucified with Christ, for both belonged to " the rudiments of
the world " of sense (i Cor. xiii. 8 sqq. ; 2 Cor. x. 4 seq. ; Col. ii. 20 seq. ;
Phil. iv. 7). Accordingly he was great as an organizer of a new order
among his Gentile churches, where much was left to local instinct
informed by the one Spirit, while yet he jealously cared for such
unity in usages as seemed needful to the embodiment of the one life
of the Spirit in all, Jew and Gentile ahke (i Cor. iv. 17, xv. 33, 36).
In particular he showed his Christian largeness in his exertions to
keep in communion the two sections of Christ's people, to the point
of risking his life for this end.
In his more personal relations he had the power of feeling and
inspiring friendship of the noblest order, a comradeship " in Christ
which fills his letters with delightful touches of loyal affection and
trust, even of playfulness on occasion (Philem.). He was a man of
heart, with rapid alternations of mood, with nothing of the Stoic
' See Lightfoot, Galatians, pp. 183 sqq., who cites King Alfred as a
parallel; and Hastings's Did. Bible, iii. 701. Sir W. M. Ramsay,
St Paul the Traveller, pp. 94 sqq., prefers " a species of chronic
malarial fever," connecting it specially with the attack mentioned
in Gal. iv. 13 sqq.
953
in his self-mastery, which was an acquired grace, rooted in the
" peace of God " (Phil. iv. 7, 10-13). Indeed it was in his impetuous,
choleric temperament that there lurked " the last infirmity " of his
soul, which at times betrayed him into vehemence of expression
(Acts xxii. 4 seq.) and a sweeping harshness of judgment (cf. 2 Cor. vii.
8 seq.), especially where he had detected disingenuous conduct in
those who were interfering with his work for Christ or imputing base
motives to himself, like the judaizers in Galatia and t'orinth (cf.
Phil. iii. 2). As to the charge of egoism, based on the emphasis he
lays on his own person as medium of Christ's mind and will, it
can hold only so far as Paul can be shown to do this gratuitously, and
not really in the interests of his vocation. By this latter standard
alone can an apostle be judged. Paul is careful, moreover, to dis-
tinguish his ordinary and his vocational self (2 Cor. xii. 5), as well
as what he says as quoting Christ, as speaking qua apostle (i Cor.
vii. 10, 12), and again as simply one found " faithful " (ib. 25).
Such is not the way of egoists or fanatics.
In his Epistles Paul found a fitting vehicle for his personality,
whereby to speak not only to his own age but also to kindred souls
all down the ages, so coming to spiritual life again and again, when
buried under convention and tradition. For the letter is the most
spontaneous form of writing, nearest in nature to conversation,
and leaving personality most free. No doubt Paul's letters followed
current forms (cf. G. A. Deissmann, Bible Studies, 1901, ch. i.).
But he transfigured what he used by the new fullness of meaning
infused into address, salutation, final messages and benediction.
His letters are indeed " the life-blood of a noble spirit," poured forth
to nourish its spiritual offspring (cf. i Thess. ii. 7 seq.). They are data
for his Life and form incidentally an immovable critical basis for
historical Christianity, on which the hypercriticism of Van Manen
and others (see Ency. biblica, s.v. " Paul ") can make no real im-
pression. On the other hand, as the sources of our knowledge of
" Paulinism," they impose by their very form certain limits to our
effort to reduce his thought to system. Canon R. J. Knowling's
Witness of the Epistles (1892) and The Testimony of St Paul to Christ
(1905) contain full summaries of all bearing on Paul's epistles. The
history of the collection of Paul's letters into a corpus styled " The
Apostle," for reading in Christian worship, is very significant, so far
as we can trace it. The reference in 2 Pet. iii. 15 seq. would be of
high value, were the date of 2 Pet. itself not so doubtful. The first
definite notice we possess of a canon of Pauline epistles is that of the
ultra-Pauline Marcion, who used ten Pauline epistles (c. 140). Cer-
tain apocryphal Pauline epistles appeared in early times, beginning
with one To the Alexandrines, forged in the interests of Marcionism
(Canon Murat), and an exchange of letters between the Corinthians
and Paul, originally part of the Acta Pauli (ed. C. Schmidt, pp. 145-
160). _ For the forged correspondence between Paul and Seneca,
see Lightfoot, Philippians, pp. 329-333.
II. Paulinism. — Of recent years the ambiguity lurking in
this term, as used to describe Paul's teaching as a whole, has
been fully realized, and efforts have been made to distinguish
what is distinctive and essential from what is traditional in form
and relative in importance. For Paul, if " the first Christian
theologian," was no systematic theologian. His mind was
fundamentally Semitic. It seized on one truth at a time,
penetrating to the underlying principle with extraordinary
power and viewing it successively from various sides. But,
unlike a Greek thinker, he did not labour to reduce the sum
of his principles to formal harmony in a system. In the absence
of such critical testing of his thought by Paul himself, we must
observe his relative emphasis and the varying causes of this,
whether personal conviction or externa! occasion. Even when
this is done it still remains to ask how much represents direct
spiritual vision, due to " revelation," and how much traditional
forms of thought or imagination, adopted by him as the most
natural vehicle of expression occurring to his mind in a given
mental environment. That Paul himself was conscious of the
limitations here implied, is clear from what he says in i Cor.
xiii. 9 sqq. as to the transience of the conceptions used by
himself and others to body forth divine ideas and relations.
After all, his was the theology of a prophet rather than a
philosopher. Hence we have to distinguish what may be
styled " personal Paulinism," the generalization of his own
religious experience, from his apologetic exposition of it over
against current Pharisaic Judaism if largely in its terms and
also from the speculative setting which it took on in his mind,
as his experience enlarged and the thoughts of his converts
suggested fresh points of view.
It is mainly in this last sphere that development is traceable
in Paulinism. Some idea of its nature and extent has already
been given in connexion with Paul's life. If one must attempt
954
PAUL, THE APOSTLE
to reproduce the Pauline " system " as a whole, it is best to take
the form in which it appears in the Epistle to the Romans,
and then supplement it with the fresh elements in the later
epistles (so far as these seem really to be in terms of the writer's
thought, rather than his readers'), instead of constructing an
amalgam from the whole range of his epistles taken pro-
miscuously. Paulinism, in the widest sense,' includes much
that is not distinctively his at all; what can here be given is
confined to Paul's specific contribution to Christianity.
i. Paulinism proper springs from an absorbing passion for a
righteousness real from the heart outwards, real before God. This
could not be satisfied by " works of the Law," i.e. deeds prompted
by the categorical imperative of Law, itself viewed as the will of
God and supported by sanctions of reward and penalty. Two things
hindered; "the flesh," the sensuous element in human nature,
positively prone to sin since the first man's trespass introduced an
actual bias to evil (Rom. v. 12, 14, 19) ; and (the) Law itself, a form
of divine claim which acted on man's sinful nature as a challenge and
irritant to his egoism, so breeding either positive rebellion or self-
confident pride, but in neither case real righteousness before God.
Thus the main effect of Law was negative; it brought to light the
sin latent in " the flesh," i.e. the personality as conditioned by the
post-Adamic flesh. From this deliverance could come only by
divine interposition or redemption, achieving at once reconciliation
and regeneration by the removal of guilt and the creation of a new
moral dynamic. Justification, then, or the placing of man in a state
in which God could reckon him radically righteous, must be due to
" grace " apart altogether from " works of law " and their desert.
The medium of such grace was the Christ, in whom the claims of the
dispensation of Law, in its typical form as the Jewish Thorah, were
satisfied by death, while the Resurrection set the seal of God's ap-
proval upon Christ's fulfilment of righteousness (Rom. v. 17-19;
I Cor. XV. 17) on the new and higher plane of filial obedience by love
to God as Father.
Thus what the Law could not do, in its weakness in relation to the
flesh, had been divinely achieved by God's Son, the Messiah, in
virtue of " the Spirit of life " in Him, which annulled " sin and
death " in human nature (Rom. viii. 2-4), first in the flesh of Christ
Himself as second Adam, and then in the humanity which_ should
be united to Him as spiritual Head (i Cor. xv. 45). This union was
affected by faith, a profound receptivity whereby the personality of
the Saviour became as it were the germ cf the new moral personality
of the believer. He was " in Christ " and Christ " in him " by a
mutual spiritual interpenetration, begun on Christ's side by vica-
rious self-sacrificing love, and consummated on the believer's side by
self-surrendering trust under the influence of the Spirit of God and
Christ (Gal. ii. 20; Rom. viii. 9, 15 seq.).
Such mystic union by faith (cf. Eph. iii. 16-19) is the very nerve of
Paulinism, having two main aspects. In its initial aspect, it is the
real basis of justification (as radical sanctification) and regeneration:
in its abiding aspect, it is the secret of progressive sanctification or
assimilation to the image of Christ, Himself " the image of God."
To the one aspect corresponds the initial rite of baptism ; to the other
the recurring rite of communion in the Lord's Supper. These have
both an essentially corporate significance. It is as members of the
mystical Body of Christ — or rather of the mystic Christ, consisting
of Christ the Head and of His Body the Church — that believers,
already united to the Head by faith, partake in these sacraments
(i Cor. xii. 12 seq., x. 16 seq.).
The keystone of all this is the Christ of God, the glorified Christ
who appeared to Paul at his conversion, and in the rays of whose
heavenly glory the earthly life of Jesus of Nazareth was ever seen.
Here, as elsewhere, the mode of Paul's conversion determined his
whole perspective. It differentiated his emphasis from that of the
older Judaeo-Christianity, which always started from the earthly
manifestation, while it looked fixedly forward to the future mani-
festation in glory (of which the Resurrection appearances were the
fore-gleams). To Paul the glorified Jesus or spirit-Christ (i Cor.
XV. 45; 2 Cor. iii. 18) of his vision became the Christ mystical
of permanent, present Christian faith and experience. In union
with Him the believer was already essentially ''saved," because
possessed of Christ's spirit of Sonship (Rom. viii. 9, 14-17, 30),
although his redemption was not complete until the body was in-
cluded, like the soul, in the penetrating " life " of the Spirit (viii.
23-25, 10 seq.). Accordingly he shifted the centre of gravity in
Christian faith decisively from the future aspect of the Kingdom,
to the present life of righteousness enjoyed by believers through
" the first-fruits of the Spirit " in them. Here lay his great advance
on Judaeo-Christianity, with its preponderant eschatological em-
phasis, along with a more external conception of Jesus, as Jewish
Messiah, and of relation to Him. To this mode of thought Christ
was not the very principle of the new filial righteousness. In a word,
while Judaeo-Christianity only implicitly or unconsciously tran-
scended legalism, Paulinism did so explicitly and consciously, thus
' One of the best critical summaries of " Pauline Theology " is
that by E. Hatch in the Ency. Brit. 9th ed.
safeguarding the future. For Paul's religion was Christocentric
in a sense unknown before. Compared with this, his distinctive
attitude of soul to Christ, the exact metaphysical conception he
formed of Christ's pre-existence was secondary and conditioned by
inherited modes of thought. His own specific contribution was his
consciousness of Christ's complete religious efiicacy, which marked
Him as essentially Divine, the Son of God in the highest sense
conceivable under human conditions.
ii. Jesus and Paul. — In calling Paulinism " Christocentric," one
raises the question as to its relation to the Gospel proclaimed by
Jesus. That Paul conceived himself as utterly dependent for his
gospel upon Jesus the Christ, is not in doubt, but only how far he
unconsciously modified the Gospel by making Christ its subject
matter rather than its revealer. In one aspect this is but the
question as to Paul's attitude to the historic Jesus over again: yet
it is more. Granting that Paul felt his gospel to be in essential
agreement with the words and deeds of Jesus of Nazareth, as known
to him, it remains to ask whether he did not put all into so fresh a
perspective as to change the relative emphasis on points central to
the teaching of Jesus, and so alter its spirit. A school of writers,
by no means unappreciative of Paul as they understand him, of
whom W. Wrede may be taken as example, answer that Paul so
changed Christianity as to become its " second founder " — the real
founder of ecclesiastical Christianity as distinct from the Christianity
of Jesus. They say, " either Jesus or Paul: it cannot be both at
once." They urge not only that Paulinism is involved in certain
" mythological " conceptions, by its view of sin, of redemption and
of the pre-existent celestial person of the Redeemer ; but also that,
apart from the Rabbinic and anti-Rabbinic element in Paul, his
whole mystical attitude towards Christ as the medium of redemption
(an idea borrowed, they say, not from Jesus Himself but from the
religion of the Mysteries) is alien to the sunny and sane teaching of
Jesus as to God and man, and their true relations.
The essential issue here is this. Could Jesus the Messiah set forth
the Gospel in the same perspective as a devoted disciple of His ?
Must not the personal embodiment of the life of the Messianic king-
dom by Jesus Himself, and so His personality, become the prime
medium through which this life in its essential features, and
especially in its spirit of devoted love, attains and maintains its hold
upon the souls of men ? Surely the new life must appear most
fully and movingly sub specie Chrisli; and the imitatio Christi,
in an inner sense which finds in Him the very principle of the new
Christian consciousness as to God and man, must be the most
direct and morally potent means to the realization of the Christ-
type. Thus to say that Paulinism is practically and proximately
" Christocentric," is not to deny that it is ultimately and theoretically
" Theocentric," if only Christ be regarded as the revealer of God the
Father, and that in virtue of a special community of nature with
Him as Son. It may be questioned whether Paul attained, or
indeed had within his reach in that age, the best intellectual equiva-
lent of his religious intuition of Christ as " mediator between God
and man." But it is another matter to question whether his intui-
tion that the personality of the Christ Himself was the secret of the
spiritual power latent in His Gospel, be a true interpretation of the
Gospel as it appears even in the Synoptics.^ Thus the truth seems to
lie rather with those who see in Paul " Jesus's most genuine disciple "
(H. Weinel), the one who best understood and reproduced His
thought. True, Jesus's Gospel is one seen through the sinless con-
sciousness of the Saviour, while Paul's is one seen through the eyes
of a conscious sinner. But that is the perspective in which mankind
generally has to view the Gospel ; and apart from the special intensity
of Paul's personal experience of sin, the Gospel as it " found " him
may surely be in principle the needful experimental complement
to the Gospel as set forth in more ideal form by Jesus Himself. By
restoring Jesus's own stress upon " eternal life " as present rather
than future, and that on lines other than those of obedience to a
divine law, Paul saved Christianity from a judaizing of the universal
and spiritual religion with which Jesus had in fact inspired His
personal disciples, but which they had not been able to grasp.
No doubt there is another side to all this, the side of Paul's idio-
syncrasy, both religiously and as a thinker. The peculiar depth and
form of Paul's religious experience, especially as regards sin, have
proved a limitation to his direct and full influence. While
" numberless men have discovered themselves in reading Paul,"
more have not been " found " by him; and of those who have felt
the religious appeal of his writings, not a few have gravely misunder-
stood the theoretic setting of his message. Indeed misunderstanding,
one way or another, was Paul's usual lot in the ancient Church,'
as regards his most distinctive ideas, due partly to the difficult form
in which some of those ideas were couched. But to say this is little
more than saying that Paulinism is a less universal form of the Gospel
than that given it by his Master Jesus Christ. To do full justice
'^ The whole history of Christianity is proof that the personality
of Jesus has counted for more in producing Christians than his
teaching per se, that is, his Gospel in the narrower sense. And it
was Paul, not the older apostles, who first concentrated attention
on that personality as the type and pledge of man's potential son-
ship to God.
' See S. Means, Saint Paul and the ante-Nicene Church (1903).
PAUL (POPES)
955
to Paulinism in this respect, we must compare it with other
interpretations of Jesus and His Gospel in the age irnmediately
ensuing. At the one extreme stands Judaeo-Christianity (so far
as uninfluenced by Paul), with its ultra-conservatism and un-
developed spirituality; at the other Gnosticism, with its ultra-
spiritualism, born of a rigid dualism and defective sense for historical
continuity in revelation. Between these stands Paul, blending
the positive ideas of both in a religious unity of immense ethi-
cal power and initiative; while the other and intermediate types
represented in the New Testament — by i Peter, Hebrews and the
Johannine writings — all testify to his pervasive influence.
Literature. — For this in anything like its immense range, refer-
ence may be made to the articles " Paul " in Hastings's Diet. Bible,
the Ency. Bib., A. Hauck's Realencyklopadie (Zahn); to R. J. Know-
ling's Witness of the Epistles (1892) and The Testimony of St Paul to
Christ (1905), and C. Clemen, Paulus (1904), the footnoted of which
are a mine of information on this subject. Besides these, the
leading works on New Testament introduction or theology and
on the apostolic age deal largely with Paul, and often contain biblio-
graphies. The following works may be taken as fairly typical : —
1. For Paul's Life: A. Neander, Gesch. der Pflanziing . . . der
christl. Kirche, vol. i. (4th ed., 1847; Eng. trans, in Bohn's Library),
and Lives by F. C. Baur (1845, 1866) ; G. V. Lechler, Das apost. . . .
Zeitalter (1851; 3rd cd., 1885; Eng. trans. 1886); E. Renan (1869);
T. Lewin (1851, 1874, rich in archaeology); Conybeare and Howson
(1852 and later) ; H. Ewald, History of Israel (vol. vi., 3rd ed., 1868) ;
M. Krenkel (1869); A. Hausrath (2nd ed., 1872); F. W. Farrar
(1879); A. Sabatier (2nd ed., 1881); K. Schmidt, Die Apostelgesch.
(vol. i., 1882) ; C. Weizsackcr, Das apost. Zeitalter (1886; Eng. trans.,
1894) ; W. M. Ramsay, St Paul the Traveller and Roman Citizen
(1896); A. C. McGiffert, The Apostolic Age (1897); O. Cone (1898);
C. Clemen (1904); B. W. Bacon (1905). Some of these deal largely
with Paul's teaching.
2. For Paul's Teaching: L. Usteri, Die Entwickelung des pauli-
nischen Lehrbegriffs (i824;6thed. 1851); Baur's Paulus (1845, 1866);
A. Ritschl, Die Entsteh. d. allkath. Kirche (2nd ed., 1857) ; E. Reuss,
Hist, de la theol. chrit. au sibcle apostolique, tome ii. (3rd cd., 1864;
Eng. trans., 1872); B. Jowett, essays in his Epistles of St Paul to
the Thess., &c. (2nd ed., 1859); C. Holsten, Zum Evang. d. Paulus u.
Petrus (1868), &c. ; J. B. Lightfoot, dissertations in his Commentaries:
Matthew Arnold, St Paul and Protestantism (1870); O. Pfleiderer,
Der Paulinismus (1873; Eng. trans. 1877), also Hibbert Lecture
(1885) and Das Urchristentum, vol. i. (2nd ed., 1902; Eng. trans.,
1907) ; A. Sabatier, L'Apotre Paul (1881) ; E. M^n^goz, Le Piche et la
rMemption d'apres S. Paul (1882); J. F. Clarke, The Ideas of the
Apostle Paul (1884); G. B. Stevens, The Pauline Theology (1892);
A. B. Bruce, St Paul's Conception of Christianity (1894) ; C. C. Everett,
The Gospel of Paul; G. Matheson, The Spiritual Development of
St Paul: P. Feine, Das gesetzfreie Evang. des Paulus (1899); brief
sketches by W. Bousset, H. Weincl, W. Wrede, P. Wernle (also his
Anfdnge unserer Religion, 1901 ; Eng. trans., 1904), and A. Julicher
(in Die Kultur der Gegenwart, 1905, I. iv. i, 69-97); but especially
W. Sanday, article " Paul " in Diet, of Christ and the Gospels (1908),
where the literature bearing on " Jesus and Paul " will be found.
For commentaries, see under the several epistles. (J. V. B.)
PAUL (Paulus), the name of five popes.
Paul I., pope from 757 to 767, succeeded his brother Stephen
IIL on the 2gth of May 757. His pontificate was chiefly
remarkable for his close alliance with Pippin, king of the Franks,
to whom he made a present of books highly significant of the
intellectual poverty of the times; and for his unsuccessful
endeavours to effect a reconciliation with the iconoclastic
emperor of the East, Constantino Copronymus. He died on
the 28th of June 767. His successor was Stephen IV.
Paul II. (Pietro Barbo), pope from the 30th of August
1464 to the 26th of July 1471, was born at Venice in 1417.
Intended for a business career, he took orders during the pon-
tificate of his uncle, Eugenius IV., and was appointed suc-
cessively archdeacon of Bologna, bishop of Cervia, bishop of
Piacenza, protonotary of the Roman Church, and in 1440
cardinal-deacon of Sta Maria Nuova. He was made cardinal-
priest of Sta Cecilia, then of St Marco by Nicholas V., was a
favourite of Calixtus III. and was unanimously and unexpectedly
elected the successor of Pius II. He immediately declared that
election " capitulations," which cardinals had long been in
the habit of affirming as rules of conduct for future popes,
could affect a new pope only as counsels, not as binding obliga-
tions. He opposed with some success the domineering policy
of the Venetian government in Italian affairs. His repeated
condemnations of the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges resulted
in strained relations with Louis XI. of France. He pronounced
excommunication and deposition against King George Podiebrad
on the 23rd of December 1466 for refusal to enforce the Basel
agreement against the Utraquists, and prevailed on Matthias
Corvinus, king of Hungary, to declare war against him on the
31st of March 1468. Matthias was not particularly successful,
but George Podiebrad died on the 22nd of March 1471. The
pope carried on fruitless negotiations (1469) with the emperor
Frederick III. for a crusade against the Turks. Paul endea-
voured to make drastic reforms in the curia, and abolished the
college of abbreviators (1466), but this called forth violent
protests from the historian Platina, one of their number and
subsequently librarian under Sixtus IV., who is responsible
for the fiction that Paul was an illiterate persecutor of learning.
It is true that the pope suppressed the Roman academy, but on
religious grounds. On the other hand he was friendly to
Christian scholars; he restored many ancient monuments;
made a magnificent collection of antiquities and works of art;
built the Palazzo di St Marco, now the Palazzo di Venezia; and
probably first introduced printing into Rome. Paul embellished
the costume of the cardinals, collected jewels for his own adorn-
ment, provided games and food for the Roman people and
practically instituted the carnival. He began in 1469 a revision
of the Roman statutes of 1363 — a work which was not completed
until 1490. Paul established the special tax called the quin-
dcnnium in 1470, and by buU of the same year (April 19)
announced the jubilee for every twenty-five years. He began
negotiations with Ivan III. for the union of the Russian Church
with the Roman see. Paul was undoubtedly not a man of
quick parts or unusual views, but he was handsome, attractive,
strong-willed, and has never been accused of promoting nephews
or favourites. He died very suddenly, probably of apoplexy,
on the 26th of July, 147 1, and was succeeded by Sixtus IV.
The principal contemporary lives of Paul II., including that by
Platina, are in L. Muratori, Rerum ital. scriptores, iii. pt. 2, and
in Raynaldus, Annates ecclesiastici (1464-1471). The inventory
of his personal efTects, published by E. Muntz (Les Arts, ii., 1875),
is a valuable document for the history of art. See also L. Pastor,
History of the Popes, vol. iv. ; trans, by F. I. Antrobus (London,
1898); M. Creighton, History of the Papacy, vol. iv. (London, 1901);
F. Gregorovius, Rome in the Middle A ges_, vol. vii. (trans, by Mrs G. W.
Hamilton, London, 1900-1902); H. L'Epinois, Paul II.: F. Palacky,
Geschichte von Bdhmen, Bd. IV.-V. (Prague, 1860-1865); Aus den
Annalen-Registern der Pdpste Eugen IV., Pius II., Paul II., u.
Sixtus IV., ed. by K. Hayn (Cologne, 1896). There is an excel-
lent article by C. Benrath in Hauck's, Realencyklopadie (3rd ed.),
vol. XV. (C. H. Ha.)
Paul III. (Alessandro Famese), pope from 1534 to 1549, was
born on the 28th of February 1468, of an old and distinguished
family. As a pupil of the famous Pomponius Laetus, and,
subsequently, as a member of the circle of Cosmo de' Medici,
he received a finished education. From Florence he passed
to Rome, and became the father of at least two children, later
legitimized. Upon entering the service of the Church, however,
he lived more circumspectly. His advancement was rapid.
To the liaison between his sister Giulia Famese Orsini and
Alexander VI. he owed his cardinal's hat; but the steady
favour which he enjoyed under successive popes was due to
his own cleverness and capacity for affairs. His election to
the papacy, on the 13th of October 1534, to succeed Clement VII.,
was virtually without opposition.
The pontificate of Paul III. forms a turning-point in the
history of the papacy. The situation at his accession was
grave and complex: the steady growth of Protestantism, the
preponderant power of the emperor and his prolonged wars
with France, the advances of the Turks, the uncertain mind
of the Church itself — all conspired to produce a problem involved
and delicate. Paul was shrewd, calculating, tenacious; but
on the other hand over-cautious, and inclined rather to temporize
than to strike at the critical moment. His instincts and
ambitions were those of a secular prince of the Renaissance;
but circumstances forced him to become the patron of reform.
By the promotion to the cardinalate of such men as Contarini,
Caraffa, Pole and Morone, and the appointment of a commission
to report upon existing evils and their remedy, the way was
opened for reform; while by the introduction of the Inquisition
956
PAUL (POPES)
into Italy (1542), the establishment of the censorship and the
Index (1543), and the approval of the Society of Jesus (1540),
most efficient agencies were set on foot for combating heresy.
But in the matter of a general council, so urgently desired by
the emperor, Paul showed himself irresolute and procras-
tinating. Finally on the 13th of December 1545 the Council
assembled in Trent; but when the victories of Charles V. seemed
to threaten its independence it was transferred to Bologna
(March 1547) and not long afterwards suspended (Sept. 1549).
He concluded the truce of Nice (1538) between Charles and
Francis, and contracted an alliance with each. But the peace
of Crespy and the emperor's negotiations with the Protestants
(1544) turned him against Charles, and he was suspected of
desiring his defeat in the Schmalkaldic War. The most de-
plorable weakness of Paul was his nepotism. Parma and
Piacenza, states of the Church, he bestowed upon his natural
son Pier Luigi (1545). But in 1549 Pier Luigi was assassinated
by his outraged subjects, and the emperor thereupon claimed
the two duchies for his son-in-law Ottavio Farnese, Paul's
grandson. This led to a family quarrel which greatly embittered
the last days of the pope and hastened his death (Nov. 10, 1549).
Parma and Piacenza continued to be a bone of contention for
two hundred and fifty years.
Paul was gifted and cultured, a lover and patron of art. He
began the famous Farnese Palace; constructed the Sala Regia in
the Vatican; commissioned Michelangelo to paint the " Last
Judgment," and to resume work upon St Peter's; and other-
wise adorned the city. Easy-going, luxurious, worldly-minded,
Paul was not in full sympathy with the prevailing influences
about him.
See Panvinio, continuator of Platina, De vitis pontiff, rom.;
Ciaconius, Vitae el res gestae summorum pontiff, rom. (Rome,
1601-1602, both contemporaries of Paul III.); Quirini, Imago
optitni . . . pontif. expressa in gestis Pauli III. (Brixen, 1745);
Ranke, Popes (Eng. trans., Austin), i. 243 seq.; v. Reumont, Gesch.
der Stadt Rom., iii. 2, 471 seq., 716 seq.; Brosch, Gesch. des Kirchen-
siaates (1880), i. 163 seq.; Ehses, " Kirchliche Reformarbeiten unter
Paul III. vor dem Trientcr Konzil," Rom. Quartalschrift (1901), xv.
153 seq. ; Capasso, La Politica di papa Paolo III. el' Italia (Camerino,
1901); and also the extensive bibliography in Herzog-Hauck,
Realencyklopddie, s.v. " Paul III."
Paul IV. (Giovanni Pietro Caraffa), pope from 1555 to
1559, was born on the 28th of June 1476, of a noble Neapolitan
family. His ecclesiastical preferment he owed to the influence
of an uncle. Cardinal Oliviero Caraffa. Having filled the post
of nuncio in England and Spain, he served successive popes as
adviser in matters pertaining to heresy and reform. But he
resigned his benefices, and, in conjunction with Cajetan, founded
the order of the Theatines (1524) with the object of promoting
personal piety and of combating heresy by preaching. In
1536 Paul III. made him cardinal-archbishop of Naples and
a member of the reform commission. After the failure of
Contarini's attempt at reconciliation with the Protestants
(1541) the papacy committed itself to the reaction advocated
by Caraffa; the Inquisition and censorship were set up (1542,
1543), and the extermination of heresy in Italy undertaken
with vigour. Elected pope, on the 23rd of May 1555, in the
face of the veto of the emperor, Paul regarded his elevation as
the work of God. With his defects of temper, his violent
antipathies, his extravagant notion of papal prerogative, his
pontificate was filled with strife. Blinded by ungovernable
hatred he joined with France (1555) in order to drive the
" accursed Spaniards " from Italy. But the victory of Philip II.
at St Quentin (1557) and the threatening advance of Alva
upon Rome forced him to come to terms and to abandon his
French alliance. He denounced the peace of Augsburg as a
pact with heresy; nor would he recognize the abdication of
Charles V. and the election of Ferdinand. By insisting upon the
restitution of the confiscated church-lands, assuming to regard
England as a papal fief, requiring Elizabeth, whose legitimacy
he aspersed, to submit her claims to him, he raised insuperable
obstacles to the return of England to the Church of Rome.
Paul's attitude towards nepotism was at variance with his
character as a reformer. An unworthy nephew, Carlo Caraffa,
was made cardinal, and other relatives were invested with the
duchies of Paliano and Montebello. It was Paul's hope in this
way to acquire a support in his war with the Spaniards. But
the defeat of his plans disillusioned him, and he turned to
reform. A stricter life was introduced into the papal court;
the regular observance of the services of the Church was enjoined;
many of the grosser abuses were prohibited. These measures
only increased Paul's unpopularity, so that when he died, on
the i8th of August 1559, the Romans vented their hatred by
demolishing his statue, liberating the prisoners of the Inquisition,
and scattering its papers. Paul's want of political wisdom,
and his ignorance of human nature aroused antagonisms fatal
to the success of his cause.
See Panvinio, continuator of Platina, De vitis pontiff, rom.;
Ciaconius, Vitae el res gestae summorum pontiff, rom. (Rome,
1601-1602, both contemporaries of Paul IV.); Caraccioli, De vita
Pauli IV. P.M. (Cologne, 1612; for criticism see Hist. Zeitschr.,
xliv. 460 seq.), whose rich collection of materials was used by
Bromata, Vita di Paolo IV. (Ravenna, 1748), and Samm, Une
Question ital. au seizicme siecle (Paris, 1861). See also Castaldo,
Vita del pontifice Paolo Quarto (Modena, 1618) ; Ranke, Popes (Eng.
trans, by Austin), i. 286 seq. (an excellent sketch); v. Reumont,
Gesch. der Stadt Rom., iii. 2, 513 seq. and Benrath, " G. P. Caraffa
u. d. reformatorische Bewegung seiner Zeit.," in Jahrb. fiir prot.
Theol. (1878), vol. i. ; Ancel, Disgrace et procbs d'cs Caraffa (1909);
Riess, Polilik Pauls IV. (1909).
Paul V. (Camillo Borghese), successor of Leo XL, was born
in Rome on the 17th of September 1552, of a noble family.
He studied in Perugia and Padua, became a canon lawyer, and
was vice-legate in Bologna. As a reward of a successful mission
to Spain Clement VIII. made him cardinal (1596) and later
vicar in Rome and inquisitor. Elevated to the papacy, on the
16th of May 1605, his extreme conception of papal prerogative,
his arrogance and obstinacy, his perverse insistence upon the
theoretical and disregard of the actual, made strife inevitable.
He provoked disputes with the ItaKan states over ecclesiastical
rights. Savoy, Genoa, Tuscany and Naples, wishing to avoid
a rupture, yielded; but Venice resisted. The republic stood
upon her right to judge all her subjects, and by her demands
touching benefices, tithes and papal bulls showed her deter-
mination to be supreme in her own territory. Excommunication
and interdict (April 17, 1606) were met with defiance. The cause
of the repubhc was brilliantly advocated by Fra Paolo Sarpi,
counsellor of state; the defenders of the papal theory were
Cardinals Baronius and Bellarmine. The pope talked of
coercion by arms; but Spain, to whom he looked for support,
refused to be drawn into war, and the quarrel was finally
settled by the mediation of France (March 22, 1607). Not-
withstanding certain concessions, the victory remained with
the republic (see Sarpi).
Paul became involved in a quarrel with England also. After
the Gunpowder Plot parliament required a new oath of alle-
giance to the king and a denial of the right of the pope to
depose him or release his subjects from their obedience. Paul
forbade Roman CathoHcs to take the oath; but to no purpose,
beyond stirring up a literary controversy. By his condemnation
of Gallicanism (1613) Paul angered France, and provoked the
defiant declaration of the states general of 1614 that the king
held his crown from God alone.
Paul encouraged missions, confirmed many new congregations
and brotherhoods, authorized a new version of the Ritual, and
canonized Carlo Borromeo. His devotion to the interests of
his family exceeded all bounds, and they became enormously
wealthy. Paul began the famous Villa Borghese; enlarged the
Quirinal and Vatican; completed the nave, facade and portico
of St Peter's; erected the Borghese Chapel in Sta Maria
Maggiore; and restored the aqueduct of Augustus and Trajan
(" Acqua PaoHna "). He also added to the Vatican library,
and began a collection of antiquities. Paul died on the 28th
of January 1621, and was succeeded by Gregory XV.
See Bzovius (Bzowski), De vita Pauli V. (Rome, 1625; contained
in Platina, De vitis pontiff, rom., ed. 1626), who depicts Paul as a
paragon of all public and private virtues; Vitorelli, continuator
of Ciaconius, Vitae et res gestae summorum pontiff, rom. (a con-
temporary of the pope) ; Goujet, Hist, du pontifical de Paul V.,
PAUL I.— PAUL OF SAMOSATA
957
(1765) ; Ranke, Popes (Eng. trans, by Austin), ii. 330 seq., iii. 72 seq. ;
V. Rcumont, Gesch. der Stadl Rom, iii. 2, 605 seq.; Brosch, Cesch.
des Kirchenstaates (1880), i. 351 seq. The Venetian version of the
quarrel with the pope was written by Sarpi (subsequently translated
into English, London, 1626); see also Cornet, Paolo V. el la repub.
veneta (Vienna, 1859); and Trollope, Paul the Pope and Paul the
Friar (London, i860). An extensive biography will be found in
Herzog-Hauck, Realencylkopadie, s.v. " Paul V. (T. F. C.)
PAUL \. (1754-1801), emperor of Russia, was born in the
Summer Palace in St Petersburg on the ist of October (n.s.)
— the 20th of September by the Russian calendar — 1754. He
was the son of the grand duchess, afterwards empress, Catherine.
According to a scandalous report his father was not her husband
the grand duke Peter, afterwards emperor, but one Colonel
Soltykov. There is probably no foundation for this story
except gossip, and the cynical malice of Catherine. During
his infancy he was taken from the care of his mother by the
empress Elizabeth, whose ill-judged fondness is believed to
have injured his health. As a boy he was reported to be
intelligent and good-looking. His extreme ugliness in later
life is attributed to an attack of typhus, from which he suffered
in 1771. It has been asserted that his mother hated him,
and was only restrained from putting him to death while he was
still a boy by the fear of what the consequences of another
palace crime might be to herself. Lord Buckinghamshire,
the English ambassador at her court, expressed this opinion
as early as 1764. In fact, however, the evidence goes to show
that the empress, who was at all times very fond of children,
treated Paul with kindness. He was put in charge of a trust-
worthy governor, Nikita Panin, and of competent tutors.
Her dissolute court was a bad home for a boy who was to be
the sovereign, but Catherine took great trouble to arrange
his first marriage with Wilhelmina of Darmstadt, who was
renamed in Russia Nathalie Alexeevna, in 1773. She allowed
him to attend the council in order that he might be trained
for his work as emperor. His tutor Poroshin complained of
him that he was " always in a hurry," acting and speaking
without thinking. After his first marriage he began to engage
in intrigues. He suspected his mother of intending to kill
him, and once openly accused her of causing broken glass to
be mingled with his food. Yet, though his mother removed
him from the council and began to keep him at a distance,
her actions were not unkind. The use made of his name by the
rebel Pugachev in 1775 tended no doubt to render his position
more difficult. When his wife died in childbirth in that year
his mother arranged another marriage with the beautiful Sophia
Dorothea of Wiirttemberg, renamed in Russia Maria Feodorovna.
On the birth of his first child in 1777 she gave him an estate,
Pavlovsk. Paul and his wife were allowed to travel through
western Europe in 1781-1782. In 1783 the empress gave
him another estate at Gatchina, where he was allowed to
maintain a brigade of soldiers whom he drilled on the Prussian
model. As Paul grew his character became steadily degraded.
He was not incapable of affection nor without generous impulses,
but he was flighty, passionate in a childish way, and when
angry capable of cruelty. The affection he had for his wife
turned to suspicion. He fell under the influence of two of
his wife's maids of honour in succession, Nelidov and Lapuknin,
and of his barber, a Turkish slave named Koroissov. For
some years before Catherine died it was obvious that he was
hovering on the border of insanity. Catherine contemplated
setting him aside in favour of his son Alexander, to whom she
was attached. Paul was aware of his mother's half-intention —
for it does not appear to have been more — and became increas-
ingly suspicious of his wife and children, whom he rendered
perfectly miserable. No definite step was taken to set him
aside, probably because nothing would be effective short of
putting him to death, and Catherine shrank from the extreme
course. When she was seized with apoplexy he was free to
destroy the will by which she left the crown to Alexander, if
any such will was ever made. The four and a half years of
Paul's rule in Russia were unquestionably the reign of a madman.
The excitement of the change from his retired life in Gatchina
to omnipotence drove him below the hne of insanity. His
conduct of the foreign affairs of Russia plunged the country
first into the second coalition against France in 1778, and then
into the armed neutrality against Great Britain in 1801. In
both cases he acted on personal pique, quarrelling with France
because he took a sentimental interest in the Order of Malta,
and then with England because he was flattered by Napoleon.
But his political follies might have been condoned. What
was unpardonable was that he treated the people about him
like a shah, or one of the craziest of the Roman emperors. He
began by repealing Catherine's law which exempted the free
classes of the population of Russia from corporal punishment
and mutilation. Nobody could feel himself safe from exile
or brutal ill-treatment at any moment. If Russia had possessed
any political institution except the tsardom he would have been
put under restraint. But the country was not sufficiently
civilized to deal with Paul as the Portuguese had dealt with
Alphonso VI., a very similar person, in 1667. In Russia as in
medieval Europe there was no safe prison for a deposed ruler. A
conspiracy was organized, some months before it was executed,
by Counts Pahlen and Panin, and a half-Spanish, half-
Neapolitan adventurer. Admiral Ribas. The death of Ribas
delayed the execution. On the night of the nth of March
1 801 Paul was murdered in his bedroom in the St Michael
Palace by a band of dismissed officers headed by General
Bennigsen, a Hanoverian in the Russian service. They burst
into his bedroom after supping together and when flushed with
drink. The conspirators forced him to the table, and tried
to compel him to sign his abdication. Paul offered some
resistance, and one of the assassins struck him with a sword,
and he was then strangled and trampled to death. He was
succeeded by his son, the emperor Alexander I., who was
actuaUy in the palace, and to whom Nicholas Zubov, one of
the assassins, announced his accession.
See, for Paul's early life, K. Waliszewski, Autour d'un trone
(Paris, 1894), or the English translation. The Story of a Throne
(London, 1805), and P. Morane, Paul I. de Russie avant V avinement
(Paris, 1907). For his reign, T. Schiemann, Geschichte Russlands
tinier Nikolaus I. (Berlin, 1904), vol. i. and Die Ermordung Pauls,
by the same author (Berlin, 1902).
PAUL OF SAMOSATA, patriarch of Antioch (260-272), was,
if we may credit the encyclical letter of his ecclesiastical
opponents preserved in Eusebius's History, bk. vii. ch. 30,
of humble origin. He was certainly born farther east at
Samosata, and may have owed his promotion in the Church
to Zenobia, queen of Palmyra. The letter just mentioned is
the only indisputably contemporary document concerning
him and was addressed to Dionysius and Maximus, respectively
bishops of Rome and Alexandria, by seventy bishops, priests
and deacons, who attended a synod at Antioch in 269 and
deposed Paul. Their sentence, however, did not take effect
until late in 272, when the emperor Aurelian, having defeated
Zenobia and anxious to impose upon Syria the dogmatic
system fashionable in Rome, deposed Paul and allowed the
rival candidate Domnus to take his place and emoluments.
Thus it was a pagan emperor who in this momentous dispute
ultimately determined what was orthodox and what was not;
and the advanced Christology to which he gave his preference
has ever since been upheld as the official orthodoxy of the Church.
Aurelian's policy moreover was in effect a recognition of the
Roman bishop's pretension to be arbiter for the whole Church
in matters of faith and dogma.
Scholars will pay little heed to the charges of rapacity,
extortion, pomp and luxury made against Paul by the authors
of this letter. It also accuses him not only of consorting
himself with two " sisters " of ripe age and fair to look upon;
but of allowing his presbyters and deacons also to contract
platonic unions with Christian ladies. No actual lapses how-
ever from chastity are alleged, and it is only complained that
suspicions were aroused, apparently among the pagans.
The real gravamen against Paul seems to have been that he
clung to a Christology which was become archaic and had
in Rome and Alexandria already fallen into the background.
958
PAULDING— PAULET
Paul's heresy lay principally in his insistence on the genuine
humanity of Jesus of Nazareth, in contrast with the rising
orthodoxy which merged his human consciousness in the
divine Logos. It is best to give Paul's beliefs in his own words;
and the following sentences are translated from Paul's Dis-
courses to Sabinus, of which fragments are preserved in a work
against heresies ascribed to Anastasius, and printed by Angelo
Mai: —
I. " Having been anointed by the Holy Spirit he received the
title of the anointed (i.e. Christos), suffering in accordance with
his nature, working wonders in accordance with grace. For in
fixity and resoluteness of character he likened himself to God ;
and having kept himself free from sin was united with God, and
was empowered to grasp as it were the power and authority of
wonders. By these he was shown to possess over and above the
will, one and the same activity (with God), and won the title of
Redeemer and Saviour of our race."
II. "The Saviour became holy and just; and by struggle and
hard work overcame the sins of our forefather. By these means
he succeeded in perfecting himself, and was through his moral
excellence united with God; having attained to unity and sameness
of will and energy (i.e. activity) with Him through his advances in
the path of good deeds. This will be preserved inseparable (from
the Divine), and so inherited the name which is above all names,
the prize of love and affection vouchsafed in grace to him."
III. " The different natures and the different persons admit of
union in one way alone, namely in the way of a complete agreement
in respect of will; and thereby is revealed the One (or Monad) in
activity in the case of those (wills) which have coalesced ,in the
manner described."
IV. " We do not award praise to beings which submit merely
in virtue of their nature; but we do award high praise to beings
which submit because their attitude is one of love; and so sub-
mitting because their inspiring motive is one and the same, they
are confirmed and strengthened by one and the same indwelling
power, of which the force ever grows, so that it never ceases to
stir. It was in virtue of this love that the Saviour coalesced with
God, so as to admit of no divorce from Him, but for all ages to
retain one and the same will and activity with Him, an activity
perpetually at work in the manifestation of good."
V. " Wonder not that the Saviour had one will with God. For
as nature manifests the substance of the many to subsist as one
and the same, so the attitude of love produces in the many an
unity and sameness of will which is manifested by unity and same-
ness of approval and well-pleasingness."
From other fairly attested sources we infer that Paul regarded
the baptism as a landmark indicative of a great stage in the
moral advance of Jesus. But it was a man and not the divine
Logos which was born of Mary. Jesus was a man who came
to be God, rather than God become man. Paul's Christology
therefore was of the Adoptionist type, which we find among
the primitive Ebionite Christians of Judaea, in Hermas, Theo-
dotus and Artemon of Rome, and in Archelaus the opponent
of Mani, and in the other great doctors of the Syrian Church
of the 4th and 5th centuries. Lucian the great exegete of
Antioch and his school derived their inspiration from Paul,
and he was through Lucian a forefather of Arianism. Probably
the Paulicians of Armenia continued his tradition, and hence
their name (see Paulicians).
Paul of Samosata represented the high-water mark of Christian
speculation; and it is deplorable that the fanaticism of his own
and of succeeding generations has left us nothing but a few
scattered fragments of his writings. Already at the Council
of Nicaea in 325 the Pauliani were put outside the Church and
condemned to be rebaptized. It is interesting to note that
at the synod of Antioch the use of the word consuhstantial
to denote the relation of God the Father to the divine Son or
Logos was condemned, although it afterwards became at the
Council of Nicaea the watchword of the orthodox faction.
Literature. — Adolph Harnack, History of Dogma, vol. iii.;
Gieseler's Compendium of Ecclesiastical History (Edinburgh, 1854),
vol. i. ; Routh, Reliquiae sacrae, vol. iii. ; F. C. Conybeare, Key of
Truth (Oxford) ; Hefele, History of the Christian Councils (Edinburgh,
1872), vol. i. ; Ch. Bigg, The Origins of Christianity (0.xford, 1909),
ch. XXXV. (F. C. C.)
PAULDING, JAMES KIRKE (1778-1860), American writer
and politician, was born in Dutchess county. New York, on the
22nd of August 1778. After a brief course at a village school,
he removed in 1800 to New York City, where in connexion
with his brother-in-law, William Irving, and Washington Irving,
he began in January 1807 a series of short lightly humorous
articles, under the title of The Salmagundi Papers. In 1814
he published a political pamphlet, "The United States and
England," which attracted the notice of President Madison,
who in 181 5 appointed him secretary to the board of navy
commissioners, which position he held until November 1823.
Subsequently Paulding was navy agent in New York City from
1825 to 1837, and from 1837 to 1841 was secretary of the navy
in the cabinet of President Van Buren. From 1841 until his
death on the 6th of April i860 he lived near Hyde Park, in
Dutchess county, New York. Although much of his literary
work consisted of political journalism, he yet found time to
write a large number of essays, poems and tales. From his
father, an active revolutionary patriot, Paulding inherited
strong anti-British sentiments. He was among the first dis-
tinctively American writers, and protested vigorously against
intellectual thraldom to the mother-country. As a prose
writer he is chaste and elegant, generally just, and realistically
descriptive. As a poet he is gracefully commonplace, and the
only lines by Paulding which survive in popular memory are
the familiar —
" Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers:
Where is the peck of pickled peppers Peter Piper picked ?"
which may be found in Koningsntarke.
The following is a partial list of his writings: The Diverting History
of John Bull and Brother Jonathan (1812); The Lay of the Scottish
Fiddle (1813), a good-natured parody on The Lay of the Last Minstrel;
Letters from the South (181 7); The Backwoodsman: a Poem (1818);
Salmagundi (2nd series, 1819-1820); A Sketch of Old England, by
a New England Man (1822); Koningsmarke , the Long Finne (1823),
a quiz on the romantic school of Walter Scott ; John Bull in America;
or the New Munchausen (1824), a broad caricature of the early type
of British traveller in America ; The Merry Tales of the Three Wise
Men of Gotham (1826); Chronicles of the City of Gotham, from the
Papers of a Retired Common Councilman (1830); The Dutchman's
Fireside (1831); Westward Ho! (1832); A Life of Washington (1835),
ably and gracefully written; Slavery in the United States (1836), in
which he defends slavery as an institution; The Book of Saint
Nicholas (1837), a series of stories of the old Dutch settlers; American
Comedies (1847), the joint production of himself and his son William
J. Paulding; and The Puritan and his Daughter (1849). The same
son also published an edition of Paulding's Select Works (4 vols.,
1867-1868), and a biography called. Literary Life of James K.,
Paulding (New York, 1867).
PAULET, PouLETT or Powlett, an English family of an
ancient Somersetshire stock, taking a surname from the parish
of Pawlett near Bridgwater. They advanced themselves by
a series of marriages with heirs, acquiring manors and lands
in Somersetshire, Wiltshire, Devonshire and Hampshire. A
match with a Denebaud early in the isth century brought the
manor of Hinton St George, still the seat of the elder line, the
earls Poulett. An ancestor of this branch. Sir Amias Poulett
or Paulet (d. 1537), knighted in 1487 after the battle of Stoke,
was treasurer of the Middle Temple in 1521, when Wolsey, in
revenge for an indignity suffered at the knight's hands when
the future chancellor was a young parson at Limington, forbade
his leaving London without leave. To propitiate the cardinal.
Sir Amias, rebuilding the Middle Temple gate, decorated it
with the cardinal's arms and badge. Sir Hugh Poulett, his
eldest son, a soldier who had distinguished himself in 1544 at
Boulogne in the king's presence, had, in 1551, a patent of the
captaincy of Jersey with the governance of Montorgueil Castle.
His wisdom and experience in the wars made Queen Ehzabeth
employ him at Havre in 1562 as adviser to the earl of Warwick.
He died in 1572, having married, as his second wife, the wealthy
widow of Sir Thomas Pope, founder of Trinity College, Oxford.
Sir Amias Poulett (i 536-1 588), Sir Hugh's son and heir by a
first marriage, is famous as the puritan knight into whose
charge at Tutbury and Chartley was given the queen of
Scots. After his prisoner's sentence at Fotheringhay, he beset
Elizabeth's ministers with messages advising her execution, but
he firmly withstood " with great grief and bitterness," the sug-
gestion that she should be put to death secretly, saying that
God and the law forbade. Sir Anthony Poulett (156 2-1600).
PAULI— PAULICIANS
959
his eldest surviving son, succeeded him as governor of Jersey
and was father of John Poulett (1586-1649) to whom Charles I.
in 1627 gave a patent of peerage as Lord Poulett of Hinton
St George. In spite of the puritan opinions of his family he
declared for the king, raising for the royal army a brigade
which he led in Dorsetshire and Devonshire. He was taken
prisoner for the second time at the fall of Exeter in 1646 and
suffered a heavy fine. His eldest son John, the second Lord
Poulett (1615-1665) was taken with his father at Exeter.
John, the fourth Lord Poulett (1663-1743), having been a
commissioner for the union, was created in 1706 Viscount
Hinton of Hinton St George and Earl Poulett. In 1710-1711
he was first lord of the treasury and nominal head of an adminis-
tration controlled by Harley. A garter was given him in 1712.
A moderate Tory, his places were taken from him at the accession
of the house of Brunswick. The fifth earl (d. 1864) re-settled
the family estates in 1853 in order to bar the inheritance of one
William Turnour Thomas Poulett who, although born in wedlock
of the wife of the earl's cousin William Henry Poulett, was
repudiated by her husband, afterwards the si.xth earl. In
1903 the sixth earl's son by a third marriage established his
claim to the peerage, and in 1909 judgment was given against
the claim of William Turnour Thomas Poulett, then styling
himself Earl Poulett.
A younger line of the Paulets, sprung from William Paulet
of Melcombe, serjeant-at-law (d. 1435), reached higher honours
than an earldom. William Paulet, by his marriage with
Eleanor Delamare (d. 1413), daughter of Philip Delamare and
heir of her brother, acquired for his descendants Fisherton
Delamare in Wiltshire and Nunney Castle in Somerset. Their
son Sir John Paulet married Constance, daughter and coheir
of Hugh Poynings, son and heir of Sir Thomas Poynings, Lord
St John of Basing. Through this marriage came the lordship
and manor of Basing, and the manor of Amport or Ham Port
which is still with the descendants of Hugh de Port, its Norman
lord at the time of the Domesday Survey. Sir John Paulet
of Basing, by his cousin Alice Paulet of the Hinton line (his
wife in or before 1467), was father of Sir William Paulet, who,
during a very long and supple career as a statesman in four
reigns — " I am sprung," he said, " from the willow and not
from the oak " — raised his house to a marquessate. Henry VIII.
rewarded his diplomatic and judicial services and his campaign
against the Pilgrims of Grace with the site and lands of Netley
Abbey, the revival of the St John barony, a garter and many
high offices. The king's death found him lord president of
the council and one of the executors of the famous will of the
sovereign. The fall of the protector Somerset gave him the
lord treasurership and a patent of the earldom of Wiltshire.
He shared the advancement of Northumberland and was created
in 1551 marquess of Winchester, but, although he dehvered
the crown jewels to the Lady Jane in 1553, he was with the lords
at Baynard Castle who proclaimed Queen Mary. In spite of
his great age he was in the saddle at the proclamation of Mary's
successor and was speaker in two EHzabethan parliaments.
Only his death in 1572 drove from office this tenacious treasurer,
whose age may have been nigh upon a hundred years.
His princely house at Basing was held for King Charles by
John, the fifth marquess, whose diamond had scratched " Aimez
Loyaute " upon every pane of its windows. Looking on a
main road. Basing, with its little garrison of desperate cavaliers,
held out for two years against siege and assault, and its shattered
walls were in flames about its gallant master when Cromwell
himself stormed an entry. The old cavalier marquess died in
1675, his great losses unrecompensed, and his son Charles, a
morose extravagant, had the dukedom of Bolton in 1689 for
his desertion of the Stuart cause. This new title was taken
from the Bolton estates of the Scropes, Lord Winchester having
married a natural daughter of Emmanuel, earl of Sunderland,
the last Lord Scrope of Bolton. Charles, second duke of
Bolton (1661-1722), was made lord-lieutenant of Ireland in
1717. A third Charles, the 3rd duke, is remembered as an
opponent of Sir Robert Walpole and as the husband of Lavinia
Fenton, the Polly Peachum of Gay's opera. The sixth and
last duke of Bolton, an admiral of undistinguished services,
died in 1794 without legitimate issue. His dukedom became
extinct, and Bolton Castle again passed by bequest to an
illegitimate daughter of the fifth duke, upon whom it had been
entailed with the greater part of the ducal estates. (O. Ba.)
PAULI, REINHOLD (1823-1882), German historian, was born
in Berlin on the 25th of May 1823. He was educated at the
universities of Bonn and Berlin, went to England in 1847, and
became private secretary to Baron von Bunsen, the Prussian
ambassador in London. Returning to Germany in 1855 he
was professor of history successively at the universities of
Rostock, Tubingen (which he left in 1866 because of his political
views), Marburg and Gottingen. He retained his chair at
Gottingen until his death at Bremen on the 3rd of June 1882.
He was a careful and industrious student of the English records,
and his writings are almost wholly devoted to English history.
His first work, Konig Aelfred und seine Stellung in der Geschichte
Englands (Berlin, 1851), was followed by monographs on Bischof
Grossetesle und Adam von Marsh (Tubingen, 1864), and on Simon
von Montfort (Tubingen, 1867). He continued J. M. Lappenberg's
Geschichte von England from 1154 to 1509 (Gotha, 1853-1858), and
himself wrote a Geschichte Englands (Leipzig, 1864-1875), dealing
with the period between 1814 and 1852. Two volumes of historical
essays, Bilder aus Alt-England (Gotha, i860 and 1876), and Aufsdtze
zur englischen Geschichte (Leipzig, 1869 and 1883), and numerous
historical articles in German periodicals came from his pen ; and
he edited several of the English chroniclers for the Monumenta
Germaniae hislorica.
See R. Pauli, Lebenserinnerungen, edited by E. Pauli (Halle,
1895); and the sketch of his life prefixed to O. Hartwig's edition of
his Aufsdtze (Leipzig, 1883).
PAULICIANS, an evangelical Christian Church spread over
Asia Minor and Armenia from the 5th century onwards. The
first Armenian writer who notices them is the patriarch Nerses II.
in an encycHcal of 553,^ where he condemns those " who share
with Nestorians in belief and prayer, and take their bread-
offerings to their shrines and receive communion from them,
as if from the ministers of the oblations of the Paulicians."
The patriarch John IV. (c. 728) ^ states that Nerses, his prede-
cessor, had chastised the sect, but ineffectually; and that after
his death (c. 554) they had continued to lurk in Armenia, where,
reinforced by Iconoclasts driven out of Albania of the Caucasus,
they had settled in the region of Djirka, probably near Lake
Van. In his 31st canon John identifies them with the Mes-
salians, as does the Armenian Gregory of Narek (c. 950). In
Albania they were always numerous. We come now to
Greek sources. An anonymous account was written perhaps
as early as 840 and incorporated in the Chronicon of Georgius
Monachus. This (known as Esc.) was edited by J. Friedrich
in the Munich Academy Sitzungsberichte (1896), from a 10th-
century Escorial codex (Plut. i. No. i). It was also used by
Photius (c. 867), bk. i., chs. i-io of his Historia Manicheorum,
who, having held an inquisition of Paulicians in Constantinople
was able to supplement Esc. with a few additional details;
and by Petrus Siculus (c. 868). The latter visited the PauUcian
fortress Tephrike to treat for the release of Byzantine prisoners.
His History of the Manicheans is dedicated to the archbishop
of Bulgaria, whither the Paulicians were sending missionaries.
Zigabenus (c. iioo), in his Panoplia, uses beside Esc. an
independent source.
The Paulicians were, according to Esc, Manicheans, so
called after Paul of Samosata {q.v.), son of a Manichean woman
Callinice. She sent him and her other son John to Armenia
as missionaries, and they settled at the village of Episparis,
or " seedplot," in Phanarea. One Constantine, however, of
Mananali, a canton on the western Euphrates 60-70 m. west
of Erzerum, was regarded by the Paulicians as their real founder.
He based his teaching on the Gospels and the Epistles of Paul,
repudiating other scriptures; and taking the PauUne name of
Silvanus, organized churches in Castrum Colonias and Cibossa,
which he called Macedonia, after Paul's congregation of that
' In the Armenian Letterbook of the Patriarchs (Tiflis, 1901), p. 73.
2 Opera (Venetiae, 1834), p. 89.
960
PAULICIANS
name. His successors were Simeon, called Titus; Gegnesius,
an Armenian, called Timotheus; Joseph, called Epaphroditus;
Zachariah, rejected by some; Baanes, accused of immoral
teaching; lastly Sergius, called Tychicus. As Cibossa, so their
other congregations were renamed, Mananali as Achaea, Argaeum
and Cynoschora as Colossae, Mopsuestia as Ephesus, and so on.
Photius and Petrus Siculus supply a few dates and events.
Constantine was martyred 684 by Simeon whom Constantine
Pogonatus had sent to repress the movement. His victim's
death so impressed him that he was converted, became head
of the sect, and was martyred in 690 by Justinian II. About
702 Paul the Armenian, who had fled to Episparis, became
head of the church. His son Gegnesius in 722 was taken to
Constantinople, where he won over to his opinions the iconoclast
emperor, Leo the Isaurian. He died in 745, and was succeeded
by Joseph, who evangelized Phrygia and died near Antioch
of Pisidia in 775. In 752 Constantine V. transplanted many
Paulicians from Germanicia, Doliche, Melitene, and Theodosiu-
polis (Erzerum), to Thrace, to defend the empire from Bulgarians
and Sclavonians. Early in the oth century Sergius, greatest
of the leaders, profiting by the tolerance of the emperor Nice-
phorus, began that ministry which, in one of the epistles
canonized by the sect, but lost, he describes thus: "I have
run from east to west, and from north to south, till my knees
were weary, preaching the gospel of Christ." The iconoclast
emperor Leo V., an Armenian, persecuted the sect afresh, and
provoked a rising at Cynoschora, whence many fled into Saracen
territory to Argaeum near Melitene. For the ne.xt 50 years they
continued to raid the Byzantine empire, although Sergius
condemned retaliation. The empress Theodora (842-S57) hung,
crucified, beheaded or drowned some 100,000 of them, and
drove yet more over the frontier, where from Argaeum, Amara,
Tephrike and other strongholds their generals Karbeas and
Chrysocheir harried the empire, until 873, when the emperor
Basil slew Chrysocheir and took Tephrike.
Their sect however continued to spread in Bulgaria, where
in 969 John Zimiskes settled a new colony of them at Philippo-
polis. Here Frederick Barbarossa found them in strength in
1189. In Armenia they reformed their ranks about 821 at
Thonrak (Tendarek) near Diadin, and were numerous all along
the eastern Euphrates and in Albania. In this region Smbat,
of the great Bagraduni clan, reorganized their Church, and was
succeeded during a space of 170 or 200 years by seven leaders,
enumerated by the Armenian Grigor Magistros, who as duke
of Mesopotamia under Constantine Monomachos harried them
about 1 140. Fifty years later they were numerous in Syria and
Cilicia, according to the Armenian bishops Nerses the Graceful
and Nerses of Lambron. In the loth century Gregory of
Narek wrote against them in Armenian, and in the nth
Aristaces of Lastivert and Paul of Taron in the same tongue.
During these later centuries their propaganda embraced all
.'\rmenia. The crusaders found them everywhere in Syria and
Palestine, and corrupted their name to Publicani, under which
name, often absurdly conjoined with Sadducaei, we find them
during the ages following the crusades scattered all over Europe.
After 1200 we can find no notice of them in Armenian writers
until the i8th century, when they reappear in their old haunts.
In 1828 a colony of them settled in Russian Armenia, bringing
with them a book called the Key of Truth, which contains their
rites of name-giving, baptism and election, compiled from old
MSS.,' we know not when.
' That this is so, is proved by the presence of a doublet in the
text of the rite of baptism, the words " But the penitent " on
p. 96, as far as " over the person baptized " on p. 97, repeating in
substance the words " Next the elect one " on p. 97 to " am well-
pleased " on p. 98. This rite therefore was compiled from at
least two earlier MSS. In the colophon also the compiler (as he
calls himself) excuses the errors of orthography and grammar on
the ground that they are not due to himself but to earlier and ig-
norant copyists. The division (often inept) of the text into chapters,
the references to chapter and verse of a printed N.T., and sundry
pious stanzas which interrupt the context, are due to a later editor,
perhaps to the copyist of the existing text of 1 782. The controversial
introduction is later than the Crusades; but the rituals, as far as
Regarding Paulician beliefs we have little except hostile
evidence, which needs sifting. Esc. gives these particulars: —
1. They anathematized Mani, yet were dualists and affirmed
two principles — one the heavenly Father, who rules not this
world but the world to come; the other an evil demiurge,
lord and god of this world, who made all flesh. The good
god created angels only. The Romans {i.e. the Byzantines)
erred in confusing these two first principles. Similarly the
Armenian writer Gregory Magistros (c. 1040) accuses the
Thonraki of teaching that " Moses saw not God, but the
devil," and infers thence that they held Satan to be creator
of heaven and earth, as well as of mankind. The Key of Truth
teaches that after the fall Adam and Eve and their children
were slaves of Satan until the advent of the newly created
Adam, Jesus Christ. Except Gregory Magistros none of the
Armenian sources lays stress on the dualism of the Paulicians.
John IV. does not hint at it.
2. They blasphemed the Virgin, allegorizing her as the upper
Jerusalem in which the Lord came in and went out, and
denying that he was really made flesh of her. John IV.
records that in the orthodox Armenian Church of the 7th
century many held Christ to have been made flesh in, but not
of. the Virgin; and Armenian hymns call the Virgin mother
church at once Theotokos and heavenly Jerusalem. It is
practically certain that Paulicians held this view.
3. They aUegorized the Eucharist and explained away the
bread and wine of which Jesus said to His apostles, " Take, eat and
drink," as mere words of Christ, and denied that we ought to
offer bread and wine as a sacrifice.
Such allegorization meets us already in Origen, Eusebius and
other early fathers, and is quite compatible with that use of a
material Eucharist which Nerses II. attests among the Paulicians
of the early 6th century, and for which the Key of Truth provides
a form. The Thonraki, according to Gregory Magistros, held
that " Jesus in the evening meal, spoke not of an offering of
the mass, but of every table." We infer that the Paulicians
merely rejected the Eucharistic rites and doctrine of the Greeks.
According to Gregory Magistros the Thonraki would say:
" We are no worshippers of matter, but of God; we reckon
the cross and the church and the priestly robes and the sacrifice
of mass all for nothing, and only lay stress on the inner sense."
4. They assailed the cross, saying that Christ is cross, and
that we ought not to worship the tree, because it is a cursed
instrument. John IV. and other Armenian writers report the
same of the Armenian Paulicians or Thonraki, and add that they
smashed up crosses when they could.
5. They repudiated Peter, calling him a denier of Christ,
and wotild not accept his repentance and tears.^ So Gregory
the language is concerned, may belong to the remote age which
alone suits the adoptionist Christology of the prayers.
- In a fragmentary' Syriac homily by Mar Jochanis, found in a
Sinai MS. written not later than the loth century and edited by
J. F. Stenning and F. C. Burkitt, Anecdota axon. (Clarendon
Press, 1896), the same hostility to Peter is expressed. Compare
the following passages: "O Petros, thou wast convicted of fault
by Paulos thy colleague. How do men say that upon Petros I
have built the church? . . .
" The Lord said not to him, upon thee I build the church, but he
said, upon this rock (the which is the body wherewith the Lord was
clothed) I build my church. . . . Behold, I have made thee know
from the N.T. that that rock was the Messiah. . . .
" O Petros, after that thou didst receive the keys of heaven,
and the Lord was seen by thee after he rose from the dead, thou
didst let go of the keys, and thy wage is agreed with thy master
when thou saidst to him. Behold we have let go of ever>'thing and
have come after thee. What then shall be to us? And the Lord
said to him. Ye shall be sitting on twelve thrones and judging the
tribes of Israel. And after all these signs, O Petros, thou wentest
away again to the former catching of fish. Wast thou ashamed of
me, O Petros? "
Yet the same homilist " concerning the one who is made a priest,"
writes thus: " Lo, thou seest the priest of the people, with what
care the Lord instructed Peter! He said not to him once and
stopped, but three times. Feed my sheep." The Syriac text is
rendered from a Greek original of unknown age, which from its
complete correspondence with the Key of Truth may be judged to
have been a Paulician writing.
PAULICIANS
961
Magistros reports the Thonraki as saying, " We love Paul
and excrecrate Peter." But in the Key of Truth there is little
trace of extreme hostility to Peter. It merely warns us that
all the apostles constitute the Church universal and not Peter
alone; and in the rite of election, i.e. of laying on of hands and
reception of the Spirit, the reader who is being elected assumes
the ritual name of Peter. An identical rite existed among
the 12th century Cathars {q.v.), and in the Celtic church of
Gildas every presbyter was a Peter.
6. The monkish garb was revealed by Satan to Peter at the
baptism, when it was the devil, the ruler of this world, who,
so costumed, leaned forward and said. This is my beloved son.
The same hatred of monkery characterized the Thonraki and
inspires the Key of Truth. The other statements are nowhere
echoed.
7. They called their meetings the Catholic Church, and the
places they met in places of prayer, irpocrtvxa-i- The Thonraki
equally denied the name of church to buildings of wood or stone,
and called themselves the Catholic Church.
8. They e.xplained away baptisms as " words of the Holy
Gospel," citing the text " I am the living water." So the
Thonraki taught that the baptismal water of the Church was
" mere bath-water," i.e. they denied it the character of a reserved
sacrament. But there is no evidence that they eschewed water-
baptism. The modern Thonraki baptize in rivers, and in the
nth century when Gregory asked them why they did not allow
themselves to be baptized, they answered: " Ye do not under-
stand the mystery of baptism; we are in no hurry to be baptized,
for baptism is death." They no doubt deferred the baptism
which is death to sin, perhaps because, like the Cathars, they
held post-baptismal sin to be unforgivable.
9. They permitted external conformity with the dominant
Church, and held that Christ would forgive it. The same
trait is reported of the Thonraki and of the real Manicheans.
10. They rejected the orders of the Church, and had only
two grades of clergy, namely, associate itinerants {avveKdritJ.oi.,
Acts xix. 29) and copyists (vorapioi.) . A class of Astati (ao-raTOt)
is also mentioned by Photius, i. 24, whom Neander regards
as elect disciples of Sergius. They called their four original
founders apostles and prophets — titles given also in the Key
of Truth to the elect one. The Synecdemi and Notarii dressed
like other people; the Thonraki also scorned priestly vestments.
11. Their canon included only the " Gospel and Apostle,"
of which they respected the text, but distorted the meaning.
Gregory Magistros, as we have seen, attests their predilection
for the apostle Paul, and speaks of their perpetually " quoting
the Gospel and the Apostolon." These statements do not
warrant us in supposing that they rejected i and 2 Peter, though
other Greek sources allege it. The " Gospel and Apostle "
was a comprehensive term for the whole of the New Testament
(except perhaps Revelation), as read in church.
13. Their Christology was as follows: God out of love for
mankind called up an angel and communicated to him his desire
and counsel; then he bade him go down to earth and be born
of woman. . . . And he bestowed on the angel so commissioned
the title of Son, and foretold for him insults, blasphemies,
sufferings and crucifixion. Then the angel undertook to do
what was enjoined, but God added to the sufferings also death.
However, the angel, on hearing of the resurrection, cast away
fear and accepted death as well; and came down and was born
of Mary, and named himself son of God according to the grace
given him from God; and he fulfilled all the command, and was
crucified and buried, rose again and was taken up into heaven.
Christ was only a creature (KTicr/Lia), and obtained the title of
Christ the Son of God in the reign of Octavius Caesar by way
of grace and remuneration for fulfilment of the command.
The scheme of salvation here set forth recurs among the Latin
Cathars. It resembles that of the Key of Truth, in so far as
Jesus is Christ and Son of God by way of grace and reward
for faithful fulfilment of God's command. But the Key lays
more stress on the baptism. " Then, it says, he became Saviour
of us sinners, then he was filled with the Godhead; then he was
sealed, then anointed; then was he called by the voice, then he
became the loved one." In this scheme therefore the Bai)tism
occupies the same place which the Birth does in the oilier,
but both are adoptionist.
The main difference then between the Greek and Armenian
accounts of the Paulicians is that the former make more of their
duahsm. Yet this did not probably go beyond the dualism of
the New Testament itself. They made the most of Paul's
antithesis between law and grace, bondage to Satan and freedom
of the Spirit. Jesus was a new Adam and a fresh beginning,
in so far as he was made flesh in and not of his mother, to whom,
as both Esc. and the Key insist, Jesus particularly denied
blessedness and honour (Mark iii. 31-35), limiting true kinship
with himself to those who shall do the will of God. The account
of Christ's flesh is torn out of the Key, but it is affirmed that it
was at the baptism that " he put on that primal raiment of
light which Adam lost in the garden." And this view we also
meet with in Armenian fathers accounted orthodox.
The Armenian fathers held that Jesus, unlike other men,
possessed incorruptible flesh, made of ethereal fire, and so far
they shared the main heresy of the Paulicians. In many of
their homilies Christ's baptism is also regarded as his regeneration
by water and spirit, and this view almost transcends the modest
adoptionism of the Thonraki as revealed in the Key of Truth.
What was the origin of the name Paulician ? The word is
of Armenian formation and signifies a son of Paulik or of little
Paul; the termination -ik must here have originally expressed
scorn and contempt. Who then was this Paul ? "Paulicians
from a certain Paul of Samosata," says Esc. " Here then
you see the Pauhcians, who got their poison from Paul of
Samosata," says Gregory Magistros. They were thus identified
with the old party of the Pauliani, condemned at the first
council of Nice in 325, and diffused in Syria a century later.
They called themselves the Apostolic Cathohc Church, but
hearing themselves nicknamed Paulicians by their enemies,
probably interpreted the name in the sense of " followers of
St Paul." Certain features of Pauhcianism noted by Photius
and Petrus Siculus are omitted in Esc. One of these is the
Christhood of the fully initiated, who as such ceased to be mere
" hearers " {audientcs) and themselves became vehicles of the
Holy Spirit. As Jesus anointed by the Spirit became the
Christ, so they became christs. So Gregory of Narck upbraids
the Thonraki for their " anthropolatrous apostasy, their self-
conferred contemptible priesthood which is a hkening of
themselves to Satan" ( = Christ in Thonraki parlance). And
he repeats the taunt which the Arab Emir addressed to Smbat
their leader, as he led him to execution: " If Christ rose on the
third day, then since you call yourself Christ, I will slay you
and bury you; and if you shall come to hfe again after thirty
days, then I will know you are Christ, even though you take
so many days over your resurrection." Similarly (in a 10th-
century form of renunciation of Bogomil error preserved in a
Vienna codex') we hear of Peter "the founder of the heresy
of the Messalians or Lycopetrians or Fundaitae and Bogomils
who called himself Christ and promised to rise again after death."
Of this Peter, Tychichus (? Sergius) is reported in the same
document to have been fellow initiate and disciple.
Because they regarded their Perfect or Elect ones as Christs
and anointed with the Spirit, the medieval Cathars regularly
adored them. So it was with Celtic saints, and Adamnan.
in his life of St Columba, i. 37, tells how the brethren after
listening to St Baithene, " still kneehng, with joy unspeakable,
and with hands spread out to heaven, venerated Christ in the
holy and blessed man." So in ch. 44 of the same book we
read how a humble stranger " worshipped Christ in the holy
man " (i.e. St Columba); but such veneration was due to every
presbyter. In 1837 we read of how an elect one of the Thonraki
sect in Russian Armenia addressed his followers thus: " Lo, I
am the cross: on my two hands light tapers, and give me
adoration. For I am able to give you salvation, as much as the
'Cod. theol. gr. 306, fol. 32, edited by Thalloczy, in Wissensch.
Mittheil. aus Bosnien (Vienna, 1895).
XX. 31
962
PAULINUS, OF NOLA
cross and the saints" ; and by the Ught of this we ought perhaps
to interpret section ix. of Esc. " They blaspheme the precious
cross, saying that the Christ is a cross." The Christ is an
elect one, who, as the Cathars (q.v.) put it, having been consoled
or become a Paraclete in the flesh, stands in prayer with his
hands outspread in the form of a cross, while the congregation
of hearers or audienles adore the Christ in him. The same
idea that the perfect ones are christs as having received the
Paraclete is met with in early Christian documents, and still
survives among the Syriac-speaking shepherds on the hills
north of Mardin. These have their christs, and Dr E. A. Wallis
Budge, to whom the present writer owes his information, was
shown the stream in which their last christ had been baptized.
In modern Russia also survives a sect of Bogomils called
Cbristowschtschina,^ because one member of it is adored by the
rest as Christ. It was because they beHeved themselves to have
living christs among them that the Paulicians rejected the
fetish worship of a material cross, in which orthodox Armenian
priests imagined they had by prayers and anointings confined
the Spirit of Christ. It is also likely enough that they did
not consider sensible matter to be a vehicle worthy to contain
divine effluence and holy virtues, and knew that such rites
were alien to early Christianity. The former scruple, however,
was not confined to Paulicians, for it inspires the answer made
by Eusebius, bishop of Thessalonica, to the emperor Maurice,
when the latter asked to have reUcs sent to him of Demetrius
the patron saint of that city. It runs thus: " While informing
your Reverence of the faith of the Thessalonicans and of the
miracles wrought among them, I must yet, in respect of this
request of yours, remark that the faith of the city is not of such
a kind as that the people desire to worship God and to honour
his saints by means of anything sensible. For they have
received the faith from the Lord's holy testimonies, to the
effect that God is a spirit, and that those who worship him
must worship him in spirit and in truth." ^ Manicheans,
Bogomils, Cathars and Paulicians for Uke reasons denied the
name of church to material constructions of wood and stone.
.■\mong the later Cathars of Europe we find the repudiation of
marriage defended on the ground that the only true marriage
is of Christ with his bride the Virgin church, and perhaps this
is why Paulicians and Thonraki would not make of marriage
a religious rite or sacrament.
Did the Paulicians, like the later Cathars (who in so much
resembled them), reject water baptism? And must we so
interpret clause i.x. of Esc? Perhaps they merely rejected
the idea that the numen or divine grace can be confined by
priestly consecration in water and by mere washing be imparted
to persons baptized. The Key of Truth regards the water
as a washing of the body, and sees in the rite no opus operalum,
but an essentiaUy spiritual rite in which " the king releases
certain rulers^ from the prison of sin, the Son calls them to
himself and comforts them with great words, and the Holy Spirit
of the king forthwith comes and crowns them, and dwells in
them for ever." For this reason the Thonraki adhere to adult
baptism, which in ancient wise they confer at thirty years of
age or later, and have retained in its primitive significance the
rite of giving a Christian name to a child on the eighth day
from birth. It is hardly likely that the Thonraki of the loth
century would have rejected water-baptism and yet have
retained unction with holy oil; this Gregory Magistros attests
they did, but he is an unreliable witness.
' " dass einer der Sektierer von den andern als Christus verehrt
werde," K. K. Grass, Die russischen Sekten (Leipzig, igo6), Bd. I,
Lief. 3.
^ From Monuments of Early Christianity, by F. C. Conybeare
(London, 1894), p. 349.
' The term " rulers " appears to be derived from Manichean
speculation, or from the same cycle of myth which is reflected in
I Cor. ii. 6, 8. The title " elect one," used by the Armenian
Paulicians also has a Manichean ring. It may be that under stress
of common persecution there was a certain fusion in Armenia of
Pauliani and Manicheans. The writings and tenets of Mani were
widely diffused there. Such a fusion is probably reflected in the
Key of Truth.
It is then on the whole probable that the Pauhcians who
appear in .•\rmenian records as early as 550, and were afterwards
called Thonraki, by the Greeks by the Armenian name Pauli-
kiani, were the remains of a primitive adoptionist Christianity,
widely dispersed in the east and already condemned under the
name of Pauliani by the council of Nice in 325. A renegade
Armenian Catholicos of the 7th century named Isaac has pre-
served to us a document which sums up their tenets.'' He adduces
it as a sort of reductio ad absurdum of Christians who would
model life and cult on Christ and his apostles, unencumbered
by later church traditions. It runs thus: (i) Christ was
thirty years old when he was baptized. Therefore they baptize
no one until he is thirty years of age. (2) Christ, after baptism,
was not anointed with myrrh nor with holy oil, therefore let
them not be anointed with myrrh or holy oil. (3) Christ was
not baptized in a font, but in a river. Therefore, let them not
be baptized in a font. (4) Christ, when he was about to be
baptized, did not recite the creed of the 318 fathers of Nice,
therefore shall they not make profession of it. (5) Christ
when about to be baptized, was not first made to turn to the
west and renounce the devil and blow upon him, nor again to
turn to the east and make a compact with God. For he was
himself true God. So let them not impose these things on
those to be baptized. (6) Christ, after he had been baptized,
did not partake of his own body. Nor let them so partake of
it. (7) Christ, after he was baptized, fasted 40 days and
only that; and for 120 years such was the tradition which
prevailed in the Church. We, however, fast 50 days before
Pascha. (8) Christ did not hand down to us the teaching
to celebrate the mystery of the offering of bread in church,
but in an ordinary house and sitting at a common table. So
then let them not offer the sacrifice of bread in churches.
(9) It was after supper, when his disciples were sated, that
Christ gave them to eat of his own body. Therefore let them
first eat meats and be sated, '■ and then let them partake of
the mysteries. (10) Christ, although he was crucified for us,
yet did not command us to adore the cross, as the Gospel
testifies. Let them therefore not adore the cross. (11) The
cross was of wood. Let them therefore not adore a cross of
gold or silver or bronze or stone. (12) Christ wore neither
humeral nor amice nor maniple nor stole nor chasuble.
Therefore let them not wear these garments. (13) Christ did
not institute the prayers of the Uturgy or the Holy Epiphanies,
and aU the other prayers for every action and every hour.
Let them therefore not repeat them, nor be hallowed by such
prayers. (14) Christ did not lay hands on patriarchs and
metropohtans and bishops and presbyters and deacons and
monks, nor ordain their several prayers. Let them therefore
not be ordained nor blessed with these prayers. (15) Christ did
not enjoin the building of churches and the furnishing of holy
tables, and their anointing with myrrh and haUowing with a
myriad of prayers. Let them not do it either. (16) Christ did
not fast on the fourth day of the week and on the Paraskevi.
Let them not fast either. (17) Christ did not bid us pray
towards the east. Neither shall they pray towards the east.
Literature. — Beside the works mentioned in the text see
J. C. L. Gieseler, Ecclesiastical History, ii. 208 (Edinburgh, 1848)
and " Untersuchungen uber die Geschichte der Paulicianer " in Theol.
Studien u. Kritiken, Heft I. s. 79 (Jahrg., 1829); Neander, Ecclesi-
astical History, vols. v. and vi. ; Mosheim's Ecclesiastical History,
Century IX. ii. 5; G. Finlay, History of Greece, vols. ii.
and iii. ; Gibbon, History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman
Empire, ch. liv. ; Ign. von Dollinger, Sektengeschichte des Mittelalters,
chs. i.-iii. ; Karapet Ter-Mkhrttschian, Die Paulikianer (Leipzig,
1893); Arsak Ter Mikelian, Die armenische Kirche (Leipzig,
1892); Basil Sarkisean, A Study of the Manicheo-Paulician Heresy
of the Thonraki (Venice, San Lazaro, 1893, in Armenian); F. C.
Conybeare, The Key of Truth (Oxford, 1898). (F. C. C.)
PAULINUS, SAINT, of Nola (333-431)- Pontius Meropius
Anicius Paulinus, who was successively a consul, a monk and a
'See Fr. Combefis, Historia hereliae monothel itarum col. 317
(Paris, 1648), col. 317. In the printed text this document, entitled
An Invective Against the Armenians, is dated 800 years after
Constantine, but the author Isaac Catholicos almost certamly
belonged to the earlier time.
PAULINUS— PAULUS, H. E. G.
96
bishop, was born at Bordeaux in a.d. 353. His father, pracfectus
praclorio in Gaul, was a man of great wealth, who entrusted
his son's education, with the best of results, to Ausonius. In
378 Paulinus was raised to the rank of consul sujfediis, and in the
following year he appears to have been sent as consularis into
Campania. It was at this period, while present at a festival of
St Felix of Nola, that he entered upon his lifelong devotion to
the cult of that saint. He had married a wealthy Spanish lady
named Therasia; this happy union was clouded by the death
in infancy of their only child — a bereavement which, combined
with the many disasters by which the empire was being visited,
did much to foster in them that world-weariness to which they
afterwards gave such emphatic expression. From Campania
Paulinus returned to his native place and came into correspon-
dence or personal intimacy with men like Martin of Tours and
Ambrose of JVIilan, and ultimately (about 389) he was formally
received into the church by bishop Delphinus of Bordeaux,
whence shortly afterwards he withdrew with his wife beyond
the Pyrenees. The asceticism of Paulinus and his liberality
towards the poor soon brought him into great repute; and while
he was spending Christmas at Barcelona the people insisted on
his being forthwith ordained to the priesthood. The irregularity
of this step, however, was resented by many of the clergy, and
the occurrence is still passed lightly over by his Roman Catholic
panegyrists. In the following year he went into Italy, and after
visiting Ambrose at MUan and Siricius at Rome — the latter of
whom received him somewhat coldly — he proceeded into
Campania, where, in the neighbourhood of Nola, he settled among
the rude structures which he had caused to be built around the
tomb and relics of his patron saint. With Therasia (now a
sister, not a wife), while leading a life of rigid asceticism, he
devoted the whole of his vast wealth to the entertainment of
needy pilgrims, to payment of the debts of the insolvent, and to
public works of utility or ornament; besides building basilicas
at Fondi and Nola, he provided the latter place with a much-
needed aqueduct. At the next vacancy, not later than 409,
he succeeded to the bishopric of Nola, and this office he held
with ever-increasing honour until his death, which occurred
shortly after that of Augustine, whose friend he was, in 431.
He is commemorated by the Church of Rome on the 22nd of
June.
The extant writings of Paulinus consist of some fifty Epistolae,
addressed to Sulpicius Severus, Delphinus, Augustine, Jerome
and others; thirty-two Cannina in a great variety of metre,
including a series of hexameter " natales," begun about 393 and
continued annually in honour of the festival of St Felix, metrical
epistles to Ausonius and Gestidius, and paraphrases of three
psalms; and a Passio S. GenesU. They reveal to us a kindly and
cheerful soul, well versed in the literary accomplishments of the
period, but without any strength of intellectual grasp and
peculiarly prone to superstition.
His works were edited by Rosweyde and Fronton le Due in 1622
(Antwerp, 8vo), and their text was reprinted in the Bibl. max.
patr. (1677). The next editor was Le Brun des Marettes (2 vols.
4to, Paris, 1685), whose text was reproduced in substance by Mura-
tori (Verona, 1736), and reprinted by Migne. The poems and
letters are edited in the Vienna Corpus script, eccl. lat. vol. xxviii.
See also P. Reinelt, Studien iiber die Briefe d. h. Paulin von Nola
Breslau, 1904) and other literature cited in Herzog-Hauck, Real-
encyk. Jilr prot. Theol. vol. xv.
PAULINUS (d. 644), first bishop of the Northumbrians and
archbishop of York, was sent to England by Pope Gregory I.
in 601 to assist Augustine in his mission. He was consecrated
by Justus of Canterbury in 625 and escorted iEthelberg, daughter
of .lEthelberht, to the Northumbrian king Edwin {q.v.). In
627 Edwin was baptized and assigned York to Paulinus as
his see. It was at Lincoln that he consecrated Honorius as
archbishop of Canterbury. In 633 Edwin was slain at
Hatfield Chase and Paulinus retired to Kent, where he became
bishop of Rochester. The pallium was not sent him until
634, when he had withdrawn from his province. He died
in 644.
See Bede, Historia ecclesiastica (ed. C. Plummer, Oxford, 1896).
PAULINUS, GAIUS SUETONIUS (ist century a.d.), Roman
general. In 42, during the reign of Claudius, he put down a
revolt in Mauretania, and was the first of the Romans to cross
the Atlas range. He subsequently wrote an account of his
experiences. From 59-62 he commanded in Britain, and,
after a severe defeat, finally crushed the Iceni under Boadicea
(Boudicca). A complaint having been made to the emperor
that he was needlessly protracting hostilities, he was recalled,
but he was consul (for the second time) in 66. During the civil
war he fought on the side of Otho against Vitellius, and obtained
a considerable success against Aulus Caecina Alienus (one of the
Vitellian generals) near Cremona, but did not follow it up.
When Caecina had been joined by Fabius Valens, Paulinus
advised his colleagues not to risk a decisive battle, but his advice
was disregarded, and Otho (q.v.) was utterly defeated at Bedria-
cum. After Vitellius had been proclaimed emperor, Pauhnus
asserted that it was in consequence of his own treachery that
Otho's army had been defeated. ViteUius pretended to believe
this, and eventually pardoned Paulinus, after which nothing
further is heard of him.
See Dio Cassius Ixii. 7-12; Tacitus, Annals, xiv. 30-39, Histories,
i. 87, 90, ii. 23-41, 44, 60; Pliny, Nat. Hist. v. I; Plutarch, Otho.
7,8.
PAULSEN, FRIEDRICH (i 846-1 908), German philosopher and
educationalist, was born at Langenhorn (Schleswig) and educated
at Erlangen, Bonn and Berlin, where he became extraordinary
professor of phOosophy and pedagogy in 1878. In 1896 he
succeeded Eduard Zeller as professor of moral philosophy at
Berhn. He died on the 14th of August 1908. He was the
greatest of the pupils of G. T. Fechner, to whose doctrine of
panpsychism he gave great prominence by his Einleiiiing in die
Philosophie (1892; 7th ed., 1900; Eng. trans., 1895). He went,
however, considerably beyond Fechner in attempting to give
an epistemological account of our knowledge of the psycho-
physical. Admitting Kant's hypothesis that by inner sense
we are conscious of mental states only, he holds that this
consciousness constitutes a knowledge of the " thing-in-itself "
— which Kant denies. Soul is, therefore, a practical reality
which Paulsen, with Schopenhauer, regards as known by the act
of " will." But this " will" is neither rational desire, unconscious
irrational will, nor conscious intelligent will, but an instinct, a
" will to live" (Zielstrebigkeit), often subconscious, pursuing ends,
indeed, but without reasoning as to means. This conception
of will, though consistent and convenient to the main thesis,
must be rigidly distinguished from the ordinary significance of
will, i.e. rational desire. Paulsen is almost better known for
his educational writings than as a pure philosopher. His
German Education, Past and Present (Eng. trans., by I. Lorenz,
1907) is a work of great value.
Among his other works are : Versuch einer Eniwickelunggeschichte
d. Kantischen Erkenntnistlieorie (Leipzig, 1875) ; Im.Kant (1898, 1899);
" Griindung Organization und Lebensordnungen der deutschen
Universitaten im Mittelalter" (in Sybel's Histor. Zeilschr. vol. .xlv.
1881); Gesch. d. gclehrten Unterrichts aiif d. deutschen Schulen und
Universitaten {1885, l8g6) ; System der Ethik (1889, 1899; Eng. trans,
[partial] 1899); Das Realgymnasium u. d. humanist. Bildung (1889);
Kant d. Philos. d. Protestantismus (1899); Schopenhauer, Hamlet u.
Mephistopheles (1900) ; Philosophia militans ( 1900, 190 1) ; Parteipolitik
u. Moral (1900).
PAULUS, HEINRICH EBERHARD GOTTLOB (1761-1851), '
German rationalistic theologian, was born at Leonberg, near
Stuttgart, on the ist of September 1761. His father, a Lutheran
clergyman at Leonberg, dabbled in spiritualism, and was
deprived of his living in 1771. Paulus was educated in the
seminary at Tubingen, was three years master in a German
school, and then spent two years in travelling through England,
Germany, Holland and France. In 1789 he was chosen professor
ordinarius of Oriental languages at Jena. Here he lived in close
intercourse with Schiller, Goethe, Herder and the most dis-
tinguished literary men of the time. In 1793 he succeeded
Johann Christoph Doderlein (1745-1792) as professor of exe-
getical theology. His special work was the exposition of the
Old and New Testaments in the light of his great Oriental learning
964 PAULUS, LUCIUS AEMILIUS— PAULUS DIACONUS
and according to his characteristic principle of " natural explana-
tion." In his explanation of the Gospel narratives Paulas
sought to remove what other interpreters regarded as miracles
from the Bible by distinguishing between the fact related and
the author's opinion of it, by seeking a naturalistic exegesis of a
narrative, e.g. that i-wi ttjs daXaad-qs (Matt. xiv. 25) means
by the shore and not on the sea, by supplying circumstances
omitted by the author, by remembering that the author produces
as miracles occurrences which can now be explained otherwise,
e.g. exorcisms. His Life of Jesus (1828) is a synoptical trans-
lation of the Gospels, prefaced by an account of the preparation
for the Christ and a brief summary of His history, and accom-
panied by very short explanations interwoven in the translation.
The form of the work was fatal to its success, and the subsequent
Exegetisches Handbuch rendered it quite superfluous. In this
HandbucU Paulus really contributed much to a true interpreta-
tion of the Gospel narratives. In 1803 he became professor of
theology and Consistorialrat at Wiirzburg. After this he filled
various posts in south Germany — school director at Bamberg
(1807), Nuremberg (1808), Ansbach (1810) — until he became
professor of exegesis and church history at Heidelberg (181 1-
1844). He died on the loth of August 1851.
His chief exegetical works are his Philologisch-kritischer und
hislorisdier Kommentar uber das Neue Testament (4 vols., 1800-
1804); Philologischer Clavis iiher die Psalmen (1791); and Philo-
logischer Clavis uber Jesaias (1793); and particularly his Exegetisches
Handbuch uber die drei ersten Evangeiien (3 vols., 1830-1833; 2nd
ed., 1841-1842). He also edited a collected small edition of Baruch
Spinoza's works (i 802-1 803), a collection of the most noted Eastern
travels (1792-1803), F. W. J. Schclling's Vorlesungen uber die
Offenbarung (1843), and published Skizzen aus meiner Bildungs-
uiid Lebensgeschichte (1839). See Karl Reichlin-Meldegg, H. E. G.
Paulus und seine Zeil (1853), and article in Herzog-Hauck, Real-
encyklopddie; of. F. Lichtenberger, History of German Theology
in the Nineteenth Century, pp. 21-24.
PAULUS (older form Paullus), LUCIUS AEMILIUS, sur-
named Macedonicus (c. 229-160 B.C.), Roman general, a member
of a patrician family of the Aemihan gens, son of the consul of the
same name who fell at Cannae. As consul for the second time
(168) he was entrusted with the command in the Macedonian
War, which the incapacity of previous generals had allowed to
drag on for three years. He brought the war to a speedy
termination by the battle of Pydna, fought on the 22nd of June
(Juhan calendar) 1 68. Macedonia was henceforward a Roman
province, and Paulus, having made a tour through Greece, with
the assistance of ten Roman commissioners arranged the affairs
of the country. He enjoyed a magnificent triumph, which lasted
three days and was graced by the presence of the captive king
Perseus and his three children. He lost his two sons by his
second wife, and was thus left without a son to bear his name,
his two sons by his first wife having been adopted into the
Fabian and CorneUan gentes. Paulus was censor in 164, and
died in 160 after a long illness. At the funeral games exhibited
in his honour the Hecyra of Terence was acted for the second
and the Adelphi for the first time. An aristocrat to the back-
bone, he was yet beloved by the people. Of the vast sums
brought by him into the Roman treasury from Spain and Mace-
donia he kept nothing to himself, and at his death his property
scarcely sufficed to pay his wife's dowry. As a general he was a
strict disciphnarian; as an augur he discharged his duties with
' care and exactness. He was greatly in sympathy with Greek
learning and art, and was a friend of the historian Polybius.
See Plutarch, Aemilius Paulus; Livy xliv. 17-xlvi. 41; Polybius
xxix.-xxxii.
PAULUS, surnamed Silentiarius (" the sUentiary," one of
the ushers appointed to maintain sUence within the imperial
palace), Greek poet, contemporary and friend of Agathias,
during the reign of Justinian. In addition to some 80 epigrams,
chiefly erotic and panegyric in character, preserved in the Greek
Anthology, there is extant by him a description {iKcj>pacis) of
the church of St Sophia, and of its pulpit {&iJifiu>v), in all some
1300 hexameters after the style of Nonnus, with short iambic
dedications to Justinian. The poem was recited at the second
dedication of the church (a.d. 562), in the episcopal haU of the
patriarchate. The poems are of importance for the history of
Byzantine art in the 6th century. Another poem, (also preserved
in the Anthology) on the warm baths of Pythia in Bithynia,
written in the Anacreontic rhythm, has sometimes been
attributed to him.
Bibliography. — Ed. of the poems on St Sophia, by I. Bekkcr
in the Bonn Corpus scriptorum hist. byz. (1837), including the
descriptions of the church by Du Cange and Banduri, and in
J. P. Migne, Patrologia graeca, lx.\xvi. ; metrical translations,
with commentary, by C. W. Kortlim (1854), and J. J. Kreutzer
(•■^yS); poem on the Baths in G. E. Lessing, Ztir Geschichte und
Literalur, i. 5 (1773); see also Merian-Genast, De Paulo Silentiario
(Leipzig, 1889J.
PAULUS DIACONUS, or Warnefridi, or Casinensis
(c. 720-c. Soo), the historian of the Lombards, belonged to a noble
Lombard family and flourished in the 8th century. An ancestor
named Leupichis entered Italy in the train of Alboin and received
lands at or near Forum Juhi (FriuU). During an invasion the
Avars swept off the five sons of this warrior into lUyria, but one,
his namesake, returned to Italy and restored the ruined fortunes
of his house. The grandson of the younger Leupichis was
Warnefrid, who by his wife TheodeUnda became the father of
Paulus. Born between 720 and 725 Paulus received an excep-
tionally good education, probably at the court of the Lombard
king Ratchis in Pavia, learning from a teacher named Flavian the
rudiments of Greek. It is probable that he was secretary to the
Lombard king Desiderius, the successor of Ratchis; it is certain
that this king's daughter Adelperga was his pupil. After
Adelperga had married Arichis, duke of Benevento, Paulus at
her request wrote his continuation of Eutropius. It is possible
that he took refuge at Benevento when Pavia was taken by
Charlemagne in 774, but it is much more likely that his residence
there was anterior to this event by several years. Soon he
entered a monastery on the lake of Como, and before 782 he had
become an inmate of the great Benedictine house of Monte
Cassino, where he made the acquaintance of Charlemagne.
About 776 his brother Arichis had been carried as a prisoner to
France, and when five years later the Prankish king visited
Rome, Paulus successfully wrote to him on behalf of the captive.
His Uterary attainments attracted the notice of Charlemagne,
and Paulus became a potent factor in the Carolingian renaissance.
In 787 he returned to Italy and to Monte Cassino, where he died
on the 13th of April in one of the years between 794 and 800.
His surname Diaconus, or Levita, shows that he took orders as a
deacon; and some think he was a monk before the fall of the
Lombard kingdom.
The chief work of Paulus is his Historia gentis Langohardorum.
This incomplete history in six books was written after 787 and
deals with the story of the Lombards from 568 to the death of
King Liutprand in 747. The story is told from the point of view
of a Lombard patriot and is especially valuable for the relations
between the Franks and the Lombards. Paulus used the document
called the Origo gentis Langobardorum , the Liber ponticfialis, the
lost history of Secundus of Trent, and the lost annals of Benevento;
he made a free use of Bede, Gregory of Tours and Isidore of Seville.
In some respects he suggests a comparison with Jordanes, but in
learning and literary honesty is greatly the superior of the Goth.
Of the Historia there are about a hundred manuscripts extant.
It was largely used by subsequent writers, was often continued,
and was first printed in Paris in 1514. It has been translated into
English, German, French and Italian, the English translation
being by W. D. Foulke (Philadelphia, 1807), and the German by
O. Abel and R. Jacobi (Leipzig, 1878). Among the editions of the
Latin the best is that edited by L. Bethmann and G. Waitz, in the
Monumenta Germaniae historica. Scriptores rerum langobardicarum
(Hanover, 1878).
Cognate with this work is Paulus's Historia romana, a continua-
tion of the Breviarium of Eutropius. This was compiled between
766 and 771, at Benevento. The story runs that Paulus advised
Adelperga to read Eutropius. She did so, but complained that
this heathen writer said nothing about ecclesiastical^ aflFairs and
stopped with the accession of the emperor Valens in 364 ; con-
sequently Paulus interwove extracts from the Scriptures, from the
ecclesiastical historians and from other sources with Eutropius,
and added six books, thus bringing the history down to 553. This
work has little value, although it was very popular during the
middle ages. It has been edited by H. Droysen and published in
the Monumenta Germaniae historica. Auctores antiquissimi, Bd. ii.
(1879).
PAUL VERONESE
965
Paulus wrote at the request of Angilram, bishop of Metz (d. 791),
a history of the bishops of Metz to 766, the first work of its kind
north of the Alps. This Gesla episcopomm mettensium is pub-
lished in Bd. ii. of the Momimenta Germaniae historica Scrip-
tores, and has been translated into German (Leipzig, 1880). He
also wrote many letters, verses and epitaphs, including those of
Duke Arichis and of many members of the Carolingian family.
Some of the letters are published with the Historia Langobardorum
in the Monumenta; the poems and epitaphs edited by E. Dtimmler
will be found in the Poetae latini aevi carolini, Bd. i. (Berlin,
1881). Fresh material having come to light, a new edition of the
poems {Die Gedkhte des Paulus Diaconus) has been edited by Karl
Neff (Munich, 1908). While in France Paulus was requested by
Charlemagne to compile a collection of homilies. He executed
this after his return to Monte Cassino, and it was largely used in
the Prankish churches. A life of Pope Gregory the Great has also
been attributed to him.
See C. Cipolla, Note hibliografiche circa I'odierna condisione degh
studi critici sul testo delle opere di Paolo Diacono (Venice, 1901);
the Atti e memorie del congresso storico tenuto in Ciindale (Udine,
1900); F. Dahn, Langobardische Studien, Bd. i. (Leipzig, 1876);
W. Wattenbach, Dcutschlands Geschkhtsqiiellen, Bd. i. (Berlin,
1904); A. Hauck, Kirchengeschichte Dcutschlands, Bd. ii. (Leipzig,
1898); P. del Giudice, Studi di sloria e diritto (Milan, 1889); and
U. Balzani, Le Cronache italiane nel medio evo (Milan, 1884).
PAUL VERONESE (1528-1588), the name ordinarily given to
Paolo Caliari, or Cagliari, the latest of the great cycle of painters
of the Venetian school, who was born in Verona in 1528 according
to Zanetti and others, or in 1532 according to Ridolfi. His
father, Gabriele Caliari, a sculptor, began to train Paolo to his
own profession. The boy, however, showed more propensity
to painting, and was therefore transferred to his uncle, the
painter Antonio Badile, whose daughter he eventually married.
According to Vasari, he was the pupil of Giovanni Carotto, a
painter proficient in architecture and perspective; this
statement remains unconfirmed. Paolo, in his early years,
applied himself to copying from the engravings of Albert DUrer
and the drawings of Parmigiano. He did some work in Verona,
but found there little outlet for his abilities, the field being
pretty well occupied by Ligozzi, Battista dal Moro, Paolo
Farinato, Domenico Riccio, Brusasorci and other artists.
Cardinal Ercole Gonzaga took him, when barely twenty years of
age, to Mantua, along with the three last-named painters, to
execute in the cathedral a picture of the " Temptation of St
Anthony "; here Caliari was considered to excel his competitors.
Returning to Verona, he found himself exposed to some envy and
ill-will. Hence he formed an artistic partnership with Battista
Zelotti, and they painted together in the territories of Vicenza
and Treviso. Finally Paolo went on to Venice. In this city his
first pictures were executed, in 1555, in the sacristy and church
of S. Sebastiano, an uncle of his being prior of the monastery.
The subjects on the vaulting are taken from the history of
Esther; and these excited so much admiration that henceforward
Caliari, aged about twenty-eight, ranked almost on a par with
Tintoretto, aged about forty-five, or with Titian, who was in his
eightieth year. Besides the Esther subjects, these buildings
contain his pictures of the " Baptism of Christ," the " Martyrdom
of St Marcus and St Marcellinus," the " Martyrdom of St Sebas-
tian," &c. As regards this last-named work, dating towards
1563, there is a vague tradition that Caliari painted it when he
had taken refuge in the monastery. He entered into a competi-
tion for painting the ceiling of the library of St Mark, and not
only obtained the commission but executed it with so much
power that his very rivals voted him the golden chain which had
been tendered as an honorary distinction. At one time he
returned to Verona, and painted the " Banquet in the House of
Simon the Pharisee, with Jesus and Mary Magdalene " — a
picture now in Turin. In 1560, however, he was in Venice
again, working partly in the S. Sebastiano buildings and partly
in the ducal palace. He visited Rome in 1563, in the suite of
Girolamo Grimani, the Venetian ambassador, and studied the
works of Raphael and Michelangelo, and especially the antique.
Returning to Venice, he was overwhelmed with commissions.
He was compelled to decline an invitation from Philip II. to go
to Spain and assist in decorating the Escorial. One of his
pictures of this period is the famous " Venice, Queen of the
Sea," in the ducal palace. He died in Venice on the 20th (or
perhaps 19th) of April 1588, and was buried in the church oi
S. Sebastiano, a monument being set up to him there by his two
sons, Gabriele and Carlo, and his brother, Benedetto, all of them
painters.
Beyond his magnificent performances as a painter, the known
incidents in the life of Paul Veronese are very few. He was
honoured and loved, being kind, amiable, generous and an
excellent father. His person is well known from the portraits
left by himself and others: he was a dark man, rather good-
looking than otherwise, somewhat bald in early middle age, and
with nothing to mark an exceptional energy or turn of character.
In his works the first quality which strikes one is their palatial
splendour. The pictorial inspiration is entirely that of the
piercing and comprehensive eye and the magical hand— not of
the mind. The human form and face are given with decorous
comeliness, often with beauty; but of individual apposite
expression there is next to none. In fact, Paolo Veronese is
pre-eminently a painter working pictorially, and in no wise
amenable to a literary or rationalizing standard. He enjoys
a sight much as Ariosto enjoys a story, and displays it in form
and colour with a zest like that of Ariosto for language and
verse. He was supreme in representing, without huddHng or
confusion, numerous figures in a luminous and diffused atmo-
sphere, while in richness of draperies and transparency of shadows
he surpassed aU the other Venetians or Itahans. In gifts of this
kind Rubens alone could be pitted against him. In the modera-
tion of art combined with its profusion he far excelled Rubens;
for, dazzling as is the first impression of a great work by Veronese,
there is in it, in reality, as much of soberness and serenity as of
exuberance. By variety and apposition he produces a most
brilliant effect of colour; and yet his hues are seldom bright.
He hoards his primary tints and his high lights. He very rarely
produced small pictures: the spacious was his element.
Of all Veronese's paintings the one which has obtained the
greatest world-wide celebrity is the vast " Marriage at Cana,"
now in the Louvre. It contains about a hundred and twenty
figures or heads — those in the foreground being larger than life.
Several of them are portraits. Among the personages specified
(some of them probably without sufficient reason) are the Mar-
quis del Vasto, Queen Eleanor of France, Francis I., Queen Mary
of England, Sultan Soleyman I., Vittoria Colonna, Charles V.,
Tintoretto, Titian, the elder Bassano, Benedetto Caliari and
Paolo Veronese himself (the figure playing the viol). It is
impossible to look at this picture without astonishment. The
only point of view from which it fails is that of the New Testa-
ment narrative; for there is no relation between the Galilean
wedding and Veronese's court-banquet. This stupendous per-
formance was executed for the refectory of the monastery of
S. Giorgio Maggiore in Venice, the contract for it being signed
in June 1562 and the picture completed in September 1563.
Its price was 324 silver ducats ( = £160), along -svith the artist's
living expenses and a tun of wine. There are five other great
banquet-pictures by Caliari, only inferior in scale and excellence
to this of Cana. One of them is also in the Louvre, a '' Feast
in the House of Simon the Pharisee," painted towards 1570-157S
for the refectory of the Servites in Venice. A different version
of the same theme is in the Brera Gallery of Milan. " The Feast
of Simon the Leper" (1570) was done for the refectory of the
monks of St Sebastian, and the " Feast of Levi " (St Matthew)
(1573), now in the Venetian academy, for the refectory of the
monks of St John and St Paul. In each instance the price
barely exceeded the cost of the materials. The Louvre contains
ten other specimens of Veronese, notably the " Susanna and
the Elders" and the " Supper at Emmaus." In the National'
Gallery, London, are ten examples. The most beautiful is
" St Helena's Vision of the Cross," founded upon an engraving
by Marcantonio after a drawing supposed to be the work of
Raphael. Far more famous than this is the " Family of Darius
at the Feet of Alexander the Great after the Battle of Issus" —
the captives having mistaken Hephaestion for Alexander. It
was bought for £13,560, and has even been termed (very un-
reasonably) the most celebrated of all Veronese's works. The
966
PAUMOTU— PAUNCEFOTE, BARON
principal figures are portraits of the Pisani family. It is said
that Caliari was accidentally detained at the Pisani villa at Este,
and there painted this work, and, on quitting, told the family
that he had left behind him an equivalent for his courteous
entertainment. Another picture in the National Gallery,
" Europa and the Bull," is a study for the large painting in the
imperial gallery of Vienna, and resembles one in the ducal palace
of Venice. The Venetian academy contains fourteen works by
Veronese. One of the finest is a comparatively smaU picture
of the Battle of Lepanto, ^vith Christ in heaven pouring light
upon the Christian iieet and darkness on the Turkish. In the
Ufflzi Gallery of Florence are two specimens of exceptional
beauty — the " Annunciation " and " Esther Presenting herself
to Ahasuerus" ; for delicacy and charm this latter work yields
to nothing that the master produced. In Verona " St George
and St Julian," in Brescia the " Martyrdom of St Afra," and in
Padua the " Martyrdom of St Justina" are works of leading
renown. Celebrated frescoes by Caliari are in four villas
near Venice, more especially the Villa Masiera. His drawings
are very fine, and he took pleasure at times in engraving on
copper.
The brother and sons of Paolo already mentioned, and Battista
Zelotti, were his principal assistants and followers. Benedetto
Caliari, the brother, who was about ten years younger than
Paolo, is reputed to have had a very large share in the architec-
tural backgrounds which form so conspicuous a feature in Paolo's
compositions. If this is not overstated, it must be aOowed that
a substantial share in Paolo's fame accrues to Benedetto; for
not only are the backgrounds admirably schemed and limned,
but they govern to a large extent the invention and distribution
of the groups. Of the two sons Carlo (or Carletto), the younger,
is the better known. He was born in 1570, and was sent to
study under Bassano. He produced various noticeable works,
and died young in 1596. Gabriele, born in 1568, attended, after
Carlo's death, almost entirely to commercial affairs; his works
in painting are rare. All three were occupied after the death of
Paolo in finishing his pictures left uncompleted.
See Ridolfi, Le Meraviglie de.lV arte, &c. ; Dal Pozzo, Viie de'
pittori veronesi, &c. ; Zanetti, Delia Pittura veneziana, &c. ; _ and
Lanzi; also, among recent works, the biographies by C. Yriarte
(1888); F. H. Meisner (1897); and Mrs Arthur Bell (1904).
(W. M. R.)
PAUMOTU, TuAMOTU, or Low Archtpelago, a broad belt
of 78 atolls in the Pacific Ocean, belonging to France, between
14° and 24° S., and 131° and 149° W. They trend in irregular
lines in a north-west and south-west direction, the major axis of
the group extending over 1300 m. The largest atoU, Rangiroa,
with a lagoon 45 m. long by 1 5 wide, is made up of twenty islets.
Fakarava, the next in size, consists of fifteen islets, and its oblong
lagoon affords the best anchorage in the group. Hau has fifty
islets, and its lagoon is dangerously studded with coral. The
symmetrically placed eleven islets of Anaa suggested to Captain
Cook the name of Chain Island. Heavy storms sometimes
greatly alter the form of the atolls. The first discovery of part
of the archipelago was made by the Spaniard Pedro Fernandez
Quiros in 1606. Many navigators subsequently discovered or
rediscovered various parts of the group — among them may be
mentioned Jacob Lemaire and Willem Schouten (1616), John
Byron (1765), Philip Carteret (1767), Louis Antoine de Bougain-
ville (1768), Captain James Cook (1769), Lieutenant Bligh (1792),
Captain Wilson of the " Duff " (1797), Otto von Kotzebue (1815
and 1824), Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen (1819-1820) and
Charles Wilkes (1839) who made a detailed survey of the islands.
As a result almost all the islands bear alternative names.
The dates given are those of first discovery. In the north-west
part of the chain are Rangiroa (Vliegen, Deans or Nairsa, this
part of the group bearing the name of the PaUiser Islands);
Fakarava (Witgenstein, 1819), the seat of the French resident;
Anaa (Chain, 1769), Makemo (Makima, PhiUips, Kutusov, 1803),
Hau (Hao, Harp, Bow, 1768). North and east of these are
Manihi (Oahe, Waterlandt, 1616), Tikei (Romanzov, 1815), the
Disappointment group (1765) of which Napuka is the chief
island, Pukapuka (Henuake, Honden, Dog, 1616), Raroia
(Barclay de Tolly, 1820), Angatau (Ahangatu, Arakchev, 1820),
Akahaina (Fakaina, Predpriatie, 1824), Tatakoto (Narcissus,
Egmont, Gierke, 1774), Pukaruha (Serle, 1797). In the southern
part of the archipelago are Hereheretui (Bhgh, Santablo, 1606),
the Duke of Gloucester group (1767), Tematangi (Bligh Lagoon,
1792), Maruroa (Braburgh, Matilda, 1767), the Actaeon or
Amphitrite group (discovered by the Tahitian trading vessel
"Amphitrite" in 1833), Marutea (Lord Hood, 1791), and the
Gambler or Mangareva group (1797), of which Mangareva
(Gambler, Peard) is the chief member. To the south again are:
Pitcairn {q-v.), Ducie, and a few other islets, which are British
and do not properly belong to the Paumotu Archipelago. The
Gambler Islands are a cluster of four larger and many smaller
volcanic islets, enclosed in one wide reef. The wooded crags of
Mangareva, the largest islet, S m. in length, rise to a height of
1315 ft. and are covered with a rich vegetation, quite Tahitian
in character; but, as in the other Paumotus, there is a dearth of
animal life.
The climate of the islands is healthy, and they have a lower
mean temperature than Tahiti. The easterly trade winds
prevail. Rain and fogs occur even during the dry season. The
stormy season lasts from November to March, when devastating
hurricanes are not uncommon and a south-westerly swell renders
the western shores dangerous. Plants and animals are scantily
represented. Coco-nut palms and the pandanus thrive on
many of the islets, and the bread-fruit, banana, pine-apple,
water-melon and yam have been introduced from Tahiti into the
western islands. Mammals are represented by a few rats;
among land-birds parakeets, thrushes and doves are noticeable;
and of reptiles there are only lizards. Insects are scarce. But
the sea and lagoons teem with turtle, fish, moUuscs, crustaceans
and zoophytes. Coral is luxuriant everywhere. From the
abundance of pearl oysters the archipelago gets its traders' name
of Pearl Islands.
The Paumotus are sparsely inhabited by a fine strong race of
Polynesians, more muscular and mostly darker-skinned than
that inhabiting Tahiti. In the west considerable intermixture
with other races has taken place. In physique, language, religion
and customs the Gambler Islanders closely resemble the Raro-
tongans. The pearl fisheries in the rocky and surf waters
are a source of revenue, the pearls being sold in Tahiti. The
best harbour of the group is that of Fakarava, which, together
with Mangareva, is open to trade.
The land area of the entire group is about 330 sq. m., and
the population is about 6000. The group passed imder the
protection of France in 1844, and was annexed in 1881,
forming part of the dependency of Tahiti.
PAUNCEFOTE, JULIAN PAUNCEFOTE, isx Baron (1828-
1902), English diplomatist, third son of Robert Pauncefote of
Preston Court, Gloucestershire, was bornon the 13th of Septem-
ber 1828. He was educated kt Marlborough, Paris and Geneva,
and called to the bar at the Inner Temple in 1852. He was for a
short time secretary to Sir William Molesworth, secretary for
the colonies, and in 1862 went out to Hong-Kong, where he was
made attorney-general (1865) and then chief justice of the
supreme court. He was appointed chief justice of the Leeward
Islands in 1873, and, returning to England in the next year,
became one of the legal advisers to the colonial office. Two
years later he received a similar appointment in the foreign
office, and in 1882 was made permanent under-secretary of state
for foreign affairs. In 1885 he was one of the delegates to the
Suez Canal international commission, and received the G.C.M.G.
and the K.C.B. Lord Sahsbury departed from precedent in
choosing him to succeed Sir Lionel Sackville-West as British
minister at Washington in 1889, but the event showed that his
knowledge of international law made up for any lack of the
ordinary diplomatic training. He did much during his term of
office to maintain friendly relations between the two countries,
especially during the Venezuelan crisis. The Bering Sea fishery
dispute (1890-1892) was successfully negotiated by him; he
arranged a draft treaty for Anglo-American arbitration, which
was, however, quashed by the Senate; and carried through
PAUPERISM— PAUSANIAS
967
the revision of the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty on the subject of the
Panama Canal. In 1893 the British minister at Washington was
raised to the rank of ambassador, and Sir Julian Pauncefote
became the doyen of the diplomatic corps. He died on the
26th of May 1902 at Washington. He had been made Baron
Pauncefote of Preston in 1899 in recognition of his services at
the Peace Conference at the Hague, and he was a member of
the Court of Arbitration which resulted from the conference.
PAUPERISM (Lat. pauper, poor), a term meaning generally
the state of being poor, poverty; but in English usage particu-
larly the condition of being a " pauper," i.e. in receipt of relief
administered under the poor law. In this sense the word is
to be distinguished from " poverty." A person to be relieved
under the poor law must be a destitute person, and the moment
he has been relieved he becomes a pauper, and as such incurs
certain civil disabilities. Statistics dealing with the state of
pauperism in this sense convey not the amount of destitution
actually prevalent, but the particulars of people in receipt of
poor law relief.
PAUSANIAS (5th century B.C.), Spartan regent and com-
mander, of the Agiad family, son of Cleombrotus and nephew of
Leonidas, the hero of Thermopylae. Upon the death of the
latter in 480 B.C. his son Pleistarchus became king, but as he was
still a minor the regency devolved first on Leonidas's brother
Cleombrotus, and after his death in 479 on Pausanias. He first
distinguished himself as commander of the combined Greek
forces in the victory of Plataea. In 478 he was appointed
admiral of the Greek fleet, and succeeded in reducing the greater
Dart of Cyprus, the strategic key of the Levant, and in capturing
Byzantium from the Persians, thus securing the command of
the Bosporus, and of the route by which Darius had invaded
Europe. But he entered into treacherous negotiations with the
Persian king, and his adoption of Oriental dress and customs,
and his haughty behaviour to the Greeks under his command,
roused their resentment and suspicion (see Delian League).
Pausanias was recalled by the ephors and, though acquitted
on the main charge of Medism, was not again sent out in any
oiScial position. He returned to Byzantium, nevertheless,
in a ship of Hermione and seized that town and, apparently,
Sestos also. He was dislodged from both by the Athenians,
to whom the allies had transferred from Sparta the naval
hegemony. For some time he lived at Cleonae in the Troad,
carrying on negotiations with Xerxes, but was again recalled
to Sparta, where he incited the helots to revolt. When his
schemes were almost matured, the evidence of a confidential
slave led to the discovery of his plot by the ephors. He fled to
the sanctuary of Athena Chalcioecus on the Spartan Acropolis:
there he was immured, and when starvation and exposure had
all but done their work he was dragged out to die. This crime
against religion the state subsequently expiated by the burial
of his body at the spot where he died and the dedication of two
bronze statues. To commemorate Leonidas and Pausanias a
yearly festival was held, at which speeches were made extolling
their victories; this was still celebrated when the geographer
Pausanias visited Sparta more than six centuries later (Pans,
iii. 14). The date of the regent's death probably falls in 471 or
470, though some assign it to a later date on a very doubtful
statement of Justin (ix. i) that Pausanias held Byzantium for
seven years. ,_, .
See Herodotus v. 32, ix. lcy-88; Thucydides i. 94-96, 128-134,
ii. 71, 72, iii. 58; Diodorus Siculus xi. 30-47, 54; Cornelius Nepos,
Pausanias; Justin ii. 15, ix. I, 3; Pausanias iii. 4, 14, 17; Polyaenus
viii. 51; Aristodemus ii., iv., vi.-viii. ; Athenaeus xii. 535E, 536A;
Plutarch, Cimon6, Themistocles 23, Aristides 11-20, 23; N. Hanske,
Ueber den Konigsregenten Pausanias (Leipzig, 1873). (M. N. T.)
PAUSANIAS, Greek traveller and geographer of the 2nd
century a.d., lived in the times of Hadrian, Antoninus Pius and
Marcus Aurelius. He was probably a native of Lydia, and was
possibly born at Magnesia ad Sipylum; he was certainly inter-
ested in Pergamum and familiar with the western coast of Asia
Minor; but his travels extended far beyond the limits of Ionia.
Before visiting Greece he had been to Antioch, Joppa and
Jerusalem,' and to the banks of the river Jordan. In Egypt
he had seen the pyramids and had heard the music of the vocal
IMcmnon, while at the temple of Ammon he had been shown the
hyinn once sent to that shrine by Pindar. He had taken note
of the fortifications of Rhodes and Byzantium, had visited
Thessaly, and had gazed on the rivulet of " blue water " beside
the pass of Thermopylae. In Macedonia he had almost certainly
viewed the traditional tomb of Orpheus, while in Epirus he was
familiar with the oracular oak of Dodona, and with the streams
of Acheron and Cocytus. Crossing over to Italy, he had seen
somithing of the cities of Campania, and of the wonders of
Rome.
His Description of Greece^ {Trepiriyqais t^s "EXXdSos) takes the
form of a tour in the Peloponnesus and in part of northern
Greece. It is divided into ten books: (i.) Attica and Megara;
(ii.) Argolis, including Mycenae, Tiryns and Epidaurus; (iii.)
Laconia; (iv.) Messenia; (v.) and (vi.) ELis, including Olympia;
(vii.) Achaea; (viii.) Arcadia; (ix.) Boeotia, and (x.) Phocis,
including Delphi.
Book i. was written after Herodes Atticus had built the
Athenian Stadium (a.d. c. 143), but before he had buOt the
Odeum (c. 160-161). There is reason to believe that thisbook was
published some years before the rest. The statement in book v.
(i, 2), that 217 years had elapsed since the restoration of Corinth
(44 B.C.), shows that Pausanias was engaged on his account of
Elis in the year a.d. 174, during the reign of Marcus Aurelius.
He repeatedly refers to buildings erected by Hadrian, who died
in a.d. 138. He had lived in that emperor's time, but had not
actually seen that emperor's favourite, AntinoUs, who died
about 130. He mentions the wars of Antoninus Pius against
the Moors, and of Marcus Aurelius (in and after a.d. 166)
against the Germans (viii. 43). The latest event which he
records is the incursion of the robber-horde of the Costobocs
(a.d. c. 176; X. 34, s). Book i. having been published before
160, and books vi.-x. after 174, the composition of the whole
must have extended over more than fourteen years.
The work has no formal preface or conclusion. It suddenly
begins with the promontory of Sunium, the first point in Attica
that would be seen by the voyager from the shores of Asia
Minor, and it ends abruptly with an anecdote of a blind man
of Naupactus. The author's general aim may be inferred from
his saying at the close of his account of Athens and Attica:
" Such (in my opinion) are the mosl famous of the Athenian
traditions and sights; from the mass of materials I have aimed
from the outset at selecting the really notable " (i. 39, 3). It 's
possibly in the hope of giving variety and interest to the topo-
graphical details of Athens that the author intersperses them
with lengthy historical disquisitions; but the result is that the
modern reader is tempted to omit the " history " and to hasten
on to the " topography," on which the author is now a primary
authority. In the subsequent books he introduces two improve-
ments. His account of each important city begins with a sketch
of its history; and, in his subsequent descriptions, he adopts a
strictly topographical order. He takes the nearest road from
the frontier to the capital; he there makes for the central point,
e.g. the market-place, and describes in succession the several
streets radiating from that centre. Similarly, in the surrounding
district, he foUows the principal roads in succession, returning
to the capital in each case, until, at the end of the last road, he
crosses the frontier for the next district. In the later books he
supplies us with a few gUmpses into the daily life of the inhabi-
tants. He is constantly describing ceremonial rites or super-
stitious customs. He frequently introduces narratives from
the domain of history and of legend and folk-lore; and it is only
'The tomb of Helena at Jerusalem, which Pausanias viii. 16,
4-5. compares mth the Mausoleum, is mentioned by Josephus,
Ant. XX. 4, 3; Bell. jud. v. 2, 2; 3, 3; 4, 2; {and Eusebius, H.E.
ii. 12, 3. Helen, the daughter of Izates, king of Adiabene, sent
large shiploads of provisions to Rome during the great famine in
the time of Claudius (a.d. 44-48). Her tomb is identified by
universal consent with the so-called " Tombs of the Kings," half
a mile north of the Damascus gate. Cf. Schiircr, Geschichte des
jiidischen Volkes, 3rd ed., iii. 120-122; view of tomb in Picturesque
Palestine, i. 103.
968
PAUSANIAS
rarely that he allows us to see something of the scenery. But,
happily, he notices the pine-trees on the sandy coast of Ehs, the
deer and the wild boars in the oak-woods of Phelloe, and the
crows amid the giant oak-trees of Alalcomenae. He tells us
that " there is no fairer river than the Ladon," " no reeds grow
so tall as those in the Boeotian Asopus," and the rain that
deluges the fallow plain of Mantinea vanishes into a chasm to
rise again elsewhere. It is mainly in the last three books that
he touches on the products of nature, the wild strawberries
of Hehcon, the date-palms of AuUs, and the oHve-oil of Tithorea,
as well as the bustards of Phocis, the tortoises of Arcadia and
the " white blackbirds " of Cyllene. He is rather reticent as to
the character of the roads, but he records, with the gratitude of
a traveller, the fact that the narrow and perilous cornice of the
Scironian way along the coast of Megara had been made wider
and safer by Hadrian. He is inspired by a patriotic interest
in the ancient glories of Greece, recognizing in Athens aU that
was best in the old Greek hfe, and lamenting the ruin that had
befallen the land on the fatal field of Chaeronea. He is most at
home in describing the religious art and architecture of Olympia
and of Delphi; but, even in the most secluded regions of Greece,
he is fascinated by all kinds of quaint and primitive images of
the gods, by holy relics and many other sacred and mysterious
things. He is interested in visiting the battlefields of Marathon
and Plataea, and in viewing the Athenian trophy on the island
of Salamis, the grave of Demosthenes at Calauria, of Leonidas
at Sparta, of Epaminondas at Mantinea, and the colossal lion
guarding the tomb of the Thebans on the Boeotian plain. At
Thebes itself he views the shields of those who died at Leuctra,
and the ruins of the house of Pindar; the statues of Hesiod and
Arion, of Thamyxis and Orpheus, in the grove of the Muses on
Helicon; the portrait of Corinna at Tanagra, and of Polybius in
the cities of Arcadia. At Olympia he takes note of the ancient
quoit of Iphitus inscribed with the terms of the Olympic truce,
the tablets recording treaties between Athens and other Grecian
states, the memorials of the victories of the Greeks at Plataea,
of the Spartans at Tanagra, of the Messenians at Naupactus,
and even those of Philip at Chaeronea and of Mummius at
Corinth. At Delphi, as he climbs the sacred way to the shrine
of Apollo, he marks the trophies of the victories of the Athenians
at Marathon and on the Eurymedon, of the united Greeks at
Artemisium, Salamis and Plataea, of the Spartans at Aegos-
potami, of the Thebans at Leuctra, and the shields dedicated
in memory of the repulse and defeat of the Gauls at Delphi
itself. At Athens, he sees pictures of historic battles, portraits
of famous poets, orators, statesmen and philosophers, and
inscriptions recording the laws of Solon; on the AcropoUs, the
trophy of the Persian wars, the great bronze statue of Athena;
at the entrance to the harbour of the Peiraeus, the grave of
Themistocles; and, outside the city, the monuments of Harmodius
and Aristogeiton, of Cleisthenes and Pericles, of Conon and
Timotheus, and of all the Athenians who fell in battle, except
the heroes of Marathon, " for these, as a meed of valour, were
buried on the field."
In the topographical part of his work, he is fond of digressions
on the wonders of nature, the signs that herald the approach
of an earthquake, the phenomena of the tides, the ice-bound seas
of the north, and the noonday sun which at the summer solstice
casts no shadow at Syene. While he never doubts the existence
of the gods and heroes, he sometimes criticizes the myths and
legends relating to them. His main interest is in the monuments
of ancient art, and he prefers the works of the 5th and 4th
centuries B.C. to those of later times. At Delphi he adm.ires
the pictures of Polygnotus, closing the seven chapters of his
minute description with the appreciative phrase: " so varied
and beautiful is the painting of the Thasian artist " (x. 31, 2).
In sculpture his taste is no less severe. Even in the " uncouth "
work of Daedalus, he recognizes " a touch of the divine "
(ii. 4, s). In architecture, he admires the prehistoric walls of
Tiryns, and the " Treasury of Minyas," the Athenian Propylaea,
the theatre of Epidaurus, the temples of Bassae and Tegea, the
walls of Messene, the Odeum at Patrae, as well as the building
of the same name lately built at Athens by Herodes Atticus
(vii. 20, 6), and finally the Stadium which that munificent
Athenian had faced with white marble from the quarries of
Pentelicus. His descriptions of the monuments of art are
plain and unadorned; they bear the impress of reality, and their
accuracy is confirmed by the extant remains. He is perfectly
frank in his confessions of ignorance. When he quotes a book
at second hand he takes pains to say so.
He has been well described by J. G. Frazer as " a man made
of common stuff and cast in a common mould; his intelligence
and abilities seem to have been little above the average, his
opinions not very different from those of his contemporaries."
His literary style is " plain and unadorned yet heavy and
laboured"; it is not careless or slovenly; the author tried to
write well, but his " sentences are devoid of rhythm and
harmony " {Introduclion, pp. xlix., Ixix.).
In considering his use of previous writers, we must draw a
distinction between the historical and the descriptive parts of his
work. In the former it was necessary for him to depend on
written or oral testimony; in the latter it was not. In the
historical passages, his principal poetic authority is Homer; he
frequently quotes the Thcogony of Hesiod, and he often refers
to Pindar and Aeschylus. His writings are full of echoes of
Herodotus, and his debt to Thucydides and Xenophon extends
beyond the isolated mention of their names (i. 3, 4; vi. 19, 5).
He has carcfuUy studied the Elean register of the Olympic
victors; he makes large use of inscriptions, and has generally
examined them with care and copied them with accuracy. In
the descriptive portion the question arises whether he derived
his knowledge from personal observation, or from books, or
from both. He does not profess to have seen everything, but
he does not acknowledge that he has borrowed any of his
descriptions from previous writers. He " cannot commend the
men who took the measurements " of the Zeus at Olympia
(v. II, 9). "A certain writer," who states that a particular
spring is the source of an Arcadian river, " cannot have seen the
spring himself, or spoken with any one who had; I have done
both " (viii. 41, 10). There are fifty passages in which he
either directly states or implies that he had seen the things
that he describes. All of these have been carefully collected
and examined by R. Heberdey (1804), who, by using a distinctive
type in marking on a map the places " seen " by Pausanias, and
by joining those places by lines representing the routes described
by him, has shown the large extent of the author's travels in
Greece. The complicated coast of Hermionis has, however, been
incorrectly described (ii. 34, 8 seq.), and there is some confusion
in the account of the three roads leading to the north from
Lepreiis, in the extreme south of Elis (v. 5, 3).
A greater difficulty has long been felt in connexion with the
" Enneacrunus episode " in the description of Athens (i. 8, 6, and
14, 1-6). In the midst of the account of the market-place, north-
west of the Acropolis, the reader is transported to the fount-ain
of Enneacrunus and to some buildings in its neighbourhood, and is
suddenly brought back to the market-place. It has been naturally
assumed that the Enneacrunus can only be the fountain of that
name in the bed of the Ilissus. If so, the description of the
fountain is out of place, and its insertion at this point has been
ascribed either to some confusion in the author's notes or to a
dislocation in the text. On the other hand, it has been suggested
that the description may really refer to some other fountain near
the market-place, which was shown to Pausanias as the Enneacrunus.
Thus it has been held by Dr Dorpfeld that the name Enneacrunus
was originally applied to a spring west of the Acropolis, that the
old name of this spring, Callirrhoe, had been abandoned from the
time when Peisistratus converted it into a " fountain with nine
jets," and that the names Callirrhoe and Enneacrunus were after-
wards transferred to another fountain in the bed of the Ilissus.
The evidence of his own excavations has led him to place the original
Enneacrunus near the eastern foot of the hill of the Pnyx, and to
identify certain adjacent remains with the buildings mentioned
by Pausanias. If this opinion is correct, the account of the Ennea-
crunus, and the neighbouring buildings, in Pausanias, ceases to
be an " episode," and falls into the natural sequence of the narrative.
(The " episode " has been fully discussed by the expounders and
translators of Pausanias, and by the writers on the topography of
Athens. Dr Dorpfeld's views are clearly set forth in Miss J. E.
Harrison's Primitive Athens (1906). A. Malinin's paper (Vienna,
PAUSIAS— PAVEMENT
969
1906), which assumes a dislocation of the text, has lieen answered
by Uorpfeld (Wochensclirift fiir kl. Philologie (1907), p. 940 seq.)-
The account of the law courts of Athens and of the altars at
Olympia may have been derived from monographs on those
subjects. In both cases the author departs from his usual
method of following the order of place, and deals with a group of
monuments belonging to the same class. But in the extant
literature of antiquity (as J. G. Frazer has shown) no passage
has been found agreeing in form or substance so closely with
the description in Pausanias as to make it probable that he copied
it. The theory that Pausanias borrowed largely from Polemon
of Ilium, who flourished about 200-177 B.C., and wrote on the
Acropolis and the eponymous heroes of Athens, on the treasuries
of Delphi, and on other antiquarian topics, was incidentally
suggested by Preller in his edition of the fragments (1838), and
was revived by Professor von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff in 1877
(Hermes, xii. 346). It was subsequently maintained by A.
Kalkmann (1886) that Pausanias slavishly copied from Polemon
the best part of his descriptions of Athens, Delphi and Olympia,
and described those places, not as they were in his own age, but
as they had been in that of Polemon, some 300 years liefore. It
is alleged that, in the notices of the monuments on the Acropolis
of Athens, and of the sculptors and the athlete-statues of
Olympia, the lower limit of Pausanias is practically 150 B.C.;
it is inferred that the authority followed by him ended with
this date, and it is more than suggested that his sole authority
was Polemon. But the comparative neglect of works later than
150 B.C. might also be explained by the fact that the indepen-
dence of Greece came to an end in 146. And, further, it so
happens that Pausanias refers to very few sculptors for the 140
years (296-156 B.C.) before the age of his supposed authority,
while some of the sculptors represented at Olympia have since
been placed after that date, and not a few of the Athenian
monuments described by Pausanias belong to the period between
that date and the accession of Hadrian, or, approximately, the
period between about 166 B.C. and a.d. 117 (Gurlilt, Uher
Pausanias, pp. 117 seq., 194 seq., 257-267). More than one
hundred extracts from, or reference to, the works of Polemon
have come down to us, and it has been shown by Mr Frazer that
" the existing fragments hardly justify us in supposing that
Pausanias was acquainted with the writings of his learned
predecessor; certainly they lend no countenance to the view
that he borrowed descriptions of places and monuments from
them." Again, it has been urged that his brief description of
the Peiraeus is not true of his own time, as it had been burnt
by Sulla (86 B.C.), and was still lying desolate in the age of
Augustus, but his account of the buildings and monuments has
been confirmed by an inscription conjecturally ascribed to the
time of Pausanias (Frazer ii. 14 seq.). It has also been stated
that the description of Arcadia must have been borrowed from
far earlier writers, because Strabo (p. 38S) says that most of
the famous cities of that land had either ceased to exist or had
left hardly a trace behind them; but the evidence of coins has
proved that at least seven of the eleven cities described by
Pausanias were still in existence long after the death of Strabo.
It has further been assumed that his account of the temple of
Apollo at Delphi is " irreconcilable with the remains of the
building " and with the inscriptions recently discovered by the
French archaeologists. We are told that Pausanias describes
the temple of the 6th century B.C. as if it still existed in his own
time. On the contrary, he states that the first sculptures for
the gables were executed by a pupil of Calamis, the pupil of a
sculptor still at work in 427 B.C., and the shields that he saw
suspended on the architrave were captured from the Gauls
in 279. Again, his description of New Corinth, built in 44 B.C.,
more than a century after the time of Polemon, is most minute
and systematic, and it is confirmed by coins of the imperial age.
In at least one important point Pausanias compares favourably
with Strabo. While Strabo erroneously declares that not a
vestige of Mycenae remains, Pausanias gives a brief but accurate
description of the Lion-gate and the existing circuit-wall of the
Acropolis, with a notice of the tombs " within the wall " (ii. 16,
5-7), a notice which led to their discovery by Schliemann. In all
parts of Greece the accuracy of his descriptions has been proved by
the remains of the buildings which he describes; and a few unim-
porl,ant mistakes (in v. 10, 6 and 9; viii. 37, 3, and 45, 5), and
some slight carelessness in copying inscriptions, do not lend any
colour to an imputation of bad faith. It has been stated with
perfect justice by Frazer (p. xcv. seq.) that " without him the
ruins of Greece would for the most part be a labyrinth without a
clue, a riddle without an answer." " His book furnishes the
clue to the labyrinth, the answer to many riddles. It will be
studied so long as ancient Greece shall continue to engage the
attention and awaken the interest of mankind."
Editions.— Siebclis (Leipzig, 1822); Schubart and Walz (1838);
Teuhner texts, Schubart (1862), and Spiro (1903). Text, Latin
translation and index, L. Dindorf (Didot, Paris, 1845J; text and
German commentary, Hitzig and Bliimner, books i.-ix., already
published in five parts (Leipzig, 1896-1907). Special edition of
Descripiio arcis Alhenarum, Otto Jahn (Bonn, i860), 3rd ed., with
maps and plans, &c., A. Michaelis (1901). F. Imhoof-Blumer and
Percy Gardner, " Numismatic Commentary on Pausanias," tirst pub-
lished in Journal of Hellenic Studies, vi.-viii. (1885-1887); J. G.
Frazer, Fausanias's Description of Greece, in si.x vols., introduction
and translation (vol. i.), commentary (vols, ii.-v.), maps and index
(vol. vi.) (Macmillan, London, 1898); introduction reprinted in
Frazer's Pausanias and other Greek Sketches (1900).
Special Literature. — Wernicke, De Pausaniae studiis hero-
doteis (Berlin, 1884); Wilamowitz, " Thukydideslegendc," in
Hermes (1877), xii. 346; P. Hirt, De fontibus Pausaniae in Eliacis
(Greifswald, 1878); A. Flasch, in Baumeister's Denkmdler, s.v.
" Olympia," 90 pp. (1887); A. Kalkmann, Pausanias der Perieget
(Berlin, 1886), and \n Archdologischer Anzeiger (1895), p. 12; opposed
by W. Gurlitt, Uber Pausanias (Graz, 1890), 494 pp.; Bencker,
Anleil der Periegese an der Kunstschriftstellerei (1890), and R.
Heberde\-, Die Reisen des Pausanias in Griechenland, with two
maps (Vienna, 1894).
The present writer is much indebted to Gurlitt's comprehen-
sive monograph, and to the admirable Introduction prefi.xed to
J. G. Frazer's excellent Translation and Commentary. See also
C. Robert, Pausanias als Schriftsteller (Berlin, 1909). (J. E. S.*)
PAUSIAS, a Greek painter of the 4th century, of the school
of Sicyon. He introduced the custom of paintii^g ceilings
of houses. His great merit appears to have lain iri the better
rendering of foreshortening. The words in which Pliny (xxxv.
127) describes a bull painted by him should be quoted: " Wishing
to display the length of the bull's body, he painted it from the
front, not in profile, and yet fully indicated its measure. Again,
while others fill in with white the high lights, and paint in black
what is less salient, he painted the whole bull of dark colour, and
gave substance to the shadow out of the shadow itself, with great
skill making his figures stand out from a flat background, and
indicating their shape when foreshortened." This passage well
marks the state of painting at the time.
PA VANE, Pavan or Pavin, the name of a slow stately dance
of the i6th and 17th centuries. The word has been variously
derived: (i) from Lat. pavo, peacock; the dancers, as they wheel
and turn, spread out their long cloaks, which they retained in
this dance, like the tail of the bird; (2) from Padovana, i.e. of
Padua, in Italy; the dance, however, is usually taken to have
come from Spain. As an instrumental composition, common in
the i6th and 17th centuries, the " pavane " was usually followed
by the quick and lively " galliard," as the " gigue " followed
the " saraband " in the later suite (see Dance).
PAVEMENT (Lat. pavimentum, a floor beaten or rammed
hard, from pavire, to beat), a term originally applied to the
covering of a road or pathway with some durable material, and
so used of the paved footway at the side of a street- — the "side-
walk " as opposed to the roadway proper. The term is also
extended to the interior floor of churches and public buildings.
It is probable that the earliest pavements consisted only of
rammed clay, as in the " beehive " tombs of Mycenae, or of
cement or stucco decorated with lines in coloured marbles, such
as those mentioned in the Book of Esther (vi. i) in the palace at
Susa. W. M. Flinders Petrie discovered at TeU el' Amama in the
palace of Akhenaton the remains of a stucco pavement, decorated
with foliage, flowers, birds, &c., and a complete naturalistic
treatment. The threshold of the doors of the Assyrian palaces
were of stone carved with patterns in imitation of those in a
XX. 3 1 a
970
PAVIA
carpet. The pavements of Greek temples were either in stone
or marble, and at Olympia the pronaos of the temple of Zeus was
laid in mosaic representing tritons, and the floor of the naos was
in coloured marbles. The Roman pavements were invariably
in mosaic, sometimes of a very elaborate nature, as in the House
of the Faun at Pompeii, where the mosaic represented the battle
of Issus between Alexander the Great and Darius III., a repro-
duction probably of some Greek painting of the period. In
Rome the palaces on the Palatine Hill and the thermae were all
paved with mosaic, and numerous pavements have been found
in Carthage, many of which are in the British Museum, as are
also examples from the Roman villas in England. Perhaps the
richest Roman pavements outside Italy are those at Treves in
Germany. The Roman tradition was continued by the Byzan-
tine architects, who, throughout the East, paved their churches
with mosaics, frequently of the same design and execution as
those of the Romans, but with Christian symbols. The churches
of the Romanesque, Gothic and Renaissance periods were all
paved in marble, but of a different character from those of the
earlier period (see Mosaic).
PAVIA (anc. Ticinum, q.v.), a town of Lombardy, Italy,
capital of the province of Pavia, situated on the Ticino about
2 m. above its junction with the Po, 225 m. S. of Milan by rail,
2S3 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1906), 28,796 (town), 36,424
(commune). On the right bank of the river lies the small
suburb of Borgo Titino, connected with the town by a remark-
able covered bridge dating from 1351-1354. In 1S72 the city
ceased to be a fortress, and the bastions have been transformed
into boulevards and public gardens. The church of San
Michele Maggiore is one of the finest specimens of the Lombard
style in existence, and as it was within its walls that the crown
was placed on the head of those " kings of Italy " from whom
the house of Savoy claims descent it was by royal decree of
1863 given the title of Basilica Reale. S. Michele (for plan
see Architecture : § Romanesque and Gothic in Italy) was
originally , constructed under the Lombard kings, but was burnt
in 1004, and the present building dates from the latter part of
the nth (crypt, choir and transepts) and the first half of the 1 2th
centuries (facade and nave with two aisles), and was completed
in 1155. The lower part of the facade is adorned with three
fine portals and with reliefs of a fantastic kind in sandstone,
arranged in horizontal bands, and has arcading under the gable.
The dome is octagonal. The interior is vaulted and has eight
pillars, supporting double round arches. The interior has a
mosaic pavement of the I2th-i3th centuries. The cathedral
church of San Martino is a Renaissance building begun in 1488
by Cristoforo Rocchi; it is a vast " central " structure, finely
designed, with four arms, which remained for centuries unfinished
until the dome (only surpassed by those of St Peter at Rome
and the cathedral at Florence) and facade were completed in
1898 according to Rocchi's still extant model; adjoining the
church is the massive Torre Maggiore, 258 ft. high, which is
mentioned as early as 1330. The upper part is due to Pellegrino
Tibaldi (1583). The cathedral contains the tomb of S. Syrus,
first bishop of Pavia (2nd century); an altar-piece (1521), the
best work of Giampietino (Rizzi), a pupil of Leonardo da Vinci;
and another, the masterpiece of Bernardino Gatti of Parma
(1531). The church of S. Pietro in Ciel d'Oro, the origin of
which dates from the beginning of the 6th (?) century, but which
as it stands was consecrated in 1 132, is very similar to S. Michele
in respect of its facade (though it has not the elaborate sculptures) ,
dome and mosaic pavements. The use of disks of majolica may
be noted in the decoration of the exterior. It has been carefully
restored. It served as the burial place of the Lombard king
Liutprand (711-744), whose bones were found there in 1896
(R. Majocchi in Nuovo bullctino d'archeologia cristiana, 1896,
p. 139) . The Area di S. Agostino (after 1362) is a sumptuous tomb
containing the relics of S. Augustine of Hippo brought hither
by Liutprand from Sardinia. It was only restored to this,
its original position, from the cathedral when the church itself
was restored.
The church of S. Maria del Carmine is externally one of the
most beautiful of the brick Gothic churches in northern Italy and
dates from 1273 (or 1323?). S. Francesco has also a good facade
after that of Chiaravalle near Milan. The church of S. Maria di
Canepanova with its small dome was designed by Bramante.
Near it are three tall, slender brick towers of the Gothic period.
S. Teodoro with a 12th-century exterior has frescoes by Bar-
tolommeo Suardi (Bramantino) after 1507. Outside the town
on the west lie the churches of S. Salvatore (founded in the
7th century but rebuilt in the 15th and i6th), and of S. Lanfranc
(or the Holy Sepulchre, 12th century) with the fine tomb of
Bishop Lanfranco Beccari (d. 1 189) by Giovanni Antonio Amedeo
(1498), one of the best Lombard sculptors and architects of
this period (1447-1522) and a native of Pavia, which has a few
other works by him. He was for eighteen years in charge of
the work at the Certosa. Interesting medieval views of Pavia
exist in the churches of S. Teodoro and S. Salvatore; the
former dating from 1522 has been published by P. -Moiraghi
in BuUettino storico pavese (1893), i. 41 sqq. (See Magenta,
/ Visconti e gli Sjorza nel caslello di Pavia (Milan, 1884), for
other medieval plans.)
Of the secular buildings the most noteworthy is the university
founded by Galeazzo II. in 1361 on the site of a law school
probably founded by Lanfranc (d. 1089), though we find Pavia
a centre of study as early as a.d. 825. The present imposing
building was begun by Lodovico il Moro in 1490; in the library
are preserved some of the ashes of Columbus, who was a student
here. Volta made here his first electrical experiments. For
the maintenance of a number of poor students there are two
subsidiary colleges, the Borromeo and the Ghislieri founded by
S. Carlo Borromeo (1563) and Pope Pius V. (1569); of the latter
a colossal bronze statue has been erected in the piazza before his
college. The university of Pavia has long been famous as a
medical school, and has the oldest anatomical cabinet in Italy; in
addition it has a natural history museum founded under Spallan-
zini in 1772, a botanical garden, begun in 1774, and excellent
geological, palaeontological and mineralogical collections.
The old castle of the Visconti built in 1360 for Galeazzo II. is
used as barracks. The Museo Civico is housed in the Palazzo
Malaspina and contains many interesting national relics and
a small picture gallery, with a large collection of offprints on
paper from niello plates, including a very fine " Fountain of
Love " by Antonio Pollainolo; another fine old palace, the
Palazzo Mezzabarba, is now used as the Municipio.
Pavia has a number of iron-foundries, military engineering
and electrical production works, and other factories, as well
as a large covered market, built in 1882. Pavia lies on the
main line from Milan to Genoa (which crosses the Ticino by a
bridge half a mile long, and shortly afterwards the Po), with
several branch lines. Barges from Pavia can pass down the
Po to the Adriatic or to Milan by canal. Five miles north of
Pavia is the Carthusian monastery of Certosa di Pavia, one of
the most magnificent in the world. Its founder Gian Galeazzo
Visconti (also the founder of Milan Cathedral) laid the first
stone in August 1396, and the nave was then begun in the
Gothic style, but was not completed until 1465. However
the influence of the Early Renaissance had meanwhile become
supreme throughout Italy, and the rest of the church with its
external arcaded galleries and lofty pinnacles (including the
fine dome) and the cloisters were executed in the new style
under Guiniforte Solari (1453-1481) with details in terra-cotta
of great beauty and richness. Giovanni Antonio Amedeo was
chief architect in 1481-1499, and the lower part of the facade was
finished in 1507. It is perhaps the finest piece of elaborate and
richly adorned Renaissance architecture in existence, and is the
work of a number of different artists. In the south transept
of the church is the tomb of the founder; the figure of Galeazzo
guarded by angels lies under a marble canopy, with the Madonna
in a niche above. It was begun in 1494-1497 by Giovanni
Cristoforo Romano and Benedetto Briosco, but was not finished
until 1562. In the north transept is the tomb of Lodovico Sforza,
il Moro, and his wife, the figures on which were brought from
S. Maria della Grazie in 1564 when the monument of the prince in
PAVIA Y ALBUQUERQUE— PAVIS
971
that church was broken up and sold; these statues are considered
to be one of the chief works of Cristoforo Solari. The church
contains numerous other works of art. An elegant portal
leads from the church into the small cloister, which has a pretty
garden in the centre; the terra-cotta ornaments surmounting
the slender marble pillars are the work of Rinaldo de Stauris
(1463-1478), who executed similar decorations in the great
cloister. This cloister is 412 ft. long by 334 ft. wide and contains
24 cells of the monks, pleasant httle three-roomud houses each
with its own garden. Within the confines of the monastery is the
Palazzo Ducale which since 1901 has been occupied by the Certosa
museum. The Carthusian monks, to whom the monastery
was entrusted by the founder, were bound to employ a certain
proportion of their annual revenue in prosecuting the work till
its completion, and even after 1542 the monks continued
voluntarily to expend large sums on further decoration. The
Certosa di Pavia is thus a practical textbook of Ilahan art for
wellnigh three centuries. The Carthusians were expelled in 1782
by the emperor Joseph II., and after being held by the Cistercians
in 1784 and the Carmehtes in 1789 the monastery was closed in
1810. In 1843 the Certosa was restored to the Carthusians
and was exempted from confiscation in 1866, but it has since
been declared a national monument.
History. — For earlier period see Ticinum. Under the name
Papia (Pavia) the city became, as the capital of the Lombard
kingdom, one of the leading cities of Italy. By the conquest
of Pavia and the capture of Desiderius in 774 Charlemagne
completely destroyed the Lombard supremacy; but the city
continued to be the centre of the Carolingian power in Italy,
and a royal residence was built in the neighbourhood (Cor-
teolona on the Olona). It was in San Michele Maggiore in
Pavia that Berengar of Friuli, and his quasi-regal successors
down to Berengar II. and Adalbert II., were crowned " kings
of Italy." Under the reign of the first the city was sacked and
burned by the Hungarians, and the bishop was among those
who perished. At Pavia was celebrated in 951 the marriage of
Otto I. and Adelheid (Adelaide), which exercised so important an
influence on the relations of the empire and Italy; but, when the
succession to the crown of Italy came to be disputed between the
emperor Henry II. and Arduin of Ivrea, the city sided strongly
with the latter. Laid in ruins by Henry, who was attacked
by the citizens on the night after his coronation in 1004, it was
none the less ready to close its gates on Conrad the Salic in 1026.
In the nth and 12th centuries we find Pavia called the " Second
Rome." The jealousy between Pavia and Milan having in
1056 broken out into open war, Pavia had recourse to the hated
emperors, though she seems to have taken no part in the battle
of Legnano; and for the most part she remained attached to
the Ghibelline party till the latter part of the 14th century.
From 1360, when Galeazzo was appointed imperial vicar by
Charles IV., Pavia became practically a possession of the Visconti
family and in due course formed part of the duchy of Milan.
For its insurrection against the French garrison in 1409 it paid
a terrible penalty in 1500, and in 1312, after the victory of
Ravenna, Pavia presented to Louis XII., as a sign of fidelity, a
magnificent standard: this however fell into the hands of Swiss
mercenaries and was sent to Fribourg as a trophy of war (it
no longer exists). Having been strongly fortified by Charles V.,
the city was in 1525 able to bid defiance to Francis I., who was
so disastrously beaten in the vicinity, but two years later the
French under Lautrec subjected it to a sack of seven days. In
165s Prince Thomas of Savoy invested Pavia with an army
of 20,000 Frenchmen, but had to withdraw after 52 days'
siege. The Austrians under Prince Eugene occupied it in 1706,
the French in 1733 and the French and Spaniards in 1743;
and the Austrians were again in possession from 1746 till 1796.
In May of that year it was seized by Napoleon, who, to punish
it for an insurrection, condemned it to three days' pillage.
In 1814 it became Austrian once more. The revolutionary
movement of February 1848 was crushed by the Austrians and
the university was closed; and, though the Sardinian forces
obtained possession in March, the Austrians soon recovered
their ground. It was not till 1859 that Pavia passed with the
rest of Lombardy to the Sardinian crown.
At several periods Pavia has been the centre of great intel-
lectual activity. It was according to tradition in a tower which,
previous to 1584, stood ncai- the church of the Annunziata that
Hoethius wrote his De consolatione philosophiae; the legal
school of Pavia was rendered celebrated in the nth century by
Lanfranc (afterwards archbishop of Canterbury); Petrarch was
frequently here as the guest of Galeazzo II., and his grandson
died and was buried here. Columbus studied at the university
about 1447; and printing was introduced in 147 1. Two of the
bishops of Pavia were raised to the papal throne as John XIV.
and Julius III. Lanfranc, Pope John XIV., Porta the anatomist
and Cremona the mathematician were born in the city.
See C. Deir Acqua, Cuida illustrata di Pavia (Pavia, 1900), and
rcfs. there given; L. Beltrami, La Chartreuse de Pavie (Milan, 1899};
Storia documentata delta Certosa di Pavia (Milan, 1896). (T. As.)
PAVIA Y ALBUQUERQUE, MANUEL (1828-1895), Spanish
general, was born at Cadiz on the 2nd of August 1828. He was
the son of Admiral Pavia, a naval officer of some note in the
early part of the 19th century. He entered the Royal Artillery
College at Segovia in 1841 ; became a lieutenant in 1846, a captain
in 1855 and major in 1862. Three years later he joined the
staff of Marshal Prim, and took part in the two unsuccessful
revolutionary movements concerted by Prim in 1866, and,
after two years of exile, in the successful revolution of 1868.
Pavia showed much vigour against the repubhcan risings in
the southern provinces; the governments of King Amadeus
of Savoy, from 1871 to 1873, also showed him much favour.
After the abdication of that prince. General Pavia put down
the Carlists and the cantonal insurrections of the chief towns
of the south. On three occasions during the eventful year
1873, as captain-general of Madrid, he offered his services to put
an end to the anarchy that was raging in the provinces and to
the disorganization prevalent in the Cortes. To all he used
the same arguments, namely, that they had to choose between
an Alphonsist restoration or a dictatorial, military and political
repubhc, which would rally round its standard all the most con-
servative groups that had made the revolution of 1868. This he
hoped to realize with Castelar, but the plan was interrupted by the
military pronunciamieiito for the purpose of dissolving the Cortes
of 1873. As soon as the federal Cortes had defeated Castelar,
Pavia made his coup d'etat of the 3rd of January 1874, and
after the pronunciamiento was absolute master of the situation,
but having no personal ambition, he sent for Marshal Serrano
to form a government with Sagasta, Martos, UUoa and other
Conservatives and Radicals of the revolution. Pavia sat in
the Cortes of the Restoration several times, and once defended
himself skilfully against EmiUo Castelar, who upbraided him
for the part he had played on the 3rd of January 1874. He
died suddenly on the 4th of January 1895.
PAVILION, properly a tent, a late use of Lat. papilio, butterfly,
from which the word is derived through the French. The
term is chiefly used of a tent with a high pitched roof, a small
detached building used as a summer-house, &c., and particularly
for a building attached to a recreation ground for the use of
players and members. In architecture the term pavilion is
specifically appUed to a portion of a building which pro-
jects from the sides or central part. It is a characteristic of
French renaissance architecture. Where the buildings of a
large institution are broken up into detached portions, as in
St Thomas's Hospital, London, the term is generally applied to
such detached buildings.
For the musical instrument known as the Chinese pavilion or
Jingling Johnny, see Chinese Pavilion.
PAVIS, or Pavise, a large convex shield, some 4 to S ft-
high and sufficiently broad to cover the entire body, used
in medieval warfare, as a protection against arrows and other
missiles. The word appears in innumerable fcxrms in Old French,
Italian and Medieval Latin, and is probably to be referred to
Pavia, in Italy, where such shields were made. The term
" pavisade " or " pavesade " was used of a portable screen of
972
PAVLOVO— PAWNBROKING
hurdles behind which archers might find protection, or of a
similar defensive screen formed by linking together " pavises,"
especially on board a ship of war extending along the bulwarks,
and hence in later times of a canvas screen similarly placed
to conceal the rowers in a gaUey or the sailors on other types of
ships.
PAVLOVO, a town of Russia, in the government of Nizhniy-
Novgorod, 42 m. S.W. of the town of Nizhniy-Novgorod, on
the Oka river. Pop. (1897), 12,200. It is the centre of a con-
siderable cutlery, hardware and locksmith trade, which, carried
on since the 17th century in cottages and small workshops,
engages, besides Pavlovo itself, no less than 120 villages. There
are also steel works and cotton, silk, soap and match factories.
Pavlovo has a museum of cutlery models and a library.
PAVLOVO POSAD, or Vokhna, a town of Russia, in the
government of Moscow, 41 m. by rail E. of the city of Moscow,
on the Klyazma river. Pop. (1897), 10,020. It is the centre
of a manufacturing district, with silk, cotton and woollen mills,
and dyeing and printing works.
PAVLOVSK, a town of Russia, in the government of St
Petersburg 17 m. by rail S. of the city of St Petersburg. Pop.
(1S97), 4949. It has an imperial castle (1782-1803) standing in
a beautiful park and containing a small fine art museum and
gaUery. In the vicinity are smaller imperial palaces and summer
residences of St Petersburg families.
PAWN, (i) A pledge, an object left in the charge of another,
as security for the repayment of money lent, for a debt or
for the performance of some obligation (see Pawnbroking).
The word is an adaptation of O. Fr. pan, pledge, plunder, spoil.
This has usually been identified with pan, from Lat. pannus,
piece of cloth. The Teutonic words for pledge — such as Du.
pand, Ger. Pfand have been also traced to the same source;
on the other hand these Teutonic forms have been connected
with the word which appears in O. Eng. as pending, a penny,
Ger. Pfennig, but this too has been referred to panntis. (2) The
smallest piece on the chessboard. This, in its early forms,
poun, pawn, &c., is taken from Fr. poon or paon, variants of
peon, Med. Lat. pcdo, pedonis, a foot soldier, from pes, foot.
PAWNBROKING (O. Fr. pan, pledge, piece, from Lat. pannus;
for " broking " see Broker), the business of lending money on
the security of goods taken in pledge. If we desire to trace
with minuteness the history of pawnbroking, we must go back
to the earliest ages of the world, since the business of lending
money on portable security (see Money-lending, and Usury)
is one of the most ancient of human occupations. The Mosaic
Law struck at the root of pawnbroking as a profitable business,
since it forbade the taking of interest from a poor borrower,
while no Jew was to pay another for timely accommodation.
And it is curious to reflect that, although the Jew was the almost
universal usurer and money-lender upon security of the middle
ages, it is now very rare in Great Britain to find a Hebrew
pawnbroker.
In China the pawnshop was probably as familiar two or three
thousand years ago as it is to-day, and its conduct is still regulated
quite as strictly as in England. The Chinese conditions, too,
are decidedly favourable to the borrower. He may, as a rule,
take three years to redeem his property, and he cannot be
charged a higher rate than 3 % per annum — a regulation which
would close every pawnshop in England in a month. Both Rome
and Greece were as familiar with the operation of pawning as the
modern poor all the world over; indeed, from the Roman
jurisprudence most of the contemporary law on the subject is
derived. The chief difference between Roman and English
law is that under the former certain things, such as wearing
apparel, furniture, and instruments of tillage, could not be
pledged, whereas there is no such restriction in Enghsh legisla-
tion. The emperor Augustus converted the surplus arising to
the state from the confiscated property of criminals into a
fund from which sums of money were lent, without
System. interest, to those who could pledge valuables equal
to double the amount borrowed. It was, indeed, in
Italy, and in more modern times, that the pledge system which
is now almost universal on the continent of Europe arose. In
its origin that system was purely benevolent, the early monts
de piete established by the authority of the popes lending
money to the poor only, without interest, on the sole condition
of the advances being covered by the value of the pledges.
This was virtually the Augustan system, but it is obvious that
an institution which costs money to manage and derives no
income from its operations must either limit its usefulness to
the extent of the voluntary support it can command, or must
come to a speedy end. Thus as early as 1198 something of the
kind was started at Freising in Bavaria; while in 1350 a similar
endeavour was made at Sahns in Franche Comte, where interest
at the rate of 7^% was charged. Nor was England backward,
for in 1361 Michael Northbury, or de Northborough, bishop
of London, bequeathed 1000 silver marks for the establishment
of a free pawnshop. These primitive efforts, Uke the later
Italian ones, all failed. The Vatican was therefore constrained
to allow the Sacri monti di pieta — no satisfactory derivation
of the phrase has yet been suggested — to charge sufficient
interest to their customers to enable them to defray expenses.
Thereupon a learned and tedious controversy arose upon the
lawfulness of charging interest, which was only finally set at
rest by Pope Leo X., who, in the tenth sitting of the Council
of the Lateran, declared that the pawnshop was a lawful and
valuable institution, and threatened with excommunication those
who should presume to express doubts on the subject. The
Council of Trent inferentially confirmed this decision, and at a
somewhat later date we find St Charles Borromeo counselling
the establishment of state or municipal pawnshops.
Long before this, however, monti di pieta charging interest
for their loans had become common in Italy. The date of their
establishment was not later than 1464, when the , ,, „ ,
earliest of which there appears to be any record in jjpjgta
that country — it was at Orvieto — was confirmed by
Pius II. Three years later another was opened at Perugia
by the efforts of two Franciscans, Barnabus Interamnensis and
Fortunatus de Copolis. They collected the necessary capital by
preaching, and the Perugian pawnshop was opened with such
success that there was a substantial balance of profit at the
end of the first year. The Dominicans endeavoured to preach
down the " lending-house," but without avail. Viterbo obtained
one of 1469, and Sixtus IV. confirmed another to his native
town in Savona in 1479. After the death of Brother Barnabus
in 1474, a strong impulse was given to the creation of these
estabhshments by the preaching of another Franciscan, Father
Bernandino di Feltre, who was in due course canonized. By
his efforts monti di pieta were opened at Assisi, Mantua, Parma,
Lucca, Piaccnza, Padua, Vicenza, Pavia and a number of places
of less importance. At Florence the veiled opposition of the
municipality and the open hostility of the Jews prevailed against
him, and it was reserved to Savonarola, who was a Dominican,
to create the first Florentine pawnshop, after the local theologians
had declared that there was "no sin, even venial," in charging
interest. The readiness of the popes to give permission for
pawnshops all over Italy, makes it the more remarkable that
the papal capital possessed nothing of the kind until 1539, and
even then owed the convenience to a Franciscan. From Italy
the pawnshop spread gradually all over Europe. Augsburg
adopted the system in 1591, Nuremberg copied the Augsburg
regulations in 1618, and by 1622 it was established at Amsterdam,
Brussels, .\ntwerp and Ghent. Madrid followed suit in 1705,
when a priest opened a charitable pawnshop with a capital of
fivepence taken from an alms-box.
The institution was, however, very slow in obtaining a footing
in France. It was adopted at Avignon in 1577, and at Arras
in 1624. The doctors of the once powerful Sorbonne , , j ^i
could not reconcile themselves to the lawfulness ,„ France.
of interest, and when a pawnshop was opened in
Paris in 1626, it had to be closed within a year. Then it
was that Jean Boucher published his Defense des monts de
piete. Marseilles obtained one in 1695; but it was not until
1777 that the first mont de piete was founded in Paris by
PAWNBROKING
973
Great
Britain.
royal patent. The statistics which have been preserved rela-
tive to the business done in the iirst few years of its existence
show that in the twelve years between 1777 and the Revolution,
the average value of the pledges was 42 francs 50 centimes,
which is double the present average. The interest charged
was 10% per annum, and large profits were made upon the
sixteen miUion livres that were lent every year. The National
Assembly, in an evil moment, destroyed the monopoly of the
mont de piete, but it struggled on until 1795, when the competi-
tion of the money-lenders compelled it to close its doors. So
great, however, were the extortions of the usurers that the people
began to clamour for its reopening, and in July 1797 it recom-
menced business with a fund of £20,000 found by five private
capitalists. At first it charged interest at the rale of 36% per
annum, which was gradually reduced, the gradations being 30,
24, 18, IS, and finally 12% in 1804. In 1S06 it fell to 9%,
and in 1887 to 7 %. In 1806 Napoleon I. re-cstabhshed its
monopoly, while Napoleon III., as prince-president, regulated
it by new laws that are still in force. In Paris the pledge-shop
is, in effect, a department of the administration; in the French
provinces it is a municipal monopoly; and this remark holds
good, with modifications, for most parts of the continent of
Europe.
In England the pawnbroker, like so many other distinguished
personages, " came in with the Conqueror." From that time,
indeed, to the famous legislation of Edward I., the Jew
money-lender was the only pawnbroker. Yet, despite
the valuable services which the class rendered, not
infrequently to the Crown itself, the usurer was treated with
studied cruelty — Sir Walter Scott's Isaac of York was no mere
creation of fiction. These barbarities, by diminishing the
number of Jews in the country, had, long before Edward's
decree of banishment, begun to make it worth the while of the
Lombard merchants to settle in England. It is now as well
established as anything of the kind can be that the three golden
balls, which have for so long been the trade sign of the pawn-
broker, were the symbol which these Lombard merchants hung
up in front of their houses, and not, as has often been suggested,
the arms of the Medici family. It has, indeed, been conjectured
that the golden balls were originally three flat yellow effigies
of byzants, or gold coins, laid heraldically upon a sable field,
but that they were presently converted into balls the better
to attract attention. In 1338 Edward III. pawned his jewels
to the Lombards to raise money for his war with France. An
equally great king — Henry V. — did much the same in 1415.
The Lombards v/ere not a popular class, and Henry VII.
harried them a good deal. In the very first year of James I.
" An Act against Brokers " was passed and remained on the
statute-book until Queen Victoria had been thirty-five years
on the throne. It was aimed at " counterfeit brokers," of
whom there were then many in London. This type of broker
was evidently regarded as a mere receiver of stolen goods, for
the act provided that " no sale or pawn of any stolen jewels,
plate or other goods to any pawnbroker in London, Westminster
or Southwark shall alter the property therein," and that
" pawnbrokers refusing to produce goods to their owner from
whom stolen shall forfeit double the value."
In the time of Charles I. there was another act which made
it quite clear that the pawnbroker was not deemed to be a very
respectable or trustworthy person. Nevertheless a plan was
mooted for setting that king up in the business. The Civil War
was approaching and supplies were badly needed, when a too
ingenious Royalist proposed the establishment of a state " pawn-
house." The preamble of the scheme recited how " the intoler-
able injuries done to the poore subjects by brokers and usurers
that take 30, 40, 50, 60, and more in the hundredth, may be
remedied and redressed, the poor thereby greatly relieved and
eased, and His Majestie much benefited." That the king would
have been " much benefited " is obvious, since he was to enjoy
two-thirds of the profits, while the working capital of £100,000
was to be found by the city of London. The reform of what
Shakespeare calls " broking pawn " was in the air at that time,
although nothing ever came of it, and in the early days of the
(ommonwealth it was proposed to establish a kind of mont de
piete. The idea was emphasized in a pamphlet of 165 1 e)ititled
Observations manifesting the Conveiiicncy and Commodity oj
Mount Pieteyes, or Public Bancks for Relief of the Poor or Others
ill Distress, upon Pawns. No doubt many a ruined cavalier would
have been glad enough of some such means of raising money,
liut this radical change in the principles of English pawnbroking
was never brought about. It is said that the Bank of England,
under its charter, has power to establish pawnshops; and we
Icam from A Short History of the Bank of England, published
in its very early days, that it was the intention of the directors,
" for the ease of the poor," to institute " a Lombard " " for
small pawns at a penny a pound interest per month."
Throughout both the 17th and i8th centuries the general
suspicion of the pawnbroker appears to have been only too
well founded. It would appear from the references Fielding
makes to the subject in Amelia, which was written when
George II. was on the throne, that, taken in the mass, he was not
a very scrupulous tradesman. Down to about that time it had
been customary for publicans to lend money on pledges that
their customers might have the means of drinking, but the
practice was at last stopped by act of parliament. Nor was
respect for the honesty of the business increased by the attempt
of " The Charitable Corporation " to conduct pawnbroking on
a large scale. Established by charter in 1707, " this nefarious
corporation," as Smollett called it, was a swindle on a large
scale. The directors gambled wildly with the shareholders'
money, and in the end the common council of the city of London
petitioned parliament for the dissolution of this dishonest
concern, on the ground that " the corporation, by affording
an easy method of raising money upon valuables, furnishes
the thief and pickpocket with a better opportunity of selling
their stolen goods, and enables an intending bankrupt to dispose
of the goods he buys on credit for ready money, to the defraud-
ing of his creditors." When the concern collapsed in 1731 its
cashier was Mr George Robinson, M.P. for Marlow. In company
with another principal official he disappeared, less than £30,000
being left of a capital which had once been tv/enty times as
much.
The pawnbroker's licence dates from 1785, the duty being
fixed at £10 in London and £5 in the country; and at the same
time the interest chargeable was settled at 5% per Modera
month, the duration of loans being confined to one ^^jfu/aWoos
year. Five years later the interest on advances ^"S^" •
over £2 and under £10 was raised to 15%. The modern
history of legislation affecting pawnbroking begins, however,
in 1800, when the act of 39 & 40 Geo. III. c. 99 (1800) was
passed, in great measure by the influence of Lord Eldon, who
never made any secret of the fact that, when he was a young
barrister without briefs, he had often been indebted to the
timely aid of the pawnshop. The pawnbrokers were grateful,
and for many years after Lord Eldon's death they continued
to drink his health at their trade dinners. The measure increased
the rate of interest to a halfpenny per half-crown per month,
or fourpence in the pound per mensem — that is to say, 20%
per annum. Loans were to be granted for a year, although
pledges might be redeemed up to fifteen months, and the first
week of the second month was not to count for interest. The
act worked well, on the whole, for three-quarters of a century,
but it was thrice found necessary to amend it. Thus in 181 5
the hcence duties were raised to £15 and £7, los. for London
and the country respectively; another act of 1840 abolished
the reward to the " common informer " for reporting illegal
rates of interest; while in i860 the pawnbroker was empowered
to charge a halfpenny for the pawn-ticket when the loan was
under five shillings. As time went on, however, the main
provisions of the act of 1800 were found to be very irksome,
and the Pawnbrokers' National Association and the Pawn-
brokers' Defence Association worked hard to obtain a liberal
revision of the law. It was argued that the usury laws
had been abohshed for the whole of the community with the
974
PAWNBROKING
single exception of the pawnbrokef who advanced less than
£io. The limitations of the act of iSoo interfered so considerably
with the pawnbrokers' profits that, it was argued, they could
not afford to lend money on bulky articles requiring extensive
storage room. In 1870 the House of Commons appointed a
Select Committee on Pawnbrokers, and it was stated in evidence
before that body that in the previous year 207,780,000 pledges
were lodged, of which between thirty and forty millions were
lodged in London. The average value of pledges appeared to
be about 4s., and the proportion of articles pawned dishonestly
was found to be only i in 14,000. Later official statistics show
that of the forfeited pledges sold in London less than 20 per
million are claimed by the police.
The result of the Select Committee was the Pawnbrokers
Act of 1872, which repealed, altered and consolidated all previous
legislation on the subject, and is still the measure which regulates
the relations between the public and the " brokers of pawn."
Based mainly upon the Irish law passed by the Union Parliament
it put an end to the old irritating restrictions, and reduced the
annual tax in London from £15 to the £7, los. paid in the
provinces. By the provisions of the act (which does not affect
loans above £10), a pledge is redeemable within one year, and
seven days of grace added to the year. Pledges pawned for
I OS. or under and not redeemed in time become the property
of the pawnbroker, but pledges above los. are redeemable until
sale, which must be by public auction. In addition to one
halfpenny for the pawn-ticket — which is sometimes not charged
for very small pawns — the pawnbroker is entitled to charge as
interest one halfpenny per month on every 2s. or part of 2s.
lent where the loan is under 40s., and on every 2s. 6d. where
the loan is above 40s. " Special contracts " may be made where
the loan is above 40s. at a rate of interest agreed upon between
lender and borrower. Unlawful pawning of goods not the
property of the pawner, and taking in pawn any article from
a person under the age of twelve, or intoxicated, or any linen,
or apparel or unfinished goods or materials entrusted to wash,
make up, &c., are, inter alia, made offences punishable by
summary conviction. A new pawnbroker must produce a
magistrate's certificate before he can receive a licence; but the
permit cannot be refused if the applicant gives sufficient evidence
that he is a person of good character. The word " pawnbroker "
must always be inscribed in large letters over the door of the
shop. Elaborate provisions are made to safeguard the interests
of borrowers whose unredeemed pledges are sold under the act.
Thus the sales by auction may take place only on the first
Monday of January, April, July and October, and on the follow-
ing days should one not be sufficient. This legislation was,
no doubt, favourable to the pawnbroker rather than to the
borrower. Theannualinterest on loans of 2s. had been increased
by successive acts of parliament from the 6% at which it stood
in 1784 to 25% in 1800, and to 27 in i860 — a rate which was
continued by the measure of 1872. The annual interest upon
a loan of half-a-crown is now 260%, as compared with 173 in
i860 and 86 in 1784; while the extreme point is reached in the
case of a loan of is. for three days, in which case the interest
is at the rate of 1014% per annum. An English mont de piete
was once projected by the Salvation Army, and in 1894 the
London County Council considered the practicability of municipal
effort on similar lines; but in neither case was anything done.
The growth of pawnbroking in Scotland, where the law as
to pledge agrees generally with that of England, is remarkable.
Early in the 19th century there was only one pawn-
and Ireland, broker in that country, and in 1833 the number
reached only 52. Even in 1865 there were no more
than 312. It is probable that at the present moment Glasgow
and Edinburgh together contain nearly as many as that
total. In Ireland the rates for loans are practicaOy identical
with those charged in England, but a penny instead of a
halfpenny is paid for the ticket. Articles pledged for less
than £1 must be redeemed within six months, but nine months
are allowed when the amount is between 30s. and £2. For sums
over £2 the period is a year, as in England. In Ireland, too.
a fraction of a month is calculated as a full month for purposes
of interest, whereas in England, after the first month, fortnights
are recognized. In 1838 there was an endeavour to establish
monts de piete in Ireland, but the scheme was so unsuccessful
that in 1841 the eight charitable pawnshops that had been opened
had a total adverse balance of £5340. But 1847 only three
were left, and eventually they collapsed likewise.
The pawnbroker in the United States is, generally speaking,
subject to considerable legal restriction, but violations of the
laws and ordinances are frequent. Each state has
its own regulations, but those of New York and Mas- states
sachusetts may be taken as fairly representative.
" Brokers of pawn " are usually licensed by the mayors, or by
the mayors and aldermen, but in Boston the police commissioners
are the hcensing authority. In the state of New York permits
are renewable annually on payment of $500, and the pawnbroker
must file a bond with the mayor, executed by himself and two
responsible sureties, in the sum of $10,000. The business is
conducted on much the same lines as in England, and the rate
of interest is 3% per month for the first six months, and 2%
monthly afterwards. Where, however, the loan exceeds $100
the rates are 2 and 1 % respectively. To exact higher rates
is a misdemeanour. Unredeemed pledges may be sold at the
end of a year. Pawnbrokers are not allowed to engage in any
kind of second-hand business. New York contains one pawn-
shop to every 12,000 inhabitants, and most of the pawnbrokers
are Jews. In the state of Massachusetts unredeemed pledges
may be sold four months after the date of deposit. The licensing
authority may fix the rate of interest, which may vary for
different amounts, and in Boston every pawnbroker is bound
to furnish to the police daily a list of the pledges taken in during
the preceding twenty-four hours, specifying the hour of each
transaction and the amount lent.
The fact that on the continent of Europe monts de piete are
almost invariably either a state or a municipal monopoly
necessarily places them upon an entirely different
footing from the British pawnshop, but, compared pawasboos.
with the English system, the foreign is very elabor-
ate and rather cumbersome. Moreover, in addition to being
slow in its operation, it is, generally speaking, based upon the
supposition that the borrower carries in his pockets " papers "
testifying to his identity. On the other hand, it is argued that the
English borrower of more than £2 is at the mercy of the pawn-
broker in the matter of interest, that sum being the highest for
which a legal limit of interest is fixed. The rate of interest upon
a " special contract " may be, and often is, high. For the matter
of that, indeed, this system of obtaining loans is always expensive,
either in actual interest or in collateral disadvantages, whether
the lender be a pawnbroker intent upon profit, or the official
of a mont de piete. In Paris the rate charged is 7 %, and even
then the business is conducted at a loss except in regard to long
and valuable pledges. Some of the French provincial rates
are as high as 12%, but in almost every case they are less than
they were prior to the legislation of 1851 and 1852. The French
establishments can only be created by decree of the president
of the Republic, with the consent of the local conseil communal.
In Paris the prefect of the Seine presides over the business; in
the provinces the mayor is the president. The administrative
council is drawn one-third each from the conseil communal,
the governors of charitable societies, and the townspeople.
A large proportion of the capital required for conducting the
institutions has to be raised by loan, while some part of the
property they possess is the product of gifts and legacies. The
profits of the Paris mont de piete are paid over to the " Assistance
Pubhque," the comprehensive term used by France to indicate
the body of charitable foundations. Originally this was the
rule throughout France, but now many of them are entirely
independent of the charitable institutions. Counting the head
office, the branches and the auxiliary shops, the Paris establish-
ment has its doors open in some fifty or sixty districts; but the
volume of its annual business is infinitely smaller than that
transacted by the London pawnbrokers. The amount to be
PAWNBROKING ^"^
975
advanced by a municipal pawnshop is fixed by an official called
the commissaire-priseur , who is compelled to load the scales
against the borrower, since, should the pledge remain unredeemed
and be sold for less than was lent upon it, he has to make good
the difference. This official is paid at the rate of -J- % upon
loans and renewals, and 3% on the amount obtained by the
sales of forfeited pledges. This is obviously the weakest part
of the French system. The Paris mont de piete undertakes
to lend four-fifths of the intrinsic value of articles made from the
precious metals, and two-thirds of that of other articles. The
maximum and minimum that may be advanced are also fixed.
The latter varies in different parts of the country from one to
three francs, and the former from a very small sum to the 10,000
francs which is the rule in Paris. Loans are granted for twelve
months with right of renewal, and unredeemed pledges may
then be sold by auction, but the proceeds may be claimed by
the borrower at any time within three years. Pledges may be
redeemed by instalments.
Somewhere between forty and fifty French towns possess muni-
cipal pawnshops, a few of which, like those of Grenoble and Mont-
pellier, having been endowed, charge no interest. Elsewhere the
rate varies from nil in some towns, for very small pledges, to 10%,.
The constant tendency throughout France has been to reduce the
rate.' The great establishment in Paris obtains part of its working
capital — reserves and surplus forming the balance — by borrowing
money at a rate varying from 2 to 3 % according to the length of
time for which the loan is made. Under a law passed in 1891 the
Paris mont de pi6t6 makes advances upon securities at 6%, plus
a duty of 5 centimes upon every hundred francs. The maximum
that can be lent in this way is £20. Up to 80% is lent on the face
value of government stock and on its own bonds, and 75%, upon
other securities; but 60% only may be advanced on railway shares.
These advances are made for six months. Persons wishing to
borrow a larger sum than sixteen francs from the Paris mont de
pi6t6 have to produce their papers of identity. In every case
a numbered metal check is given to the customer, and a duplicate
is attached to the article itself. The appraising clerks decide upon
the sura that can be lent, and the amount is caKed out with the
number. If the borrower is dissatisfied he can take away his
property, but if he accepts the offer he has to give full particulars
of his name, address and occupation. The experts calculate that
every transaction involving less than twenty-two francs results
in a loss to the Paris mont de piet6, while it is only those exceeding
eighty-five francs which can be counted upon to be invariably
profitable. The average loan is under thirty francs.
The borrowing of money on the security of goods deposited
has been the subject of minute regulations in the Low Countries
from an early date. So far back as the year 1600
the " archdukes " Albert and Isabella, governors
of the Spanish Netherlands under Philip III.,
reduced the lawful rate of interest from 325 to 2i|%; but
since extortion continued they introduced the mont de piete
in 1618, and, as we have already seen, in the course of a
dozen years the institution was established in all the populous
Belgian towns, with one or two exceptions. The interest
chargeable to borrowers was fixed originally at 15%, but was
shortly afterwards reduced, to be again increased to nearly the
old level. Meanwhile various towns possessed charitable funds
for gratuitous loans, apart from the official institutions. Shortly
after the mont de piete was introduced in the Spanish provinces,
the prince-bishop of Liege (Ferdinand of Bavaria) followed
the example set by the archdukes. He ordained that the net
profits were to accumulate, and the interest upon the fund to
be used in reduction of the charges. The original rate was 15%,
when the Lombard money-lenders had been charging 43; but
the prince-bishop's monts de piete were so successful that for
many years their rate of interest did not exceed 5% — it was,
indeed, not until 1788 that it was increased by one-half. These
flourishing institutions, along with those in Belgium proper,
were ruined by the French Revolution. They were, however,
re-established under French dominion, and for many years the
laws governing them were constantly altered by the French,
Dutch and Belgian governments in turn. The whole subject
is now regulated by a law of 1848, supplemented by a new
constitution for the Brussels mont de piete dating from 1891.
The working capital of these official pawnshops is furnished by
charitable institutions or the municipalities, but the Brussels one
Holland and
Belgium.
possesses a certain capital of its own in addition. The rate of
iritirest charged in various parts of the country varies from 4 to
I'j 'o, but in Brussels it is usually less than half the maximum.
Tile management is very similar to that of the French monts de
I)ii't(5, but the arrangements are much more favourable to the
borrower. The ordinary limit of loans is £120. In Antwerp
there is an " anonymous " pawnshop, where the customer need not
give his name or any other particulars. In Holland private pawn-
brokers flourish side by side with the municipal " Bankcn van
Leening," nor are there any limitations upon the interest that
ma\ be charged. The rules of the official institutions are very
similar to those of the monts de piC'te in the Latin countries, and
unredeemed pledges are sold publicly fifteen months after being
pawned. A large proportion of the advances are made upon gold
anfl diamonds; workmen's tools are not taken in pledge, and the
amount lent varies from 8d. upwards. On condition of finding
such sum of money as may be required for working capital over
and above loans from public institutions, and the " caution money "
deposited by the city officials, the municipality receives the profits.
Pawnbroking in Germany is conducted at once by the state,
by the municipalities, and by private enterprise; but of all these
institutions the state loan office in Berlin is the most '^
interesting. It dates from 1834, and the working aa'dAus^Ha.
capital was found, and stUl continues to be in part
provided, by the Prussian State Bank. The profits are in-
vested, and the interest devoted to charitable purposes. The
maximum and minimum rates of interest are fixed, but the
rate varies, and often stands at about 12%. Two-thirds of
the estimated value is the usual extent of a loan; four-fifths
is advanced on silver, and five-sixths on fine gold. State and
municipal bonds may be pledged up to a maximum of £150,
the advance being 80% of the value, and a fixed interest of
6% is charged upon these securities. The values are fixed by
professional valuers, who are liable to make good any loss that
may result from over-estimation. The bulk of the loans are
under £5, and the state office is used less by the poor than by the
middle classes. Loans run for six months, but a further six
months' grace is allowed for redemption before the article pledged
can be sold by auction. The net annual profit usually amounts
to little more than i % upon the capital employed. The pawn-
broking laws of Austria-Hungary are very similar to those which
prevail in England. Free trade exists, and the private trader,
who does most of the business, has to obtain a government
concession and deposit caution-money varying in amount from
£80 to £800, according to the size of the town. He has, how-
ever, to compete with the monts de piete or 'Versatzaemter.
which are sometimes municipal and sometimes state institutions.
The chief of these is the imperial pawn office of Vienna, which
was founded with charitable objects by the emperor Joseph I.
in 1707, and one-half of the annual surplus has still to be paid
over to the Vienna poor fund. Here, as in Berlin, the profits
are relatively small. Interest is charged at the uniform rate
of 10%, which is calculated in fortnightly periods, however
speedily redemption may follow upon pawning. For small
loans varying from two to three kronen, 5% only is charged.
The Hungarian state and municipal institutions appear, on the
whole, to compete somewhat more successfully with the private
firms than is the case in Vienna.
In Italy, the " country of origin " of the mont de piete, the
institution stiff flourishes. It is, as a rule, managed by a com-
mittee or commission, and the regulations foffow
pretty closely the lines of the one in Rome, which
never lends less than lod. or more than £40. Four-fifths of the
value is lent upon gold, silver and jewels, and two-thirds upon
other articles. The interest, which is reckoned monthly, varies
with the amount of the loan from 5 to 7°o, but no interest is
chargeable upon loans up to 5 lire. A loan runs for six months,
and may be renewed for similar periods up to a maximum of
five years. If the renewal does not take place within a fortnight
of the expiration of the ticket, the pledge is sold, any surplus
there may be being paid to the pawner. WTien more than
10 lire is lent there is a charge of i % for the ticket. Agencies
of the mont de piete are scattered about Rome, and carry on
their business under the same rules as the central office, with
the disadvantage to the borrower that he has to pay an " agent's
Italy.
976
PAWNEE— PA WTUCKET
fee " of 2%, which is deducted from the loan. Private pawn-
shops also exist in Italy, under police authority; but they charge
very high interest.
The monts de piete in Spain have for a generation past been
insepaiably connected with the savings banks. We have already
seen that the institution owes its origin in that country
Pmiueal '° ^^^ charitable exertions of a priest who charged
no interest, and the system grew until in 1840, a
century after his death, the mont de piete began to receive the
sums deposited in the savings bank, which had just been estab-
hshed, for which it paid 5% interest. In 1869 the two institu-
tions were united. This official pawnshop charges 6% upon
advances which run for periods varying from four to twelve
months, according to the nature of the article pledged, and a
further month's grace is allowed before the pledges are sold by
auction. Private pawnbrokers are also very numerous, espe-
cially in Madrid; but their usual charges amount to about 60%
per annum. They appear, however, to derive advantage from
making larger advances than their official rivals, and from doing
business during more convenient hours. In Portugal the monte
pio is an amalgamation of bank, benefit society and pawnshop.
Its business consists chiefly in lending money upon marketable
securities, but it also makes advances upon plate, jewelry and
precious stones, and it employs officially Ucensed valuers. The
rate of interest varies with the bank rate, which it slightly
exceeds, and the amount advanced upon each article is about
three-fourths of its certified value. There is in Portugal a
second class of loan establishment answering exactly to the
EngUsh pawnshop. The pawnbroker is compelled to deposit
a sum, in acceptable securities, equal to the capital he proposes
to embark, and the register of his transactions must be sub-
mitted quarterly to the chief of the police for examination.
As regards small transactions, there appears to be no legal
limit to the rate of interest. The sale of unredeemed pledges
is governed by the law affecting the " monte pio geral."
In Russia the state maintains two pawnbroking establish-
ments, one at St Petersburg and the other at Moscow, but
only articles of gold and silver, precious stones
and ingots of the precious metals are accepted by
them. Advances are made upon such securities at 6% per
annum, and the amounts of the loans are officially limited.
Loans run for twelve months, with a month's grace before
unredeemed pledges are put up to auction. The bulk of this
class of business in Russia is, however, conducted by private
companies, which advance money upon all descriptions of
movable property except stocks and shares. The interest
charged is not allowed to exceed i % per month, but there is
an additional charge of ^% per month for "insurance and
safe keeping." The loan runs for a year, with two months'
grace for redemption before sale. There are also a certain
number of pawnshops conducted by individuals, who find it
very difficult to compete with the companies. These shops can
only be opened by a police permit, which runs for five years, and
security, varying from £100 to £700, has to be deposited; 2%
per month is the Hmit of interest fixed, and two months'
grace is allowed for redemption after the period for which an
article is pledged.
Pawnbroking in Denmark dates from 1753, when the Royal
Naval Hospital was granted the monopoly of advancing
money on pledges and of charging higher interest
and Norway, than the law permitted. The duration of a loan
is three months, renewals being allowed. The old
law was extended in 1867, and now all pawnbrokers have to
be licensed by the municipalities and to pay a small annual
licence fee. The rate of interest varies from 6 to 1 2 % according
to the amount of the loan, which must not be less than 7d.,
and unredeemed pledges must be sold by auction. In Sweden
there are no special statutes affecting pawnbroking, with the
exception of a proclamation by the governor of Stockholm pro-
hibiting the lending of money upon articles which may be sus-
pected of having been stolen. Individuals still carry on the
business on a small scale, but the bulk of it is now conducted by
Russia.
companies, which give general satisfaction. For many years
there was in Stockholm a municipal establishment charging
10 °o for loans paid out of the city funds. The cost of adminis-
tration was, however, so great that there was an annual loss
upon its working, and the opportunity was taken to abolish
it when, in 18S0, a private company was formed called the
" Pant Aktie Bank," to lend money on furniture and wearing
apparel at the rate of 3 ore per krone a month, and 2 ore per
krone a month on gold, silver and other valuables: a krone,
which equals is. ijd., contains 100 ore. Some years later an
opposition was started which charged only half these rates,
with the result that the original enterprise reduced its interest
to the same level, charging, however, 2 ore per krone per mensem
for bulky articles — a figure which is now usual for pledges of
that description. The money is lent for three months, and at
the end of five months the pledge, if unredeemed, is sold by
auction under very carefully prescribed conditions. In Norway
a police hcence is required for lending money on pawn where
the amount advanced does not exceed £4, los. Beyond that
sum no licence is necessary, but the interest charged must not
exceed such a rate as the king may decide.
The fate of pawnbroking in Switzerland appears to be not
very dissimilar from that of the Jew who is fabled to have
once started in business at Aberdeen. Nevertheless „ ,, , .
1 f -■ 1 r>. • 1 1 11 Switzerlaad.
the cantons of Bern and Zurich have elaborate
laws for the regulation of the business. In Zurich the
broker must be licensed by the cantonal government, and
the permit can be refused only when the applicant is " known
to be a person undeserving of confidence." Regular books
have to be kept, which must be at all times open to the inspection
of the police, and not more than 1% interest per month must
be charged. A loan runs for six months, and unredeemed
pledges may be sold by auction a month after the expiration of
the fixed period, and then the sale must take place in the parish
in which the article was pledged. No more than two persons
at a time have ever been licensed under this law, the business
being unprofitable owing to the low rate of interest. In the
canton of Bern there were once two pawnbrokers. One died
and the other put up his shutters. The Zurich cantonal bank,
however, conducts a pawnbroking department, which lends
nothing under 4s. or over £40 without the special sanction of the
bank commission. Loans must not exceed two-thirds of the trade
value of the pledge, but 80% may be lent upon the intrinsic
value of gold and silver articles. The estabhshment makes
practically no profit. The Swiss disinchnation to go to the
pawnshop is, perhaps, accounted for in some measure by the
growing number of dealers in second-hand articles, to whom
persons in want of ready money sell outright such things as
are usually pledged, in the hope of subsequently buying them
back. Since, however, the dealer is at liberty to ask his own
price for repurchase, the expectation is often illusory, and can
usually be fulfilled only upon ruinous terms. (J. P.-B.)
PAWNEE (perhaps from the native word for " horn," in allusion
to their scalping lock, which was " dressed " so as to stand
straight up), a tribe of North-American Indians of Caddoan
stock. They formerly lived on the Platte river in Nebraska.
They call themselves Skihiksihiks ("men of men"). They
were a brave, war-loving tribe, whose history was one of continual
strife with their neighbours. In 1823 their village was burned
by the Delawares, and in 1S38 the tribe suffered severely from
smaU-pox, the death-roll being, it is said, 2000. By treaty in
1833 they had ceded their territory south of the Platte, and in
1858 they surrendered all their remaining land except a strip
on the Loup River. Here they hved tiU 1874, when they moved
to a reservation in Indian Territory (now Oklahoma), where they
now are.
PAWTUCKET, a city of Providence county, Rhode Island,
U.S.A., on the Blackstone river (known below the Pawtucket
Falls here as the Pawtucket or Seekonk river), 4 m. N. of
Providence, and near the city of Central Falls. Pop. (1905,
state census), 43,381, of whom 14,369 were foreign-born, includ-
ing 4273 English, 3484 Irishj, 2706 French Canadians, and 1198^
PAX— PAYMASTER-GENERAL
977
Scotch; (igio), 51,622. fawtucket is served by the New York,
New Haven & Hartford railroad; and the rivir is navigable
below the falls. The city lies on both sides of the river and its
land area in 1906 was nearly 8-6 m. The east bank of the river
rises quite abruptly 15-30 ft., but back of this the surface is
level or only slightly undulating. On the west side the surface
is more diversified. The Blackstone River here makes a
picturesque plunge of nearly 50 ft. (I'awtucket I'alls) over an
irregular mass of rocks, providing a good v/ater-power. The
most attractive public building is the Sayles Memorial library,
erected (1899-1902) by Frederick Clark Sayles (1 S3 5- 190 2) in
memory of his wife. The city has a park of 181 acres in the
east end, a park of 55 acres on the west side, three small parks
near the business centre, a soldiers' monument, a home for the
aged, an emergency hospital, and a state armoury. Manu-
facturing is the principal industry, and the value of the factory
products increased from $19,271,582 in 1900 to $25,846,899
in 1905, or 34-1%. More than one-half the value for 1905
was represented by textiles. Other important manufactures
in 1905 were foundry and machine-shop products, packed meats,
and electrical machinery, apparatus and supplies. The commerce
of the city has been much increased by the deepening and
widening of the channel of the Pawtucket river by the United
States government. In 1867 the river could not he navigated
at low water by boats drawing more than 5 ft. of water, but
by March 1905 the government had constructed a channel
100 ft. wide and 12 ft. deep at low water, and Congress had
passed an act for increasing the depth to 16 ft.; in 1907 the
Federal Congress and the general assembly of the state made
appropriations to complete the work.
That portion of Pawtucket which lies east of the river was
originally a part of the township of Rehoboth, Massachusetts,
but in 181 2 the township of Seekonk was set apart from Rehoboth,
in 1828 the township of Pawtucket was set apart from Seekonk,
and in 1 86 2 almost all of the Massachusetts township of Pawtucket
was transferred to Rhode Island. The portion west of the river
was taken from the township of North Providence and annexed
to the township of Pawtucket in 1874, and in 1885 Pawtucket
was chartered as a city. The first settlement within the present
city limits was made about 1670 on the west side by Joseph Jenks
(c. 163 2-1 7 17), a manufacturer of domestic iron implements.
His manufactory was destroyed during King Philip's War,
but he rebuilt it, and until a century later the industries on
the west side were managed largely by his family. In 1790
Samuel Slater reproduced here the Arkwright machinery for
the manufacture of cotton goods; this was the first manufactory
of the kind that had any considerable success in the United
States, and his old mill is still standing in Mill Street.
See R. Grieve, An Illustrated History of Pawtucket, Central Falls,
and Vicinity (Pawtucket, 1897).
PAX (Lat. for " peace "), the name given in ecclesiastical usage
to a small panel or tablet decorated usually with a representa-
tion of the Crucifixion, which in the Roman ritual was kissed
at the eucharistic service by the celebrating priest, then by
the other priests and deacons, and then by the congregation.
The " Pax " is also known by the names osculatoriiim, tabula
pads and pax-bred {i.e. " pax-board "). The use of the " pax "
dates from the 13th century, and it is said to have been first
introduced in England in 1250 by Archbishop Walter of York.
It took the place of the actual " kiss of peace " {osculum sanctum,
or osculum pads) which was in the Roman Mass given by the
bishop to the priests, and took place after the consecration
and before communion. In the Greek Church the kiss {dpfivri,
d<Tira(T/i6s) takes place at the beginning of the service, and now
consists in the celebrating priest kissing the oblation and the
deacon kissing his stole (see F. E. Brightman, Liturgies Eastern
and Western, 1896). Owing to disputes over questions of
precedence the kissing of the pax at the service of the Mass
was given up. It is still used at times of prayer by religious
communities or societies. In the 15th and i6th centuries
much artistic skill was lavished on the pax, and beautiful
examples of enamelled paxes with chased gold and silver frames
are in the British Museum. Though the Crucifixion is most
usually represented, other religious subjects, such as the Virgin
and Child, the Annunciation, the figures of patron saints and
tlie like, are found. In the " Inventaric of the Plate, Jewells
. . . and other Ornaments appertayning to the Cathedrall
Clmrche of Sayncte Paule in London," 1552, we find two paxes
mentioned; one "with the ymage of the Crucifix and of Marie
and John all gylte with the Sonn alsoe and the Moone, the
backsyde whereof is crymosin velvett," and another " with
the ymage of our Ladle sett aboughte with x greate stones the
backsyde whereof is grene velvett " [Hierurgia anglicana, pt. i.,
I<)02).
PAXO [Paxos], one of the Ionian Islands {q.v.), about 8 m.
S. of the southern extremity of Corfu, is a hilly mass of limestone
5 m. long by 2 broad, and not more than 600 ft. high. Pop.
about 5000. Though it has only a single stream and a few springs,
and the inhabitants were often obhged, before the Russians
and English provided them with cisterns, to bring water from
the mainland, Paxo is well clothed with olives, which produce oil
of the very highest quality. Gaion (or, less correctly, Gaia), the
principal village, lies on the east coast, and has a small harbour.
Towards the centre, on an eminence, stands Papandi, the residence
of the bishop of Paxo, and throughout the island are scattered
a large number of churches, whose belfries add greatly to the
picturesqueness of the views. On the west and south-west
coasts are some remarkable caverns, of which an account will be
found in Davy's Ionian Islands, i. 66-71. Ancient writers —
Polybius, Pliny, &c. — do not mention Paxos by itself, but apply
the plural form Paxi (Ilafot) to Paxos and the smaller island
which is now known as Antipaxo (the Propaxosof the Antonine
Itinerary), Paxos is the scene of the curious legend, recorded
in Plutarch's Dc defectu oraculorum, of the cry " Pan is dead "
(see Pan).
PAXTON, SIR JOSEPH (■1801-1865), English architect and
ornamental gardener, was born of humble parents at Milton
Bryant, near Woburn, Bedfordshire, on the 3rd of August 1801,
and was educated at the grammar school of that town. Having
served his apprenticeship as gardener from the age of fifteen,
and himself constructed a large lake when gardener to Battlesden
in 1821, he was in 1823 employed in the arboretum at Chiswick,
the seat of the duke of Devonshire, and eventually became
superintendent of the duke's gardens and grounds at Chatsworth,
and manager of his Derbyshire estates. In 1836 he began to
erect a grand conservatory 300 ft. in length, which was finished
in 1840, and formed the model for the Great Exhibition building
of 1851. In this year Paxton received the honour of knighthood.
Perhaps his most interesting design was that for the mansion
of Baron James de Rothschild at Ferrieres in France, but he
designed many other important buildings. His versatility
was shown in his organization of the Army Works Corps
which served in the Crimea, his excellent capacity as a man of
business in railway management, and his enterprising experi-
ments in floriculture. In 1854 he was chosen M.P. for Coventry,
which he continued to represent in the Liberal interest till his
death at Sydenham on the 8th of June 1865. Paxton was
elected in 1826 a fellow of the Horticultural Society. In the
following year he married Sarah Bown. In 1833 he became a
fellow of the Linnean Society, and in 1844 he was made a knight
of the order of St Vladimir by the emperor of Russia.
He was the author of several contributions to the literature
of horticulture, including a Practical Treatise on the Culture of the
Dahlia (1838), and a Pocket Botanical Dictionary (ist ed., 1840).
He also edited the Cottage Calendar, the Horticultural Register and
the Botanical Magazine.
PAYMASTER-GENERAL, in England, a public officer and
a member of the ministry for the time being. The office was,
by statutes passed in 1835 and 1848, consolidated with other
offices through which moneys voted by parliament were pre-
viously paid. The paymaster-general is appointed by sign
manual warrant, he is unpaid, and does not require to offer himself
for re-election on acceptance of office. The money appropriated
by parliam.ent for the various services of the country is placed
978
PAYMENT— PAYMENT OF MEMBERS
by order of the Treasury to the account of the paymaster-
general, and a communication to that effect made to the
comptroller and auditor-general. The paymaster-general then
makes all payments required by the various departments in
accordance with the parhamentary vote. The duties of the
office are carried out by a permanent staff, headed by an
assistant paymaster-general, acting on powers granted by the
paymaster-general.
PAYMENT (Fr. paiement, from payer, to pay; Lat. pacare,
to appease, pax, peace), the performance of an obligation,
the discharge of a sum due in money or the equivalent of money.
In law, in order that payment may extinguish the obUgation
it is necessary that it should be made at a proper time and place,
in a proper manner, and by and to a proper person. If the
sum due be not paid at the appointed time, the creditor is
entitled to sue the debtor at once, in spite of the readiness of
the latter to pay at a later date, subject, in the case of biUs and
notes, to the allowance of days of grace. In the common case
of sale of goods for ready money, a right to the goods vests at
once upon sale in the purchaser, a right to the price in the seller;
but the seller neednot part withthe goods till payment of the price.
Payment may be made at any time of the day upon which
it falls due, except in the case of mercantile contracts, where
the creditor is not bound to wait for payment beyond the usual
hours of mercantile business. If no place be fixed for payment,
the debtor is bound to find, or to use reasonable means to find,
the creditor, unless the latter be abroad. Payment must be
made in money which is a legal tender (see below), unless the
creditor waive his right to payment in money by accepting some
other mode of payment, as a negotiable instrument or a transfer
of credit. If the payment be by negotiable instrument, the
instrument may operate either as an absolute or as a conditional
discharge. In the ordinary case of payment by cheque the
creditor accepts the cheque conditionaDy upon its being
honoured; if it be dishonoured, he is remitted to his original
rights. If payment be made through the post, in a letter
properly directed, and it be lost, the debt is discharged if there
was a direction so to transmit the money. The creditor has a
right to payment in fuU, and is not bound to accept part payment
unless by special agreement. Part payment is sufficient to take
the debt out of the Statute of Limitation. It is a technical
rule of English law that payment of a smaller sum, even though
accepted by the creditor in full satisfaction, is no defence to a
subsequent action for the debt. The reason of this rule seems
to be that there is no consideration for the creditor foregoing
his right to full payment. In order that payment of a smaller
sum may satisfy the debt, it must be made by a person other
than the person originally liable, or at an earlier date, or at
another place, or in another manner than the date, place, or
manner contracted for. Thus a bUl or note may be satisfied
by money to a less amount, or a money debt by a biU or note
to a less amount; a debt of £ioo cannot be discharged by pay-
ment of £90 (unless the creditor execute a release under seal),
though it may be discharged by payment of £10 before the day
appointed, or by a biU for £10. Payment must in general be
made by the debtor or his agent, or by a stranger to the contract
with the assent of the debtor. If payment be made by a stranger
without the assent of the debtor, it seems uncertain how far
English law regards such payment as a satisfaction of the debt.
If the debtor ratify the payment, it then undoubtedly becomes
a satisfaction. Payment must be made to the creditor or his
agent. A bona fide payment to an apparent agent may be
good, though he has in fact no authority to receive it. Such
payment will usually be good where the authority of the agent
has been countermanded without notice to the debtor. The
fact of payment may be presumed, as from lapse of time. Thus
payment of a testator's debts is generally presumed after twenty
years. A written receipt is only presumptive and not conclusive
evidence of payment. By the Stamp Act 1891 a duty of one
penny is imposed upon a receipt for or upon the payment of
money amounting to £2 or upwards, and also a fine of £10
upon any person who, in any case where a receipt would be
liable to duty, refuses to give a receipt duly stamped. If pay-
ment be made under a mistake of fact, it may be recovered,
but it is otherwise if it be made under a mistake of law, for it is
a maxim of law that ignorantia legis neminem excusat. Money
paid under compulsion of law, even though not due, cannot
generally be recovered where there has been no fraud or extor-
tion. For appropriation of payments see Appropriation.
Payment Into and Out of Court. — Money is generally paid into
court to abide the result of pending litigation, as where litigation
has already begun, as security for costs or as a defence or partial
defence to a claim. Payment into court does not necessarily
(except in actions for libel and slander) operate as an admission
of liability. Payment into court is regulated by the Rules of ths
Supreme Court, O. xxii. The fact that money has been paid into
court may not be mentioned to a jury. Money may sometimes
be paid into court where no litigation is pending, as in the case of
trustees. Payment of money out of court is obtained by the order
of the court upon petition or summons or otherwise, or simply on
the request or the written authority of the person entitled to it.
Payment of Wages. — The payment of wages to labourers and
workmen otherwise than in coin is prohibited. See Labour
Legislation: Truck. Domestic or agricultural servants are ex-
cepted. Payment of wages in public-houses (except in the case of
domestic servants) is illegal.
Tender. — This is payment duly proffered to a creditor, but ren-
dered abortive by the act of the creditor. In order that a tender
may be good in law it must as a rule be made under circumstances
which would make it a good payment if accepted. The money
tendered must be a legal tender, unless the creditor waive his right
to a legal tender, as where he objects to the amount and not the
mode of tender. Bank of England notes are legal tender for any
sum above £5, except by the bank itself. Gold is legal tender to
any amount, silver up to 40s., bronze up to is. (Coinage Act 1870).
Any gold coinage, whether British, colonial or foreign, may be
made legal tender by proclamation. The effect of tender is not
to discharge the debt, but to enable the debtor, when sued for the
debt, to pay the money into court and to get judgment for the
costs of his defence.
Scotland. — The law of Scotland as to payment agrees in most
points with that of England. Where a debt is constituted by writ
payment cannot be proved by witnesses; where it is not consti-
tuted by writ, payment to the amount of £100 Scots may be proved
by witnesses; beyond that amount it can only be proved by writ
or oath of party. The term tender seems to be strictly applied
only to a judicial offer of a sum for damages and expenses made by
the defender during litigation, not to an offer made by the debtor
before litigation. Bank of England notes are not a legal tender
in Scotland or in Ireland.
United States. — In the United States the law as a rule does not
materially differ from English law. In some states, however,
money may be recovered, even when it has been paid under a mis-
take of law. The question of legal tender has been an important
one. In 1862 and 1863 Congress passed acts making treasury notes
legal tender (see Greenbacks). After much litigation, the Supreme
Court of the United States decided in 1871 (Knox v. Lee) in favour
of the constitutionality of these acts, both as to contracts made
before and after they were passed. These notes are legal tender
for all purposes except duties on imports and interest on the public
debt. All gold coins and standard silver dollars are legal tender to
any amount. Silver coins below the denomination of a dollar are
legal tender up to Sio, and cent and 5-cent pieces legal tender
to an amount not exceeding 25 cents. It falls exclusively within
the jurisdiction of Congress to declare paper or copper money
a legal tender. By the constitution of the United States, " no
state shall . . . make anything but gold and silver coin a
tender in payment of debts " (art. i. § 10). (T. A. I.)
PAYMENT OF MEMBERS. From time to time proposals
have been made to reintroduce in the English parliamentary
system a practice which is almost universally adopted in other
countries, that of paying a state salary to members of the
legislative body. In the earlier history of the EngUsh parlia-
ment the payment of commoners or representatives of the
people was for long the practice. They had first been summoned
to the great council of the realm in 1265 in the reign of Henry III.
The shires and boroughs they represented paid them for
their services, and reimbursed the expenses they were put to
in joume>dng to and from the place of meeting. In 1322, by
a statute of Edward II., the salary of a knight was fixed at 4s.
a day, and that of a citizen or burgher at 2s. a day. These
payments could be enforced by writs issued after the dissolution
of each parliament, and there are many instances of the issue
of such writs down to the reign of Henry VIII.; while the last
known instance is that of one Thomas King, who in 1681 obtained
PAYMENT OF MEMBERS
979
a writ for his salary against the corporation of Harwich. The
practice of the payment of members of parHament gradually
fell into desuetude, and in the second parliament of Charles II.
strong disapproval was expressed of the practice. Its gradual
abandonment was due first to the difficulty of securing repre-
sentatives in the early parliaments. Men of business were
unwilling to detach themselves from their affairs, as travel
was slow and dangerous; in addition to the perils of the journey
there was the almost certain knowledge that a safe return from
parliament would be followed by the ill will of the member's
neighbours, for every meeting of parliament was but a device
on the part of the sovereign for inflicting some new form of
taxation, and a refusal to vote such taxation was but to incur
the royal displeasure. The towns themselves were equally
disinclined to bear the burden of their member's maintenance,
and some even went so far as to obtain their disfranchisement.
In the second place, the growing influence of parliament in
the 1 6th century brought about a revulsion of feeling as to
parliamentary services, and the increase in the number of
candidates led first to bargaining on their part in the shape
of undertaking to accept reduced wages and expenses, and,
finally, to forego all. A step further was reached when the
constituency bargained as to what it should receive from its
representative, resulting in wholesale bribery, which required
legislation to end it (see Corrupt Practices).
In England, the House of Commons has on various occa-
sions carried resolutions in favour of the principle, more especially
on the 24th of March 1893 (by 276 votes to 229), and on the
22nd of March 1895 (by 176 to 158). On these occasions the
resolutions simply specified an " adequate allowance "; but on
the 7th of March 1906 a resolution was carried (by 348 votes to
no) in favour of an allowance " at the rate of £300 per annum."
Appended are the salaries paid to legislators in various
countries in 1910.
British Colonies
South Africa. — Before the South Africa Act igog, which
brought about the union of Cape Colony, Natal, Orange River
Colony and the Transvaal, each colony had its own legislature.
For purposes of comparison, the salaries which were paid to the
members of these state legislatures are given below. The act
of 1909 reduced the colonies to the position of dependent
provinces, entrusted only with local administration by means of
provincial councils. The act of 1909 (§ 76) enacts that the
members of provincial councils shall receive such allowances as
shall be determined by the governor-general in council. Mem-
bers of the new South African legislature receive £400 a year,
subject to a deduction of £3 a day for each day's non-attendance.
Cape Colony. — Members of either house were paid 2ls. a day,
and those residing more than 15 m. from Cape Town an additional
15s. a day, for a period not exceeding 90 days.
Natal. — Members of the legislature were not paid, but those
residing more than 2 m. from the seat of government received a
travelling allowance of £1 a day during the session.
Orange River Colony. — At the end of the session each member
received £1 50, and an additional £2 for each day of actual attendance,
but not more than £300 in all.
Transvaal Colony. — As in the Orange River Colony.
Canada. — Federal government. Members of both houses are
paid $2500 per session, but subject to a deduction of $15 a day
for each day of non-attendance.
Ontario. — Members of the Legislative Assembly are paid mileage
and an allowance of $6 a day for 30 days, with a maximum of $1000.
Quebec.^ — Members of the Legislative Assembly are paid $6 a
day during the session.
Npva Scotia. — Members are paid an indemnity of $500 for the
session.
New Brunswick. — Members of the Legislative Assembly receive
$500 per session and travelling expenses.
Manitoba. — Members of the Legislative Assembly receive $1000
per session and travelling expenses.
British Columbia. — Members of the Legislative Assembly receive
$1200 per session and travelling expenses.
Prince Edward Island. — Members of the Legislative Assembly
' Quebec and Nova Scotia have each two chambers. The other
Canadian provinces have only one chamber.
receive $160 per annum and travelling expenses, with an additional
$12 for postage.
.iuslralian Commonweallh. — Members of parliament receive
£600 per annum.
New South Wales. — Members of the Legislative Assembly receive
£300 per annum, and free travel over all government railways and
tramways. They are also given official stamped envelopes for their
postage purposes.
Victoria. — Members of the Legislative Assembly receive £300 per
annum and free passes over all railways.
Queensland. — Members of the Legislative Assembly receive £300
per annum, with travelling expenses.
South Australia. — Members both of the Legislative Council and
of the House of Assembly receive £200 per annum and free passes
over all government railways.
Western Australia. — Members of the Legislative Council receive
£200 a year and free travel on all government railways.
rasmonj'a.— Members of both houses receive £100 a year and
free railway passes.
New Zealand. — Members of the Legislative Council are paid
£200 per annum. Members of the House of Representatives
are paid £25 a month.
United States
Federal Government. — Senators, representatives or delegates
receive $7500 a year, and travelling expenses.
Alabama. — There is a session once in four years, such session being
limited to 50 days, during which senators and representatives
receive $4 a day and mileage.
Arizona Territory. — A biennial session of 60 days' duration,
during which members of the council and representatives receive
$4 a day and mileage.
Arkansas has a biennial session of 60 days' duration, for which
senators and representatives receive $6 a day and mileage.
California's legislature meets biennially, but there is no fixed length
for the session. Senators and members of the Assembly receive
$1000 'and mileage for the term.
Colorado's session is biennial and limited to 90 days. Senators
and representatives receive $7 a day and mileage during session.
Connecticut gives senators and representatives $300 and mileage
for their term of two years.
Delaware has biennial sessions of 60 days, and may have extra
sessions limited to 30 days. Senators and representatives receive
$5 a day during sessions.
Florida has biennial sessions of 60 days. Senators and repre-
sentatives receive $6 a day during the session and mileage.
Georgia has annual sessions limited to 50 days. Senators and
representatives receive $4 a day and mileage.
Idaho's senators and representatives receive mileage and $5 a
day during the session, which is biennial.
Illinois has a biennial session, for which senators and repre-
sentatives receive $1000 a year and mileage. For extraordinary
sessions they receive $5 a day.
Indiana has biennial sessions limited to 60 days. Senators and
representatives receive $6 a day and mileage.
Iowa has biennial sessions of unlimited length. Senators and
representatives receive $550 for the session, with mileage.
Kansas has biennial sessions limited to 50 days. Senators and
representatives receive $3 a day during the session, with mileage.
Kentucky has biennial sessions limited to 60 days. Senators
and representatives receive $5 a day and mileage.
Louisiana has biennial sessions limited to 60 days. Senators and
representatives receive $5 a day during the session with mileage.
Maine's senators and representatives receive $300 a year and
mileage. Sessions are biennial and of no fixed length.
Maryland has biennial sessions limited to 90 days. Senators
and delegates receive $5 a day during the session and mileage.
Massachusetts has an annual session, for which senators and
representatives receive each a lump sum of $750 and mileage.
Michigan has biennial sessions not of fixed length, and senators
and representatives are paid $800 a year and mileage.
Minnesota has biennial sessions limited to 90 days. Senators
and representatives receive $1000 a year besides limited travelling
expenses.
Mississippi has a session every four years, unlimited in length.
Special sessions, also, limited to 30 days, are held in alternate years.
Senators and representatives receive a sum of $400 for each session.
Missouri has biennial sessions of no fixed length. Senators and
representatives receive $5 a day for the first 70 days of each session,
and $1 a day for each succeeding day.
Montana has biennial sessions limited to 60 days. Senators
and representatives receive Si 2 a day during session.
Nebraska has biennial sessions unlimited in length. Senators
and representatives are paid $5 a day and mileage (10 cents a
mile) for not more than 60 days of any one session. If extra-
ordinary sessions are held the total days paid for must not exceed
100 during the two years for which they sit.
980
PAYMENT OF MEMBERS
Nevada has biennial sessions limited to 60 days, but special
sessions limited to 20 days may be held. Senators and repre-
sentatives receive $10 a day and mileage during sessions.
New Hampshire has biennial sessions, which last until prorogued
by the governor. The duration is usually about three months.
Senators and representatives receive $200 for the session and
mileage.
New Jersey has an annual session, unlimited in length. Senators
and members of the General Assembly receive $500 a year.
New Mexico has biennial sessions of 60 days. Members of the
Council and representatives receive $4 a day.
New York has an annual session. Members ol the Senate and
of the Assembly receive $1500 a year.
North Carolina has biennial sessions limited to 60 days. Senators
and representatives receive $4. a day during the session, and
mileage.
North Dakota has biennial sessions limited to 60 days. Senators
and representatives receive $$ a day during the session and mileage.
Ohio has biennial sessions not limited in length. Senators and
representatives receive $1000 a year.
Oklahoma has biennial sessions. Senators and representati\"es
receive $6 a day for the first 60 dajs — thereafter $2 a day — and
mileage (10 cents a mile).
Oregon has biennial sessions limited to 240 days. Senators and
representatives receive $3 a day and mileage during the session.
Pennsylvania has biennial sessions. Senators and representatives
receive $1500 for the session with mileage, with an extra allowance
of $150 for stationery and postage.
Rhode Island has an annual session unlimited in length. Senators
and representatives receive $5 a day during the session.
South Carolina has an annual session unlimited in length. Senators
and representatives receive $4. a day for the first 40 days.
South Dakota has biennial sessions of 60 days. Senators and
representatives receive $5 for each day's attendance, and travelling
expenses.
Tennessee has biennial sessions. Senators and representati\e3
receive $4 a day for not more than 75 days a session and mileage
(16 cents a mile). If absent they do not receive pay, unless they are
physically unable to be present.
Texas has biennial sessions, unlimited in length. Senators and
representatives receive mileage and $5 a day for the first 60 days of
the session ; for succeeding days $2 a day.
Utah has biennial sessions limited to 60 days. Senators and
representatives receive $4 a day during the session, and mileage.
Vermont has biennial sessions unlimited in length. Senators
and representatives receive S4 a day during the session and mileage.
Virginia has biennial sessions limited to 60 days. Senators and
delegates receive $500 for the session and mileage.
Washington has biennial sessions limited to 60 days. Senators
and representatives receive $5 a day for each day's attendance
and travelling expenses.
West Virginia has biennial sessions limited to 45 days, which can
be added to by a two-thirds majority. Senators and delegates
receive $4 a day during the session and mileage.
Wisconsin has biennial sessions. Senators and members of the
Assembly receive $500 for the session, and travelling expenses at
the rate of 10 cents a mile.
Wyoming has biennial sessions limited to 40 days. Senators
and representatives receive $8 a day during the session and
mileage.
Foreign Countries
Argentina. — Both senators (30) and members of the House of
Deputies (120) receive £1060 a year.
Austria. — Members of the Lower House (516) receive i6s. 8d.
for each day's attendance, with travelling expenses.
Belgium. — Members of the Chamber of Representatives (166)
receive £160 a year and a free pass over railways.
Bolivia. — Senators (16) and deputies (69) receive £40 a month
during sessions, which last from 60 to 90 days.
Bulgaria. — Members of the Legislature receive i6s. a day
during the session, which nominally lasts from the 15th of
October to the isth of December.
Denmark. — Members both of the Landsthing (66) and of the
Folkething (114) receive iis. id. a day for the first six months
of the session, and 6s. 8d. for each additional day of the session.
They receive also second-class free passes on all railways.
France. — Members of both the Senate (300) and of the
Chamber of Deputies (584) receive £600 a year.
German Empire. — Members both of the Bundesrat (58) and
of the Reichstag (397) receive £150 for the session, but have
deducted £1 for each day's absence. They receive also free
passes over the German railways during the session.
Baden pays members of its Second Chamber and such members
of the Upper Chamber as have not got hereditary seats 12s. a day
and travelling expenses, but to those members who reside in the
capital 9s. a day only.
Bavaria pays members of the Lower House (163) £180 for a
regular session. They are also allowed free travel over the
government railways.
Hesse. — Members of the Second Chamber (50) and non-
hereditary members of the Upper Chamber who reside more
than 1 1 m. from the place of meeting receive 9s. a day and
3s. for each night, besides a refund of their travelling expenses.
Prussia. — Members of the Lower Chamber (433) receive
travelling expenses and diet money (according to a fixed scale)
of 15s. a day.
Saxe-Coburg. — Members of the Second Chamber residing in
Coburg or Gotha receive 6s. a day; other members receive los.
a day and travelling expenses.
Saxony. — Members of the Second Chamber (82) and non-
hereditary members of the Upper Chamber receive 12s. a day
(6s. a day if ihey live in the place of meeting) and an allowance
for travelling.
Wiirttcmbcrg. — Members of both chambers receive 1 53. a day
for actual attendance; also free passes over the railways.
Greece. — The members (235) receive £72 for the session, also
free passes on railway and steamship lines.
Hungary. — Members of the House of Representatives (453)
receive £200 a year, with allowance of £66 13s. for house rent.
Italy. — Members of the Legislature receive no payment,
although attempts have been made from 1862 onwards to intro-
duce payment of members. It was last brought forward in 1908,
the amount suggested being 24s. for every sitting attended.
Japan. — Members of the House of Representatives (379) and
non-hereditary members of the House of Peers receive £210 a
year, besides travelling expenses.
Mexico. — Both senators (56) and representatives (340) receive
$3000 a year.
Netherlands. — Members of the First Chamber (50) not residing
in the Hague receive 16s. 8d. a day during the session; members
of the Second Chamber (100) receive £166 a year, besides travel-
ling expenses.
Norway. — Members of the Storting (123) receive 13s. 4d. a day
during the session, besides travelling expenses.
Paraguay. — Both senators and deputies receive £200 a year.
Portugal. — Deputies have been unpaid since 1892, but deputies
for the colonies, whose homes are in the colonies, receive £20 a
month or 13s. 4d. a day during sittings of the Chamber, and £10
a month when the Chamber is not sitting.
Rumania. — Both senators (120) and deputies (1S3) receive
1 6s. 8d. for each day of attendance, besides free railway passes.
Russia. — Members of the Duma receive 21s. a day during the
session, and travelling expenses.
Servia. — Deputies (120) receive 12s. a day and travelling
expenses.
Spain. — Members of the Legislature receive no salary, but
deputies on their election receive a railway ticket for 2480 m.
travel.
Sweden. — Members of both the First Chamber (150) and the
Second Chamber (230) receive £66 for each session of 4 months,
besides travelling expenses.
Switzerland. — Members of the State Council are paid by the
canton they represent, and their salary varies according to the
wealth or liberality of the canton. The salary ranges thus from
I2S. 6d. to 25s. a day, the average of the whole being i6s. a day.
Members of the National Council (167) are paid from Federal
funds. They receive i6s. 8d. a day for each day they are present,
with travelling expenses. (T. A. I.)
END OF TWENTIETH VOLUME
Printed by Thk De Vinne Press. New York.
5S?4 3^
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